VOLUME 1 SOIL REPORT

' ,* Agriculture 

Canada 

SOILS 

OF 

CANADA 

VOLUME 1 SOIL REPORT

SOILS OF CANADA 

Volume I 

SOIL REPORT 

A Cooperative Project of 

The Canada Soil Survey Committee 

and 

The Soil Research Institute 

Ottawa, Ontario 

by 

J .S . Clayton, W.A . Ehrlich, D.B . Cann, 

J.H . Day, and I .B . Marshall 

1977 

RESEARCH BRANCH 

CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

© Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1977 

Available by mail from 

Printing and Publishing 

Supply and Services Canada, 

Ottawa, Canada KIA OS9 

or through your bookseller 

Catalogue No . A53-1544/1-1976 

Price : Canada : $25.00 

Other countries: $30.00 

ISBN 0-660-00502-6 

Price subject to change without notice 

D . W . Friesen & Sons Ltd . 

Altona, Manitoba ROG OBO 

Contract No . 02KX "O1A05-6-38476

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The studies on the Soils of Canada were conducted as a joint project of the Soil 

Research Institute and the Canada Soil Survey Committee, which represents all 

federal and provincial soil survey units in Canada and all University Departments 

of Soil Science involved in survey projects . The cooperation of all who shared in this 

project is gratefully acknowledged . The final compilation of soils information and 

the preparation of the maps and report were done by the Soil Resource Inventory 

and Cartography sections of the Soil Research Institute in Ottawa . 

Specific acknowledgment is made to Dr . A. Leahey, Chairman of the National Soil 

Survey Committee from 1940 to 1966, and to Dr. P.C . Stobbe, former Director of 

the Soil Research Institute, 1959-1968, under whose able leadership the present 

project was initiated and directed . 

Active assistance and cooperation were received from the following federal 

departments in providing source material and maps : 

The Canada Land Inventory, Department of Environment, Ottawa ; 

The Geological Survey of Canada, Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, 

Ottawa . 

Acknowledgment is especially due to the following for their contributions to 

the report : 

R. Waldron, Canadian Forestry Service, and M .J . Romaine, Canada Land Inventory, 

for their joint contribution to the sections dealing with forest productivity ; 

The many individuals in the Cartography Section, Soil Research Institute, but 

especially R.R . Norgren and B . Edwards for their enthusiasm and cooperation in 

the preparation of maps and diagrams ; 

Dr. W. Baier andW.K . Sly of the Agrometeorology Research and Service, Chemistry 

and Biology Research Institute . 

MORE INFORMATION 

Since the manuscript for this publication was prepared there have been some 

changes in soil taxonomy . The most notable of these is the establishment 

of the Cryosolic Order for soils that have permafrost close to the surface . 

The revised system will appear in a book to be entitled The Canadian System 

of Soil Classification, which will be published shortly . Also there have been 

some changes in terminology and in the definitions of terms . However, the 

overall information presented in Soils of Canada is valid . 

For more detailed information please address your enquiries to : Mr . John 

Day, Soil Research Institute, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, Central 

Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario K1A OC6 .

CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

Development of Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

Format of Publicaticn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

The Soil Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

The Soil Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

Maps and Diagrams of Soil Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Soil Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

PART I 

Soil Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Definitions of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Identification of Soil Profiles and Horizons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Classification of Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

Soil Mapping Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

PART II 

Biophysical Environment of Canadian Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Geographic Location and Extent of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Physiography of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Canadian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

St . Lawrence Lowlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Interior Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 

Arctic Lowlands and Coastal Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

Innuitian Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 

Appalachian Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 

Cordilleran Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 

Bedrock Geology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 

Weathering and Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 

Soil Climates of Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 

Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 

Geographic Distribution of Soil Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 

Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

Vegetation Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

Tundra and Boreal Forest Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 

Boreal Forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 

Southeastern Mixed Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

Great Lakes-St . Lawrence Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

Acadian Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

Deciduous, Southern Broadleaf Forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 

Forest Regions of the Cordilleran and Pacific Coastal Areas of Western Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 

Subalpine Forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 

Columbia Forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 

Montane Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 

Coast Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 

The Grasslands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 

Boreal Forest and Grassland Transition (The Fescue Prairie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 

The True Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 

The Palouse Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 

The Mixed Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

PART III 

Description of Soils and Mapping Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 

Chernozemic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 

Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 

Geographic extent and utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 

Brown Chernozemic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 

Dark Brown Chernozemic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 

Black Chernozemic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 

Dark Gray Chernozemic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 

Solonetzic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 



Luvisolic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 



Podzolic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 



Brunisolic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 



Regosolic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 



Cryic Regosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 

Orthic Regosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 

Cumulic Regosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 

Gleysolic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 



Humic Gleysols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 

G leysols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 

Cryic Gleysols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 

Organic Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 



Rockland Land Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 

PART IV 

Correlation Between the Canadian, United States, and World (FAO) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 

Soil Climate Data and Classification for Selected Canadian Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 

Morphological, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Selected Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

FIGURES 

1 Determination of surface color and soil texture in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

2 Testing for carbonates with acid in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

3 Soil examination, Solodized Solonetz soil, Saskatchewan Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

4 Soil examination using a portable drill north of Inuvik, Mackenzie Delta, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

5 Field examination of soil profile using a hydraulic corer, Saskatchewan Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

6 Sampling Organic soil with hand auger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

7 Preparation for taking a soil profile monolith, Solodic Dark Gray Chernozemic soil, near 

Edmonton, Alberta Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

8 Removing soil monolith from sampling site, Dark Gray Luvisol, near Loon River, 

Saskatchewan Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

9 Physiographic regions of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

10 Glacial geology map of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

11 Physiographic divisions of the Canadian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

12 Structural provinces of the Canadian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

13 Frost-heaved bedrock with a thin organic layer on the bedrock in the foreground . 

Kazan 

Upland, near Churchill, Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

14 Exposed bedrock and till deposits of the Slave Upland, near Yellowknife, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . 36 

15 Rolling glacial till landscape of the Alberta Plain, near Biggar, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

16 Boulder-loaded esker on Bear-Slave Upland, near Fort Enterprise north of Great Slave 

Lake, N.W .T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

17 Perennially frozen peatland (peat polygons) on east side of Hicks Lake, District of 

Keewatin, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

18 Glacial till overlying bedrock on the Kazan Upland, near Otter Rapids, northern 

Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 

19 Lacustrine clay overlying bedrock on the Abitibi Upland, near La Sarre, Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 

20 Glaciofluvial outwash deposits, Chilcotin River valley, Interior Plateau, Cordilleran 

Region, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 

21 Physiographic divisions of the St . Lawrence Lowlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 

22 Improved pasture on undulating glacial till landscape, Ottawa Valley, Central 

St. Lawrence Lowland, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 

23 Fruit farming on stone-free, fine-textured clay, Niagara Peninsula, West St . Lawrence 

Lowland, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 

24 Cropland on undulating till plain, Ottawa Valley, Central St . Lawrence Lowland, Quebec 41 

25 Vegetable crop on peat-covered, lacustrine plain, West St. Lawrence Lowland, near 

Welland, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 

26 Farm on nearly level marine clay plain, Central St . Lawrence Lowland, near Ottawa, 

Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

27 Landslide on unstable marine clays (Champlain Sea deposits) in the Ottawa Valley, 

Central St . Lawrence Lowland, near Casselman, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

28 Glacial till and fine-textured marine sediments of the undulating Central St . Lawrence 

Lowland, near Baie St . Paul, Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

29 Organic peat meadows and shallow lakes of the western Newfoundland Coastal 

Lowland, Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

30 Physiographic divisions of the Interior Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 

31 Nearly level, fine-textured lacustrine sediments (former glacial Lake Agassiz) of the 

Manitoba Plain, near Portage la Prairie, Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

32 Undulating, clay loam till plain in the Missouri Coteau, Saskatchewan Plain, south of 

Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

33 Gently to moderately rolling till plain, Alberta Plain, near Kindersley, Saskatchewan . . . . . . 46 

34 Cropland pattern on undulating Alberta Plain, near Edmonton, Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

35 Diefenbaker Lake occupying a former glacial valley spillway, Saskatchewan Plain, 

north of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

36 Forested, rolling till plain, Manitoba Plain, near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

37 Undulating till plain, Alberta Plain, near Pincher Creek, Alberta, Rocky Mountains in the 

distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

38 Forested till upland, Alberta Plateau, near Robb, Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

39 Physiographic divisions of the Innuitian Region and Arctic Lowlands and Coastal Plain 50 

40 Aerial view of high-centered polygons on Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, Mackenzie Delta, 

Arctic Coastal Plain, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

41 Eroded, marine sand deposits, Victoria Island, Arctic Lowlands, N .W.T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

42 Coastline of Phillips Bay showing the edge of the pack ice, Yukon Coastal Plain, Arctic 

Coastal Plain, Yukon Territory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

43 Caribou Hills overlooking the Mackenzie Delta, near Reindeer Depot, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

44 Ribbed minor moraines with some peatland along lake shores . This area is part of the 

Keewatin Ice Divide on the north side of Hicks Lake, District of Keewatin, N.W .T . 54 

45 Rolling till plain east of Inuvik on the north slope of Anderson Plain, N .W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 

46 Arctic desert soils in Victoria and Albert mountains, Innuitian Region, Ellesmere Island . 54 

47 Wet, cotton grass covered, lowland soils in the high Arctic, Innuitian Region, Ellesmere 

Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 

48 Physiographic divisions of the Appalachian Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

49 Nova Scotia Highlands, near Meat Cove, northern Cape Breton Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

50 Small drumlinized mounds of till on the Atlantic Uplands of Nova Scotia, near Bridgewater, 

Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

51 Reclaimed tidal marshes on the Maritime Plain, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

52 Undulating till plain, Maritime Plain, Prince Edward Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

53 Mixed-farming area on rolling till deposits of the Chaleur Uplands, New Brunswick 60 

54 Forested Chaleur Uplands, Kedgwick River, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 

55 Farm abandonment in the New Brunswick Highlands, near the Pollett River valley 

' northwest of Moncton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 

56 Forested Newfoundland Highlands and Humber River valley, near Cormack, 

Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 

57 Physiographic divisions of the Cordilleran Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 

58 Nanaimo Lowland and Vancouver Island Ranges, Cordilleran Region, British Columbia 64 

59 Garibaldi Valley, Coast Mountains of the Cordilleran Region, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 

60 Productive semiarid to subhumid rangeland near Kamloops in the Interior Plateau, 

Cordilleran Region, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 

61 Subarid rangeland and irrigated lowlands of the Okanagan Valley, Interior Plateau, 


62 Southern Rocky Mountains, near the Marmot Creek basin, Cordilleran Region, British 

Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 

63 Sediment-laden river near the Columbia Ice Field, southern Rocky Mountains, 

Cordilleran Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 

64 Hazelton Mountains west of Bulkley River, Cordilleran Region, British Columbia . . . . . . . . 66

65 Five Finger Rapids on the Yukon River, Yukon Plateau, Cordilleran Region, Yukon 

Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 

66 Geological map of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 

67 Vegetation regions of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

68 Aerial view of polygonal-patterned tundra, Kazan Upland, Lake Baralzon, N .W .T. . . . . . . . . 84 

69 Junction of troughs in peat polygons area, Anderson Plain, Interior Plains Region, 

N .W .T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

70 Subarctic tundra and Boreal forest transition, Bear-Slave Upland, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

71 Subarctic, peat plateau vegetation south of tree line, Puzzle Lake area, Anderson Plain, 

northeast of Arctic Red River, N .W.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

72 Frost-sorted stone nets, Arctic barrens of the Mackenzie Mountains, Cordilleran Region, 

N.W.T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

73 Alpine heath, Jonas Pass, Jasper National Park, Rocky Mountains, Cordilleran Region, 

Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

74 Subalpine Krumbhotz vegetation, Apex Mountain area, Interior Plateau, Cordilleran 

Region, near Kelowna, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

75 Subalpine forest and meadow, Columbia Mountains, Cordilleran Region, near Revelstoke, 

British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

76 Moderately cold, humid, Cryoboreal, mixed forest, Saskatchewan Plain, Saskatchewan 88 

77 Humid, Cryoboreal, black spruce forest, New Brunswick Highlands, Appalachian 

Region, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

78 Humid, Boreal, Coast Forest, Vancouver Island Ranges, Cordilleran Region, British 

Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

79 Perhumid, Mesic, Coast Forest, Nanaimo Lowland and Vancouver Island Ranges, 


80 Humid, Cryoboreal, southeastern mixed forest, Chaleur Uplands, Appalachian Region, 

New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

81 Humid, Boreal, southeastern mixed forest, Laurentian Highlands, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

82 Reforestation of productive, southeastern mixed forest, Nova Scotia Highlands, Cape 

Breton Island, Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

83 Reforestation of abandoned farmland, southeastern mixed forest, New Brunswick 

Highlands, Appalachian Region, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

84 Boreal, subhumid, Fescue Prairie, Alberta Plain, Interior Plains Region, Saskatchewan 93 

85 Boreal, subhumid, Fescue Prairie and subaquic meadows, Saskatchewan Plain, Interior 

Plains Region, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 

86 Boreal, subarid, Palouse Prairie, Interior Plateau, Cordilleran Region, British Columbia 93 

87 Boreal, subhumid, Palouse Prairie-Montane Forest transition, Interior Plateau, 

Cordilleran Region, Chilcotin River valley, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 

88 Boreal, subarid, shortgrass mixed prairie, Alberta Plain, Interior Plains Region, Alberta 98 

89 Boreal, subarid, improved community pasture, Alberta Plain, Interior Plains Region, near 

Kindersley, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 

90 Boreal, semiarid, midgrass mixed prairie on loamy parent materials, Missouri Coteau, 

Alberta Plain, Interior Plains Region, Old Wives Lake area, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 

91 Boreal, semiarid, midgrass mixed prairie on sandy parent materials, Saskatchewan River 

valley, Saskatchewan Plain, Interior Plains Region, near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan . . . . . . 98 

92 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Chernozemic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 

93 Orthic Brown Chernozemic, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

94 Brown Chernozemic landscape, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

95 Orthic Dark Brown Chernozemic, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

96 Dark Brown Chernozemic landscape, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 

97 Orthic Black Chernozemic, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 

98 Black Chernozemic landscape, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 

99 Orthic Dark Gray Chernozemic, southern Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 

100 Dark Gray Chernozemic landscape, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 

101 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Solonetzic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 

102 Brown Solodized Solonetz, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

103 Brown Solod, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

104 Black Solonetz, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

105 Gray Solonetz, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

106 Saline Regosol and Alkaline Solonetz landscape, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

107 Brown Solonetz, shortgrass prairie landscape, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

108 Patchy crop in Brown Solodized Solonetz soil area, southern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

109 Wheat crop on Gray Solonetz landscape, northern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

110 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Luvisolic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 

111 Gray Brown Luvisol, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

112 Gray Brown Luvisol landscape, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

113 Gray Luvisol, northern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

114 Gray Luvisol landscape, northern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

115 Dark Gray Luvisol, southern Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 

116 Spruce and aspen forest on Brunisolic Gray Luvisolic soils, Alberta Plateau, near 

Hinton, Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 

117 Brunisolic Gray Luvisol, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

118 Summerfallow on Brunisolic Gray Luvisol landscape, Saskatchewan Plain, near 

Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 

119 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol, Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

120 Potato crop on Podzolic landscape, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

121 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol, northern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

122 New breaking on Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol landscape, showing mixed A and B 

horizons, northern Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

123 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Podzolic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 

124 Ferro-Humic Podzol, Laurentian Highlands, Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 

125 Gleyed Humic Podzol, Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 

126 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol with B horizon (Ortstein), Laurentian Highlands, Quebec 125 

127 Ferro-Humic Podzol with cemented iron pan (Placic) buried under fortress fill, 

Louisburg, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 

128 Melanic Brunisol, Manitoulin Island, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

129 Melanic Brunisol landscape, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

130 Eutric Brunisol, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

131 Eutric Brunisolic landscape, tobacco crop, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

132 Dystric Brunisol, Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 

133 Degraded Dystric Brunisol, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 

134 Cryoturbated permafrost till soil, Anderson Plain, near Inuvik, N .W .T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 

135 Alpine Dystric Brunisol, Mount Revelstoke, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 

136 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Brunisolic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 

137 Orthic Regosol on alluvial deposits, Liard River, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 

138 Cumulic Regosol on alluvial deposits, Keele River, N.W .T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 

139 Orthic Regosol on windblown coastal sands, Vancouver Island, British Columbia . . . . . . . . 132 

140 Lithic Regosol on shattered dolomitic limestone, N .W .T. . . . . . . . ., . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . 132 

141 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Regosolic profiles . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 

142 A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Gleysolic profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 

143 Fera Gleysol, Ottawa Valley, eastern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 

144 Landscape of associated Humic Gleysol and Black Chernozemic soils, Saskatchewan . . 139 

145 Humic Gleysol, Ottawa Valley, eastern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 

146 Vegetable crop on drained Humic Gleysol soils, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 

147 Orthic Gleysol, Fort Smith, N.W .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

148 Rego Gleysol (peaty phase), southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

149 Saline Orthic Humic Gleysol, Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

150 Fera Humic Gleysol, Fraser Lowland, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

151 A diagrammatic representation of depth relationships of tiers and control sections for 

Typic, Cryic, and Terric subgroups of organic and mineral soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 

152 A diagrammatic representation of depth relationships and control sections for Lithic 

and Hydric subgroups of organic soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 

153 Mesic Fibrisol, Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

154 Humic Mesisol, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

155 Mesic Fibrisol on wooded bog, Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

156 Humic Mesisol on sedge bog, Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 

157 Market gardening on organic soils, Ste . Clothilde, Central St . Lawrence Lowland, Quebec 149 

158 Organic soil used as improved pasture, Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

159 Organic soil used for intensive cropping, Holland Marsh, southern Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

160 Harvesting organic soil as a commercial source of peat moss, Carrot River, 

Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

161 Limestone Rockland, Manitoulin Island, Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 

162 Barren Precambrian Shield, Kazan Upland, N .W.T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 

163 Scree soils and bedrock, Rocky Mountains, British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 

164 Regosols and exposures of Cretaceous bedrock, southern Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 

TABLES 

1 Definition of soil horizon symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

2 Outline of the system of soil classification for Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

3 Characteristics of temperature classes used for the soil climate maps of Canada and 

North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 

4 Characteristics of moisture subclasses used for the soil climate maps of Canada and North 

America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 

5 Extent of soil climatic classes and subclasses in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 

6 Vegetation regions of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

7 Correlation of horizon definitions and designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 

8 Correlation of United States and World diagnostic horizons and combinations with 

Canadian equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 

9 Taxonomic correlation at subgroup level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 

10 Soil climate data and classification for selected Canadian stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

GENERAL 

The object of this publication is to describe the 

major soils of Canada . Besides presenting their 

characteristics, distribution, and extent within the 

Canadian landscape, it gives an assessment of 

their present potentials and limitations for use as 

a part of the renewable land resource . 

The soil information is presented in the form of a soil 

map and inventory, accompanied by a descriptive 

report and supplementary soil climatic maps and 

charts . A wide variety of available sources was 

used, including intensive pedological studies, 

comprehensive soil surveys, reports of exploratory 

traverses, and published schematic interpretations . 

This publication represents an integration of the 

present knowledge of the soils of Canada . An attempt 

has been made to relate the soil landscapes to 

current concepts of physiography, geology, climate, 

and vegetation as evolved by other Canadian 

organizations and scientists in the fields of Geology, 

Plant Ecology, and Climatology . 

In many parts of Canada knowledge of the soils and 

other terrain features is fragmentary and inadequate . 

Interpretation of this knowledge when applied to 

resource evaluation for the whole of Canada is 

therefore generalized and in many ways subjective . 

It is hoped, however, that this presentation will serve 

a current need, and will form a basis on which future 

precise and comprehensive evaluations of our soil 

resource can be made . 

DEVELOPMENT OF PROJECT 

The present map and report on the Soils of Canada 

have been prepared in conjunction with the 

simultaneous development of a project involving 

the preparation of the text and map of the Soils 

of North America . This constitutes part of the 

FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World project, 

which was started by an international advisory panel 

in 1971 .1 A brief resume of subsequent developments 

is necessary for an understanding of the present 

Canadian report . 

The first meeting on soil correlation for North 

America was held in Mexico in 1965 .2 Dr . A. Leahey, 

at that time Research Coordinator (Pedology) for 

the Research Branch, Canada Department of 

Agriculture, and Chairman of the Canada Soil 

Survey Committee, indicated that "the preparation 

of the Soil Map of Canada would proceed 

independently of the Soil Map of the World project, 

but that in doing so the Canadian soil scientists would 

adhere as far as possible to the guidelines suggested 

by the advisory panel and by the regional correlator 

of the project." Dr. Leahey stated that a soil map 

of Canada at a scale of 1 :10,000,000 had been 

published in the Atlas of Canada, 1957, which gave 

a general picture of the distribution of great soil 

INTRODUCTION 

groups in the country . He said that a need was felt 

for a more precise document and that a start had 

been made in 1964 on a new soil map of the country 

at a scale of approximately 1 :4,000,000 . He felt that 

this map could easily be reduced to the 1 :5,000,000 

scale suggested for the FAO map and would thus 

serve as a basis for the Canadian section of the 

world map. 

Compilation of the Canadian map was to be 

accomplished by the preparation of provincial maps 

by the regional survey units on the basis of whatever 

soil surveys, exploratory surveys, or schematic 

information was available . This material would be 

coordinated and supplemented by soil information 

available for the Northern Territories . 

The elements 

used for describing mapping units would be the 

Canadian great soil groups and in some cases 

subgroups as then established . In addition, factors 

such as dominant slope, texture, and depth would be 

used to differentiate mapping units . Other features 

such as landforms, nature of parent materials, 

occurrence of permafrost, and the nature of vegetative 

cover would be taken into account in making major 

separations, and the legend would be adapted so 

that the important land use regions would be 

identified . 

A second meeting on soil correlation for North 

America was held in Vancouver in 1966,3 following 

a study tour of Western Canada through the prairies 

and across the cordillera of British Columbia . 

Dr. Leahey reported that the Canadian map was in 

preparation and would indicate great soil groups by 

color, and that areas with significant subgroup 

associations would be delimited but not colored 

separately . Three textural classes would be shown : 

sandy, loamy, and clayey, and three slope classes 

distinguished : 1-10%, 10-30%, and over 30% slope, 

the last two to be shown by hatching . Stoniness 

would be indicated where this was a serious handicap 

to use ; later this was broadened to include lithic 

(shallow bedrock) phases . This general format has 

been followed with slight modifications . 

Additional study tours and correlation meetings 

with FAO and United States soil scientists were held 

in 1967 and 1968 . During this period the preparation 

of the Soil Map of North America at a scale of 

1 :5,000,000 was started, involving the relating 

of Canadian and United States soil map units to 

those suggested for the North American map, and 

the identification and correlation of soil units 

adjoining the International Border. The correlation 

needed to relate nationally established soil mapping 

' Report of the first meeting of the advisory panel on the Soil Map of the 

World, Rome, 19-23 June, 1961 . World Soil Resource Report No . 1, 

FAO, Rome . 

z World Soil Resource Report No . 17, FAO, Rome . 

' World Soil Resource Report No . 28, FAO, Rome. 

11

units across international borders requires the 

relating of taxonomic units of classification and 

identification of concepts of soil climate, as well as 

the identification of soil areas . 

During the period from 1965 to 1970, significant 

changes and revisions were being made in the soil 

taxonomy being developed for the Canadian 

and United States systems of classification . 

Simultaneously draft definitions of soil units for the 

Soil Map of the World were being proposed 

for acceptance . 

A system of soil classification for Canada, adopted 

by the Canada Soil Survey Committee in 1960, was 

modified by changes made in 1963, 1965, and 1968, 

and was published in 1970 as The System of Soil 

Classification for Canada, Publication 1455 . A 

comprehensive system of soil classification for use 

of the National Cooperative Soil Survey of the 

United States was issued in a preliminary form in 

1960 (Seventh Approximation), 4 and underwent 

a series of modifications in 1966 and 1967 before 

being issued as a revised text in 1973 .5 Preliminary 

definitions of soil units for the Soil Map of the World 

were proposed in 1964, published in 1968,1, and 

after additional revisions were finalized in 1969 .' 

These current concepts for soil identification at the 

higher category levels, although differing between 

systems in nomenclature and hierarchical separation, 

are closely related by horizon definitions and 

identification at the pedon level . Ageneral correlation 

of the soil systems is given in part four of this 

report . During the same period similar correlative 

developments were taking place in the identification 

of concepts for characterizing soil climates . 

After initial proposals had been made in Vancouver 

in early August, 1966,3 agreement was reached later 

that month in Moscow at the fifth meeting of the 

advisory panel on the Soil Map of the World on the 

desirability of introducing climatic phases for soils 

based on characteristics of soil temperature and soil 

moisture . It was suggested that these phases have 

pedogenetic as well as ecological significance . 

Subsequent to further consultations and proposals 

for climatic phases at Rome in 1968,$ it was 

suggested in the report on definitions of soil units 

for the Soil Map of the World, 1968,1 that soils with 

similar morphology and chemical composition but 

that occur under different climatic conditions be 

separated by the introduction of climatic variants 

of the soil units mapped . It was further suggested 

that these could be expressed in terms of the 

subdivisions proposed by the World Soil Resource 

Office,$ or in terms of climatic subdivisions currently 

used in the country or region . For the soils of Canada 

and the United States the latter course has been 

followed . 

Initial studies in the evolution of a soil climatic 

classification and map for Canada were started 

after a proposal was made by the National Soil 

Survey Committee in 1968 that geographic areas and 

12 

soil groups be defined with more precise climatic 

attributes . Proposals for a soil climatic map and a 

scheme for characterizing soil climates were first 

presented to the Canada Soil Fertility Committee in 

February, 1970,9 and later to the eighth meeting of 

the Canada Soil Survey Committee in October, 

1970.10 At this meeting the scheme and map were 

accepted for use on a provisional basis, subject to 

subsequent revisions within its broad framework. 

After a request from FAO that the United States and 

Canada suggest a map of the climatic regions of 

North America, the Canadian scheme of soil climatic 

classification was expanded and modified to relate 

to concepts applicable to the North American 

continent . These were discussed at the National 

Technical Work Planning Conference of the 

Cooperative Soil Survey of the United States in 

January, 1971,11 and followed by further discussions 

and modifications with the United States Soil 

Geography Unit at Washington in February and 

May, 1971 . At these meetings agreement was 

reached on a scheme for classifying the soil climates 

and for preparing a soil climatic map of the continent. 

This scheme incorporates the fundamental basis of 

the Canadian scheme, but changes part of the 

terminology in order to be acceptable within a 

continental framework. This revised terminology has 

been used in this report to describe the soil climate 

in order to more closely relate the Canadian and the 

North American soil reports and maps . 

This progress in international correlation at the 

project level has not only made it possible to relate 

the mapping units for the FAO/UNESCO Map 

of North America, the Soil Map of the United States, 

and the present Soil Map of Canada, but has 

strengthened and supported the common concepts 

underlying their soil classification and interpretations . 

The Soil Map of Canada and the Canadian section 

of the FAO Map of North America were prepared 

concurrently, delineating the same soil mapping 

units but grouping, defining, and describing them 

under different combinations of units and with 

' U .S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service . 1960. Soil 

classification, a comprehensive system . (7th Approximation), Washington, 

D .C . 265 pp . 

5 U .S . Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey 

Staff . 1973 . Soil taxonomy . A basic system of soil classification for making 

and interpreting soil surveys . Washington, D .C . 

6 World Soil Resource Report No . 33, FAD, Rome . 

7 World Soil Resource Report No. 37, FAD, Rome . 

e Report of the ad hoc consultation on the Soil Map of the World. 1968 . 

FAO/UNESCO, Rome . Appendix 11 . 

e Clayton, J .S . 1970. Characteristics of the agroclimatic environment of 

Canadian soils . Report of the meeting of the Canada Soil Fertility 

Committee . pp . 40-56 . 

10 Report of the Subcommittee on Soil Climate in Relation to Soil 

Classification and Interpretation. 1970 . Proceedings of the Eighth Meeting 

of the Canada Soil Survey Committee. Ottawa, Ont . pp . 21-34 . 

r r Clayton, J .S . 1971 . The soil climates of Canada . Proceedings of National 

Technical Work Planning Conference of the Cooperative Soil Survey of 

the United States. Soil Conservation Service, USDA, Charleston, South 

Carolina . pp . 21-26 .

different legend and symbology. Although both 

maps are at a scale of 1 :5,000,000, they have been 

prepared on different map projections and therefore 

similar unit areas do not necessarily coincide in size . 

The Soil Map of North America is produced on a 

1 :5,000,000 bipolar oblique conic conformal 

projection as used by the American Geographical 

Society of New York . This was done to conform with 

other sections of the World Soil Map . 

The present Canadian map is prepared on a 

1 :5,000,000 lambert conformal conic projection with 

standard parallels 49°N and 77°N and modified 

polyconic projection north of latitude 80° . This 

projection was chosen to coincide in scale, 

conformation, and detail with that used for other 

thematic maps of Canada produced for the Geological 

Survey of Canada and the Economics Branch of 

the Canada Department of Agriculture. 

FORMAT FOR THE SOILS OF CANADA 

The present publication consists of a combination 

of four items . These include, first, a Soil Map of 

Canada ; secondly, a descriptive inventory of the 

individual map units delineated on the soil map ; 

thirdly, a combination of maps and diagrams 

illustrating the Soil Climates of Canada ; and lastly, 

the present descriptive and technical Soil Report . 

THE SOIL MAP 

The map prepared on a scale of 1 :5,000,000 consists 

of a thematic soil map and legend . It delineates a 

large number of soil areas each identifiable by letter 

symbol and specific reference number . The soil areas 

represent groupings or associations of dominant 

and subdominant . soil groups identifiable taxonomically 

within the order, great group, and subgroup 

levels of the System of Soil Classification for 

Canada . These soil areas have been modified by 

generalized textural, topographic, stony, or lithic 

phases, to form broadly homogeneous patterns 

within a regional landscape . Soils are considered to 

be dominant if they occupy over 40% of the area, 

and subdominant if they occupy over 20% of the 

area . Other soil groups may occur as inclusions, but 

are not identified specifically unless they are believed 

to represent 10% to 20% of the map unit areas . 

The broad groupings of all the soil orders in 

Canada, Chernozemic, Luvisolic, Podzolic, Brunisolic, 

Solonetzic, Regosolic, Gleysolic, and Organic, 

together with Rockland land type are shown as map 

units . They are further divided into most of the great 

groups with the exception of a few from the Podzolic, 

Brunisolic, Gleysolic, and Organic orders that are too 

limited in extent to be shown at the present map 

scale . In addition some map unit areas of specific 

subgroups including Brown and Black Solonetz, 

Cumulic and Cryic Regosols, Cryic Gleysols, and 

Cryic Fibrisols are shown because of their extent 

and importance to soil resource interpretation . 

Soil texture and associated subdominant soil groups 

are not specifically indicated on the map area, but 

are included with additional pertinent information in 

the Soil Inventory for each area identified by reference 

number. The full list of all soils recognized at the 

order, great group, and subgroup categories in the 

Canadian System is given in Table 2, together with 

an additional table in part four of the report showing 

the broad correlation of units and horizon 

designations between the Canadian, United States, 

and World (FAO/UNESCO) systems . 

THE SOIL INVENTORY 

The Soil Inventory is compiled in book form to be 

used in conjunction with the soil map as a means 

of providing additional information relating to the 

individual soil and landscape areas that cannot be 

readily indicated on the map . It consists of a 

compilation of information in an abbreviated tabular 

form for each of the 750 areas designated on the map 

by symbol and reference number . 

The Inventory is divided into a series of separate 

sections for each of the major groups of soils as 

indicated by the initial letter in the map symbol . 

The subdivisions of these at the lower taxonomic 

level are indicated by number added to the letter 

symbol and each individual area has its own referral 

number below the symbol . 

The data provided for each individual soil area is 

given in the following sequence . 

MAP UNIT . The Canadian map symbol and area 

reference number are given together with the 

corresponding map symbol for the same area as it 

will appear on the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of 

North America . The soil subgroups of each map unit 

are indicated in terms of combinations of Dominant, 

> 40%, Subdominant, 20-40%, and Significant 

Inclusions, 10-20% . Stony and rocky phases are 

indicated where these conditions are applicable to 

the map unit . 

AREA . The extent of individual map units is given 

in square miles and square kilometres . These are 

approximations obtained from calculations of map 

areas and are adjusted to the nearest square mile 

(square kilometre) . 

PHYSIOGRAPHY . The map units are identified 

within the framework of established physiographic 

regions and divisions of Canada . Further subdivisions 

have been indicated where they are identifiable and 

have a local connotation . A modal range of elevation 

for each area is given in feet and metres above mean 

sea level (MSL) . 

SOIL CLIMATE . The soil climate of each map unit 

is broadly identified primarily for the regionally 

well-drained sites in terms of soil temperature class 

and unsaturated moisture subclass . Where significant 

areas of poorly drained soils are known to occur 

13

within the map unit, an estimate is also given for the 

saturated or aquic moisture subclass . 

LANDSCAPE. Each area is given a topographic 

description within three broad groupings ; dominantly 

level to undulating ; dominantly rolling to hilly ; 

and dominantly steeply sloping to mountainous . 

Landforms are described in generalized terms of 

genetic landscape pattern using current terminology . 

TEXTURE AND CHARACTER OF PARENT 

MATERIAL . The texture and characteristics of the 

dominant parent materials occurring within each map 

unit are described within a generalized family 

textural class, such as sandy, loamy, or clayey, and 

by descriptive terminology of the composition and 

mode of origin of the parent material . 

VEGETATION AND LAND USE . A generalized 

assessment of each map unit has been made in terms 

of the occurrence of natural or disturbed vegetation 

and present land use. 

GEOGRAPHIC GRID REFERENCE . A grid reference 

is given to indicate the location of each soil 

map unit on the Soil Map of Canada . 

REFERENCE : SOURCE AND RELIABILITY . The 

source of information is indicated first by reference 

to the province or territory of Canada in which the 

soil map unit is found, and secondly the reliability of 

information is indicated in terms referring to whether 

it has been obtained from reconnaissance or 

detailed soil surveys, from exploratory soil surveys, 

or from schematic interpretations. 

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS 

OF SOIL CLIMATES 

A combination of maps and diagrams has been 

prepared to illustrate the climatic environments of 

the soils of Canada . This combination consists of 

two soil climatic maps at a scale of 1 :10,OOQ000 

with descriptive legend, one colored to depict soil 

temperature classes, the other colored to show soil 

moisture regimes and subclasses . The diagrams 

illustrate typical patterns of soil temperature and soil 

moisture for selected meteorological stations . 

SOIL REPORT 

The report describes the soils of Canada and their 

physical, climatic, and biological environments 

within a broad continental framework, and to a 

degree of generalization that can be related to the 

Soil Map of Canada at a scale of 1 :5,000,000 . 

In addition an assessment is made of the present 

potentials and limitations for use of these soils as 

a land resource . It does not attempt to provide the 

more specific and detailed information available from 

the individual soil maps and reports undertaken at 

the provincial or regional level . 

The report is presented in a series of semiindependent 

but related parts, including sections on 

Soil Concepts, the Biophysical Environment, and 

Descriptions of Soils and Mapping Units . 

These are followed by tables of international soil 

correlation and tabulated data on the morphological, 

chemical, and physical properties of selected 

soil profiles .

DEFINITIONS OF SOIL 

The word "soil" as used in most languages may be 

defined in many ways to convey various meanings . 

This confusion of definitions extends not only to its 

use in colloquial forms, but also to the more precise 

meanings as used in scientific terminology . 

Colloquially it can refer to "the earth or ground" 

occupying the face or surface of the earth, or to the 

ground with respect to its composition and quality, 

or as the source of vegetation . Another simple 

definition is that soil is the natural medium for the 

growth of land plants. 

Scientifically soil has been defined in respect to its 

use in various disciplines. In geological and engineering 

studies, the term may be applied to all or part of 

the earthy, unconsolidated material forming the upper 

layers or surface of the earth's crust . In this sense it 

closely relates to the surface part of the mantle rock 

or regolith, which may be defined as the layer of loose 

rock material subject to weathering that covers most 

of the earth's land surface and varies in thickness 

from place to place . 

In the biological sciences, the soil has been generally 

considered as the earth material that has been so 

modified and acted upon by physical, chemical, and 

biological agents that it will support rooted plants. 

Pedology may be defined as the science that 

considers soils as natural objects and studies their 

origin, character, and use . Although soils are defined 

pedologically as that collection of natural bodies on 

the earth's surface supporting or capable of supporting 

biological activity, this definition does not 

exclude the study of such soils from their nonbiological 

characteristics and use . However, this 

pedological definition does place an ill-defined lower 

limit on what is considered soil as contrasted to 

regolith . 

A further development in the definition of soil has 

been that of recognizing soils as individuals, a 

concept that is necessary if soils are to be classified . 

This concept of soils, initially developed by the 

Russian school of soil scientists, considers the soils 

as independent natural bodies with unique characteristics 

developed by the integrated influences of 

climate, living matter, relief, and time acting on the 

parent rock material . To these environmental factors, 

the specific influence of man's activities was later 

added . These unique characteristics were recognized 

in the form of the development of distinctive and 

predictable patterns of layering or horizons in the soil . 

The concept of the soil as an individual has been 

further developed by the United States soil scientists 

PART I 

SOIL CONCEPTS 

for the purpose of classification . Although it was 

recognized that a soil individual cannot be found as 

a discrete entity, but grades on its margins to other 

soil individuals, it was considered necessary to 

establish minimum limits to what could comprise an 

individual soil unit . The concept of the "pedon", the 

smallest volume that can be called a "soil", was 

devised to meet this requirement. The pedon as a 

soil unit has three dimensions . Its lower limit is the 

vague and arbitrary depth between soil and nonsoil, 

and the upper limit is its contact with air or water . The 

lateral dimensions are large enough to permit study 

of the nature of the range of horizon variability that 

occurs within a small area . In soils where distinctive 

horizons are continuous and uniform, the pedon is 

given an arbitrary area of about 1 sq m. Where 

horizons are variable, intermittent, or cyclic the area 

of a pedon may be larger to accommodate the range 

or cycle of variability . 

The concept of the pedon allows for classification of 

the soil individuals based on the diagnostic characteristics 

of all horizons as defined, and is the basis of 

the Canadian and United States classifications at the 

order, great group, and subgroup levels . It also forms 

the basis for recognition of the FAO/UNESCO 

soil units . 

The concept of the occurrence of many similar and 

contiguous pedons, as polypedons, gives the basis 

for the scientific recognition of soil map units or soil 

individuals occupying identifiable segments of the 

earth's landscape . These map units as identified in 

soil survey may vary with the complexity of the area 

or the intensity and kind of mapping . They may 

represent relatively uniform map units dominated 

by polypedons of similar classification, corresponding 

roughly to series mapping or to combinations of 

associated or related polypedons forming associations 

within landscapes . Some landscapes consist 

of heterogeneous complexes of polypedons that at 

the scale of mapping and interpretation cannot be 

distinguished except as complexes . The present 

Soil Map of Canada, which has been derived from a 

variety of surveys and schematic interpretations, 

represents a very broad integration of broad soil 

associations and landscapes . 

IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL PROFILES 

AND HORIZONS 

In defining soils it was stated that the concept of the 

pedon allows for classification of soil individuals 

based on the diagnostic characteristics of all horizons 

or layers recognizable in the soil profile . The soil 

profile as viewed in vertical cross section is a 

succession of layers or horizons extending from the 

surface of the soil down into the underlying and 

relatively unchanged geological material . These 

15

Fig . 1 . Determination of surface color and soil texture in the field . 

Fig . 2 . Testing for carbonates with acid in the field . 

Fig . 3. Soil examination, Solodized Solonetz soil, Saskatchewan Plain . 

Fig . 4 . Soil examination using a portable drill north of Inuvik, Mackenzie Delta, N .W .T.

horizons reflect the formation of soil from the 

original parent material, involving the processes of 

physical breakdown or weathering of rock fragments, 

the chemical weathering or alteration and solution 

of rock and mineral particles, biological activities 

including the growth of plants and decomposition 

of plant material, and the production of humus (soil 

organic matter) by the work of macro and micro soil 

organisms . These processes involve changes in 

material and transference from one part of the soil to 

another and the production of soil structure . 

A particular soil is recognized by identifying the 

various layers or horizons that make up its profile, 

and a system has been devised to facilitate this 

recognition . It involves the recognition of major 

organic layers, master mineral horizons and layers, 

and further subdivision of these horizons by designation 

of secondary or subordinate features to those 

characteristic of the main horizons . See The System 

of Soil Classification for Canada for the comprehensive 

outline of the classification scheme and the 

official criteria for identification of horizons and 

layers and for the conventions regarding their use . 

Table 1 gives a more generalized definition of these 

soil horizons and the symbols used to designate them 

in profile descriptions . 

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 

Soil classification based on the general concepts of 

great soil groups and soil series was initiated in 

Canada a few years after soil surveys were started 

in the nineteen twenties . The concepts available 

through Marbut's translation from the Russian of 

Glinka's book, The Great Soil Groups of the World, 

and the papers on soil classification presented at the 

First International Congress of Soil Science in 1927 

found ready acceptance in Canada . In the following 

years until 1955, many soil great group names 

became established and were used in soil surveys 

at the regional and provincial levels . Some names 

and concepts were imported from other countries, 

whereas others were developed in Canada . 

The National Soil Survey Committee of Canada at 

its first meeting in 1945 realized the need for an 

adequate national system, but it was not until 1955 

that the framework for a system was proposed for 

trial . A comprehensive classification scheme was 

presented and adopted for official use by all soil 

survey organizations in Canada in 1960 . Since that 

time, the Organic order has been added and 

minor changes to other groupings have been made . 

The present classification is that accepted by the 

National Soil Survey Committee in 1968,'as published 

in The System of Soil Classification for Canada, 1970 . 

Table 2 gives an outline of the system at the order, 

great group, and subgroup levels . 

The Canadian taxonomic classification has six 

categories : order, great group, subgroup, family, 

series, and type . The three highest categories, order, 

great group, and subgroup, deal specifically with 

concepts and variations of kinds of profiles, relating 

in particular to the recognition of soils having 

morphological features that reflect similar pedogenic 

environments . The order groups profiles with characteristics 

expressive of the broadest influences of the 

active factors in soil genesis, climate, vegetation, 

and activity of living organisms in relationship to 

time and parent material environment. The great 

group category is a subdivision of the order based on 

the presence of diagnostic horizons within the great 

group that reflects a degree of development within 

the broader genetic concept of the order . The 

subgroups are subdivisions of great groups, including 

an orthic subgroup reflecting the modal great 

group concept and additional subgroupings with 

horizon features expressive of divergence from the 

central concept or of an expression of intergrading 

in characteristics to soils in other orders . All these 

three categories are largely conceptual in nature and 

correlate generally to similar concepts of pedon 

classification as defined in other world classifications . 

They are not therefore dependent on localized 

mapping characteristics . 

The three lower categories of family, series, and type 

are no less important than the higher categories and 

are in fact the groupings that are essential to soil 

mapping . It is at these levels that the profile characteristics 

classified in the subgroup level come down 

to earth and become related to the individual pedons 

that reflect features of parent material and texture, 

and the polypedons that form mapping units with 

position and extent within the soil landscapes . 

In this respect, the soil series is the basic unit of soil 

mapping and is defined as a group of soils (polypedons) 

that are essentially alike in all major profile 

characteristics including kind of parent material . 

The type, the lowest unit in the national system of 

classification, is a subdivision of the series based on 

the texture of the soil . The family is the third category 

in the Canadian system and was adopted in 1963 . 

It is defined as a group of soil series within a taxonomic 

subgroup that are uniform enough in their 

horizon development and physical and chemical 

composition to be relatively homogeneous with 

respect to soil environment and interpretive relationships 

. This category has not yet been widely used in 

Canada, but it has a potentially important role in the 

grouping together of series for specific resource 

interpretations . 

SOIL MAPPING UNITS 

Mapping units may represent individual series and 

types, associations of related series, complexes of 

unrelated series, family groupings, or any other 

combination within a soil landscape, depending on 

the practical objectives of the mapping program . 

They are described within topographic or other 

descriptive phases referring to the characteristics of 

the landscape mapped . The present Soil Map of 

Canada at a scale of 1 :5,000,000 represents a very 

broad grouping or association of dominant and 

subdominant soil groups, which are identifiable 

taxonomically at the order, great group, and some 

subgroup levels, modified by very generalized 

textural and topographical phases to form relatively 

homogeneous patterns within the regional landscape . 

17

TABLE 1 . DEFINITION OF SOIL HORIZON SYMBOLS 

ORGANIC LAYERS 

Organic layers are found in organic soils, and usually at the surface of the mineral soils . The may occur at 

any depth beneath the surface in buried soils, or overlying geologic deposits . They contain more than 17%a 

organic carbon by weight . Two groups of these layers are recognized : 

0 - This is an organic layer developed mainly from mosses, rushes, and woody materials . 

Of - The fibric layer is the least decomposed of all the organic soil materials . It has large amounts of 

well-preserved fiber that are readily identifiable as to botanical origin . A fibric layer has 40% or 

more of rubbed fiber by volume and a pyrophosphate index of 5 or more . If the rubbed fiber 

volume is 75% or more, the pyrophosphate criterion does not apply . Pyrophosphate index is 

obtained by subtracting the chroma from the value of the Munsell color notation derived from 

the pyrophosphate solubility test . 

Om - The mesic layer is the intermediate stage of decomposition with intermediate amounts of fiber, 

bulk density, and water-holding capacity . The material is partly altered both physically and 

biochemically . A mesic layer is one that fails to meet the requirements of fibric or of humic . 

Oh - The humic layer is the most highly decomposed of the organic soil materials . It has the least 

amount of fiber, the highest bulk density, and the lowest saturated water-holding capacity . 

It is very stable and changes very little physically or chemically with time unless it is drained . 

A humic layer has less than 10% rubbed fiber by volume and a pyrophosphate index of 3 or less . 

Oco - Coprogenous Earth (terre coprogene) - A material in some organic soils that contains at least 

50% by volume of fecal pellets less than 0.5 mm in diameter . 

L-F-H -These organic layers develop primarily from leaves, twigs, woody materials, and a minor 

component of mosses. 

L - This is an organic layer characterized by an accumulation of organic matter in which the original 

structures are easily discernible . 

F - This is an organic layer characterized by an accumulation of partly decomposed organic matter . 

The original structures in part are difficult to recognize . The layer may be partly comminuted by 

soil fauna, as in moder', or it may be a partly decomposed mat permeated by fungal hyphae, 

as in mor.1 

H - This is an organic layer characterized by an accumulation of decomposed organic matter in which 

the original structures are indiscernible . This material differs from the F layer by its greater 

humidification chiefly through the action of organisms . This layer is a zoogenous humus form 

consisting mainly of spherical or cylindrical droppings of microarthropods . It is frequently 

intermixed with mineral grains, especially near the junction with a mineral layer . 

MINERAL HORIZONS AND LAYERS 

Mineral horizons are those that contain less organic carbon than that specified for organic layers . 

A - This is a mineral horizon formed at or near the surface in the zone of the removal of materials 

in solution or suspension, or of maximum in situ accumulation of organic carbon or both . The 

accumulation of organic carbon is expressed morphologically by a darkening of the surface soil 

color (Ah) and conversely the removal of organic carbon is expressed by a lightening of the soil 

color usually in the upper part of the solum (Ae) . The removal of clay from the upper part of 

the solum (Ae) is expressed by a coarser soil texture relative to the underlying subsoil layers . 

The removal of sesquioxides is denoted usually by paler or less red soil color in the upper part 

of the solum (Ae) relative to the lower part of the subsoil . Each of these morphological 

expressions is supported by chemical criteria explained in another section . 

~ Bernier, B . 1968 . Soils under forest. Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the National Soil Survey Committee of Canada . pp. 145 and 147 . 

18

B - This is a mineral horizon characterized by enrichment in organic carbon, sesquioxides, or clay, 

or by the development of soil structure or by a change of color denoting hydrolysis, reduction, 

or oxidation . 

The accumulation in B horizons of organic carbon is evidenced usually by dark colors relative to 

the C horizon (Bh) . Clay accumulation is expressed by finer soil textures and by cutans lining 

peds and pores (Bt) . The development of soil structure in B horizons includes prismatic or 

columnar units with coatings or stainings and significant amounts of exchangeable sodium (Bn), 

and by soil structure or soil colors different from the C horizons (Bm, Bg) . 

Each of these morphological expressions is supported by chemical criteria explained in another 

section . 

C - This is a mineral horizon comparatively unaffected by the pedogenic processes operative in A 

and B, excepting (i) the process of gleying, and (ii) the accumulation of calcium and magnesium 

carbonates and more soluble salts (Cca, Csa, Cg, and C) . Marl and diatomaceous earth are 

considered to be C horizons . 

R - This is a consolidated bedrock layer that is too hard to break with the hands ( > 3 on Mohs scale) 

or to dig with a spade when moist, and that does not meet the requirements of a C horizon . The 

boundary between the R layer and any overlying unconsolidated material is called a 

lithic contact. 

LOWERCASE SUFFIXES 

b - A buried soil horizon. 

c - A cemented (irreversible) pedogenic horizon . Ortstein, placic and duric horizons of Podzolic 

soils and a layer cemented by calcium carbonate are examples . 

ca - A horizon of secondary carbonate enrichment in which the concentration of lime exceeds that 

in the unenriched parent material . It is more than 10 cm (4 in .) thick, and if it has a CaC03 

equivalent of less than 15%, it should have at least 5% more CaCOa equivalent than the parent 

material (IC) . If it has more than 15% CaCO3 equivalent, it should have 1 /3 more CaCO3 

equivalent than IC . If no IC is present, this horizon is more than 10 cm thick and contains more 

than 5% (by volume) of secondary carbonates in concretions or in soft, powdery forms . 

cc - Cemented (irreversible) pedogenic concretions . 

e - A horizon characterized by the removal of clay, iron, aluminum, or organic matter alone or in 

combination . When dry, it is usually higher in color value by 1 or more units than an underlying 

B horizon . It is used with A (Ae) . 

f - A horizon enriched with amorphous material, principally AI -}- Fe combined with organic 

matter . It usually has a hue of 7 .5 YR or redder or it is 10YR near the upper boundary and 

becomes yellower with depth . When moist, the chroma is higher than 3 or the value is 3 or less . 

It contains 0.6% or more pyrophosphate - extractable AI + Fe in textures finer than sand and 

0.4% or more in sands (coarse sand, sand, fine sand, and very fine sand) . The ratio of 

pyrophosphate - extractable AI + Fe to clay ( < .002 mm) is more than 0.05 and organic C 

exceeds 0.5%. It is used with B alone (Bf), with B and h (Bhf), with B and g (Bfg), and with other 

suffixes . The criteria for "f" do not apply to Bgf horizons . 

The following horizons are differentiated on the basis of organic carbon content : 

Bf - 0.5% to 5% organic carbon 

Bhf - more than 5% organic carbon 

9 

-A horizon characterized by gray colors, or prominent mottling, or both, indicative of permanent 

or periodic intense reduction . Chromas of the matrix are generally 1 or less . It is used with Aand 

e (Aeg), with B alone (Bg), with B and f (Bfg), with B, h, and f (Bhfg), with B and t (Brg), 

with C alone (Cg), with C and k (Ckg), and several others. In some reddish parent materials, 

matrix colors of reddish hues and high chromas may persist despite long periods of reduction . 

In these soils, horizons are designated as g if there is gray mottling or if there is marked bleaching 

on ped faces or along cracks . 

Aeg - This horizon must meet the definitions of A, e, and g .

Bg - These horizons are analogous to Bm horizons, but they have colors indicative of 

poor drainage and periodic reduction . They include horizons occurring between 

A and C horizons in which the main features are (i) colors of low chroma, that is, 

chromas of 1 or less, without mottles on ped surfaces or in the matrix if peds are 

lacking ; or chromas of 2 or less in hues of 10YR or redder, on ped surfaces or in 

the matrix if peds are lacking, accompanied by more prominent mottles than those 

in the C horizon ; or hues bluer than 10Y, with or without mottles on ped surfaces 

or in the matrix if peds are lacking, (ii) colors indicated in (i) and a change in 

structure from that of the C horizons, (iii) colors indicated in (i) and illuviation of 

clay too slight to meet the requirements of Bt ; or accumulation of iron oxide too 

slight to meet the limits of Bgf, (iv) colors indicated in (i) and removal of 

carbonates . Bg horizons occur in some Orthic Humic Gleysols and some Orthic 

G leysols. 

Bfg, Bhfg, Btg, and others - When used in any of these combinations the limits set for f, hf, t, 

and others must be met. 

Bgf -The dithionite-extractable Fe of this horizon exceeds that of the IC by 1% or more, 

and the dithionite-extractable AI does not exceed that of the IC by more than 0.5%. 

This horizon occurs in Fera Gleysols and Fera Humic Gleysols, and possibly below 

the Bfg horizons of gleyed Podzols . It is distinguished from the Bfg horizon of 

Podzols on the basis of the extractability of the Fe and AI . The Fe in the Bgf 

horizon is thought to have accumulated as a result of the oxidation of ferrous iron . 

The iron oxide formed is not associated intimately with organic matter or with AI, 

and it is sometimes crystalline . The Bgf horizons are usually prominently mottled, 

with more than half of the soil material occurring as mottles of high chroma . 

Cg, Ckg, Ccag, Csg, Csag - When g is used with C alone, or with C and one of the lowercase 

suffixes k, ca, s, or sa, it must meet the definition for C and for the particular suffix . 

h - A horizon enriched with organic matter . It is used with A alone (Ah) ; or with A and e (Ahe) ; 

or with B alone (Bh) ; or with B and f (Bhf) . 

Ah - A horizon enriched with organic matter that either has a color value at least one 

unit lower than the underlying horizon or contains 0.5% more organic carbon than 

the IC, or both . It contains less than 17% organic carbon by weight . 

Ahe - An Ah horizon that has been degraded as evidenced, under natural conditions, by 

streaks and splotches and often by platy structure . It may be overlain by a darkercolored 

Ah and underlain by a lighter-colored Ae . 

Bh -This horizon contains more than 1% organic carbon, less than 0.3% pyrophosphate-extractable 

Fe, and has a ratio of organic carbon to pyrophosphateextractable 

Fe of 20 or more . Generally the color value and chroma are less than 

3 when moist . 

j - Used as a modifier of suffixes e, g, n, and t to denote an expression of, but failure to meet, the 

specified limits of the suffix it modifies . It must be placed to the right and adjacent to the suffix 

it modifies . 

Aej - It denotes an eluvial horizon that is thin, discontinuous, or slightly discernible . 

Btj - It is a horizon with some illuviation of clay, but not enough to meet the limits of Bt . 

Btgj, Bmgj - Horizons that are mottled but do not meet the criteria of g . 

Btnj - j may be used with n to indicate secondary enrichment of Na insufficient to meet 

the limits for n . 

k - Denotes the presence of carbonate, as indicated by visible effervescence when dilute HCI is 

added . Most often it is used with B and m (Bmk) or C (Ck), and occasionally with Ah (Ahk) .

m2 A horizon slightly altered by hydrolysis, oxidation, or solution or all three, to give a change in 

color or structure, or both . It has : 

1) Soil structure rather than rock structure comprising more than half the volume of 

all subhorizons . 

2) Some weatherable minerals . 

3) Evidence of alteration in one of the following forms : 

a) Higher chromas and redder hues than the underlying horizons . 

b) Evidence of removal of carbonates . 

4) Illuviation, if evident, is too slight to meet the requirements of a textural B or a 

podzolic B . 

5) No cementation or induration and lacks a brittle consistence when moist . 

This suffix can be used as Bm, Bmgj, Bmk, and Bms. 

n - A horizon in which the ratio of exchangeable Ca to exchangeable Na is 10 or less . When used 

with B it must also have the following distinctive morphological characteristics : prismatic or 

columnar structure, dark coatings on ped surfaces, and hard to very hard consistence when dry . 

P A horizon or layer disturbed by man's activities, that is, by cultivation, or pasturing, or both . It is 

used with A or 0. 

s - A horizon with salts, including gypsum, which may be detected as crystals or veins, as surface 

crusts of salt crystals, by distressed crop growth, or by the presence of salt-tolerant plants . It is 

commonly used with C and k (Csk), but can be used with any horizon or combination of horizon 

and lowercase suffix . 

sa - A horizon with secondary enrichment of salts more soluble than calcium and magnesium 

carbonates, where the concentration of salts exceeds that present in the unenriched parent 

material . The horizon is 4 in . (10 cm) or more thick . The conductivity of the saturation extract 

must be at least 4 mmhos/cm and must exceed that of the C horizon by at least one-third . 

t -A horizon enriched with silicate clay . It is used with B alone (Bt), with B and g (Btg), and 

with others . 

Bt -A Bt horizon is one that contains illuvial layer-lattice clays . It forms below an 

eluvial horizon, but may occur at the surface of a soil that has been partially 

truncated . It usually has a higher ratio of fine clay to total clay than IC . It has the 

following properties : 

1) If any part of an eluvial horizon remains and there is no lithologic discontinuity 

between it and the Bt horizon, the Bt horizon contains more total and fine clay 

than the eluvial horizon, as follows : 

a) If any part of the eluvial horizon has less than 15% total clay in the fine 

earth fraction, the Bt horizon must contain at least 3% more clay, e.g ., 

Ae 10% clay- Bt minimum 13% clay . 

b) If the eluvial horizon has more than 15% and less than 40% total clay in 

the fine earth fraction, the ratio of the clay in the Bt horizon to that in 

the eluvial horizon must be 1 .2 or more, e.g ., 20% clay increase in the 

Bt over Ae . 

c) If the eluvial horizon has more than 40% total clay in the fine earth fraction, 

the Bt horizon must contain at least 8% more clay than the eluvial 

horizon . 

2) A Bt horizon must be at least 2 in . (5 cm) thick . In some sandy soils where clay 

accumulation occurs in the lamellae, the total thickness of the lamellae should 

be more than 4 in . (10 cm) in the upper 60 in . (150 cm) of the profile . 

3) In massive soils the Bt horizon should have oriented clays in some pores and 

also as bridges between the sand grains . 

4) If peds are present, a Bt horizon shows clay skins on some of the vertical and 

horizontal ped surfaces and in the fine pores, or shows oriented clays in 1% 

or more of the cross section . 

= The Bm is similar to the cambic horizon described in the U .S . and World soil classification systems except for the following : 

Its lower boundary must be 2 in . (5 cm) or more from the surface compared with 10 in . (25 cm) in the other systems. 

21

5) If a soil shows a lithologic discontinuity between the eluvial horizon and the 

Bt horizon, or if only a plow layer overlies the Bt horizon, the Bt horizon need 

show only clay skins in some part, either in some fine pores or on some 

vertical and horizontal ped surfaces . Thin sections should show that some 

part of the horizon has about 1 % or more of oriented clay bodies . 

Btj and Btg are defined under j and g . 

x -A horizon of fragipan character . A fragipan is a loamy subsurface horizon of high bulk density . 

It is very low in organic matter and when dry it has a hard consistence and is seemingly cemented . 

When moist, it has a moderate to weak brittleness . It has few or many bleached fracture planes 

and has an overlying friable B horizon . Air-dry clods of fragic horizons slake in water. 

y -A horizon affected by cryoturbation as manifested by disrupted and broken horizons and by 

incorporation of materials from other horizons and mechanical sorting . It is used with A, B, and C, 

alone or in combination with other suffixes, e.g . Ahy, Ahgy, Bmy, Cy, Cgy, Cyg2 . 

z - A perennially frozen layer . 

All horizons, except A and B and B and A, may be vertically subdivided by consecutive Arabic numeral 

suffixes . The uppermost subdivision is indicated by the numeral 1 ; each successive subdivision with depth 

is indicated by the sequential numeral, using as many as desired . This convention is followed regardless of 

whether or not the horizon subdivisions are interrupted by a horizon of different character . For example, an 

acceptable subdivision of horizons would be : Ae1, Bf, Ae2, Bt1, Bt2, C1, C2 . In some instances it may be 

useful, for sampling purposes, to subdivide a single horizon, for example as Bm1-1, Bm1-2, Bm1-3 . 

Roman numerals are prefixed to horizon designations to indicate unconsolidated lithologic discontinuities 

in the profile . Roman numeral I is understood for the uppermost material, and therefore, is not written . 

Subsequent contrasting materials are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are encountered 

downward, that is, II, III, and so on . 

NOTES 

1) Transitional horizons need capitals only : 

a) If the transition is gradual, use, e.g ., AB or BC . 

b) If the transition is interfingered, use, e.g ., A and B, or B and C. 

c) If desired, dominance can be shown by order, e.g ., AB and BA . 

2) The designations for diagnostic horizons must be given in the same sequence as shown for 

the definition, e.g ., Ahe not Aeh . 

3) Although definitions have been given for all horizon symbols, all possible combinations of 

horizon designations have not been covered . It is still necessary to write profile descriptions .

TABLE 2 . OUTLINE OF THE SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR CANADA 

The system of soil classification at the order, great group, and subgroup levels is listed below in numerical 

sequence for the purposes of identification and coding . 

Use the subgroups shown with a hyphen after the first two numbers and a virgule before the last number in 

combination with other subgroups of the same great group not numbered in this manner . The hyphen indicates 

a missing subgroup number. For example, a Carbonated Rego Black would be numbered 1 .32/6 and a Gleyed 

Calcareous Black would be 1 .33/8 ." 

Soils with distinctive peaty horizons, but of insufficient depth to qualify as Organic soils are defined as peaty 

phases . 

Horizon designations of profile types in the classification system make use of the following conventions : 

Diagnostic horizons are underlined . 

Nondiagnostic horizons that may be present are in parentheses . 

1 . 

Order Great Group Subgroup 

Chernozemic 1 .1 Brown 1 .11 Orthic Brown 

1 .12 Rego Brown 

1 .13 Calcareous Brown 

1 .14 Eluviated Brown 

1 .11-2.11 Solonetzic Brown 

1 .14-2.21 Solodic Brown 

1 .1-/5 Saline Brown 

1 .1-/6 Carbonated Brown 

1 .1-/7 Grumic Brown 

1 .1-/8 Gleyed Brown 

1 .1-/9 Lithic Brown 

1 .2 Dark Brown 1 .21 Orthic Dark Brown 

1 .22 Rego Dark Brown 

1 .23 Calcareous Dark Brown 

1 .24 Eluviated Dark Brown 

1 .21-2.11 Solonetzic Dark Brown 

1 .24-2.21 Solodic Dark Brown 

1 .2-/5 Saline Dark Brown 

1 .2-/6 Carbonated Dark Brown 

1 .2-/7 Grumic Dark Brown 

1 .2-/8 Gleyed Dark Brown 

1 .2-/9 Lithic Dark Brown 

1 .3 Black 1 .31 Orthic Black 

1 .32 Rego Black 

1 .33 Calcareous Black 

1 .34 Eluviated Black 

1 .31-2.12 Solonetzic Black 

1 .34-2.22 Solodic Black 

1 .3-/5 Saline Black 

1 .3-/6 Carbonated Black 

1 .3-/7 Grumic Black 

1 .3-/8 Gleyed Black 

1 .3-/9 Lithic Black 

1 .4 Dark Gray 1 .41 Orthic Dark Gray 

1 .42 Rego Dark Gray 

1 .43 Calcareous Dark Gray 

1 .41-2.12 Solonetzic Dark Gray 

1 .41-2.22 Solodic Dark Gray 

1 .4-/5 Saline Dark Gray 

1 .4-/6 Carbonated Dark Gray 

1 .4-/7 Grumic Dark Gray 

1 .4-/8 Gleyed Dark Gray 

1 .4-/9 Lithic Dark Gray 

See classification, soil in the Glossary of Terms in Soil Science forth e proposed modifications to the numbering system at the subgroup level . 

