Lisø PhD Dissertation Manuscript - NTNU

LisÖ et al.
the exposure to contingencies and stress, and difficulty
in coping with them. Vulnerability thus
has two sides: an external side of risks, shocks
and stress to which an individual or household
is subject: and an internal side which is defencelessness,
meaning a lack of means to cope
without damaging loss.
Coping refers to actions to ameliorate negative consequences
(or capitalise on positive consequences) as
climatic changes take place in order to maintain particular
welfare goals, such as health, life and income
(Eriksen et al., 2002). The concept of exposure is also
linked to social aspects through human reliance on
resources affected by environmental events. A broader
understanding of exposure employed by Downing et al.
(1995) incorporates this internal structural side of
exposure. This internal structural side is often known
as sensitivity, the degree to which a system is affected
by or responsive to climate stimuli (McCarthy et al.,
2001). For example, a society that relies heavily on
agriculture may be more sensitive to climatic fluctuations
than a society that depends solely on industry.
In this paper, the social aspect of exposure is referred
to as sensitivity, to be distinguished from exposure,
which deals exclusively with the physical factors
related to the probability of a climatic event, or change,
taking place.
Norway can be considered a highly exposed country
due to its extreme weather conditions (O’Brien et al.,
2002). The country’s long coastline and steep topography
make it particularly prone to extreme events like
coastal storms, avalanches and landslides. In addition,
Norway may be exposed to changes in autumn rainfall,
and to an increase in the frequency and intensity
of storms due to global warming. While the full range
of impacts resulting from these changes remains uncertain,
it is becoming clear that adaptation to climate
change is necessary and inevitable. Adaptation to the
prevailing climatic conditions has always been crucial
for the viability of Norwegian society, but future
climate changes may expose Norway to new challenges.
Indeed, within the climate impacts literature,
there is growing emphasis on adaptation and the need
to enhance adaptive capacity, both in developed and
developing countries (Kelly and Adger, 2000; Dolan
et al., 2001). Norway’s sensitivity is potentially high
due to the reliance of many of its economic sectors
on climate dependent natural resources (O’Brien et al.,
2002).
What is adaptation?
Adaptation can be described as adjustments in practices,
processes or structures to take into account changing
climate conditions, to moderate potential
damages, or to benefit from opportunities associated
with climate change (McCarthy et al., 2001). It is thus
justified as a way of reducing the negative impacts of
204
climate change and of taking advantage of the opportunities
created by it. While the physical exposure
component of vulnerability can be targeted through
emissions reductions, it is, as argued above, likely to
persist if not increase with climate change. In order
effectively to reduce vulnerability, society’s sensitivity
and coping capacity must be targeted.
Coping can be distinguished from adaptation in that it
refers to the immediate actions in the face of an event
or changes and the ability to maintain welfare, whereas
adaptation refers to long-term adjustments to the
framework within which coping takes place (Adger,
1996; Eriksen et al., 2002). Adaptation can be proactive
and planned, involving conscious measures to meet
anticipated changes, or it can consist of unplanned
adjustments in response to changes that are not consciously
designed to ameliorate the effects of climate
change, but nevertheless affect sensitivity or coping
capacity (Smit et al., 2000; Eriksen et al., 2002).
The built environment literally ‘houses’ economic
activities, individuals and families, as well as society’s
cultural heritage. It is intended to protect life, health
and psychological and social welfare of its inhabitants,
host economic activities and undisturbed production
and sustain aesthetic and cultural values. All these are
central goals of coping capacity in the context of the
built environment and in the face of climate change.
The existence of an insurance system, described in
more detail below, exemplifies a source of coping for
people when a building is damaged by a meteorologically
triggered event.
Potential impacts of climate change on building
performance
Adaptation measures can involve household-level
initiatives, construction industry initiatives and the various
levels of public administration. The impact of climate
change on the built environment will depend on
the design, construction, use and location of buildings
and building clusters. The most important government
regulatory measures to ensure adherence to building
codes and standards are the Technical Regulations
under the Planning and Building Act. These regulations
often refer to the Building Research Design Sheets in
NBI’s Building Research Series, with regards to
solutions-in-principle for building structures. The location
of buildings is regulated by various land-use planning
tools available to governments. These will serve as
valuable adaptation tools for governments as they plan
for climate change. Considerable blame for the massive
damages to buildings in central Europe after the floods
of the summer of 2002 has been placed upon land use
patterns. In an article in New Scientist (2002), it was
argued that shortsighted land management has allowed
global warming to wreak havoc, stating: