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chambers. Notably, this request came not from Van Arnhem, but from Hendrick Willemsz. Nobel, a deputy to the States General from Rotterdam, an early investor in the WIC, and a director in the chamber of the Maas. 66 Since the Maas had by this point concluded that the trade should be closed, Nobel's involvement likely ensured that Zeeland's advice would at the minimum receive a favorable hearing. On November 6 two directors in the Zeeland chamber began assembling excerpts from the letters sent by the Politique Raad and others. 67 To these excerpts they attached a lengthy memorandum arguing for the trade to Brazil to be closed. The arguments themselves were by now familiar—if the trade was left open the colony would be ruined, since shareholders would not devote additional resources while private trade brought richer returns—but for the first time Zeeland also made the case that they believed a majority could be won on the issue in the Heren XIX. 68 The States General's decision took the form of a resolution, signed by Cornelis Musch on December 27, 1636. A letter to the Heren XIX announcing the resolution cited both the news from Brazil and the company's enduring financial difficulties: We have examined the documents submitted to us and note with great sadness the terrible effects wrought by opening the trade to Brazil, including the emptying of the company's warehouses and its inability to resupply them, which together have caused many heavy troubles. Whether this is the result of the sinister activities of a few, or has been caused by other means, we wish not to examine further at this time, but instead we have decided that for the best of the Company the currently approved free trade shall be abolished, and all goods or ships that have been outfitted by private traders shall immediately be confiscated. 69                                                          66 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 14, entry for October 17, 1636. "Hendrick Willemsz. Nobel," Molhuysen, Nieuw Nederlandsch Biografisch Woordenboek, 1384. Ambtsdragers en Ambtenaren, 1428-1861. http://www.historici.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/Repertorium/app/personen/11402. Accessed on April 4, 2011. 67 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 22, entry for December 6, 1636. 68 NA 1.01.07, inv.nr. 12564.5, Cort sommier uyt dese voorgestelden 11 extracten... gedateert van den 11 Juny aff tot den 10 September 1636 toe. 69 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 39, fol. 58v. “Wy hebben Geexamineert de bygevoechde stucken ende daerinne met droefheyt ende met Groot leerwesen bespeurt de quade Effecten ende het open stellen van den vrien handel op Brasil heeft gebaert ten regarde van het onblooten vanden magasynen van de Comp. ende de negligentie van de selve meder te versien ende remplaceeren, t’ welck veele swaricheeden heft veroorsaect, tsy dan off sulcx is Geschut door mis practiquen offe by ander […] tselve en willen wy voor t mael met verder ondersoecken Maer hebben goetgedracht ten besten van de Comp. aff te schaffen, gelyck wy ook aff schaeffen mits desen den tegenwoordigen   191
While the resolution as a whole shows that Zeeland's arguments had been decisive, the final clause suggests that the decision was made rather hastily, likely without consultation with representatives of the company. 70 As the directors, who were still assembled at the meeting of the Heren XIX in Amsterdam, immediately recognized, it was hardly just to seize ships and cargos that had been prepared for shipment to Brazil before December 27, when private trade to Brazil was still legal. On January 3 Van Arnhem reported to the States General that the directors—who had for months been feuding amongst themselves—were unanimous in their view that the resolution should be revised to allow these ships to depart unmolested. 71 The States General at first refused; it then passed a second resolution calling on the company to take control of the confiscated ships and their cargoes in return for a “fair market price.” This turned out to be equally unacceptable, because the company did not have nearly the resources that would have been necessary to compensate so many merchants simultaneously. 72 Finally, after intervention by the delegate from Holland, the States General backed down, and allowed a limited number of ships to sail. Part of the rationale for their decision may have been the fact that several of the ships were carrying military and other supplies for Maurits and members of his extensive entourage. 73 It is unknown whether a vote on the question of free trade ever took place within the Heren XIX. Under normal circumstances the directors sought consensus, but on particularly contentious issues decisions were made by a simple majority, with the senior representative of                                                          Geconsenteerden handel verclaerende dien volgende verbeurt ende Geconfisqeert alle de schepen ende goederen die derwaers near dare deses uyt dese Landen.” 70 Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 1624-1654, 78. 71 NA 1.01.04, inv. 5754, fol. 274. The report is dated January 3, 1636. 72 NA 1.05.01.01 inv. 39, fols. 59-60v. Extracts of the Resolutions of the States General dated January 3, January 5, and January 7, 1636. 73 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 39, fol. 60.   192
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GOVERNING THE FREE SEA: THE DUTCH W
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Abstract This dissertation takes a
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IV. “In the Service of Merchants
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for making the archive such an enjo
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Institute for International and Reg
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List of Tables 1. Delegates to the
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Illustration 1. Het West-Indische H
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eported to have said; any money sen
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nexus of commerce and power for whi
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Europe the Dutch Republic is emblem
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Although the VOC frequently used vi
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Van Dillen argued that over time th
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the Western Hemisphere.” 46 Far f
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anxieties it generated, and what pl
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capital from Zeeland in the south a
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number of document series within th
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character of Dutch political instit
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Illustration 2. Vergaderzaal van he
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ecords must be traced backwards—a
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of note.” 93 But it is clear that
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formative periods in the company’
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enhance the role of central authori
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trade in which the company had only
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5. A Note on Sources This dissertat
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1645. 110 The manuscript is found i
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period 1620-1636. 115 For the remai
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at São Salvador da Bahia de Todos
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the revolt pushed the colony’s fa
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Amsterdam newspapers did publish st
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year by the Hoge ende Secrete Raad
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the Portuguese, had crossed the Rio
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ead aloud, two resolutions were pas
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On Wednesday, the same day the ship
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with subtle differences of fact and
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The group consisted of Henderick Sc
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XIX. Each chamber selected delegate
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Inden naeme den heeren amen Saturn.