23


2 . Solonetzic 2.1 Solonetz 2.11 Brown Solonetz 

2.12 Black Solonetz 

2.13 Gray Solonetz 

2.14 

Alkaline Solonetz 

2.1-/8 Gleyed Solonetz 

2.1-/9 Lithic Solonetz 

2 .2 Solod 2.21 Brown Solod 

2.22 Black Solod 

2.23 Gray Solod 

2.2-/8 Gleyed Solod 

2.2-/9 Lithic Solod 

3 . Luvisolic 3.1 Gray Brown Luvisol 3.11 Orthic Gray Brown Luvisol 

3.12 Brunisolic Gray Brown Luvisol 

3.13 

Bisequa Gray Brown Luvisol 

3.1-/8 Gleyed Gray Brown Luvisol 

3.1-/9 Lithic Gray Brown Luvisol 

3.2 Gray Luvisol 3.21 Orthic Gray Luvisol 

3.22 Dark Gray Luvisol 

3.2-/3 Brunisolic Gray Luvisol 

3.2-/4 Bisequa Gray Luvisol 

3.21-2 .23 Solodic Orthic Gray Luvisol 

3.22-2.23 Solodic Dark Gray Luvisol 

3.2-/8 Gleyed Gray Luvisol 

3.2-/9 Lithic Gray Luvisol 

4. Podzolic 4.1 Humic Podzol 4.11 Orthic Humic Podzol 

4.12 Placic Humic Podzol 

4.1-/8 Gleyed Humic Podzol 

4.1-/9 Lithic Humic Podzol 

4.2 Ferro-Humic Podzol 4.21 Orthic Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.22 Mini Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.23 Sombric Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.2-/4 Placic Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.2-/8 Gleyed Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.2-/9 Lithic Ferro-Humic Podzol 

4.3 Humo-Ferric Podzol 4.31 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.32 Mini Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.33 Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.3-/4 

Placic Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.3-/5 Bisequa Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.3-/7 

Cryic Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.3-/8 Gleyed Humo-Ferric Podzol 

4.3-/9 

Lithic Humo-Ferric Podzol 

5. Brunisolic 5.1 Melanic Brunisol 5.11 Orthic Melanic Brunisol 

5.12 Degraded Melanic Brunisol 

5.1-/8 Gleyed Melanic Brunisol 

5.1-/9 Lithic Melanic Brunisol 

24 

5.2 Eutric Brunisol 5.21 Orthic Eutric Brunisol 

5.22 Degraded Eutric Brunisol 

5.23 

Alpine Eutric Brunisol 

5.2-/7 Cryic Eutric Brunisol 

5.2-/8 Gleyed Eutric Brunisol 

5.2-/9 Lithic Eutric Brunisol 

5.3 Sombric Brunisol 5.31 Orthic Sombric Brunisol 

5.31/8 

Gleyed Sombric Brunisol 

5.31/9 

Lithic Sombric Brunisol


5.4 Dystric Brunisol 5.41 Orthic Dystric Brunisol 

5.42 Degraded Dystric Brunisol 

5.43 

Alpine Dystric Brunisol 

5.4-/7 Cryic Dystric Brunisol 

5:4-/8 Gleyed Dystric Brunisol 

5.4-/9 Lithic Dystric Brunisol 

6 . Regosolic 6.1 Regosol 6.11 Orthic Regosol 

6.12 Cumulic Regosol 

6 .1-/5 Saline Regosol 

6.1-/7 Cryic Regosol 

6 .1-/8 Gleyed Regosol 

6 .1-/9 Lithic Regosol 

7 . Gleysolic 7 .1 Humic Gleysol 7 .11 Orthic Humic Gleysol 

7.12 Rego Humic Gleysol 

7.13 Fera Humic Gleysol 

7 .1-/5 Saline Humic Gleysol 

7 .1-/6 Carbonated Humic Gleysol 

7 .1-/7 Cryic Humic Gleysol 

7.1-/9 Lithic Humic Gleysol 

7 .2 Gleysol 7 .21 Orthic Gleysol 

7 .22 Rego Gleysol 

7 .23 Fera Gleysol 

7.2-/5 Saline Gleysol 

7.2-/6 Carbonated Gleysol 

7.2-/7 Cryic Gleysol 

7 .2-/9 Lithic Gleysol 

7.3 Eluviated Gleysol 7.31 Humic Eluviated Gleysol 

7.32 Low Humic Eluviated Gleysol 

7.33 Fera Eluviated Gleysol 

7.3-/9 Lithic Eluviated Gleysol 

8 . Organic 8.1 Fibrisol 8.1-1 a Fenno-Fibrisol 

8.1-1 b Silvo-Fibrisol 

8.1-1 c Sphagno-Fibrisol 

8.1-2 Mesic Fibrisol 

8.1-3 Humic Fibrisol 

8.1-4 Limno Fibrisol 

8.1-5 Cumulo Fibrisol 

8.1-6 Terric Fibrisol 

8.1-7 Terric Mesic Fibrisol 

8.1-8 Terric Humic Fibrisol 

8.1-9 Cryic Fibrisol 

8.1-10 Hydric Fibrisol 

8.1-11 Lithic Fibrisol 

8.2 Mesisol 8.2-1 Typic Mesisol 

8.2-2 Fibric Mesisol 

8.2-3 Humic Mesisol 

8.2-4 Limno Mesisol 

8.2-5 Cumulo Mesisol 

8.2-6 Terric Mesisol 

8.2-7 Terric Fibric Mesisol 

8.2-8 Terric Humic Mesisol 

8.2-9 Cryic Mesisol 

8.2-10 Hydric Mesisol 

8.2-11 Lithic Mesisol


8.3 Humisol 8.3-1 Typic Humisol 

8.3-2 Fibric Humisol 

8.3-3 Mesic Humisol 

8.3-4 Limno Humisol 

8.3-5 Cumulo Humisol 

8.3-6 Terric Humisol 

8 .3-7 Terric Fibric Humisol 

8.3-8 Terric Mesic Humisol 

8.3-9 Cryic Humisol 

8.3-10 Hydric Humisol 

8.3-11 Lithic Humisol 

8 .4 Folisol 8.4-1 Typic Folisol 

8.4-11 Lithic Folisol

Fig . 5 . Field examination of soil profile using a hydraulic corer, Saskatchewan Plain . 

Fig . 6 . Sampling Organic soil with hand auger . 

Fig . 7 . Preparation for taking a soil profile monolith, Solodic Dark Gray Chernozemic soil, near Edmonton, 

Alberta Plain . 

Fig . 8 . Removing soil monolith from sampling site, Dark Gray Luvisol, near Loon River, Saskatchewan Plain .

PART II 

BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF CANADIAN SOILS 

This part of the report describes the geographic 

location and extent of Canada and the physical, 

climatic, and vegetational environment in which the 

soils have developed . It draws extensively on 

published geology, physiography, climatology, 

forestry, and pedology references . The principal 

sources were the soil survey reports of each province 

and the reports and memoirs of the Geological 

Survey of Canada . This information was freely 

interpreted in preparing this part of the report . 

Geographic Location and 

Extent of Canada 

Excluding Mexico, the North American Continent 

includes the United States of America and Canada . 

Canada, the largest country in the Western Hemisphere, 

includes most of the northern portion of the 

Continent excluding the state of Alaska . It is separated 

from other land masses on the north, west, and 

east by the Arctic, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. 

Canada extends from a little south of latitude 42°N 

near the southern extremity of Point Pelee in Lake 

Erie to the northern tip of Ellesmere Island (84°N 

latitude), well within the Arctic Circle . From east to 

west, Canada stretches from longitude 52°W on the 

east coast of Newfoundland to longitude 140°W 

along the Alaskan border . The international boundary 

between Canada and the United States stretching 

from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake of the Woods is 

natural, marked by lakes, rivers, and divides . However, 

from the west side of Lake of the Woods (longitude 

95°W) the boundary is drawn along the 49°N parallel 

of latitude to the Pacific Coast (longitude 123°W) . 

Canada has a land area of 3,852,000 sq mi 

(9 972 828 km2) of which about 2,964,000 sq mi 

(7 673 796 km2) is mainland and 292,000 sq mi 

(755 988 km2) is covered by freshwater lakes . 

Islands situated in the Arctic Ocean occupy about 

596,000 sq mi (1 543 044 km2) . In common with 

other maritime nations, Canada exercises sovereign 

rights over adjacent regions including some 858,000 

sq mi (2221 362 km2) of enclosed marine waters 

confined within the extremities of the land areas of 

Canada, and the undersea area of the continental 

shelves and slopes bordering the Atlantic, Arctic, 

and Pacific coasts . The approximate undersea area 

involved is about 523,000 sq mi (1 354 047 km2) of 

continental shelves and 563,000 sq mi (1 457 607 

km2) of continental slopes . 

28 

Physiography of Canada 

INTRODUCTION 

Canada is divided into seven major physiographic 

regions (Fig . 9) .1 The largest of these is the Canadian 

Shield comprising a massive old surface of Precambrian 

crystalline rock, covering almost half of 

Canada (1,771,000 sq mi ; 4585119 km2) . The 

Shield is surrounded to the south, west, and north 

by the Borderlands, which make up the remaining 

six regions . These Borderlands consisting of younger 

sedimentary rocks form a ring of plains and lowlands 

adjacent to the Shield and an outer rim of mountains 

and uplands bordering on the Pacific, Atlantic, and 

Arctic oceans . The inner ring consists of the Interior 

Plains, St . Lawrence Lowlands, and the Arctic 

Lowlands. The outer rim of mountains and uplands 

consists of the Cordilleran Region in the west, the 

Innuitian Region to the north, and the Appalachian 

Region to the southeast . 

In describing the physiography of Canada the dominating 

factor has been the effect of the Glacial Ice 

Age . Glaciation started over one million years ago 

and saw four major advances and retreats of ice, 

known as the Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoian, and 

Wisconsin . These major glaciations were separated 

by the Aftonian, Yarmouth, and Sangamon interglacial 

periods . All of Canada was subject to the 

effects of glaciation with the exception of a few 

isolated Tertiary plateaus in the southern Interior 

Plains and large sections of the northwest in the 

Yukon Territory (Fig . 10) . Glaciation left a distinct 

pattern of surficial deposits and glacial landform 

features of fundamental importance to the composition 

and distribution of Canadian soils . 

THE CANADIAN SHIELD 

The largest major physiographic region of Canada 

is the Canadian Shield, a nucleus of stable Precambrian 

rocks, situated between the Appalachian 

Region on the east and the Interior Plains to the 

west. The Shield forms the bedrock of a land area 

of about 1,864,000 sq mi (4 825 896 km2), mainly 

in Canada, but extending south into the Lake 

Superior and Adirondack regions of the United 

States. Except on the northeast side, the Canadian 

Shield is surrounded by Phanerozoic2 sedimentary 

rocks forming a platform cover that is little disturbed 

(Fig . 11) . 

r The classification of the physiographic units of Canada has been based 

on H .S . Bostock's "Physiographic Subdivisions of Canada," in Geology 

and Economic Minerals of Canada edited by R .J .W . Douglas. 

z Comprises Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic ; eon of evident life .

Fig . 9 . Physiographic regions of Canada (After Bostock, Geological Survey of Canada) . 

SRI

300 Miles 

500 Kilometres 

0 

Fig . 10 . Glacial geology map of Canada (Modified after Prest, Grant, and Rampton, Geological Survey ot Canada) . 

LEGEND 

Unglaciated Area 

Area of Pre-Wisconsin Glaciation, 

Dominately Ground Moraine 

Area in part Unglaciated . In part 

covered by ice of one or more 

Glaciations 

Dominately Ground Moraine 

Hummocky, Dead Ice and 

Disintegration Moraine 

Area of Irregular to Arcuate 

Patterned Ribbed Moraine 

Area of Maximum Glacial Lake 

coverage 

® Area of Maximum Marine Overlap 

Maximum Extent of Glacial Ice 

Cover, including components of 

several different ice lobes that were 

operative at different times between 

about 15,000 and 19,000 years ago 

OCEAN 

SRI

LEGEND 

Lowlands, Plains 

Plateaus 

® 

® 

J7 LABRADOR 

SEA 

rn 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC 

DIVISIONS 

1 . Boothia Plateau 

2. Coronation Hills 

3. Bathurst Hills 

4. Bear-Slave Upland 

5. Back Lowland 

6. Wager Plateau 

7. Thelon Plain 

8 . East Arm Hills 

9 . Kazan Upland 

10 . Athabasca Plain 

11 . Baffin Coastal Lowland 

12 . Davis Highlands 

13 . Baffin Upland 

14 . Hall Upland 

15 . Frobisher Upland 

16 . Melville Plateau 

17 . Labrador Highlands 

18 . George Plateau 

19 . Whale Lowland 

20 . Southampton Plain 

21 . Belcher Islands 

22 . Richmond Hills 

23 . Hudson Bay Lowland 

24 . Severn Upland 

25 . Nipigon Plain 

26. Port Arthur Hills 

27. Abitibi Upland 

28 . Cobalt Plain 

29 . Penokean Hills 

30 . Eastmain Lowland 

31 . Larch Plateau 

32 . Povungnituk Hills 

33 . Sugluk Plateau 

34 . Labrador Hills 

35 . Kaniapiskau Plateau 

36 . Lake Plateau 

37 . Mistassini Hills 

38 . Laurentian Highlands 

39 . Hamilton Upland 

40 . Hamilton Plateau 

41 . Melville Plain 

42 . Mealy Mountains 

43 . Mecatina Plateau 

Fig . 11 . Physiographic divisions of the Canadian Shield (Modified after Bostock, Geological Survey of 

Canada) . 

SRI

GEOLOGY AND RELIEF 

The Shield resembles a huge basin or saucer with 

the depressed central part occupied by Hudson Bay . 

At one time a mountainous area, it has been planed 

down during long periods of erosion so that its 

present surface resembles a vast peneplain, with the 

exception of the outward shelving rim to the 

northeast. The northeast rim is tilted upward forming 

the mountains of Labrador and Baffin Island . 

The development and partial dissection of the 

peneplainlike surface of the Shield occurred during 

Archean and Proterozoic times . During Paleozoic 

times much of the Shield surface was submerged 

under epicontinental seas and a thin discontinuous 

skin of sediments, mainly limestone and shale, was 

laid down on the complex of Precambrian rocks . 

Subsequently, subaerial erosion, followed by scouring 

of the surface during the ice advances of 

Pleistocene glaciation, removed most of the sedimentary 

strata . However, remnants of the platform 

cover now remain in the basins, where they either 

form lowlands of thin limestone and dolomitic 

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks or are submerged to 

produce inland seas that include Hudson Bay and 

Foxe Basin . 

Despite the effects of long periods of erosion and 

leveling, parts of the Shield are geologically distinct 

and exceedingly complicated . The Shield is composed 

of Precambrian rocks of Archean and 

Proterozoic age, most of which are granite, granite 

gneiss, granodiorite, and quartz diorite . Interbedded 

throughout this extensive area of acid rocks are 

volcanic and sedimentary assemblages of Archean 

age, particularly in northeastern Ontario and western 

Quebec . All are characterized by different degrees 

of erosion and reflected in various types of terrain . 

Basic rock formations in the form of large gabbro and 

anorthosite batholiths in western and southeastern 

Quebec, as reflected in the Mealy Mountains, form 

the basis of more resistant upland areas . However, 

throughout the eastern rim of the Shield broad uplift 

areas of massive crystalline acid rocks are deeply 

incised, reaching peak elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 ft 

(1525 to 1830 m) in the northern Labrador 

Highlands and 8,000 to 10,000 ft (2440 to 3050 m) 

on Baffin Island . Proterozoic sediments and gabbro 

sills have been tilted or folded into isolated elongate 

ridges throughout the Shield . Either the folded or 

tilted strata has been left in an elongate ridge and 

valley relief form, as in the case of the Labrador Hills, 

or softer sediments have been eroded leaving the 

gabbro sills in the form of cuestas like those found 

in the Port Arthur, Bathurst, and Penokean Hill 

regions. In areas unaffected by tilting and folding 

the Proterozoic sediments form vast, almost flat-lying 

rock plains of sand and conglomerate, which are 

the basis of the Athabasca and Thelon plains in 

northern Saskatchewan and Keewatin . In western 

Ontario gabbro sills form the basis of the 

Nipigon Plain . 

32 

Although the general surface of the Shield dips at 

low angles under the bordering Phanerozoic strata, 

its most outstanding feature is the monotonously 

even erosion surface characteristic of an ancient 

peneplain. Local variations in relief include rounded 

or flat-topped knobs and ridges varying in elevation 

from a few feet to 500 ft (150 m), with most of the 

surface ranging between 200 and 300 ft (60 to 90 m) . 

Only in scattered areas is the relief mountainous and 

even in these areas remnants of the old erosion 

surface occur on the summits . 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISIONS 

The Canadian Shield's overall uniformity of terrain 

with regard to its basic crystalline rock composition 

and eveness of surface makes it difficult to divide 

into physiographic subdivisions . However, the 

existence of distinct geological structures and 

evidence of orogenies reflect what were probably 

at one time distinct physiographic units before the 

erosion of the surface to its present state . Thus, 

the differences in the otherwise featureless surface 

revealed in the changing trends of old fold belts, 

different axes of rock formations, and the effects of 

faults and foliation patterns, provide a satisfactory 

means of defining the major physiographic 

subdivisions of the Shield . 3 On this basis the Shield 

has been divided into seven major structural 

provinces, the Slave, Bear, Churchill, Superior, 

Grenville, Nain, and Southern (Fig . 12) . 

GRENVILLE PROVINCE . Grenville Province forms 

the southeastern portion of the Canadian Shield, 

stretching along the entire length of the St. Lawrence 

Lowlands from Georgian Bay to the Labrador Sea . 

The Laurentian Highlands occupy two-thirds of this 

region, from the Romaine River north of Anticosti 

Island southwest to Georgian Bay . The outstanding 

features of the area are deeply dissected margins, 

which give the highlands a mountainous appearance, 

particularly between Baie Comeau and Quebec City 

where peaks reach above 3,500 ft (1 070) m) . 

Along the Central St . Lawrence Lowland between 

Quebec City and Ottawa, the Shield margin rises as 

an escarpment 200 to 300 ft (60 to 90 m) above 

the flat-lying Paleozoic sediments of the Lowland . 

The Shield area of Ontario between Lake Erie and 

Georgian Bay has not been as heavily dissected and 

is generally lower in elevation . The highland interior 

does show mountainous terrain features, because 

the broad interfluve areas of the old erosion surface 

remain at elevations over 3,000 ft (915 m) . 

The coastline of Mecatina Plateau, like that of the 

Laurentians, is heavily dissected and stretches from 

the Romaine River to Groswater Bay on the Labrador 

Sea . Inland much of the plateau surface is covered 

by drift and merges with the Hamilton Upland- 

Plateau complex to the north . The Hamilton Upland 

3 Stockwell, C .H . 1961 . Structural provinces, orogenies and time classification 

of rocks of the Canadian Precambrian Shield, Geological Survey 

of Canada, Report 4, Paper 61-17 .

D 

400 M,les 

500 Kdometres 

Fig . 12 . Structural provinces of the Canadian Shield (Modified after Stockwell, Geological Survey of Canada) . 

CO 

u 

SRI

is a series of rugged hills, which stand 500 to 1,000 ft 

(152 to 305 m) above the plateau surface reaching 

over 2,500 ft (760 m) in elevation . The only other 

significant physiographic features of the region are 

the Mealy Mountains, which reach over 3,200 ft 

(975 m) south of Lake Melville and the low-lying 

plain surrounding the lake. 

SUPERIOR AND SOUTHERN PROVINCES . The 

U-shaped Superior Province stretches from the 

Nelson River in northeastern Manitoba around 

the southern margin of the Hudson Bay Lowland 

and the eastern shores of James Bay and Hudson 

Bay . The western half of the province is composed 

of the Severn and Abitibi uplands, which rise gently 

from the Hudson Bay Lowland to 1,500 ft (460 m) 

in the south . Generally the surface elevations vary 

between 900 and 1,200 ft (270 and 370 m) . A 

distinctive feature of both upland surfaces is the 

extensive glacial lake deposits, a feature that does 

not occur in the northeastern plateaus of Superior 

Province . The only other significant physiographic 

units within the Abitibi and Severn uplands are the 

flat-lying sedimentary rocks of the Cobalt and 

Nipigon plains. 

East of James Bay, the lower elevations of the 

Eastmain Lowland separate the Abitibi Upland from 

the plateau surface of northwestern Quebec . The 

westward-sloping lowland is covered by Pleistocene 

marine sediments and muskeg . Larch Plateau to the 

north has an undulating surface of thin drift cover 

and widely exposed bedrock, varying in elevation 

between 500 and 1,500 ft (150 and 460 m) . Lake 

Plateau extending across central Quebec is 

distinguished by dissected rock highlands rising 

above the plateau surface in isolated remnants to 

elevations exceeding 3,000 ft (910 m) . Elevations 

towards the northeast are generally lower, between 

1,400 and 2,000 ft (430 and 610 m) . Drumlins and 

eskers further characterize southern Larch Plateau 

and Lake Plateau . The Mistassini Hills'are the only 

other geologically distinct features interrupting the 

surface of Lake Plateau, forming a series of cuesta 

ridges with summits of 3,500 ft (1 070 m) and 

drowned valleys to the southwest . 

Two smaller physiographic units bordering the 

southern part of Superior Province are the only areas 

of the Southern Geological Province in Canada . They 

are the Port Arthur Hills on the northwest coast of 

Lake Superior and the Penokean Hills along the 

North Channel of Lake Huron . 

CHURCHILL AND NAIN PROVINCES . Surrounding 

the northern half of Hudson Bay in the form of 

a great irregular horseshoe is the geological province 

of Churchill stretching more than 2,000 mi 

(3 220 km) from east to west . On the west side of 

Hudson Bay the greatest proportion of the province 

is composed of the Kazan Upland and, except for 

the different orogenies affecting their past geological 

histories, it shows few physiographic differences 

from the uplands of Superior Province, south of 

Hudson Bay . The main difference is the extensive 

34 

Athabasca and Thelon sandstone plains . The 

Athabasca Plain borders the Interior Plains south 

of Lake Athabasca and extends across northern 

Saskatchewan to Wollaston Lake, a distance of 

275 mi (440 km), increasing in elevation from 900 

to 2,000 ft (275 to 610 m) . The Thelon Plain, which 

is characterized by sandy flats, occupies the center 

of the Upland along its northern boundary, west 

of Baker Lake . 

Except along the western border of the Shield where 

rivers drain into the Mackenzie drainage system, the 

surface of the Kazan Upland slopes towards Hudson 

Bay. As a result of postglacial marine overlap along 

the west coast of Hudson Bay, a coastal plain of 

little relief covered by reworked drift deposits extends 

inland over 100 mi (160 km) to elevations exceeding 

600 ft (180 m) above sea level . 

Wager Plateau northeast of the Kazan Upland rises 

from Chesterfield Inlet to 2,000 ft (610 m) at Wager 

Bay, where the surface then declines northward to 

Boothia Peninsula, interrupted in places by patches 

of rugged terrain . Boothia Plateau, centered by an 

arch of Precambrian gneiss, projects northward from 

mainland Wager Plateau into the Arctic Lowlands . 

The Back Lowland extending westward along the 

Arctic coastline of Queen Maud Gulf is generally 

lower than the uplands and plateau that surround it . 

However, upland areas exceeding 1,000 ft (305 m) 

in elevation do occur along the east side of the 

Bathurst Hills and towards the Thelon Plain . 

To the northeast, two prongs of the Canadian Shield 

extend northward into the Arctic Archipelago to 

surround Foxe Basin . West of Foxe Basin, Melville 

Plateau includes Salisbury and Nottingham islands 

in Hudson Strait, northeastern Southampton Island, 

and the entire Melville Peninsula with the exception 

of a narrow coastal plain along its northeastern 

coast . Some rugged areas occur along the western 

border of Melville Peninsula, but generally it is 

a smooth featureless upland, 1,500 to 2,000 ft 

(460 to 610 m) above sea level . On Southampton 

Island elevations reach 2,000 ft (610 m) under the 

center of the Plateau . 

East of Foxe Basin the largest extension of the 

Canadian Shield intothe Arctic Archipelago stretches 

along the northeastern flank of Baffin, Bylot, Devon, 

and southern Ellesmere islands . Along the northeast 

coasts of the islands intense fluvial and glacial 

erosion has dissected the rim into a spectacular 

fiord coastline . Remnants of the old erosion surface 

form summits at over 5,000 ft (1 525 m), whereas 

the general slope of the highlands and interior 

uplands is westward north of Cumberland Sound and 

to the southwest below it . Breached by drowned 

lowlands, the uplands surface west of the highlands 

is separated into the Baffin, Hall, and Frobisher 

uplands by Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay . 

South of Hudson Strait, surrounding the Larch and 

Lake plateaus of northwestern Quebec, is a series 

of disconnected hills and highlands comprised of

the eastern part of the Churchill Geological Province 

and the Nain Geological Province of northern 

Labrador. Proterozoic sedimentary and volcanic 

rocks form the structural basis of the Belcher Islands 

and Richmond Hills in the eastern Hudson Bay 

region . The Richmond Hills along the east coast of 

Hudson Bay, including the Nastapoka Islands, are 

a series of east-facing cuestas formed by more 

resistant volcanic rocks. Opposite the Richmond 

Hills, 100 mi (160 km) offshore, are the Belcher 

Islands, a series of heavily folded sedimentary and 

volcanic rocks, which rise to a height of 400 ft 

(120 m) above the sea . 

Sugluk Plateau at the northern tip of Quebec is 

separated from Larch Plateau by the Povungnituk 

Hills, east-west ridges of folded strata . The Labrador 

Hills composed of a belt of folded Precambrian 

sedimentary and volcanic rocks form a series of 

ridges and valleys, which have been downwarped 

and faulted . East of the Labrador Hills the Shield 

rises from a low of 800 ft (240 m) on the Whale 

Lowland to elevations above 5,000 ft (1 525 m) along 

the northeast rim of the Labrador Highlands . The 

highlands show the same erosion characteristics 

as those on Baffin Island, especially the deeply 

dissected coastline . The George Plateau situated 

between the Labrador Highlands andWhale Lowland 

slopes westward from elevations above 2,000 ft 

(610 m) to less than 1,000 ft (305 m) in the east . 

The higher slopes are bedrock exposed, but grade 

westward into a drumlinized, drift-covered lower 

slope and Whale Lowland. 

BEAR AND SLAVE PROVINCES . In the extreme 

northwest of the Canadian Shield bordering 

Coronation Gulf in the north and the Interior Plains 

to the west is the Bear-Slave Upland . Geologically 

it consists of the Bear and Slave provinces, a mosaic 

of plateaus, hills, and uplands typical of the great 

stretches of massive peneplained shield surface to 

the south . Surrounding the Bear-Slave Upland are 

three areas of hills made up of faulted and folded 

sediments and sills . They are the Coronation Hills 

to the northwest, along the Rae and Richardson 

rivers ; the Bathurst Hills, south and west of Bathurst 

Inlet ; and the East Arm Hills, along the eastern 

extension of the Great Slave Lake . The East Arm 

Hills, part of Churchill Province, separate the 

Bear-Slave Upland from the larger Kazan Upland 

to the south . 

HUDSON BAY PLATFORM . The Hudson Bay 

Platform is not part of the Canadian Shield proper, 

but forms the northern and southern extremities of 

the Hudson Bay Basin covered by limestone and 

dolomitic Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. 

The Hudson Bay Lowland borders James Bay on 

the south and west and extends westward along 

the Hudson Bay to the Churchill River in Manitoba . 

The lowland is a flat, swampy plain with numerous 

shallow lakes, occupying an area of approximately 

125,000 sq mi (323 630 km2) . The southern 

boundary of the lowland along the edge of the 

Abitibi and Severn uplands forms a low escarpment 

rising above the Shield surface . 

The relief of the lowland has been considerably 

affected by postglacial marine submergence and 

upwarping of the land surface . Raised beaches 

indicate that the southern shores of Hudson Bay 

and James Bay were submerged to a depth of 450 

to 550 ft (140 to 170 m) extending inland 170 miles 

(270 km) beyond the present shoreline . The raised 

beaches present a striking pattern of successive 

black spruce covered ridges, alternating with 

depressional swamps and meadows . 

Southampton Plain formed on flat Paleozoic 

sediments at the northern end of Hudson Bay 

includes western and southern Southampton Island, 

Coats Island, and Mansel Island, a total area of 

approximately 12,000 sq mi (31 080 km z) . The plain 

on Southampton Island is less than 300 ft (90 m) in 

elevation and bordered by two higher outliers of 

Precambrian rock, which form part of the Melville 

Plateau . 

GLACIATION 

The most significant period in the geological 

history of the Canadian Shield has been the last one, 

the Pleistocene Ice Age . Ice masses formed centers 

of accumulation in the Keewatin district centered 

on the Kazan Upland, the Labrador-Ungava region 

of northern Quebec, and the Foxe Basin-Baffin 

Island region . The ice sheets moved outward and 

coalesced into the large Laurentide ice sheet, but 

little evidence has been left on the Shield of glacial 

and interglacial periods preceeding the last Wisconsin 

ice advance, although multiple glaciation is known 

to have occurred . The Wisconsin, the last major ice 

advance, is the most important of the ice advances 

due to its influence on the formation of landforms 

visible at the present time. 

The Wisconsin ice advance greatly modified the 

surface topography of the Shield by rounding and 

levelling rock ridges, scouring out hollows, and 

depositing a shallow layer of stony, sandy till . 

Extensive areas were completely denuded of soil 

material, leaving bare and sterile bedrock plains . 

Most of the till was carried outside the periphery of 

the Shield into the Interior Plains Region of Canada 

and the United States, although thick deposits of till 

do exist in hollows and valleys . A great multiplicity 

of glacial and periglacial land form features are 

evident throughout the Shield . 

In northern Quebec and Labrador the retreat of the 

ice sheet was mainly toward the higher terrain around 

the Labrador Hills . The ice flow features and eskers 

form a general radial pattern about a U-shaped area 

south of Ungava Bay . Extensive areas of ribbed 

moraine are found along with drumlinized till plains 

in Lake Plateau. 

West of Hudson Bay the ice sheet left a pattern of 

longitudial ice flow features and a transverse 

35

Fig . 13 . Frost-heaved bedrock with a thin organic layer on the bedrock in the foreground . Kazan Upland, near 

Churchill, Manitoba . 

Fig . 14 . Exposed bedrock and till deposits of the Slave Upland near Yellowknife, N.W .T . 

Fig . 15 . Rolling glacial till landscape of the Alberta Plain, near Biggar, Saskatchewan . 

Fig . 16 . Boulder-loaded esker on Bear-Slave Upland near Fort Enterprise north of Great Slave Lake, N .W .T .

morainal pattern as it receded toward the Keewatin 

Ice Divide . The Ice Divide, which lies northwest of 

Hudson Bay, is an area of few eskers and ice flow 

features almost 500 mi (800 km) long . It extends 

from north of Baker Lake southward to the northern 

tip of Lake Nueltin . Around this area the ice flow 

features form a rough radial pattern, similar to that 

in northern Quebec. 

The till matrix of the drift mantling this region lacks 

cohesive properties, and is usually sandy or silty and 

found in the form of ground or ribbed moraine . 

Although hummocky over wide areas, the terrain is 

unlike that of the disintegration or dead ice moraine 

of the thicker drift deposits on the southern plains . 

Throughout the morainic deposits, long sinuous 

eskers, belts of drumlins, and glacial flutings stand 

out on the surface indicating ice flow . 

The main result of glaciation on the landscape of 

the Shield has been the disruption of preexisting 

drainage, which left the surface covered with an 

enormous number of freshwater lakes occupying 

basins scooped out by glacial quarrying, moraine 

dammed depressions, and erratic river systems . 

The main streams flow in the direction of the general 

slope of the land surface commonly following 

elements of bedrock structure, including fracture 

zones, folds, faults, and joint patterns, usually 

dammed by glacial debris . Local drainage is affected 

far more stongly by the deposition of surficial drift 

deposits than by underlying structural features . 

The drift has formed a pattern of lakes and ponds 

interspersed with small ridges and hummocks. In 

those areas affected by drumlin fields or irregularly 

parallel systems of ridges and hollows of ribbed 

moraines, a strong parallelism is imposed on the 

drainage . Where drift deposits are scarce, larger 

lakes and rivers show parallel and angular patterns 

of development controlled by bedrock structures. 

During deglaciation, meltwaterthat ponded between 

the receding ice front and the land sloping upward 

to the divide in the south formed a succession of 

huge, temporary freshwater lakes . The sides of these 

lakes are marked by fine, silt-clay varves and 

strandlines . 

Former glacial Lake Agassiz developed along 

the present Minnesota-Dakota boundary as the 

Laurentide ice sheet receded northward into the 

headwaters of the Red River Basin . It expanded 

northward into Manitoba and northwestern Ontario 

bordering on the Keewatin and Labrador sectors of 

the ice sheet. The total area covered by Lake Agassiz 

was more than 200,000 sq mi (518000 km2) 

stretching eastward from the escarpments of Riding 

and Duck mountains to about 400 mi (640 km) into 

northern Ontario, where Lake Nipigon at one time 

acted as its eastern outlet . Northward into the Kazan 

Upland, Lake Agassiz extended along the Nelson 

River drainage system eventually reaching as far as 

the southern Indian Lake region in the Churchill 

River drainage system, 250 mi (400 km) north of 

Lake Winnipeg . However, the area actually 

submerged at any one time by the successive 

stages of the lake was probably never more than 

80,000 sq mi (207 200 km2) . As the confining ice 

sheet melted, glacial Lake Agassiz gave way to the 

early stages of present-day lakes Winnipeg, 

Winnipegosis, and Manitoba . Lake Ojibway-Barlow 

was the largest glacial lake confined solely within 

the Shield boundary . Meltwater ponded against the 

ice front as it retreated northward towards James Bay 

in northern Ontario, east and northeast of Lake 

Superior and western Quebec, where it moved 

northeastward to central Labrador-Ungava . Strandlines 

and varved clay deposits indicate that it covered 

an area in successive stages approximately 275 mi 

(440 km) long and 75 to 120 mi (120 to 190 km) 

wide . The fine sediments deposited by Lake Ojibway- 

Barlow and those along the north shore of Lake 

Huron and Georgian Bay provide most of the 

cultivable soils in the Shield . 

Elsewhere in the Shield many lake basins and 

drainage systems were trapped between the ice 

front and hillsides . West of Hudson Bay, large lakes 

formed in the valleys of the Kazan, Dubawnt, 

Thelon, and Back rivers . In northern Quebec two 

areas were affected, the George and Whale rivers 

southeast of Ungava Bay and the Povungnituk 

River southwest of Hudson Strait . 

The coastal landscape of the Shield has been affected 

considerably by postglacial marine submergence and 

upwarping of the land surface . Raised beaches and 

fossil remains indicate that uplift has been greatest 

around Hudson Bay where former shorelines reach 

as high as 800 to 900 ft (240 to 275 m) above sea 

level east of James Bay . Marine submergence west 

of Hudson Bay decreases from south to north, from 

about 650 ft (200 m) in northern Manitoba extending 

inland 100 mi (160 km) from the present shoreline 

to about 400 ft (120 m) above sea level at Wager 

Bay . At Chesterfield Inlet the sea extended inland 

well over 350 mi (560 km), the furthest marine 

advance in the Arctic . 

Along the northern Arctic coast the extent of marine 

submergence on the west side of Committee Bay 

reaches 650 ft (200 m), but it decreases to 500 ft 

(150 m) at Chantrey Inlet on the west side of Boothia 

Peninsula . Westward at the southern end of Bathurst 

Inlet, the marine limit reaches 750 ft (225 m), but 

decreases to less than 200 ft (61 m) along Dolphin 

and Union straits . Fine-grained marine sediments 

were deposited inland to a maximum distance of 

150 mi (240 km) along the entire coastal area west 

of Boothia Peninsula . East of the Peninsula, 

fine-grained sediments and particularly marine clays 

are limited to deep valleys on Southampton Island, 

northeastern Keewatin mainland, and Melville 

Peninsula . These sediments are usually found 

beneath estuarine sands . Most of the drift on upper 

relief surfaces has been reworked and subdued by 

periglacial processes . 

Along the eastern shore of Hudson Bay, postglacial 

submergence was not as extensive and varied 

37

17 

19 

Fig . 17 . Perennially frozen peatland (peat polygons) on east side of Hicks Lake, District of Keewatin, N .W .T. 

Fig . 18 . Glacial till overlying bedrock on the Kazan Upland, near Otter Rapids, northern Saskatchewan . 

Fig . 19 . Lacustri .ne clay overlying bedrock on the Abitibi Upland, near La Sarre, Quebec . 

Fig . 20 . Glaciofluvial outwash deposits, Chilcotin River valley, Interior Plateau, Cordilleran Region, British 

Columbia .

etween 25 and 150 mi (40 and 240 km) inland . 

The only other major area of relatively extensive 

marine submergence in Quebec occurred around 

Ungava Bay in the north, where fingerlike extensions 

followed valley floors inland . 

St . Lawrence Lowlands 

The St . Lawrence Lowlands are a narrow northeastern 

extension of the American Central Lowlands, 

underlain by flat-lying, gently warped Paleozoic strata 

bounded by the Canadian Shield to the north and the 

Appalachian Mountains to the southeast . The 

lowlands are separated into three parts by the 

crystalline rocks of the Canadian Shield and cover an 

area of 60,000 sq mi (155 400 km 2) or approximately 

1 .5% of Canada's land surface . The West St . 

Lawrence Lowland and the Central St . Lawrence 

Lowland are separated by the Frontenac Axis, a 

narrow band of resistant Precambrian rock that 

crosses the St . Lawrence Valley between Kingston 

and Brockville to connect the Precambrian Shield 

in Ontario with the Adirondack Mountains in the 

United States . The East St . Lawrence Lowland 

is comprised of the exposed Paleozoic rocks of the 

Anticosti Basin, which rise above the Gulf of 

St . Lawrence (Fig . 21) . 


WEST ST. LAWRENCE LOWLAND . The West 

St . Lawrence Lowland is bounded by lakes Ontario, 

Erie, and Huron on the south and west and by the 

Canadian Shield to the north and the Frontenac Axis 

to the east . The underlying sandstones, shales, 

limestones, and dolomites have been gently warped 

so that they overlap onto the Shield to the north 

and dip gently to the southeast . The softer shale rocks 

on the lowland have been eroded into depressions 

and the harder limestone and dolomite stand out as 

escarpments . The boundary of the Shield east of 

Lake Simcoe is marked by a low escarpment of 

Ordovician limestone rising some 50 to 100 ft 

(15 to 30 m) above the Shield surface . The more 

prominent Niagara Escarpment of resistant Silurian 

dolomite, resting on weaker red shales, rises from 

200 to 1,000 ft (61 to 305 m) above the surrounding 

lowland . The escarpment bisects the lowland, 

stretching over 370 mi (595 km) from the Niagara 

River northwestward to the Bruce Peninsula and 

Manitoulin Island . West of the escarpment, the 

surface slopes southwest to lakes Huron and Erie . 

East of the escarpment, the land rises gently 

northward from Lake Ontario . 

CENTRAL ST. LAWRENCE LOWLAND . The flat 

plains of the Ottawa and St . Lawrence rivers 

constitute the central lowland, ranging from a low 

of 100 ft (30 m) above sea level near Montreal to 

levels between 300 and 400 ft (90 and 120 m) 

around the outer margins of the lowland . The widest 

and flattest section of the central lowland, the 

Montreal Plain, is broken by a number of prominent 

hills, which rise 600 to 1,000 ft (180 to 305 m) above 

the surrounding plain . They include the Monteregian 

Hills, a line of denuded igneous intrusions extending 

for a distance of 50 mi (80 km) east of Montreal, 

and the Rigaud and Shefford mountains, three 

outliers of the Canadian Shield . 

North of the Ottawa and St . Lawrence rivers the 

underlying Paleozoic rocks of the lowland are either 

faulted against or lie upon the crystalline rocks of 

the Shield . Between Ottawa and Quebec City the 

Shield margin rises as an escarpment 200 to 300 ft 

(60 to 90 m) above the lowland surface . To the 

southeast, the contract zone between the relatively 

undisturbed Paleozoic rocks of the lowland and 

the folded strata of the Appalachian Region, is a 

series of low-thrust faults, referred to as "Logan's 

Line," stretching from Lake Champlain to about 

50 mi (80 km) below Quebec City . 

EAST ST . LAWRENCE LOWLAND . The East St. 

Lawrence Lowland includes Anticosti Island, Mingan 

Islands, and small areas along the north shore of 

the Gulf of St . Lawrence and northwest coast of 

Newfoundland . Anticosti Island is a south-dipping 

cuesta of Paleozoic carbonates on which wave-cut 

terraces are in evidence up to 400 ft (120 m) on 

both the north and south sides of it . Along the south 

shore of mainland Quebec, the Paleozoic strata dips 

gently southward whereas the Newfoundland coastal 

lowland consists of soft, flat-lying sedimentary rocks 

less than 400 ft (120 m) above sea level . . 

GLACIATION 

Glacial erosion and deposition during the Pleistocene 

Ice Age left a wide range of glacial and glacial 

lacustrine deposits covering almost the entire 

St . Lawrence Lowlands Region . The last Wisconsin 

glaciation was responsible for the formation of most 

of the characteristic relief features and minor 

landforms visible at the present time . 

About half the region is covered by undulating to 

rolling till plains consisting of boulder clay, sands or 

silts, and rugged, stony moraines . The largest of the 

till plains lies between the Niagara Escarpment and 

the shores of Lake Huron . The undulating to hilly 

surface has been cut by deep spillways and small 

tracts of clay occupy the bottoms of scattered 

depressions . In the area south of the Bruce Peninsula 

the tills are stony and contain a higher percentage of 

carbonates . Scattered throughout the area are narrow 

gravel eskers . The relief west of the escarpment is 

accentuated by the horseshoe moraines, rugged 

areas of unsorted boulders, sands, and fine sediments, 

which partially encircle the till plains . 

East of the Niagara Escarpment, widespread, 

moderately stony till deposits cover the lowland 

surface between the north shore of Lake Ontario 

and the Shield boundary. The relief is much more 

varied due to the widespread distribution of numerous 

drumlins, eskers, and large moraines . The east-west 

Oak Ridge moraine forms the watershed between 

39

CID 

Niagara Falls 

100 0 

100 0 

100 Miles 

J 

-l 

200 Kilometres 

SRI 

Fig . 21 . Physiographic divisions of the St . Lawrence Lowlands (After Bostock, Geological Survey of Canada) .

Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay . The sand- and 

gravel-covered Oak Ridge moraine is an 8-mi 

(13-km) wide belt of rugged hummocky knob and 

kettle topography rising to 1,300 ft (400 m) . Unlike 

Oak Ridge, the Drummer recessional moraine to the 

north is covered by a thin discontinuous layer of till 

containing angular limestone blocks . 

The outstanding feature of the till plains is the over 

6,000 drumlins scattered between Georgian Bay and 

Lake Ontario. The more spectacular concentrations 

occur in the Peterborough area, where the drumlins 

range from half to three-quarters of a mile in length 

and reach heights of 100 ft (30 m) . The interdrumlin 

depressions are usually poorly drained and swampy . 

Widespread till plains are found east of the Frontenac 

Axis between the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers, 

to the south of Ottawa . Here, significant areas of 

limestone bedrock are covered by less than 3 in . 

(7 .6 cm) of drift and frequently the surface is either 

stony or has exposed bedrock . North and south of 

the St . Lawrence River, till deposits are associated 

with a series of rougher terminal moraines . Rising 50 

to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) above the lowland the 

St . Narcisse moraine extends along the north side 

of the river, a narrow, discontinuous till ridge, which 

has been partially covered by wave-washed gravels . 

On the south bank roughly paralleling the St . Narcisse 

moraine are the Drummondville and Highland 

Front moraines . 

Undulating, sandy till plains are widespread 

throughout the East St . Lawrence Lowland and are 

usually found in conjunction with fluvial outwash 

deposits on the mainland Quebec and Newfoundland 

Coastal lowlands . Sedimentary bedrock exposures 

occur on western Anticosti Island and the 

Newfoundland Coastal Lowland . 

The deposition of finer lacustrine and deltaic 

sediments and their modification of drift deposits is 

the result of a long and complex glacial history 

involving freshwater proglacial lakes and marine 

transgression . 

West of the Frontenac Axis, in the Great Lakes region 

the thinning of the Labrador sector of the Laurentide 

ice sheet led to the retreat of the ice margin from 

south of Lake Michigan northward to the Lake Erie 

basin . Fluctuations of the ice front and differential 

uplift of the land resulting from removal of the ice 

load led to the ponding of meltwaters between the 

basin rim and ice front, forming a complex system of 

lakes and spillways . 

East of the Frontenac Axis meltwater ponded 

between the Appalachian Highlands, including the 

Adirondack Mountains, and the ice front to form 

glacial Lake Vermont with discharge south through 

Lake Champlain and the Hudson Valley . Before the 

final oscillations of the Wisconsin ice front, the 

recession of the ice front allowed glacial Lake 

Vermont to drain to sea level . Subsequently an arm 

of the Atlantic Ocean, the Champlain Sea, occupied 

42 

the upper St . Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys . 

Thereafter, differential uplift resulted in the gradual 

recession of the Champlain Sea and the development 

of the present-day Ottawa and St. Lawrence 

rivers system . 

In the West St . Lawrence Lowland fine silt and clay 

lacustrine plains are found bordering lakes Ontario 

and Erie, in the extreme southwest of the Ontario 

Peninsula, in the Niagara Peninsula, and in a narrow 

belt along the north shore of Lake Ontario near 

Kingston . As the glacial lakes receded during 

deglaciation, rivers advanced steadily and formed 

deltas, spreading sheets of sand over the lacustrine 

silts and clays along the north shore of Lake Erie 

and the south shore of Georgian Bay between the 

Niagara Escarpment and Canadian Shield . Near the 

Shield the sandy deposits are acidic and of granitic 

origin ; southward the deposits become less acidic 

and grade into a more sandy-clay composition . 

On the Montreal Plain in the Central St . Lawrence 

Lowland steep-banked, flat, clay-bottomed valleys 

are found south and east of Montreal . To the 

northwest, along the Ottawa River is a narrow, level 

to undulating silty clay plain interrupted in places 

by small thin deposits of sand and Precambrian 

outcrops . At the foot of the Canadian Shield and 

Appalachians, undulating to hilly, gravelly and sandy 

outwash deposits are interspersed with enormous 

sand deltas . Shorelines of recession left by the 

Champlain Sea are represented by coarse-textured 

terraces parallel to the St . Lawrence River . The lower 

slopes of the Lowland east of Montreal are a complex 

of coarse outwash deposits, level to undulating 

sandy deltaic deposits underlain by clay, recent 

alluvium, and areas of level silts and clays with 

sandy overlays . 

The Interior Plains 

The largest area to the west and southwest of the 

Canadian Shield is the Interior Plains Region . The 

Canadian section of the Interior Plains extends from 

the 49th parallel to the Mackenzie Delta on the 

Arctic Ocean, between the Canadian Shield and 

the mountains of the Cordilleran Region . The 

plains consist of flat-lying sedimentary rocks 

overlying the gently sloping rim of the Precambrian 

Shield (Fig . 30) . 


The plains are underlain by nearly horizontal beds 

of sedimentary rocks, ranging from Cambrian to 

Tertiary, comprised of gently warped sequences of 

limestone, sandstone, and shale . During Tertiary 

times large rivers fiowing east from the Rockies 

spread masses of sand and gravel across the 

Interior Plains, forming an uneven surface above the 

Cretaceous deposits . Increased fluvial erosion due 

to renewed uplift of the plains resulted in the carving 

of the Tertiary surface into isolated uplands during 

semiarid and subhumid periods preceeding the

ioo 200 

Kilometres 

1 . 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 

7 . 

8 . 

9 . 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13 . 

14 . 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC 

DIVISIONS 

LLLJ 

Anderson Plain 

Horton Plain 

Peel Plain 

Peel Plateau 

Colville Hills 

Great Bear Plain 

Great Slave Plain 

Alberta Plateau 

Fort Nelson Lowland 

Peace River Lowland 

Alberta Plain 

Cypress Hills 

Saskatchewan Plain 

Manitoba Plain 

LEGEND 


Plateaus 

Hills 

Fig . 30 . Physiographic divisions of the Interior Plains (After Bostock, 

Geological Survey of Canada) . 

SRI

Pleistocene Epoch . The Tertiary erosional remnants 

include the Turtle Mountain in southwestern 

Manitoba, the Wood and Moose mountains of 

southern Saskatchewan, the Cypress Hills of 

southern Saskatchewan and Alberta, Hand and 

Neutral hills of southern Alberta, Swan Hills and 

Caribou Mountains of northern Alberta, and the 

Horn Mountains northwest of Great Slave Lake . 

In addition to these erosional remnants, the relatively 

uniform slope of the southern Interior Plains is 

broken into three levels of steps by the Manitoba 

Escarpment and Missouri Coteau . The Cretaceous 

Manitoba Escarpment forms the western boundary 

of the Manitoba Plain rising in places to over 1,000 ft 

(305 m) above the plain . The escarpment has been 

dissected by erosion and cut into an irregular series 

of hills by the Pembina, Assiniboine, Swan, Red 

Deer, and Saskatchewan rivers . From the east, 

the escarpment appears as a series of isolated 

uplands, including the Pembina, Riding, Duck, 

Porcupine, Pasquia, and Wapawekka uplands . 

Viewed from the west, the uplands are difficult to 

detect due to the gently dipping westward slope. 

The Missouri Coteau separating the Saskatchewan 

Plain from the Alberta Plain is a lower, less abrupt, 

topographic feature than the Manitoba Escarpment . 

The Coteau strikes from North Dakota through 

southeast Saskatchewan into northeastern Alberta 

and forms a narrow upland of hilly ridges rising 200 

to 500 ft (60 to 150 m) above the Saskatchewan 

Plain to reach over 2,500 ft (760 m) in places . The 

Coteau is well defined between the International 

Border and the South Saskatchewan River by a line 

of low, rounded hills formed by Tertiary and Upper 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks . Stretching from the 

Coteau westward, the third prairie step slopes 

gradually upward to about 4,000 to 4,500 ft (1 200 

to 1 370 m) at the foothills of the Rockies to form 

the Alberta Plain . 

Drainage on the Interior Plains is in three directions, 

towards Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the 

Arctic Ocean . The northern Interior Plains and 

Alberta Plateau drain northward through the Liard, 

Peace, and Athabasca rivers into the MacKenzie 

River and then to the Arctic Ocean . The northern 

Interior Plains not only slope northward, but have 

a west-east tilt towards the eastern margin of the 

MacKenzie basin . Here, the large water bodies of 

the Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca lakes 

have developed in large depressions associated with 

faults along the edge of the Shield . 

South of the Athabasca River, most of the southern 

Interior Plains drain northeastward through the 

drainage systems of the Saskatchewan and Red 

rivers into the Hudson Bay. Only a few small streams 

in southern Saskatchewan and the Milk River in 

Alberta drain south to the Gulf of Mexico through 

the Missouri River System . 

The general effect of preglacial erosion has been the 

formation of a vast plain sloping from west to east 

interrupted by isolated uplands and broken 

escarpments . 

GLACIATION 

Following the long period of erosion in Tertiary 

times, the Interior Plains were subjected to a 

succession of glacial ice advances and retreats 

during the Pleistocene Epoch . The continental ice 

sheets covered all of the Interior Plains and at 

maximum extent coalesced with the Cordilleran 

glaciers of the west . The ice advanced from the 

Keewatin center of the Laurentide ice sheet in a 

general south-southwest direction across the 

southern plains and Alberta Plateau, but in the 

northwestern section of the plains the ice advanced 

to the north and northwest . 

The results of glaciation during the Pleistocene 

Epoch are of fundamental importance because they 

determined the nature of the parent material for 

virtually all of the plains area, but did not significantly 

alter the main, preglacial relief features . The 

considerable differences in the thickness of till over 

short distances indicates that the buried preglacial 

topography was not markedly modified by ice 

erosion . However, the effects of mixing and 

deposition of transported and underlying material, 

unloading of materials during melting and retreat, 

and meltwater ponding and runoff have had a 

considerably more important role in modifying the 

surface of the landscape . 

Paleozoic limestone and Cretaceous sandstone and 

shale areas all show the effects of glacial erosion and 

removal of preglacial weathered material . Erosion of 

the Paleozoic limestone deposits north and east of 

the Cretaceous deposits has left a flat, pavementlike 

surface mantled by a shallow, relatively evenly 

distributed, sandy glacial till . Limestone flags and 

large Precambrian blocks make this particular till 

deposit very stony . 

The general effect of the ice advancing across the 

upper Cretaceous beds has been one of deposition 

and incorporation of its load with the softer shales 

rather than one of deep erosion and scouring . An 

exception is the deepening of the front of the 

Cretaceous Manitoba Escarpment . In lower valley 

areas till deposits are thicker and smoother, whereas 

the tops of higher plateau surfaces are frequently 

more thinly glaciated, usually retaining their original 

preglacial bedrock contours . In southwestern 

Saskatchewan, the top of the Cypress Hills and 

portions of the Wood Mountain Plateau are the only 

areas that escaped glaciation . 

The pattern of surficial deposits is a complex of level 

to gently rolling till plains (of ground moraine), 

interspersed with flat lacustrine clay basins and 

rougher, undulating to hilly, hummocky and endmoraine 

deposits . The fine clayey till found in ground 

moraine throughout the southern plains has been 

derived primarily from underlying shale strata . 

Hummocky and end-moraine deposits cover large 

45

areas of the southern plains west of the Manitoba 

Escarpment and northwest of Great Bear Lake on 

the northern Interior Plains . Although similar to 

ground moraine in composition, these areas are more 

sandy or gravelly and may include stratified or 

resorted tills . End moraines are usually more subdued 

and more difficult to trace than those evident on 

the Canadian Shield and West St . Lawrence Lowland . 

Hummocky moraine is the more prominent moraine 

feature, indicating areas of semiactive ice or general 

stagnation . Knob and kettle terrain features are most 

frequently associated with hummocky moraine 

deposits . To the east below the Manitoba Escarpment, 

morainic deposits are less frequent and are usually 

found in conjunction with or buried beneath 

lacustrine and alluvial deposits . 

In late Wisconsin times, vast areas of the plains were 

covered by glacial lakes ponded between the higher 

lands to the south and the receding ice front . On 

the southern plains, the largest was glacial Lake 

Agassiz, which at maximum extent covered most of 

southern Manitoba and parts of eastern and central 

Saskatchewan and lapped against the front of the 

Manitoba Escarpment. West of the escarpment, 

glacial lakes Souris, Regina, and Saskatoon 

occupied wide areas of the Saskatchewan Plain . 

Flat-bottomed, steep-banked meltwater spillways 

channeled water eastward to glacial Lake Agassiz . 

Significant but smaller glacial lakes were located in 

the Drumheller, Edmonton, and Lethbridge areas 

of the Alberta Plain . 

On the northern plains a number of large glacial 

lakes formed along the edge of the Canadian Shield 

from present-day Great Bear Lake to Lake Winnipeg . 

At maximum extent they occupied the upper 

Mackenzie, Hay, Peace, and Athabasca river basins . 

Closely associated with the finer-textured lacustrine 

sediments of former lake basins are coarser glacialfluvial 

outwash deposits . The coarse-textured 

outwash deposits are usually found on lower slopes 

of the upland areas, along the sides of valleys and 

the fringes of lacustrine areas . Extensive areas of 

present-day sand hills are the result of deltaic sands 

deposited in glacial lakes in the present arid areas 

of the south Saskatchewan Plain . 

In some instances, where thick lake sediments were 

deposited prior to the melting of buried ice blocks, 

a hummocky terrain developed similar to that of dead 

ice or disintegration moraine . On higher slopes, the 

melting of ice has caused a certain amount of local 

sorting and ponding, which is evident in the 

arrangement of sediments from knolls to ponded 

depressions in rolling morainic terrain . 


SOUTHERN INTERIOR PLAINS . The Manitoba 

Plain is the lowest and flattest of the three prairie 

steps . The underlying Paleozoic rocks are covered 

by a mantle of glacial drift overlain in most areas by 

silts and clays deposited by Lake Agassiz . Dominating 

the central part of the plain are lakes Winnipeg, 

Winnipegosis, and Manitoba, the shrunken remnants 

of former Lake Agassiz . From Lake Winnipeg 

southward to the United States border and below 

the 850-ft (260-m) level is an extensive, moderately 

fine and fine textured lacustrine area . Eastward from 

this area and to the Shield, the terrain reaches 

elevations of 1,350 ft (410 m) at various points . 

Within this section are deposits of till, outwash 

sands, lacustrine silts and clays, and a number of 

prominent gravel beaches . On the west side of the 

lacustrine area, the plain slopes very gently to the 

Manitoba Escarpment occurring at about 1,300 ft 

(400 m) . In this area, the principal deposits are 

deltaic sands and silts . A series of coarse-textured 

beaches parallel the escarpment . 

The level to undulating lowlands stretching from 

west-central Manitoba to east-central Saskatchewan 

are covered by strongly calcareous glacial tills 

capped in places by finer lacustrine sediments and 

associated with extensive deposits of coarse 

outwash, recent alluvium, and peat . To the west along 

the upper slopes of the Manitoba Escarpment, 

extensive morainic deposits of moderately calcareous 

till form a rugged, undulating to hilly topography, 

spotted with small lakes and peaty depressions . On 

the lower east-facing slopes of the escarpment are 

sandy deltas and beach ridges deposited by 

Lake Agassiz . 

The Saskatchewan Plain is the dip slope of the 

Manitoba Escarpment, which is covered almost 

entirely by glacial deposits, lower and smoother 

than the Alberta Plain to the west . The surface ranges 

from 1,500 to 2,600 ft (460 to 790 m) with relief 

reaching 3,000 ft (915 m) in hillier areas . The till 

cover is a mixture of Precambrian granite, Paleozoic 

limestone, and Cretaceous shales of local origin . 

Associated with the rougher morainic deposits are 

a large number of small lakes occupying shallow 

depressions . The larger areas of subdued flat basins 

are the floors of former glacial lakes . 

West of the Missouri Coteau there is a gradual slope 

upwards to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, 

where sedimentary rocks are upturned and the 

topography is much rougher . This third prairie step, 

the Alberta Plain, has a bolder, more varied relief. 

In more arid parts, the soft underlying rocks have 

been severely dissected and form "badlands." The 

badlands are found along sections of the Milk and 

Red Deer valleys in Alberta, and in southern 

Saskatchewan near the International Border but 

to a lesser extent . 

The morainic till deposits of the Alberta Plain are less 

calcareous than those found on the Saskatchewan 

Plain . This difference is largely a reflection of the 

increasing proportion of shales and sandstones 

underlying the Alberta Plain and the increasing 

distance from the Paleozoic deposits bordering the 

Shield . Hummocky, knob and kettle topography is 

a dominant feature of morainic deposits . Ground 

moraine deposits in central Alberta grade into 

47

extensive areas of hummocky moraine to the south, 

which contains till ridges and moraine plateaus . 

The flatter plateau surfaces are thinly covered in 

places by lacustrine silts and clays . Larger areas of 

relatively level, fine-textured lacustrine sediments 

found in former glacial lake beds occur near 

Kindersley in south-central Saskatchewan, and 

Drumheller, Lethbridge, and Edmonton in Alberta . 

Extensive areas of sand modified by wind action into 

U-shaped dune formations are located northeast of 

the Cypress Hills near Swift Current . 

ALBERTA PLATEAU . The Alberta Plateau north 

of the Athabasca River is virtually a continuation of 

the plain to the south . It consists of a ring of plateaus 

separated by the wide valleys of the Peace, Fort 

Nelson, and Hay rivers . The Hay and Peace rivers 

with their tributaries are steeply entrenched in their 

valleys rising from 1,000 ft (305 m) in the north and 

northeast to 2,500 ft (760 m) in the west . The 

lowlands formed by these river systems occupy 

almost 50% of the total plateau area . 

North of the Peace River, the plateau surface forms 

a disconnected escarpment overlooking the Great 

Slave Plain, the summits of which vary between 

2,500 and 3,200 ft (760 and 970 m) . The Hay River 

bisects the plateau into the Cameron Hills section to 

the northwest and the Caribou Mountains to the 

southeast . On the east, the plateau overlooks the 

north end of the Saskatchewan Plain, where the lower 

reaches of the Athabasca River separate the plain 

from the upper plateau surface . The southern edge 

of the plateau on the north side of the Athabasca 

River is characterized by a smooth upland surface, 

which merges imperceptibly with the southern plains. 

The most striking feature of the plateau is the 

widespread distribution of glacial lake deposits. 

A series of lacustrine basins are located in the Fort 

Nelson, Hay, and Upper Peace river regions, 

consisting of medium to fine textured clays, sands, 

and silts on level to undulating topography. Poorly 

drained areas of coarser sandy deposits are found 

along the Athabasca and lower Peace rivers . On 

the plateau surface south of the Peace River Lowland, 

undulating to rolling till plains of coarse to fine 

textured glacial tills alternate with rough hummocky 

areas of knob and kettle topography . 

NORTHERN INTERIOR PLAINS . North of the 

Alberta Plateau, the Great Slave and Great Bear 

plains form the greater proportion of the northern 

Interior Plains at elevations below 1,000 ft (305 m) . 

The only significant topographic features breaking 

the otherwise subdued surface arethe Horn Mountain 

Plateau, an outlier of the Alberta Plateau northwest 

of Great Slave Lake, and a series of low scarps of 

resistant carbonate strata on the Great Bear Plain . 

The Anderson and Horton plains along the Arctic 

coast are separated in the south from Great Bear 

Plain by the Colville Hills and Great Bear Lake . The 

Colville Hills, which are ridges of Paleozoic strata, 

have summits reaching up to 2,200 ft (670 m) and 

enclose a number of large lakes in the intervening 

depressions . The Horton and Anderson plains stretch 

from the Mackenzie River and Delta in the west to 

the Canadian Shield in the east . They form the Arctic 

slope of the Interior Plains and drain directly into 

Amundsen Gulf . Anderson Plain is covered by glacial 

drift and outwash as distinguished from the higher 

Horton Plain where bedrock is generally exposed . 

Slightly folded Paleozoic strata along the north slope 

gives the plain a rolling surface . West of the 

Mackenzie River, the Arctic Red River is entrenched 

across the Peel Plain to the southwest . 

