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38 THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAUCASUS Weather and water are shai"p tools ; ice is Nature's substitute for sandpaper, and a fairly efficient one. But to attribute to it a chief share in the details of the j^resent surface conformation of mountain ranges is surely excessive. On the glaciers an observer might, I fancy, obtain some hints as to mountain structure from what he sees in the ice of the behaviour of an imperfectly elastic body under strain, pressure, and exposure. The surface of the ice and its water channels are finally modelled by exposure to air and water action, but the broader elevations and depressions are the results of other agencies. THE KALUE GLACIER Let us now for a moment spread out on the crags before us the old five-verst map, and compare its pi'esentment with Nature herself So far as physical features are concerned, the most remarkable merit of the map lies in the accurate distinction made between the bare and forested districts. Its most patent inaccuracy is the great reduction of the area occupied by snow and ice. I had occasion in the last chapter to point out how much mischief had been wrought through the acceptance by geographers of the
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAUCASUS 39 five-verst map as a complete physical survey. In no respect have the defects of this map been more prejudicial to the formation among those who instruct the public of a correct conception of the Caucasus than in the matter of its glaciation. The majj-makers treated this physical feature with curious carelessness, not to say contempt. It may have been difficult for them to delineate or define, with any approach to accuracy, the limits and extent of the glacier regidii in the great cham. But there was no reason why, while practically ignoring the central snow and ice, they should have planted imaginary snows of considerable extent on some of the lower parallel ranges — for example, those south of the Rion som-ces. It is only lately that the completion of many sheets of the one- veret map has enabled those who have had access to them to realise how unfounded were the statements current in scientific circles, and how fully justified we mountain explorers were in our contradiction of them. It is now possible to furnish authentic figures as to the total ai-ea and length of some of the greatest Caucasian glaciers. The following have been computed for me very carefully by Mr. Reeves, the Assistant Map Curator of the Royal Geographical Society, from the new sheets, forwaixled to me by the courtesy of the late General Shdanov and his successor. The measurements of length are taken along the centre of the ice-stream from the highest point neve down to its tongue. o Bezingi Glacier Karagom Glacier Leksur Glacier.... Dykli.su Glacier Zaniier Glacier Tuiber Glacier .... Irik Glacier .... .Shikildi Glacier ' . . . of its By way of comparison, I supply the measurements of eight ' In the statement of area I have tested Professor Heim's figures and find they are calculated on the same principle as yU. Reeves's. The smaller rocks islanded in the ice, and forming part of a glacier basin, are included in the calculation.
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38 THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAUCASUS<br />
Weather and water are shai"p tools ; ice is Nature's substitute for<br />
sandpaper, and a fairly<br />
efficient one. But to attribute to it a chief<br />
share in the details of the j^resent surface conformation of mountain<br />
ranges is surely excessive. On the glaciers an observer might, I<br />
fancy,<br />
obtain some hints as to mountain structure from what he sees<br />
in the ice of the behaviour of an imperfectly elastic body under<br />
strain, pressure, and exposure. The surface of the ice and its water<br />
channels are finally modelled by exposure to air and water action,<br />
but the broader elevations and depressions are the results of other<br />
agencies.<br />
THE KALUE GLACIER<br />
Let us now for a moment spread out on the crags before us the<br />
old five-verst map, and compare its pi'esentment with Nature herself<br />
So far as physical features are concerned, the most remarkable merit<br />
of the map lies in the accurate distinction made between the bare<br />
and forested districts. Its most patent inaccuracy is the great<br />
reduction of the area occupied by snow and ice.<br />
I had occasion in the last chapter to point out how much mischief<br />
had been wrought through the acceptance by geographers of the
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