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collateral to borrow an additional 2 million guilders to finance the company's trade to Brazil. 35 This was a risky strategy, but the author believed that profits from the Brazil trade would more than repay the new investment. Most of the chambers opposed reinstating the company's monopoly, as we have seen already, but the idea of raising additional private capital enjoyed broad support. Actually raising new money proved more difficult than anticipated. In Zeeland, the chamber for which the best records remain, new subscription books opened to investors simultaneously in the three cities of Middelburg, Vlissingen, and Veere on August 26, 1636. 36 Abraham Bischop and Pieter Alleman, who had helped negotiate the terms of the verhoging with delegates from Amsterdam and the other chambers, served as the commissioners. 37 During the first month less than 70,000 guilders were raised in Middelburg, and although investors included influential directors such as Jan van der Merct, Jan Louys, and Pieter van Essen, many others stayed away. 38 On September 27, the matter came to a head: the chamber's hoofdparticipanten insisted that they would invest further funds only if they could be assured that these funds would go straight to Brazil, and if the chamber's directors were forbidden from participating in the private trade. 39 On October 6 the hoofdparticipanten were assured that these conditions would be met, and the chamber's directors collectively “took a solemn oath not to trade [to Brazil] on their private accounts.” 40 Cornelis Lampsins of Vlissingen (1600-1664), who indicated that he would rather lose his seat as a                                                          35 NA 1.01.07, inv.nr. 12564.5. Discourse ondervrage en antwoort hoe die Westind. Comp. sal comen gestabiliseert en gebeneficeert worden buyten costen vant lant, tot merckel. voordeel van die participanten. 36 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nrs. 77, 78, and 79. 37 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 22, entry for August 21, 1636. 38 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 77. Note that the sums listed in the manuscript are in Flemish pounds. By September 27, investors in Middelburg has subscribed 11,235 Flemish pounds, equal to 67,410 guilders. 39 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 22, entry for September 27, 1636. 40 Ibid., entry for October 5, 1636. “Alle de Bewindhebberen van de vergaderinge gedaen hebbende den eedt, achtervolgens de resolutie van de negentiene van op brasyl in haer particuliere nyet te handelen, als alleen d’heer Lampsins.”   183
director than his trade to Brazil, refused to take the oath and stepped down several weeks later. 41 In effect, the Zeeland directors had reached an agreement independent of both the other chambers and the States General not to compete with one another in the trade to Brazil. Having forfeited the right to profit personally, outside the framework of the company's monopoly, it is not surprising that they would become so frustrated with Amsterdam, where directors' involvement in private trade to Brazil was believed to be widespread. 42 In any case, the agreement succeeded in stimulating new subscriptions, but hardly enough to encourage confidence. By the end of November Middelburg's books still registered only 150,000 guilders, a sizeable sum but well short of the 290,000 guilders that would be expected based on the city's initial investment of 879,475 guilders. 43 In Vlissingen and Veere the situation was much the same, and the problem extended to other regions, as well. In September Johannes de Laet reported to the Amsterdam chamber that shareholders in Leiden were hesitant to subscribe new money. 44 Several weeks later a committee in Amsterdam met to discuss similar problems in Vriesland, Arnhem, and Zutphen. 45 In Amsterdam itself, where investment could help procure a coveted seat as one of the chamber's directors—and thus access to secret information that would be invaluable to private merchants trading to Brazil—there was considerably more enthusiasm for the verhoging. Even in Amsterdam, though, there was disagreement. While a majority of the chamber's directors were committed to a policy of free trade, the hoofdparticipanten were concerned that private traders were reaping all of the benefits of trade. In a remonstrance to the States General, submitted in                                                          41 Ibid. and entry for December 3, 1636. 42 Van Dillen, “De West-Indische Compagnie, het Calvinism en de Politiek”; Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast 1580-1680, 292. 43 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 77. Roos, Zeeuwen en de Westindische Compagnie (1621-1674), 21. 44 NA 1.05.01.01, inv.nr. 14, entry for September 11, 1636. 45 Ibid., entry for December 25, 1636.   184
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GOVERNING THE FREE SEA: THE DUTCH W
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Abstract This dissertation takes a
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IV. “In the Service of Merchants
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for making the archive such an enjo
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Institute for International and Reg
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List of Tables 1. Delegates to the
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Illustration 1. Het West-Indische H
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eported to have said; any money sen
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nexus of commerce and power for whi
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Europe the Dutch Republic is emblem
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Although the VOC frequently used vi
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Van Dillen argued that over time th
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the Western Hemisphere.” 46 Far f
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anxieties it generated, and what pl
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capital from Zeeland in the south a
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number of document series within th
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character of Dutch political instit
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Illustration 2. Vergaderzaal van he
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ecords must be traced backwards—a
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of note.” 93 But it is clear that
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formative periods in the company’
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enhance the role of central authori
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trade in which the company had only
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5. A Note on Sources This dissertat
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1645. 110 The manuscript is found i
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period 1620-1636. 115 For the remai
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at São Salvador da Bahia de Todos
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the revolt pushed the colony’s fa
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Amsterdam newspapers did publish st
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year by the Hoge ende Secrete Raad
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the Portuguese, had crossed the Rio
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ead aloud, two resolutions were pas
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On Wednesday, the same day the ship
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with subtle differences of fact and
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The group consisted of Henderick Sc
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XIX. Each chamber selected delegate
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Inden naeme den heeren amen Saturn.