Covered with 

a thin layer of drift and shallow lakes, the Peel 

Plateau rises in steps from the plain to the Mackenzie 

Mountains in the west . 

North of Horn Mountains, ground moraine is the 

dominant surficial deposit on the northern plains . 

Stony outwash and alluvial deposits are widely 

distributed, but extensive peat deposits occupy a 

large percentage of the total area . North and east 

of the Colville Hills are the only widespread areas 

of hummocky moraine in the northern plains . 

Extensive glacial lake deposits of fine silts and clays 

with sheets of deltaic sands and postglacial gravel 

beaches are found in the Great Bear, Great Slave, 

Lesser Slave, and Athabasca lake basins . 

Arctic Lowlands and Coastal Plain 

Separated in the north from the continental mainland 

by Amundsen Gulf, the Arctic Lowlands represent 

the northern continuation of the Interior Plains, 

regarded as part of the North American Craton . The 

lowlands are flat-lying or nearly flat Paleozoic and 

late Proterozoic rocks . They form the southern half 

of the Canadian Archipelago between the Canadian 

Shield and the rougher terrain of the northern 

Innuitian Region (Fig . 39) . 

Physiographically, the lowlands are divided into 

segments by north-northeast trending uplifted belts 

and inliers of Precambrian rock . The Boothia uplift 

bisects the lowlands with a series of folds and faults 

consisting of northward trending Precambrian rocks 

flanked by sedimentary strata . The uplift forms the 

structural basis of the Boothia Plateau, the northern 

extension of the mainland Precambrian Shield . 

Although the uplift strikes northward 600 mi 

(965 km), only the southern part below Parry 

Channel divides the lowland . West of the Boothia 

uplift the Victoria Lowland is divided by the Minto 

Arch, a 250-mi (400-km) inlier of Precambrian rock 

flanked by inclined Paleozoic strata trending to the 

northeast . East of the uplift the lowland plains are 

split by a second extension of the Precambrian Shield, 

the Melville Plateau . Throughout the Arctic 

Lowlands, the segments between the inliers appear 

to be basins that have experienced substantial 

subsidence . 

49

: 

LEGEND 

Delta 


Plateaus 

® 

I Uplands 

® 

Mountains 

n 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 

Innuitian Region 

Grantland Mountains 

Axel Heiberg Mountains 

Eureka Upland 

Victoria and Albert Mountains 

Sverdrup Lowland 

Parry Plateau 

Arctic Lowlands 

and Coastal Plain 

Victoria Lowland 

Shaler Mountains 

Lancaster Plateau 

Boothia Plain 

Foxe Plain 

Island Coastal Plain 

Mackenzie Delta 

Yukon Coastal Plain 

Fig . 39 . Physiographic divisions of the Innuitian Region and Arctic Lowlands and Coastal Plain (After Bostock, 

Geological Survey of Canada) . 

SR/


ARCTIC LOWLANDS . In the northeast, Lancaster 

Plateau extends southward from 2,500 ft (760 m) 

on southern Ellesmere Island across central Devon 

Island, Somerset Island, and the Brodeur and Borden 

peninsulas of northwest Baffin Island . The relatively 

uniform surface slopes gently to 1,000 to 2,000 ft 

(305 to 610 m) in the south . 

The gently sloping surface of the plateau continues 

further south to form two basins of subsided 

sedimentary strata . To the east of Melville Plateau, 

the emerged outer surface of the Foxe Basin forms 

a low, smooth plain generally less than 300 ft (90 m) 

in elevation and underlain almost entirely by flat-lying 

Paleozoic limestone. The exception is found in the 

southeast part of the basin where the low ground 

extends over Precambrian rocks . West of Melville 

Plateau, it decreases to sea level on both sides of 

the Gulf of Boothia to form the Boothia Plain, which 

dips beneath the gulf at Committee Bay to the south . 

West of the Boothia Plateau, the eastern half of the 

Victoria Lowland appears to have the same sloping 

surface decreasing to the south and southwest 

across Prince of Wales Island to King William Island 

and the Adelaide Peninsula on the mainland . The 

eastern lowland is an area of low relief rarely 

exceeding 300 ft (90 m) above sea level . To the west 

of M'Clintock Channel, the surface rises again to 

form the low east coast of Victoria Island . The 

surface of the island increases to an elevation of 

2,500 ft (760 m) in the central Shaler Mountains, 

then decreases gently across the west half of the 

island to central Banks Island, where it merges with 

the Arctic Coastal Plain . The surface of Victoria 

Island east of the Shaler Mountains is poorly drained 

and dotted with numerous lakes, largely a result of 

glacial deposition features . Northwest of the Shaler 

Mountains, the terrain is below 1,000 ft (305 m) in 

elevation and is composed of rolling hills . 

ARCTIC COASTAL PLAIN . The Arctic Coastal 

Plain lies along the shores of the Arctic Ocean from 

Alaska to Meighen Island (Lat . 0°0° N, Long . 100* W) . 

The mainland portion of the plain consists of the 

Mackenzie Delta and Yukon Coastal Plain bordering 

the Cordilleran and Interior Plains regions. The 

Island Coastal Plain borders the Innuitian Region 

and Arctic Lowlands . 

The Island Coastal Plain is underlain by unconsolidated 

Tertiary or Pleistocene sands and gravels 

including deltaic deposits of modern streams and 

remnants of earlier deltas . On Banks Island the plain 

is characterized by low, rolling hills extending inland 

to a height of 300 ft (90 m) where it merges with 

the Victoria Lowland . The area is characterized by 

well-organized drainage with alluvial plains and 

terraces along the main streams . The Island Coastal 

Plain, which extends northward from Prince Patrick 

Island to the northern tip of Ellef Ringnes Island, 

is low lying with a network of consequent streams 

draining seaward . Inland, the boundary of the plain 

is marked in places by a low ridge or scarp reaching 

in places to 100 ft (30 m) above sea level . In contrast 

to the rest of the plain, the Tertiary and Pleistocene 

sediments on Meighen Island have been uplifted 

600 ft (180 m) and eroded to form a more hilly terrain . 

On the continental mainland, the Mackenzie Delta 

extends from the mouth of the west channel eastward 

to Cape Dalhousie and across Liverpool Bay to 

include the tip of Cape Bathurst . In the south, the 

delta terminates at Point Separation . The -area 

includes the present delta and remnants of earlier 

deltas . Interspersed within the delta formations are 

complex fluvial-marine features and an abundance 

of lakes, channels, and ice-cored pingos . 

At a considerably higher elevation immediately west 

of the Mackenzie Delta, the Yukon Coastal Plain is 

predominately an erosion surface cut in bedrock and 

covered with a thin layer of recent sediments . East 

of Herschel Island and extending to the delta the 

surface is covered in glacial drift spotted with lakes . 

West of the island coalesced deltas and fans form the 

major portion of the plain . 

GLACIATION 

All of the Arctic Lowlands and Coastal Plain was 

glaciated . The northern perimeter of the Wisconsin 

Laurentide ice sheet coincides roughly with the 

Parry Channel, but excluded most of Banks Island 

except for a strip of hummocky moraine along the 

Prince of Wales Strait. Till deposits on western 

Banks Island indicate that a pre-Wisconsin ice sheet 

covered most of the island . 

The ice sheet led to modifications of the preglacial 

landscape by fresh unmodified glacial landforms, 

which have controlled the development of postglacial 

terrain overwide areas . South of Lancaster Sound, the 

effect of glaciation on Lancaster Plateau has been 

restricted to a wide distribution of ground moraine 

with a few areas showing glacial lineation features. 

North of the Sound on Devon and Ellesmere islands, 

large remnant ice caps and valley glaciers provide 

a more varied relief associated with mountain 

glaciation and periglacial landscapes . The Foxe and 

Boothia plains, however, strongly reflect the effects 

of postglacial marine transgression and the 

modification of preexisting lineation features . 

The east side of the Victoria Lowland has been 

affected strongly by the widespread distribution of 

eskers, and a great number of drumlins and glacial 

flutings forming belts of moraines . On western 

Victoria Island glaciation has left a pattern of ground 

moraine in the central portion, with widespread 

areas of kames, and hummocky and end moraine 

along the coastal fringes . 

Postglacial marine transgression has left deep clay 

and silt deposits, but elsewhere deposition was less 

and the marine landforms have been sudbued by 

periglacial processes . Above the upper limit of 

marine submergence, glacial lineation features in 

51

the drift are well preserved, but those below the limit 

have been destroyed by wave action, which has 

washed out the finer sediments in the till, leaving 

boulders, gravel, and sand . 

Innuitian Region 

The Innuitian Region, which forms the northern half 

of the Canadian Archipelago, extends from northern 

Ellesmere Island south to Cornwallis Island and 

westward to the southeast coast of Prince Patrick 

Island . More rugged than the southern Arctic 

Lowlands, it extends over an area of 210,000 sq mi 

(543 690 km2) on thick, deformed sedimentary 

rocks and minor igneous intrusions of the Franklinian 

Geosyncline (Fig . 39) . 


The landscape throughout the region has been 

affected by broad crustal warping with the main 

physiographic units reflecting bedrock composition 

and geological structure . The most significant event 

to affect the geological structure of the area was 

the Ellesmerian Orogeny of the late Devonian or 

early Carboniferous age, which produced the Parry 

Islands, central Ellesmere, and northern Ellesmere 

fold belts . The fold belt stretches across northern 

Melville Island, Bathurst Island, and includes 

Cornwallis Island . It changes direction running 

northeast through Grinnell Peninsula of Devon 

Island, up the west side of Ellesmere Island to Greely 

Fjord, then changes direction again to the east side 

of Ellesmere Island . Interrupting the east-west folds 

of the Franklinian Geosyncline is the Cornwallis fold 

belt, the northern extention of the Boothia uplift . 

It crosses Parry Channel from the south to form a 

north-south block of folds with linear grabens 

bounded by normal and transcurrent faults . The 

Boothia uplift terminates north of Grinnell Peninsula 

in the Belcher Channel where the older Paleozoic 

rocks of the uplift disappear under the younger rocks 

of the Sverdrup Basin, a regional depression 

superimposed on the Franklinian Geosyncline . 


Axel Heiberg Island and most of Ellesmere Island 

consist of two ranges of mountains separated by a 

central upland area . The western range of mountains 

is cut by the uplands of Nansen Strait into the 

Grantland Mountains of northwestern Ellesmere 

Island and the Axel Heiberg Mountains covering 

most of the western and central part of that island . 

The mountains consist of long ridges of folded 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata, the central portions 

of which are nearly buried in ice sheets leaving rows 

of nunataks. Along the seaward side, the mountains 

change abruptly into a narrow, sloping plateau . 

To the east and southeast the mountains decrease 

in ruggedness and merge with the dissected Eureka 

Upland . The major ridges and valleys of the 

mountains are traversed by many parallel-sided and 

steep-walled valleys . The coastlines of both mountain 

ranges have large numbers of fjords, bays, and inlets 

cutting across the axes of the major folds . 

The second range, the Victoria and Albert mountains, 

stretches along the northeast coast of Ellesmere 

Island form Judge Daly Promontory in the north to 

Princess Marie Bay in the south . Unlike the western 

range of mountains whose summits reach as high 

as 8,200 ft (2 500 m) above sea level, the Victoria 

and Albert mountains are less rugged and rise to 

only 6,500 ft (1 980 m) . Extensive ice sheets also 

cover these mountains . 

The Eureka Upland lies between the two mountain 

ranges ; it is an area of relatively subdued topography 

covering central and eastern Ellesmere Island and 

eastern Axel Heiberg Island . Baumann Fjord forms 

the southern boundary of the upland separating it 

from the northeastward extension of the Parry 

Plateau on Ellesmere Island . The upland is a gently 

rolling and ridged surface, which is controlled by soft 

folded sandstones and shales with extensive areas 

of low dissected plateaus less than 3,000 ft (915 m) 

above sea level . Large areas of the surface have been 

cut by trenchlike depressions forming great dendritic 

drainage patterns . 

The southern border of the Innuitian Region is 

comprised of the Parry Plateau, which extends 

southwest of Baumann Fjord to the Boothia uplift 

then westward to Prince Patrick Island following the 

structural trend of the fold belts . On Ellesmere Island 

pockets of relief reach 2,500 ft (760 m) above sea 

level, but farther westward into the plateau flat or 

undulating summit surfaces are the dominant feature . 

The Parry Islands fold belt forms a series of parallel 

anticlines and synclines with distinct ridge and valley 

relief stretching westward across Devon, Cornwallis, 

Bathurst, and eastern Melville islands . The ridges 

are steep sided with broad, flat tops less than 500 ft 

(150 m) above sea level and are separated by wide, 

flat-floored longitudinal valleys . To the west of 

Melville Island the plateau surface rises above 1,000 ft 

(305 m) . Unlike the mountains and uplands, the 

plateau surface is entirely free of extensive ice sheets. 

The Sverdrup Lowland lying north of the plateau 

includes northeastern Prince Patrick Island, the 

northern coastal lowlands of Melville Island, and 

the Bjorne Peninsula of Ellesmere Island . The lowland 

developed on a structural basin of soft, poorly 

consolidated Mesozoic rocks, leaving an area of 

rolling low relief less than 500 ft (150 m) above 

sea level . Locally the lowland is interrupted by low 

hills associated with piercement domes of gypsum 

and dissected uplands of resistant gabbro sills and 

dykes incorporated in the flat-lying or gently 

folded strata . 

GLACIATION 

Pleistocene glaciation and postglacial marine 

submergence in the Innuitian Region have left a 

marked difference in the pattern of glacial landform 

53

features from those evident south of the Parry 

Channel . This difference is largely reflected in the 

fact that a separate ice sheet covered the Queen 

Elizabeth Islands.4 The ice over the island complex 

was not as thick as the Laurentide ice sheet to the 

south, nor was it necessarily all glaciated during 

the Wisconsin stage. 

There is a widespread absence of glacial landforms 

and sediments, particularly in the low-lying areas to 

the west, indicating that the ice sheet could not have 

been very active . Glacial lineation features indicating 

ice flow direction and the extent of postglacial 

marine submergence reveal that the ice was thicker 

over the eastern and southern parts of the Irinuitian 

Region . The recession of the ice sheet was in the 

same easterly direction . 

Maximum marine overlap is found on the eastern 

sides of the islands, decreasing towards the west, 

where there is no evidence of marine submergence 

on the western coastline of Melville Island . The effect 

of mountain glaciation is strongly pronounced in 

the east, on the mountains and uplands of Ellesmere, 

Axel Heiberg, and Devon islands . At present, the ice 

fields and valley glaciers are still prominent features 

along with the effects of continued mountain 

glaciation on the landscape . 

Appalachian Region 

Southeast of the Canadian Shield and east of the 

St . Lawrence Lowlands, the Canadian section of 

the Appalachian Mountain System occupies all 

of the Maritime Provinces, the Gaspe Peninsula, and 

the Eastern Townships of Quebec . The Canadian 

section is the northernmost continuation of the 

American Physiographic Province of New England, 

which includes the Green Mountains of Vermont, the 

White Mountains of New Hampshire and Maine, 

and the New England Uplands (Fig . 48) . 


The Appalachians form an extensive and complex 

belt of fold mountains consisting largely of flattopped, 

rolling uplands, the main axis of which runs 

northeast-southwest . Three main belts of mountainbuilding 

activity run through the region . In the north 

and west, long parallel folded ridges of the Taconic 

uplift form the first belt of fold mountains . Thrust to 

the northwest, they extend through northwest 

Newfoundland and New Brunswick to the New 

England Uplands in the United States . The 

Caledonian uplift and Acadian orogeny form the 

second belt of mountains, which stretch through 

central Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Nova 

Scotia, leaving a complex zone of broad plateaulike 

uplands of folded sedimentary rocks intruded by 

domes of crystalline rock . Lastly, to the east, short 

intensely folded ridges intruded by small igneous 

bodies of crystalline rock extend from the Avalon 

Peninsula of Newfoundland south through Cape 

Breton to southern Nova Scotia . 

The present summits of the fold belts are thought to 

be the remnants of a peneplain formed in Cretaceous 

times and since uplifted and heavily dissected . Its 

general aspect is a southeastwardly sloping 

peneplain, with a predominance of long, flat-topped 

or gently rounded ridges and uplands . Differential 

erosion has left a northeast-southwest trend of 

physiographic units composed of highlands and 

uplands separated by valleys and broad lowland 

areas developed on less resistant late Paleozoic 

sedimentary rocks . 

The highlands and uplands of the Appalachian 

Region -form a semicircle about the vast lowland 

area, almost entirely drowned by the Gulf of 

St . Lawrence . The lowland plain is underlain by late 

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, which emerged in the 

southern section of the Gulf of St . Lawrence to form 

the MaYitime Plain of mainland New Brunswick, 

Nova Scotia, all of Prince Edward Island, and the 

Madeleine Islands . Most of the Maritime Plain is 

below 400 ft (120 m) in elevation and the 

surrounding uplands generally range between 500 

and 2,700 ft (150 and 820 m) with the exception of 

the Notre Dame Mountains where elevations exceed 

4,000 ft (1 220 m) . 


The physiographic subdivisions of Newfoundland, 

which constitute the northernmost part of the 

Appalachian system, are governed by the same 

structural trends evident throughout the Appalachian 

Region . The island is divided into three major 

physiographic divisions, the Newfoundland Highlands, 

Atlantic Uplands, and Central Lowland . The 

highlands and uplands, which represent the old 

erosion surface of the peneplain, extend across the 

whole island and encircle the Central Lowland 

centered on Notre Dame Bay to the north . 

Crystalline granites, gneisses, and schists form the 

core of ''the highlands, which rise in the west from 

600 to 2,600 ft (180 to 790 m) in elevation . The 

highlands are separated into two parallel ranges of 

mountains . In the west, the Deer Lake Lowland near 

Cornerbrook separates the northern Long Range 

Mountains from the Serpentine Range extending 

southward to St . Georges Bay . Sloping eastward, 

the second belt of mountain ranges extends from 

Port aux Basques through Grand Lake to White Bay 

in the north consisting of the Long Range in the 

south, Topsoil Hills in the center, and the Dunamagon 

Highlands between White Bay and Notre Dame Bay . 

Throughout the highlands, where surface erosion has 

prevailed, the terrain is very rugged with steep cliffs 

bordering on the sea . Otherwise, the surface of the 

old peneplain is gently rolling and dissected in places . 

" The Queen Elizabeth glacier complex included ice sheet, ice cap, piedmont, 

and valley glaciers . 

55

va Scotia ® Highlands, Mountains __-__-----_--- 

nds 

ds 

IfIIW~I 

_ 

------------- 

CANADIAN SHIELD O 

~qsr 

~PENCE pIVER ST. LAWS I1 

SS L I III~IIIIWWWIIIIIIIIlllIlllllllllll IWIIII 

I ~W 

I . .'. . 

\ ~ANTICOSTI 

I ISLAND 

109" 

Fig. 48 . Physiographic divisions of the Appalachian Region (After Bostock, Geological Survey of Canada) . 

zff 

SRI

The only discernible physiographic difference 

between the highlands and uplands is the effect of 

the southeast sloping surface of the peneplain, which 

is responsible for the lower elevations ranging from 

600 to 1,000 ft (180 to 305 m) . Surface erosion 

has left the same local landscape features with the 

exception of a more pronounced effect of differential 

erosion due to the wider distribution of softer 

Paleozoic rocks . 

The Newfoundland Central Lowland, which is 

underlain by softer Paleozoic strata, rises from sea 

level to 500 ft (150 m) disturbed in places by 

intrusive rocks forming small prominent hills . Unlike 

the highlands and uplands, there is a distinct 

topographical break between the lowlands and the 

highland-upland complex that surrounds it . Within 

the lowland the drift-covered Paleozoic rocks 

present a gently rolling relief . 

Throughout Newfoundland, Paleozoic sedimentary 

rocks, which usually occupy the downfolds and 

were preserved during successive planations, provide 

the best farming land . The more prominent of these 

areas are the valleys of the Gander, Humber, and 

Exploits rivers and the areas surrounding the White, 

Conception, and St . Georges bays . 

The major section of the Appalachian Region slopes 

southeast from the Gaspe Peninsula to the Atlantic 

shore of Nova Scotia and reveals a series of ridges 

and furrows. The ridges, which are comprised of 

uplands and highlands consisting of old and resistant 

crystalline or Precambrian rocks, are separated 

by valleys and lowlands of less resistant Permocarboniferous 

sedimentary rocks . To the extreme 

northwest outside the Maritimes proper, highly folded 

Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, whose axes strike 

parallel to the St . Lawrence, form the complex of 

mountains and uplands of Appalachian Quebec . 

The Notre Dame Mountains form the central core 

extending from Thetford Mines northeast to the 

Shickshock Mountains and culminating in Mount 

Cartier [4,160 ft (1 270 m)], the highest point in the 

Appalachian Region in Canada . The flat surface of 

the highlands, a remnant of the Cretaceous peneplain, 

gradually merges with the Eastern Quebec Uplands 

in the southwest. The uplands, which are broken in 

the south and east by the Sutton Mountains and 

Megantic Hills, decrease in elevation towards the 

northwest eventually merging with the St . Lawrence 

Lowlands . Topographically, there is no significant 

break between the uplands and Notre Dame 

Mountains . In the south, the Sutton Mountains and 

Megantic Hills are residual peaks 2,000 to 3,800 ft 

(610 to 1 160 m) in elevation upheld by resistant 

granites and basaltic lavas . They represent the 

northern culmination of the Green Mountains of 

Vermont and the White Mountains of New England . 

Southeast of the Notre Dame Mountains there is a 

distinct physical break where the lower elevations of 

the Chaleur Uplands form low, dissected and 

ice-smoothed peneplains, which are drained by the 

Restigouche River into the Bay of Chaleur . The 

uplands formed on folded Paleozoic strata, 800 to 

1,000 ft (244 to 305 m) in elevation, consist of 

uniform summits broken by isolated ridges, which 

slope to the southeast and merge with the central 

highlands . 

The U-shaped central highlands have been heavily 

dissected by rivers . The St . John River has divided 

the highlands into three separate parts, the Miramichi 

Highlands to the northeast, St . Croix to the west, and 

the Caledonian to the east of the river . In the 

northeastern and western sections of the highlands 

large granite batholiths rise above the softer slates, 

conglomerates, and sandstones to provide the basis 

for a more rugged relief reaching elevations of 2,000 ft 

(610 m) in the northern sections and 1,000 ft (305 m) 

along the Bay of Fundy . Throughout the highlands 

the flat-lying Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, especially 

the Devonian or earlier slates and argillites, have 

provided the best soil areas for farming . 

East of the central highlands, the triangular Maritime 

Plain extends under the Northumberland Strait and 

forms the low surface of Prince Edward Island . The 

plain is composed of flat-lying Permian and 

Carboniferous rocks, which are shales, sandstones, 

and conglomerates . The Cumberland Lowland, an 

extension of the plain, stretches to the southeast 

across the Isthmus of Chignecto as far as Pictou . 

The highlands of Nova Scotia surround the Maritime 

Plain to the southeast and northeast . In the west, 

parallel to the north side of Cobequid Bay lie the 

Cobequid Mountains with a relatively flat rolling 

surface . In the center, southwest of the Strait of 

Canso the Antigonish Highlands are more dissected . 

To the northeast, stretching from Cape North to the 

Strait of Canso on the northwest side of Cape Breton 

Island, the highlands are deeply dissected on the 

margins and have large flat plateaus in the interior . 

A long, narrow, flat-topped volcanic sill of Triassic 

lava forms the North Mountain, which extends along 

the southeast shore of the Bay of Fundy. Parallel to 

this ridge is the Annapolis - Cornwallis Valley, a 

U-shaped depression of late Paleozoic and Triassic 

sandstones . The remaining lowland area in Nova 

Scotia extends northeastward from the valley, 

surrounding the Minas Basin from Windsor to Truro . 

South of the highlands and Annapolis Valley, the 

Atlantic Uplands dominate Nova Scotia from Cape 

Sable to Glace Bay. The highest elevations are found 

in the South Mountains and from there the surface 

slopes gently to the ocean . The surface of the old 

peneplain that forms the basis of the uplands is 

gently rolling and covered with a thin discontinuous 

layer of stony moraine . 

GLACIATION 

All of the Appalachian Region was covered by ice 

during the Pleistocene period and much of the 

preglacial surface has been scoured and subsequently 

covered with a layer of till and morainic deposits of 

varying thickness . 

57

In New Brunswick evidence of granitic rock from 

the Precambrian Shield in the St . John Valley and 

Chaleur Uplands indicates that the Laurentide Ice 

Sheet reached the uplands . But the pattern of 

deglaciation indicated by ice flow features and glacial 

striae reveal that there may have been a separate 

center of ice dispersion over southern New Brunswick 

forming part of the Appalachian Glacier complex . 

The disintegration of the ice sheets and subsequent 

changes in sea level have had a significant effect 

on coastal regions . In the rougher coastal areas there 

is a close relationship between geological structure 

and major coastal features, where peninsulas 

coincide with outcrops of resistant rock and bays 

with drowned valleys of younger less resistant 

sediments . Similarly, coastal areas affected by a 

postglacial submergence are primarily found around 

the fringes of the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of St . 

Lawrence . Marine deposits can be found along the 

entire north shore, Minas Basin, and Annapolis 

Lowland of the Bay of Fundy . There is little evidence 

of marine submergence along the entire Atlantic 

coast of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island . The 

most extensive areas of marine submergence occur 

on the east coast of New Brunswick, where marine 

sediments have been generally eroded away or 

incorporated into soil profiles . The west side of 

Prince Edward Island, the western coastal lowland, 

and the northeast coast of Newfoundland are the 

remaining areas affected by marine submergence, 

with the exception of a narrow strip along the 

St . Lawrence shore of Eastern Quebec Uplands . 

About one-third of Newfoundland's surface is 

bedrock ; the remainder is covered with glacial drift, 

organic bogs, and recent alluvium . Large areas of 

ribbed moraine are found on the Central Lowland and 

Atlantic Uplands of mainland Newfoundland and in 

the central Avalon Peninsula . Areas of fluted and 

drumlinized terrain are largely confined to central 

Newfoundland where the direction of ice flow was 

outward to the coastal regions . 

On Cape Breton Island extensive moraine deposits 

are restricted to the eastern side . The southwestern 

side of the Island is the only area in the Maritimes 

exhibiting what seems to be glacial lake ponding . 

Valleys at elevations of 200 to 300 ft (60 to 90 m) 

were ponded and later terraced by stream action . 

Prince Edward Island is covered by level to undulating 

drift deposits derived from underlying sedimentary 

rocks . A distinctive feature of the drift deposits is the 

lack of igneous and other stones in the till on the west 

side of the Island . Eastern and north central parts of 

the Island are characterized by glaciofluvial deposits 

and the only netted or branching systems of eskers 

on the Island . 

A thin mantle of moderately coarse, stony till covers 

the broad uplands of Nova Scotia . The level to 

undulating lowlands are covered by thicker and less 

stony tills, with the exception of river valleys where 

glaciofluvial sands and gravels predominate . The 

effect of local geological deposits on the composition 

of till is reflected in several areas . Silty to sandy, 

light-colored tills are found in areas underlain by 

granite or quartzites . In the Atlantic Uplands, to the 

southeast along the Le Havre River till has been 

derived from local slates giving it an olive gray color . 

South of the Cobequid Mountains, ice flow features 

are in a southeasterly direction, and there are drumlins 

composed of red tills to the northeast and esker 

deposits to the southeast . Igneous stones from the 

Cobequid Mountains occur in the red tills covering 

the Paleozoic strata of the Maritime Plain . 

Very stony, sandy till deposits occurring frequently 

with rock outcrop exposures characterize the surficial 

features of the New Brunswick Highlands . The 

exception to thisrule is the highlands to the southwest 

where deep gravelly tills have smoothed the rougher 

topography into a more rolling upland terrain . 

In contrast, the Chaleur Uplands have a far more 

rugged and deeply dissected topography on which 

the till deposits are very shallow . Although there are 

few rock outcrops, the till is stony to very gravelly . 

The Notre Dame Mountains exhibit the same surficial 

deposits and terrain features evident in the Chaleur 

Uplands . 

On the Maritime Plain sandy tills are found within the 

Miramichi watershed, but elsewhere the till is a deep 

red brown of local origin . Wide areas have been 

covered by a thin layer of marine sands. Alluvial 

plains and terraces are scattered along the coast 

and valleys of the main rivers ; they range from fine 

sands and silts to coarse sands and gravel . 

Cordilleran Region 

The Canadian Cordillera forms part of the great 

orogenic belt of mountains that border on the Pacific 

Ocean in North and South America . Within Canada, 

the Cordillera occupies a large northwesterly trending 

region, which is from 300 to 500 mi (480 to 800 km) 

in width and more than 1,600 mi (2570 km) long . 

The region lies between the Interior Plains on the 

east and the Pacific Ocean and Alaskan boundary 

to the west . 

The International Boundary along the 

49th parallel forms the southern limit of the 

Cordilleran Region in Canada (Fig . 57) . 


The Cordilleran Region in Canada is divided 

longitudinally into the Western System, Interior 

System, and the Eastern System . Differences in 

geological structure allied with different histories 

of uplift and subsidence have developed a distinct 

physiography for each system . 

East-west belts of low terrain and northwesterly 

trending trenches divide the three systems into a 

number of physiographic subdivisions . The Liard 

Plateau, Liard Plain, and Yukon Plateau separate the 

Rocky and Cassiar mountains from the Mackenzie 

and Selwyn mountains to the north . The Porcupine 

59

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 

1 . Richardson Mountains 

2 . Porcupine Plateau 

3 . Old Crow Plain 

4 . Eagle Plain 

5 . Taiga Ranges 

6 . Wernecke Mountains 

7 . Mackenzie Mountains 

8 . Mackenzie Plain 

9 . Franklin Mountains 

10 . Liard Plateau 

11 . Rocky Mountain Foothills 

12 . Northern Rocky Mountains 

13 . Southern Rocky Mountains 

14 . British Mountains 

15 . Ogilvie Mountains 

16 . Yukon Plateau 

17 . Tintina Trench 

18 . Shakwak Trench 

19 . Pelly Mountains 

20 . Selwyn Mountains 

21 . Hyland Plateau 

22 . Liard Plain 

23. Stikine Plateau 

24 . Cassiar Mountains 

25 . Skeena Mountains 

26. Omineca Mountains 

27. Nass Basin 

28 . Hazelton Mountains 

29 . Northern Rocky Mt . Trench 

30 . Interior Plateau 

31 . Fraser Basin 

32 . Columbia Mountains 

33 . Columbia Highlands 

34 . Southern Rocky Mt . Trench 

35. Coast Mountains 

36. Cascade Mountains 

37. Coastal Lowlands 

38 . Fraser Lowland 

39 . Queen Charlotte Lowland 

40 . Nahwitti Lowland 

41 . Nanaimo Lowland 

42 . St . Elias Mountains 

43 . Queen Charlotte Ranges 

44 . Vancouver Island Ranges 

® 

® 

Legend 

Lowlands, Plains, Basins 

Trenches 

Plateaus 

Hills 

Highlands, Mountains 

SRI 

Fig . 57 . Physiographic divisions of the Cordilleran Region (After Bostock, Geological Survey of Canada) . 

61

Plateau separates the Mackenzie Mountains and 

British Mountains from the Richardson Mountains . 

Trending northwesterly through the Cordillera are 

four great linear trenches, which are each at least 

300 mi (480 km) long and some of them delineate 

the major physiographic and geological boundaries 

of the Interior Mountain and Plateau System . The 

trenches are large fault-controlled depressions 

modified by normal erosion and glaciation . They are 

the Southern and Northern Rocky Mountain trenches 

of British Columbia and the Tintina and Shakwak 

trenches in the Yukon . The valley floors vary in width 

from less than a mile to more than 15 mi (1 to 24 km) . 

Through almost the entire length of both the 

Northern and Southern Rocky Mountain trenches 

flow a number of rivers . From north to south they 

are the Liard and its tributary the Kechika, the 

Finlay and Parsnip, which are tributaries of the Peace 

River, the upper Fraser, the Columbia, and the 

Kootenay . In the north they eventually break through 

the Rockies into the Interior Plains and drain to 

Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean . Those in the south 

eventually turn west to flow across the Interior 

Plateau to the Pacific Ocean . 

Remnants of old erosion surfaces and constructional 

volcanic landforms have also left a number of 

distinctive relief features throughout the Cordillera . 

The old erosion surface is found between 7,000 and 

8,000 ft (2 140 and 2 440 m) in the Coast Mountains, 

but it is most conspicuous in the plateau 

areas of the Interior System between 4,000 and 

6,000 ft (1 220 and 1 830 m) . The relief of the old 

erosion surface is not sufficiently low to be referred 

to as a peneplain because the surface is usually 

undulating with some higher rounded summits . 

The old erosion surface, widespread surfaces of low 

relief, and some of the larger elements of the 

present-day drainage system were formed during the 

early to mid-Tertiary period when erosion was 

dominant . In late Tertiary times, basalt and olivine 

basalt material erupted from fissures and shield 

volcanoes to produce a number of constructional 

landforms . The lava flows covered large parts of the 

undulating surface of the Interior Plateau and 

penetrated into the valleys of the Columbia 

Mountains and Highlands . Renewed uplift and 

erosion later faulted, warped, and leveled much of 

the surface, leaving large areas of lava-topped plains, 

plateaus, and mesas . 

The great shield volcanoes in the northwest Interior 

Plateau and Stikine Plateau provide one of the most 

striking landform features . A large number of small 

volcanoes and cinder cones have formed along faults 

or zones of weakness, ranging in age from pre- 

Pleistocene to within a few hundred years of 

the present. 

WESTERN SYSTEM 

The Western System includes a belt of mountainous 

country more than 1,100 mi (1 770 km) long, which 

62 

stretches from the 49th parallel to the 141 st meridian 

(the Alaskan Boundary) and varies from 100 to 

200 mi (160 to 320 km) in width . Longitudinally, it 

is made up of three areas : the Coastal Mountain 

belt composed of the Cascade, Coast, and St . 

Elias 

mountains ; the Outer Insular Mountain belt formed 

of the mountainous parts of the Vancouver and 

Queen Charlotte islands ; and the Coastal Trough 

and Lowlands lying between the two mountain belts . 

The Western System is bisected by a broad depression 

formed by the Dixon Entrance along the north coast 

of the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, and a 

long depression or saddle in the Coast Mountains 

on the east . The depression does not break the 

Coastal Mountain belt to the same degree that the 

Liard Plateau and Plain do in separating the Rocky 

and Mackenzie mountains of the Eastern System . 

The depression in the Coast Mountains is traversed 

by deep, narrow valleys of the Skeena and 

Nass rivers . 

The Fraser River valley separates the smaller Cascade 

Mountains in the southeast from the much larger 

Coast Mountains to the northwest . The Cascade 

Mountains as a whole are lower and less rugged than 

the Coast Mountains . The highest peaks reach 8,000 

to 8,300 ft (2440 to 2530 m) . The Cascades continue 

south into the United States where they occupy a 

much larger area than in Canada . 

The Coast Mountains are underlain by an immense 

Juro-Cretaceous batholith of crystalline gneisses 

and granitic rocks . There are no physiographic 

characteristics that would separate the Coast 

Mountains into smaller units . 

The mountains have 

been dissected by a network of great, deepU -shaped 

valleys ; nine or more of which have cut completely 

through, including the Fraser, Nass, Skeena, and 

Stikine river valleys . Between the major valleys the 

mountains stand out as great steep-walled blocks, 

dissected by tributary streams dropping abruptly 

to the main valley floors . The summits of the 

mountains tend to show remnants of the old erosion 

surface between 7,000 and 8,000 ft (2130 and 

2440 m) . Extreme glaciation has also carved rugged 

serrated peaks with saw-toothed pinnacles reaching 

10,000 ft (3050 m) in places . 

Northwest of the Coast Mountains are the St . Elias 

Mountains . Devonian to Pliocene in age, they are 

cored by crystalline rocks and flanked by outwarddirected 

thrusts . The mountains are the highest in 

Canada, and peaks range to a high of 19,850 ft 

(6 050 m) on Mount Logan . Near the Canada-Alaska 

boundary the main peaks of the Icefield Ranges stand 

out as isolated blocks separated by ice-filled valleys 

up to elevations of 8,000 ft (2 440 m) or more . The 

valley glaciers radiate towards the sea along the 

Alaska coast and inland towards the Shakwak 

Trench . 

The Coastal Trough and Lowlands are part of a 

structural depression formed by down-warped 

sequences of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,

sandwiched between the Coast Mountains and the 

Insular Mountain belt of Vancouver Island and the 

Queen Charlotte Islands . Most of the Coastal Trough 

is submerged beneath an epicontinental sea, but 

along the shores of the Strait of Georgia, Queen 

Charlotte Strait, and Hecate Strait emerged portions 

of the depression rise above sea level to form a 

number of coastal lowlands . 

The Fraser Lowland is an area less than 1,000 ft 

(305 m) in elevation and consists mainly of 

unconsolidated material with some bedrock exposures 

in the form of small hills . The recent deltaic 

deposits are less than 50 ft (15 m) above sea level, 

and the older raised delta or terrace lies at 200 ft 

(60 m) . Hecate and Georgia lowlands border the 

Coast Mountains formed from an old erosion surface 

that emerged from the sea . The lower parts of the 

lowland are exposed bedrock, and inland much of 

the lowland is covered by muskeg . 

On Vancouver Island the Nahwitti and Nanaimo 

lowlands are largely composed of soft folded strata . 

Differential erosion has formed cuestalike ridges less 

than 2,000ft (610 m) in elevation on the Nanaimo 

Lowland . The rolling terrain of both lowlands is 

covered by sandy till and outwash deposits . On 

the Queen Charlotte Islands the lowlands rise 

southwestward to between 500 and 1,000 ft (150 

and 305 m) . Glacial ice only partially touched the 

lowlands in the northeast, leaving a cover of till 

and thick outwash deposits . 

The Insular Fold belt made up of Vancouver Island 

and the Queen Charlotte Islands evolved as a series 

of folded late Paleozoic to Tertiary rocks intruded by 

thick sequences of Mesozoic volcanic rocks, which 

have been slightly warped and faulted . The fold belt 

forms a broken and partially submerged island chain . 

The mountains of Vancouver Island rise steeply from 

the rocky coastline to reach heights above 7,000 ft 

(2140. m) . Towards the northwest elevations 

diminish and on the Queen Charlotte Islands no 

summit rises above 4,000 ft (1 220 m) . The mountain 

ranges take the form of individual blocks separated 

by narrow valleys, which descend rapidly to the 

irregular and rocky Pacific coastline . 

INTERIOR SYSTEM 

The varied surface of the Interior System is made up 

of block mountains, usually of fold rocks pushed up 

by batholiths, then sharply faulted, rolling hills, and 

deeply dissected tablelands. Remnants of old erosion 

surfaces, volcanoes, and long linear trenches are 

other distinctive relief features prevalent in the 

Interior System . 

The Interior System is largely underlain by folded 

Jurassic sedimentary and Tertiary volcanic strata, 

massive metamorphic rocks, all intruded by large or 

small bodies of igneous rocks, with local areas of 

flat-lying volcanic rocks. The system was the site of 

repeated regional metamorphism and intense 

deformation. In areas where volcanic rocks are 

predominant, broad folds and numerous steep faults 

developed, whereas sedimentary rocks were deformed 

principally by folding and locally by thrusting . 

The Interior System is divided transversely by a 

rugged central massif of igneous and sedimentary 

mountains, which include the Cassiar, Omineca, 

Skeena, and Hazelton mountains . The Omineca and 

Cassiar mountains form a continuous belt of 

mountains stretching northwest along the Northern 

Rocky Mountain Trench and Liard Plain . The 

backbone of the mountains is a batholith of granitic 

rock . In constrast, the Skeena Mountains are 

controlled by a predominance of folded stratified 

rocks of uniform resistance, which control the 

alignment of ridges and valleys . The main valleys, 

which are broad and deep, trend to the northeast . 

The higher peaks of these mountain ranges reach 

8,000 ft (2440 m) and gradually become lower 

approaching the Stikine Plateau . The Hazelton 

Mountains, which rise between 8,200 and 9,200 ft 

(2 500 and 2 800 m), are much higher and are 

separated from the Skeena Mountains by the Nass 

Basin and Buckfey River valley . 

The Nass Basin is a large depression of low relief, 

predominantly lying below 2,500 ft (760 m) . The 

basin floor is gently rolling and in some places hills 

reaching 4,000 ft (1 220 m) in elevation interrupt its 

level surface . On all sides mountains slope steeply 

into the basin, except for several large valleys 

opening out of the basin, the largest of which is the 

Nass River valley . 

South of the central massif the Interior Plateau 

extends 600 mi (965 km) southward to the 49th 

parallel . Less than 40 mi (64 km) wide in the south 

between the Columbia and Cascade mountains, it 

broadens to a maximum of 250 mi (402 km) between 

the Coast Mountains and Northern Rocky Mountain 

Trench . The plateau is drained mainly by the Fraser 

River, but parts also drain to the Skeena and Peace 

rivers in the north and Columbia River in the south . 

Although the plateau surface generally lies between 

4,000 and 5,000 ft (1 220 and 1 525 m), it decreases 

northwestward from 6,000 ft (1 830 m) near the 

Columbia Mountains to less than 3,000 ft (915 m) 

in the Fraser Basin . In the southern half of the plateau, 

remnants of the old erosion surface lie between 4,000 

and 6,000 ft (1 220 and 1 830 m) above sea level . 

The Interior Plateau is divisible into the Fraser 

Plateau in the south and Nechako Plateau in the 

north . The most notable distinguishing feature 

between the two is the difference in relief . The 

difference in elevation between the high upland 

surface and the deeply entrenched valley floors of 

the Fraser Plateau presents a greater relief than that 

expressed by the lower plateau surface and broad 

shallow valleys of the Nechako Plateau . The Fraser 

Basin forms a major lowland plain in the Nechako 

Plateau, with a general elevation of 2,300 ft (700 m) . 

The surface is gently rolling and covered by glacial 

drift and lacustrine deposits . The main valleys, which 

are broad and shallow, are entrenched by the rivers 

63

in narrow inner valleys 50 to 400 ft (15 to 122 m) 

below the general level of the plain . 

In most parts of the Interior Plateau monadnocks 

stand out on the upland as isolated mountains or 

small ridges . The upland surface of the plateau rises 

towards the bordering mountains . However, the 

boundaries between the plateau and mountains are 

ill defined . 

The Columbia Highlands and Mountains form a great 

wedge of crystalline rock between the Interior 

Plateau to the west and the Southern Rocky 

Mountain Trench to the east . West of the trench are 

the deep, narrow Purcell and Selkirk trenches, which 

strike northwest and contain the elongate Kootenay 

and Arrow lakes . The Purcell, Selkirk, Monashee, and 

Okanagan ranges rise above the trenches and exhibit 

heavily faulted, block and trench relief . The mountain 

ranges show more relief than the Rockies to the east 

and rise 8,000 ft (2 440 m) above the major 

valley floors . 

North of the central massif the Interior System 

broadens to its greatest width and contains its most 

diversified physiographic features . It consists of two 

major sections, the Selwyn and Ogilvie mountains 

to the east, and a lower more extensive plateau tract, 

the Yukon and Stikine plateaus, to the west . 

The Liard Plain and Hyland Plateau form an east-west 

belt of low terrain separating the Selwyn Mountains 

from the Rocky Mountains . The Liard Plain is a large 

basin less than 3,000 ft (915 m) high and is rimmed 

on all sides by plateaus and mountains . The Liard 

River and its tributaries entrenched below the level 

of the plain have given it a more rugged and varied 

relief. The surface of the Hyland Plateau to the 

northeast is formed of rolling hills and ridges rising 

to an elevation of 4,000 ft (1 220 m) and of broad 

valleys showing little structural alignment. The ridges 

of the plateau rise steadily northward to the Selwyn 

Mountains . 

The Selwyn Mountains rise above the Yukon Plateau 

along an irregular front, and projections of the plateau 

extend far into them, particularly along the southern 

border. The highest summits of the ranges are 

between 7,000 and 9,000 ft (2 130 and 2 750 m) 

and are separated by many broad valleys . In this 

respect their appearance is very similar to the 

Mackenzie Mountains, but intrusive rocks in the 

Selwyn Mountains serve to distinguish the two 

mountain systems . 

The Ogilvie Mountains, which lie between the Tintina 

Trench and Porcupine Plateau, are similarly 

composed of sedimentary strata and intrusive granitic 

stocks . The mountain ranges are lower, generally 

less than 7,000 ft (2 130 m), and are separated by low 

passes 3,000 to 4,000 ft (920 to 1 220 m) in elevation. 

The Yukon Plateau has a much more varied 

topography than the Interior Plateau to the south . 

The large basinlike plateau is interrupted by the 

Pelly Mountains and bisected bythe long, northwesttrending 

Tintina Trench . The central part of the basin 

is about 4,000 ft (1 220 m) in elevation and rises 

towards the borders of the plateau . Interrupting 

the surface of the plateau are higher elevations found 

in local mountain ridges and the much more extensive 

Pelly Mountains . These mountains occupy a large 

V-shaped area adjacent to the Tintina Trench ; the 

apex oftheV points to the northwest. Large U -shaped 

valleys cut deep into all ranges of the mountains . 

The ranges vary from 4,500 ft (1 370 m) to a few 

isolated peaks at 9,000 ft (2 750 m) . 

Another feature that separates the Yukon Plateau 

into two areas of differing relief is the limit of 

glaciation, especially the last Wisconsin ice stage . 

Generally the boundary of the nonglaciated areas 

lies north of the Pelly Mountains . Characteristic of 

the unglaciated northern areas of the plateau are 

the deep narrow valleys separated by long smoothtopped 

ridges of uniform elevation exhibiting 

remnants of a former, old, uplifted erosion surface . 

Between the Tintina Trench and Ogilvie Mountains 

,tablelands are broad and little dissected . 

There are no distinct physiographic features that 

separate the southern Yukon Plateau from the Stikine 

Plateau . Both exhibit a complicated series of low 

ranges and highly dissected tablelands at between 

4,000 and 6,000 ft (1 220 and 1 830 m), which are 

separated by a network of large valleys . 

EASTERN SYSTEM 

The Eastern System is formed almost entirely of 

sedimentary strata and is separated into the Rocky 

and Yukon-Mackenzie mountains. The Yukon- 

Mackenzie Mountains include, from south to north, 

the Mackenzie, Franklin, Wernecke, Taiga, Richardson, 

and British mountain chains . The mountain 

belts are composed of strongly folded and faulted 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata in which little or no 

metamorphism, volcanism, or plutonism has occurred 

during orogenic phases . 

Together, the Rocky Mountains and their foothills 

are 80 to 100 mi (129 to 161 km) wide and extend 

900 mi (1 448 km) from the 49th parallel northwest 

to the Liard Plateau and Plain . The foothills, 15 to 

40 mi (25 to 64 km) wide, parallel the entire length 

of the Rocky Mountains and rise up abruptly from 

the Interior Plains . The foothills are mainly composed 

of rounded hills, but contain within their area outlying 

mountain ridges nearly as high and rough as those 

of the Rocky Mountains to the west . 

The Rocky Mountains form a continuous wall 

traversed only by the Peace and Liard rivers . On the 

east, the boundary with the foothills is well defined 

by a series of broad folds cut by subparallel 

westward-dipping thrust faults of massive Paleozoic 

limestone and quartzite . 

Resistance of the limestone 

and quartzites to erosion has given the mountains 

their particularly rocky and rugged character. The 

ridges have been separated by deep valleys eroded 

65

along zones weakened by folds, fractures, and 

relatively soft strata . In elevation the Rocky 

Mountains range from a subdued 6,000 ft (1 830 m) 

to peaks of over 12,000 ft (3 660 m) of which Mount 

Robson [12,972 ft (3 956 m)] is the highest . 

The arcuate Yukon-Mackenzie Mountains to the 

north are more varied and lower in elevation than 

the Rocky Mountains . The fold belt is characterized 

by Paleozoic carbonates and clastic rocks thrown 

into broad simple folds and faults . Broad northwesttrending 

valleys divide the Wernecke Mountains and 

eastern ranges of the Mackenzie Mountains into 

compact blocks of peaks and ridges . Their eastern 

summits reach more than 8,500 ft (2590 m) in 

elevation, but decline northwestward to 2,000 ft 

(610 m) in the Taiga Ranges . 

The Richardson Mountains to the north are separated 

from the Mackenzie Mountains by the southern 

extension of the Porcupine Plateau . The northern 

core of the Richardson Mountains comprises a group 

of ranges whose rugged peaks reach 5,500 ft 

(1 680 m) in elevation . The southern ranges are lower 

and exhibit smooth rounded profiles . The British 

Mountains are separated from the Richardson 

Mountains by the broad saddle that connects the 

Porcupine Plateau and Yukon Coastal Plain . The 

British Mountains rise abruptly from the Yukon 

Coastal Plain and become lower towards the 

Porcupine Plateau . The highest summits reach 

6,000 ft (1 830 m) near the Alaska boundary . 

Unglaciated, the mountains are cut by numerous 

V-shaped valleys . Both the Richardson and British 

mountains are underlain primarily by sedimentary 

rocks, but include small igneous intrusions . 

Separating the various fold belts into separate 

mountain ranges are a number of low-lying plateaus 

and plains, which include the Liard Plateau, 

Mackenzie Plain, and Porcupine Plateau . The Liard 

Plateau, a low block of shale and limestone, splits 

the arcuate Mackenzie fold belt from the Rocky 

Mountains. Less than 4,500 ft (1 370 m) in elevation, 

the plateau is deeply incised by narrow river valleys . 

The Mackenzie Plain is a broad strip of the Interior 

Plains left almost undisturbed within the Mackenzie 

fold belt where front structures emerged far out in 

front of the main area of deformation to form the 

Franklin Mountains, a series of linear low ranges and 

ridges rising above the plain to 5,000 ft (1 525 m) . 

The Mackenzie River and its tributaries are 

entrenched in narrow, steep-sided valleys 200 to 

500 ft (60 to 150 m) below the general surface of the 

broad rolling plain . 

The Porcupine Plateau taken as a whole is a basin 

floored by broad plains and low hills and includes 

the foothill ridges of the surrounding mountains . 

Within the Porcupine Plateau the Old Crow and 

Eagle plains form the chief physiographic features . 

Old Crow Plain in the north is remarkably level, and 

the central part forms a broad, lake and pond spotted 

plain . The plain slopes gently upward from 900 to 

1,500 ft (275 to 460 m) at the base of the hills that 

surround it . Eagle Plain in the south, adjacent to the 

Richardson Mountains, slopes gently northward . 

This plain is featured by long, even-topped ridges 

with broad, gently rounded summits reaching in 

places to 2,500 ft (760 m) . 

GLACIATION 

Glacial ice covered all the Cordilleran Region with 

the exception of the large area extending across most 

of the northwestern Yukon Territory . This area 

remained unglaciated throughout the Pleistocene Ice 

Age . 

At first, glaciers formed chiefly in the Coast 

Mountains and to a lesser extreme in the Rocky 

Mountains . Most of the lower Interior Plateau was 

buried beneath ice that at first flowed inward from 

the two mountain systems to the east and west . 

The ice in the Interior System had no outlet and piled 

up, eventually coalescing to form the Cordilleran ice 

sheet . At its maximum extent, this ice sheet not only 

covered the mountains and plateau of the Cordillera, 

but also extended eastward down to the Interior 

Plains and westward into the Pacific Ocean . 

Cirque glaciers, snowfields, and ice fields are still 

found in the Rocky, Columbia, Coast, and St . Elias 

mountain ranges . The mountain ranges of the central 

massif and Yukon-Mackenzie are lower in elevation 

and contain little permanent glacier ice at present . 

The effects of Pleistocene glaciation in mountainous 

areas strongly reflect the erosive power of ice . The 

most conspicuous erosion features in the mountains 

are cirques, frost-shattered aretes, and saw-toothed 

ridges capped by horn peaks . Along the valley sides 

glaciation has left ice-margin channels cut into the 

bedrock, lateral moraines, and terraces, modified by 

mass wastage and slumping . Frequently, glacial 

lakes of various sizes are found in ice-abandoned 

troughs and cirques . However, it is the great 

U-shaped valleys filled with lakes or drowned by 

the invading sea that provide the most spectacular 

features of mountain glaciation . 

The fjords of the Coast Mountains follow a pattern 

strongly controlled by jointing and faulting . Most are 

characterized by sharp right-angled bends, which 

probably reflect intersecting joint systems in the 

hard crystalline rocks . The fjords vary in width from 

1 to 2 mi (1 .6 to 3.2 km) and penetrate as much as 

100 mi (160 km) inland . 

In the Interior System, U-shaped valleys containing 

long linear lakes are found scattered in the north, 

stretching southeast from Kluane Lake in the 

Shakwak Trench to Teslin Lake at the southwestern 

tip of the Pelly Mountains, west and northwest of 

the Fraser Basin, and finally on the western slopes of 

the Columbia Highlands and Mountains . In most 

cases the lakes exceed 100 mi (160 km) in length . 

The mountain slopes, upland plateaus, and valley 

floors were all mantled by a wide range of 

67

depositional features including till, outwash plains, 

terraces, moraines, drumlins, and eskers . Stony, 

sandy, glacial till deposits are the most extensive and 

cover wide areas of the Cordillera . On steep mountain 

slopes till deposits are widely associated with scree 

and extensive rock outcrops . Upland plateaus are 

more frequently associated with fluvial outwash 

deposits and colluvium . In most cases, debris 

deposited by the ice either washed or slid off 

precipitous slopes and left areas of exposed rock 

in mountain regions . Rolling till plains with 

occasional rock outcrops piercing the surface usually 

occur on subdued plateaus, slopes, and wide valley 

and trench bottoms . 

Unlike other regions in Canada, widespread and 

extensive glacial lake ponding was not a significant 

feature of glaciation in the Cordillera . The ponding of 

glacial meltwater was largely confined to river valleys 

and the trenches . The most extensive area of glacial 

lakes stretched over 200 mi (320 km) along the 

Stuart, Nechako, and Fraser rivers in the Nechako 

Plateau and Fraser Basin . In the southwest, glacial 

lakes ponded along sections of the Columbia, 

Thompson, and Okanagan river valleys . Glacial till 

deposits on the periphery of lakes were modified by 

wave action resulting in gravel beaches and sorted 

tills along the upper slopes of valley and plateau 

surfaces . With the exception of the widespread 

glaciolacustrine deposits in the Fraser Basin, most 

lacustrine deposits have been significantly altered 

by the deposition of postglacial sediments . 

In most valleys, coarse-textured and stony colluvial 

materials cover original glacial deposits on lower 

slopes and valley floors . Extensive erosion has 

produced numerous colluvial fans at the base of 

valley sides spreading over river terraces and recent 

alluvial deposits . Downcutting of valley fill by rivers 

has been progressive ; fans have formed on the 

highest terraces and then on each successive terrace . 

Continued river erosion has also contributed to the 

reduction of lacustrine deposits to narrow strips in 

some valleys . 

The east coast of Vancouver Island and the Fraser 

Lowland are the only significant areas that have been 

affected by postglacial marine submergence in the 

Cordillera . On Vancouver Island glacial debris was 

sorted by wave action . Marine clays deposited on the 

Fraser Lowland have since been altered by postglacial 

flood plains and deltaic deposits. 

References 

Acton, D .F ., Clayton, J.S ., Ellis, J.G ., Christiansen, 

E.A., and Kupsch,W.1960 . Physiographic divisions 

of Saskatchewan as established by Saskatchewan 

Soil Survey in cooperation with Geology Division ; 

Sask . Res . Counc . Geol . Dep., Univ . Sask . 

Andrews, J.T. 1970 . A geomorphological study of 

post glacial uplift with particular reference to 

northern Canada . Institute of British Geographers, 

London . 

Bird, J.B . 1967 . The physiography of Arctic Canada . 

The John's Hopkins Press, Baltimore . 

68 

Blake, W. Jr . 1966 . End moraines and deglaciation 

chronology in northern Canada . Geol . Surv . Can. 

Paper 66-26. 

Bostock, H .S . 1946 . Physiography of the Canadian 

Cordillera with special reference to the area north 

of the 55th parallel . Geol . Surv . Can . Mem. 247 . 

Bostock, H.S . 1961 . Physiography and resources of 

northern Yukon . Can . Geogr . J . 63(4) . 

Bostock, H .S . 1970 . Physiography subdivisions of 

Canada . Pages 10-30 in R .J .W . Douglas, ed . 

Geology and economic minerals of Canada . 

Queen's Printer for Canada, Ottawa . 

Bostock, H.S . 1970 . A provisional physiographic map 

of Canada . Geol . Surv. Can . Paper 64-35, 1964 

and Geol . Surv . Can . Map 1245A . 

Cameron, H .L . 1961 . Glacial geology and the soils 

of Nova Scotia . Pages 109-114 in R .F . Leggett, 

Soils in Canada . University of Toronto Press, 

Toronto, Ont. 

Chapman, L.J . and Putnam, D.F . 1966 . The 

physiography of southern Ontario . University of 

Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont . 

Clark, T.H . and Stearn, C .W . 1968 . Geological 

evolution of North America . The Ronald Press, 

New York, N .Y . 

Coombs, D.B . 1954 . The physiographic subdivision 

of the Hudson Bay Lowlands south of 60°N ., 

Geogr. Bull ., No . 6, pp . 1-14 . 

Craig, B .G . and Fyles, F.G . 1965 . Pleistocene geology 

of Arctic Canada . Geol . Surv . Can . Paper 64-20 . 

Douglas, R .J .W ., ed . 1970 . Geology and economic 

minerals of Canada . Economic Geology Report 

No . 1, Geological Survey of Canada, Queen's 

Printer for Canada, Ottawa . 

Douglas, R.J .W . 1970 . Geological map of Canada . 

Geol . Surv . Can . Map 1250A . 

Goldthwait, J .W . 1924 . Physiography of Nova 

Scotia . Geol . Surv . Can . Mem . 140 . 

Gravenor, C.P . and Bayrock, L.A . 1961 . Glacial 

deposits of Alberta . Pages 33-50 in R .F . Leggett, 

Soils in Canada . University of Toronto Press, 

Toronto, Ont . 

Holland, S.S . 1964 . Landforms of British Columbia, 

a physiographic outline . British Columbia Dep. of 

Mines, Pet. Resources Bull . 48 . 

Karrow, P.F . 1961 . The Champlain Sea and its 

sediments . Pages 97-108 in R .F . Leggett, Soils in 

Canada . University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont . 

Poole,W.H . 1967 . Tectonic evolution of Appalachian 

Region of Canada . Geol . Assoc . Can . Spec . Paper 

4, pp . 9-51 . 

Prest, V.K . 1968 . Retreat of the Wisconsin and recent 

ice in North America . Geol . Surv . Can . Map 1257A. 

Prest, V.K . 1970 . Quarternary geology of Canada . 

Pages 676-764 in R.J .W . Douglas, ed . Geology 

and economic minerals of Canada . Information 

Canada, Ottawa . 

Prest, V.K ., Grant, D.R ., and Rampton, V.N . 1970 . 

Glacial map of Canada . Geol . Surv. Can . Map 

1253A . 

Stockwell, C.H . 1961 . Structural provinces, 

orogenies, and time classification of the Canadian 

Shield . Geol . Surv . Can . Report No . 4, Paper 63-17. 

Stockwell, C.H . 1970 . Tectonic map of Canada . Geol . 

Surv . Can . Map 1251A .

Bedrock Geology 

The types and general distribution of bedrock, 

forming the primary source materials from which the 

soils of Canada have been formed, are indicated in 

Fig . 66, as adapted from the Geological Map of 

Canada . l They are further described as to nature and 

composition in the accompanying descriptive legend . 

The rock types indicated are those most representative 

of the map unit ; other rock types occur 

within the areas delineated, but they are relatively 

inextensive . 

I . Intrusive Igneous and Plutonic Rocks 

Acidic Rocks 

Mesozoic and Cenozoic . Acid rocks of the 

Cordilleran Region composed of granite, 

granodiorite, quartzdiorite, quartzmonzonite, and 

syenite . 

Paleozoic . Acid rocks of the Appalachian Region 

composed of granite and allied plutonic rocks . 

Archean and/or Proterozoic . Acid rocks of the 

Precambrian Shield consisting of dominantly 

granite and allied plutonic rocks . 

Mainly Acidic Rocks 

Archean and/or Proterozoic . Rocks of the 

Precambrian Shield composed of dominantly 

metamorphic rocks consisting of granitic gneiss, 

granulite, and undifferentiated plutonic rocks . 

Also, large areas of metamorphosed, sedimentary, 

and volcanic rocks (mostly gneiss and schists) 

are included . 

Basic and Ultrabasic Rocks 

Archean and/or .Proterozoic . Rocks composed 

of mainly anorthosite and gabbro . 

II . Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks 

Cenozoic 

Quaternary . Pleistocene and recent deposits 

consisting of alluvium, glacial drift, sand, and 

gravel . 

Paleocene . Sedimentary rocks consisting of 

sandstone, shale, conglomerate, and coal 

measures . 

Tertiary . Mainly volcanic flows (basalt and 

andesite) and pyroclastic rocks . It may include 

some upper Cretaceous rocks . 

Tertiary . Mainly sedimentary rocks composed 

of sandstone, shale, and conglomerate with 

some included areas of Quaternary deposits . 

Mesozoic 

Cretaceous . Mainly shale, sandstone, conglomerate 

carbonates, coal; and evaporates . 

Jurassic and Cretaceous. Composed of dominantly 

sedimentary Cretaceous rocks, consisting 

of sandstone, shale, and conglomerate . Large 

areas of Jurassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks 

consisting of sandstone, argillite, greywacke, 

andesite, volcanic breccia, and tuff are included . 

In the Rocky Mountains the rocks consist of 

undivided Jurassic and lower Cretaceous 

formations . 

Triassic and Cretaceous . Predominantly sedimentary 

Cretaceous rocks that consist of 

sandstone, shale, and conglomerate . Also, large 

areas of Triassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks 

composed of argillite, quartzite, limestone, 

andesite, volcanic breccia, and tuff . In some 

areas, inclusions of Jurassic rocks . 

Jurassic and Triassic . Sedimentary and volcanic 

rocks in which limestone, argillite, andesite, 

volcanic breccia, and tuff are common to both 

the Jurassic and Triassic periods . In addition, 

greywacke and sandstone are found in 

conjunction with the Jurassic and quartzite with 

the Triassic formations . 

Paleozoic 

Late Paleozoic . Sedimentary and metamorphosed 

sedimentary rocks composed of carbonates, 

shale, sandstone, conglomerate, cherty argillite, 

slate schist, and quartzite . Inclusions of volcanic 

breccia, tuff, and andesite . 

Devonian . Sedimentary rocks consisting of 

carbonates, shale, conglomerate, and sandstone . 

Paleozoic . Mainly sedimentary and metamorphosed, 

sedimentary rocks of the Cordilleran 

Region consisting of carbonates, shale, sandstone, 

slate, phyllite, schist, greywacke, quartzite, 

conglomerate, and chert. 

Early Paleozoic . Mainly sedimentary rocks 

consisting of carbonates, shale, sandstone, 

quartzite, and conglomerate, with some volcanic 

rocks . 

