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England. 58 In his sweeping history of European colonization, first published in 1770, the abbé Guillaume-Thomas Raynal observed that the Dutch had taught Spain and Portugal a lesson in the benefits of industry and commerce: But the two nations that had subdued the East and West Indies, neglected arts and agriculture. They imagined everything was to be obtained by gold, without considering that it is labor alone that procures it: they were convinced, though late, and at their own expense, that the industry which they lost, was more valuable than the riches they acquired; and the Dutch taught them this severe instruction. 59 This quotation represents the reforming attitude and supreme confidence of the late eighteenth century. But two centuries earlier, when Spain and Portugal ruled the seas, might not the Dutch have learned some lessons from them as well? Equally important to these questions of inter-imperial learning is to re-evaluate the political geography of the Dutch Republic itself. With some exceptions, non-Dutch scholars have tended to read the history of Amsterdam or of Holland as representative of the United Provinces as a whole. 60 Amsterdam was by far the wealthiest and most populous of Holland's cities, and the Province of Holland paid slightly more than 58% of the States General’s total budget, so the emphasis is not unjustified. But other parts of Holland did not always share Amsterdam's views and other provinces differed dramatically from Holland in language, social structure, and outlook. The failure to take a wider geographical perspective is particularly problematic in the case of the WIC, which (compared to the VOC) drew a disproportionate amount of its initial                                                          58 J. H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006); See also Sophus A. Reinert, Translating Empire: Emulation and the Origins of Political Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011). 59 The quotation is based on the English translation of 1777 as excerpted in Henry C. Clark, Commerce, Culture, & Liberty: Readings on Capitalism Before Adam Smith (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), 613. A complete modern edition in English is Guillaume Thomas Raynal, Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, trans. J. O. Justamond, vol. 1 (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969). 60 An important exception is Israel, The Dutch Republic.   17
capital from Zeeland in the south and Groningen in the north, and from Arnhem, Deventer, and other towns along the German border. 61 These towns, for example, provided the bulk of the noblemen who filled the States General’s armies and were most directly affected by the war. 62 Despite this complicated political geography, Van Dillen, Van Hoboken, and others have focused largely on the antagonism between Zeeland and Holland, and especially Amsterdam. There is no question that this antagonism was of cardinal importance, but it tells us little about the role of the other provinces in providing crucial support to positions taken by Amsterdam and Zeeland or pushing specific policies of their own. In addition, the discussion thus far has looked at company politics through the lens of the provinces, rather than the chambers themselves, in effect denying any agency to either the directors or the company’s board—the two groups legally charged with the management of the company. Did the Amsterdam chamber, which included several strong advocates for Brazil, as well as representatives from both Leiden and Haarlem, share the views of the Amsterdam city council? We simply don't know, and this constrains our ability to understand company politics. Even more opaque is the role played by the States General. Several scholars, including Boxer and Den Heijer, frequently refer to the States General’s role in guiding company politics, but without indicating either who was involved or whether within circles in The Hague there developed a particular perspective on West Indian affairs. 63 Henk van Nierop has shown how some members of Holland's nobility devoted themselves to serving on committees in the States General, and Paul Knevel has described the evolution of a professional class of lawyers, scribes,                                                          61 Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740. 62 On the military frontier, see Willem Frijhoff and Marijke Spies, 1650: Hard-Won Unity, Dutch Culture in a European Perspective (Assen: Royal van Gorcum, 2004), 152-155. 63 Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 1624-1654; Den Heijer, De Geschiedenis van de WIC.   18