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Middelburg’s decidedly incestuous
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Illustration 6. Portrait of Johanne
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crucial role that he played in its
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When the meeting resumed on Monday
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and to steer the discussion towards
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were chosen from among the ranks of
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emphasized the considerable sums in
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4. Johannes de Laet as “Informati
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devote myself to my books.” 129 A
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interests were adequately represent
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De Laet's substantive work in the A
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that, even at the beginning, De Lae
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De Laet’s presence at the meeting
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confessions under interrogation and
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Brazil this meant the Heren XIX, wh
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Illustration 7. Portrait of Willem
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peaceful settlement along the fring
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By analyzing the successive changes
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convene in Amsterdam; the following
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This formulation, which must previo
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Amsterdam or Middelburg. 29 In this
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(1566-1626), later burgemeester of
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placed next to his description of t
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That these two provisions remained
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provinces. The creation of the WIC
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The result was that the delegates f
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to the original charter gave the ch
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thus shows the political—as oppos
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1/10 of the equipagie and two direc
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taken place. Once the draft letter
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Table 5. Seating for the delegation
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phase of the company’s Groot Dess
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to be understood the sending over o
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But by far the most important trans
Page 143 and 144: Illustration 8. Map of Mauritstad a
Page 145 and 146: geographers whose works remain a tr
Page 147 and 148: important military, administrative,
Page 149 and 150: noblemen played in overseas adminis
Page 151 and 152: good order, police and justice, and
Page 153 and 154: the council's size and authority, d
Page 155 and 156: servants. These individuals may not
Page 157 and 158: At this point the election was comp
Page 159 and 160: (Receiver General) of the United Pr
Page 161 and 162: Why did these candidates all refuse
Page 163 and 164: Alexander's name was almost certain
Page 165 and 166: None of the remaining records indic
Page 167 and 168: would be profitable and that their
Page 169 and 170: Haecxs thanked them for the honor t
Page 171 and 172: On June 22, 1645—just a week befo
Page 173 and 174: 5. Wolter Schonenborch and the Ritu
Page 175 and 176: with the WIC presumably did not go
Page 177 and 178: Haecx recorded in his diary that on
Page 179 and 180: wavered, for De Laet, who was many
Page 181 and 182: privately to Brazil, legally or ill
Page 183 and 184: 1. Introduction Chapter Five Free T
Page 185 and 186: left relatively open. 6 Where monop
Page 187 and 188: community saw greater profits in pr
Page 189 and 190: and close trade to private merchant
Page 191 and 192: trouble paying its bills, especiall
Page 193: means to capitalize the company wit
Page 197 and 198: With the verhoging stalled, and ani
Page 199 and 200: e handled without gloves.” 55 In
Page 201 and 202: “walking the land half-naked” f
Page 203 and 204: While the resolution as a whole sho
Page 205 and 206: along with the two powerful Amsterd
Page 207 and 208: Cornelis Melijn, of a patroonschap
Page 209 and 210: this measure, he said, “no one in
Page 211 and 212: maintaining the company's solvency,
Page 213 and 214: colony, overestimated the number of
Page 215 and 216: And Maurits offered another argumen
Page 217 and 218: Stellingwerf, who sat in the States
Page 219 and 220: Provinces, plus smaller fees of 3%
Page 221 and 222: exclude private merchants from the
Page 223 and 224: clamoring for slaves. 136 The probl
Page 225 and 226: expedition's success, along with de
Page 227 and 228: trading locations on the Gold Coast
Page 229 and 230: directly from New Netherland, and s
Page 231 and 232: over trade was simply the projectio
Page 233 and 234: the area in which the company was b
Page 235 and 236: had not yet been renewed. 4 As the
Page 237 and 238: to the Dutch state, and that this d
Page 239 and 240: ookkeeping from late-fifteenth cent
Page 241 and 242: ambitions. 21 Although neither Spec
Page 243 and 244: expenses at each of the company's c
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included. 34 In Specx’s estimatio
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calculations yielded a profit of 41
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notes on these documents, suggest t
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It was, of course, a fiction. With
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to hang from the body [...] This sh
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van West-Indien (New World, or a De
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title page of the revised edition a
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It occurred to me that these miracu
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third in the Kort Verhael. This rep
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This extraordinary conclusion might
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enemy” and the positive effects o
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appeared in the late 1630s in the c
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versus settlement. He was also more
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An exceptionally cold winter delaye
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failure of Dutch imperialism from t
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that focuses on political and imper
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support to the WIC, but they also i
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Maurits predicted and which was not
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British Library Additional Manuscri
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Burke, Peter. A Social History of K
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Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An
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Jonge, J. K. J. De Oorsprong van Ne
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Noorlander, Danny L. “Serving God
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Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Na
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1624-1654, edited by Marianne L. Wi
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