Precambrian 

Hadrynian (Proterozoic) . Sedimentary and metamorphosed 

sedimentary rocks consisting of 

sandstone, shale, slate, phyllite, schist, greywacke, 

quartzite, conglomerate, chert, ironformation, 

and carbonates . 

Helikan (Proterozoic) . Mainly sedimentary rocks 

consisting of carbonates, shale, sandstone, 

conglomerate, coal, and evaporates . 

Pa/eohelikan (Proterozoic) . Mainly sedimentary 

rocks consisting of sandstone, conglomerate, 

siltstone, limestone, and some alkalic volcanic 

rocks . 

Paleohelikan (Proterozoic) . Mainly gneiss and 

schist derived from sedimentary rocks . 

Pa/eohelikan (Proterozoic) . Mainly volcanic 

flows and pyroclastic rocks . 

Aphebian (Proterozoic) . Mainly sedimentary and 

metamorphosed sedimentary rocks consisting of 

sandstone, shale, conglomerate, iron-formation, 

slate, phyllite, quartzite, chert, carbonate, gneiss, 

and schist . 

Archean . Mainly sedimentary and metamorphosed 

sedimentary rocks (as indicated in 

Aphebian rocks above) with volcanic flows and 

pyroclastic rocks . 

1 Douglas, R .J .W . 1970 . Geological map of Canada . Geological Survey 

of Canada, Map 1250A. 

69

OD 

2 

w 

U 

O 

U 

U 

a 

ARCTIC 

100 0 100 100 300 Mues 

100' b 160 300 

OCEAN 

Fig . 66 . Geological map of Canada (Modified after Douglas, Geological Survey of Canada) . 

IGNEOUS and PLUTONIC Rocks 

I 

Acidic Rocks 

Mainly Acidic Rocks (granitic 

gneiss, granulite) 

© 

Basic and Ultrabasic Rocks 

SEDIMENTARY and VOLCANIC Rocks 

© 

Ouarternary 

® Paleocene 

Tertiary (volcanic flows) 

Tertiary (sedimentary) 

F~ Cretaceous 

Jurassic and Cretaceous 

® Triassic and Cretaceous 

Q Jurassic and Triassic 

Late Paleozoic 

® Devonian 

He 

ELI 

Paleozoic 

Early Paleozoic 

Hadrynian 

Helikan 

Paleohelikan (sedimentary) 

Paleohelikan (gneiss and schist) 

0 Paleohelikan (volcanic) 

0 Aphebian 

M Archean 

? 

SRI

Weathering and Soil Formation 

Soils may be regarded as products of their 

environment . They develop or have developed as a 

result of many influences of which some are not well 

understood . Soils are not static but dynamic and will 

change with modifications in environment . The most 

important factors in determining the kind of soils that 

develop are climate, vegetation, organisms, relief, 

time, and parent material . Because of these factors, 

which can vary with time and place, the soils that 

have developed are different from each other both 

locally and regionally . The difference may be small 

or large depending on the magnitude of the factors 

involved, particularly those of climate and parent 

material . 

In Canada the soils have developed on rock and 

mineral materials that in general have been modified 

and deposited by water, wind, ice, or gravity . Some 

of the materials have been derived from local rock 

and sediments and are similar to them, and some have 

been derived from sites at considerable distances 

from the point of deposition . In the latter case, the 

composition of the material laid down by the 

transporting agency may be greatly different from 

the underlying rock or sediments . Some of the 

minerals in the transported deposits are fresh ; 

some are weathered and most of these were 

acted on prior to the last glaciation . Exposure to 

weathering of these sediments in the glaciated areas 

has been for upwards to 11,0001 or more years and 

in the unglaciated 2 areas for upwards to 300,000 or 

more years . 

The formation of soil materials from rocks and 

minerals is the result of weathering . Weathering is 

complex ; its agents are numerous and the intensity 

of their action is variable within both space and time . 

To a large extent weathering is controlled directly or 

indirectly by climatic conditions . The natural flora 

and fauna, which in a large measure are a function of 

climate, also exert important influences . In general 

however, there are two phenomena, disintegration 

(physical weathering) and decomposition (chemical 

weathering) ; both are closely associated and tend to 

operate concurrently. 

In the disintegration type of weathering, no chemical 

changes occur and no new compounds are formed ; 

the mineral or rock is merely broken into smaller 

fragments . In this type of weathering the main agents 

responsible are the same as those involved with 

transportation (water, wind, ice, and gravity) . 

Temperature and flora also play significant roles in 

the breaking down process . Changes in temperature 

bring about disintegration through differential 

expansion and contraction, and the roots of plants in 

cracks of rocks and minerals can cause further 

ruptures . 

Physical weathering results in the formation of soil 

matrices consisting of a few to all of the components, 

individually recognized as rocks, cobbles, gravels, 

sands, and silts . In general, all of these fractions are 

unaltered in composition from the parent rock ; these 

simply have been reduced in size from the original 

principally by some agent of disintegration . A force 

such as a glacier also can and does reduce primary 

minerals to clay size . Examples of minerals commonly 

found in the fine fractions are quartz, feldspars, and 

amphiboles . 

Chemical decomposition in contrast to disintegration 

may lead to profound changes in minerals . Some 

disappear either partially or wholly and may be 

replaced by new minerals . Soils resulting from intense 

chemical weathering are often quite different in 

composition from the original mineral or rock material . 

The agents of decomposition are plants, animals, 

water, and gaseous solutions . These agents 

commonly work together, resulting in numerous 

reactions ; the most important are oxidation, 

reduction, carbonation, decarbonation, hydration, 

dehydration, hydrolysis, and solution . The most 

significant changes occur with the finer fractions . 

Some silts may be and are decomposed to form clays 

and some clays are altered to form different types of 

clays . Under the natural weathering process, clays 

are being formed and altered, but the extent since 

deglaciation appears to be slight . Most of the clays 

appear to have been formed prior tothe last ice stage, 

possibly as far back as the Tertiary Period . 

The clay fraction of the soil is the most important of 

all the mineral components from the standpoint of 

physical, chemical, and biological conditions . It is 

the most active mineral part of the soil and in large 

measure determines the character and productivity 

of the soil . The clayey material serves as a storehouse 

for plant nutrients and moisture . However, not all 

clays minerals are the same, except for size ; they 

differ from each other in composition and in their 

physical and chemical characteristics . 

In Canada the clay minerals most common and widely 

recognized are in the groups called montmorillonite 

(smectite), illite (hydrated micas), kaolinite, and 

chlorite . The first two are 2 :1 lattice type aluminum 

silicates and are usually most abundant in our soils . 

Of the two, montmorillonite has a higher adsorption 

capacity for cations and moisture and will expand 

and contract more on wetting and drying . Compared 

with the first two, kaolinite, a 1 :1 lattice type, has 

the least adsorptive capacity and consequently is less 

reactive to changes in moisture conditions . Chlorite 

tends to be similar in adsorptive capacity to 

kaolinite . 

The kind and distribution of the main clay mineral 

types tend to vary to some extent with soils and with 

regions . In Eastern Canada, illite is commonly 

`Gravenor, C.P . and Bayrock, L .A . 1961 . Glacial deposits in Alberta . 

Pages 33-50 in R .F . Leggett, Soils in Canada . University of Toronto 

Press, Toronto, Ont . 

= Portions of the Cypress Hills and Yukon Territory . Yukon Territory referred 

to includes the unglaciated areas and those that remained unglaciated 

during the Wisconsin and possibly Illinoian ice stages . 

71

dominant in Podzolic soils.3 These soils also have 

significant amounts of chlorite and small amounts 

of kaolinite and vermiculite-montmorillonite . In most 

of these soils montmorillonite is high in the Ae 

horizons . Kaolinite appears to be fairly evenly 

distributed throughout the profiles indicating that it 

is inherited rather than formed in place . 

In the Luvisolic and Brunisoiic soils the illite mineral 

also tends to dominate although the vermiculitemontmorillonite 

constituents occur in significant 

amounts in most soils . In these soils chlorites tend to 

persist in the Ae horizon in contrast to Podzols, which 

have none in this layer. Kaolinite occurs throughout 

the profiles and as in the Podzols appears to be an 

inherited constituent . 

Montmorillonite is dominant in the Great Plains 

Region, whereas illite is present in significant 

amounts in most of the Chernozemic, Solonetzic, 

Luvisolic, Brunisolic, and Podzolic soils . A Podzolic 

soil studied showed a dominance of illite and a 

Brunisolic soil had mostly interstratified illitemontmorillonite 

. Most soils had small quantities of 

kaolinite distributed throughout the profiles. 

In the Cordilleran Region, the clay mineralogy tends 

to be more complex than in soils to the east . 

This complexity appears to be caused by the partial to 

complete mixing of a variety of sediments by the 

transporting agencies operative in the hills and 

mountains . This mixing is reflected in a similarity of 

clay minerals in soils occurring in different great 

groups . In general however, the soils studied showed 

a dominance of illite with chlorite in significant 

amounts . A marine clay soil classified as Brunisolic 

had a surface horizon high in chlorite and parent 

material with a dominance of montmorillonitechlorite. 

Three marine soils, all of different great 

groups, also had chlorite as the main constituent in 

the surface layer . 

For the Yukon (glaciated) and the Northwest 

Territories the data are meagre ; the analyses point 

to the dominance of illite and montmorillonite types 

of clays . On Banks Island 4 illite dominated and was 

followed by substantial amounts of quartz and 

kaolinite . The five profiles sampled at Inuvik and 

Reindeer Depot,' both sites north of the Arctic 

Circle and in the permafrost area, had clay minerals 

that were mainly montmorillonite and illite . Quartz 

and kaolinite occurred in small amounts. The soil had 

an Ae horizon and an incipient Bf, but the 

podzolization process had no apparent effect on the 

clay minerals . 

In the part of the Yukon Territory not glaciated during 

the Wisconsin stage,6 the five profiles studied 

showed a dominance of illite followed by lesser but 

variable quantities of chlorite, kaolinite, and 

montmorillonite . The oldest soil (> 300,000 years) 

analyzed had considerable kaolinite and a mixture 

that appeared to be illite-kaolinite . 

In two soils the 

surface horizon had a dominance of montmorillonite 

indicating that it has probably formed from illite . In 

general, the clay minerals in these soils showed a 

lower degree of crystallinity than those examined in 

the glaciated areas . 

Another indication of the greater age of these soils 

compared with those in glaciated areas is the 

presence of more than average amounts of kaolinite . 

This mineral, in all likelihood, would be present in 

larger amounts in the surface sediments if mixing of 

materials by wind and water had not occurred . 

Considering the weathering processes of soils in 

Canada from the most arid to the most humid regions, 

the reactions are dominantly alterations of mica and 

chlorite to expanding lattice silicates and under 

certain conditions reversions of these to the original 

types . From the data available it is concluded that 

the formation and alteration of clays in our soils since 

glaciation has been small . 

3 Brydon, J.E ., Kodama, H ., and Ross, G .J .1968. Mineralogy and weathering 

of the clays in Orthic Podzols and other Podzolic soils in Canada . 9th Int . 

Congr . Soil Sci ., Vol . III, Paper 5, pp 41-51 . 

' Tedrow, J .C .F . and Douglas, L .A. 1964 . Soil investigations on Banks 

Island . Soil Sci . 98(l) :53-65. 

5 Day, J .H . and Rice, H .H . 1964 . The characteristics of some permafrost 

soils in the Mackenzie Valley, N .W .T . J . Arct . Inst . North Am . 

17(4) :223-236 . 

^ Brydon, J .E ., Miles, N .M ., and Day, J .H .1972 . Mineralogical characteristics 

of some soils in the unglaciated part of the Yukon Territory. Personal 

communication .

The Soil Climates of Canada 

INTRODUCTION 

Climate and weather involve temperature, energy, 

and moisture relationships of the biosphere in 

respect to place and time . Weather is a variable and 

immediate phenomenon involving these relationships. 

Climate is a longer term integration of these 

factors involving the probability of occurrence of 

conditions for an area and for a stated time basis . In 

dealing with the climatic conditions of the biosphere 

we are particularly concerned with those portions 

involved with productive growth . They range in 

entirety from a little above the upper height limit of 

plant growth to the depths in the earth beyond the 

extent of significant root penetration and to the 

lowest depths to which daily and seasonal 

fluctuations remain significant . In referring especially 

to soils, we think practically in terms of a control 

section of about 3.3 to 4 ft (1 to 1 .2 m), although 

some variability due to soil climate may be found at a 

greater depth . These deeper effects are more 

significant to evaluation of soil for engineering 

interpretations, depth of freezing, or permafrost . 

CLASSIFICATION 

Most of the historic classification systems of climate 

have emphasized the aerial biosphere and have been 

based on direct interpretations of air temperature and 

precipitation distributions . The more complex systems 

recognize the changing effectiveness of precipitation 

as a function of temperature . Other systems consider 

vegetation as a physical mechanism by which water 

is transported from the ground to the atmosphere . 

Climatic types have also been identified and their 

boundaries were determined empirically by noting 

the relationships of vegetation, soils, and drainage 

features . 

None of these conventional systems accounts for 

the interaction between aerial climate associated 

with surface and above-ground plant growth, and 

soil climate associated with root development, 

subaerial plant growth, soil structure, and the 

environment of the soil microflora and fauna . Soil 

climate relates to aerial climate, but the responses are 

affected in time and degree by the water content of 

the soil, its depth, surface cover (vegetative or snow), 

landscape position, and by man's manipulation . 

These interactions are often indirect, complex, and 

difficult to evaluate. 

The details of the evolution and development of a soil 

climatic classification and map for Canada and their 

modification and adoption for the FAO map of Nortft 

America have been presented in the introduction to 

the Soil Report. (see page 00) . 

The characterization of soil temperature and soil 

moisture regimes for use in climatic studies in 

Canada is based on consideration of temperature 

and moisture conditions for specific periods of 

biological significance .' They involve definitions of 

a Growing Season > 41 °F (5°C) with Mild > 41 °F 

(5°C) and Warm or Thermal > 59°F (15°C) periods, 

and a Dormant Season < 41'F (5°C) with Cool 

> 32°F (0°C) and Frozen < 32°F (0°C) periods, 

based on soil temperature measurements. Temperature 

classes are based on characterization of these 

periods in respect to length, mean soil temperature, 

and accumulated degree-days (F) above or below 

the threshold values on which the periods are 

defined . Temperatures at 1 .6 ft (50 cm) are 

considered as standard for classification . 

This does 

not preclude the possibility of additional subdivisions 

for regional or local purposes being made on the 

basis of temperature regimes at other levels, e.g . at 

0.3 ft (10 cm) or less in Arctic classes where upper 

level soil temperature regimes may differ considerably 

from those at 1 .6 ft (50 cm) . 

Moisture subclasses are recognized on the basis of 

stated periods of saturation for Aquic regimes, and 

on calculations of intensity and degree of water 

deficits during the growing season for moist and 

submoist regimes . 

The concept of Aquic subclasses was introduced 

to enable adequate characterization of the climatic 

regimes of map units with a dominant or subdominant 

occurrence of imperfectly to very poorly drained 

Gleysols or Organic soils . The extent of these 

subclasses was determined solely by subjectively 

estimating the length of the saturated period of 

these soils . 

It is recognized that the occurrence of Aquic regimes 

depends on a number of independent factors, 

including : 

a . the accumulation of surplus precipitation in 

excess of the absorptive capacity of the soil ; 

b. the ability of the soil to remove such surplus 

by internal drainage or runoff ; 

c . the characteristics of the topographic and 

drainage patterns of the landforms . 

The Classification of Soil Climates for North America 

as used to characterize areas is based on varying 

combinations of seven major soil temperature classes 

and ten soil moisture subclasses . These parameters of 

class and subclass were devised to pragmatically 

relate the available data to acceptable concepts of 

the genetic relationship between climate, vegetation, 

and soils, and in addition to recognize in a more 

precise way the broad, regional, climatic separations 

already in use, which have stood the test of time 

and practical interpretation . 

The seven major temperature classes are named to 

express an increasing degree of warmth of climate ; 

they indicate Arctic, Subarctic, Cryoboreal, Boreal, 

Mesic, Thermic, and Hyperthermic conditions . The 

latter two classes occur only in the southern United 

r Sly, WK . 1970 . A climatic moisture index for land and soil classification 

for Canada . Can . J . Soil Sci . 50 :291-301 . 

73

TABLE 3 . CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERATURE CLASSES 

Generalized characteristics of temperature classes used for the soil climate maps of Canada and North 

America 

1 . ARCTIC 

Extremely Cold 

* * Mean annual soil temperature < 20°F ( < - 7°C) 

* * Mean summer soil temperature < 41 °F ( < 5°C) 

* Growing season >_ 41 °F ( >_ 5°C), < 15 days 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F ( >_ 15°C), none 

Regions in this class have continuous permafrost usually within a depth of 3 ft (1 m) . 

2 . SUBARCTIC 

Very Cold 

* * Mean annual soil temperature 20° to < 36°F (-7° to < 2°C) 

* * Mean summer soil temperature 41' to < 47°F (5° to < 8°C) 

* Growing season >_ 41 °F ( > 5°C), < 120 days 

* Growing season degree-days _> 41'F, < 1,000 (>_ 5°C, < 555) 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F ( > 15°C), none 

Regions in this class have widespread permafrost . Some profiles do not have permafrost within a depth of 

3 ft (1 m) . Alpine soils are included in this class . 

3 . CRYOBOREAL 

Cold to Moderately Cold 

* * Mean annual soil temperature 36° to < 47°F (2° to < 8°C) 

* * Mean summer soil temperature 47° to < 59°F (8° to < 15°C) 

* Growing season > 41 °F ( > 5°C), 120 to 220 days 

* Growing season degree-days >_ 41 °F, 1,000 to < 2,250 ( _> 5°C, 555 to < 1250) 

- Thermal period _> 59°F ( > 15°C), no significant days 

- Thermal period degree-days >_ 59°F, < 60 ( >- 15°C, < 33) 

Soils with aquic regions may remain frozen for portions of the growing season . Organic soils having 

discontinuous or localized permafrost should be classified in 2 . 

3 .1 Cold 

* Growing season > 41 °F ( >- 5°C), 120 to 180 days 

* Growing season degree-days > 41'F, 1,000 to < 2,000 ( >- 5°C, 555 to 1110) 

3 .2 Moderately Cold 

* Growing season >_ 41 °F ( _> 5°C), < 220 days 

* Growing season degree-days > 41'F, 2,000 to < 2,250 (-:?: 5°C, 1110 to < 1250) 

4 . BOREAL 

Cool to Moderately Cool 

* * Mean annual soil temperature 41 ° to < 47°F (5° to < 8°C) 


* 

Growing season >- 41'F (~! 5°C), 170 to < 220 days 

* Growing season degree-days >_ 41'F, 2,250 to < 3,100 ( _> 5°C, 1250 to < 1720) 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F (~! 15°C), < 120 days 

- Thermal period degree-days >- 59°F, 60 to 400 ( >_ 15°C, 33 to 222) 

4.1 Cool 

* Growing season > 41 °F (> 5°C), > 170 days 

* Growing season degree-days >- 41'F, 2,250 to < 2,500 ( >_ 5°C, 1250 to < 1388) 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F ( >_ 15°C), < 60 days 

4.2 Moderately Cool 

* Growing season >- 41 °F ( > 5°C), < 220 days 

* Growing season degree-days >_ 41'F, 2,500 to < 3,100 ( _> 5°C, 1388 to < 1720) 

- Thermal period > 59°F (~! 15°C), < 120 days 

" Primary classifier for class ; in accordance with criteria established for the FAO /UN ESCO Soil Climate Map of North America, measured at a depth of 50 cm . 

' Secondary classifier for Soil Climate Map of Canada . 

- Supplementary information. 

74

5 . MESIC 

Mild to Moderately Warm 



* Growing season >_ 41 °F ( >_ 5°C), 200 to 365 days 

* Growing season degree-days >_ 41 °F, 3,100 to 5,000 ( > 5°C, 1720 to 2775) 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F (~! 15°C), < 180 days 

- Thermal period degree-days > 59°F, 300 to 1,200 ( >_ 15°C, 167 to 666) 

5.1 Mild 

* Growing season _> 41'F ( > 5°C), 200 to 240 days 

* Growing season degree-days > 41 °F, 3,100 to 4,000 ( >_ 5°C, 1720 to 2220) 

- Thermal period >_ 59°F (> 15°C), < 120 days 

5.2 Moderately Warm 

* Growing season >_ 41'F (~! 5°C), > 240 days 

* Growing season degree-days > 41'F, 4,000 to 5,000 ( >_ 5°C, > 2200 to 2775) 

- Thermal period > 59°F ( > 15°C), < 180 days 

6 . THERMIC 

Moderately Warm to Warm 


This region does not occur in Canada . 

7 . HYPERTHERMIC 

Very Warm to Hot 

* * Mean annual soil temperature >_ 72°F ( > 22°C) 

This region does not occur in Canada .

TABLE 4 . CHARACTERISTICS OF MOISTURE SUBCLASSES 

Generalized characteristics of moisture regimes and subclasses used for the soil climate maps of Canada 

and North America 

AQUIC REGIME 

Soil is saturated for significant periods of the growing season . 

a Peraquic Soil saturated for very long periods . Groundwater level at or within capillary reach of 

the surface . 

b Aquic Soil saturated for moderately long periods . 

c Subaquic Soil saturated for short periods . 

MOIST UNSATURATED REGIME 

Varying periods and intensities of water deficits during the growing season . 

d Perhumid 

e Humid 

x x 

x x 

Soil moist all year, seldom dry . 

No significant water deficits in the growing season . Water deficits 0 - < 1 in . 

( < 2 .5 cm) . Climatic-Moisture Index (CMI) > 84 . 

Soil not dry in any part as long as 90 consecutive days in most years . 

Very slight deficits in the growing season . Water deficits 1 - < 2.5 in . (2 .5 - - 41'F ( _> 5°C) in some years . 

x 

Significant deficits within growing season . Water deficits 2.5 - < 5.0 in . (6 .4 - 

< 12 .7 cm) . CMI 59-73 . 

g Semiarid 

x x 

Soil dry in some parts when soil temperature is _> 41'F ( > 5°C) in most years . 

Moderately severe deficits in growing season . Water deficits 5.0 - < 7 .5 in . (12.7 - 

< 19 .1 cm) . CMI 46-58 . 

h Subarid x x Soil dry in some parts or all parts most of the time when the soil temperature is >- 41 °F 

( >- 5°C) . Some periods as long as 90 consecutive days when the soil is moist . 

" Severe growing season deficits . Water deficits 7.5 - < 15 in . (19.1 - 38.1 cm) in 

BOREAL and CRYOBOREAL classes, 7.5 - < 20 in . (19.1 - < 50 .8 cm) in MESIC 

or warmer classes . CMI 25-45 . 

j Arid x x Soil dry in some or all parts most of the time when soil is >- 41 °F ( > 5°C) . No period as 

long as 90 consecutive days when soil is moist . 

x Very severe growing-season deficits . Water deficits >- 15 in . ( >- 38 .1 cm) in BOREAL 

and > 20 in . ( > 50 .8 cm) in MESIC or warmer classes . CMI < 25 . 

x Xeric 

x x 

Soil dry in all parts 45 consecutive days or more within the 4-month period (July to 

October) after the summer solstice in more than 6 years out of 10 . 

Soil moist in all parts for 45 consecutive days or more within the 4-month period 

(January to April) after the winter solstice in more than 6 years out of 10 . 

Arid and Xeric subclasses are not believed to occur extensively in Canada, but may be found in local areas 

of microclimate . 

CMI - Climatic moisture index is an expression of the percentage contribution of growing-season precipitation 

to the total amount of water required by a crop if lack of water is not to limit its production . 

" Primary classifier for subclass ; in accordance with criteria established for the FAO /UNESCO Soil Climate Map of North America . 

' Secondary classifier for Soil Climate Map of Canada .

States . For Canada, it was considered desirable for 

practical interpretations to further subdivide the 

Cryoboreal, Boreal, and Mesic classes into Cold and 

Moderately Cold Cryoboreal, Cool and Moderately 

Cool Boreal, and Mild to Moderately Warm 

Mesic classes . 

The ten moisture subclasses evaluating the degree 

and intensity of soil moisture conditions include 

three Aquic subclasses, Peraquic, Aquic, and 

Subaquic, expressing decreasing degrees of soil 

saturation, and seven unsaturated subclasses, 

Perhumid, Humid, Subhumid, Semiarid, Subarid, 

Arid, and Xeric, expressing increasing degree and 

intensity of soil moisture deficits . The latter two 

subclasses expressing very dry regimes are not 

believed to occur to any extent in Canada, but are 

significant in parts of the United States . 

Tables 3 and 4 give short descriptions of the general 

characteristics and parameters of these class and 

subclass separations as used in Canada . In relating 

these climatic classes to the major areas of Canada, 

it is assumed that they refer to a continental type of 

climate characterized by wide diurnal and seasonal 

fluctuations . Modifications of these continental 

conditions are recognized as occurring in areas 

influenced by marine or mountainous conditions . 

Small areas of maritime climatic types with modified 

diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in comparison 

with the extreme continental types are indicated as 

occurring in the Maritime Provinces, and on the 

Pacific coast and islands . Generally, they have 

comparable annual and seasonal temperatures and 

accumulative degree-days to the corresponding 

classes for the continental types, but the growing 

seasons are longer and the accumulative degreedays 

per day are significantly less . 

The mountain types are shown as complexes of 

varying temperature class and moisture subclasses 

due to differentiation in vertical zonation and aspect . 

Most of these could be separated by more detailed 

mapping and study into their significant components . 

They include the greater proportion of the Alpine 

soils and ice fields associated with Cordilleran 

physiographic areas, but range through the whole 

gamut of classes and subclasses . 

The Soil Climatic Map and Legend for Canada has 

been prepared within this scheme of classification, 

and the soil units and vegetational regions mentioned 

in the report and the soil inventory are described as 

occurring within or relating to these climatic regimes. 

Soil climatic data and classifications available for 

selected, recording meteorological stations are 

provided in Part IV and are illustrated by diagrams 

of temperature and moisture patterns accompanying 

the climatic map . 

Although this classification of soil climates for 

North America has been developed cooperatively 

and is being used on an international basis, the 

framework of classification and combinations of 

parameters and codings used are provisional . They 

are therefore open to modifications in the light of 

further studies, and increasing knowledge and data 

that may become available . 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 

OF SOIL CLIMATES 

The characteristics of the climatic environments of 

Canada are of great significance, not only because 

of their influence on the kinds of soils developed, 

but also because of the limitations they impose on 

the use of these soils in the development of Canada's 

land resources . Table 5 provides a generalized 

summary of the extent of each Zonal Climatic Class 

and Subclass in Canada and the percentage of the 

land area they represent . Separate figures for the 

Aquic subclasses are not given. Their areas are 

included with other subclasses . 

Over 1,065,615 sq mi (2 759 943 km2) or 30% of 

Canada has an Arctic climate, and another 910,683 

sq mi (2358669 km2) or 25.7% lies within the 

Subarctic Climatic Region . Thus nearly 56% of 

Canada, including the Arctic islands, is in climatic 

environments incapable of supporting any but a very 

limited growth in terms of forest or a tundra-forest 

vegetation, and that for only a very short growing 

period each year . The remaining 44% is climatically 

capable of sustaining productive vegetative growth, 

but two-thirds of this has climatic limitations that 

restrict the range and variety of crops . Only about 2% 

of the total area has a climate suited to high 

productivity for a wide range of crops . 

The Arctic climates, extending in an east-west belt 

across northern Canada and the northern islands, are 

associated with barren lands or treeless tundra . 

The soils include Cryic Brunisols, Cryic Gleysols, 

Cryic Regosols, and frozen Rockland . They are 

weakly developed, badly disturbed by ice movements, 

and usually underlain at shallow depths by 

permafrost . Problems associated with Arctic climates 

and soils involve protection of natural vegetation 

from destruction by overgrazing, prevention of 

damage from vehicfe traffic and other human 

activities, and the preservation of the natural 

equilibrium between the shallow active or unfrozen 

layer and underlying permafrost during the short 

summer season . 

The soils of the Subarctic regions extend in an 

east-west belt from Labrador to the Northwest 

Territories, Yukon Territory, and Alaska . Included 

are the alpine areas of the higher elevations of 

the Cordilleran mountain complex . Dominant soils 

include Brunisols, Podzols, and Luvisols with 

associated Cryic Fibrisols and Gleysols . About 

300,000 sq mi (776 700 km2) of shallow Regosols 

and Rockland are also found in the Subarctic regions . 

The surface soils usually begin to thaw by late May 

and warm sufficiently within the control section to 

maintain limited biological activity during the summer 

months, but discontinuous permafrost may occur 

below the active layer. Undisturbed soils support 

77

TABLE 5 . EXTENT OF SOIL CLIMATIC CLASSES AND SUBCLASSES IN CANADA, SO. MI (km2)" 

SOIL TEMPERATURE CLASSES 

Soil 

moisture 

subclasses 1 . Arctic 2 . Subarctic 3 . Cryoboreal 4 . Boreal 5 . Mesic 

Moisture 

subclass total 

d Perhumid 29,911 624,731 75,853 10,179 740,674 20.9 

(77440) (1 617430) (196 383) (26353) (1 917606) 

e Humid 1,065,615 704,106 336,055 111,006 20,706 2,237,488 63.1 

(2758877) (1 822930) (870 046) (287 394) (53608) (5792855) 

f Subhumid 176,666 241,393 19,885 16,149 454,093 12 .8 

(457 388) (624 966) (51 482) (41 810) (1 175646) 

g Semiarid 15,940 48,723 257 64,920 1 .8 

(41 268) (126 143) (665) (168 076) 

h Subarid 48,675 48,675 1 .4 

(126 019) (126 019) 

Temperature 1,065,615 910,683 1,218,819 304,142 47,291 3,545,850 100 .0 

class total (2758877) (2357758) (3153710) (787 421) (122 436) (9180202) 

% 30 .0 25 .7 34.4 8.6 1 .3 100 .0 

' Generalized from Table 6 of the Soil Inventory, Vol . II, Soils of Canada . 

- 

%

a mixed vegetation of nonproductive coniferous 

forest and subarctic woodlands with intermittent 

treeless tundra . Alpine areas above the tree line are 

characterized by heath vegetation . Soils of the 

Subarctic climates are considered nonproductive for 

extensive cropping or commercial forestry, although 

isolated areas of productive forest may occur in 

favored or sheltered locations . Garden crops and 

limited grain and forage for local needs are produced 

in areas adjacent to settlements, particularly where 

proximity to lakes or other bodies of water results in 

a local amelioration of the climatic conditions . 

Management problems involve the protection of 

vegetation as a vital component in the equilibrium 

of the natural environment . 

Between the southern edge of the Subarctic areas 

and the U .S . border lie the Cryoboreal and Boreal 

regions extending from the east to the west coast . 

They contain by far the greatest proportion of the 

soils of Canada, about 1,523,961 sq mi (3 941 131 

km2) or 43% . Over 1,218,819 sq mi (3 153 710 km2) 

or 34.4% are in cold to moderately cold Cryoboreal 

climates with relatively cool summers, which 

impose moderately severe limitations on the kinds 

of crops that can be matured and on the annual 

productivity of the native forest . The moderately cold 

Cryoboreal areas are generally suitable for the 

production of small grains including spring wheat 

and forages . The coldest portions of the Cryoboreal 

climate extend beyond the limits of marginal crop 

production . Limitations are due mainly to shortness 

of the growing season within both the aerial and 

subaerial portions of the plant environment . About 

304,142 sq mi (787 421 km2) or 8.6% lies within cool 

to moderately cool Boreal climates, characterized by 

a longer growing season and warmer summer period 

and by less severe limitations to their productive use 

than that of Cryoboreal areas . 

Only 47,291 sq mi (122 436 km z) or 1 .3% of Canada 

lies within the northern fringe of mild to moderately 

warm Mesic climates, extending in a broad east-west 

belt across the mid United States . They are capable 

of supporting a high productivity for a relatively wide 

variety of crops . In Eastern Canada these milder 

areas are mainly confined to the St . Lawrence 

Lowland area of Ontario and Quebec, the Annapolis 

Valley, and the southern part of Nova Scotia . In 

Western Canada they are found in the southeast 

section of Vancouver Island, the lower Fraser Valley, 

and in local areas of the Okanagan, Fraser, and 

Thompson valleys of the Interior Plateau of British 

Columbia . 

Within all climatic regions of Canada, but particularly 

in the Cryoboreal, Boreal, and Mesic climates, the 

influence of moisture subclasses is an additional 

and major factor in determining soil characteristics 

and land-use patterns . 

About 740,674 sq mi (1 917 606 km2) or 20.9% 

of Canada is considered to have Perhumid moisture 

regimes, and about 2,237,488 sq mi (5 792 855 km2) 

or 63 .1% has Humid regimes . Podzols, Brunisols, 

Luvisols with associated Gleysols, and Organic soils 

are the well-developed soils associated with the 

Humid and Perhumid moisture regimes . Soils in 

these areas are considered to have insignificant to 

very slight water deficits during the growing season . 

In the Perhumid subclass areas the occurrence of 

excess moisture for limited periods is common, and 

the ability to achieve high crop productivity is often 

dependent on the provision of surface or subsurface 

drainage . This latter provision is, of course, a prime 

consideration in the development of soils with 

Aquic regimes . Under undisturbed conditions most 

of the Humid and Perhumid areas within the 

Cryoboreal, Boreal, and Mesic regions support forest 

vegetation, ranging from hardwoods in the Mesic 

areas to mixed woods in the Boreal and Cryoboreal 

ones . Coniferous forests are dominant in the colder 

portions of the Cryoboreal and Cryoboreal-Subarctic 

transitions . The highest productivity for forestry 

is found in the Perhumid areas of western British 

Columbia . The major areas of crop production 

of Eastern Canada and western British Columbia are 

associated with Boreal Humid and Perhumid 

moisture regimes . In the Cryoboreal areas, particularly 

in northern Ontario and the Interior Plains of 

Western Canada, the limitations of short-season crop 

production are increased with increasing moisture 

and the extension of cultivation has been limited 

within these colder Humid regimes . 

About 454,000 sq mi (1 175 646 km2) or 12.8% of 

Canada is considered to have a Subhumid moisture 

regime with significant water deficits within the 

growing season . The major part lies within the 

Cryoboreal and Boreal areas of Western Canada and 

is mostly associated with Black and Dark Gray 

Chernozemic soils and some Gray Luvisols in areas 

transitional to the Humid regions . Under natural 

conditions these areas sustain a grassland-forest 

transition of Parkland-Prairie . Much of the area has 

been extensively developed for agriculture, particularly 

in the Prairie Provinces of the Interior Plains, 

and is used for small grains and associated forage 

production . In the Interior Plateau of British Columbia 

such areas are found at relatively higher levels 

adjacent to the timberline and are used in the main for 

grazing purposes . Local areas of the Subhumid 

moisture regime occur within the Mesic area of the 

West St . Lawrence Lowland (particularly in the 

Niagara Peninsula) and adjoining the shorelines 

of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario . They also occur in 

Western Canada in the southeastern part of 

Vancouver Island and the lower Fraser Valley . 

Semiarid to Subarid moisture regimes are limited to 

about 113,595 sq mi (294 095 km2) or 3.2% of the 

area of Canada . These areas, characterized by 

moderately severe to severe growing-season water 

deficits, are of major occurrence within the southern 

Interior Plain in Saskatchewan and Alberta . Local 

areas occur in the valleys of the British Columbia 

Interior Plateau . They are associated with Brown 

and Dark Brown Chernozemic, Brown Solonetzic, 

and Regosolic soils and support a treeless, mixed 

prairie vegetation . Small grains, particularly wheat, 

79

are widely grown on these soils with production 

being limited by the severity of the water deficits 

and by the moisture-holding capacities of the soils. 

Summerfallowing is widely used as a means of 

moisture conservation, and irrigation is practiced 

where adequate supplemental water is available. 

Within the Semiarid regimes, coarse-textured Brown 

and Dark Brown Chernozemic, Regosolic, and poorly 

structured Solonetzic soils are considered marginal 

for crop production and are used mainly for improved 

pasture or range grazing . 

In the 48,675 sq mi (126019 km2) of Subarid 

regimes of southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern 

Alberta (and extending into Montana), the 

soils are dominantly Brown Chernozemic and 

Solonetzic, and the moisture limitations are 

considered more severe . Cropping is restricted 

mainly to loamy and clayey soils with adequate 

moisture-holding capacities, and to irrigated areas . 

Much of the area is used for pasture or range grazing . 

Similar Subarid regimes occur in local areas of the 

Thompson-Fraser and Okanagan valleys of British 

Columbia . 

References 

Baier, W., and Mack, A.R . 1973 . Development of soil 

temperature and soil water criteria for characterizing 

soil climates in Canada . Pages 195-212 in 

Field soil water regimes . Special Publication No . 5, 

Soil Science Society of America . 

Baier, W., and Russelo, D.A . 1970 . Soil temperature 

and soil moisture regimes in Canada . Pages 35-65 

in Proceedings of the Eighth Meeting of the 

Canada Soil Survey Committee, Ottawa, Ont . 

Brown, R .J .E . 1967 . Permafrost in Canada . Map and 

explanatory notes . Geol . Surv . Can . Map 1246A . 

Chapman, L.J ., and Brown, D .M . 1966 . The climates 

of Canada for agriculture . Report No . 3. Canada 

Land Inventory, ARDA, Dep . of Forestry and Rural 

Development, Ottawa, Ont . 24 pp . 

Clayton, J .S.1970 . Characteristics of the agroclimatic 

environment of Canadian soils . Pages 40-56 in 

Report of the meeting of the Canada Soil Fertility 

Committee, Feb . 23-25 . Central Experimental 

Farm, Ottawa . 

Sly, W.K ., and Baier, W. 1971 . Growing seasons 

and climatic moisture index . Can . J . Soil Sci . 

51 :329-337 .

INTRODUCTION 

Vegetation 

Geographically, the natural vegetation of Canada may 

be best described on the basis of vegetative regions . 

These consist of large areas of apparently stable 

vegetation, each characterized by associations of 

distinctive plant communities or individual species, 

bearing a predictable relationship to regional 

climatic conditions, broad characteristics of physiography 

and landform, and to associated patterns 

of soil development. 

These regional characterizations refer to the potential 

natural vegetation that would exist if man's influence 

was removed, as distinguished from the present 

vegetation, which may be natural, seminatural, or 

cultural depending on the degree and extent of 

man's influence . Much of the area of Canada is 

sparsely populated and undeveloped, and under 

such conditions the vegetation is essentially natural . 

It is only in areas of extensive agricultural or 

commercial forest activity, and in the more limited 

but intensively established urban communities that 

the vegetational pattern has been so changed that 

potential natural vegetation has to be partly inferred 

from association with relict areas . 

The vegetative regions may be broadly grouped into 

three classes, the Tundra, Forest, and Grasslands . 

Their spatial distribution is determined largely on 

macroclimatic conditions . The Tundra areas are 

determined in relation to Arctic and Alpine climates ; 

the Forest areas are associated with conditions 

warmer than the Tundra and generally more moist 

than that of the Grasslands . Within these general 

class separations, a number of regions or transitional 

regions have been established . These are listed on 

Table 6 and indicated on the accompanying map and 

legend of the Vegetation Regions of Canada 

(Fig . 67). The description of these regions and their 

relationships to the soils and soil climates of Canada 

have been derived from a number of sources, but 

mainly from Rowet (1972), for the Forest Regions ; 

Coupland2 (1961), for the Grasslands ; and from 

Bird 3 (1967), for the Arctic Tundra . 

In the following descriptions of the vegetation 

regions, an attempt has been made to evaluate them 

in terms of general use and productivity as well as 

by plant association . The forest lands in particular 

have been described in generalized terms of 

productive and nonproductive woodland, based on 

a broad evaluation of mesophytic upland sites as 

compared to hydrophytic lowland sites within each 

region as made by professional staff of the Canadian 

Forestry Service and Canada Land Inventory4 . 

The criteria applied are those used by the Canadian 

Forestry Service in land capability studies for the 

Canada Land Inventory5 and are as follows : 

1 . Productive Woodland 

Wooded land with trees having over 25% canopy 

cover and over approximately 20 ft (6 m) in 

height . Plantations and artificially reforested 

areas are included regardless of age . 

Productivity will usually be over 30 cu ft/ac 

(2 m3/ha) peryear, and will include mostforested 

lands rated as Class 5 or better for Forestry in the 

Canada Land Inventory . Assuming a rotation age 

of 100 yards, yields are usually greater than 25 

cords/ac (224 m3/ha) for low productivity 

Class 5 land . 

High productivity, Class 1, Forest Land in Canada 

can be expected to provide from 111 to over 

190 cu ft/ac (7 .5 to 13 m3/ha) per year . 

2 . Nonproductive Woodland 

Land with trees or bushes exceeding 25% crown 

cover and shorter than approximately 20 ft (6 m) 

in height . Much cutover and burned-over land 

is included . 

Productivity will usually be less than 30 cu ft/ac 

(2 m3/ha) and frequently less than 10 cu ft/ac 

(0 .7 m3/ha) per year and will include most lands 

classified as Classes 6 and 7 for Forestry in the 

Canada Land Inventory . Yields are frequently less 

than 25 cords/ac (224 m3/ha) and usually 10 to 

12 cords/ac (90 to 107 m3/ha) . 

TUNDRA REGION 

The regions of the Tundra vegetation in Canada 

(Fig . 67) extend across the northermost portions of 

the mainland from the Labrador coast to the Alaskan 

border and to all the northern islands of Canada . Also 

included are the areas of Alpine vegetation occurring 

at elevations above the tree line in mountains of 

the Cordillera . 

Whereas Tundra vegetation is mainly associated 

with Arctic and Alpine climates of Canada, it is also 

widely distributed in areas of Subarctic regimes where 

it forms a major vegetational component of the 

region of Tundra and Boreal Forest transition . It is 

also commonly associated with areas of continuous 

or intermittent permafrost and with soils that are 

frozen within profile depth for all or a considerable 

part of the short growing season . These shallow and 

mostly weakly developed soils include Cryic 

Regosols, Cryic Gleysols, Cryic Brunisols, and 

Rockland . 

Approximate estimates indicate that over 1,000,000 

sq mi (2 589 000 km2) of Canada lying within the 

Arctic climatic region, and an additional 500,000 

' Rowe, J .S .,1972 . Forest regions of Canada, Dep . of Environment, Canadian 

Forestry Service . Publ . No. 1300, 172 pp . 

2 Coupland, R .T ., 1961 . A reconsideration of grassland classification in the 

Northern Great Plains of North America, J . Ecol . 49 :135-167 . 

' Bird, J .B ., 1967 . Arctic soils and vegetation . In Physiography of Arctic 

Canada. John Hopkins Press, Baltimore. 

° Waldron, R ., Canadian Forestry Service, and M .J . Romaine, Canada Land 

Inventory, 1971 . Personal communication . Forestry codings and 

productivity of soils for each section in Forest Regions o! Canada (Rowe, 

1959) 19 pp. 

~ Canada Land Inventory . 1970 . Summary of land capability classification 

for forestry . Pages 26-31 in Objectives, scope and organization . Report 

No . 1 . Cat . 63-1 /1970 . Information Canada, Ottawa . 

81

TABLE 6 . VEGETATION REGIONS OF CANADA 

1 . Tundra and Alpine Tundra 

2 . Tundra and Boreal Forest Transition 

3 . Boreal Forest 

4 . Southeastern Mixed Forest (Acadian Forest) 

5 . Southeastern Mixed Forest (Great Lakes - St . Lawrence Forest) 

6 . Deciduous Forest 

7 . Subalpine Forest of Cordilleran Region 

8 . Columbia Forest of Cordilleran Region 

9 . Montane Forest of Cordilleran Region 

10. Coast Forest of Cordilleran Region 

11 . Boreal Forest and Grassland Transition (Fescue Prairie) 

12. Grassland, True Prairie, Mixed Prairie, and Palouse Prairie

sq mi (1 294 500 km2) within Alpine and Subarctic 

climates support a variable density of Tundra 

vegetation . It ranges from a continuous cover in the 

southern or more climatically favored areas through 

discontinuous vegetative cover to barren areas in the 

more northerly sections or other areas of extreme 

exposures . 

Tundra is essentially a treeless vegetation characterized 

by the absence of tall woody species. Tree 

species that are present adopt a dwarf form . Five 

main tundra types or plant associations are 

considered of significance . These include Arctic 

Desert, Lichen Moss, Heath, Grass-Sedge, and Bush 

or Scrub Tundra . 

Arctic deserts including Fell-fields or Rockfield 

Tundra are the most barren of all Tundra communities . 

The most extensive species are crustaceous lichens 

forming a discontinuous cover with some mosses 

and with limited species of grasses, sedges, and 

shrubs occurring as isolated plants or tussocks . For 

short periods in summer there are sufficient flowering 

plants to color broad areas . This type of vegetative 

community is usually associated with Cryic Regosols 

and Rockland and dominates the areas of the high 

Arctic, but becomes less prevalent further south . 

The lack of vegetative cover leaves the surface soil 

virtually unprotected and affords almost no 

opportunity for wildlife grazing . Lichen-Moss Tundra 

forms a virtually continuous vegetative cover and is 

found in many relatively well-drained upper slope 

positions, including strandlines, old river terraces, 

and coarse-textured stony or sandy tills associated 

with the Cryic Regosols . The characteristic species 

are the lichens, particularly reindeer moss (Cladonia 

spp.), interwoven with sedges (Carex spp.), grasses, 

arctic willows (Salix spp.), and avens (Dryas spp.) . 

Lichen-Moss Tundra is mainly found in the 

mid-Arctic and is rarer in the northern high Arctic . 

It provides a sparse cover of very limited grazing 

capacity for wildlife . To the south it intergrades with 

Heath Tundra . 

Heath Tundra is more prevalent in the southern Arctic 

and in areas of Alpine Tundra ; it occupies more 

humid and imperfectly drained sites than the 

Lichen-Moss Association . It is associated particularly 

with imperfectly drained Cryic Regosols and Cryic 

Brunisols . Heath Tundra is characterized by the 

occurrence of numerous berry plants, including 

arctic blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum L.) and 

alpine cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and by 

crowberry (Empetrum nigrum L.), in addition to many 

of the species associated with Lichen-Moss Tundra . 

The grazing capacity of Heath Tundra is limited, but 

is greater than that on Lichen-Moss sites. 

Sedge-Grass Tundra, sometimes known as Wet 

Tundra, usually develops in poorly drained habitats 

or under Subaquic and Aquic moisture regimes . They 

are mostly associated with Cryic Gleysols and gleyed 

Cryic Regosols on loamy or clayey soil materials . 

Sedge-Grass Tundra is found in all sections of the 

Arctic and in Alpine meadow sites . It is of limited 

occurrence in the more northerly sections of the 

high Arctic . Major species in Sedge-Grass Tundra 

include cotton grass (Eriophorum spp.) and hydrophytic 

sedges (Carex spp.) held together by a thick 

moss cover. In more southerly areas, shrubs, 

including ground or dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa 

Michx.) and Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum 

Oeder), form a significant component of the plant 

association . This type of vegetation provides a 

relatively productive part of the limited grazing 

habitat of the tundra region . 

Bush or Scrub Tundra is an association most 

prevalent in the southerly parts of the Arctic, 

particularly where this intergrades to areas of Boreal 

Forest-Tundra transition . It is generally found in 

locally favored aspects where there is protection by 

snow cover and in sites having adequate summer 

moisture . Bush Tundra is frequently associated with 

Cryic Regosols and Cryic Brunisols . The dominant 

bushes are willows (Salix spp.) and occasional 

alder (Alnus crispa [Ait .] Pursh) or birch (Betula 

spp.), usually with an herbaceous undergrowth . 

In areas near the tree line, thickets of willow and 

birch scrub interspersed with open tundra frequently 

form a distinctive vegetative pattern and provide 

some shelter as well as grazing habitat for wildlife . 

All of these Tundra types may be found within the 

regions of Boreal Forest and Tundra transition . They 

usually occupy the less favorably sheltered sites or 

areas where intermittent or relict areas of permafrost 

have imposed severe limitations on tree growth . 

TUNDRA AND BOREAL FOREST 

TRANSITION 

Between the Tundra region to the north and the true 

Boreal Forest to the south lies a broad area of 

Tundra and Boreal Forest transition of over 1,055,000 

sq mi (2731 395 km2) . Its southern limits extend 

from the Newfoundland Highlands and eastern 

Labrador coast across northern Quebec, Ontario, 

Manitoba, and Saskatchewan to the Northwest 

Territories and Yukon-Alaskan border . In the plains 

regions of Subarctic climate, the latitudinal limits of 

tree growth are reached, and the close cover of the 

typical Boreal Forest gives way to open stands of 

sparse or badly stunted tree growth to form lichenwoodlands, 

which merge into open tundra . The 

Alpine Forest-Tundra section within the higher 

elevations of the Cordilleran mountains forms a 

distinctive but similar altitudinal transition from 

Montane and Subalpine forest to Alpine Tundra . 

In the Newfoundland-Labrador Barrens section, the 

effects of exposure to wind and perhumid conditions 

as well as temperature limitations have also 

contributed to the development of semiforested 

barren lands in which the stunted tree cover may be 

replaced by health or moss bog . 

The Tundra vegetation within these transition areas 

is generally similar to that already described for such 

regions . The woodlands are mainly unproductive 

coniferous stands, dominated by an open, stunted 

85

cover of black spruce (Picea mariana [Mill .] B.S .P .) 

accompanied by alders (Alnus spp.), willows 

(Salix spp.), tamarack (Larix laricina [ Du RoiJ 

K. Koch .), in the more hydrophytic treed sites of 

swamp and muskeg . Trees associated with 

mixed-wood associations including white spruce 

(Picea glauca [Moench] Voss), balsam fir (Abies 

balsamifera [L .] Mill .), trembling aspen (Populus 

tremuloides Michx), balsam poplar (P. balsamifera 

L.), and white birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) are 

less common, except in particularly favored sites 

such as moderately well drained river levees or in 

some Gleysolic clay areas . Jack pine (Pinus banksiana 

Lamb .), although not widespread, is found in 

some sections of the region, usually on stony glacial 

till or better drained, coarse-textured deposits . In the 

Alpine transition, white spruce and alpine fir (Abies 

lasiocarpa [Hook.] Nutt .) are more common, with 

black spruce occurring at lower altitudes . Tamarack 

is infrequent in these areas . 

The forest growth of the Tundra and Boreal Forest 

transition must be regarded as unproductive, except 

for the few favorable sites where some local forestry 

practices are feasible . The mixed pattern of open 

scrub forest and tundra vegetation does, however, 

provide shelter for wildlife habitat and has a limited 

productivity for woodland grazing . 

BOREAL FOREST REGION 

This region, which occupies almost 1,000,000 sq mi 

(2 589 000 km2), is the most widespread of the 

forest regions in Canada . It forms a continuous belt 

south of the Tundra-Forest Transition, extending from 

Newfoundland west to the Rocky Mountains and 

northwestward to the Alaskan border . 

As its name implies, the Boreal Forest is associated 

with Boreal temperature regimes, mainly occurring 

within the colder Cryoboreal climatic regions and in 

areas of subaquic, perhumid, humid, and some areas 

of transitional humid to subhumid moisture regime, 

where neither excess periods of soil saturation nor 

growing-season moisture deficits are considered as 

significant limitations to forest growth . 

In Eastern Canada, the southern border of the Boreal 

Forest merges transitionally with the Southeastern 

Mixed Forest of the Maritime Provinces (Acadian 

Forest region) and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence 

Forest region in Ontario and Quebec . These latter 

occur in relatively milder, cool and moderately cool 

Boreal temperature regimes . Across the Interior 

Plains of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, the 

southern border of the forest merges into a broad 

zone of Boreal Forest - Grassland transition 

associated with the gradation from Boreal humid to 

Boreal subhumid conditions . This zone of vegetational 

transition, which is described later, is 

referred to as the Aspen Grove and Aspen-Oak 

sections of the Boreal Forest or as the Fescue 

Prairies-Aspen Grove or Parkland Prairie by 

grassland ecologists . 

In western Alberta and northeastern British Columbia, 

the Boreal Forest merges altitudinally into the 

Subalpine Forest of the Rocky Mountain uplands . 

Northward in the colder Cryoboreal and transitional 

Subarctic climates of the Mackenzie Mountains and 

Northern Plateau, the Boreal Forest extends through 

the Yukon Territory to the Alaskan border. 

Although many separate sections of the true Boreal 

Forest region in Canada have been recognized and 

described, there is a general relationship of vegetative 

pattern that characterizes the region as a whole . A 

dominance of conifers, with white and black spruce 

(Picea glauca [Moench] Voss and P. mariana 

[Mill .] B.S .P .) as the main species, is most common . 

Other less prominent but characteristic conifers are 

tamarack (Larix laricina [Du Roi] K . Koch), balsam 

fir (Abies balsamea [L .] Mill .), and jack pine (Pinus 

banksiana Lamb .) . Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa 

[Hook.] Nutt.) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta 

Dougl .) intrude into the western sections of the 

Boreal Forest from the mountain regions . Although 

dominantly coniferous there is a wide distribution of 

broad-leaved trees, particularly white birch (Betula 

papyrifera Marsh.) and aspen and balsam poplar 

(Populus tremuloides Michx . and P. balsamifera L.) . 

These latter species, particularly aspen, are most 

numerous in the central and southern boreal sections, 

especially in subhumid climatic areas transitional to 

the Prairie Grasslands . The wide distribution of aspen 

is partly due to its ability to quickly regenerate 

after fire, cutting, or other disturbances . Black spruce 

and tamarack increase in dominance within the more 

northerly section bordering the Tundra and Boreal 

Forest transition . Along the southern borders of the 

eastern sections there is a considerable mixing of 

species intruding from the moderately cool, Southeastern 

Mixed Forest region, including white and 

red pines (Pinus strobus L . and P. resinosa Ait.), 

yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx.), sugar maple 

(Acer saccharum Marsh.), black ash (Fraxinus 

nigra Marsh.), and eastern white cedar (Thuja 

occidentafis L.) . 

Within all sections there are general relationships of 

vegetation association with soil and moisture site 

characteristics . Jack pine with associated xero to 

xeromesophytic shrub and forest floor species, 

which are most prevalent on rapidly to well-drained 

soils in dry and fresh forest sites, are frequently 

found in areas of coarse-textured or sandy Podzols 

and Brunisols . White spruce, birch, and aspen 

poplar with associated mesophytic species have a 

wide range of distribution in rapidly to imperfectly 

drained, fresh, moist, and very moist forest sites, but 

dominate in well to imperfectly drained loamy to 

clayey soils . They are particularly associated with 

Gray Luvisols and Brunisols . Balsam poplar and 

balsam fir favor somewhat more poorly- drained 

sites, whereas black spruce and tamarack and their 

associated meso-hydrophytic and hydrophytic forest 

floor are most frequent in very moist and wet 

forest sites with subaquic or aquic moisture regimes . 

Black spruce and balsam poplar are characteristically 

found with gleyed phases of Luvisols and Brunisols 

87

and black spruce and tamarack usually dominate 

treed areas of peaty Gleysols and Organic soils . 

The greater proportion of the Boreal Forest sustains 

a reasonably productive forest cover with growth rates 

from 30 to over 90 cu ft/ac (2 to over 6 m1/ha) per 

year. A number of exceptions to this generalization 

are significant . Nonproductive forest growth is 

general on Rockland and soils with shallow regolith, 

and stony or lithic phases . Production is also low 

on very dry or rapidly drained jack pine sites 

associated with coarse-textured Podzols and 

Brunisols, where forest growth is usually sparse 

and stunted . 

Most of the very poorly drained or wet sites are 

nonproductive, particularly where associated with 

peaty Gleysols and Organic soils . Where a peaty 

cover is present, growth is frequently limited by 

excess moisture or by prolongation of very cold or 

frozen conditions . Productivity is somewhat higher 

on a number of Gleysol areas developed on finertextured 

lacustrine deposits . 

Extensive lumber and pulpwood operations have 

been undertaken in the more accessible parts of the 

Boreal Forest region and in particular in areas where 

favorable transportation facilities have been made 

available . 

Hunting and trapping have been continuing activities 

within the Boreal Forest since the earliest 

developments of the fur trade in Canada and 

constitute a significant use of this resource . This has 

been followed recently by an increasing development 

of the forest for recreational activities . Agricultural 

development has made some inroads into the fringe 

of the Boreal Forest particularly in Western Canada 

and to a lesser extent in local areas of Ontario and 

Quebec, but the main use of this vast region is still 

associated with the preservation and maintenance 

of forest vegetation as a sustaining resource . 

SOUTHEASTERN MIXED FOREST 

REGIONG, 

In central and eastern Canada from the Ontario- 

Manitoba border on the west to the Maritime 

Provinces on the Atlantic Coast lies the Southeastern 

Mixed Forest region . It represents in many ways a 

transition between the Boreal Forest of northern 

Canada, dominated by conifers, and the Deciduous 

Forest extending from the milder climatic regions of 

the eastern United States northward into the 

relatively mild regions of southern Ontario . This area 

of Mixed Forest can be conveniently divided into 

two regions in Canada, the Great Lakes - St . 

Lawrence Forest and the Acadian Forest, which 

extends throughout the Maritime Provinces of 

Eastern Canada, including Prince Edward Island but 

exclusive of Newfoundland . 

GREAT LAKES-ST . LAWRENCE 

FOREST REGION 

This region of approximately 140,000 sq mi 

(362460 km2) extends north of the United States 

border from the Lake of the Woods region of 

Manitoba and western Ontario eastward to Thunder 

Bay on Lake Superior . It continues from the southeastern 

shore of Lake Superior north of Lake Huron 

and eastward through southern Ontario and Quebec 

and along the south shore of the St . Lawrence 

River as far as the plateau highlands of the 

Gaspe Peninsula . 

Climatically it is more closely identified with 

moderately cool Boreal, humid to perhumid 

conditions, rather than with the colder Cryoboreal 

climates of the coniferous Boreal Forest . In southwestern 

Ontario and along the Central St . Lawrence 

Lowland where it merges with the Deciduous Forest 

regime, the associated temperature regime is 

transitional, changing from moderately cool Boreal 

to the milder temperatures of the Mesic climate . 

This forest is of a very mixed nature, characterized by 

white and red pines (Pinus strobus L. and P. 

resinosa Ait.), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis 

[L .] Carr .), and yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx . f .) . 

Associated with these are many other species 

common to both the Deciduous and Boreal forests 

including in the former various maples (Acer spp.), 

elms (Ulmus spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.) ; and 

in the latter, spruces (Picea spp.), jack pine (Pinus 

banksiana Lamb .), poplars (Populus spp.), and 

birch (Betula sp .) . Podzols, Brunisols, and Luvisols 

are associated soils on well to imperfectly drained 

sites and the forest growth on these is generally 

productive except on associated Rockland areas . 

Eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.), black 

ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh .), red maple (Acer 

rubrum L.), and elm (Ulmus americana L.) are found 

in mesohydrophytic and hydrophytic sites . Black 

spruce (Picea mariana [Mill .] B.S .P .) and tamarack 

(Larix laricina [Du Roi] K . Koch) are found in very 

moist and wet sites grading towards cooler Boreal 

conditions . Forest growth on all Organic and on 

some of the colder peaty Gleysolic soils is largely 

unproductive, but in milder temperature regimes 

Gleysols support a reasonably productive growth . 

The clearing involved in the early extension of 

agricultural development to this region, together with 

past and present forestry operations, has diminished 

and modified the forest resources in this area . A 

number of forest reserves have been established for 

protection of these resources as well as to 

accommodate the increasing demands of recreational 

use and development . 

ACADIAN FOREST REGION 

This region of approximately 45,000 sq mi 

(116 505 km2) constitutes the eastern part of the 

° In the United States the name "Eastern Hardwood Conifer Forest" has 

been used for correlation with these regions . 

89

Southeastern Mixed Forest region of Canada and 

includes all of the Maritime Provinces south of the 

Chaleur Uplands of New Brunswick, including 

Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton Island . The 

Acadian Forest is closely related to the Great 

Lakes-St . Lawrence region with the occurrence of 

characteristic elements of Deciduous and Boreal 

Forest associations . It is also climatically similar in 

that much of the area is under the influence of 

moderately cool, Boreal perhumid to humid climate, 

with the exception of higher elevations within the 

New Brunswick and Cape Breton highlands where 

colder Cryoboreal conditions occur . In parts of 

southern Nova Scotia, under the modifying influence 

of maritime temperatures, climatic conditions 

transitional between those of Boreal and Mesic 

climates occur. 

Red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg .), balsam fir (Abies 

balsamea [L .] Mill .), yellow birch (Betula lutea 

Michx.), and sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh .) 

are characteristic species with red and white pine 

(Pinus resinosa Ait. and P. strobus L.) and hemlock 

(Tsuga canadensis [L .] Carr.) occurring to a lesser 

but significant degree . The Boreal Forest element is 

represented by the occurrence of black and white 

spruce, poplar, and birch . Jack pine and poplars are 

prominent on sandy soils and in areas of regrowth 

after fires . Black spruce, tamarack, black ash 

(Fraxinus nigra Marsh.), cedar (Thuja occidentalis 

L.), and red maples are common constituent species 

in very moist and wet forest sites . 

Forest growth is generally productive on most upland 

Podzols and Luvisols and nonproductive on Rockland 

and on stony or lithic phases . An exception occurs 

on the higher elevations of the Cape Breton Plateau 

where the forest cover becomes discontinuous and 

moss or heath vegetation dominates . Most lowlands 

associated with Gleysols are reasonably productive, 

but areas of Organic soils generally support poor, 

nonproductive growth . In many coastal areas under 

maritime conditions, the effect of wind exposure has 

resulted in stunted growth and low productivity . 

These effects are particularly noticeable in Nova 

Scotia, Cape Breton Island, and some coastal areas 

of New Brunswick . 

Throughout the Acadian Forest region, early 

agricultural settlement, characterized by intensive 

lumbering and clearing, accompanied by extensive 

forest fires, has modified much of the original forest 

cover. This has been followed by considerable 

abandonment of cropland in areas of marginally 

productive soils and rough topography, which is 

now reverting to natural forest cover. Reforestation 

is being undertaken on former croplands and in 

some areas where modern commercial forestry 

operations are practiced on a sustaining basis . 

In Prince Edward Island, which has a pattern of 

extensive agricultural development, little original 

forest vegetation remains. In Nova Scotia and New 

Brunswick, where agricultural development is 

scattered or concentrated in local districts, larger 

90 

tracts of forest land remain and many of them are 

being used for commercial operations . Maintenance 

of forest lands for wildlife habitat, watershed control, 

and to meet an expanding demand for recreational 

use is receiving increasing attention throughout the 

Acadian Forest region . 

DECIDUOUS FOREST REGION 

A small part of the deciduous forest that is widespread 

in eastern United States continues northward into 

southwestern Ontario between lakes Huron, Erie, 

and Ontario . It occupies an area of about 1,000 sq mi 

(2 590 km2) extending eastward in a narrow belt 

from the Detroit-Windsor area for approximately 

250 mi (402 km) and including the Niagara 

Peninsula and most of the shoreline of Lake Ontario . 