Page 1 and 2: GOVERNING THE FREE SEA: THE DUTCH W
Page 3 and 4: Abstract This dissertation takes a
Page 5 and 6: IV. “In the Service of Merchants
Page 7 and 8: for making the archive such an enjo
Page 9 and 10: Institute for International and Reg
Page 11 and 12: List of Tables 1. Delegates to the
Page 13 and 14: Illustration 1. Het West-Indische H
Page 15 and 16: eported to have said; any money sen
Page 17 and 18: nexus of commerce and power for whi
Page 19 and 20: Europe the Dutch Republic is emblem
Page 21 and 22: Although the VOC frequently used vi
Page 23 and 24: Van Dillen argued that over time th
Page 25 and 26: the Western Hemisphere.” 46 Far f
Page 27: anxieties it generated, and what pl
Page 31 and 32: number of document series within th
Page 33 and 34: character of Dutch political instit
Page 35 and 36: Illustration 2. Vergaderzaal van he
Page 37 and 38: ecords must be traced backwards—a
Page 39 and 40: of note.” 93 But it is clear that
Page 41 and 42: formative periods in the company’
Page 43 and 44: enhance the role of central authori
Page 45 and 46: trade in which the company had only
Page 47 and 48: 5. A Note on Sources This dissertat
Page 49 and 50: 1645. 110 The manuscript is found i
Page 51 and 52: period 1620-1636. 115 For the remai
Page 53 and 54: at São Salvador da Bahia de Todos
Page 55 and 56: the revolt pushed the colony’s fa
Page 57 and 58: Amsterdam newspapers did publish st
Page 59 and 60: year by the Hoge ende Secrete Raad
Page 61 and 62: the Portuguese, had crossed the Rio
Page 63 and 64: ead aloud, two resolutions were pas
Page 65 and 66: On Wednesday, the same day the ship
Page 67 and 68: with subtle differences of fact and
Page 69 and 70: The group consisted of Henderick Sc
Page 71 and 72: XIX. Each chamber selected delegate
Page 73 and 74: Inden naeme den heeren amen Saturn.
Page 75 and 76: Middelburg’s decidedly incestuous
Page 77 and 78: Illustration 6. Portrait of Johanne
Page 79 and 80:
crucial role that he played in its
Page 81 and 82:
When the meeting resumed on Monday
Page 83 and 84:
and to steer the discussion towards
Page 85 and 86:
were chosen from among the ranks of
Page 87 and 88:
emphasized the considerable sums in
Page 89 and 90:
4. Johannes de Laet as “Informati
Page 91 and 92:
devote myself to my books.” 129 A
Page 93 and 94:
interests were adequately represent
Page 95 and 96:
De Laet's substantive work in the A
Page 97 and 98:
that, even at the beginning, De Lae
Page 99 and 100:
De Laet’s presence at the meeting
Page 101 and 102:
confessions under interrogation and
Page 103 and 104:
Brazil this meant the Heren XIX, wh
Page 105 and 106:
Illustration 7. Portrait of Willem
Page 107 and 108:
peaceful settlement along the fring
Page 109 and 110:
By analyzing the successive changes
Page 111 and 112:
convene in Amsterdam; the following
Page 113 and 114:
This formulation, which must previo
Page 115 and 116:
Amsterdam or Middelburg. 29 In this
Page 117 and 118:
(1566-1626), later burgemeester of
Page 119 and 120:
placed next to his description of t
Page 121 and 122:
That these two provisions remained
Page 123 and 124:
provinces. The creation of the WIC
Page 125 and 126:
The result was that the delegates f
Page 127 and 128:
to the original charter gave the ch
Page 129 and 130:
thus shows the political—as oppos
Page 131 and 132:
1/10 of the equipagie and two direc
Page 133 and 134:
taken place. Once the draft letter
Page 135 and 136:
Table 5. Seating for the delegation
Page 137 and 138:
phase of the company’s Groot Dess
Page 139 and 140:
to be understood the sending over o
Page 141 and 142:
But by far the most important trans
Page 143 and 144:
Illustration 8. Map of Mauritstad a
Page 145 and 146:
geographers whose works remain a tr