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Middelburg’s decidedly incestuous
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Illustration 6. Portrait of Johanne
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crucial role that he played in its
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When the meeting resumed on Monday
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and to steer the discussion towards
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were chosen from among the ranks of
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emphasized the considerable sums in
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4. Johannes de Laet as “Informati
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devote myself to my books.” 129 A
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interests were adequately represent
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De Laet's substantive work in the A
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that, even at the beginning, De Lae
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De Laet’s presence at the meeting
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confessions under interrogation and
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Brazil this meant the Heren XIX, wh
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Illustration 7. Portrait of Willem
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peaceful settlement along the fring
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By analyzing the successive changes
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convene in Amsterdam; the following
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This formulation, which must previo
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Amsterdam or Middelburg. 29 In this
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(1566-1626), later burgemeester of
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placed next to his description of t
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That these two provisions remained
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provinces. The creation of the WIC
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The result was that the delegates f
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to the original charter gave the ch
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thus shows the political—as oppos
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1/10 of the equipagie and two direc
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taken place. Once the draft letter
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Table 5. Seating for the delegation
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phase of the company’s Groot Dess
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to be understood the sending over o
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But by far the most important trans
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Illustration 8. Map of Mauritstad a
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geographers whose works remain a tr
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important military, administrative,
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noblemen played in overseas adminis
Page 151 and 152: good order, police and justice, and
Page 153 and 154: the council's size and authority, d
Page 155 and 156: servants. These individuals may not
Page 157 and 158: At this point the election was comp
Page 159 and 160: (Receiver General) of the United Pr
Page 161 and 162: Why did these candidates all refuse
Page 163 and 164: Alexander's name was almost certain
Page 165 and 166: None of the remaining records indic
Page 167 and 168: would be profitable and that their
Page 169 and 170: Haecxs thanked them for the honor t
Page 171 and 172: On June 22, 1645—just a week befo
Page 173 and 174: 5. Wolter Schonenborch and the Ritu
Page 175 and 176: with the WIC presumably did not go
Page 177 and 178: Haecx recorded in his diary that on
Page 179 and 180: wavered, for De Laet, who was many
Page 181 and 182: privately to Brazil, legally or ill
Page 183 and 184: 1. Introduction Chapter Five Free T
Page 185 and 186: left relatively open. 6 Where monop
Page 187 and 188: community saw greater profits in pr
Page 189 and 190: and close trade to private merchant
Page 191 and 192: trouble paying its bills, especiall
Page 193 and 194: means to capitalize the company wit
Page 195 and 196: director than his trade to Brazil,
Page 197 and 198: With the verhoging stalled, and ani
Page 199 and 200: e handled without gloves.” 55 In
Page 201: “walking the land half-naked” f
Page 205 and 206: along with the two powerful Amsterd
Page 207 and 208: Cornelis Melijn, of a patroonschap
Page 209 and 210: this measure, he said, “no one in
Page 211 and 212: maintaining the company's solvency,
Page 213 and 214: colony, overestimated the number of
Page 215 and 216: And Maurits offered another argumen
Page 217 and 218: Stellingwerf, who sat in the States
Page 219 and 220: Provinces, plus smaller fees of 3%
Page 221 and 222: exclude private merchants from the
Page 223 and 224: clamoring for slaves. 136 The probl
Page 225 and 226: expedition's success, along with de
Page 227 and 228: trading locations on the Gold Coast
Page 229 and 230: directly from New Netherland, and s
Page 231 and 232: over trade was simply the projectio
Page 233 and 234: the area in which the company was b
Page 235 and 236: had not yet been renewed. 4 As the
Page 237 and 238: to the Dutch state, and that this d
Page 239 and 240: ookkeeping from late-fifteenth cent
Page 241 and 242: ambitions. 21 Although neither Spec
Page 243 and 244: expenses at each of the company's c
Page 245 and 246: included. 34 In Specx’s estimatio
Page 247 and 248: calculations yielded a profit of 41
Page 249 and 250: notes on these documents, suggest t
Page 251 and 252: It was, of course, a fiction. With
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to hang from the body [...] This sh
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van West-Indien (New World, or a De
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title page of the revised edition a
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It occurred to me that these miracu
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third in the Kort Verhael. This rep
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This extraordinary conclusion might
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enemy” and the positive effects o
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appeared in the late 1630s in the c
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versus settlement. He was also more
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An exceptionally cold winter delaye
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failure of Dutch imperialism from t
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that focuses on political and imper
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support to the WIC, but they also i
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Maurits predicted and which was not
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British Library Additional Manuscri
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Burke, Peter. A Social History of K
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Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An
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Jonge, J. K. J. De Oorsprong van Ne
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Noorlander, Danny L. “Serving God
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Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Na
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1624-1654, edited by Marianne L. Wi
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