Climatically it relates to the warmest portions of the 

Mesic subhumid to humid area of southwestern 

Ontario . 

At the time of settlement in the late eighteenth 

century, this area was clothed in deciduous forest 

vegetation . Very little if any natural forest remains 

today, and the relationship of the present to the 

original vegetation is largely inferential . Most of 

the area is closely settled and the forest vegetation is 

mostly reduced to farm wood lots, hedge rows, and 

remnant stands on nonarable soils . Modification of 

both natural and cultural vegetation has been further 

intensified by the rapid spread of urban and industrial 

development into rural areas . 

Many of the broad-leaved species common to the 

Great Lakes-St . Lawrence region can be found, 

such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), 

beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehr.), white elm (Ulmus 

americana L.), basswood (Tilia americana L.), and 

red and white oaks (Quercus rubra L . and Q. alba L.) . 

There are also a number of other species that are 

more common in warmer areas to the south, but 

reach their northern limit in this area . Among these 

are tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), pawpaw 

(Asimina triloba [L .] Dunal), red mulberry (Morus 

rubra L.), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.), 

sassafras (Sassafras albidum [Nutt .] Nees), and 

pignut hickories (Carya tomentosa Nutt . and C. glabra 

[Mill .] Sweet) . Black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), 

sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.), and swamp 

white oak (Quercus bicolor Willd .) are also found in 

this region . 

In wood lots, parks, and in most remnant stands 

where adequate protection and maintenance are 

provided the forest growth is generally vigorous 

and productive . 

FOREST REGIONS OF THE CORDILLERAN 

AND PACIFIC COASTAL AREAS 

OF WESTERN CANADA 

In Western Canada, a number of forest regions have 

been established relating closely to climatic 

conditions peculiar to the Pacific coastal area and to

the succession of mountain ranges, interior plateaus, 

and valleys characteristic of the Cordillera . These 

include the Subalpine Forest, the Columbia Forest, 

the Interior Montane Forest, and the Coast Forest 

regions . . 

SUBALPINE FOREST REGION 

This is a dominantly coniferous region of about 

80,000 sq mi (207 120 km 2) in extent found mostly on 

the mountain uplands of the Cordillera . It is in many 

ways a counterpart of the Boreal Forest, occurring 

in the moderately cold to cold Cryoboreal, humid to 

subhumid conditions of higher mountain elevations 

and extending to the upper altitudinal limit of closed 

forest cover . 

The main areas occur along the eastern slopes of 

the Rocky Mountains and upper foothills, extending 

northwestward to the uplands of the Interior Plateau 

of central and northern British Columbia . Less 

extensive areas are found in the upper elevations of 

the Columbia Mountains and Highlands of southern 

British Columbia, and on the eastern slopes of the 

Coast Mountains . In southern Alberta the Subalpine 

Forest occurs at elevations from about 5,000 to 

6,800 ft (1 525 to 1830 m), but in eastern British 

Columbia it occurs at lower altitudes roughly 

between 3,600 and 4,000 ft (1 100 and 1 220 m) . 

Continuing northward the altitudinal range is again 

lowered and this type of forest becomes continuous 

through the mountain slopes and valleys . 

Another section of the Subalpine Forest includes 

parts of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte islands and 

the west side of the mainland coast ranges, occupying 

zones usually above 2,000 to 3,000 ft (610 to 915 m) 

elevation and lying between the coastal forest and 

the Alpine tundra and snowfields . 

Characteristic species are Engelmann spruce (Picea 

engelmannii Parry), alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa 

[Hook .] Nutt .), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta 

Dougl.) . There are other intrusions including spruces 

(Picea glauca [Moerich] Voss) and aspens (Populus 

tremuloides Michx.) from the Boreal regions, 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) 

from the Montane Forest of the drier interior, and 

western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla [Raf .] Sarg .), 

western red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn), and amabilis 

fir (Abies amabilis [Dougl .] Forbes) from the 

Coast Forest . 

Forest growth on upland sites with Gray Luvisols, 

Brunisols, Regosols, and Podzols is generally 

productive, but not on Rockland and very steeply 

sloping land . Poorly drained mineral soils within the 

subalpine interior are moderately productive, but 

Organic soils, particularly in the coastal ranges, 

are not . 

Commercial forest operations have been established 

in many parts of this region, particularly in the 

northern interior sections . In the eastern Rockies and 

Columbia Mountains, however, the establishment 

92 

of large areas of national and provincial parks for 

recreational use or as reserves for wildlife habitat has 

placed an increasing restraint on commercial 

activities within the region . 

COLUMBIA FOREST REGION 

The Columbia Forest of about 20,000 sq mi (51 780 

km2) is located on the east side of the Central 

Plateau of British Columbia . It occupies most of 

the densely forested areas of the lower slopes and 

valleys within the Columbia Mountains and 

Highlands including the Selkirk, Monashee, and 

Caribou mountains and parts of the Kootenay, 

Upper Thompson, and Upper Fraser valleys . 

This forest occurs at elevations ranging roughly 

between 2,500 and 4,000 ft (760 to 1 220 m) below 

the lower limits ofthe Subalpine Forest and frequently 

above a gradual transition to the drier areas of 

Montane Forest and Grassland, which occurs in 

the lower interior valleys, particularly to the west 

and south . 

Climatically the area is mostly Boreal and humid, 

and is known as the Interior Wet Belt . Its moist 

climate is apparently due to the forced rise of 

eastward-flowing Pacific air masses over the eastern 

highlands, which is reflected in the development of 

a coniferous forest closely resembling in species that 

of the Coast Forest, but with a comparative reduction 

in size of tree growth . 

Western red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn) and western 

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla [Raf.] Sarg .) are 

characteristic species on relatively moist sites with 

associated blue Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii 

[Mirb .] Franco) on drier positions . In the southern 

parts western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl .), 

western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt .), grand fir 

(Abies grandis [Dougl .] Lindl .), and western yew 

(Taxus brevifolia Nutt .) are also common . Engelmann 

spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry) is found in more 

northerly sections and on higher elevations . 

Associated soils on upland sites are Podzols and Gray 

Luvisols with Humic Gleysols in minor areas of 

lowlands and moist positions . Forest growth is 

mostly productive except on Rockland and on a few 

Dark Gray Chernozemic soils in areas intergrading 

to Montane Forest-Grassland transitions . Commercial 

forestry is practiced to a considerable degree 

throughout the region, but an increase in the use 

of forest for recreation and wildlife habitat is 

encouraging policies of forest maintenance . 

MONTANE FOREST REGION 

The Montane Forest of about 50,000 sq mi (129 450 

km2) occupies a large part of the Interior Plateau of 

British Columbia, as well as parts of the Kootenay 

Valley and smaller areas on the east side of the 

Rocky Mountains . 

Climatically, the Montane Forest is found in the 

Boreal to Cryoboreal subhumid to semiarid climate

of the Cordilleran Region lying in the rain shadow 

area to the east of the humid and perhumid coastal 

mountains . Similar dry areas occur in the valleys 

of the Rocky Mountains adjacent to the Alberta 

border . 

The Montane Forest forms a Canadian section of the 

main Interior Montane Forest Region in the United 

States, and extends to the northern parts of the 

interior where it becomes transitional to the Subalpine 

Forest . In its drier sections, particularly in southern 

and central British Columbia, it grades into areas of 

parkland savanna vegetation transitional to the 

Agropyron-Festuca grasslands of the Palouse Prairie . 

These grasslands occupy many of the lower slopes 

with southern aspects and most of the valley 

bottom lands . 

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws .) is a 

characteristic species of these lower parklands . Blue 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 

[Beissn.] Franco) is particularly distinctive in the 

central part of the region with lodgepole pine (Pinus 

contorta Dougl.) and aspen (Populus tremuloides 

Michx.) of increasing occurrence in the northern 

sections or in higher elevations where it intergrades 

with Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry) 

and alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa [Hook.] Nutt .) from 

the subalpine regions . Black cottonwood (Populus 

trichocarpa Torr . & Gray) is found in minor areas of 

moist sites in alluvial flood plains . 

Productivity is generally lower in the Montane Forest 

than in the other forest regions of the Cordillera 

because of less humid conditions and increasing 

aridity on steep slopes and southern exposures . 

Moderately productive growth is mainly confined 

to areas of Gray Luvisols and Brunisols ; the growth 

on associated areas of Dark Gray Chernozemic soils 

is mostly unproductive and the cover is more open . 

Associated areas of Black Chernozemic and Dark 

Brown Chernozemic soils coincide with nonforested 

grassland communities . Commercial forest enterprises 

are therefore of minor significance in 

this region . 

COAST FOREST REGION 

The Coast Forest region of about 50,000 sq mi 

(129450 km2) includes the Canadian sections of 

the Pacific Coast Forest of North America, extending 

from the International Border and Vancouver Island 

northwestward to the Queen Charlotte Islands . It 

includes much of the rugged, fiord-indented coastal 

mainland and adjacent islands, and extends to a 

considerable distance along the river valley lowlands . 

It is essentially a dense coniferous forest of tall 

growth, which with its high productivity is uniquely 

different from most of the other forest regions 

of Canada . 

Climatically it occurs under Boreal and Cryoboreal 

perhumid to humid conditions, modified considerably 

by maritime influence and long growing seasons . 

In some areas the abundant rainfall from moist 

94 

Pacific air masses results in a luxuriant rain forest type 

of vegetation, whereas in other areas of local rain 

shadow somewhat less humid conditions prevail . 

One such area of mild, Mesic, humid to subhumid 

climate occurs in southeastern Vancouver Island, 

Strait of Georgia, and the Fraser Lowland . Along the 

west coast areas, exposure to Pacific winds and 

gales results in some limitation to high productivity . 

Northward and at higher altitudes throughout the 

region, the Coast Forest grades into Subalpine 

Forest or in some local areas extends to the limits 

of the timberline or to snow-capped highlands. 

Western red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn) and western 

hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla [Raf .] Sarg .) are 

dominant species, associated with Douglas fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii var . glauca [Beissn .] 

Franco) in the moderately cool Boreal climates of 

the south ; the latter is replaced by an increasing 

dominance of sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis [Bong.] 

Carr .) in more northerly and colder Cryoboreal areas . 

(Abies amabilis [Dougl .] Forbes) and yellow cedar 

(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis [D . Don] Spach), with 

mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana [Bong.] 

Carr.) and alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa [Hook.] Nutt .) 

commonly found at higher altitudes, usually above 

1,500 ft (457 m) . Species such as western white 

pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.) and western yew 

(Taxus brevifolia Nutt .) are found in the milder 

southern sections . Two species, arbutus (Arbutus 

menziesii Pursh) and garry oak (Quercus garryana 

Dougl.) occur only in the areas of Mesic, subhumid 

climatic conditions characteristic of the southeast 

coast of Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland . 

Most upland soils in the Coast Forest region, 

including Podzols, Brunisols, Gray Luvisols, and 

even some Rockland and lithic phases support a 

highly productive growth on fresh to very moist 

forest sites . The few areas of Organic soils, particularly 

in the Queen Charlotte Islands, are nonproductive 

for forest growth . 

Environmental conditions for much of the area are 

optimal for the growth of conifers and the forest 

productivity is considered the highest in Canada, 

usually greater than 100 cu ft/ac (7 m3/ha), and 

in some areas it reaches over 200 cu ft/ac (14 m3/ha) 

per year . Commercial forest enterprises are therefore 

a major activity in this forest region, but care has to 

be taken in reforestation to prevent the invasion of 

logged-over areas by unsuitable species . 

THE GRASSLANDS 

The Grassland regions of Canada form the northerly 

parts of the major grasslands of North America, which 

extend through much larger areas in the United 

States . The main areas in Canada are part of the 

Central and Eastern Grasslands, which extend from 

the Gulf of Mexico through the Great Plain States 

to their northern climatic limits in the Prairie 

Provinces . In this area the Grasslands intergrade into 

a transitional region with the Boreal Forest . Much 

smaller areas of grassland occur in the interior

plateaus and valleys of British Columbia, forming 

narrow extensions of the large relatively arid areas 

of Western Sagebrush Steppe and Grassland Prairies 

of the intermountain areas of the Cordillera in the 

northwestern United States . 

The term prairie is used in Canada and in much of the 

United States to describe mainly treeless areas 

characterized by a relatively continuous basal cover 

dominated by grasses and sedges, with forbs and 

shrubs occurring as associated subdominant species . 

The term steppe is used to characterize a grasslandshrub 

vegetation typical of more arid regions where 

basal cover is less or becomes discontinuous . It is 

not used to describe any broad vegetational regions 

in Canada, but may be applied to descriptions of 

local xerophytic communities. 

The Natural Grasslands of Canada may be grouped 

(Coupland 1961) into four major associations, 

namely : 

The Fescue Prairie (Festuca scabrella) Association 

The True Prairie (Stipa-Sporobulus) Association 

The Mixed Prairie (Stipa-Bouteloua) Association 

The Palouse Prairie (Agropyron-Festuca) Association 

The Mixed Prairie and True Prairie are correlative 

with extensions of Tallgrass and Shortgrass prairies 

in the Great Plains States of Montana, North Dakota, 

and Minnesota . The Palouse Prairie is correlative 

with extensions of Shortgrass Prairie and Western 

Sagebrush Steppe in the states of Washington and 

Idaho, but also includes areas of Tallgrass Prairie . 

The main part of the Fescue Prairie lies within the 

Canadian section of the Great Plains and forms a 

narrow belt extending in a northward arc between 

the Mixed Prairie and the true Boreal Forest . It is 

essentially a grassland region, but is also characterized 

by intrusions of forest vegetation mainly in 

the form of forest groves dominated by aspen poplar 

(Populus tremuloides Michx .) or aspen and oak 

(Quercus macrocarpa Michx.), and often described 

as a Parkland Prairie . It therefore corresponds closely 

to the Aspen Grove and Aspen-Oak sections of the 

Boreal Forest as described by Canadian foresters . In 

this report it is described as a Grassland- 

Boreal Forest transition with the other grassland 

associations . 

BOREAL FOREST AND GRASSLAND 

TRANSITION (THE FESCUE PRAIRIE) 

This region forms an extensive belt between the areas 

of closed cover Boreal Forest and the treeless 

grasslands of the Mixed Prairie . It is described here 

as representing the Fescue Prairie Grassland that has 

been modified by a scattered invasion of Aspen and 

Aspen-Oak Forest from the Boreal Forest region . It 

totals about 100,000 sq mi (258900 km2) in area 

and extends in a broad arc from south-central and 

eastern Manitoba northwestward through Saskatchewan 

to its northern apex in north-central Alberta . 

From there it continues southward in a narrow band 

paralleling the eastern slopes of the Rocky 

Mountains, and crossing the International Border 

into the United States . In the United States it is 

referred to as the Boreal Forest and Tallgrass Prairies . 

Included with this region are a number of smaller 

outlying areas with similar vegetation . These include 

areas of vertical zonation within the Mixed Prairie 

such as the Cypress Hills and Moose Mountain 

upland, and a few areas where the combination of 

aeolian sands with shallow water tables has resulted 

in a humid habitat conducive to tree growth . Other 

outlying areas, particularly in the Beaver River plain 

of northwestern Saskatchewan and the Peace River 

Lowland of Alberta and British Columbia, occur as 

islands of parklike vegetation within the true Boreal 

Forest region . 

Climatically this vegetative region most closely 

relates to Boreal and Cryoboreal subhumid regimes, 

because of moisture limitations sufficient to restrict 

forest growth but favorable enough to produce a 

productive grass cover . In terms of genetic 

relationships between climate, vegetation, and soils, 

it relates to the development of Black and Dark Gray 

Chernozemic soils in well to imperfectly drained sites 

with mesophytic grass cover and to Humic Gleysols 

in aquic and subaquic sites with hydrophytic 

vegetation . Where groves of trees have become well 

established, the soils show characteristics of 

degradation under leaf mats and grade from Black 

Chernozemic to Dark Gray Chernozemic and Gray 

Luvisols on well-drained sites, and to Gleysols, 

Eluviated Gleysols, or Gleyed Gray Luvisols in 

hydromorphic areas . 

The Fescue Prairie is characterized in upland sites 

by a high proportion of rough fescue (Festuca 

scabrella Torr .) and dryland sedges (Carex spp.) . 

Other grasses occurring in significant proportions 

include various wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.), 

porcupine grass (Stipa spartea Trin .), and June grass 

(Koeleria cristata [L] Pers .) . These latter species are 

found on slightly less humid sites and are also 

associated with areas intergrading to the Mixed 

Prairie associations . 

Hydrophytic vegetative communities include a range 

of successions from those of aqueous or submerged 

communities to those associated with less poorly 

drained areas . Areas with aqueous moisture regimes 

range from those dominated by pondweeds 

(Potamogeton spp.) and water-milfoil (Myriophyllum 

spp.), to reed swamp stages with bullrushes 

(Scirpus spp.), cat-tails (Typha latifolia L.), and 

spangle top (Scolochloa festucacea [Willd .] Link) . 

Aquic and subaquic regimes with associated Humic 

Gleysols range from sedge meadow communities 

dominated by awned sedge (Carex atherodes 

Spreng .), slough grass (Beckmannia syzigachne 

[Steud .] Fern), and marsh reedgrass (Calamogrostis 

spp.) to shrub stages with willows (Salix spp.) . 

The invasion of the Fescue Prairie by tree growth is 

characterized by the establishment of many groves 

or clumps of trees giving the region a "parklike" 

appearance . These groves, which on the prairies are 

locally referred to as "Bluffs", are dominated by 

95

hardwoods, mostly aspen poplar (Populus tremuloides 

Michx.), but in the southeast, particularly in 

Manitoba, bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa Michx.) 

becomes an increasingly significant species, 

especially on slightly drier treed sites . Balsam poplar 

(Populus balsamifera L.) is an associated species in 

moister locations . The majority of these groves of 

trees are located in relatively humid microtopographic 

sites, such as the periphery of "pot hole" 

depressions or on shaded aspects . There is a definite 

transition in growth habit of trees in this region 

progressing from the humid forest to the semiarid 

prairie, as shown by decreasing height of growth 

and a decrease in density of cover and distribution 

of tree stands . This transition ranges from many 

extensive groves of healthy and relatively productive 

trees near the forest areas to a much decreased 

distribution of nonproductive scrubby and almost 

shrub growth in areas approaching the treeless 

grasslands of the Mixed Prairie . 

It should be noted, however, that after agricultural 

development and the protection of the prairies from 

the extensive fires, which occurred prior to and 

immediately following settlement, the establishment 

of natural aspen groves has advanced into many 

formerly treeless areas . Contrasted to this 

development, the clearing and cultivation for 

agriculture of the greater proportion of this region has 

drastically modified the original vegetation and 

reduced the areas of natural fescue prairie and aspen 

groves to sites of marginal arability . This has been 

compensated to some degree by the planting of trees 

in shelter belts for farmsteads and as protection 

against wind erosion . 

THE TRUE PRAIRIE 

(STIPA - SPOROBULUS) ASSOCIATION 

The True Prairie occupies a relatively small area of 

about 25,000 sq mi (64 725 km2) located in the Red 

River valley of Manitoba, and correlates with a 

northerly extension of the Blue Stem Prairie (Tallgrass 

Prairie) occurring in Minnesota and other American 

Midwestern States . It was referred to as the Red 

River Valley Prairie by early settlers who commented 

on the lush growth of upland prairie and lowland 

meadow grasses, which distinguished this association 

from other grasslands of Western Canada . 

Although the area was considerably modified by 

subsequent cultivation and drainage, it is still 

characterized by tall grasses, few shrubs, and an 

absence of tree cover except along the banks of 

streams and rivers . 

Climatically the vegetation relates to Boreal 

temperatures and subhumid to humid regimes and 

in this respect occupies the most humid sections of 

the grassland regions of Canada . These conditions 

are accentuated by the high moisture-holding 

capacity and slow permeability of the lacustrine 

clays of the Red River valley and Lake Agassiz 

Plain . The associated soils are mainly Gleyed Black 

Chernozemic and Humic Gleysols . 

96 

Spear grasses (Stipa spp.), blue stem grasses 

(Andropogon spp.), panic grasses (Panicum spp.), 

indian grass (Sorghastrum spp.), and prairie dropseed 

(Sporobulus spp.) are characteristic grasses of 

the region . 

Native trees, commonly confined to levees and stream 

banks, include American elm (Ulmus americana L.), 

Manitoba maple (Acer negundo L.), and green ash 

(Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) . 

THE PALOUSE PRAIRIE (AGROPYRON - 

FESTUCA) ASSOCIATION 

The Palouse Prairie of about 12,000 sq mi (31 068 

km2) occurs within the areas of Boreal subarid to 

subhumid climates characterizing the driest portions 

of the interior plateaus and valleys of the Cordilleran 

Region in British Columbia . They relate to much 

larger areas of Shortgrass Prairie, Fescue-Wheatgrass 

(Festuca-Agropyron), and Western Sagebrush 

Steppe (Artemisia-Agropyron) in the intermountain 

regions of the United States . They extend northward 

from the International Border in a narrow irregular 

pattern following the bottom lands, terraces, plateaus, 

and lower slopes of river valleys, including parts of 

the Kootenay, Okanagan, Thompson, Fraser, and 

Chilcotin rivers and their tributaries . 

The range and characteristics of these grasslands and 

their location and pattern of distribution relate to the 

climatic complexes of temperature and moisture 

regimes associated with vertical zonation, slope, and 

aspect in a subhumid to subarid mountain complex . 

In cooler and subhumid areas where they intergrade 

with the Montane Forest, the Palouse grasslands are 

characterized by associations of Agropyron-Festuca 

grasses associated with scattered growth of 

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws .), Douglasfir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb .] Franco), or aspen 

(Populus tremuloides Michx.) forming a savannah 

type of parkland . At the other extreme of relatively 

warm, subarid conditions, particularly in river bottoms 

or unshaded slopes, they are characterized by a 

sparse, sometimes discontinuous cover of bunch 

grasses, forbs, and shrubs, including sagebrush 

(Artemisia sp .) and cactus (Opuntia sp .) . In between 

these extremes may be found extensive areas of open 

grasslands of Fescue or Mixed Prairie grasses, 

providing some of the most productive grazing 

rangeland in British Columbia . 

Associated soils range from Dark Gray to Black 

Chernozemic on the subhumid parkland and Fescue 

Prairie of the upper slopes and plateaus . Rough 

fescue (Festuca scabrella Torr.), bluebunch wheatgrass 

(Agropyron spicatum [Pursh] Scribn . & Sm .), 

Columbia spear grass (Stipa columbiana Macoun), 

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), and 

associated trees grow on the transition areas to 

Montane Forest . Only minor areas of hydrophytic 

grasses and sedges occur . Dark Brown Chernozemic 

soils are found in semiarid Mixed Prairie sites 

occurring on upper terraces and unshaded slopes .

June grass (Koeleria cristata [L .] Pers .) and spear 

grass (Stipa comata Trin . & Rupr .) are associated 

with Festuca and Agropyron species in these areas . 

Common herbs including yarrow (Achillea millefolium 

L.), balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata 

[Pursh] Nutt .), and shrubs such as rose (Rosa spp.) 

and Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt .) are 

present but not abundant . 

In the driest subarid sites, Brown Chernozemic soils 

are associated with a sparse cover of bunch grasses, 

herbs, and desert-type shrubs. The main grass 

species include bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron 

spicatum [Pursh] Scribn . & Sm .), Sandberg's 

bluegrass (Poa secunda Presl), dropseed grass 

(Sporobulus spp.), and three-awned grass (Aristida 

longiseta Steud .) . Pasture sage (Artemisia frigida 

Willd .) and yellow cactus (Opuntia fragilis [Nutt .] 

Haw.) are common together with larger xerophytic 

shrubs such as sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata 

Nutt . and A . trifida), antelope bush (Purshia 

tridentata DC .), and rabbit bush (Bigelowia 

dracunculoides DC .) . 

In the drier sites, overgrazing tends to increase the 

percentage of less palatable herbs and shrubs, but 

over much of the grassland the shift in grazing from 

lower grasslands to summer pastures at higher 

elevations tends to prevent these conditions 

occurring and assists in maintaining a reasonably 

productive grass cover . 

THE MIXED PRAIRIE 

(STIPA-BOUTELOUA) ASSOCIATION 

The Mixed Prairie (Stipa-Bouteloua) Association 

comprises the main area of open grasslands in the 

Interior Plains of Canada . It correlates with and 

forms a part of a larger area of Shortgrass and 

Tallgrass prairies in the Great Plains of the United 

States extending northward from Texas across the 

International Border to its northern extremity in 

Saskatchewan and Alberta . In Canada it encloses a 

roughly semicircular area of a little less than 100,000 

sq mi (258 900 km2) with its base extending 

eastward for about 670 mi (1 078 km) along the 

International Border from the foothills of the Rocky 

Mountains to the vicinity of the Saskatchewan- 

Manitoba border . Its circumference extends to a 

distance of about 250 to 260 mi (400 to 420 km) 

northward, apexing in the vicinity of the Saskatchewan-Alberta 

border . 

Climatically, the Mixed Prairie relates very closely to 

the main areas of Boreal temperature and semiarid to 

subarid moisture regimes, which favor the production 

of grass rather than trees . Along its northern and 

eastern borders this Mixed Prairie intrudes into 

cooler areas of Cryoboreal climates bordering the 

subhumid Fescue Prairie of the Boreal Forest- 

Grassland transition already described . Within the 

general region, local areas of subaquic moisture 

regime support a corresponding hydrophytic 

association of meadow grasses and sedges . Brown 

and Dark Brown Chernozemic, Brown Solonetz, 

and Regosols are the generally associated soils on 

upland, semiarid to subarid sites, with Humic 

Gleysols typifying the soils in the hydrophytic 

meadows . Local areas of Saline Regosols or saline 

phases of other soils support a distinctive 

halomorphic vegetation . 

In some classifications and for that used in the FAO 

report on the Soils of North America, the Mixed 

Prairie has been separated into two zones, one of 

Mixed or Midgrass Prairie (Stipa-Agropyron- 

Bouteloua) associated with semiarid moisture 

conditions and Dark Brown Chernozemics and a 

Shortgrass Prairie (Bouteloua-Stipa) occupying the 

subarid regions of southwestern Saskatchewan and 

southeastern Alberta and related to Brown Chernozemics. 

Although this separation s useful in 

distinguishing a general habit of growth and a zonal 

soil climatic relationship, it expresses only one 

variation within the Mixed Prairie region . The present 

classification recognizes five faciations or expressions 

of the Mixed Prairie communities resulting from 

variations in soils and soil climatic transitions . 

These include : 

a) The Stipa-Agropyron (spear grass-wheatgrass) 

faciation is usually developed on Dark Brown 

Chernozemics of medium texture and semiarid 

moisture regimes, and on some Brown Chernozemics 

of medium to clayey textures . The most 

important species are porcupine grass (Stipa 

spartea Trin .) and northern wheatgrass (Agropyron 

dasystachyum [Hook.] Scribn .), but spear grass 

(Stipa comata Trin . & Rupr.) and western couch 

grass (Agropyron smithii Rydb .) are also common . 

This faciation is the most widely distributed one 

in the region . 

b) The Stipa-Bouteloua-Agropyron (spear grassblue 

grama-wheatgrass) faciation is commonly 

developed on Brown Chernozemics of sandy or 

loamy texture and subarid moisture regimes . In this 

somewhat drier community, blue grama (Bouteloua 

gracilis [HBK .] Lag .) is better adapted than 

elsewhere, and spear grass (Stipa comata Trin . & 

Rupr .) is usually more prevalent than porcupine 

grass (S . spartea), particularly after dry periods . 

Plains reed grass (Calamagrostis montanensis 

Scribn .), Sandberg's bluegrass (Poa secunda 

Presl), and prairie muhly (Muhlenbergia cuspidata 

[Nutt.] Rydb .) are also common . 

c) The Stipa-Bouteloua (spear grass-blue grama) 

faciation is typical of areas of sandy Brown and 

Dark Brown Chernozemics with low moistureholding 

capacity, and drier sites than the two 

faciations mentioned previously . Another distinguishing 

characteristic is an increase in the 

occurrence of thread-leaved sedge (Carex filifolia 

Nutt .) and other dwarf sedges on these xeric 

communities . 

d) Bouteloua-Agropyron faciation, another xeric 

community of sparse growth, occurs on subarid 

loamy to clayey Solonetz or Solonetz-like soils . 

These soils with relatively impermeable subsoils 

97

are less suited to the growth of Stipa spp . Northern 

wheatgrass (Agropyron dasystachyum [Hook.] 

Scribn .) and western couch grass (A . smithii Rydb .) 

are almost exclusive grasses in areas of shallow or 

eroded Solonetzic soils with blue grama 

(Bouteloua gracilis (HBK .) Lag.) appearing with 

greater depths of A horizons . Spear grass (Stipa 

spp.), June grass (Koe%ria cristata [L .] Pers .), and 

dryland sedges are significant associates . 

e) Agropyron-Koeleria faciation is a community 

typical of lacustrine clays of high moisture-holding 

capacities, and properties of shrinking and swelling 

intergrading between Orthic and Grumic Brown 

and Dark Brown Chernozemic soils . Most of these 

areas are now under cultivation for grain crops, but 

relict areas indicate that northern wheatgrass 

(A . dasystachyum) with June grass (K . cristata) 

are dominant species with June grass being more 

abundant here than on other soils . The relative 

absence of spear grass (Stipa spp.) and blue grama 

grass (B . gracilis) is also noteworthy on these 

fine-textured clayey soils, which are limiting to 

the growth of these species . 

Within the Mixed Prairie, a variety of forbs and shrubs 

occur, but sages (Artemisia spp.) are most abundantly 

expressed . Prairie sage (Artemisia frigida Willd.) is 

the main forb occurring throughout all communities, 

with hoary sagebrush (Artemisia cana Pursh) being 

prominent in the s+.ibarid communities . The 

percentage occurrence of such species tends to 

increase markedly with overgrazing . Other shrubs 

include roses (Rosa spp.), moss phlox (Phlox hoodii 

Richards), and in the most xeric subarid sites, yellow 

cactus (Opuntia fragilis [Nutt.] Haw.) and prickly 

pear (Opuntia polycantha Haw.) . 

In subaquic sites, similar hydrophytic associations of 

meadow grasses and sedges occur to those found, on 

Gleysols within the Fescue Prairie, except that the 

peripheral borders of these meadow areas are usually 

characterized by shrub rather than tree growth . 

Aspen poplar (Populus tremuloides Michx.) has 

invaded the Mixed Prairie to a limited extent, 

particularly on the shaded slopes of valleys or on 

locally elevated areas with lower temperatures and 

increased rainfall, but its growth is usually stunted 

and short lived . 

Local areas of saline soils are typified by vegetative 

communities of salt-tolerant species, including alkali 

grass (Distichlis stricta [Torr .] Rydb .), wild barley 

(Hordeum jubatum L.), greasewood (Sarcobatus 

vermiculatus [Hook .] Torr.), red samphire (Salicornia 

rubra Nels .) and sea blite (Suaeda spp.) . 

The natural vegetation of much of the Mixed Prairie, 

particularly in the semiarid Stipa-Agropyron sections 

and in the clay associated Agropyron-Koe%ria 

faciations, has been destroyed by extensive 

cultivation . Most of the remaining areas of natural 

vegetation are within areas of rough topography or 

stony land, or in areas of soils considered suitable 

only for native pasture and grazing. Areas of former 

cultivation now abandoned have been sown down 

to pasture or have reverted to grassland vegetation . 

Many such areas and virgin grasslands are now 

enclosed in community pastures . 

References 

Bird, J.B . 1967 . Arctic soils and vegetation . /n 

Physiography of Arctic Canada . John's Hopkins 

Press, Baltimore . 

Bird, R.D . 1961 . Ecology of the aspen parkland of 

Western Canada . Can. Dep . Agric . Publ . 1066, 

155 pp . 

Canada Land Inventory . 1970 . Summary of land 

capability classification for forestry. Pages 26-31 

in Objectives, scope and organization . Report 

No . 1, Cat . No . RE63-1 /1970, Information 

Canada, Ottawa . 

Coupland, R.T . 1958 . The effects of fluctuations in 

weather upon the Grasslands of the Great Plains . 

Bot . Rev . 24 :274-318 . 

Coupland, R .T . 1961 . A reconsideration of grassland 

classification in the Northern Great Plains of North 

America . J . Ecol . 49 :135-167 . 

Hare, F.K . 1950 . Climate and zonal divisions of the 

boreal forest formation in eastern Canada . Geogr . 

Rev . 40 :615-635 . 

Krajina, V.J . 1965 . Ecology of western North America . 

Univ . of British Columbia, Dep . Botany, Vancouver, 

B .C . 112 pp . 

McLean, A., and Marchand, L . 1968 . Grassland 

ranges in the southern interior of British Columbia . 

Can . Dep . Agric . Publ . 1319 . 28 pp . 

Moss, E. 1955 . The vegetation of Alberta . Bot . Rev . 

21 :493-567 . 

Richards, J .H . (ed.) 1969 . The atlas of Saskatchewan . 

Univ . of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask . 

Ritchie, J.C . 1960 . The vegetation of northern 

Manitoba . V. Establishing the major zonation . 

Arctic 13 :211-229 . 

Rowe, J .S . 1972 . Forest regions of Canada . Dep. of 

Environment, Canadian Forestry Service . Publ . 

No . 1300 . 172 pp . 

Tarnocai, C . 1970 . Classification of peat landforms in 

Manitoba . Research Station, Can . Dep. Agric ., 

Winnipeg, Man. 45 pp .

PART III 

DESCRIPTION OF SOILS AND MAPPING UNITS 

The concepts of classification for each soil group 

indicated on the Soil Map of Canada are described 

at the order, great group, and subgroup levels, 

together with their broad environmental relationships . 

This is followed by a more detailed description of 

each great group and subgroup, their geographic 

distribution and extent in the mapping units, and 

a general account of their limitations for land use 

and productive management . 

Descriptions and analyses of profiles representing 

the major subgroups of the Canadian classification 

are presented in part IV of the report. These have 

been selected from data obtained through provincial 

and federal surveys . 


Chernozemic Soils 

Soils classified within the Chernozemic order in the 

Canadian system of taxonomy are well to imperfectly 

drained mineral soils of good structure . They have 

dark-colored virgin or cultivated A horizons, very 

dark grayish brown to black when moist, overlying 

B or C horizons of high base saturation . Accumulations 

of lime carbonate usually occur in the lower 

part of the solum . 

These soils have developed within areas of cool 

Boreal to cold Cryoboreal, subhumid to subarid 

continental climates . The characteristics of their, 

humus-enriched A horizons are considered to be 

developed and maintained by the accumulation and 

decomposition of a cyclic growth of xerophytic to 

mesophytic grasses and forbs typical of grassland 

or transitional grassland-forest communities . They 

are therefore representative of the regional or zonal 

soils, characteristic of the Canadian prairies and the 

rangelands of the interior of British Columbia . 

At the order level, the definitions and criteria 

established for Chernozemic soils are such that they 

relate closely to the suborder of Borolls in the 

United States taxonomy, and with Kastanozems, 

Chernozems, and Greyzems in the soil units of the 

FAO/UNESCO World system . Chernozemic soils 

are further divided into four major divisions, the 

Brown, Dark Brown, Black, and Dark Gray great 

groups . These are distinguished on measurable 

differences in color of the A horizons, which together 

with other associated features of depth, organic 

matter content, and structure reflect significant 

differences in the ecological environment of soil 

climates and vegetation under which they have 

developed, and which continue to influence and 

100 

distinguish their characteristics and relative use 

capabilities . 

Brown Chernozemic soils are characterized by A 

horizons with grayish brown to light brownish gray 

dry colors, which are generally lower in organic 

matter content than those of the other Chernozemic 

great groups . They occur within cool Boreal semiarid 

to subarid climates characterized by severe moisture 

deficits during the growing season . These soils have 

developed under a cyclic growth of xero phytic to 

mesophytic grasses and forbs characteristic of the 

Shortgrass sections of the Mixed Prairie and of the 

most xerophytic parts of the Palouse grasslands of 

British Columbia . They relate to the concept of 

Aridic Borolls in the United States taxonomy and to 

(Light Chestnut) Kastanozems in the FAO/UNESCO 

system of soil units . 

Dark Brown Chernozemic soils have A horizons 

with dark grayish brown to dark brown dry colors . 

The organic matter content and thickness of horizons 

are generally greater than those of Brown and less 

than those of Black Chernozemic great groups . They 

occur within cool Boreal to cold Cryoboreal semiarid 

climates, characterized by moderately severe moisture 

deficits within the growing season . Such conditions 

are associated with moderate growth of mesophytic 

grasses and forbs typical of the Midgrass sections of 

the Mixed Prairie and of the Palouse grasslands . 

They relate to the concept of Typic Borolls in the 

United States taxonomy and to (Dark Chestnut) 

Kastanozems in the FAO/UNESCO system . 

Black Chernozemic soils have A horizons with very 

dark grayish brown to black dry colors, higher 

organic matter content, and thickness of horizons 

usually greater than for the Dark Brown and Brown 

soils . They occur within cool Boreal to cold Cryoboreal 

subhumid climates, with moderate periods of 

moisture deficits occurring in the growing season 

but significantly less than those characteristic of the 

Dark Brown (Chestnut) soils . 

Black Chernozemic soils are usually associated with 

a moderately luxurious growth of mesophytic 

grasses and forbs, but may also be found in areas of 

mixed grass, shrub, and tree cover . They are the 

typical zonal soils of the Fescue Prairie-Aspen 

Grove (Parkland Prairie) and True Prairie grasslands 

of Western Canada . They are also found in the 

Fescue grasslands of the subhumid parts of the 

Palouse Prairie in British Columbia . They relate 

closely to the concept of Udic Borolls in the United 

States taxonomy and to Chernozems in the FAO/ 

UNESCO system . 

Dark Gray Chernozemic soils have A horizons with 

dark moist colors comparable to those of the other

Chernozemic groups, but with variable dry colors 

and modifications of structural pattern indicative of 

degradation of the typical Chernozemic A horizon . 

These degradational changes apparently result 

from the effects on the A horizons of accumulation 

and decomposition of forest leaf mats as well as 

of grasses and forbs . They are mostly found under 

Boreal and Cryoboreal subhumid to humid climates 

and in transitional areas of grassland and forest, 

particularly in situations where tree cover has spread 

from the Boreal Forest into the Fescue Prairie grasslands 

. They are also found in transitional areas 

between the Montane Forest or Subalpine Forest 

and the Palouse grasslands in British Columbia . 

Under virgin conditions, Dark Gray Chernozemic 

soils usually have leaf mats (L-H horizons) overlying 

the mineral soil . The A horizons, which are frequently 

separable into subhorizons of variable degradation 

(Ahe and Ae horizons), may range in dry color from 

very dark gray to grayish brown, frequently giving 

rise to a banded or "salt and pepper" effect in the 

surface horizons . This degradation of the A horizons 

is also recognizable in the development of varying 

degrees of platy structure, which crushes easily to a 

lighter-colored fine granular to powdery condition . 

The organic matter content of the A horizons varies 

with the degree of degradation from high accumulations 

in slightly degraded soils, comparable to that 

in Black soils, to significantly lower amounts in the 

more strongly degraded types . These latter intergrade 

in their characteristics to the Dark Gray Luvisol 

subgroup of the Luvisolic order. 

Most Dark Gray Chernozemic soils relate to the 

concept of Boralfic Cryoborolls in the United States 

taxonomy and to Greyzems and some Chernozems 

in the FAO/UNESCO system . 

For the present soil map and report, Chernozemic 

soils are recognized and described as mapping 

units at the order and great group levels . They may 

be further divided and described in subgroups based 

on differences in character and pattern of B and C 

horizons, or on properties of these horizons that 

intergrade or relate these soils to those in other soil 

orders . Specific criteria for their identification are 

given in the handbook, The System of Soil Classification 

for Canada . The subgroups are listed and 

briefly described in this report with regard to their 

significance and relationship to Chernozemic soil 

landscapes . The four main subgroups, the Orthic, 

Rego, Calcareous, and Eluviated, are based on 

differences in patterns of A, B, and C horizons . A 

diagrammatic representation of them is shown in 

Fig . 92 . 

The rego subgroups have A horizons overlying C 

or transitional AC horizons and no major leaching of 

primary carbonates below the A horizons . They 

have no distinctive development of color or structure 

characteristic of a B horizon, and in this respect 

relate to the concept of "Entic" Borolls in the 

United States taxonomy. In moderately well to 

excessively drained sites, the virgin A horizons of 

rego profiles are frequently free from carbonates or 

salts, but when cultivated they usually become 

calcareous . In rego profiles with limited internal 

drainage or in those occurring on imperfectly 

drained sites, the A horizons may be infused with 

carbonates or salts that have precipitated from 

solution and given rise to carbonated and saline 

subgroup modifications . Gleyed subgroup modifications 

are also common in poorly drained areas, 

which usually exhibit grayish mottled colors in the 

B or C horizons. In clayey soils a Grumic Rego subgroup 

is recognized, characterized by transitional 

AC horizons and distinctive properties of shrinking, 

swelling, and surface granulation . 

The calcareous subgroups have A horizons underlain 

by a development of a B horizon with distinctive 

brownish color and structure, but from which lime 

carbonates have not been completely removed by 

leaching . In these soils a Cca horizon of carbonate 

accumulation is usually present below the B, and 

where this is significant the soils relate closely to the 

concept of Calciborolls in the United States taxonomy. 

Saline, carbonated, grumic, and gleyed 

modifications of calcareous subgroups may occur 

in similar relationships to those recognized with 

rego profiles . 

The orthic subgroups both in profile development 

and in extent of distribution represent the major or 

typic profiles of the Chernozemic great groups . They 

are characterized by Chernozemic A horizons 

underlain by a color, structural, or slightly textural 

B horizon that is free of primary carbonates . The C 

horizons are usually calcareous, frequently with 

zones of secondary carbonate accumulation . When 

associated with other subgroup profiles in catenary 

sequence, the orthic profiles are mostly found in 

well-drained or mid-slope positions . Orthic Chernozemic 

soils without textural B horizons relate 

closely to the concept of Haplic Borolls in the 

United States taxonomy and to Haplic Kastanozems 

and Haplic Chernozems in the FAO/UNESCO 

system . 

Where the B horizons are distinctively finer 

textured than the A or C horizons, the Orthic profiles 

relate more closely to the Argiborolls in the United 

States taxonomy and to Luvic Kastanozems and 

Luvic Chernozems in the FAO/UNESCO system . 

Orthic Dark Gray subgroups usually have textural B 

horizons underlying eluviated Ahe or Ae horizons 

and these relate most closely to Boralfic Argiborolls 

in the United States taxonomy and to Greyzems in 

the FAO/UNESCO system . Solonetzic, Solodic, 

Saline, Gleyed, and Grumic subgroup modifications 

of Orthic Chernozemic profiles may also occur. The 

Solonetzic and Solodic subgroup variants usually 

have textural B horizons with clay-coated prismatic 

structures of hard consistence, approaching in their 

characteristics and limitations the soils of the 

Solonetzic order . 

Eluviated Chernozemic subgroups have A horizons 

as defined in the order and great groups, underlain 

by significant development of Ae horizons of 

leaching with eluviation and removal of clay, and B 

101

Brown, Dark Brown and Black subgroups 

Fig . 92 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Chernozemic profiles . 

102 

SRI

horizons of illuviation and clay accumulation . The 

leached horizons are usually characterized by light 

colors, platy structures, and by the development of 

slight to moderate acidity, with minor reductions in 

base saturation . The B horizons are generally finer 

textured than the Ae or C horizons and usually 

develop clay-coated prismatic structures . Profile 

development is usually deep in eluviated soils 

relative to other subgroups, and the soils are generally 

found on lower or concave slope positions where 

accumulation of excess runoff and leached sedimentary 

materials may be expected to occur . In 

such circumstances eluviated profiles may be 

imperfectly drained and show some gleyed subgroup 

modifications . 

The Eluviated Brown, Dark Brown, and Black subgroups 

relate closely to Argiborolls in the United 

States taxonomy and are included in Luvic Chernozems 

and Kastanozems in the FAO/UNESCO 

system . Within forested areas, there is moderate to 

strong expression of eluviation with thick Ae horizons 

and textural B horizons underlying thin Dark Gray 

Ah horizons . Ahe and Ae horizons are classified 

within the Dark Gray Luvisol subgroups of the 

Luvisolic order . 

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT 

AND UTILIZATION 

Chernozemic soils are found as dominant components 

of map units comprising about 180,808 sq mi 

(468112 km2) or roughly 5% of the land area of 

Canada . An additional 5,971 sq mi (15459 km2) of 

these soils are estimated to occur as subdominant 

components of other soil map units . The main areas 

of Chernozemic soils occur within the prairie and 

parkland regions of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and 

Alberta . Less extensive areas occur in the rangelands 

of the interior of British Columbia . 

The dominant Chernozemic units on the map are 

recognized and described at the great group level 

as Brown, Dark Brown, Black, and Dark Gray 

Chernozemic soils . The significance of the 

distribution of these great group soils in a regional 

or zonal pattern has been long recognized in the 

interpretation of the agricultural capabilities of 

the soils and in the understanding of the historical 

pattern of settlement and development within the 

prairie region . The extent and utilization of 

Chernozemic soils in Canada are discussed within 

this framework of great group soils . 

BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS 

Brown Chernozemic soils are found as the dominant 

components of map units comprising about 38,714 

sq mi (100230 km2) or 1 .1% of the land area in 

Canada . An additional 680 sq mi (1 760 km2) of 

these soils are estimated to occur as subdominant 

components of other soil units, particularly Dark 

Brown Chernozemic, Solonetzic, and Regosolic soils . 

The majority of Brown Chernozemic soils occur in 

the southern parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta 

in a broad arc from the International Border along 

the states of North Dakota and Montana to a broad 

apex about 220 mi (354 km) northward, corresponding 

very closely to the area of Boreal subarid climate 

in the prairie region . Brown Chernozemic soils 

totaling somewhat less than 1,590 sq mi (4116 

km2) occur in the southern plateau regions of the 

British Columbia interior, specifically within the 

subarid climatic environments of the valley bottoms 

and unshaded slopes adjacent to parts of the 

Thompson, Fraser, and Okanagan river systems . 

Brown Chernozemic soils have developed mainly 

on glacial till, and lacustrine and fluvial deposits, 

but are also found on eolian, alluvial, and colluvial 

materials . Most deposits are weakly to moderately 

calcareous, dominantly loamy in texture, but with 

significant occurrences of sandy and clayey areas . 

The clayey soils are mostly associated with glaciolacustrine 

deposits and level to moderately undulating 

basins . Medium-textured soils are found on 

undulating or rolling glacial deposits or in areas of 

till thinly mantled by alluvial or loessial deposits . 

Sandy-textured soils are generally associated with 

alluvial, lacustrine, glaciofluvial, or eolian undulating 

to rolling plains . 

Most of the sandy and loamy Brown soil areas are 

characterized by a dominance of Orthic Brown 

profiles usually without or with slightly textural B 

horizons . The proportion of Orthic Brown soils with 

a significant development of textural B horizons is 

largest in areas where the parent materials are low 

in carbonates or are moderately alkaline . Under such 

conditions Solonetzic or Solodic Brown subgroup 

profiles are common . Minor inclusions of Calcareous 

Brown subgroups are frequently found in most 

mapping units, occupying upper slope or knoll 

positions in the landscape . Carbonated and gleyed 

subgroup modifications are not common, but may 

be found in imperfectly to poorly drained sites . The 

proportion of calcareous and carbonated profiles 

increases markedly in areas where the parent 

materials are moderately to strongly calcareous . 

Brown Chernozemic soils that developed on lacustrine 

clay deposits usually show Grumic subgroup 

modifications with associated properties of shrinking, 

swelling, and surface granulation characteristic of 

such soils . Grumic Rego profiles with AC transitional 

horizons are usually dominant, but Grumic Orthic 

profiles with transitional AB or weakly developed B 

horizons are also found in clayey areas . 

Brown Chernozemic soils are used almost exclusively 

for agricultural activities ranging from field cropping, 

mainly for wheat and other small grains, to a 

livestock economy based on utilization of improved 

pasture or grazing of native rangeland . Their 

productivity is significantly limited in practice by 

severe moisture deficits during the growing season 

and by the probability of disastrous droughts in 

some years . With availability of moisture for plant 

growth being a dominant consideration, the propor- 

103

tion of cropland to pasture varies with the moistureholding 

capacity of the various textural types and 

with the effects of local topography on aridity of site . 

Less than 50% of the Brown Chernozemic soils in 

the prairie region are cultivated and most of these are 

the clays and finer-textured loam and clay loam soils . 

The clayey soils with highest moisture-holding 

capacities are extensively cropped and are the most 

productive for the growth of small grains . Much of 

this land is farmed under a 2- or 3-year rotation of 

grain with summerfallow, except where irrigation 

has made possible a greater diversification of crops . 

Very few coarse-textured soils of lower moistureholding 

capacities are cropped on a sustained basis 

and without irrigation yields on these are generally 

low and erratic . In British Columbia the proportion 

of Brown soils cultivated is much less . These soils 

are found mostly in valley bottom lands that can be 

irrigated for fruit growing or mixed farming . 

A large acreage of marginally arable lands that were 

brought under cultivation during the early days of 

agricultural settlement has been progressively abandoned 

after successive periods of disastrous 

droughts, frequently accompanied by severe wind 

erosion . Most of these areas have either reverted 

to natural rangeland or have been sown down to 

permanent pasture . Many such areas are now 

successfully utilized and managed as community 

pastures . 

Under virgin conditions Brown Chernozemic soils 

support a somewhat sparse growth of grasses and 

forbs . Mean annual yields of dry matter are low, 

averaging about 300 Ib/ac (336 kg/ha), and carrying 

capacities for range purposes are usually no better 

than 3 ac (1 .2 ha)/animal unit per month . Yields of 

tame hay and carrying capacities of improved 

pasture are usually somewhat better. In British 

Columbia most of the Brown Chernozemic soils, 

where irrigation is not available, are used for 

rangeland grazing . 

Inherent fertility of Brown Chernozemic soils is 

reasonably good . Although the organic matter 

content of surface horizons is lower than for Dark 

Brown soils, nitrification is usually good . When 

moisture is available, the soils respond to moderate 

applications of phosphorus and nitrogen . Under 

irrigation and intensive cropping, higher applications 

of fertilizers are usually required for maximum yields . 

Potassium is rarely a limiting factor . Sandy soils 

may be more limited than loamy or clayey ones 

in available nutrients . 

Management practices on cultivated Brown Chernozemic 

soils involve careful and timely tillage to 

conserve moisture and prevent wind erosion, 

particularly after early fall or spring cultivation and 

during summerfallow periods . Control of weed 

growth and maintenance of trash cover are also 

important factors in such operations . Adequate 

drainage and control of salinity are specific management 

problems on irrigated lands . 

104 

The most important points in the management of 

native and cultivated pastures on Brown soils 

concern season of use and rate of grazing . Early 

spring use of native pasture is especially harmful 

when growth is slow . Pastures grazed too heavily 

become unproductive, good grasses decrease, and 

weeds, pasture sage, and other forbs increase . 

Overgrazing accelerates the dangers of soil erosion . 

DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC SOILS 

Dark Brown Chernozemic soils are the dominant 

components of map units comprising about 42,891 

sq mi (111 044 km2) or roughly 1 .2% of the land 

area of Canada . An additional 1,175 sq mi (3 042 

km2) of Dark Brown soils are estimated to occur as 

subdominant components of other soil units, 

particularly Brown Chernozemic, Black Chernozemic, 

Brown Solonetz, and Orthic Regosols . Humic 

Gleysols are found as associated soils in Dark 

Brown map units to a greater degree than with 

Brown soils . 

The majority of Dark Brown map units, comprising 

over 41,340 sq mi (107 029 km2), occur in Saskatchewan 

and Alberta and less than 1,551 sq mi 

(4015 km2) are in southern British Columbia . No 

significant areas of these soils occur in Manitoba . 

In the prairies they form a broad semicircular belt 

varying from less than 40 to over 100 miles (64 to 

over 161 km) in width, through central and southern 

Saskatchewan and Alberta between the Brown 

Chernozemic and Black Chernozemic soil regions . 

This belt of Dark Brown soils corresponds very 

closely to the areas of Boreal and Cryoboreal 

semiarid climate and to the Midgrass sections of the 

Mixed Prairie grasslands . Occupying this intermediate 

regional position, Dark Brown Chernozemic soils 

tend to merge in characteristic and interzonal 

relationships with the Brown and Black soils along 

their respective borders . Areas of Dark Brown soils 

also occur within the main zone of Brown soils . A 

prominent example of this occurs in the Tertiary 

plateaus of the Cypress Hills in southwestern 

Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, an area of 

cooler and less arid climate due to vertical zonation . 

In British Columbia, the Dark Brown soils are found 

in the Okanagan Valley and adjacent highlands of 

the southern interior, mostly associated with Mixed 

Prairie vegetation and Boreal semiarid climates of 

the higher valley terraces, plateaus, and hillside 

slopes . 

Dark Brown soils occur on similar deposits and 

topography to those associated with Brown soils, 

mostly glacial till, glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial 

deposits, together with postglacial alluvial and 

eolian material . Most deposits are weakly to 

moderately calcareous and dominantly loamy in 

texture, but significant areas of sandy- and clayeytextured 

soils occur throughout the area . 

Orthic Dark Brown soils are dominant in most map 

units and are associated with all textures . The 

proportion of Orthic soils having textural B horizons

increases on parent materials of low carbonate 

content and alkaline reaction . The proportion of 

Eluviated, Solonetzic, and Solodic subgroups also 

increases on such parent materials . Eluviated subgroups 

are most frequently found in lower concave 

slope positions where excess runoff and sediments 

occur. The proportion of Calcareous Dark Brown 

soils on freely drained upper slope positions and of 

carbonated subgroups in poorly drained sites is 

greater on parent materials of high carbonate 

content . Rego Dark Brown soils with Grumic 

subgroup variations are mostly found with finertextured 

lacustrine clay deposits. They are usually 

associated with subdominant Orthic Dark Brown 

subgroups or Humic Gleysols . Gleyed subgroups are 

few and mainly occur in undulating or rolling 

landscapes where Humic Gleysols form subdominant 

associates in the landscape pattern, particularly 

in the depressions . 

Dark Brown soils are used almost entirely for 

agricultural activities, mainly field cropping of 

wheat and other small grains, but there is a significant 

development of mixed livestock and grain farming . 

About 70% of the Dark Brown soils are cultivated ; 

they are mostly loamy and clayey soils and the 

finer-textured sandy loams . Pasture land is generally 

restricted to very sandy and coarse-textured soils 

or to areas of rough, rolling topography and excessively 

stony land . Many community pastures have 

been developed on these marginally suitable or 

nonarable lands . 

Dark Brown soils on sloping lands 

in British Columbia are mainly used for range 

grazing . 

The clay and clay loam soils with highest moistureholding 

capacities are most productive ; yields on 

medium-textured foams and sandy loams are 

generally lower and more variable . Crop failures 

may be expected on the coarser-textured soils in 

very dry periods . 

Inherent fertility of Dark Brown soils is reasonably 

adequate ; productivity is mainly limited by moisture 

availability . The soils respond to moderate applications 

of phosphorus and to nitrogen . Potassium has 

not been shown to be a limiting factor in most areas . 

Management problems are similar to those for 

Brown soils and involve careful and timely tillage 

to conserve moisture and prevent wind erosion . 

Summerfallowing is a common and desirable 

practice, together with weed control and maintenance 

of trash cover . 

BLACK CHERNOZEMIC SOILS 

Black Chernozemic soils are the dominant component 

of map units comprising about 77,503 sq mi (200 655 

km2) or roughly 2.2% of the land area of Canada . 

An additional 1,090 sq mi (2 822 km 2) of these soils 

are estimated to occur as subdominant components 

of other soil map units, mostly with Dark Brown 

Chernozemic, Dark Gray Chernozemic, and Rego- 

106 

solic soils . Humic Gleysols are frequently found as 

significant inclusions or subdominant associates 

in Black Chernozemic map units . 

Black soils are most extensive in the Interior Plains 

Region of Western Canada within Manitoba, 

Saskatchewan, and Alberta, but in addition about 

850 sq mi (2 200 km2) of these soils may be found 

in local areas within the southern interior of the 

Cordilleran Region in British Columbia . 

Within the Interior Plains the soil climatic regimes of 

Black Chernozemic soils are cold Cryoboreal subhumid 

to moderately cool Boreal subhumid, and are 

associated with a native vegetation of mesophytic 

grasses and forbs characteristic of the Fescue 

Prairie-Parklands and True Prairie of Western 

Canada . This association of climatic and vegetational 

regimes with Black soils forms an extensive, roughly 

semicircular belt from southern Manitoba through 

mid-central Saskatchewan to western Alberta . It 

lies between the humid Cryoboreal forest of the 

northern plains and Cordilleran foothills, dominated 

by Gray Luvisolic soils, and the semiarid to subarid 

Mixed Prairies of southern Saskatchewan and 

southeastern Alberta with their associated Dark 

Brown and Brown soils . In southern British Columbia, 

Black soils are associated with climatic complexes 

of Boreal to Mesic, subhumid to semiarid 

regimes influenced by conditions of vertical zonation 

and aspect, common to the valleys and plateaus of 

the intermountain regions . They are usually found 

in cooler sites at elevations above 3,000 ft (915 m) 

and below the Subalpine and Montane forest areas . 

Generally they relate to the ponderosa pine and 

grasslands areas of the Montane Forest-Parkland 

transition . 

Black soils are developed mainly on glacial tills, and 

glaciofluvial and lacustrine deposits, but also occur 

on eolian, alluvial, and colluvial materials . Most 

deposits are weakly to strongly calcareous and 

dominantly loamy in texture, although significant 

areas of coarse sandy and fine-textured clayey soils 

occur . The clayey soils are generally associated 

with glaciolacustrine deposits and level to undulating 

lake basins . Medium-textured soils usually occur on 

undulating to rolling glacial till and alluvial- lacustrine 

landscapes, and coarse-textured soils on undulating 

alluvial, eolian, or outwash plains . 

Relatively large areas, about 1,900 sq mi (4 919 km L), 

of Black soils on strongly to extremely calcareous, 

occasionally saline materials occur in the Manitoba 

lowlands and eastern parts of the Saskatchewan 

Plain . 

About 5,300 sq mi (13 721 km2) of these soils 

located in areas adjacent to Lake Manitoba are on 

extremely calcareous materials with calcium carbonate 

equivalents of over 40% . They are mostly 

glacial and waterworked, very stony tills of limestone 

and granitic origin, frequently with sandy overlays . 

The highly calcareous Black soils associated with 

these latter deposits are generally found with

Humic Gleyso(s and are on level to very gently 

undulating topography . Textures range from very 

fine sandy loam to clay loam . They relate to Rendzina 

soils as identified in the FAO/UNESCO soil system 

for the World Map, but are recognized as Black 

Chernozemic soils in the Canadian classification . 

The majority of Black Chernozemic map units are 

dominantly Orthic Black soils, although Calcareous 

and Eluviated subgroups are frequently found with 

them in significant association together with various 

Gleysolic soils in topographically related patterns, 

particularly in moderately undulating to rolling 

areas . Orthic profiles are found in upper- and midslope 

positions ; Calcareous profiles occur on 

knolls and upper slopes . Eluviated profiles are 

mostly found in concave lower slopes with Humic 

or Humic Eluviated Gleysols occupying flat or 

depressional poorly drained sites. Orthic Black 

Chernozemic profiles with significant development 

of textural B horizons are mostly found in the western 

parts of the Interior Plains in Alberta and Saskatchewan, 

usually on parent materials of relatively 

low lime carbonate content, and usually on relatively 

mature glacial landscapes . They are frequently 

associated with or intergrade to Solonetzic or Solodic 

Black soils . 

The proportion of Rego and Calcareous subgroups 

increases with the carbonate content of the parent 

materials . These subgroups are dominant in many 

areas of eastern Saskatchewan and Manitoba . 

Carbonated and Gleyed subgroup profiles are 

usually found associated with imperfectly drained 

positions between the Orthic or Eluviated Black soils 

and the Gleysolic soils . 

Black Chernozemic soils on the prairies are used 

mostly for field crops, mainly wheat, coarse grains, 

and oilseeds . There is associated forage production 

in areas where mixed crop and livestock farming 

is practiced . 

The use of native pasture for grazing in Black soil 

areas in the prairies is mostly restricted to very 

coarse textured sandy or stony lands, poorly 

drained meadow areas with Gleyed Black and 

Gleysolic profiles, or areas of rough topography 

broken up by many pothole depressions or sloughs . 

In southern British Columbia where Black soils 

occur at relatively high elevations above the valley 

bottoms, they are used mostly for livestock grazing 

and forage production . 

The inherent productivity of most Black Chernozemic 

soils is relatively high, but is climatically limited by 

cool and short growing seasons of Boreal and 

Cryoboreal temperature regimes and by slight 

moisture limitations in the growing season characteristic 

of subhumid moisture regimes . Moisture 

limitations are intensified with increasing coarseness 

of texture and with lower moisture-holding capacities 

of the soils . Summerfallow is common on most 

Black soils for weed control as well as moisture 

conservation . 

Fertility limitations on most Black soils are slight 

except on the coarser sandy or very highly calcareous 

materials . Adequate nutrient levels can be maintained 

by routine applications of nitrogen and phosphorus . 

Potassium is not usually a limiting factor . Fertility 

limitations are more severe where excess carbonates 

occur either at the surface or at very shallow depths . 

This is particularly the case in the extremely calcareous 

Black Chernozemic or Rendzina-like soils 

of the Interlake Region of Manitoba, which have 

moderate to low natural fertility . The excessive 

amounts of free carbonates in these soils reduce 

the availability of soil phosphorus, often to the level 

where livestock pastured on them require a phosphate 

supplement . 

Some Orthic Black and Calcareous Black Chernozemic 

soils may have relatively thin A and B horizons 

with consequent shallow depth to a lime carbonate 

horizon . Such soils are frequently found in rolling 

terrain on knoll and upper-slope positions . There is 

an increasing necessity to guard against soil erosion 

and to retain topsoil in such situations . Although 

most Black soils have good structure and granulation, 

some Eluviated Solonetzic or Solodic Black soils 

exhibit varying degrees of structural limitations due 

to puddling and crusting in surface horizons and 

limitations owing to hard consistence and low 

permeability in the B subsurfaces, particularly in 

Solonetzic intergrades . 

Management problems on most cultivated Black 

soils include the control of erosion, maintenance 

of good tilth, and weed control . 

DARK GRAY CHERNOZEMIC SOILS 

Dark Gray Chernozemic soils are dominant components 

of map units comprising approximately 

21,700 sq mi (56 181 km2) or roughly 0.6% of the 

land area of Canada . An additional 3,080 sq mi 

(7 974 km2) of these soils are estimated to occur as 

subdominant associates of other soil map units . 

They are most frequently associated with Gray 

Luvisolic, Black Chernozemic, and Gleysolic soils . 