Page 147 and 148:
important military, administrative,
Page 149 and 150:
noblemen played in overseas adminis
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good order, police and justice, and
Page 153 and 154:
the council's size and authority, d
Page 155 and 156:
servants. These individuals may not
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At this point the election was comp
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(Receiver General) of the United Pr
Page 161 and 162:
Why did these candidates all refuse
Page 163 and 164:
Alexander's name was almost certain
Page 165 and 166:
None of the remaining records indic
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would be profitable and that their
Page 169 and 170:
Haecxs thanked them for the honor t
Page 171 and 172:
On June 22, 1645—just a week befo
Page 173 and 174:
5. Wolter Schonenborch and the Ritu
Page 175 and 176:
with the WIC presumably did not go
Page 177 and 178:
Haecx recorded in his diary that on
Page 179 and 180:
wavered, for De Laet, who was many
Page 181 and 182:
privately to Brazil, legally or ill
Page 183 and 184:
1. Introduction Chapter Five Free T
Page 185 and 186:
left relatively open. 6 Where monop
Page 187 and 188:
community saw greater profits in pr
Page 189 and 190:
and close trade to private merchant
Page 191 and 192:
trouble paying its bills, especiall
Page 193 and 194:
means to capitalize the company wit
Page 195 and 196:
director than his trade to Brazil,
Page 197 and 198:
With the verhoging stalled, and ani
Page 199 and 200:
e handled without gloves.” 55 In
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“walking the land half-naked” f
Page 203 and 204:
While the resolution as a whole sho
Page 205 and 206:
along with the two powerful Amsterd
Page 207 and 208:
Cornelis Melijn, of a patroonschap
Page 209 and 210:
this measure, he said, “no one in
Page 211 and 212:
maintaining the company's solvency,
Page 213 and 214:
colony, overestimated the number of
Page 215 and 216:
And Maurits offered another argumen
Page 217 and 218:
Stellingwerf, who sat in the States
Page 219 and 220:
Provinces, plus smaller fees of 3%
Page 221 and 222:
exclude private merchants from the
Page 223 and 224:
clamoring for slaves. 136 The probl
Page 225 and 226:
expedition's success, along with de
Page 227 and 228:
trading locations on the Gold Coast
Page 229 and 230:
directly from New Netherland, and s
Page 231 and 232:
over trade was simply the projectio
Page 233 and 234:
the area in which the company was b
Page 235 and 236:
had not yet been renewed. 4 As the
Page 237 and 238:
to the Dutch state, and that this d
Page 239 and 240:
ookkeeping from late-fifteenth cent
Page 241 and 242:
ambitions. 21 Although neither Spec
Page 243 and 244:
expenses at each of the company's c
Page 245 and 246:
included. 34 In Specx’s estimatio
Page 247 and 248:
calculations yielded a profit of 41
Page 249 and 250:
notes on these documents, suggest t
Page 251 and 252:
It was, of course, a fiction. With
Page 253 and 254:
to hang from the body [...] This sh
Page 255 and 256:
van West-Indien (New World, or a De
Page 257 and 258:
title page of the revised edition a
Page 259 and 260:
It occurred to me that these miracu
Page 261 and 262:
third in the Kort Verhael. This rep
Page 263 and 264:
This extraordinary conclusion might
Page 265 and 266:
enemy” and the positive effects o
Page 267 and 268:
appeared in the late 1630s in the c
Page 269 and 270:
versus settlement. He was also more
Page 271 and 272:
An exceptionally cold winter delaye
Page 273 and 274:
failure of Dutch imperialism from t
Page 275 and 276:
that focuses on political and imper
Page 277 and 278:
support to the WIC, but they also i
Page 279 and 280:
Maurits predicted and which was not
Page 281 and 282:
British Library Additional Manuscri
Page 283 and 284:
Burke, Peter. A Social History of K
Page 285 and 286:
Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An
Page 287 and 288:
Jonge, J. K. J. De Oorsprong van Ne
Page 289 and 290:
Noorlander, Danny L. “Serving God
Page 291 and 292:
Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Na
Page 293:
1624-1654, edited by Marianne L. Wi
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