They occur as dominant soils in areas of Manitoba, 

Saskatchewan, and British Columbia and as subdominant 

associates or inclusions in a number of 

map units in Alberta . 

Within the Interior Plains, Dark Gray Chernozemic 

soils are mostly developed under cold to moderately 

cold Cryoboreal submid to humid regimes, but in 

British Columbia and southern Manitoba some have 

developed under less severe cool Boreal subhumid 

conditions . In much of the plains they are found 

in areas lying transitionally between the Black soils 

of the Parkland-Fescue Prairies and the Gray 

Luvisols of the true Boreal Forest . Many of these 

soils occur in areas where extensive tree growth has 

encroached and become established on former 

grassland or meadow vegetation . 

Within the interior regions of British Columbia, 

Dark Gray Chernozemic soils are most frequently 

107

found occupying cooler subhumid sites of higher 

elevations or shaded aspect below the timberline . 

They form a part of the climatic and vegetational 

complex of vertical zonation characteristic of the 

mountain and valley slopes and higher plateaus . 

Parent materials are mostly glacial in origin ranging 

from glacial till to lacustrine, and most are calcareous . 

Textures are dominantly loamy ; less than 2,650 sq 

mi (6860 km2) of soils occur on clayey deposits . 

Topographically the majority are mapped in undulating 

phases with less than 4,240 sq mi (10 977 km2) 

within rolling topographic areas . 

In Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta most areas 

of Dark Gray soils are being cleared and developed 

for agriculture, but a few areas of original woodlands 

are still undeveloped . Some of these areas are used 

for bushland pasture, others are still used for 

commercial forestry . Most of the cultivated acreages 

are supporting a mixed farm economy with emphasis 

on small grains and oilseeds, but in some areas 

a significant amount of forage is grown . In the interior 

of British Columbia, most Dark Gray soils are at 

moderately high elevations bordering timberline 

and are used as part of the summer grazing range . 

Under cultivation Dark Gray soils are highly productive, 

comparable to Black Chernozemic soils in 

fertility status, but respond to moderate applications 

of nitrogen and phosphorus . 

a limiting factor. 

Potassium is not usually 

Under good tillage practices, Dark Gray Chernozemic 

soils will retain a reasonably stable cloddy to granular 

structure within the cultivated layer . In the more 

strongly degraded types they intergrade towards 

Dark Gray Luvisolic soils . The incorporation of Ae 

horizon material into the cultivated layer results in a 

tendency for clods to flow and puddle when wet and 

to crust and cake on drying . Such physical conditions 

increase the susceptibility of these soils to water 

erosion particularly on sloping lands and also 

hinder seedling emergence . Where Dark Gray soils 

have developed on clayey textures, or where they 

intergrade in subgroup characterization towards 

Solonetzic, Luvisolic, or Gleysolic soils, the textural 

B horizons may exhibit moderate structural and 

permeability limitations, which restrict root growth 

and penetration . 


Solonetzic Soils 

The word Solonetz is of Russian origin and was 

originally used to indicate soils that were saline or 

alkaline . Soils classified within the Solonetzic order 

in the Canadian system of taxonomy are well to 

imperfectly drained mineral soils having horizon 

features of distinctive physical and chemical characteristics 

believed to result from a combination of 

processes of salinization by alkaline salts, and 

desalinization and leaching within the soil . These 

processes are dynamic and may develop and proceed 

separately or concurrently in point of time and 

place within the soil system . 

Salinization, which is an apparent prerequisite for 

the development of Solonetzic soils, may originate 

internally from a saline parent material or from 

saturation by external saline waters . It usually results 

in a flocculated or granular, relatively permeable 

condition, which is subject to leaching or resalinization 

by rain or ground waters . 

Desalinization or removal of salts, particularly when 

the ratio of sodium to calcium salts is significantly 

high, results in alkaline peptization and deflocculation 

of colloidal organic matter or clay . These 

materials tend to concentrate in the B horizon and 

adversely affect its structure and permeability . This 

process known as solonization or alkalinization is 

the prime cause of the development of Solonetzic 

soils . 

With continued leaching of Solonetzic profiles, a 

process of dealkalinization or solodization takes 

place in which there is a removal of alkali bases and 

the formation of an acidic platy-structured A 

horizon, followed by a progressive structural breakdown 

of the Solonetzic B horizon . This results in 

the development of thicker A and transitional AB 

horizons giving rise to Solodic profiles . Most 

Solonetzic soils in Canada have a neutral to acidic A 

horizon indicating that some degree of solodization 

has developed . As solodization proceeds, salt 

accumulation moves lower in the profile and the 

Solonetzic B horizon may eventually disappear. 

Under such circumstances the soil may acquire 

regional nonsolonetzic characteristics, or may 

become resalinized from ground water . 

Solonetzic soils are mostly developed under a 

vegetational cover of grasses and forbs, frequently 

with a significant percentage of alkali-tolerant plants . 

They may also be found associated with tree cover, 

but usually only in situations where solodization is 

well developed . The surface A horizons assume 

characteristics similar to those of associated nonsolonetzic 

soils, thus in grassland regions the 

Solonetzic soils tend to develop Chernozemic-like 

A horizons and in forested areas the horizons are 

similar to those of Gray Luvisols . 

The combinations of the above processes of soil 

development have given rise to the horizon and 

profile characteristics that are used to classify 

Solonetzic soils at the order, great group, and subgroup 

levels . A diagrammatic representation of 

Solonetzic profiles is shown in Fig . 101 . 

Solonetzic soils at the order level are defined as well 

to imperfectly drained mineral soils having Solonetzic 

B horizons and saline C horizons . Under 

undisturbed conditions they usually have an A 

horizon of variable thickness and character, but this 

may be very thin or absent . Structurally, a Solonetzic 

'109

h- 6 

I-12 

8 

4 

-2 

- 30 5- 

7 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

-3 Alkaline : : : : : ; Eroded : : : ; : : ; Brown :i ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Brown : : : : : : : : 

: : : 

. 

~ 40 100 

: .11 :Solonetz . . . . . : : . : . : . : . : . , (truncated : : : ::Solonetz : : : : : : : . Solod 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

: : . : . : . : . : . : 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

.Solonetz : : : : : . : . 

. . . . . . . . . . 

, . . . . . . . . . . . 

: : : :2 11 (eroded) : : 

. . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

-12 

F-18 

-24 

- 30 

-36 

. . . . . 

Ah 

Bn Bnt~ 1 

:;A~'- 

P' 

.~::. 

,Ahe~~ ::A : : Ah Ahe 

: : : ~% 

: : . . /Bskg 

Bnt 

Bnt~ 

: : : : : : : : : : . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . 

. 

. 

. . . . . . . . ~/ 

/ 

/ ~ j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . 

~B~, s Btk 

iii// / 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . 

: : : : : : : : : : :Cskg : : : : : : : : : : 

: : : : : : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. : : . . . . . . . . 

. . . . 

. . . . Cs, . . . . . Csa! . . . . . . Ck! . . . . Cca . . . . . . : . : . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . 

2 .22: : : : :i : : : : : 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . : . . . . : . : . . : . 

. . . 

; ; .Cs,.Csa,Ck,Cca : . : . : . 

: :fn 

. 

P : 

---- 

Ah,Ahe 

. . . . . . . . ..2 .21 . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

: : Cs,Csa, Ck , Cca : : 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

::Gray Solonetz: : 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

2 .13 

Fig . 101 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Solonetzic profiles . 

110 

' 

~ 

I 

Bnt ~ I 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . 

Cs,Csa,Ck,Cca ;? 

Gray Solod 

:A P : 

0-1 

15- 

25- 

50- 

25- 

50- 

75--I 

100 -j 

SRI

B is characterized by a columnar (round or flattopped) 

or prismatic macrostructure that can usually 

be broken into a blocky mesostructure . These blocks 

are hard to very hard in consistence when dry and 

relatively impermeable when wet . They usually 

show dark surface stains or coatings . Chemically the 

Solonetzic B horizons show evidence of alkalinization 

by having ratios of exchangeable calcium to 

exchangeable sodium of 10 or less, which is lower 

than that for other, nonsolonetzic structured B 

horizons . The C horizons are generally saline and 

usually show an accumulation layer of salts . 

At the great group level, Solonetzic soils are divided 

into two groups, Solonetz and Solod, based on 

differences in the degree of expression of solonization 

and solodization . 

Solonetz soils have Solonetzic B horizons that are 

essentially intact and have not undergone significant 

breakdown due to solodization . There is generally 

an abrupt break between the A and B horizons . A 

horizons are usually thin in relation to the B horizon . 

The B horizon is very hard columnar with the flat or 

round tops of the columns usually having a thin 

capping of white siliceous material . 

Solod soils are characterized by a greater development 

of an acidic Ae horizon and an AB transition 

horizon in which the former Solonetzic B structure 

is in the process of physical disintegration . A horizons 

are generally thicker in relation to B horizons 

than in associated Solonetz soils . The contact 

between AB and Solonetzic B is not well defined, 

and the remnant B horizon is more easily broken 

into darkly stained aggregates than in Solonetz soils . 

At the subgroup level Solonetz and Solod soils are 

further divided into Brown, Black, and Gray subgroups, 

which reflect differences in the development 

of A horizons closely comparable to those associated 

with Brown, Dark Brown, and Black Chernozemic 

soils or Gray Luvisols . Other minor subgroups are 

imperfectly drained and called Gleyed Solonetz and 

Gleyed Solod . There is also an Alkaline Solonetz 

subgroup, which is uncommon . Within the scope 

and scale of the present map and report only map 

units of dominantly Brown Solonetz, Black Solonetz, 

and Black Solods have been recognized . Gray 

Solonetz and Brown Solod soils are indicated as 

subdominant associates of other map units . Brown 

and Black Solonetz soils are most closely related to 

Aridic and Typic Natriborolls, Gray Solonetz to 

Natriboralfs, and Solods to Glossic Natriborolls or 

Natrabolls in the United States taxonomy . In the 

FAO/UNESCO soil system, Solonetz soils relate to 

Mollic and Orthic Solonetz and Solods to Solodic 

Planosols . 



Solonetz soils occur as the dominant components 

of map units comprising about 28,032 sq mi (72 575 

km2) or 0.8% of the land area of Canada . An addi- 

tional 400 sq mi (1 035 km2) of these soils are 

estimated to occur as subdominant components or 

as inclusions in other soil units . They are most 

frequently associated with Brown, Dark Brown, and 

Black Chernozemic soils, but are also associated 

with Dark Gray Chernozemic and Gray Luvisolic 

soils . Geographically the main areas of Solonetzic 

soils are in the Interior Plains Region, particularly 

in Alberta and Saskatchewan . They occur to a 

lesser extent in the Peace River area of northeastern 

British Columbia and in Manitoba . About 11,535 

sq mi (29864 km2) of Brown Solonetz soils are 

mapped, 6,135 sq mi (15883 km2) under subarid 

Boreal and 5,400 sq mi (13 980 km2) in semiarid 

Boreal climates . Approximately 7,496 sq mi (19 407 

km2) of Black Solonetz soils occur in Cryoboreal 

subhumid climatic areas ; 9,001 sq mi (23 303 km2) 

of Black Solod map units have been recognized, 

occurring under Cryoboreal subhumid regimes . 

Characteristics of color, organic matter content, and 

thickness of surface horizons tend to approach 

those of geographically associated soils . Thus under 

subarid to semiarid regimes the Brown Solonetz 

soils have surface A horizons comparable to those 

of Brown and Dark Brown Chernozemic soils and 

under subhumid conditions to those of Black and 

Dark Gray Chernozemic types. Where Gray Solonetz 

soils occur under forest vegetation the A horizons 

tend to be lower in organic matter, light brownish 

gray to gray in color, and similar to those described 

for Gray Luvisols . 

Particular reference must be made to a variation 

of Solonetz soils in which profiles have very thin or 

nearly absent A horizons overlying compact, roundtopped, 

columnar Solonetzic B horizons . Such soils 

are indicated as eroded phases in current Canadian 

taxonomy . They are mostly found associated with 

areas of Brown Solonetz units and where they occur 

give the landscape a distinctive pitted microrelief . In 

Canada and the northern United States such soils 

have been locally referred to in a variety of ways as 

burns outs, blowouts, scab spots, slick spots 

or scabby spots . The proportion of these eroded 

pits within such map units may vary in local map 

units from 10 to over 50% of the soil area, but such 

differences can only be shown in more detailed 

mapping . Solonetz soils in these eroded phases and 

pitted areas usually support a relatively sparse 

xerophytic vegetation of forbs and grasses. 

Most areas of Solonetz soils in Canada are either 

cultivated for the production of grains or forage or 

are used as native pasture . Limitations imposed by 

moisture deficits under subhumid to subarid 

climatic regimes are compounded for Solonetz soils 

by additional physical and chemical limitations . 

Structural limitations, particularly of the compact 

and coated B horizons that tend to become plastic 

when wet and very hard when dry, restrict moisture 

penetration and root development . The proximity of 

saline and alkaline subsoils and periodic salinization 

of surface horizons present further limitations to 

111

healthy plant growth and to water availability. 

Consequently, Solonetz soils are usually distinctly 

inferior to other associated soils in productivity . In 

Solod soils these limitations of structure and salinity 

are moderate in comparison to those for Solonetz 

soils and Solods, although somewhat inferior, more 

closely approach the associated Chernozemic soils 

in general productivity . 

Crop production on these soils, particularly the 

Solonetz, is generally a marginal operation, and there 

has been a considerable fluctuation in the 

percentages of land cropped and pastured since 

settlement was first attempted. It is estimated that 

about 45% of all Solonetz soils in Canada are 

cultivated and the remainder are used as grazing 

land . The percentage of cultivated land varies from 

less than 25% in the subarid areas of Brown Solonetz 

to over 60% in some of the subhumid areas of Black 

Solonetz soils associated with Black Chernozemic 

soils . Local conditions of excessive salinity, 

percentage of eroded pits, or stoniness are also 

significant factors in determining the feasibility of 

cultivation or grazing . 

Solonetz soils generally give moderate responses to 

applications of phosphorus and particularly nitrogen . 

Management problems in cultivation involve the 

timely use of tillage equipment to conserve moisture, 

and to prevent caking of surface clods and desiccation 

of the underlying B horizons . Experimental studies 

have shown beneficial effects of gypsum brought 

up from the C horizon by deep plowing and by 

large applications of nitrogen in the form of 

ammonium ion . A few studies have shown beneficial 

results from reducing the acidity of Solod soils with 

lime . However, these practices have not yet been 

established as feasible from an economic standpoint . 

The grazing capacity of Brown Solonetz soils is 

generally lower than for other associated soils, and 

native forage yields are usually below 300 Ib/ac 

(336 kg/ha) . Areas with a high percentage of eroded 

spots are significantly lower in yield . 


Luvisolic Soils 

Soils classified within the Luvisolic order in the 

Canadian taxonomic system are in one of the main 

orders of well to imperfectly drained mineral soils 

that have developed under the influence of the 

growth and decomposition of forest vegetation in 

mild to cold climates . Their main characteristics are 

light-colored eluvial Ae and illuvial textural B 

horizons . These horizons were influenced by and 

developed through leaching of the soluble decomposition 

products of forest litter, and consequent 

downward movement and concentration of clays 

with other associated colloidal materials. In this 

respect these soils differ from the more highly 

114 

leached and weathered Podzolic soils whose major 

accumulation products are organic and sesquioxide 

colloidal materials . They also differ from Brunisolic 

soils in that the leaching processes have rerulted in 

development of B horizons without a significant 

degree of illuviation . 

At the order level, Luvisolic soils are defined as 

having eluvial (Ae) horizons and illuvial (Bt) 

horizons in which silicate clay is the main 

accumulation product . Under virgin conditions the 

soil may have organic leaf litters, L-H horizons, or 

an organic-mineral Ah horizon overlying a lighter 

colored eluviated layer (Ae) . The Ah horizons where 

present are generally neutral to slightly acidic, Ae and 

Bt horizons are slightly to moderately acidic . The C 

horizons are generally neutral to alkaline and may 

have accumulation layers of lime carbonate . In 

general Ah or cultivated Ap horizons of Luvisolic 

soils are not as thick, dark colored, or as high in 

organic matter as those in Chernozemic soils . 

Luvisolic soils relate to the concepts of Luvisols in 

the FAO/UNESCO system of soil units and to 

Alfisols in the United States taxonomy. 

At the great group level, Luvisolic soils are separated 

into the Gray Brown Luvisol (formerly Gray Brown 

Podzolic) and the Gray Luvisol groups ., These 

separations closely relate to those made between 

Udalfs and Boralfs in the United States taxonomy 

and to Boreal and Mesic climatic variants of 

Luvisols in the FAO/UNESCO system . The Gray 

Brown Luvisols have developed under deciduous or 

mixed-forest vegetation, mostly under Mesic humid 

climates, and because of high biological activity, 

including that of earthworms, are characterized by 

a rapid incorporation of forest litter (L-F-H material) 

to form dark-colored "forest mull" types of A 

horizons . In contrast, the Gray Luvisols have 

largely developed under Boreal forest vegetation and 

Boreal to Cryoboreal climates, and are characterized 

by accumulations of slowly decomposing leaf 

litters, L-F-H layers, and thin or absent Ah or Ahe 

horizons . 

Further separations of Gray Brown and Gray Luvisols 

are made at subgroup levels of classification . For 

the Gray Brown Luvisols, the major subgroup is the 

Orthic Gray Brown Luvisol, which has welldeveloped 

Ah, Ae, and Bt horizons . The Ah is usually 

more than 2 in . (5 cm) thick and is sufficiently dark to 

give a cultivated layer 6 in . (15 cm) thick with dark 

gray to grayish-brown dry colors . TheAe horizons are 

lighter colored, usually gray brown to light brownish 

gray . Other subgroups of lesser occurrence include 

Brunisolic Gray Brown and Bisequa Gray Brown 

Luvisols, which show characteristics of Brunisolic 

or Podzolic development in the A horizons, and 

poorly drained Gleyed Gray Brown Luvisol, which 

intergrades in characteristics of mottling and dull 

colors towards Gleysolic soils . 

r The term Gray Wooded, which has been widely used in Canadian soil 

literature, has been replaced in the classification system by Gray Luvisol .

Within the Gray Luvisols, the Orthic subgroup is 

characterized by organic surface horizons (L-H), 

and light-colored Ae and Bt horizons . A dark-colored 

Ah horizon if present is usually less than 2 in . (5 cm) 

thick, and mixed cultivated layers 6 in . (15 cm) 

thick are usually gray to light brownish gray or light 

gray in dry color and relatively low in organic matter 

content . Another significant subgroup, the Dark 

Gray Luvisol, is characterized by thicker and 

frequently darker Ah horizons than those of the 

Orthic subgroup . Dark Gray Luvisolic soils with 

increasing depth of Ah horizons approach and 

intergrade in characteristics and properties with 

Dark Gray Chernozemic soils . These two soils are 

frequently associated, particularly within zones of 

forest-grassland transition . Brunisolic Gray Luvisol, 

Bisequa Gray Luvisol, and Solodic Gray Luvisol are 

recognized subgroups of lesser occurrence having 

Ae and Bt horizons that intergrade in characteristics 

towards those of Brunisolic, Podzolic, and Solonetzic 

soils. Gleyed and Lithic subgroups are also 

recognized . A diagrammatic representation of major 

Luvisolic profiles is given in Fig . 110 . 

In the present map, the dominant Luvisolic map 

units are recognized at the great group level . Most 

are dominated by Orthic profiles, but some areas are 

designated as dominantly or subdominantly 

Brunisolic Gray Brown or Dark Gray Luvisol 

subgroups in the soil inventory . 



Luvisolic soils are distributed through the forested 

areas of Canada and are mapped as dominant 

components of soil units in about 312,475 sq mi 

(808 997 km2) or 8.8% of the area of Canada . An 

additional 28,000 sq mi (72492 km2) of Luvisols 

occur as subdominant components of other soil map 

units . They are most frequently associated with other 

forest soils, Organic, Brunisolic, and Podzolic, but 

in areas of forest-grassland transition are more 

frequently found with Dark Gray Chernozemic and 

Gleysolic soils . 

The Luvisolic soils are found under various climatic 

conditions. There is the Mesic humid regime of the 

Gray Brown Luvisols, which occupy about 18,069 sq 

mi (46 780 km2) of the St . Lawrence Lowlands of 

Ontario and Quebec . Over 294,406 sq mi (762 217 

km2) of Gray Luvisols are within the cooler Boreal, 

Cryoboreal, and Subarctic climatic regions extending 

from coast to coast across Canada . Over 252,725 

sq mi (654 305 km2) occur under relatively cold 

Cryoboreal perhumid to subhumid conditions, which 

are dominantly humid . An additional 20,253 sq mi 

(52 435 km2) of Gray Luvisolic soils have developed 

under cool, humid Boreal conditions, and 21,428 

sq mi (55 477 km2) occur in areas with very cold 

Subarctic regimes . About 2,119 sq mi (5486 km2) 

are dominantly Dark Gray Luvisolic soils . 

In Canada the Luvisols have developed mainly on 

glacial till, and glaciofluvial or glaciolacustrine 

deposits ; some occur on variable postglacial 

sediments . Most deposits are weakly to moderately 

calcareous and have a high base status ; some 

Luvisols are found on weakly acidic or noncalcareous 

materials with a moderate degree of base saturation . 

Loamy textures dominate, but significant areas of 

clayey and sandy loam textured Luvisols occur . The 

striking morphological characteristics of eluviated 

(Ae) and textural (Bt) horizons are usually most 

strongly expressed in the medium-textured soils and 

to a lesser extent in clayey soils. They are least 

expressed in the coarser sandy soils, which tend to 

intergrade in characteristics to Brunisolic or 

Podzolic soils . 

Luvisols are found mostly on undulating and rolling 

topography and lesser areas occur on steeper 

mountain slopes . In rolling and sloping phases, the 

Luvisols are usually developed on adequately 

drained, upper and mid-slope positions . Gleyic 

phases are on imperfectly drained lower slopes, and 

associated Organic soils or peaty Gleysols occupy 

the undrained Aquic positions . 

Major land uses of Luvisols in Canada are determined 

primarily by soil climatic conditions, and secondly 

by local characteristics of topography and parent 

material, tempered by economic considerations and 

geographic locations . 

Under Subarctic climates the natural forest growth 

on Gray Luvisolic soils is unproductive except in 

locally protected sites, and the climatic conditions 

are not considered suitable for major agricultural 

development . The main use of such soil areas is 

therefore largely associated with maintenance of 

wildlife activities . 

Under Mesic, Boreal, or Cryoboreal conditions, 

Luvisols are naturally suited to the sustained growth 

of productive forest vegetation and commercial 

forestry is a prime land use in many areas, 

particularly on the Gray Luvisols of Cryoboreal and 

Boreal climates . In similar soil climatic areas where 

topography and parent materials are favorable, 

agricultural development of Luvisols provides a 

viable alternative to forestry . The agricultural 

enterprises vary from the production of a wide 

variety of crops on Gray Brown Luvisols under 

Mesic climatic conditions, to a more limited 

production of coarse grains and forage crops or to 

the development of improved or bush pastures on 

Gray Luvisolic soils of more severe Cryoboreal 

climatic areas . 

The Gray Brown Luvisols of Mesic climates in the 

St . Lawrence Lowlands originally supported 

extensive stands of productive hardwoods, but are 

now largely cleared and are intensively cultivated . 

They support a wide variety of crops suited to a 

highly productive mixed-farming economy . Canning 

and market garden crops can also be grown . The 

Mesic warm sections along lakes Ontario and Erie 

are suitable for the production of tender fruit crops . 

In these sections urban encroachment imposes 

115

-12 

r-18 

- 24 

-30 

I-36 

L 40 

Fig . 110 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Luvisolic profiles . 

116 

Solodic Gray 

Luvisol 

3 .2-/2 .23 

15- 

25- 

50-I 

75- 

100-

811 

A

a serious threat to the limited areas of land that are 

suitable for the growing of these valuable crops . 

Minor areas of poorer soil and areas with rough 

rolling topography have been retained as natural 

woodlots or are being reforested . 

The greater percentage of the Gray Luvisols in the 

Boreal and Cryoboreal climatic regions are under 

mixed-wood or coniferous forest stands and support 

a variable intensity of commercial forest development, 

including lumbering and pulpwood enterprises . 

Despite climatic limitations of cool temperatures and 

short seasons, agricultural development has extended 

to a significant extent into these forested areas 

wherever topographic and physical conditions are 

favorable to crop production, and where accessibility 

to transportation and markets can be economically 

maintained . This agricultural development has been 

largely oriented towards the production of coarse 

grains, forages, and pasture . This development has 

been most pronounced in New Brunswick and 

Nova Scotia, the clay belt areas of the Canadian 

Shield in Ontario and Quebec, and to the greatest 

extent in the Interior Plains regions of Manitoba, 

Saskatchewan, Alberta, and northeastern British 

Columbia . In these latter areas this development 

has spread from earlier agricultural settlement in the 

parklands to Boreal Forest regions . Smaller areas of 

agricultural development on Gray Luvisolic soils 

have occurred in the Fraser Basin and Interior 

Plateau divisions of the Interior Cordilleran Region 

of British Columbia . 

Precise figures on cultivated and potentially arable 

acreages relating to Luvisolic map units are not 

available, but it has been estimated that approximately 

10,000,000 ac (4050000 ha) of Gray 

Luvisols are under cultivation in the Prairie Provinces 

with a potential expansion into an additional 

18,000,000 ac (7 290 000 ha) including the Peace 

River area of northeastern British Columbia . Such 

expansion would extend into areas of increasing 

marginality with respect to suitability of climate for 

agriculture and would be in competition with 

productive forest enterprises as viable alternatives . 

Within Ontario and Quebec agricultural development 

of Gray Luvisols has expanded slowly into the 

clay-belt areas within the Canadian Shield region . 

The estimate of cultivated land is less than 750,000 

ac (303 750 ha) out of over 13,000,000 ac 

(5 265 000 ha) . Within New Brunswick and Nova 

Scotia it is estimated that less than 1,000,000 ac 

(405 000 ha) out of a probable 6,500,000 ac 

(2 632 500 ha) of these soils have been considered 

suitable for cultivation . Within the interior regions of 

British Columbia it is estimated that less than 50,000 

ac (20 250 ha) of Gray Luvisols are under 

cultivation . 

The alternative capabilities of Luvisolic soils for 

forestry or agricultural enterprises have been referred 

to in general terms . With respect to forestry, most 

Luvisolic soils are considered productive except in 

areas of Subarctic and Subalpine climates where 

forest growth is limited . 

For agriculture the productivity of Luvisolic soils 

varies with climatic environment, profile development, 

and parent material . The Gray Brown Luvisols 

of Mesic humid climates are generally highly 

productive for a variety of field and horticultural crops, 

including fodder and grain . Fertility limitations for 

mineral nutrients are slight to moderate with most 

soils responding to moderate applications of 

phosphates and in some areas to potassium . 

Sustained liming is not usually a necessary practice 

on Gray Brown Luvisols of the St . Lawrence 

Lowlands . Limitations are generally greater on 

sandy soils . Applications of nitrogen are usually 

required for maintenance of yields, the desirable 

rates of application vary for particular crops and 

conditions . Annual losses of nitrogen by subsoil 

leaching are frequently substantial on humid and 

perhumid Mesic soils, which seldom freeze to subsoil 

depth during the winter months . Management 

problems involve prevention of erosion on sloping 

lands and maintenance of adequate surface drainage 

on finer-textured soils . Stoniness and closeness to 

bedrock are handicaps in local areas . 

On the Gray Luvisols of Boreal and Cryoboreal 

climates agricultural productivity is more limited 

than on the Gray Brown Luvisols of Mesic climates . 

Increasing severity of climate limits production to 

fewer crop species, so that there is greater emphasis 

on a mixed-farming economy including the 

production of coarse grains and forage . Problems 

related to short growing seasons, with probabilities 

of frost damage, together with early winter freezing, 

and delayed thawing in spring are limiting factors to 

ripening and harvesting of grains and hay crops and 

to the length of effective grazing seasons . These 

limitations increase in severity from Boreal to 

Cryoboreal climates and in the coldest areas 

agriculture becomes at best a marginal enterprise . 

In addition to climatic handicaps the Gray Luvisols 

have greater limitations with respect to physical and 

fertility characteristics than their Gray Brown 

counterparts . The more pronounced development of 

eluviated (Ae) horizons with respect to Ah horizons 

in Gray Luvisols compared with Gray Brown 

Luvisols has resulted in surface cultivated horizons 

with less organic matter, poorer physical structure, 

lower initial fertility levels, and usually greater 

acidity. Significant applications of nitrogen and 

phosphorus are invariably reflected in increased 

production of most crops . Applications of sulfur 

have been shown to be beneficial on many Gray 

Luvisolic soils in Western Canada . Significant 

responses have been obtained from remedial application 

of lime on a few Gray Luvisols with highly 

acidic surface horizons . Potassium is not generally a 

limiting factor except on specific local types of soil . 

Physical limitations of the Ae horizons is a main 

cause of many problems in farming Gray Luvisols . 

The low organic matter content of the Ae horizon 

together with removal of clay to the textural B 

results in surface horizons with cultivated clods of 

low porosity, lacking a well-developed granular 

119

structure . On wetting these tend to become unstable 

and to puddle and flow, thus accentuating problems 

of water erosion . On drying this type of surface 

structure tends to cake and form a crusted surface 

horizon. Such conditions hinder emergence of 

seedlings, increase runoff, and reduce aeration . The 

surface horizons are also subject to poor drainage 

(pseudo-gleying) above the textural B horizons, 

which are frequently characterized by slow 

permeability. 

These physical handicaps are modified in degree 

with Dark Gray Luvisols where a significant amount 

of 0 and Ah horizons has usually been incorporated 

into the surface cultivated layer. Likewise under good 

management practices the use of legumes and 

grass-legume mixtures, return of crop residues, or 

applications of manure add fiber and nitrogen to 

surface layers and are important factors in improving 

soil structure and increasing fertility levels of Gray 

Luvisols . 


Podzolic Soils 

Soils classified within the Podzolic order in the 

Canadian taxonomic system are well to imperfectly 

drained mineral soils with characteristics and features 

that developed under the influence of forest or heath 

vegetation in climatic conditions ranging from cold 

to mild, and humid to perhumid . Under these 

conditions weathering has resulted in the production 

of amorphous complexes of soluble organic matter 

and in mobile compounds of aluminum and iron . 

These materials accumulate in, or form, a discrete 

horizon called a podzolic B (spodic) horizon., With 

respect to this horizon the Podzolic soils differ from 

the Luvisolic soils, which have clay as the major 

accumulation product in the B horizon, and from 

Brunisolic soils, which have accumulated neither 

clay nor sesquioxides in significant amounts . 

At the order level, Podzolic soils are defined as 

having podzolic B (spodic) horizons with amorphous 

materials occurring as coatings on sand grains or 

commonly as silt-sized pellets . The B horizon usually 

has an abrupt upper boundary and may be cemented . 

Colors of the upper portion of the podzolic B 

horizons are mostly reddish in hue and darker and 

stronger in chroma than the lower portions of the B 

or of the C horizons . 

Under undisturbed conditions 

these soils have organic surface horizons of 

decomposing forest litter or heath materials (L-H 

horizons) . Some soils, mainly the sombric subgroups, 

have a humus-mineral Ah below the L-H horizon . 

Generally they have a distinct eluviated, lightcolored, 

gray to brownish or pinkish gray Ae horizon 

overlying the B ; in some types, like the Mini Podzol 

subgroups, this may be very thin, < 1 in . thick, 

discontinuous or indistinguishable . 

120 

Under cultivated conditions or where virgin soils 

have been greatly disturbed by forestry or other 

human activities, the Ap or disturbed layer may 

consist of identifiable mixtures of Ae and B material, 

which, depending on their original thicknesses, may 

be underlain by remnants of Ae or B horizons . The A 

and B horizons are characteristically acid, with 

ph < 5 ; C horizons are generally but not necessarily 

acidic, and lower C horizons may be calcareous . 

Podzolic soils occur mostly on coarse, moderately 

coarse, and medium-textured materials . These soils 

correspond to Podzols in the FAO/UNESCO system 

of classification, and to Spodosols (excluding 

Aquods) or Spodic Cryopsamments in the United 

States taxonomy . 

Soils of the Podzolic order have been divided into 

three great groups, the Humic, Ferro-Humic, and 

Humo-Ferric Podzols within the Canadian system, 

based on features and properties relating to the 

comparative relationships and properties of organic 

matter to sesquioxides, particularly iron oxide, in 

the B horizons. 

The Humic Podzols have a dark-colored Bh horizon 

with the accumulative products mostly organic 

matter with very little associated free iron . Organic 

matter in the B horizon exceeds 2% and the ratio 

of percent organic matter to percent extractable iron 

is greater than 20 . The Humic Podzols have 

developed undar heath or under forest with a heath 

or sphagnum undergrowth, and are mostly found in 

cool to cold perhumid climates or in locally moist 

positions . They are most frequent on parent materials 

of low iron content . They are not indicated as 

dominant map units in any areas that can be shown 

on the present scale of mapping, but are known to 

occur extensively as significant inclusions in many 

Podzol units within the perhumid areas of the 

Maritime Provinces, particularly in Cape Breton 

Island and Newfoundland . They also occur in the 

Coast Forest of the British Columbia mainland and 

the coastal islands . Humic Podzols correspond 

closely to the concept of Cryohumods in the United 

States taxonomy and to Humic Podzols in the 

FAO/UNESCO system . 

Ferro-Humic Podzols have dark-colored B horizons 

(Bhf) of high organic matter content, > 10%, but 

with significantly higher contents of extractable iron 

than that occurring in the Humic Podzols . The 

Ferro-Humic soils have ratios of percent organic 

matter to percent extractable iron of less than 20 . 

They are usually developed under heath, or forest 

with heath undercover, in moderately cool Boreal 

and mild Mesic humid or perhumid climates, but 

generally on sites somewhat less moist than those 

of Humic Podzols . They occur mostly on relatively 

iron-rich parent materials. Ferro-Humic Podzols are 

not indicated as dominant or subdominant soils at 

' A Podzolic B horizon consists of one or more Bh, Bhf, Bfh, or Bf horizon 

as defined in !'ije System ot Soil Classitication for Canada and is comparable 

in general concepts to the Spodic B horizon as defined in the United States 

and FAO/UNESCO systems .

the present scale of mapping . They are of significant 

occurrence in the coastal areas of British Columbia, 

but are less commonly found in the perhumid and 

humid areas of Eastern Canada . Taxonomically 

Ferro-Humic Podzols relate most closely to the 

concept of Humic Orthods or Humic Cryorthods in 

the United States taxonomy and to Orthic Podzols 

in the FAO/UNESCO soil system . 

The Humo-Ferric Podzol great group has the widest 

occurrence and distribution in Canada and is 

indicated as the dominant soil in all podzolic map 

units that are shown at the present scale of mapping . 

They are characterized by podzolic B horizons in 

which accumulations of iron and aluminum colloids 

rather than organic matter are considered as being 

most significant to their properties and developmental 

features . The Humo-Ferric Podzols occur mainly on 

well-drained sites under Boreal and Cryoboreal 

humid to perhumid climatic regimes, usually 

developed on coarse-textured, iron-rich, noncalcareous 

materials or on materials from which free 

lime has been removed . The organic matter content 

of the B horizons is quite low and by definition must 

be less than 10%, the ratio of percent organic matter 

to percent of free iron in the B is generally less than 

20 . The B horizons are mostly brown to reddish 

brown in hue and stronger in color (chroma) than 

the Ae or C horizons . Where the iron content of the 

parent material is low as in some very sandy Podzolic 

soils, the B horizons do not develop as strong a color, 

but are still distinctive from the C horizons . This type 

of sandy Podzol relates closely to the concept of 

Spodic Cryopsamments in the United States 

taxonomy . Ah horizons are thin or absent in most 

Humo-Ferric Podzols with the exception of those 

in the Sombric subgroup . Unless disturbed, most 

Humo-Ferric Podzols have a distinct eluviated, 

light-colored Ae horizon in which the mineral grains 

are highly bleached, TheAe horizon is usually greater 

than 1 in . (2 .5 cm) and thick enough to impart a 

significantly lighter color or to give a distinctive light 

and dark, salt and pepper effect to a disturbed layer 

of 6 in . (15 cm) thickness (Ap) . An Ae horizon may 

extend beyond this depth . Exceptions to this 

condition occur in the Mini Humo-Ferric subgroup 

with Ae horizons < 1 in . thick, and in the Sombric 

subgroup where the Ae material may be masked by 

a darker and thicker > 3 in . (7 .6 cm) Ah layer . 

Humo-Ferric Podzols correspond most closely to 

the concept of Cryorthods, Haplorthods, or Spodic 

Cryopsamments in the United States taxonomy and 

to Orthic Podzols in the FAO/UNESCO system . 

At the subgroup level, Placic subgroups are 

recognized within each Podzolic great group by the 

occurrence of one or more very thin cemented layers 

occurring in the B horizons . These placic horizons 

are generally black to dark reddish brown, hard, wavy 

or involute pans or layers, which are cemented by 

iron, iron and manganese, or iron-organic matter 

complexes . They tend to occur more frequently in 

the Humic and Ferro-Humic great groups than in 

the Humo-Ferric great group and on moister sites . 

The impermeability of these placic layers causes 

122 

some poor drainage and gleying above the pans even 

when the subsoil parent materials are freely drained . 

In extreme situations, peaty surfaces and Peaty 

Gleysols may develop above the placic (iron 

pan) horizons . 

Mini subgroups are recognized within the Ferro- 

Humic and Humo-Ferric great groups where Ae 

horizons are less than 1 in . (2 .5 cm) or are indistinct . 

In topographic sequences they most frequently occur 

on upper slope positions, and in profile characteristics 

they intergrade towards Dystric Brunisolic profiles . 

These Mini subgroups relate closely to the concept 

of Leptic Podzols as recently established for the 

FAO/UNESCO system . They are not identified 

separately at the present scale of mapping, but it is 

likely that more detailed surveys will identify discrete 

areas where these thin Podzols are of significance . 

A Cryic Humo-Ferric Podzol is also recognized at the 

subgroup level, and defined as having permafrost 

within 40 in . (100 cm) of the mineral surface . These 

Cryic subgroups are usually thin and meet the 

requirements of the Mini Humo-Ferric Podzol . 

Among other recognized subgroups are Gleyed 

subgroups intergrading in characteristics to Fera 

Gleysols or Fera Eluviated Gleysols, and Lithic 

groups, which have shallow sola above consolidated 

bedrock . A Bisequa Humo-Ferric Podzol subgroup 

is also recognized having a textural B horizon 

underlying the normal podzolic horizon sequence at 

depths below 18 in . (45 cm) . Such profiles intergrade 

in overall characteristics to the Luvisols . A 

diagrammatic representation of the main Podzolic 

profiles is given in Fig . 123 . 



Podzolic soils are widely distributed in Canada,where 

they occur in all provinces from Newfoundland to 

British Columbia and northward into the Northwest 

and Yukon territories . The most extensive areas are 

found within the Canadian Shield, the Appalachian 

Region, and the western coastal parts of the 

Cordilleran Region . Their widespread distribution as 

indicated on the soil map is largely based on 

exploratory and schematic mapping. They have been 

identified and studied most intensively in soil 

surveys of the agriculturally settled areas of Quebec 

and the Maritime Provinces and on the fringes of 

settlements in Ontario and Western Canada . 

Podzols are frequently found in association with 

Rockland, Luvisolic, Brunisolic, Gleysolic, and 

Organic soils . They are believed to be the dominant 

soils in approximately 800,401 sq mi (2 072 238 km2) 

or 22 .5% of the area of Canada, and to be a 

subdominant associate of an additional 279,000 sq mi 

(722 330 km2) of other map units . Over 508,000 

sq mi (1 315 212 km2) of Canada are mapped as 

complexes of Podzolic soils and Rockland . 

Podzolic soils are found mainly in the Boreal and 

Cryoboreal, humid to perhumid climatic regimes 

under coniferous to mixed-forest vegetation, but

-- o 

~6 

-12 

-18 

-24 

- 30 

F-- 36 

L-- 40 

Humo-Ferric Podzol subgroups 

Fig . 123 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Podzolic profiles . 

15- 

25 --~ 

50 -i 

75 -~ 

100- 

SR/

may occur under heath vegetation in some perhumid 

sites. They may also extend into areas of Cryoboreal 

to Subarctic climate of the Forest-Tundra transition . 

Minor areas occur under milder Mesic perhumid to 

humid conditions, mainly in Nova Scotia, Quebec, 

southern Ontario, and on Vancouver Island . 

Podzolic soils in Canada are most commonly found 

in coarse-textured, frequently stony glacial till or 

outwash deposits, but are also extensive on 

glaciofluvial sandy deposits and on some loamytextured 

materials . Parent materials are dominantly 

acidic, but may also be slightly to moderately 

calcareous . Podzols occur on all topographic phases 

from undulating to mountainous, but over 70% 

are found in rolling phases . 

As the vast majority of Podzolic soils in Canada are 

either forested or developed on heath vegetation, it 

is natural that the main land use is for forestry or 

wildlife activities, such as hunting, trapping, and 

recreation . 

Agricultural development of Podzolic soils occurs 

mainly in Eastern Canada particularly in the milder 

sections of the Boreal and Mesic climatic areas . It is 

estimated that about 10,600 sq mi (27 443 km'-) are 

within improved farm acreage, but not all of this land 

is in cultivated crops . Most of this, about 4.5 million 

ac (1 821 125 ha), occurs within the Province of 

Quebec, with less than a 0.5 million ac (202 347 ha) 

each in Ontario, Prince Edward Island, New 

Brunswick, and Nova Scotia . Less than 20,000 ac 

(8 094 ha) of these soils have been improved in 

Newfoundland . No significant acreages of Podzolic 

soils have been used for agriculture in Western 

Canada . Of the remaining 789,801 sq mi (2 044 795 

km2) of Podzolic soils about 424,000 sq mi 

(1 097 736km 2) are considered to be in commercially 

productive forest ; the remaining 365,801 sq mi 

(947 058 km2) are in noncommercial forest, mainly 

because of shallow stony conditions, proximity to 

bedrock, presence of iron pans, and severe climatic 

limitations . 

The inherent productivity of Podzolic soils in Canada 

for agriculture is generally not high because of 

fertility limitations . These soils are also limited 

regionally by unfavorable climate, and locally by 

stoniness, shallowness to bedrock, or because of 

imperfect drainage associated with topographic 

position . Structural limitations are not generally 

significant except where iron pans occur. With 

adequate fertilization and proper management, 

including sustained liming, many Podzolic soils can 

become moderately productive . Annual applications 

of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are usually 

required for the maintenance of yields, and the rates 

vary for particular crops and conditions . 

Other management problems include control of 

water erosion, particularly on sloping lands used for 

intensively tilled crops, and the maintenance of 

adequate drainage on gleyed soils in the lower slope 

position . In contrast, a few Podzolic soils developed 

124 

on coarse-textured or shallow materials may exhibit 

moisture deficits in the growing season particularly 

in dry years . Podzolic soils are used mainly for small 

grains, or forage and pasture production with 

associated livestock, but significant acreages of 

special crops, tobacco, potatoes, blueberries, orchard 

fruits, and vegetables are produced in regionally 

suitable areas . 


Brunisolic Soils 

Soils classified within the Brunisolic order in the 

Canadian taxonomic system embrace a broad 

grouping of imperfectly to well drained mineral soils 

developed under the influence of varying types of 

forest, alpine, or tundra vegetation . They occur under 

climatic conditions ranging from Mesic to Arctic 

in temperatures and from perhumid to semiarid in 

moisture regimes . Their common characteristic of 

identification is the development in situ of a 

prominent brownish Bm horizon of relative strong 

color (chroma) with sufficient alteration by 

hydrolysis, oxidation, or solution to produce 

significant changes in color, structure, and 

composition different from those of an A or C horizon, 

but with too little evidence of accumulation to meet 

the illuvial requirements of a textural or podzolic B . 

This type of B horizon relates closely to the concept of 

the cambic B as used in the United States and 

FAO/UNESCO systems of horizon identification . 

These soils correlate with Cambisols as defined in 

the World system and with Inceptisols (excluding 

Aquepts) in the United States taxonomy . They 

include most varieties of soils formerly referred to in 

such general terms as Brown Earth, Brown Forest, 

Brown Podzolic, and Brown Wooded soils . 

Under virgin conditions Brunisolic soils may develop 

a variety of surface soil horizons, depending largely 

on vegetative and climatic regimes under which 

they have developed . These may include organic 

surfaces, L-H horizons ; weak or strongly developed, 

thin or thick, dark-colored organic-mineral Ah 

horizons ; or in some instances light-colored or 

bleached, thin or thick, Aej or Ae horizons. 

Because the processes of leaching and weathering 

are relatively weakly developed in Brunisolic soils, 

they tend to reflect the chemical characteristics, 

particularly the base status and acidity, of parent 

materials from which they have been derived . 

These characteristics of surface horizons and parent 

materials form the basis for the separation of the 

Brunisolic soils into four great groups : the Melanic 

Brunisol, Eutric Brunisol, Sombric Brunisol, and 

Dystric Brunisol . Within these four great groups, the 

Brunisols are further divided into subgroups based on 

differences in climatic expression (Orthic, Alpine, or 

Cryic), degree of degradation of the A horizon 

(Degraded), degree of poor drainage (Gleyed), 

or presence of bedrock (Lithic) .

The Melanic and Eutric Brunisols are both developed 

on high base status, usually calcareous parent 

materials, and relate in concept to the Eutrochrepts 

in the United States taxonomy and to Eutric 

Cambisols in the FAO/UNESCO system . The 

Melanic Brunisols, formerly known in Canada as 

Brown Forest soils, are characterized by the 

development of a distinctive dark-colored surface Ah 

horizon, greater than 2 in . (5 cm) or thick enough to 

give a moist dark to very dark gray or dry dark 

grayish brown color to 6 in . (15 cm) of mixed surface 

horizon (Ap) . They are mainly found in the mild 

Mesic subhumid to humid climates within the 

St . Lawrence Lowlands of Eastern Canada and are 

believed to have developed under deciduous or mixed 

forest areas . The character of their granular mull type 

of Ah horizons is attributed to the action of 

earthworms and other soil fauna . Besides the typic 

or Orthic subgroup, a Degraded Melanic Brunisol is 

recognized with characteristics intergrading to Gray 

Brown Luvisol, and having a weakly expressed Aej 

horizon and a weakly textural Btj horizon . Other 

recognized Melanic Brunisolic soils include a 

Gleyed subgroup and a shallow Lithic subgroup 

with bedrock occurring at less than 20 in . (50 cm) 

from the surface . 

The Eutric Brunisols, formerly known in Canada as 

Brown Wooded soils, are base-saturated soils that 

lack the dark Ah horizon characteristic of the Melanic 

great group. They have developed under forest or 

alpine vegetation and under Boreal, Subarctic, or 

Arctic climates, and usually occur on basic or 

calcareous parent materials . 

Under virgin conditions they usually have an 

organic (L-H) horizon, which may overlie a variable 

thickness of Ah or may occur directly above the 

brown-colored Bm . In the Orthic Eutric subgroup 

developed under Boreal forest communities, an Ah 

horizon is usually less than 2 in . (5 cm) thick or is 

absent . A Degraded Eutric subgroup may have a 

weakly developed Aej or light-colored Ae horizon 

overlying a Bm, with the latter having some weak 

expression of clay or sesquioxide accumulation but 

not sufficient to meet the requirement of a Bt or Bf 

horizon . A thick Ae horizon is not common, but may 

occur on some sandy soils or on those developed on 

layers of volcanic ash . An Alpine Eutric subgroup is 

found under Alpine vegetation and Subarctic 

climatic conditions, and is characterized by an 

L-H horizon with a moderately thick, turfy or fibrous 

Ah above the B horizon . A Cryic Eutric subgroup is 

also recognized as occurring under Arctic climatic 

conditions with a permanently frozen layer within 

40 in . (100 cm) of the surface . No Cryic Eutric 

Brunisols are indicated on the present scale of 

mapping . A Gleyed Eutric subgroup with expressions 

of mottling and dull colors may be found under 

poorly drained conditions . 

Sombric and Dystric Brunisols are great groups of 

lower base saturation than the Eutric and Melanic 

groups, with the B horizons and parent materials 

usually acidic . They relate in general concept to the 

126 

Dystrochrepts in the United States taxonomy and 

to Humic and Dystric Cambisols in the FAO/ 

UNESCO soil system . 

Sombric Brunisols, formerly included with the Acid 

Brown Forest soils in Canada, are characterized by 

the occurrence of dark-colored Ah horizons > 2 in . 

(10 cm) thick, deep and dark enough to give a mixed 

surface horizon 6 in . (15 cm) Ap with very dark gray 

moist to dark grayish brown dry colors . These Ah 

horizons are believed to be partially influenced by 

the activity of earthworms and other fauna . They are 

mostly found in the coastal areas of British Columbia 

under mild Mesic, subhumid to humid climatic 

conditions and in virgin sites under a mixed 

deciduous or coniferous forest canopy with an 

understory of grasses and ferns . They are found to a 

lesser extent in the mixed-forest areas of Eastern 

Canada under moderately cool Boreal climatic 

conditions . Their occurrence is believed to follow the 

spreading of earthworms from mild to cooler areas . 

No degraded subgroup of Sombric Brunisols has 

been recognized, but Gleyed and Lithic subgroups 

may be found . No map units of dominantly Sombric 

Brunisols are shown on the Soil Map of Canada, but 

they are indicated as subdominant in map unit areas 

of southern British Columbia . 

The other major great group of low base-saturated 

Brunisolic soils are the Dystric Brunisols characterized 

by the occurrence of organic surface horizons 

(L-H) developed from forest, alpine, heath, or tundra 

vegetation overlying acidic Bm horizons of low base 

saturation and acidic parent materials . The Orthic 

subgroup developed under forest vegetation and 

Boreal climatic conditions may have a thin < 2 in . 

(10 cm) Ah horizon directly overlying the B horizon . 

A Degraded Dystric Brunisolic soil has a weakly 

expressed Aej or a thick, bleached Ae horizon 

overlying an acidic Bm that does not meet the 

requirements of an illuvial podzolic B. It is frequently 

found in association with, and intergrading in 

characteristics to Humo-Ferric Podzolic soils . In 

such association they are usually found on upper 

slopes and in somewhat less humid positions than 

the Podzolic soils . 

Alpine Dystric Brunisol subgroups are found with 

moderately thick, turfy Ah horizons under alpine 

vegetation and climatic conditions, and Cryic Dystric 

Brunisols occur in some areas of Arctic climates 

under tundra vegetation and with permanently 

frozen layers within 40 in . (100 cm) of the surface . 

Gleyed and Lithic subgroup modifications are also 

recognized within the Dystric Brunisol great group . 

A diagrammatic representation of the major Brunisolic 

profiles is given in Fig . 136 . 



Brunisolic soils occur in all provinces and territories 

in Canada, and are dominant components of map 

units in approximately 375,477 sq mi (972 110 km2)

LZL 

18 1

Fig . 132 . Dystric Brunisol, Manitoba . 

Fig . 133 . Degraded Dystric Brunisol, southern Ontario . 

Fig . 134. Cryoturbated permafrost till soil, Anderson Plain, near Inuvik, N .W .T . 

Fig . 135 . Alpine Dystric Brunisol, Mount Revelstoke, British Columbia .

~12 

-18 

- 24 

- 30 

: 

; 

~- 36 Eutric 

Brunsiol : : : : : : 

L 40 

5 .21 : : : ; : 

- 36 

-40 

Orthic 

Sombric 

Brunisol 

Orthic 

Dystric 

Brunisol 

5 .31 5 .41 

Brunisolic soils of moderate to low base status . 

Fig . 136 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Brunisolic profiles . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Degraded : : : : : ; 

Eutric 

Brunisol : : : : : : : 

25 - 

50- 

75 - 

SRI 

D 

a 

0 

x 

3 

d 

D 

O 

x 

3 

m 

3 

m 

m 

N

or 10.5% of the land area . They are associated with 

almost all major soil groups excepting the Black, 

Dark Brown, and Brown Chernozemic and Solonetzic 

soils of the Interior Plains and grasslands . They are 

most frequently found with Podzolic and Luvisolic 

soils and with Rockland areas . 

The majority of Brunisols, approximately 80%, are 

Alpine Brunisols found in Subarctic climates 

including the Subalpine areas of the Cordilleran 

highlands . About 7% are Cryic Brunisols that occur 

in Arctic climates, and 9% of Brunisols occur in 

Cryoboreal and Boreal regions as Cryic Brunisols . 

The remaining 4%, mostly Melanic Brunisols, are 

found in the Mesic climates of the St. Lawrence 

Lowlands of Ontario and Quebec . There are smaller 

areas, including Sombric Brunisols, in the lowlands 

of Vancouver Island and Fraser Valley of British 

Columbia . The moisture regimes of most Brunisols 

are humid and perhumid, but a few areas occur under 

subhumid to semiarid conditions particularly in the 

Interior Plateau areas of the Cordilleran Region . 

Brunisolic soils are most frequently developed on 

coarse- to medium-textured glacial till, outwash, and 

eolian deposits, but may also be found on some 

fine-textured deposits . Some in the southern 

Cordillera of British Columbia and in the Rocky 

Mountain Foothills of Alberta are associated with 

parent material complexes having inclusions of 

volcanic ash layers . The occurrence of Melanic and 

Eutric Brunisols as against Sombric and Dystric map 

units is largely dependent on the basic or acidic 

characteristics of local bedrock or source materials 

of glacial till and sedimentary deposits. Brunisolic 

soils are found on all topographic phases, but the 

majority, about 80%, occur in rolling and 

mountainous areas . 

Eutric and Melanic Brunisols are found in about 

227,891 sq mi (590 010 km') or roughly 6% of the 

area of Canada, but only about 10,691 sq mi 

(27679 km2) of these are classed as Melanic 

Brunisols . These Melanic Brunisols occur almost 

entirely in areas within or adjacent to the St . Lawrence 

Lowlands extending from Manitoulin Island and the 

Bruce Peninsula of Ontario to the eastern sections of 

the Lowlands in the Province of Quebec . They are 

found mostly on loamy to clayey, moderately to 

strongly calcareous, undulating to rolling areas of 

glacial till, and lacustrine and marine deposits . 

Associated soils include Luvisols, Gleysols, Organic 

soils and within the Manitoulin Island and the Bruce 

Peninsula, areas of Rockland . Most of the Melanic 

Brunisols lie within areas of varying intensity of 

agricultural development . 

Eutric Brunisols are found mostly in Western Canada 

within the Great Slave Plain of the Interior Plains, 

and in the Northern Plateau and Mountain Area of 

the Cordillera in British Columbia, northwestern 

Alberta, and the Yukon and Northwest territories. 

Smaller areas occur in northwestern Ontario in the 

Thunder Bay area . Eutric Brunisols occur on all 

topographic phases, and the largest proportion are 

130 

on rolling and mountainous areas . Parent materials 

include slightly to moderately calcareous glacial tills, 

lacustrine or local alluviums, and eolian deposits . 

Textures range from sandy loams to clays . Eutric 

Brunisols are found associated with many other soils 

including Luvisols, Gleysols, Regosols, other 

Brunisols, Cryic Fibrisols, and with many Rockland 

areas . They also occur, but less frequently, with 

Podzols and Dark Gray Chernozemic soils . 

Very little agricultural development has taken place 

within Eutric Brunisol areas, which are mostly found 

under forest, forest-tundra, or alpine vegetation . 

Dystric Brunisols occupy about 147,586 sq mi 

(382 100 km'-) or roughly 4.2% of the area of Canada 

and make up about one-third of all the Brunisolic 

soils . They are most extensive on the Shield in the 

Northwest Territories, Ontario, and Quebec, in 

Subalpine areas of the southern Cordillera, and in the 

Coastal Lowlands of British Columbia . They are also 

found on Anticosti Island and the Chaleur Uplands 

of Quebec . Dystric Brunisols occur mostly under 

Subarctic, Alpine, Cryoboreal, and Boreal temperatures 

with associated perhumid, humid, and 

subhumid moisture regimes . On Vancouver Island 

and in the lower Fraser Valley they have developed 

in humid to subhumid Mesic climates . Dystric 

Brunisols are frequently associated with Rockland, 

Luvisols, and Podzols, and most commonly occur 

on rolling topography . Parent materials range from 

acidic to noncalcareous or slightly calcareous, 

generally sandy to loamy, glacial till and outwash, 

but these soils also occur on clayey lacustrine and 

marine deposits . About 1,000 sq mi (2 589 km'-) of 

Dystric Brunisols are in farm units, mainly in Quebec 

and British Columbia . Roughly 21,200 sq mi 

(54887 km2) are in productive forest and the 

remaining 125,386 sq mi (324624 km2) are in 

nonproductive forest, forest-tundra transitions, or 

under Alpine heath vegetation . 

Agricultural development on Brunisolic soils has been 

mainly in areas of relatively favorable climatic, 

topographic, and textural conditions . It is estimated 

that less than 2,700 sq mi (6 990 km2) or about 1% 

of the Brunisols in Canada are cultivated and about 

1,500,000 ac (607 042 ha) of these, mostly Melanic 

and Dystric Brunisols, are located in Boreal and 

Mesic climatic areas of Quebec and Ontario . About 

200,000 ac (80 939 ha), mostly Dystric and some 

Sombric Brunisols, are cultivated in the Mesic 

climates of the lower Fraser Valley and Vancouver 

Island in British Columbia . These cultivated areas 

are used for a variety of field crops in a mixed farming 

and livestock economy . There is also some production 

of specialty fruit and horticultural crops in 

favorable areas . 

Where fertility limitations are slight to moderate as 

with most Melanic Brunisols, productivity is often 

high . Low fertility levels are a more serious problem 

on the more acidic Dystric and Sombric Brunisols, 

and sustained fertilizing and liming are usually 

required to maintain production . Structural limitations

are rarely severe and tillage problems are not 

generally serious on Brunisols except where 

conditions of stoniness, shallowness to bedrock, or 

steepness of slope occur. Brunisols developed on 

very coarse textured materials, particularly in 

subhumid areas, may suffer from moisture 

deficiencies in dry growing seasons . Approximately 

36,000 sq mi (93 204 km2) of Brunisols are 

considered as productive forest lands, and the 

remaining 317,000 sq mi (820713 km2) are 

nonproductive forest areas because of severity of 

climate, rough or steep topography, stoniness, or 

shallowness and proximity to bedrock . 

Relatively little is known about the Cryic Brunisols, 

mostly Cryic Dystric Brunisols, which are found in 

about 20,000 sq mi (51 780 km92) or less than 1% 

of the area of Canada . They occur mostly in those 

portions of the Canadian Shield in northern Manitoba 

and the Northwest Territories that lie within the 

Arctic climatic area where permafrost conditions 

extend within and below the solum . These soils occur 

on undulating to rolling topography and on sandy 

glacial till, outwash, and marine sediments and are 

associated with Regosols, Rockland, and to a lesser 

degree with Cryic Gleysols . Owing to the short 

seasonal growth period and shallow depth to 

permafrost, they support a tundra or mixed tundra 

and nonproductive coniferous forest vegetation, 

which has little potential use except for wildlife 

grazing . The main management problems are the 

protection of sparse, native vegetative cover against 

overgrazing by native animals, prevention of damage 

resulting from vehicles or other human activity, and 

the preservation of a natural equilibrium between the 

active unfrozen layer and underlying permafrost 

during the short summer season . 


Regosolic Soils 

Soils classified within the Regosolic order in the 

Canadian taxonomic system are well to imperfectly 

drained mineral soils with profile development too 

weakly expressed to meet the requirement for 

classification in any other order . They lack any 

expression of B horizon, but may have an organic 

surface layer (L-H) horizon or a weakly developed 

organic-mineral Ah horizon, as long as it is neither 

thick enough, dark enough, nor high enough in 

organic matter content to qualify as a Chernozemic, 

Melanic, or Sombric Ah horizon . Regosolic soils 

therefore reflect essentially the characteristics of the 

C horizons and of the parent materials from which 

they are formed . Any surface horizon development in 

virgin Regosolic soils tends to weakly reflect the 

characteristics of the regionally well-developed soils 

with which they may be associated . 

Regosolic soils at the order level relate to the concept 

of Entisols (excluding Aquents) in the United States 

taxonomy, inasmuch as they lack a Mollic or Umbric 

epipedon, or any other development of pedogenic 

horizons . In the FAO/UNESCO system, Regosolic 

soils relate to Regosols, Fluvisols, and some Orthic 

Solonchak soils . 

Only one great group, the Regosol great group, has 

been established for Canada ; its definition therefore 

is the same as for the order . Six subgroups have been 

established, the Orthic, Cumulic, Saline, Cryic, 

Gleyed, and Lithic Regosols . Of these, only three, 

the Orthic, Cumulic, and Cryic Regosols, form 

dominant components of map units as indicated on 

the Soil Map of Canada . Saline, Gleyed, and Lithic 

subgroups are also recognized as modifications 

of the major groups, but they are not shown as map 

units for the present scale of mapping . They may 

occur as subdominant components or inclusions in 

other soil areas . 

The Orthic Regosol subgroup includes soils that may 

have an (L-H) organic surface layer or a thin or 

weakly developed Ah, overlying a C horizon, which 

may or may not be calcareous . Below any surface 

horizon, the C horizon is relatively unaltered from 

the parent material except forvariable redistribution of 

carbonates or salts. Organic matter content is either 

negligible below the Ah or decreases regularly with 

depth . By definition Orthic Regosols lack buried Ah 

horizons, characteristic of Cumulic Regosols, or 

criteria significant to the characterization of Saline, 

Cryic, Gleyed, or Lithic subgroup modifications . 

They may occur on any unconsolidated parent 

material, but are most common on coarse-textured 

materials and on excessively drained or eroding 

slopes . They relate to Orthents and Psamments in 

the United States taxonomy and to Eutric and Dystric 

Regosols in the FAO/UNESCO soil system . 

. 

Cumulic Regosols are distinguished from Orthic 

Regosols by the occurrence of one or more buried 

Ah horizons, mostly weakly developed and often 

discontinuous . They are generally indicative of former 

surface horizons that have been disturbed or buried 

by subsequent deposition of fresh material . Three 

main types of Cumulic Regosols occur . The first 

type may be found in alluvial floodplains subject to 

frequent or periodic inundation resulting in 

successive depositions of fresh alluvium over former 

vegetated surfaces . This type of Cumulic Regosol 

relates to the concept of Fluvents in the United 

States taxonomy and to Fluvisols in the FAO/ 

UNESCO system The second type occurs in areas 

where wind or water erosion has resulted in partial 

removal or burying of former surface horizons with 

wind-blown or wash deposits forming new surfaces, 

which become stabilized with vegetation and form 

weakly developed soils . They are frequently found 

in sand dune areas and are mainly associated with 

Psamments in the United States taxonomy and 

Regosols in the FAO/UNESCO system . Another type 

of Cumulic Regosol may occur in local areas of 

moderately to steeply sloping topography where 

solifluction and soil creep or flow occur and give rise 

to colluvial deposits . 

131

ZE L 

'f* f 

86 1 

OP I

l--12 

~__18 

-24 

-30 

-36 

L--40 

Saline Regosol non-soil 

6.1 /5 I (Lithosol) 

Fig . 141 . A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Regosolic profiles . 

Lithic 

Regosol 

(mineral) 

6 .1-/9 

25-i 

50-I 

75- 

100- 

SRI

Cryic Regosols, characterized by the occurrence of 

permanently frozen layers within the control section 

of 40 in . (100 cm) and by a considerable degree of 

soil churning by frost action (cryoturbation), are 

considered to be one of the dominant soils classified 

in the Arctic climatic areas of Canada . 

Saline, Gleyed, and Lithic subgroup modifications of 

Regosols are recognized, but are not shown at the 

present scale of mapping . A diagrammatic 

representation of horizon patterns of representative 

Regosolic profiles is shown in Fig . 141 . 



Regosols may be found as minor inclusions with 

many soils throughout most of Canada, but their 

occurrence as dominant map units or subdominant 

associates is more regionally defined . They form 

dominant components of map units in approximately 

879,338 sq mi (2 276 606 km2), or roughly 25% of 

the land area, and occur as subdominant components 

in an additional 46,000 sq mi (119 094 km2) within 

other soil units . 

CRYIC REGOSOLS 

The greatest proportion of the Regosolic areas, about 

833,035 sq mi (2 156 727 km 2) or 23.5% of Canada's 

land area, are classed as Cryic Regosols . An additional 

19,000 sq mi (49 191 km2) of Cryic Regosols occur 

as associates of Cryic Gleysols, Cryic Brunisols, and 

Rockland map units . These soils are distributed 

across the Arctic climatic region of Canada, extending 

from Labrador and Baffin Island on the east to the 

Mackenzie Delta in the west, and are associated with 

tundra vegetation . They are found on a wide variety 

of textures and parent materials ranging from coarse 

glacial till and outwash to variable marine sediments, 

and occur on undulating, rolling, and mountainous 

topography . The shallow nature of these soils and 

their weak profile development is mainly conditioned 

and restricted by the severity of the Arctic climates 

with their related cryopedogenic processes of frost 

action and frost heaving, and by the presence of 

permafrost . Such conditions tend to dominate over 

pedogenic differences attributable to parent materials . 

Although profile development of these Cryic 

Regosols has been considered too weak or too 

disturbed to be classed as other than Regosolic, 

a number of variations in profile characteristics have 

been described by various workers in the limited 

studies undertaken in this vast area . These range from 

Cryic Regosols that lack any horizon development 

other than a very thin humus layer, to "Arctic Brown" 

types with distinctive brownish horizons, grading 

towards Brunisols . Other Cryic Regosols exhibit 

mottling indicative of gradation to Cryic Gleysols . 

The main characteristic dominating all these 

variations, however, is that of weak profile 

development within a shallow, highly disturbed 

solum overlying permafrost layers . 

134 

Within the Arctic regions the Cryic Regosols are 

considered unproductive for forestry or agriculture 

because of climatic limitations . Most of them support 

a sparse tundra vegetation within a very limited 

growing season, but some areas may be barren or 

almost void of vegetative cover . The use of these 

areas is largely limited to wildlife grazing during the 

short snow-free season . Their management involves 

protection and conservation of the limited vegetative 

cover, and maintenance of the natural equilibrium 

between active and permafrost layers within the soil . 

ORTHIC REGOSOLS 

The location of Orthic Regosols and their lack of 

profile development are mainly determined by the 

nature of their parent materials or by topographic 

position . Broad climatic factors play an important 

but less significant role in their development . About 

32,125 sq mi (83171 km2) or approximately 0.9% 

of Canada are classified as Orthic Regosols . They 

occur as dominant map unit areas, mainly within 

the Interior Plains of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and 

Alberta, but an exception is off the Nova Scotia coast 

on tiny Sable Island, which is considered as 

dominantly Regosolic . These soils are found widely 

distributed as subdominant associates or as minor 

inclusions in many other areas of Canada . Most occur 

within Boreal and Cryoboreal climatic regions and 

are found on coarse, gravelly, or sandy glaciofluvial 

and eolian deposits, including areas of dune 

formation, or in sandy to loamy alluvial areas, some 

of which are strongly calcareous or saline . In alluvial 

floodplains, Orthic Regosols are frequently associated 

with Cumulic Regosols . Other Orthic Regosols 

are also found on loamy, stony, or eroded glacial 

deposits associated with eroded glacial channels, 

on upper slope and knoll positions in rolling morainic 

areas, and on colluvial or talus materials associated 

with soil wash or soil creep on steep valley or 

mountain slopes . About 29,625 sq mi (76 699 km2) 

of Orthic Regosols are developed on neutral or 

basic parent materials and are classed as Eutric 

Regosols in the FAO/UNESCO map units . The 

remaining 2,500 sq mi (6472 km2) of these soils 

occur on noncalcareous or acidic materials and relate 

to Dystric Regosols . 

Saline Orthic Regosols, which relate to Solonchak 

soils in the FAO/UNESCO soil system, are widely 

distributed throughout the subhumid to subarid, 

Boreal climatic areas within the glaciated Interior 

Plains of Canada . Very few are extensive enough to 

be indicated as dominant map units or subdominant 

associates, because they usually occupy small areas 

of potholes and depressional flats within other soil 

map units . Some larger areas of Saline Regosols 

occur in a number of intermittently wet and dry, 

saline lake basins, or in alluvial flats within glacial 

valley spillways. Two of these are shown on the map 

of Canada, one of about 520 sq mi (1 346 km2) in 

the "Old Wives Lake" basin in the subarid Boreal 

region of southwestern Saskatchewan is associated 

with Brown Chernozemic soils . The other area of

approximately 1,680 sq mi (4350 km2) in the Quill 

Lake plain of central Saskatchewan is associated 

with semiarid conditions and with Dark Brown 

Chernozemic soils . 

The parent materials of these Saline subgroups are 

saline, usually calcareous . Salts are dominantly 

sodium and magnesium sulfates, apparently derived 

from Cretaceous shales, which underlie or are 

incorporated within the glacial deposits of the areas . 

Chlorides are less common, but occur in local areas . 

The land use and productivity of Orthic Regosols are 

influenced by their parent materials, topography, 

and the limitations of temperature and moisture 

imposed by the climatic regimes under which they 

occur . Most of the Orthic Regosols within the 

Cryoboreal and Boreal, subhumid to humid climates 

are found under forest vegetation and are Dystric 

types with low base saturation or acidity. Many of 

these soils are associated with Dystric Brunisols or 

Gray Luvisols . Their productivity for forestry is 

dependent on parent material and slope characteristics 

. The coarser-textured Regosols and those 

on the most arid slope positions usually maintain 

a sparse or relatively unproductive growth . Such 

areas are mostly used for wildlife habitat and their 

management problems involve the protection and 

conservation of vegetative cover . Limited areas of 

moderately coarse textured materials, with deeper 

regolith and more favorable moisture sites, will 

sustain productive forest growth and are used to 

a limited extent for commercial forestry . 

Within areas of semiarid to subarid moisture regimes, 

most Orthic Regosols support native grass or shrub 

vegetation . They are frequently associated with Dark 

Brown or Brown Chernozemic soils and in these 

associations the Regosols are frequently characterized 

by a weak development of Ah horizon . Areas 

of coarse-textured Regosols with low moistureholding 

capacity are not considered suitable for 

dryland crop production or improved pasture . Due 

to their productive capacity their use is mainly 

limited to rangeland grazing . 

Orthic Regosols on parent materials with fine 

sandy, loamy, or clayey textures have relatively 

adequate moisture-holding capacities, but characteristics 

of shallow soil depth, low levels of fertility, 

and limited organic matter limit their productive 

capacity . Many of these areas are used for rangeland 

grazing, improved pasture, and supplemental crop 

production on locally favorable sites . Orthic Regosols 

associated with saline or highly calcareous materials, 

including Saline Regosols (Solonchaks), are limited 

in their ability to sustain economic growth of crops 

and are largely used for grazing purposes . 

Vegetative growth within Saline Regosol areas is 

sparse and mainly confined to saline tolerant species ; 

many areas are bare of vegetation . A major use for 

Saline Regosols in some areas has been the 

development of extractive plants for the production 

of sodium sulfate from lake brine . 

Management problems on sandy-textured Orthic 

Regosols involve protection of native vegetation 

against overgrazing and wind erosion, particularly 

in dune areas . On Regosols with sloping topography, 

water erosion is frequently a major hazard . 

CUMULIC REGOSOLS 

Cumulic Regosols occur within the alluvial floodplains 

of a large number of rivers in Canada, but it is 

difficult to estimate their extent because many are 

confined to narrow belts adjacent to river channels 

and many occur in areas where only schematic 

information is available . Very few are extensive 

enough to be indicated on the present map . High 

base status, nonacidic, Cumulic Regosols (Eutric 

Fluvisols) are indicated as dominant map units for 

approximately 14,178 sq mi (36 706 km2) comprising 

three of the larger floodplain areas within the Slave 

and Mackenzie river systems . Somewhat less than 

1,149 sq mi (2975 km2) of low base status, acidic 

Cumulic Regosols (Dystric Fluvisols) occur in the 

tidal marshlands adjacent to the Bay of Fundy in 

the Maritime Provinces . An additional 14,000 sq mi 

(36 246 km2) of Cumulic Regosols are estimated to 

occur as subdominant components of other map 

units, usually representing the occurrence of narrow 

belts of alluvium along the many rivers within these 

areas . They include soils adjacent to the floodplains 

of the Yukon and Mackenzie river systems mostly 

associated with areas of Brunisols, and Cumulic 

Regosols associated with Orthic Regosols found in 

the valleys of the Saskatchewan, Peace, Qu'Appelle, 

and Assiniboine rivers and their tributaries . Other 

areas of Cumulic Regosols associated with Gleysols 

and Organic soils are found in the delta region of 

the Saskatchewan and Carrot rivers, and with 

Gleysols in the Slave River Delta in the Northwest 

Territories. Limited areas of these soils are found 

within the Kootenay River valley of British Columbia . 

Cumulic Regosols are found under climatic regimes 

ranging from Arctic climates in the Mackenzie Delta, 

Subarctic in the Mackenzie and Yukon valleys, to 

Cryoboreal and Boreal humid to semiarid regimes in 

the Peace and Saskatchewan River valleys . Those 

near the Bay of Fundy occur within a Boreal 

perhumid climate . Where periodic flooding occurs, 

many of these may be under aquic moisture regimes 

for limited periods . 

Parent materials are typical of river plain alluvial 

deposits and may be noncalcareous to moderately 

calcareous and vary in texture from fine sandy loam 

to clays, depending on local river conditions . The 

tidal marshland deposits are mostly clayey and acidic 

to noncalcareous . Topography is generally level to 

very gently undulating in all such alluvial areas . 

Land use varies with local climate and with the 

occurrence of flooding conditions . In the Mackenzie 

Delta, the combination of Arctic climates with 

frequency of spring flooding limits land use to 

wildlife habitat . Where these soils occur in Subarctic 

climates, they are generally undeveloped except for 

135

wildlife habitat and grazing, but some local 

commercial forestry may occur in favored locations . 

In the Saskatchewan and Slave deltas the potential 

exists for development of an agricultural economy 

based on improved pasture and grazing with 

supplemental cropping, but at present these areas 

are mainly being preserved as wildlife habitats. 

Extensive drainage of the tidal marshlands of New 

Brunswick and protection from flooding have been 

undertaken for many years, but the area has only 

been partially developed for agricultural use and 

schemes of multipurpose use, including protection 

of wildfowl areas, are being suggested and practiced . 

Within the Saskatchewan and Qu'Appelle valleys in 

Saskatchewan, Cumulic Regosols are used for 

cropping, improved pasture, and grazing under 

semiarid to subhumid moisture regimes . Where 

possible, irrigation from the rivers has been used to 

supplement the water supply and increase 

production . Similar development has taken place in 

some areas of the Peace River valley in northern 

Alberta and British Columbia . 

Where these soils are being used for agriculture, 

management problems involve protection against 

flooding and maintenance of adequate drainage . 

Fertility is rarely a significant limitation on the 

highly base-saturated neutral soils, but the dystric 

types of the New Brunswick marshlands are limited 

by high acidity and relatively low levels of fertility . 

The other types of Cumulic Regosols are associated 

with sand dune areas and steeply sloping colluvial 

areas . They have similar use characteristics and 

limitations to the Orthic Regosols with which they 

are most frequently associated . 


Gleysolic Soils 

Soils classified within the Gleysolic order in the 

Canadian taxonomic system are poorly drained 

mineral soils whose profiles reflect the influence of 

waterlogging for significant periods . These soils are 

saturated with water and are under reducing 

conditions due to lack of aeration, either continuously 

or during some period of the year . The definition of 

Gleysolic implies reduction and excludes soils that are 

saturated only with free-flowing and aerated waters . 

The effects of these conditions in Gleysolic soils are 

reflected by the occurrence of gleyed horizons having 

dull gray to olive, greenish, or bluish gray moist 

colors, frequently accompanied by prominent usually 

rusty-colored mottles resulting from localized 

oxidation and reduction of hydrated iron oxides . 

Under virgin conditions Gleysolic soils may develop 

a variety of surface horizons varying from thin 

usually peaty 0 horizons to organic-mineral Ah and 

Ae horizons . They may or may not have B horizons, 

but must have a gleyed A, B, or C horizon . 

136 

These soils occur in Subaquic to Peraquic moisture 

regimes and within all temperature classes from 

Arctic to Mesic in Canada and from Arctic to 

Hyperthermic in the United States . They have 

developed under hydrophytic tundra, forest, or 

meadow sedge-grass vegetation . Where artificial 

drainage for cropping or other purposes is 

discontinued or abandoned, the soils are expected to 

revert to their former conditions . 

Gleysolic soils at the order level relate to Gleysols as 

defined in the FAO/UNESCO system and to Aquic 

suborders in the United States taxonomy . 

Where Gleysolic soils occur under Subaquic regimes, 

their characteristics intergrade rather indefinitely to 

imperfectly drained gleyed subgroups of normally 

well-drained mineral soils . Within Aquic moisture 

regimes, organic-mineral Gleysolic soils are distinguished 

from Organic soils by an arbitrary separation 

based on the thickness of a surface peat layer . Peaty 

Gleysolic soils may have organic surface layers up to 

24 in . (60 cm) thick if derived from fibric moss peats, 

and up to 16 in . (40 cm) if derived from denser, 

mixed, or more highly decomposed peats. 

Soils of the Gleysolic order are separated into three 

great groups, Humic Gleysols, Gleysols, and Eluviated 

Gleysols, based on differing characteristics of 

horizon development. Humic Gleysols, related to 

Mollic and Humic Gleysols in the FAO/UNESCO 

soil system and to Aquolls and Humaquepts in the 

United States taxonomy, have well-developed 

organic-mineral Ah horizons overlying gleyed B 

or C horizons . 

Specifically the Ah horizons must be 

more than 3 in . (8 cm) thick and dark and thick 

enough to give a mixed surface layer Ap, 6 in . 

(15 cm), with more than 3% organic matter and with 

colors at least as dark as grayish brown when dry and 

very dark grayish when moist . They usually support 

a vegetation of meadow grasses and sedges . 

Gleysols, related to Eutric or Dystric Gleysols in the 

FAO/UNESCO system and mainly to Aquepts, 

Aquents, and some Fluvaquents in the United States 

taxonomy, either have no Ah or a thin or weakly 

developed Ah that does not meet the depth, color, 

or organic matter requirements of the Humic Gleysol 

great group . They may have thin, organic surface 

layers and gleyed B or C horizons . Gleysols are 

usually but not exclusively developed under 

hydrophytic forest or tundra vegetation . 

The Eluviated Gleysol great group is characterized 

by having horizons of clay eluviation (Ae) and clay 

illuviation (Bt), both of which usually show 

significant characteristics of gleying, Aeg or Btg 

horizons . They relate in a general way to the concept 

of Planisols in the FAO/UNESCO soil system and to 

Aquolls and Aqualfs in the United States taxonomy . 

Eluviated Gleysols are usually found in topographic 

situations such as potholes or enclosed depressional 

basins where the surface horizons may become 

saturated for short but significant periods by flood 

and meltwater, or by heavy rains, but which later in

-o 

-6 

I-12 

~-18 

-24 

~--30 

~-36 

~40 

~-12 

-18 

-24 

I-30 

-36 

L- 40 

c~ V 4 

Orthic Gleysol 

7.21 

Orthic 

Hurnic Gleysol 

7.11 

Humic Gleysol and Eluviated Gleysol subgroups 

.`lY7 

., ^^' ~ ,W 

S ' . l' 'N' 

"3 

Low Hurnic 

Eluviated 

Gleysol 

7.32 

Gleysol and Eluviated Gleysol subgroups 

Fig . 142. A diagrammatic horizon pattern of representative Gleysolic profiles . 

~:3 n'` 

Fera Efuviated 

Gleysol 

7.33 

15- 

25 - 

50- 

75- 

100- 

25--i 

5o- 

75- 

SRI 

137

the season may become relatively well drained or 

even dry . Such conditions allow processes of 

reduction or pseudogleying in the surface and allow 

for removal of clay and leaching of other soluble or 

colloidal products to lower horizons . Eluviated 

Gleysols may have Ah horizons comparable with 

Humic Gleysols, or weakly developed or absent Ah 

horizons comparable with those in the Gleysols, but 

all have Aeg and Btg horizons . They may occur 

under hydrophytic forest or meadow vegetation, but 

do not occur in association with Arctic climates and 

tundra vegetation . 

At the subgroup level the Gleysolic great groups may 

be separated into Orthic subgroups with, characteristics 

of the central concept of the group ; Rego 

subgroups, lacking a B horizon ; Fera subgroups with 

prominent, rusty, mottled B horizons with significant 

accumulations of hydrated oxides of iron ; Cryic 

subgroups characterized by the occurrence of 

permafrost within 40 in . (1 m) of the mineral surface ; 

and Lithic subgroups with a rock contact between 

4 and 20 in . (10 and 50 cm) of the mineral surface . 

Saline and Carbonated subgroups are also 

recognized . 

A diagrammatic representation of major Gleysolic 

profiles is given in Fig . 142 . Only Humic Gleysols, 

Gleysols, and Cryic Gleysols are shown as dominant 

map units on the Soil Map of Canada . 



Gleysolic soils occur throughout all regions of 

Canada, infrequently as dominant soils, commonly as 

poorly drained subdominant associates of other 

soils, and frequently as minor inclusions occupying 

undrained depressions in complex soil landscapes . 

Because of their pattern of distribution and 

widespread occurrence in many of the undeveloped 

regions of Canada, accurate estimates of their 

extent are difficult to obtain, but it is believed that 

they comprise in total about 5.4% of the area . They 

are indicated as the dominant soils in approximately 

82,321 sq mi (213 129 km2) or 2.3% of the area, and 

it is estimated that an additional 105,500 sq mi 

(273139 km2) of Gleysolic soils occur as subdominant 

components of other units . 

Climatically they occur as Aquic subclasses within 

all temperature classes from Arctic to Mesic, and thus 

are found associated with the climatic regimes of 

regionally well-drained soils . Cryic Gleysols are 

naturally associated with Arctic climates and form 

associations with Cryic Regosols and some Brunisols 

within the Tundra and Forest-Tundra transition 

vegetation regions. Gleysols are mostly found 

associated with Subarctic, Cryoboreal, and Boreal 

humid and perhumid climates and with Luvisolic, 

Brunisolic, Podzolic, and Organic soils in forested 

areas . Humic Gleysols are mainly found in Subarctic 

to Mesic humid and subhumid areas, but are also 

found in poorly drained positions within semiarid 

and even subarid regions . They are usually associated 

138 

with sedge-grass vegetation and are mostly 

associated with Chernozemic soils, particularly Black, 

Dark Gray, and Dark Brown map units, but are also 

found with Brown Chernozemic, Melanic Brunisolic, 

and Luvisolic soils . Many Gleysolic soils, particularly 

in humid and perhumid Cryoboreal and Subarctic 

regimes, develop a significant cover of surface peat. 

Where these peaty phases occur, the Gleysolic soils 

intergrade in appearance and properties with the 

shallow Organic soils (Terric subgroups) with which 

they are often associated . 

It is impossible to be precise regarding the general 

distribution of Gleysolic soils within the Aquic 

subclasses in Canada because this varies with local 

microclimate, topography, and land pattern. Most 

Gleysolic soils that occur in the undeveloped areas 

beyond settlement are associated with Peraquic or 

Aquic regimes . They are saturated for moderate to 

long periods during the growing season . Absolute 

length of growing seasons varies between temperature 

classes, and these saturation periods therefore 

are expressed in relative rather than absolute terms. 

Within settled areas, the development of roads, 

surface drainage ditches, and subsurface tiling in 

many cultivated areas has resulted in partial drainage 

of many very poorly drained areas . Under such 

conditions, many Gleysolic soils acquire Subaquic 

regimes, with saturation occurring for relatively short 

periods . In some areas where drainage has been in 

effect for long periods, Gleysolic soils are developing 

characteristics and properties intergrading to those 

of imperfectly drained soils in other orders . 

Gleysolic soils may be found on a wide range of 

parent materials from glacial tills and outwash to 

lacustrine, marine, and alluvial deposits . Extensive 

areas of these soils are frequently found on slowly 

permeable clay deposits of lacustrine or marine 

origins, particularly on flats or slightly depressional 

basins in level to undulating topography . In glacial 

tills they are more often present as associated 

subdominant soils, occurring on loamy to clayey 

resorted materials of lower slopes and enclosed 

basins, or within kettle depressions in moderately 

undulating to strongly rolling glacially developed 

landforms . They are also found as local soils in pitted 

outwash or in ice-scoured depressions within the 

Rockland complexes of the Canadian Shield, and 

frequently they occur as minor inclusions on the 

lower portions of seepage slopes . 

HUMIC GLEYSOLS 

Humic Gleysols constitute the dominant soils in 

about 13,510 sq mi (34 977 km2) of map units or 

0.4% of Canada, and in an additional 6,500 sq mi 

(16 828 km z) they occur as subdominant associates 

of other soil units . They are found in areas extending 

across all provinces from Ontario and Quebec 

westward to British Columbia and the Northwest 

Territories, but are of minor occurrence in the 

eastern Maritime Provinces . They occur under 

temperature regimes varying from Subarctic to Mesic, 

and although occupying local areas of Subaquic to

Aquic moisture regimes, they are found in association 

with better-drained soils developed under humid to 

semiarid and even subarid conditions . They are 

mostly associated with Chernozemic and Luvisolic 

soils, but may also be found with Brunisolic and 

Podzolic soils. 

Where dominant, Humic Gleysols are usually found 

on nearly level to gently undulating topography and 

on alluvial, glacial lacustrine, resorted glacial till, or 

marine sediments . Parent materials are slightly to 

strongly calcareous with the exception of those of 

about 1,285 sq mi (3 326 km2) of Humic Gleysols in 

the Fraser Lowland of British Columbia, which occur 

on noncalcareous glacial, marine, and outwash 

deposits. 

Where Humic Gleysols occur on calcareous materials, 

they relate generally to Aquolls in the United States 

taxonomy and to Mollic Gleysols in the FAO/ 

UNESCO system . They are mostly associated with 

Chernozemic and Luvisolic soils and Melanic or 

Eutric Brunisols . Where they occur on noncalcareous 

or acidic materials of low base status, they more 

closely relate to Humaquepts in the United States 

taxonomy and to Humic Gleysols in the FAO/ 

UNESCO system, and are usually associated with 

Dystric Brunisols, Podzols, and with some of the 

more acidic Luvisols . Where Humic Gleysols are 

subdominant, they are most frequently found 

within moderately undulating to strongly rolling 

topography, occupying local depressional areas or 

pothole basins . In such areas they are often in 

association with Humic Eluviated Gleysols . 

In their natural and undrained state, Humic Gleysols 

support a vegetation of meadow grasses and sedges, 

and within settled areas they are used for native hay 

production, rough grazing, or wildfowl habitat. 

Where tree invasion has taken place in pothole 

depressions within the prairie grassland areas, the Ah 

horizon of Humic Eluviated Gleysols rapidly 

disappears or degrades under the influence of 

leaf litter, and the soils tend to develop into Low 

Humic Eluviated Gleysols approaching in characteristics 

the Gleyed Gray Luvisols . 

Where extensive acreages of Humic Gleysols occur, 

particularly in Mesic or in the less severe Boreal 

climate, they are frequently drained and cultivated . 

Productivity for annual crops and forages is usually 

high . Fertility limitations are generally slight except 

for the necessity of supplying adequate levels of 

available nitrogen . In Mesic climatic areas the use 

of Humic Gleysols for the production of a variety of 

special crops including vegetables has been 

successfully developed in many areas of the 

St . Lawrence Lowlands of Ontario and Quebec and 

in the lower Fraser Valley and Delta of British 

Columbia . In the latter area the Humic Gleysols have 

been extremely developed, improved by drainage, 

and used for intensive cropping . Fertility limitations 

are generally slight and productivity is high for a 

variety of crops . Urban encroachment from greater 

Vancouver and towns in the heavily populated 

140 

Fraser Valley has severely limited the acreage 

available for efficient crop production . 

GLEYSOLS 

. 

Gleysols are indicated as the dominant soils in map 

units comprising approximately 54,250 sq mi 

(140 453 km2), roughly 1 .5% of the area of Canada . 

An additional 43,500 sq mi (112 621 km2) of these 

soils are believed to occur as subdominant 

components of other soil units . Major areas occur 

within the Subarctic to Cryoboreal climatic regions 

of the Great Slave Plain and Slave River lowlands of 

Alberta and the Northwest Territories, and the 

Hudson Bay Lowland of Ontario . Smaller areas are 

shown as occurring within and adjacent to the 

Canadian Shield regions in Ontario and Quebec, and 

in the valleys of the Rocky Mountain Trench in 

British Columbia . Most of these Gleysols occur on 

nearly level to undulating topography, particularly 

where associated with lacustrine, alluvial, or marine 

deposits Smaller areas are found associated with 

rolling topography and shallow till deposits or with 

clays overlying bedrock surfaces . Parent materials 

are mostly moderately calcareous and loamy to 

clayey in texture . Gleysols on these deposits tend to 

be of high base status and are frequently calcareous. 

They relate mainly to Eutric Gleysols as classified in 

the FAO/UNESCO soil system . 

Many smaller areas of Gleysols occur as subdominant 

associates of other mapping units and occur 

extensively across the country . Gleysols of low base 

status occur extensively on noncalcareous or acidic 

parent materials in areas of the Yukon Territory 

bordering Alaska . They form significant portions of 

the large mapping complexes of undulating to 

mountainous Gleysols, Brunisols, and Cryic Fibrosols 

found in that area . Information on these soils is scanty 

and largely based on schematic and exploratory 

studies. They occur within Subarctic climates, and 

their parent materials are derived from glacial till, 

glaciofluvial and alluvium deposits, together with 

residual material derived from mountain bedrock . 

Most Gleysols are located within the forest regions 

and support a hydrophytic forest or forest-marsh 

vegetation of trees and shrubs with understory 

vegetation ranging from grasses and sedges to reeds 

and mosses . Forest growth is generally unproductive 

owing to the length of freeze period, shortness of 

growing period, lack of aeration, and shallowness to 

groundwater. In some Gleysolic areas, it is possible 

that better forest productivity could be obtained 

through controlled drainage to lower subsurface 

water levels . The main uses of Gleysols are associated 

with wildlife habitat, except in a few instances where 

these soils are found as cultivated associates of 

cultivated Podzols and Luvisols . 

In limited areas where Gleysols are used for growing 

forages or annual crops, productivity ranges from fair 

to moderately high, particularly when desirable 

conditions of surface and subsurface drainage are 

maintained . Limitations of mineral nutrient fertility

are generally slight except for those areas developed 

on acidic materials or those of low base saturation . 

Problems of nitrification under conditions of partial 

saturation and lack of aeration, together with loss of 

nitrates through leaching, are more severe with 

Gleysols than with Humic Gleysols . 

Where Gleysols have a significantly deep cover of 

peat, adequate packing and shallow tillage are 

necessary if maintenance of the peat cover is desired . 

Usually it is considered desirable to incorporate the 

peat layer with the underlying mineral horizon, and 

if so initial packing followed by deeper tillage 

practices may be needed . In a number of areas these 

latter practices, supplemented by controlled drainage, 

have resulted in the development of highly productive 

soils . 

CRYIC GLEYSOLS 

Cryic Gleysols occur throughout the entire Arctic 

region of northern Canada, including the Arctic 

islands and extending from the Labrador coast to the 

Yukon-Alaska border . About 14,561 sq mi (37 698 

km2) or 0.4% of Canada are mapped as dominantly 

Cryic Gleysols ; these areas occur in the Northwest 

Territories and Yukon . They are found within the 

Mackenzie Delta, the Arctic Coastal Plain, and also 

in the Eagle and Old Crow plains in the Porcupine 

Mountain and Plateau region . An additional 55,500 

sq mi (143 689 km2) of Cryic Gleysols are believed 

to occur as subdominant associates of the very 

extensive areas of Cryic Regosols indicated within 

the Arctic area . In Subarctic areas, Gleysols with 

peaty surfaces (if not Cryic) are frequently frozen 

for a considerable period of the summer season . It 

should be understood that information on the 

relative distribution and extent of specific soils in 

much of this underdeveloped Arctic and Subarctic 

area is derived from schematic and exploratory 

studies and is subject to future revision . 

Within Arctic and Subarctic areas, maintenance of 

vegetative cover for wildlife sustenance and 

preservation of equilibrium between active and 

permafrost layers poses important problems in 

management control . The destroying of protective 

surface cover with consequent deepening of 

saturated active layer by thawing of the underlying 

permafrost has been shown to have drastic and 

permanent effects on the natural ecological balance. 

These areas support at best a sparse and limited 

Tundra vegetation for a very limited growing season . 

Such areas are used for wildlife habitat and for some 

rough grazing . 


Organic Soils 

Organic soils as defined and classified in the 

Canadian taxonomic system include all soils that 

142 

have developed largely from organic deposits . They 

are the soils that in the past have been commonly 

identified in general descriptive terms such as 

shallow peats, deep peats, and muck soils of bogs, 

marshes, swamps, fens, and moorlands . The 

composition of peats has been variously described 

according to their vegetative origin such as moss 

peats, woody peats, and sedge peats and in terms of 

decomposition as slightly, moderately, and highly 

decomposed . Most of them have been recognized as 

occurring naturally under wet or very poorly drained 

conditions . A commonly used name for such soils 

within the forested regions of north-central United 

States, Canada, and Alaska is "muskeg", an 

indigenous term of Algonquian and Cree origin 

meaning a moss-covered muck or peat bog . In the 

far north all swamplands have been called muskegs. 

Much of our past and current descriptions of organic 

soils have been expressed in such general terms . 

The evolution by Canadian and United States soil 

scientists of more precise empirical schemes of 

taxonomy and nomenclature for the classification of 

organic soils has been a parallel and cooperative 

development of relatively recent origin . A short 

resume of this development is of interest to 

understanding the current concepts of organic 

soils . 

In 1963 a study of taxonomic classification of 

organic soils was begun by the United States Soil 

Survey organization, and there followed in January 

1965 the presentation of a tentative scheme for 

consideration . In Canada, preliminary proposals in 

1960 and 1963 were followed in October 1965 by the 

presentation to the National Soil Survey Committee 

of a comprehensive scheme for classification of 

organic soils . This scheme introduced the concept of 

identification of tiers and layers . Further field testing 

and international correlative studies resulted in the 

adoption in 1970 of revised schemes for classifying 

organic soils in Canada and their counterparts, the 

Histosols, in the United States. Although these 

schemes differ in minor degrees of identification, 

arrangement, and nomenclature, individual soils are 

easily related in both systems . 

A comprehensive taxonomy for organic soils in the 

FAO/UNESCO system has not yet been fully 

developed . They are identified as Histosols in the 

World Scheme and are further divided into three 

groups of Eutric (high base status), Dystric (low 

base status), and Cryic Histosols (with frozen 

subsurfaces) . The general correlation between the 

three systems is given in The System of Soil 

Classification for Canada and in Part Four of 

this publication . 

The reader is referred to The System of Soil 

Classification for Canada, as recently revised 

(1974), for details and precise definitions for the 

comprehensive classification of organic soils . The 

following discussion gives a more generalized 

description of the classification and its relationship 

to the concepts given in the present map and report .

At the order level, Organic soils are those that have 

developed dominantly from organic deposits, which 

by definition contain over 30% organic matter by 

weight and meet minimum specifications of depth 

and thickness within a defined control section . The 

control section refers to the depth considered 

necessary to classify the soil and varies in thickness 

depending on the type of organic matter at the 

surface, or on the presence of a bedrock (lithic) or 

water (hydric) layer at shallow depth . The majority of 

Organic soils, with the minor exception of Fol'ists and 

some Dome peats, are either water saturated or 

nearly saturated for much of the year unless artificially 

drained . The organic deposits are primarily derived 

from the decomposition of hydrophytic or mesohydrophytic 

vegetation . 

To facilitate classification the control sections are 

further divided into surface, middle, and bottom 

tiers, within which diagnostic layers may be identified 

and described . The surface tier exclusive of leaf 

litter is 24 in . (60 cm) thick if composed of fibric 

material and is 12 in . (30 cm) thick if it is nonfibric 

or of denser composition . The surface tier is important 

in establishing the depth of the control section, and 

in shallow organic soils it is considered together with 

the middle tier in establishing subgroup classification . 

Below the surface, the middle tier is 24 in . (60 cm) 

thick or extends to any lithic or hydric contact within 

the control sections . This tier is considered the most 

important in establishing the great group classification 

of most Organic soils . It may include a terric 

(mineral) layer. The bottom tier is 16 in . (40 cm) 

thick or extends to lithic or hydric contact . It may also 

include an unconsolidated mineral layer . The material 

in this lower tier also assists in establishing subgroup 

classifications . 

Within the framework of the control section, the 

further classification and naming of the great groups 

depends on the occurrence and identification of 

three major diagnostic layers : Fibric, Mesic, and 

Humic . These recognize the degree of decomposition 

of the organic material and are essential in 

classification of the great groups into Fibrisols, 

Mesisols, and Humisols . 

The further separation of Organic soils into subgroups 

is based on the recognition of ten additional 

descriptive layers, occurring within the surface, 

middle, or bottom tiers . Figures 151 and 152 are 

diagrammatic representations of depth relationships 

of tiers and control sections illustrating the 

relationship between Typic (Deep), Terric (Shallow), 

Lithic, and Hydric Organic soils and mineral soils 

with and without peaty phases . 

Fibric layers are the least decomposed of all the 

organic soil materials and have large amounts of 

well-preserved fibers, which are readily identifiable 

as to botanical origin . Fibric material is bulky and has 

low density and a high water-holding capacity. 

Fibrisols are Organic soils with fibric material most 

abundant in the middle tier or in the combined 

surface and middle tier if the profiles are shallow . 

They may be further subdivided on recognition of the 

botanical origin of the material into Fenno-Fibrisols 

derived from rushes and sedges, Silvo-Fibrisols from 

mixed woody and moss peats, and Sphagno-Fibrisols 

derived from dominantly Sphagnum mosses . Fibrisols 

are indicated over most of the major areas of Organic 

soils shown on the present map of Canada, although 

it is believed that many of these areas include 

subdominant Mesisol types. A Fibric layer that is 

composed of variably decomposed, matted forest 

litter overlying bedrock or fragmental rock material 

characterizes the Folisol great group . 

Mesic layers are recognized as having organic matter 

in an intermediate stage of decomposition between 

fibric and humic materials . Mesic material is partially 

altered both chemically and physically and is usually 

darker in color and not as readily identifiable 

botanically as fibric material . It has moderately low 

bulk density and moderately high water-holding 

capacity . Mesisols are those Organic soils with 

mesic material most abundant in the middle tier or 

in the middle and surface tiers if the profiles are 

shallow . Many areas of Mesisols are known to 

occur in Canada, particularly in milder climatic 

areas, but they are not extensive enough to be 

shown separately on the present map . 

Humic layers are recognized as having organic 

matter in a highly decomposed state . It has the least 

amounts of recognizable plant fiber, is usually 

darker in color than mesic material, and often has a 

smooth greasy feel when moist. It is relatively stable 

material and changes little in physical or chemical 

composition with time . A humic layer has a higher 

bulk density and lower water-holding capacity than 

mesic or fibric materials . Humisols are Organic soils 

with humic material most abundant in the middle tier 

or middle and surface tiers if the profiles are shallow . 

Humisols include most of the organic soils that in 

the past have been referred to as muck soils . Very few 

areas of Humisols have as yet been identified as 

discrete map units in Canada . 

The additional ten descriptive layers used as 

diagnostic criteria for the further separation of the 

great groups into subgroup classification include 

recognition of Typic, Fenno, Silvo, Sphagno, Limno, 

Cumulo, Cryic, Terric, Lithic, and Hydric layers . 

Typic layers are dominantly mesic or humic layers 

occurring uniformly throughout the middle and 

bottom tiers, and characterize the Typic Mesisol and 

Typic Humisol subgroups . 

Fenno layers are dominantly fibric and recognizably 

derived from rushes, reeds, and sedges . Where they 

are dominant through the middle and bottom tiers, 

they characterize the Fenno-Fibrisol subgroups 

commonly referred to previously as slightly 

decomposed sedge peats . 

Silvo layers are dominantly fibric and recognizably 

derived from decomposing woody material, mosses, 

143

Cm In 

- 0 0 

Surface Tier 

I- 30 12 

i- 40 16 

Middle Tier 

- 90 36 

Bottom Tier 

- 130 52 

SRI 

Fig . 151 . A diagrammatic representation of depth relationships of tiers and control 

sections for Typic, Cryic, and Terric subgroups of organic and mineral soils .

in Cm 

I I 

Rock Organic Soil Rock Water Organic Soil 

Lithic I I I I Hydric 

Fig . 152 . A diagrammatic representation of depth relationships and control 

sections for Lithic and Hydric subgroups of Organic soils . 

SRI

and other understory forest vegetation . Where of 

dominant occurrence through the middle and bottom 

tiers they characterize the Silvo-Fibrisol subgroups, 

commonly referred to as Woody peats . 

Sphagno layers are dominantly fibric and recognizably 

derived from sphagnic type mosses . Where 

they occur throughout the middle and bottom tiers 

they characterize the Sphagno-Fibrisol subgroups . 

This type has been commonly referred to as 

Sphagnum moss bogs, and frequently occur in 

association with Silvo-Fibrisol subgroups, characteristic 

of muskeg soils of the Boreal Forest region . 

Limno layers in Organic soils are composed of 

coprogenous earth, diatomaceous earth, or marl and 

where present below the surface tier they characterize 

Limno subgroups of Fibrisols, Mesisols, and 

Humisols . Coprogenous material is sedimentary peat 

largely derived from fecal remains, diatomaceous 

material is earthy siliceous material derived from 

algae, and marl is carbonate material derived from 

shells and other skeletal material of animaculae . 

Limno Organic soils are of minor occurrence and are 

not shown on the present map of Canada . 

Cumulo layers consist of multiple layers of alluvial 

mineral material that occur beneath the surface tier 

of organic soils and in between organic layers . Where 

present in a significant degree, they characterize 

Cumulo subgroups of Fibrisols, Mesisols, and . . 

Humisols . They are known to occur in a number of 

areas, particularly in alluvial flood plains, but are not 

extensive enough to be noted on the present map 

of Canada . 

Cryic layers are permanently or nearly permanently 

frozen layers in which the temperature is 32°F (0°C) 

or lower in the control section for the major portion of 

the year . Where a cryic layer occurs within the control 

section, it establishes a Cryic subgroup of Fibrosols, 

Mesisols, or Humisols . 

Cryic Fibrisols constitute one 

of the most significant types of Organic soils indicated 

on the soil map of Canada ; they occur extensively 

throughout the Subarctic and colder Cryoboreal 

climatic regions . 

Terric layers of unconsolidated mineral material are 

at least 12 in . (30 cm) thick . They occur within the 

middle and bottom tiers of Organic soils and usually 

extend continuously into the underlying mineral 

material below the control section . Where present 

they establish Terric subgroups of Fibrisols, Mesisols, 

and Humisols . They correspond to the general 

concept of Shallow Peat or Half-bog soils . Terric 

subgroups are a very significant group of Organic 

soils in Canada and although known to occur 

extensively they have not as yet been identified for 

discrete areas that can be shown on the present map . 

Lithic layers of consolidated mineral (bedrock) or 

layers of fragmental materials of rock origin may occur 

in Organic soils below a depth of 4 in . (10 cni) but 

within a depth of 32 in . (80 cm) . Their occurrence 

establishes Lithic subgroups of Fibrisols, Mesisols, 

Humisols, and Folisols . They are known to occur in 

Canada in association with bedrock soils or with 

lithic phases of other soil groups . They are thought to 

be extensive within the Canadian Shield and to occur 

in some areas within the Cordilleran Region . Lithic 

Organic soils are considered to have low productive 

capabilities . 

Hydric layers consist of aqueous layers that extend 

from depths of not less than 16 in . (40 cm) 

throughout the control section . They relate to the 

type of conditions described as floating or quaking 

bogs . They occur as Hydric Fibrisols in many muskeg 

areas within the Boreal Forest region, but there is 

insufficient data available to identify them as 

discrete areas at the present scale of mapping. 



It is natural that much of the identification of Organic 

soils as given in the current map and report antedates 

the present scheme of classification, and that little 

new data is as yet available for consideration . 

Nevertheless the broad identification of Organic 

soils as presented in this report follows closely the 

currently accepted concepts and is given as far as 

possible in the present terminology together with 

reference to older descriptions . 

Organic soils occur in all provinces and territories of 

Canada, mostly within and adjacent to forested 

regions . Their occurrence is less frequent in the 

subhumid to semiarid grasslands and in the tundra 

regions of the Arctic . 

Because of their widespread 

distribution in underdeveloped areas where soil 

information is scanty and mainly obtained by 

exploratory traverse or schematic interpretation, 

only general estimates of their extent and distribution 

can be made . Most of the information on these soils 

has been obtained from studies made within or 

adjacent to areas of settlement . 

Organic soils comprise about 10% of the land area 

of Canada . They are indicated in the present map 

as the dominant soils in approximately 358,097 sq mi 

(927113 km2) . On an additional 59,000 sq mi 

(152751 km2) Organic soils are believed to occur 

as subdominant associates within other map units . 

In addition many smaller areas of Organic soils are 

known to occur as minor inclusions, occupying 

poorly drained segments of soil landscape patterns . 

Many of these would be shown as discrete areas 

in more detailed mapping . It is further estimated 

that of the Organic soils mapped about 60% or 

roughly 209,519 sq mi (542444 km2) are Cryic 

Fibrisols and the remaining 40%, 148,578 sq mi 

(384 668 km2), are Fibrisols . Organic soils are 

commonly associated with Gleysolic, Brunisolic, 

Luvisolic, and Podzolic soils, and to a lesser degree 

with Regosolic soils and Rockland . 

Climatically the Organic soils (unless drained) occur 

within Peraquic and Subaquic subclasses of all 

temperature regimes from Mesic to Subarctic, and 

147

are mostly associated with better-drained soils of 

perhumid, humid, and subhumid moisture regimes. 

They are occasionally but rarely found as aquic 

associates of semiarid or subarid soils . Because of 

their distinct physical properties of porosity and high 

saturated water-holding capacity, the temperature 

relationships of organic soils are usually modified in 

degree from those of mineral soils within the same 

regional climatic areas . With the combined insulation 

effects of hydrophytic vegetative cover and fibrous 

surface horizons, many organic soils and also 

peaty Gleysols warm and cool more slowly than do 

the better-drained mineral soils with which they are 

associated . These effects are particularly accentuated 

with soils having a high water content subject to 

freezing, because of the additional latent heat 

involved in the freezing and thawing processes . 

Thus not only the Cryic soils, but many other Fibrisols 

in aquic subclasses of Cryoboreal and even Boreal 

temperature regimes retain frozen subsoil layers 

throughout the spring and early summer for long 

periods after their better-drained associates have 

thawed and warmed up . Likewise, they usually tend 

to remain unfrozen at depth for longer periods in the 

fall and early winter . Within Mesic climatic regions 

or where organic soils have been cleared of 

vegetation, drained, and cultivated, temperature 

relationships are less modified and approximate to 

those of the well-drained regional soils . 

As mentioned, about 60% of the Organic soils in 

Canada are considered to be Cryic Fibrisols with 

frozen layers remaining within the control section 

and to a depth of at least 80 in . (200 cm) from the 

surface for 2 months or more after the summer 

solstice (Aug . 21 st) . These Cryic Fibrisols are mostly 

found in Subarctic or transitional Cryoboreal to 

Subarctic climates . In many instances Cryic Fibrisols 

are associated with areas of intermittent permafrost, 

usually indicated by the development of pronounced 

micro relief in the form of peat plateaus, domes, 

ridges, low mounds, and palsas . Within areas of 

Arctic climates and continuous permafrost, the 

growing season is generally too short to enable any 

substantial accumulation of organic surface layers 

thicker than those that would be classified as peaty 

phases of Cryic Gleysols . Consequently there are 

only a few known areas of Fibrisols within the 

Arctic regions . 

Organic soils and layers may be found overlying a 

wide range of mineral materials ranging from glacial 

tills and outwash to alluvial and lacustrine sediments . 

Lithic Folisols and Lithic subgroups of other Organic 

soils may be found directly overlying bedrock . Where 

organic surface layers are shallow, as in terric 

subgroups, the nature of and depth to the underlying 

mineral layers are considered -highly significant in 

determining the classification and interpretive 

properties of organic soils, particularly in relationship 

to land use, productivity, and management problems . 

Thus, in areas where underlying mineral layers are 

moderately calcareous till, alluvial or lacustrine 

deposits, terric Organic soils usually are acid to 

neutral and of high base status and tend to favor the 

148 

development of Fenno rather than Sphagno types. 

Organic soils developed on noncalcareous tills or 

bedrock, particularly in the Canadian Shield, tend 

to be more highly acidic and usually of the Sphagno 

or Silvo types . 

The character of the vegetational cycles that have 

occurred during the formation of areas of Organic 

soils have an important role in determining the 

characteristics and development of soils, irrespective 

of the degree and stage of decomposition . These 

characteristics are most manifest in the relatively 

undecomposed fibric layers rather than in the progressively 

decomposed mesic and humic materials . 

Thus these materials may be frequently identified as 

derived from rushes, reeds,and sedges . It can also be 

seen that Fenno materials come from fen or marsh 

stages, and hypnic mosses (Hypno types) and 

sphagnic mosses (Sphagno types) usually from 

woodland areas . In many areas combinations of 

these types occur, and the presence of distinct woody 

layers (Silvo types) are indicative of periods of 

intensive forest development in the vegetative cycle . 

The topography of most Organic soil areas in Canada 

is level to very gently sloping on the macro scale, but 

may be hummocky to roughly undulating in micro 

relationship . The latter situations are most commonly 

found in areas of Cryic Fibrisols . Few areas of 

blanket bog with organic layers overlying significant 

areas of steeply sloping lands have been mapped, 

although they are known to occur in some areas . 

The major areas of Fibrisols are undeveloped and 

support a natural vegetation of hydrophytic species, 

ranging from that characteristic of swamp bogs and 

wet forest to mesohydrophytic species associated 

with very moist forest sites . With minor exceptions, 

forest development on these soils is restricted by 

poor drainage and cool or frozen subsoil conditions . 

Tree growth is mostly unproductive or stagnant . 

Such areas are useful mainly for wildlife habitat, and 

the growth of shrubs, herbs, and mosses is generally 

sufficient to provide a limited grazing capacity . Areas 

of Organic soils supporting a relatively sparse forest 

cover or open fen type of vegetation are mostly 

utilized for wildlife grazing, but if adjacent to 

agricultural settlement may be used for rough pasture . 

Their suitability for such use may be significantly 

improved by bettering drainage conditions . 

A number of Organic soils, particularly the more 

decomposed Mesic to Humic types, have been 

drained, cleared, and successfully developed for 

the production of improved pasture or agricultural 

crops . Although their number and the acreage 

involved are relatively small, they form a significant 

part of the agricultural economy in local areas . Most 

of these developments are located in areas of Mesic 

or moderately cool Boreal climates, where growingseason 

temperatures are not a severely limiting factor . 

Two distinctive methods of agricultural development 

involving areas of Organic soils have been used in 

Canada . The first involves the controlled drainage

Fig. 157. Market gardening on organic soils, Ste. Clothilde, Central St. Lawrence Lowland, Quebec. 

Fig. 158. Organic soi1 used as improved Pasture, Newfoundland. 

Fig. 159. Organic soi1 used for intensive cropping, Holland Marsh, southern Ontario. 

Fig. 160. Harvesting organic soi1 as a commercial source of peat moss, Carrot River, Saskatchewan. 

149

and maintenance of thick organic layers as a 

desirable medium for specialized plant growth, and 

it has been practiced very successfully for the 

intensive production of vegetables, and horticultural 

and other specialized crops. Most of these 

developments have taken place on relatively minor 

acreages under Mesic climatic conditions within 

the St . Lawrence Lowlands of Ontario and Quebec 

and in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia . 

It is estimated that more than 100,000 ac (40 470 ha) 

of Mesisols or Mesic Fibrisols have been developed 

in this way . The second method of agricultural use 

has been practiced quite extensively in subhumid 

Boreal regions of the Interior Plains . It has involved 

the drainage and clearing or relatively large acreages 

of shallow peats, Terric Fibrisols or Mesisols . Their 

development through a combination of pasturing, 

packing, and tillage has resulted in the eventual 

incorporation of the organic with the subsurface 

mineral layers to form a cultivated humic mineral soil . 

Many thousands of acres of former Terric subgroups 

and peaty Gleysols, particularly in Manitoba and 

Saskatchewan, have been transformed in this way 

into highly productive mineral soils and used for 

improved pasture or forage and grain production . 

With repeated cultivation and drainage such areas 

of soils lose many of their former properties and 

develop characteristics similar to those of Humic 

Gleysols or imperfectly drained Chernozemic types. 

Another land use for some areas of thicker Fibrisols 

has been the development of commercial peat moss 

production for use as a soil amendment for nurseries 

and home gardens . A number of enterprises of this 

kind have been developed across Canada, particularly 

where a source of supply is located within marketable 

access to areas of urban development . 

Where controlled drainage, satisfactory tillage 

methods, and adequate fertilization is practiced, the 

agricultural productivity of organic soils is moderately 

high . Dysic (strongly acidic) organic soils with low 

base saturation generally require periodic or in some 

instances sustained liming to counteract acidity and 

maintain a nutrient balance . Under cultivation many 

organic soils show deficiencies in macro and micro 

mineral nutrients, and most require the application 

of phosphorus and potassium to obtain maximum 

productivity . 

Management problems in cultivated areas of Organic 

soils involve the maintenance of controlled drainage, 

adequate fertilization, and tillage practices necessary 

to maintain a firm bed for seed germination and root 

development . Overdrainage and desiccation of peat, 

particularly in subhumid regions, are detrimental to 

crop production and to the maintenance of the 

organic layers in a desirable physical condition . 

150 

Rockland Land Type 

Rockland areas as indicated on the Soil Map of 

Canada are considered as a bedrock land type rather 

than a soil for purposes of classification . Consolidated 

bedrock is defined as mineral material that is too 

hard to break with the hands or to dig with a spade 

when moist, and that does not meet the requirements 

of a C horizon for soils . The boundary between a 

bedrock layer and any surficial unconsolidated 

material is known as a lithic contact . A land surface 

with less than 4 in . (10 cm) above a lithic contact 

is considered as a Rockland land type in the Canadian 

and United States soil nomenclature and relates to 

the concept of Lithosols in the FAO/UNESCO soil 

classification . 

Soil development in Rockland areas ranges from 

very thin Regosolic or Folisol soils overlying smooth, 

fissured, or fractured bedrock to none on exposed 

bedrock surfaces . Rockland occurs as the dominant 

land type in a little over 531,000 sq mi (1 341 759 

km 2) or roughly 15% of Canada and as a subdominant 

component of an additional 1,278,000 sq mi 

(3308742 km2) of other soil map units . Thus 

nearly 1,809,000 sq mi (4683501 km2) or nearly 

50.4% of the land area of Canada is significantly 

affected by proximity to subsurface or surface 

bedrock . These lithic soil areas have been identified 

as significant in all provinces and territories except 

Prince Edward Island . 

Rockland areas are most frequently associated with 

Podzols, Regosols, and Brunisols, and to a lesser 

extent with Luvisols, Gleysols, and Organic soils . 

The characteristics of the associated soils are 

generally determined by the type and depth of 

unconsolidated material overlying the bedrock 

formations . Where the surficial material is less than 

4 in . (10 cm) in depth, the soil is assumed to be too 

thin or weakly developed to be taxonomically 

classified other than Rockland . Where depths of 

surficial materials are greater than 4 in . (10 cm) but 

bedrock contact lies within 20 in . (50 cm) of the 

surface, soils are classified in Lithic subgroups . Most 

soil areas in Canada with Rockland as a subdominant 

component are considered to be lithic in phase 

characteristics . 

Geographically Rockland land types are found to the 

greatest extent in the vast expanse of the Precambrian 

Shield, 1,771,000 sq mi (4 585 119 km2) in area, 

dominated by granites and gneisses of Archean and 

Proterozoic age . Rockland also occurs in large areas 

of the younger stratified rocks forming the 

discontinuous ring of mountains and plateaus 

surrounding the Shield . These borderland rock areas 

include the three great belts of folded sedimentary, 

volcanic, and plutonic rocks of the Cordilleran 

Region, the flat-lying Paleozoic and Proterozoic 

sedimentary rocks of the Arctic Lowlands, and in the 

extreme northeast the deformed and folded 

sedimentary rocks of the islands in the Innuitian 

Region .

Rockland areas are less frequently found in the 

uplands of the Appalachian Region, which are formed 

from old crystalline rocks and igneous materials . 

These uplands are separated by valleys of less 

resistant sedimentary rocks worn down through 

Cretaceous and Tertiary times and considerably 

modified by subsequent glacial deposition . The 

rugged terrain of the Appalachians in eastern Quebec 

is caused by closely folded Paleozoic beds whose 

axes run parallel to the St . Lawrence River . In the 

St . Lawrence Lowlands Region, Rockland areas are 

infrequent except for narrow tracts of bare limestone 

bordering the Canadian Shield and along the ridge 

of the Niagara Escarpment . 

The Interior Plains Region of Cretaceous and Tertiary 

sediments has been extensively modified and mantled 

by incorporation and deposition of glacial drift, 

leaving very few areas of rock outcrops except in the 

Manitoba lowland where local limestone bedrock is 

exposed or thinly mantled by glacial drift and 

lacustrine sediments . 

Climatically the major Rockland areas occur within 

the Arctic and Subarctic regions ; minor areas are 

found within Cryoboreal and Boreal climatic regions . 

Moisture regimes are dominantly humid or perhumid 

on upland slopes . Because of proximity to bedrock 

and disruption of drainage by glaciation, many lakes, 

ponds, and swamp areas occur in lower slope or 

basin positions and give rise to local aqueous or aquic 

moisture regimes . Complexes of this nature are 

particularly common in the Canadian Shield . 

Significant areas of icefields and mountain glaciers 

are common to Rockland areas within the Subalpine 

regions of the Cordilleran mountains and are very 

extensive in the Arctic highlands of Baffin and 

Ellesmere islands . 

The superficial materials of Rockland areas are largely 

determined by the characteristics of the consolidated 

bedrock . Much of this shallow surficial material is 

coarse textured and of local regolithic or glacial 

origin . Exceptions are areas where postglacial laking 

or marine submergence has resulted in thin deposits 

of finer-textured sediments . 

Within the Canadian Shield, the bedrock material is 

generally of igneous and metamorphic origin . Once 

mountainous, the region has been largely reduced 

through long periods of erosion to a strongly rolling 

plain . The main effects of glaciation were to polish 

and round off rock ridges, gouge out hollows, and 

leave an intermittent mantle of coarse, frequently 

stony glacial till and outwash . A few mountainous 

areas occur in the Laurentian and Labrador highlands 

and in the Davis Highlands of northeastern Baffin 

Island . In the Athabasca and Thelon plains of the 

Kazan Region of the Shield, flat-lying sandstones 

have given rise to a more subdued rolling hummocky 

topography and to less stony surficial deposits . 

Eskers and kames are common glacial features within 

the lithic areas of the Shield . Local areas of laking and 

marine submergence in the James and Hudson 

regions of Ontario and Quebec, and adjacent to the 

Churchill and Nelson drainage systems in the Kazan 

Region, have subdued the bedrock topography. 

In the Cordilleran Region, Rockland is a significant 

component of the landscape in most of the mountain 

ranges and is dominant in the higher elevations 

above the levels of continental and valley glaciation . 

Rockland forms a striking and dominant feature of 

the higher ranges of the Rocky and the Columbia 

mountains of southeastern British Columbia, and of 

the ranges of the coastal mountains in western 

British Columbia . Extensive areas of Rockland with 

similar topography characterize dominant portions 

of the Central Plateau and Mountain Area of 

northern British Columbia and the Yukon Territory 

and of the St . Elias Mountains and Brooks Ranges 

adjoining the Yukon-Alaska border . 

Higher elevations are characterized by rugged 

topography with mountain peaks projected above ice 

levels, cirques, aretes, horns, neves, and icefields . 

At lower levels, ice-margin channels are cut into 

bedrock and are accompanied by talus slopes, kame 

terraces, and moraines . In the western section of the 

Coast Mountains, glacially scoured valleys cut into 

crystalline bedrock give rise to the spectacular fjords 

of the Pacific Coast of British Columbia . 

Within the largely unglaciated areas of the 

northwestern Yukon, Rockland is less extensive and 

frequently confined to occurrences of rock outcrops 

near the summits of higher ridges and plateau 

uplands, or to thinly mantled bedrock terraces within 

the larger valleys . 

In the Innuitian Region, Rockland is a subdominant 

associate of the Cryic Regosols occupying much of 

the Barrens and Tundra of the northernmost Arctic 

islands . The topography is variable ranging from the 

rugged relief of the mountains of Ellesmere and Axel 

Heiberg islands to more subdued areas of undulating 

and rolling topography of the Parry Plateau and 

Sverdrup Lowland . Rockland is most extensive in 

these mountainous areas, many of which are covered 

by extensive icefields . 

Rockland occurs in association with Cryic Regosols 

in the Arctic Lowlands and Arctic Coastal Plain, and 

has been formed from flat or nearly flat Paleozoic 

and Proterozoic sedimentary rocks . It is indicated as 

of dominant occurrence in the eastern part of Banks 

Island . There are some mountainous areas, but the 

major portion is undulating . 

Rockland areas are largely unproductive for forestry 

and unsuitable for agriculture because of their 

shallowness and proximity to consolidated bedrock . 

A large proportion of these land types in Canada 

occur within Arctic and Subarctic climates, which 

impose an additional and compelling limitation on 

these uses . Most areas are useful for wildlife activities 

including hunting, trapping, and fishing, but summer 

and winter recreational activities are becoming an 

increasingly important land use in specific areas 

151

163 1 

Fig. 161. Limestone Rockland, Manitoulin Island, Ontario. 

Fig. 162. Barren Pecambrian Shield, Kazan Upland, N.W.T. 

Fig. 163. Scree soils and bedrock, Rocky Mountains, British Columbia. 

Fig. 164. Regosols and exposures of Cretaceous bedrock, southern Alberta. 

152 

162 

164

Recreational activities are well developed in the 

mountains of the southern and western Cordillera 

in Alberta and British Columbia, and in the lake 

regions within the Canadian Shield in Saskatchewan, 

Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, where ready access 

is available from urban centers . A number of national 

and provincial parks have been established within 

these areas . 

Where Rockland is associated with other soils, it 

usually occurs as local outcroppings in the general 

landscapes, and associated soils are frequently thin, 

stony, or strewn with boulders . Such lithic and stony 

phases impose severe limitations not only to 

cultivation for agricultural development, but present 

a significant limitation to productive tree growth and 

to commercial forestry operations . 

Afew areas where Rockland is associated with arable 

soils in Boreal and Cryoboreal climates have been 

developed to a limited extent for agriculture, but 

productivity is generally low and farm operations 

are marginal . 

Management problems over much of these areas are 

largely those involved with protection and 

maintenance of the native vegetation and ecological 

balance . Fire protection is essential, but frequently it 

is difficult to maintain over large areas of relatively 

inaccessible terrain .

PART IV 

CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CANADIAN, UNITED STATES, 

AND WORLD SYSTEMS 

The Canadian definitions and criteria for horizons 

and taxonomic units are those contained in the 

Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the National 

Soil Survey Committee, 1968 . 

The U.S . soil taxonomic criteria for mineral soils are 

those given in the Supplement to Soil Classification 

System (7th Approximation), U.S . Department of 

Agriculture, 1967, and in a draft of changes in criteria 

for spodic horizons and for Borolls received in 

April 1968 . A preliminary classification for Histosols 

was issued in August 1968 . 

The draft definitions of soil units, soil phases, and 

criteria for diagnostic horizons as used for the 

FAO/UNESCO World projects are those proposed 

for use in World Soil Resources Report No . 33, 

April 1968, with minor revisions agreed on by 

correspondence, January 1969 . 

Comparisons and correlations have been made of 

criteria for horizon identification, and diagnostic 

horizons as used for classification in the higher 

taxonomic categories down to the subgroup levels 

of pedon identification . 

The taxonomic units given in the tables are correlated 

to a general modal concept for practical use rather 

than to an absolute correlation at the outer limits of 

intergrade interpretation . In some instances alternative 

correlations are indicated where the units as 

defined are inclusive within broader concepts in 

the alternate system . 

Fundamentally, soil units in different systems can 

only be directly correlated when the mechanisms for 

horizon identification are similar. Criteria for 

individual horizon definitions and for diagnostic 

horizon combinations are the building blocks for the 

identification of individual profiles or pedons . 

These are, therefore, the most important factors basic 

to soil correlations, and when this is achieved it is 

not so important that we group these individuals in 

precisely the same "boxes" or "shelves" in our 

classification or filing systems . It is impossible to do 

this, because it is in these respects that our 

classification systems differ most widely . The U.S . 

soil taxonomy makes use of seven categories by 

including an order, suborder, great group, and 

subgroup at the higher levels of abstraction, whereas 

Canada uses six groups, not having a suborder . At 

the present stage of development the World system 

makes use of two category separations above the map 

unit level . Because of local preference or significance, 

a soil unit may be recognized or grouped at a higher 

or lower level of abstraction in one or another system . 

This is not serious for correlation providing the place 

of the individual soil unit can be recognized across 

all systems. With these points in mind the tables of 

comparisons were prepared, beginning with the 

comparison of criteria for horizon identification and 

following with tables of comparisons and correlation 

of the taxonomic units within the Canadian, United 

States, and World systems.

TABLE 7 . CORRELATION OF HORIZON DEFINITIONS AND DESIGNATIONS 1 . 2, 5 

1 . Canadian 2 . U .S . 3 . World 

Of Oi 01 

Om Oe Of 

Oh Oa Oh 

L-F 01 Olf 

L-H 0 01h 

F-H 02 Of h 

A A A 

Ah A1 Ah 

Ahe inclusive in A1 (Ah-E) 

Ae A2 E 

Ap Ap Ap 

AB A3 AB or EB 

BA B1 EB or BE 

A&B A&B A/B 

AC AC AC 

B B B 

Bt B2t Bt 

Bf Bir Bfe 

Bfh B2hir Bfeh 

Bhf B2hir Bhfe 

Bgf B2gir Bgfe 

Bh Bh or B2h Bh 

Bn B2(natric) Bna 

Bm B2(cambric) Bs(cambric) 

Bg Bg B2g Bg 

C C C 

IIC IIC IIC 

Cca Cca Cca 

Csa Csa Csa 

- Csi - 

- Cs Cs 

R R R 

Other suffixes 

b b b 

c m m 

cc cn cn 

9 9 9 

1 

k 

- 

- 

- 

- 

s - - 

sa sa sa 

ca ca (calcic) ca(calcic) 

x x x 

z f 

ox 

s

TABLE 8 . CORRELATION OF UNITED STATES AND WORLD DIAGNOSTIC HORIZONS 

AND COMBINATIONS WITH CANADIAN EQUIVALENTS 

1 . U .S . 2 . World 3 . Canadian Comments 

Mollic Epipedon Melanic A Chernozemic A With the high base status. 

Anthropic A Melanic A Ah 

Umbric Epipedon Sombric A Ah With low base status . 

Histic Epipedon Histic A Of, Om, Oh 3 . cf . Can . Peaty phase. 

Ochric Epipedon Ochric A Thin or Weak A 3 . As defined . 

Plaggen - 3 . Included in Ap . 

Albic horizon Albic E Ae 

Argillic horizon Argilluvic B Bt 

Agric horizon Argilluvic B Illuvial B 1,2,3 . Formed under cultivation . 

Natric horizon Natric B horizon Bn cf. definitions . 

3 . Not identical with 1 and 2 . 

Spodic horizon Spodic B horizon Bf, Bfh, Bhf, Bh, Ap 3 . Can . criteria not identical with 1 and 2 . 

Cambric horizon Cambic B horizon Bm, Bg, Btj 

Oxic horizon Oxic B horizon 3 . No Can . equivalent . 

Duripan Duripan c 3 . c if cemented by Ca . 

Durinodes cc 3 . cc cemented concretions . 

Fragipan Fragipan Bx or Cx 

Calcic horizon Calcic horizon Bca or Cca 3 . If Bca or Cca > 4 in . (10 cm) . 

Petro-calcic Petro-calcic horizon Bcac or Ccac 3 . Can . limits > 4 in . (10 cm) . 

Gypsic Gypsic Asa, Bsa, Csa 3 . Only if sa horizon is dominantly CaS0, . 

Salic Salic Asa, Bsa, Csa 1,2 . If sa horizon > 6 in . (15 cm) and 

2% salts . 

3 . Can . limits > 4 in . (10 cm) and 

cond . > 4 mmhos/cm . 

Placic Placic Bfc or Bfhc 

Plinthite Plinthic horizon 3 . No Can . equivalent . 

Lithic Lithic & Paralithic R 3 . Consolidated bedrock . 

grouped together 

Paralithic contact Lithic & Paralithic IICc 

grouped together 

9 Gleyic horizon 9 1,3 . Equivalent to g suffix .

TABLE 9 . TAXONOMIC CORRELATION° AT SUBGROUP LEVEL 


1 Chernozemic Borolls (minor Rendolls) Kastanozems 

Chernozems (minor Rendzinas) 

1 .1 Brown (Light Chestnut) Aridic Boroll subgroups Kastanozems (aridic) 

1 .11 Orthic Brown 

Bm,Btj Aridic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

Orthic Brown Bt Aridic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .12 Rego Brown 

Ah,Ck,C Entic Aridic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

Rego Brown 

Ahk,Cca,C Aridic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .13 

Calcareous Brown 

Ah,Bmk,Ck,_C Typic Aridic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

Ah,Bmk,Cca,C Haplic Aridic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .14 Eluviated Brown 

Ah, (Ahe),Ae,_Bt,C Albic Aridic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

Ah,(Ahe),AB,Bt or Btj,C Pachic Aridic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

(cumulic type) 

1 .11-2 .11 Solonetzic Brown 

Ah, Bnjt,C Aridic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .14-2 .21 Solodic Brown 

Ah,(Ahe),Ae or AB,Bnjt Albic (Aridic) Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .1-/5 Saline Brown Add Salic to above groups Add Saline phase 

1 .1-/6 Carbonated Brown Calciboroll or Aquic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .1-/7 Grumic Brown Ustertic Haploboroll Chromic Vertisol 

1 .1-/8 Gleyed Brown Add Aquic to group No equivalent 

1 .2 Dark Brown (Dark Chestnut) Typic Boroll subgroups Kastanozems (typic) 

1 .21 Orthic Dark Brown 

Bm,Btj Typic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

Bt Typic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .22 Rego Dark Brown 

Ah,Ck,C Entic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

Ahk,Cca,C Typic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .23 

Calcareous Dark 

Brown 

Ah,Bmk,Ck,C Typic Haploboroll Haplic Kastanozem 

A h, 'ff-rnk,CcOC Haplic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .24 Eluviated Dark 

Brown 

Ah,(Ahe),Ae,Bt,C Albic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

Ah,(Ahe),AB,Bt or Btj,C Pachic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 


1 .21-2 .11 Solonetzic Dark 

Brown Ah,Bnjt,C Typic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .24-2.21 Solodic Dark Brown 

Ah,(Ahe),Ae or AB,Bnjt Albic Argiboroll Luvic Kastanozem 

1 .2-/5 Saline Dark Brown Add Salic to above groups Add Saline phase 

1 .2-/6 Carbonated Dark Brown Calciboroll or Aquic Calciboroll Calcic Kastanozem 

1 .2-/7 Grumic Dark Brown Vertic Haploboroll Chromic Vertisol 

1 .2-/8 Gleyed Dark Brown Add Aquic to group No equivalent 

1 .3 Black Udic Boroll subgroups Chernozems (minor Rendzinas) 

(minor Rendolls)

TABLE 9 . TAXONOMIC CORRELATION AT SUBGROUP LEVEL (cont"d) 

1 . Canadian 2 . U .S. 3 . World 

1 .31 Orthic Black Bm,Bti Udic Haploboroll Haplic Chernozem 

Orthic Black Bt Udic Argiboroll Luvic Chernozem 

1 .32 Rego Black Ah,Ck,C Entic Udic Haploboroll Haplic Chernozem 

(minor Cryic Rendoll) (minor Rendzina) 

Rego Black 

Ahk,Cca,C Udic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .33 Calcareous Black 

Ah,Bmk,Ck,C Udic Haploboroll Haplic Chernozem 

Ah,Bmk,Cca,C Haplic Udic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .34 Eluviated Black 

Ah,(Ahe),Ae,Bt,C Albic Udic Argiboroll Luvic Chernozem 

Ah,(Ahe),AB,Bt or Btj,C Pachic Udic Argiboroll Luvic Chernozem 


1 .31-2 .12 Solonetzic Black 

Ah,Bnjt,C Udic Argiboroll Luvic Chernozem 

1 .34-2 .22 Solodic Black 

Ah,(Ahe),Ae or AB,Bnjt Albic Udic Argiboroll Luvic Chernozem 

1 .3-/5 Saline Black Add Salic to above groups Add Saline phase 

1 .3-/6 Carbonated Black Udic Calciboroll or Aquic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .3-/7 Grumic Black Udertic Haploboroll Pellic Vertisol 

1 .3-/8 Gleyed Black Add Aquic to group Gleyic Chernozem 

1 .4 Dark Gray Boralfic Boroll subgroups Greyzems 

1 .41 Orthic Dark Gray 

(L-H),Ah,Ahe,Bm,Btj,C Boralfic Haploboroll Orthic Greyzem 

(L-H),Ah,Ahe,Ae,Bt,C Albic Boralfic Argiboroll Orthic Greyzem 

1 .42 Rego Dark Gray 

L-H,Ah,Ahe,Ck,C Entic Boralfic Haploboroll Haplic Chernozem 

L-H,Ah,Ahe,Cca,C Boralfic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .43 Calcareous Dark Gray 

(L-H),Ah,Ahe,Bmk,Ck,C Boralfic Haploboroll Haplic Chernozem 

(L-H),Ah,Ahe,Bmk,Cca,C Haplic Boralfic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .41-2 .12 Solonetzic Dark Gray 

(L-H),(Ah),Ahe,(Ae),Bnjt,C Boralfic Argiboroll Orthic Greyzems 

1 .41-2 .22 Solodic Dark Gray 

(L-H),(Ah),Ahe, Boralfic Argiboroll Orthic Greyzems 

Ae or AB, Bnjt 

1 .4-/6 Carbonated Dark Gray Boralfic Calciboroll Calcic Chernozem 

1 .4-/8 Gleyed Dark Gray Add Aquic to group Gleyic Greyzems 

2 Solonetzic Natric great groups Solonetz 

2 .1 Solonetz Bnt,Cs,Csa Natric great groups Mollic, Orthic, and Gleyic Solonetz 

2 .11 Brown Solonetz 

Ah or Ahe and/or Aridic Natriboroll Mollic Solonetz 

Ae, Bnt,Csa,Cs Typic Natriboroll Mollic Solonetz 

2 .11 /er. Eroded phase Mollic Natrargid or Orthic Solonetz 

(Ahe),(Ae),Bnt,Csa Typic Natrargid Orthic Solonetz 

2 .12 Black Solonetz Udic Natriboroll Mollic Solonetz 

Typic Natriboroll 

2 .13 Gray Solonetz 

L-H,(Ah),(Ahe),Ae,Bnt,Csa Natriboralf Orthic Solonetz 

158

TABLE 9 . TAXONOMIC CORRELATION AT SUBGROUP LEVEL (cont'd) 


2 .14 Alkaline Solonetz 

(Ah),Bn or Natriboroll or Mollic Solonetz or 

Bntj,Cs,Csa Natrargid Orthic Solonetz 

2.1-/8 Gleyed Solonetz Add Aquic or Gleyic Solonetz 

Aquic subgroup of 

Natraquolls 

Natralbolls 

2 .2 Solod Glossic Natriborolls or Solodic Planosols 

Natralbolls 

2 .21 Brown Solod Solodic Planosol (Mollic) 

Ah,Ahe,Ae,AB,Bnt, 

Glossic Aridic Natriboroll 

Cs, Sa Glossic Natriboroll 

2 .22 Black Solod Glossic Udic Natriboroll Solodic Planosol (Mollic) 

2 .23 Gray Solod Glossic Natriboralf Solodic Planosol (D,ystric) 

2.2-/8 Gleyed Solod Natralboll Solodic Planosol 

3 Luvisolic Alfisols Luvisols 

Boralfs, Udalfs 

Albic Luvisols 

3 .1 Gray Brown Luvisol Hapludalfs or Glossudalfs Albic Luvisols 

Ah,Ae,Bt,C 

3 .11 Orthic Gray Brown Luvisol Typic Hapludalf or Albic Luvisol 

(L-H),Ah,Ae,(AB),BA,Bt,C Mollic Hapludalf 

3 .12 Brunisolic Gray Ochreptic Hapludalf Albic Luvisol 

Brown Luvisol 

3 .13 Bisequa Gray Brown Luvisol Orthodic Hapludalf Albic Luvisol 

3.1-/8 Gleyed Gray Brown Luvisol Add Aquic to group Gleyic Albic Luvisol 

3 .2 Gray Luvisol Boralfs Albic Luvisols 

a . Eutroboralfs 

b . Cryoboralfs 

c . Pergelic Cryoboralfs 

3 .21 Orthic Gray Luvisol Typic Cryoboralf Albic Luvisol 

3 .22 Dark Gray Luvisol a . Typic Cryoboralf Albic Luvisol 

b . Mollic Cryoboralf 

3 .2-/3 Brunisolic Gray Luvisol a . Dystrochreptic Cryoboralf Albic Luvisol 

b . Dystrochreptic Mollic Cryoboralf 

3 .2-/4 Bisequa Gray Luvisol Orthodic Cryoboralf Albic Luvisol 

3 .2-/8 Gleyed Gray Luvisol Add Aquic to group Gleyic Albic Luvisol 

3 .2-2 .23 Solodic Gray Luvisol Glossic Cryoboralf Albic Luvisol 

4 Podzolic Spodosols Podzols 

a . Humods 

b . Orthods 

4 .1 Humic Podzol Bh Humods Humic & Placic Podzols 

a . Cryohumods 

b . Haplohumods 

4 .11 Orthic Humic Podzol 2a . Cryohumod Humic Podzol 

Bh 2b . Typic Haplohumod 

4 .12 Placic Humic Podzol Bh,Bc Placohumod Placic Podzol 

4.1-/8 Gleyed Humic Podzol Bg Add Aquic to group Gleyic Podzol 

4 .2 Ferro-Humic Podzol 2a . Humic Cryorthods Orthic Podzols 

Ae,Bhf 2b . Humic Haplorthods



4 .21 Orthic Ferro-Humic Podzol Humic Cryorthod Orthic Podzol 

Ae,Bhf Humic Haplorthod 

4 .22 Mini Ferro-Humic Podzol Haplic Humic Cryorthod Orthic Podzol 

Aej,Bhf 

4 .23 Sombric Ferro-Humic Podzol Umbric Humic Cryorthod Orthic Podzol 

Ah,Aej, B hf 

4 .2-/4 Placic Ferro-Humic Podzol (Humic) Placorthod Placic Podzol 

Ah,Aej, B hf, Bc 

4.2-/8 Gleyed Ferro-Humic Podzol Add Aquic to group Gleyic Podzol 

4.3 Humo-Ferric Podzol Cryorthods or Haplorthods Orthic Podzols 

Bhf or Bf 

4 .31 Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol Typic Cryorthod or Haplorthod Orthic Podzol 

4 .32 Mini Humo-Ferric Podzol Aej Haplic Cryorthod Orthic Podzol 

4 .33 Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol Umbric Haplorthod Orthic Podzol 

Ah 

4.3-/4 Placic Humo-Ferric Podzol Placorthod Placic Podzol 

Bfh,Bf,Bfc 

4.3-/5 Bisequa Humo-Ferric Podzol Boralfic Cryorthod or Orthic Podzol 

Alfic Haplorthod 

4.3-/7 Cryic Humo-Ferric Podzol Pergelic Leptic Cryorthod Orthic Podzol 

4 .3-/8 Gleyed Humo-Ferric Podzol Add Aquic to group Gleyic Podzol 

5 Brunisolic Inceptisols Cambisols 

5 .1 Melanic Brunisol (Mollic) Eutrochrepts Eutric Cambisols 

5 .11 Orthic Melanic Brunisol (Mollic) Eutrochrept Eutric Cambisol 

5 .12 Degraded Melanic Brunisol (Mollic) Alfic Eutrochrept Eutric Cambisol 

Ah,Aej,Bm,Btj,Ck 

5 .1-/8 Gleyed Melanic Brunisol Add Aquic to group 

5 .2 Eutric Brunisol 2a . Eutrochrepts Eutric Cambisols 

L-H,(Ah),Bm,Ck 2b . (Eutric) Cryochrepts 

5 .21 Orthic Eutric Brunisol 2a . Typic Eutrochrept Eutric Cambisol 

L-H,(Ah),Bm,Ck 2b . (Eutric) Cryochrept 

5 .22 Degraded Eutric Brunisol 2a . Alfic Eutrochrept Eutric Cambisol 

L-H,Ae,Aej,Bm,Ck 2b . Alfic Cryochrept 

L-H,(Ah),Ae,Bfj,"Ck 2b . Spodic Cryopsamment Dystric Cambisol 

2a . Spodic Udipsamment 

L-H,(Ah),Ae,Btj,C 2b . Alfic Dystric Cryochrept Dystric Cambisol 

2a . Alfic Dystrochrept 

2c . Alfic Eutrochrept 

5 .23 Alpine Eutric 2a . (Eutric) Cryochrept or 

Brunisol 2b . Lithic Pergelic Cryochrept Eutric Cambisol 

5.2-/7 Cryic Eutric Brunisol Pergelic Cryochrept Gelic Cambisol 

5.2-/8 Gleyed Eutric Brunisol Add Aquic to group Eutric Cambisol 

5 .3 Sombric Brunisol 2a . Umbric Dystrochrepts Humic Cambisols 

2b . Typic Eutrochrepts 

2c . Dystric Eutrochrepts 

5 .31 Orthic Sombric Brunisol Umbric Dystrochrept Humic Cambisol 

5.31/8 Gleyed Sombric Brunisol Add Aquic to group 

5 .4 Dystric Brunisol 2a . Dystrochrepts Dystric Cambisols 

2b . Dystric Cryochrepts 

160



5 .41 Orthic Dystric Brunisol 2a . Typic Dystrochrept Dystric Cambisol 

2b . Typic Dystric Cryochrept 

5 .42 Degraded Dystric Brunisol 2b . Orthodic Cryochrept Dystric Cambisol 

L-H,Aej,Ae,Bm or Bmcc ,C 2a . Orthodic Dystrochrept 

5 .43 Alpine Dystric Brunisol 2a . Dystric Cryochrept or Dystric Cambisol 

2b . Lithic Pergelic Cryochrept 

5 .4-/7 Cryic Dystric Brunisol Pergelic Dystric Cryochrept Gelic Cambisol 

5 .4-/8 Gleyed Dystric Brunisol Add Aquic to group 

6 Regosolic Entisols Fluvisols & Regosols 

6 .1 Regosol Entisols Fluvisols & Regosols 

6 .11 Orthic Regosol 2a . Udorthent 3a . Dystric Regosol 

2b . Cryorthent 3b . Eutric Regosol 

2a . Udipsamment 3c . Calcaric Regosol 

2b . Cryopsamment 

6 .12 Cumulic Regosol 2b . Cryofluvent 36 . Eutric Fluvisol 

2a . Udifluvent 3a . Dystric Fluvisol 

3c . Calcaric Fluvisol 

6 .1-/5 Saline Regosol Add Salic Salic Phase 

6 .1-/7 Cryic Regosol Add Pergelic Gelic Regosol 

6 .1-/8 Gleyed Regosol Add Aquic to group 

6 .1-/9 Lithic Regosol Add Lithic to group 3a . Lithosol or 

3b . Regosol 

7 Gleysolic Aqu- suborders Gleysols & Planosols 

7 .1 Humic Gleysol 2a . Aquolls 3a . Mollic Gleysols 

2b . Humaquepts 3b . Humic Gleysols 

3c . Calcaric Gleysols (Humic) 

7 .11 Orthic Humic Gleysol 2a . Haplaquoll Mollic or Humic Gleysol 

Ah,Ba,Cg 2b . Cryaquoll Mollic or Humic Gleysol 

2c . Humaquept Humic Gleysol 

7 .12 Rego Humic Gleysol a . Typic Aquoll or Typic Humaquept Mollic Gleysol 

a . Ah,Cq orb . Ah,Ck~] .c b . Calcic Aquoll 

7 .13 Fera Humic Gleysol 2a . Sideric Humaquept or Humic Gleysol 

Ah,Bgf,Cg 2b . Sideric Aquoll 

7.1-/5 Saline Humic Gleysol Add Salic to group Saline phase 

7.1-/6 Carbonated Humic Gleysol 2a . Calciaquoll Calcaric Gleysol 

2b . Calcic Cryaquoll 

7.1-/7 Cryic Humic Gleysol 2a . Pergelic Cryaquoll Humic or Mollic Gleysol 

7 .2 Gleysol Aquents, Fluvents, Aquepts Eutric or Dystric Gleysols 

7 .21 Orthic Gleysol Typic Cryaquept or Typic Haplaquept Eutric or Dystric Gleysol 

7 .22 Rego Gleysol Entic or Calcic Cryaquept Eutric or Dystric Gleysol 

or Haplaquept 

3 . Calcaric Gleysol 

7 .23 Fera Gleysol 2a . Sideric Cryaquept Dystric Gleysol 

2b . Sideraquod or Sideric Cryaquod 

7.2-/5 Saline Gleysol Add Salic to group 3a . Gleyic Solonchak 

3b . Gleyic Solonchak sodic phase 

7.2-/6 Carbonated Gleysol Calcic Cryaquentor Calcaric Gleysol 

Calcic Haplaquent



7 .2-/7 Cryic Gleysol Add Pergelic to group Gelic Gleysol 

7 .3 Eluviated Gleysol 2 . Albolls, Aquolls, Aqualfs 3 . Planosols 

7 .31 Humic Eluviated Gleysol 2a . Typic Argia!boll Mollic or Humic Planosol 

2b . Argic Cryaquoll or 

Cryic Argialboll 

2c . Mollic Albaqualf 

7 .32 Low Humic Eluviated Gleysol Typic A!baqualf or Glossaqualf Eutric or Dystric Planosol 

7 .33 Fera Eluviated Gleysol 2a . Sideric Cryaquod Dystric Planosol 

2b . Sideric Glossaqualf 

or Sideric Albaqualf 

Peaty Phases 

of Gleysols Add Histic to above groups Histic Gleysols 

8 Organic Order H istosols H istosols 

3a . Dystric 

3b . Eutric 

. 

. 

8 .1 Fibrisol Fibrist 

2a . _Medifibrist 

2b Borofibrist 

2c . Cryo fibrist 

2d Sphagnofibrist 

8.1-1 a . Fenno-Fibrisol 

8 .1-1 b . Silvo-Fibrisol fibrist 

8 .1-1 c . Sphagno-Fibrisol Typic Sphagnofibrist 

8 .1-2 Mesic Fibrisol Hemic fibrist 

8 .1-3 Humic Fibrisol Sapric -- fibrist 

8 .1-4 Limno Fibrisol Limnic- fibrist 

8.1-5 Cumulo Fibriso! Fluventic fibrist 

8.1-6 Terric Fibrisol Terric ------ fibrist 

8 .1-7 Terric Mesic Fibrisol Terric Hemic fibrist 

8.1-8 Terric Humic Fibrisol Terric Sapric fibrist 

8.1-9 Cryic Fibrisol Pergelic Cryofibrist 

8 .1-10 Hydric Fibrisol Hydric fibrist 

8 .1-11 Lithic Fibrisol Lithic -- fibrist 

8 .2 Mesisol Hemist 

2a . M_edihemist 

2b. _Borohemist 

2c . Cryohemist 

8 .2-1 Typic Mesisol Typic - - -- hemist 

8 .2-2 Fibric Mesisol Fibric - hemist 

8 .2-3 Humic Mesisol Sapric -- hemist 

8 .2-7 Terric Fibric Mesiso! Fibric terric - - hemist 

8 .2-8 Terric Humic Mesisol Sapric terric --- hemist 

8 .2-4,-5,-6, 

-9,-10,-11 

As above 

8 .3 Humisol Saprist 

2a . Medisaprist 

2b . Borosaprist 

2c, Cryo saprist 

162

TABLE 9 . TAXONOMIC CORRELATION AT SUBGROUP LEVEL (concl'd) 

1 . Canadian 2 . U .S . 3 . 

8 .3-1 Typic Humisol Typic saprist 

8 .3-2 Fibric Humisol Fibric saprist 

8 .3-3 Mesic Humisol Hemic saprist 

8 .3-7 Terric Fibric Humisol Fibric Terric saprist 

8.3-8 Terric Mesic Humisol Hemic Terric saprist 

8 .3-4,-5,-6, 

-9,-10,-11 As above 

8 .4 Folisol Folist 

2b. B_orofolist 

2c . Cryofolist 

8 .4-1 Typic Folisol Typic folist 

8 .4-11 Lithic Folisol Lithic folist 

' Proceedings of Seventh Meeting of the National Soil Survey Committee, 1968 . 

= U .S . Department of Agriculture Handbook No . 18 . Soil Survey Manual, 1951 . 

a International Society of Soil Science . Commission 5 . Working Group . I .S .S .S . Bull . No . 31 . 1967 . 

' Only diagnostic horizons pertinent to the appropriate correlation are underlined . 

World

TABLE 10 . SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS 

Depth 

(cm) 

Mean annual 

temp . 

Growing season, > 41 °F(5°C) 

Length 

(days) Mean temp . 

Degree-days 

Thermal period > 59°F(15°C) 

Length 

(days) 

Mean temp . Degree-days 

Dormant season,

TABLE 10. SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS-continued 

Moisture 

Calculated seasonal 

Freeze period < 32°F(0°C) Observed pptn .. in . (cm) 

(May-Sept) in . (cm) 

Length 

(days) Mean temp . Annual Seasonal 

PEI 

Deficit' ndex Class 

Classification 

Subclass ode 

314 4.5(-15 .3) 

Resolute 325 5.9(-15 .0) 5 .4(13.7) 2 .5(6 .4) ARCTIC 1 

365 8.7(-12 .9) 

249 

Baker Lake 250 6 .0(15.2) 5 .6(14 .2) ARCTIC 1 

263 

176 25.8(-3 .4) 

Haines Jct. 174 28.4(-2 .0) 10 .9(27 .7) 4 .9(12 .4) SUBARCTIC Subhumid 2f 

151 30.8(-0 .7) 

195 10.2(-12 .1) 

Fort Chimo 186 12.7(-10 .7) 16 .4(41 .6) 8 .5(21 .6) SUBARCTIC Humid 2e 

201 17.0(-8 .3) 

188 22.9(-5 .0) 

Fort Simpson 178 27 .0(-2 .8) 13 .1 (33 .3) 7 .9(20 .0) 12 .7(32.3) 2 .5(6 .4) 64 SUBARCTIC Subhumid 2f 

187 30.3(-0 .9) 

222 15.4(-9 .2) 

Schefferville 187 19.9(-6 .7) 27 .5(69 .8) SUBARCTIC Perhumid 2d 

186 22 .7(-5 .2) 

139 29 .1(-1 .6) 

Beaverlodge 115 30.6(-0 .8) 18 .5(46 .9) 10 .2(25 .9) 16 .5(41 .9) 3 .2(8.1) 66 CRYOBOREAL Subhumid 3 .1f 

0 - 

138 24.5(-4 .2) 

Wynward 125 25.7(-3 .5) 16 .3(41 .4) 10 .6(26 .9) 17 .5(44 .4) 3 .5(8 .9) 66 CRYOBOREAL Subhumid 3 .1f 

110 29 .4(-1 .4) 

151 26.0(-3 .0) 

Edmonton 145 28.1(-2 .2) 18 .8(47 .7) 12 .3(31 .2) 17 .1 (43 .4) 2.4(6 .1) 74 CRYOBOREAL Subhumid 3 .1f 

(Ellerslie) 126 299(-1 .2) 

130 29 .5(-1 .4) 

La Ronge 123 30.4(-0 .9) 17 .6(44 .7) 11 .0(27 .9) 14 .6(38 .1) 2 .0(5 .1) 74 CRYOBOREAL Humid 3 .1e 

35 31 .7(-0 .2) 

139 25.5(-3 .6) 

Regina 127 27.4(-2.6) 14.7(37 .3) 10 .0(25 .4) 23.0(58 .4) 7.3(18.5) 52 CRYOBOREAL Semiarid 3.2g 

121 30.3(-0 .9) 

' PE - Potential evaporation . After Baier, W. and Robertson, G .W. 1965 . Estimation of latent evaporation from simple weather observations. Can . J . Plant Sci. 45 :276-284 . 

' 2.00 in. (5 .1 cm) readily available water .

TABLE 10. SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS -first part continued 

Depth 

(m) 

Mean annual 

temp . 


Length 

(days) Mean temp . 

Degree-days 

Thermal period, > 59°F(15°C) 

Length 

(days) 


Dormant season,

TABLE 10 . SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS -continued 

Moisture 


Freeze period < 32°F(0°C) Observed pptn ., in . (cm) 


Length 

(days) Mean temp . Annual Seasonal 

PEI 

Deficit2 ndex Class 


Subclass ode 

Broadview 

140 

122 

109 

27.8(-2 .3) 

29 .3(-1 .5) 

30.4(-0 .9) 

18 .1(45 .9) 12 .2(31 .0) 19 .9(50 .5) 3 .9(9 .9) 67 CRYOBOREAL Subhumid 3 .2f 

Calgary 

128 

123 

27.6(-2 .4) 

30.0(-1 .1) 17 .4(44 .2) 11 .5(29 .2) 17 .9(45 .5) 3 .2(8 .1) 69 CRYOBOREAL Subhumid 3 .2f 

UAC 72 31 .7(-0 .2) 

Prince 

91 

0 

31 .6(-0 .2) 

- 24 .7(62 .7) 11 .4(28 .9) 15 .6(39 .6) 1 .9(4 .8) 74 CRYOBOREAL Humid 3 .2e 

George 

Normandin 

St . Johns W 

NFLD 

Winnipeg 

Kapuskasing 

La Pocatiere 

Charlottetown 

0 

81 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

120 

109 

52 

0 

0 

0 

96 

40 

0 

0 

0 

- 

31 .6(-0 .2) 

31 .8(-0 .1) 

- 

- 

- 

27.4(-2 .5) 

29.1(-1 .6) 

31 .5(-0 .2) 

- 

- 

30.8(-0 .6) 

31 .7(-0 .1) 

- 

- 

31 .4(79 .7) 

58 .6(148 .8) 

20 .8(52 .8) 

29 .4(74 .6) 

39 .8(101 .0) 

42 .8(108 .7) 

17 .1(43 .4) 

19 .5(49 .5) 

12 .8(32 .5) 

14 .6(37 .0) 

18.9(48 .0) 

16 .5(41 .9) 

15 .1 (38 .3) 

14 .7(37 .3) 

20 .8(52 .8) 

15 .4(39 .1) 

16 .8(42 .6) 

16 .0(40 .6) 

0 

0 

4 .1 (10 .4) 

1 .0(2 .5) 

0 .3(0.8) 

0 .6(1 .5) 

90 

90 

68 

83 

89 

86 

CRYOBOREAL 

BOREAL 

CRYOBOREAL 

BOREAL 

BOREAL 

BOREAL 

Perhumid 

Perhumid 

Subhumid 

Perhumid 

Perhumid 

Perhumid 4 .1d 

3 .2d 

3 .2d 

4 .1f 

4 .1d 

4 .1d 

0 - 

Saskatoon 

133 

118 

21 .9(-5 .6) 

25.9(-3 .4) 13 .5(34 .2) 8 .9(22.6) 21 .6(54 .8) 7 .1(18 .0) 50 BOREAL Semiarid 4 .1g 

89 30.5(-0 .8) 

St . Augustin 

122 

0 

30 .5(-0 .8) 

- 45.6(115 .8) 21 .9(55 .6) 15 .7(39.8) 0 .0 92 BOREAL Perhumid 4.2d 

(Quebec City) 0 - 

Fredericton 

85 

0 

31 .0(-0 .5) 

- 43 .1(109 .4) 17 .4(44 .2) 17 .3(43 .9) 0 .7(1 .7) 86 BOREAL Perhumid 4 .2d 

0 -

TABLE . 10 SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS -first part concluded 

Depth 

(cm) 

Mean annual 

temp . 

Length 

(days) 


Mean temp . 

Degree-days 

Thermal period, > 59°F(1 5°C) 

Length 

(days) 


Dormant season, < 41 °F(5°C) 

Length 

(days) 

Mean temp. 

20 44 .3(6 .8) 174 56 .7(13 .7) 2,738(1 519) 87 63 .3(17 .3) 372(206) 191 32 .9(0.5) 

Atikukan 50 45 .1 (7 .2) 180 56 .3(13 .5) 2,744(1 522) 86 62 .9(17 .1) 330(183) 185 34 .2(1 .2) 

100 44 .9(7 .1) 187 53 .4(11 .8) 2,322(1 288) 55 60 .1 (15 .6) 58(32) 178 36 .0(2 .2) 

20 44 .7(7 .0) 186 56 .1 (13 .3) 2,808(1 558) 84 63 .4(17 .4) 365(202) 179 32 .6(0 .3) 

Lethbridge 50 45 .4(7 .4) 198 55 .0(12 .7) 2,762(1 533) 80 62 .5(16 .9) 278(154) 167 34 .1(1 .1) 

100 45 .3(7 .3) 209 51 .7(10 .9) 2,223(l 234) 0 - 0 156 36 .7(2 .6) 

20 42 .2(5 .7) 175 56 .2(13 .4) 2,658(l 475) 75 62 .4(16 .9) 275(142) 190 29.3(-1 .5) 

Estevan 50 44 .3(6 .8) 189 56 .1 (13 .3) 2,842(1 577) 82 63 .6(17 .5) 373(207) 176 31 .6(-0 .2) 

100 46 .4(8 .0) 210 54 .7(12 .6) 2,873(1 594) 79 62 .0(16.6) 231 (128) 155 35 .2(1 .7) 

20 42 .1(5 .6) 186 57 .3(14 .0) 3,022(1 677) 86 64 .5(18 .0) 473(262) 179 26.3(-3 .2) 

Swift Current 50 43 .1(6 .1) 191 55 .7(13 .1) 2,812(1 560) 77 63 .7(17 .6) 357(198) 174 29.2(-1 .5) 

100 42 .9(6 .0) 192 52 .4(11 .3) 2,192(1 216) 30 59 .8(15 .4) 21(11) 173 32 .3(0 .2) 

20 44 .5(6 .9) 187 58 .1(14 .5) 3,203(1 777) 101 64 .1 (17 .8) 515(286) 178 30.1(-1 .0) 

Vauxhall 50 45 3(7 .3) 201 55 .9(13 .2) 3 .000(1 665) 86 63 .6(17 .5) 391 (217) 164 32 .3(0 .2) 

100 45 .4(7 .4) 212 53 .3(11 .8) 2,602(l 444) 60 60 .8(16 .0) 108(60) 153 34 .6(1 .4) 

20 47 .5(8 .6) 215 56 .6(13 .6) 3,353(l 862) 103 63 .8(17 .6) 490(272) 150 34 .4(1 .3) 

Guelph 50 47 .7(8 .7) 223 55 .1 (12 .8) 3,148(1 747) 91 62 .1 (16 .7) 283(157) 142 36 .0(2.2) 

100 47 .8(8 .7) 235 53 .5(11 .9) 2,923(1 622) 75 60 .7(15 .9) 128(71) 130 37 .6(3 .1) 

20 46 .9(8 .2) 201 57 .6(14.2) 3,328(l 847) 105 63 .9(17 .7) 509(282) 164 33 .8(1 .0) 

Ottawa 50 47 .6(8 .6) 210 56 .7(13.6) 3,289(1 825) 102 63 .1 (17 .2) 418(232) 155 35 .4(1 .8) 

100 46 .6(8 .1) 222 53 .1 (11 .7) 2,679(1 487) 56 59 .8(15 .4) 41(23) 143 36 .5(2 .5) 

20 53 .3(11 .8) 322 55 .1 (12.8) 4,527(2 512) 132 64 .7(18 .1) 757(420) 43 40.0(4 .4) 

Vancouver 50 53 .2(11 .7) 365 53 .2(11 .7) 4,453(2 471) 123 63 .0(17 .2) 494(274) 0 - 

100 53 .1 (11 .7) 365 53 .1 (11 .7) 4,402(2 443) 101 61 .2(16 .2) 222(123) 0 - 

20 53 .7(12 .0) 351 54 .2(12.3) 4,620(2 564) 130 65 .3(18 .5) 712(395) 14 40 .9(4 .9) 

Saanichton 50 54 .0(12 .2) 365 53 .9(12 .1) 4,722(2 620) 126 63 .9(17 .7) 589(327) 0 - 

100 53 .9(12 .1) 365 53 .1 (11 .7) 4,686(2 600) 112 61 .9(16 .6) 324(180) 0 

20 50 .7(10.3) 236 59 .5(15 .2) 4,371 (2 426) 132 67 .0(19.4) 1,059(588) 129 34 .5(1 .3) 

Harrow 50 50 .9(10.5) 244 58 .4(14 .6) 4,236(2 350) 129 65 .8(18.7) 869(482) 121 36 .0(2 .2) 

100 50 .9(10 .5) 262 56 .1(13 .3) 3,943(2 188) 117 63 .7(17 .6) 546(303) 103 37 .6(3 .1) 

20 47 .0(8 .3) 202 56 .9(13 .8) 3,206(l 779) 94 64.5(18.0) 502(278) 163 34 .6(1 .4) 

Kentville 50 47 .6(8 .6) 213 56 .4(13 .5) 3,286(1 823) 97 62 .9(17 .1) 475(263) 152 35 .3(1 .8) 

100 47 .2(8 .4) 227 53 .2(11 .7) 2,776(1 540) 66 60 .7(15 .9) 111(61) 138 37 .3(2 .9) 

20 51 .7(10 .9) 244 59 .7(15 .3) 4,562(2 532) 136 67 .5(19 .7) 1,154(640) 121 35 .6(2 .0) 

Summerland 50 52.8(11 .5) 258 59.5(15 .2) 4,770(2 647) 142 67 .4(19 .6) 1,195(107) 107 36 .8(2 .6) 

100 53 .5(11 .9) 278 58 .2(14 .5) 4,778(2 651) 141 66 .5(19 .1) 1,058(587) 87 38 .6(3 .6)

TABLE 10 . SOIL CLIMATE DATA AND CLASSIFICATION FOR SELECTED CANADIAN STATIONS- concluded 

Freeze period < 32°F(0°C) 

Length 

(days) 

Mean temp . 

Observed pptn ., in . (cm) 

Annual 

Seasonal 

0 - 

Summerland 0 - 11 .5(29 .2) 5 .0(12 .7) 20 .3(51 .3) 9 .1 (23 .1) 31 MESIC Subarid 5 .2h 

°' co 0 - 

Moisture 



PEI 

Deficit2 ndex lass 


Subclass ode 

97 31 .4(-0 .3) 

Atikukan 20 31 .8(-0 .1) 23 .2(58 .9) 13 .9(35 .3) 20 .2(51 .3) 3 .1 (7 .9) 73 BOREAL Subhumid 4 .2f 

0 - 

85 28.8(-1 .8) 

Lethbridge 57 30.6(-0 .7) 16 .7(42 .4) 9 .5(24 .1) 22 .2(56 .3) 7 .2(18 .3) 51 BOREAL Semiarid 4 .2g 

0 - 

139 26.7(-2 .9) 

Estevan 117 29 .5(-1 .3) 16 .4(41 .6) 10 .8(27 .4) 22.1 (56 .1) 6 .1 (15 .4) 57 BOREAL Semiarid 4 .2g 

0 

134 22.8(-5 .1) 

Swift Current 120 25.9(-3.3) 13 .6(34 .5) 8 .8(22 .3) 23 .2(58 .9) 8 .4(21 .3) 46 BOREAL Semiarid 4 .2g 

99 29 .5(-1 .3) 

106 26.1(-3 .2) 

Vauxhall 82 28.6(-1 .8) 13 .0(33 .0) 8 .0(20 .3) 22 .4(56 .8) 8 .4(21 .3) 44 BOREAL Subarid 4 .2h 

41 31 .3(-0 .4) 

36 31 .6(-0.2) 

Guelph 0 - 32 .9(83 .5) 15 .1(38 .4) 18 .6(47 .2) 1 .9(4 .8) 80 MESIC Humid 5 .1e 

0 

56 31 .8(-0 .1 

Ottawa 0 - 34 .0(86 .4) 15 .5(39 .4) 20 .0(50 .8) 2 .3(5 .8) 78 MESIC Humid 5 .1e 

0 - 

0 - 

Vancouver 0 - 42.6(108 .2) 8 .3(21 .1) 14 .9(37 .8) 3 .3(8 .4) 61 MESIC Humid 5 .1f 

0 - 

0 - 

Saanichton 0 - 33 .0(83 .8) 5 .6(14 .2) 14 .1 (35 .8) 4 .3(10 .9) 47 MESIC Humid 5 .2f 

0 - 

32 31 .8(-0 .1) 

Harrow 0 - 29 .0(73 .6) 13 .2(33 .5) 20 .8(52 .8) 3 .8(9 .7) 69 MESIC Subhumid 5 .2f 

0 - 

5 31 .9(0) 

Kentville 0 - 42 .5(107 .9) 15 .6(39 .6) 17 .4(44 .2) 1 .3(3 .3) 82 MESIC Humid 5 .1e 

0 -

MORPHOLOGICAL, PHYSICAL, AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 

OF SELECTED SOILS 

Orthic Brown Chernozemic 

Orthic Dark Brown Chernozemic 

Eluviated Dark Brown Chernozemic 

Orthic Black Chernozemic 

Rego Black Chernozemic 

Calcareous Black Chernozemic 

Eluviated Black Chernozemic 

Orthic Dark Gray Chernozemic 

Brown Solonetz 

Black Solonetz 

Black Solod 

Gray Solod 

Orthic Gray Brown Luvisol 

Brunisolic Gray Brown Luvisol 

Orthic Gray Luvisol 

Dark Gray Luvisol 

Bisequa Gray Luvisol 

Orthic Humic Podzol 

Orthic Ferro-Humic Podzol 

Orthic Humo-Ferric Podzol 

Orthic Melanic Brunisol 

Orthic Eutric Brunisol 

Cryic Eutric Brunisol 

Orthic Dystric Brunisol 

Orthic Regosol 

Saline Orthic Regosol 

Cumulic Regosol 

Cryic Cumulic Regosol 

Rego Humic Gleysol 

Orthic Gleysol 

Rego Gleysol 

Cryic Rego Gleysol 

Mesic Fibrisol 

Cryic Fibrisol 

Typic Mesisol 

In the soil descriptions the soil color is named, followed by the Munsell notation . The letters d, m, w in the 

notation stand for dry, moist, or wet.

Code Sheet for Laboratory Methods 

1 . Sample Collection and Preparation 

2 . Conventions 

3 . Particle-size Analyses 

A. < 2-mm fraction (pipet method) 

1 . Air-dry samples 

a . Carbonate and noncarbonate clay 

b . Expressed on water-, organic matter-, sesquioxide-, and lime-free basis 

2 . Moist samples 

a . Carbonate and noncarbonate clay 

B . > 2-mm fraction 

1 . Weight estimates 

2 . Volume estimates 

4 . Fabric-related Analyses 

A. Bulk density (BD) 

1 . Saran-coated clods 

a . Field state 

b. Air-dry 

c . 30-cm absorption 

d. 1 /3-bar desorption I 

e . 1 /3-bar desorption I I 

f . 1 /3-bar desorption III 

g . 1 /10-bar desorption 

h . Ovendry 

2 . Paraffin-coated clods 

a . Ovendry 

3 . Cores 

a . Field moist 

4 . Nonpolar-liquid-saturated clods 

B . Water retention 

1 . Pressure-plate extraction (1 /3 or 1 /10 bar) 

a . Sieved samples 

b . Soil pieces 

c . Natural clods 

d . Cores 

2 . Pressure-membrane extraction (15 bars) 

3 . Sand table absorption 

4 . Field state 

5 . Air-dry 

6 . Moisture equivalent percentage 

7 . Wilting percentage 

C. Water-retention difference 

1 . 1 /3 bar to 15 bars 

2 . 1/10 bar to 15 bars 

D . Coefficient of linear extensibility 

1 . Dry to moist 

E . Micromorphology 

1 . Thin sections 

a . Preparation 

b . Interpretation 

c . Moved-clay percentage 

5 . Ion-exchange Properties 

A. Cation-exchange capacity 

1 . NH4OAc, pH 7.0 

a . Direct distillation 

b . Displacement, distillation 

2 . NaOAc, pH 8.2 

a . Centrifuge method 

3 . Sum of cations 

a . Acidity by BaC12-TEA, pH 8.2 ; bases by NH,OAc, pH 7.0 

b . 2 N NaCl extraction, unbuffered, Ca -f- Mg -I- AI 

4 . KOAc, pH 7.0

. 

. 

5 . BaC12, pH 8.2 

a . Barium by flame photometry 

6 . 1 N CaOAc-CaClz, pH 7 

B . Extractable bases 

1 . NH 30Ac extraction 

a . Uncorrected 

b . Corrected (exchangeable) 

2 . KCI-TEA extraction, pH 8.2 

3 . 2 N NaCl extraction, unbuffered 

C. Base saturation 

1 . NH4OAc, pH 7.0 

2 . NaOAc, pH 8.2 

3 . Sum of cations 

4 . 2 N NaCl extraction, AI/Ca -I- Mg + AI 

5 . 1 N CaOAc-CaCl2, pH 7 

D. Sodium saturation (exchangeable Na %) 

1 . NaOAc, pH 8.2 

2 . NH 4OAc, pH 7 .0 

E . Sodium adsorption ratio 

6. Chemical Analyses 

A Organic carbon 

1 . Acid-dichromate digestion 

a . FeSO 4 titration 

b . C0z evolution, gravimetric 

2 . Dry combustion 

a . COZ evolution I 

b CO z evolution II 

c . Leco induction furnace 

3 . Peroxide digestion 

a . Weight loss 

B . Nitrogen 

1 . Kjeldahl digestion 

a . Ammonia distillation 

2 . Semimicro Kjeldahl 

a . Ammonia distillation 

C. Iron 

1 . Dithionite extraction 

a. Dichromate titration 

b . Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) titration 

2 . Dithionite-citrate extraction 

a. Orthophenanthroline colorimetry 

3 . Dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate extraction 

a. Potassium-thiocyanate colorimetry 

4 . Pyrophosphate-dithionite extraction 

5 . Acid ammonium oxalate 

6 . Sodium pyrophosphate 0.1 M 

D. Manganese 

1 . Dithionite extraction 

a . Permanganate colorimetry 

E. Calcium carbonate 

1 . HCI treatment 

a . Gas volumetric 

b . Manometric 

172 

c . 

Weight loss 

d . Weight gain 

e . Titrimetric 

f . Pressure transducer and recorder 

2 . Sensitive qualitative method 

a . Visual, gas bubbles 

F . Gypsum 

1 . Water extract 

a . Precipitation in acetone

. 

. 

G . Aluminum 

1 . KCI extraction I, 30 min 

a. Aluminon I 

b . Aluminon II 

c . Aluminon III 

d. Fluoride titration 

2 . KCI extract on 11, overnight 

a . Aluminon I 

3 . NH .,OAc extraction 

a . Aluminon III 

4 . NaOAc extraction 

a . Aluminon III 

5 . Dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate extraction 

6 . Acid ammonium oxalate extraction 

7 . Sodium pyrophosphate 0.1 M extraction 

8 . pH in saturated NaF 

H Extractable acidity 

1 . BaCl2-triethanolamine I 

a . Back-titration with HCI 

3 . KCI-triethanolamine 

a . Back-titration with NaOH 

I . Carbonate 

1 . Saturation extract 

a . Acid titration 

J. Bicarbonate 


a Acid titration 

K . Chloride 


a . Mohr titration 

b. Potentiometric titration 

L . Sulfate 


a . Gravimetric, BaS04 


a . Gravimetric, BaS04 

M . Nitrate 


a . Phenyl disofonic acid colorimetry 

N . Calcium 


a . EDTA titration 


a . EDTA-alcohol separation 

b . Oxalate-permanganate I 

c . Oxalate-permanganate II Fe, AI, and Mn removed 

d . Oxalate-cerate 

3 . NH4CI-CZH,OH extraction 


4. KCI-TEA extraction 

a . Oxalate-permanganate 

5 . 2N NaCl extraction, unbuffered 

0. Magnesium 



2 . NH40Ac extraction 

a. EDTA-alcohol separation 

b . Phosphate titration 

c. Gravimetric, Mg2P20, 

3. NH4CI-CzH 50H extraction 


4 . 2N NaCl extraction, buffered

P . Sodium 


a . Flame photometry 

2 . NH 4OAc extraction 


Q. Potassium 



2 . NH40Ac extraction 

a. Flame photometry 

R. Sulfur 

1 . NaHC0a extraction, pH 8.5 

a . Methylene blue 

S . Total phosphorus 

1 . Perchloric acid digestion 

a . Molybdovanadophosphoric acid colorimetry 

T. Soluble phosphorus 

1 . NaHCOs 

8 . Miscellaneous 

A. Electrical conductivity (EC) 

1 . Saturated paste, mixed 

2 . Saturated paste, capillary rise 

3 . Soil : solution 1 :5 

B . pH 

1 . Soil suspensions 

a . Water dilution 

b . Saturated paste 

c . KCI 

d . 0.1 M CaCl2 

Descriptions and Analyses of Selected Profiles 

ORTHIC BROWN CHERNOZEMIC BIRSAY ASSOCIATION 

Location : Rosetown Map Sheet 72-0 Saskatchewan 

Altitude : 1,750 ft (533 m) ASL 

Physiography : Undulating glacial lake plain 

Drainage : Well drained 

Vegetation : Field crops and mixed prairie 

Parent material : Loamy, moderately calcareous lacustrine deposit 

Climate : Cool Boreal, subarid 

Depth 

Horizon cm (in .) 

Ah 0-15 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2 d, 4/2 m) fine sandy loam ; compound moderate, 

(0-6) medium subangular blocky and moderate, fine granular . 

Btj 15-38 Dark brown (10YR 4/3 d, 3/3 m) fine sandy loam ; compound moderate, 

(6-15) medium prismatic and subangular blocky . 

Bt 38-66 Dark brown (10YR 4/3 d, 3/3 m) fine sandy clay loam ; compound 

(15-26) moderate, medium prismatic and subangular blocky . 

Ck1 66-91 Light brownish gray (10YR 6/2 d, 5/2 m) fine sandy loam ; compound 

(26-36) moderate, coarse pseudoprismatic and subangular pseudoblocky ; 

moderately effervescent . 

Ck2 91-I- Pale brown (10YR 6/3 d, 5/3 m) fine sandy loam ; amorphous crushing to 

(36-f-) moderate, fine fragments ; moderately effervescent. 

174

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC BROWN CHERNOZEMIC BIRSAY ASSOCIATION 

Depth cm Horizon 

Particle size 

Coarse & 

medium Fine Very fine Total Total 

sand sand sand sand 

Silt 

clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

0-15 Ah 13 .0 37 .0 16 .1 66 .1 17 .3 

15-38 Btj 15 .4 35 .0 12 .0 62 .4 18 .6 

38-66 Bt 6 .0 47 .0 15 .5 68 .5 10 .2 

66-91 Ck1 20 .0 39 .2 10 .9 70 .1 10 .6 

91+ Ck2 10 .6 42 .3 19 .1 72 .0 11 .4 

Cation exchange 

3A1 b 

16 .6 

18 .9 

21 .4 

19 .3 

16 .5 

Capacity Ca Mg K Na EC 

5A1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 8A1 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g mmhos/cm 

0-15 Ah 15 .4 12 .1 3 .2 1 .1 1 .2 0 .7 

15-38 Btj 18 .0 11 .9 4 .6 0 .4 1 .0 0 .4 

38-66 Bt 17 .3 10 .7 5 .4 0 .4 1 .0 0 .2 

66-91 Ck1 14 .4 0 .3 

91+ Ck2 0 .5 

Fine 

clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6B1a 

% 

C 

6A2 

% 

CaCO3 eq 

6E1e 

% 

pH 

8B1b 

10 .7 0 .15 1 .36 7 .6 

14 .4 0 .13 1 .30 6 .9 

16.1 0 .06 0.58 6 .8 

11 .9 8.95 7 .8 

1.1 .6 10 .60 7 .9

ORTHIC DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC WEYBURN ASSOCIATION 

Location : 

Altitude : 

Physiography : 

Drainage : 

Parent material : 

Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 

Horizon (in .) 

Ap 0-10 

(0-4) 

Bt 10-20 

(4-8) 

Bm 20-25 

(8-10) 

Cca 25-48 

(10-19) 

Ck 48+ 

(19+) 

Rosetown Map Sheet 72-0 Saskatchewan 

2,000 ft (610 m) ASL 

Undulating and gently rolling till plain 

Well drained 

Medium to moderately fine textured glacial till, moderately calcareous 

Field crops and mixed prairie 

Cool Boreal, semiarid 

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2 d, 3/2 m) sandy loam ; compound moderate, 

medium blocky and moderately fine granular . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d, 4/2 m) sandy clay loam ; compound moderate, 

medium prismatic and subangular blocky . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d, 4/2 m) sandy clay loam to sandy loam ; compound 

moderate, medium prismatic and moderate, fine granular ; very weakly 

effervescent . 

Light grayish brown (2.5Y 6/2 d, 5/2 m) sandy loam to sandy clay loam ; 

weak, coarse pseudoprismatic ; moderately to strongly effervescent . 

Light brownish gray (2 .5Y 6/2 d, 5/2 m) sandy loam to sandy clay loam ; 

amorphous ; moderately to strongly effervescent .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC WEYBURN ASSOCIATION 


Particle size 

Coarse & 

medium Fine Very fine Total Total Fine 


Silt 

clay clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 3A1 b 

% 

% 

N 

6B1a 

C 

6A2 

CaCO, eq 

0-10 Ap 21 .2 15 .1 16 .5 52 .8 28 .9 18 .3 14 .3 0 .19 2 .07 0 .35 7 .1 

10-20 Bt 22 .8 18 .8 14 .4 56 .0 20 .2 23 .3 13 .3 0 .08 0 .83 0 .15 6 .5 

20-25 Bm 27 .5 19 .4 11 .9 58 .8 20 .4 20 .8 16 .9 0 .07 0 .53 1 .70 7 .4 

25-48 Cca 30.2 18 .1 11 .2 59 .5 20.7 19 .8 9 .6 16 .00 7 .9 

48+ Ck 30.1 17 .6 11 .0 58 .7 21 .2 20 .0 9 .0 14 .25 8 .1 


Capacity 

5A1 b 


Ca 

5B1b 

Mg 

5B1b 

meq/100 g 

K 

5B1b 

Na 

5B1b 

EC 

8A1 

mmhos/ cm 

0-10 Ap 18 .1 13 .6 4 .4 2 .6 0.2 0 .9 

10-20 Bt 17 .1 13 .7 4 .9 1 .8 0 .2 0 .5 

20-25 Bm 13 .6 20 .7 4 .3 1 .8 0 .2 0 .6 

25-48 Cca 0 .6 

48+ Ck 1 .7 

6E1 e 

pH 

8B1 b

ELUVIATED DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC ELSTOW ASSOCIATION 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 

Vegetation : 


Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ap 0-20 

(0-8) 

AB1 20-36 

(8-14) 

AB2 36-48 

(14-19) 

Bm1 48-56 

(19-22) 

Bm2 56-69 

(22-27) 

Bca 69-81 

(27-32) 

Ck 81-}- 

(32-I-) 

Rosetown Map Sheet 72-0, Saskatchewan 

1,950- 2,150 ft (595-655 m) ASL 

Nearly level to gently sloping lacustrine plain 

Well drained 

Field crops and mixed prairie 

Medium to moderately fine textured, moderately calcareous,glaciolacustrine 

deposit 

Cool Boreal, semiarid 

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2 d, 3/2 m) loam ; moderate, medium subangular 

blocky . 

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2 d, 4/2 m) loam ; compound moderate, medium 

subangular blocky and moderate, coarse platy . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d, 4/3 m) loam ; moderate, medium prismatic . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d, 4/2 m) loam ; compound moderate, medium prismatic 

and subangular blocky . 

Pale brown (10YR 6/3 d, 5/3 m) silty clay loam ; compound moderate, 

medium prismatic and subangular blocky . 

Light brownish gray (10YR 6/2 d, 5/2 m) silty clay loam ; weak, medium 

to coarse prismatic ; moderately to strongly effervescent . 

Light brownish gray (10YR 6/2 d, 5/2 m) silt loam ; amorphous ; moderately 

effervescent .

SOIL TYPE : ELUVIATED DARK BROWN CHERNOZEMIC ELSTOW ASSOCIATION 


Particle size 

Coarse & 



Silt clay clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 3A1 b 

% % 

N 

6B1 a 

% 

C 

6A2 

% 

CaCO, eq 

0-20 Ap 1 .2 3 .5 28 .8 33 .5 38 .5 24 .3 15 .2 0 .33 3 .58 6 .4 

20-36 AB1 0 .5 4 .4 36 .9 41 .8 33 .2 25 .0 17 .0 0 .14 1 .19 5 .7 

36-48 AB2 0 .7 36 .8 37 .5 38 .2 24 .3 21 .5 0 .11 0 .71 6 .5 

48-56 Bm1 0 .5 35 .4 35 .9 38 .9 25 .1 17 .7 6 .7 

56-69 Bm2 0 .2 12 .7 12 .9 55 .6 31 .5 19 .2 6 .6 

69-81 Bca 3 .0 3 .0 67 .6 29 .4 18 .6 16 .55 7 .4 

81+ Ck 1 .0 20 .8 21 .8 53 .2 25 .1 17 .1 14 .80 7 .5 


Capacity 

5A1b 

Ca 

5B1b 


Mg 

5B1b 

meq/100 g 

K 

5B1b 

Na 

5B1b 

EC 

8A1 

mmhos/ cm 

0-20 Ap 25 .8 20 .1 4 .1 1 .4 0 .2 1 .2 

20-36 AB1 19 .1 11 .9 3 .7 1 .2 0 .2 0 .4 

36-48 AB2 22 .7 16 .7 6 .0 1 .0 0 .2 1 .1 

48-56 Bm1 22 .4 15 .1 6 .5 0 .9 0 .2 1 .0 

56-69 Bm2 18 .4 7 .5 0 .9 0.2 1 .0 

69-81 Bca 0 .9 

81-I- Ck 0.8 

Me 

% 

pH 

8B1 b

ORTHIC BLACK CHERNOZEMIC OXBOW ASSOCIATION 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ah 0-15 

(0-6) 

AB 15-28 

(6-11) 

Bm 28-43 

(11-17) 

Bms 43-53 

(17-21) 

Bmk 53-63 

(21-25) 

Cca 63-109 

(25-43) 

IICca 109+ 

(43+) 

Regina Map Sheet 72 I, Saskatchewan 

Approx 2,200 ft (670 m) ASL 

Gently rolling glacial till plain 

Well drained 

Medium-textured, moderately calcareous glacial till 

Fescue Prairie 

Cool Boreal, subhumid 

Dark gray (10YR 4/1 d) loam ; compound, weak, coarse prismatic and weak, 

coarse and medium subangular blocky . 

Very dark gray (10YR 3/1 d) loam ; compound weak, coarse prismatic and 

moderate, coarse and medium subangular blocky . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d) loam ; compound moderate, coarse and medium 

prismatic and weak, medium and fine subangular blocky . 

Dark brown (10YR 4/3 d) loam ; moderate, medium subangular blocky ; 

slightly effervescent ; weakly saline . 

Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 m) loam ; moderate, medium subangular 

blocky ; slightly effervescent ; weakly saline . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 m) loam ; amorphous to weak, medium and coarse 

subangular pseudoblocky ; moderately effervescent ; weakly saline . 

Light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2 m) sandy loam ; amorphous ; moderately 

effervescent ; moderately saline .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC BLACK CHERNOZEMIC 

Coarse & 

medium Fine Very fine 

sand sand sand 

Particle size 

Total 

sand 

Silt OXBOW ASSOCIATION 

clay 

Fine 

clay 

3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 

3A1 b 3A1 b 

epth cm orizon 

% 

% 

% 

% 

3A1 b 

% Total 

% % 

N 

6131a 

% 

C 

6A2 

% 

CaCO3 eq 

0-15 Ah 21 .5 15 .2 14 .2 50 .9 28 .9 20 .2 13 .3 0.32 3 .65 7 .2 

15-28 AB 18 .1 14 .2 14 .4 47 .8 30 .8 21 .4 16 .3 0 .18 2 .06 7 .6 

28-43 Bm 19 .7 15 .1 15 .7 50 .1 29 .3 20 .6 17 .5 0 .10 0 .97 7 .7 

43-53 Bms 18 .2 12 .9 16.2 48 .3 30 .8 20 .9 16 .9 0 .85 7 .9 

53-63 Bmk 14 .1 9 .8 12 .7 36 .6 40 .4 23 .0 16 .2 2 .40 8 .1 

63-109 Cca 22 .2 14 .4 12 .4 48 .9 30 .0 21 .1 12 .3 13 .70 8 .2 

109-f- II Cca 24 .4 15 .2 10 .5 50.0 33 .2 16 .7 10 .0 14 .40 8 .4 


Capacity 

5A1 b 

Ca 

5B1 b 


Mg 

5131b 

meq/100 g 

K 

5131b 

Na 

5B1 b 

EC 

8A1 

mmhos/ cm 

0-15 Ah 25 .1 21 .1 6.2 2 .6 0.0 0 .5 

15-28 AB 22 .3 18 .3 6.8 1 .8 0.1 0 .6 

28-43 Bm 18 .4 12 .4 4 .9 1 .5 0 .7 0 .2 

43-53 Bms 4~3 

53-63 Bmk 5 .1 

63-109 Cca 7 .7 

109-I- 11 Cca 9~0 

6E1e 

% 

pH 

8C1 b

REGO BLACK CHERNOZEMIC 

Location : 

Elevation : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


L- H 3-0 

(1-0) 

Ahk 0-8 

(0-3) 

ACk 8-15 

(3-6) 

Cca 15-23 

(6-9) 

Ck 23-61 

(9-24) 

ISAFOLD SERIES 

SE 1 /4, S26,T26 R13 W 1 Ste . Rose Map Area, Manitoba 

Approx 850 ft (260 m) ASL 

Well-drained ridges and knolls in the southwest portion of the Westlake 

Till Plain . The topography is level to irregular, gently sloping . 

Well drained, moderate run off, moderate permeability 

Very stony, extremely calcareous, medium-textured glacial till 

Aspen, oak, parkland 

Cold to moderately cold Cryoboreal, humid to subhumid . 

Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2 d) leaf and sod mat ; neutral ; clear, 

smooth boundary . 

Black (10YR 2/1 d) clay loam ; weak, fine granular ; friable ; soft ; mildly 

alkaline ; moderately calcareous in lower portion ; gradual, smooth boundary . 

Gray (10YR 5 .5/1 d) clay loam ; weak, finegranular ; friable, slightly hard ; 

moderately alkaline ; extremely calcareous ; gradual, wavy boundary . 

Light gray (2.5Y 7 .5/2 d) clay loam ; weak, fine pseudogranular ; friable ; 

strongly cemented ; moderately alkaline ; extremely calcareous ; diffuse, 

wavy boundary. 

Light gray (2.5Y 7/2 d) clay loam ; weak, medium pseudogranular ; friable, 

strongly cemented ; moderately alkaline ; extremely calcareous .

SOIL TYPE : REGO BLACK CHERNOZEMIC ISAFOLD SERIES 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6131a 

Depth GM Horizon % % % % % 

C 

6A1 a 

6E1f 

% 

CaCO3 eq 

Calcite 

6E1f 

Dolomite 

6E1f 

C :N pH 

8131d 

EC 

8A1 

% % mmhos/cm 

3- 0 L-H 1 .53 28 .2 18 .4 7 .2 0 .9 

0- 8 Ahk 34 30 36 0 .5 6 .1 8 .7 2 .0 6.1 12 .2 7 .4 0 .8 

8-15 ACk 31 39 30 0 .2 1 .8 54 .2 11 .3 39 .5 9 .0 7 .9 0 .5 

15-23 Cca 27 42 31 0 .1 0 .6 60 .1 12 .0 44 .4 6 .0 8 .2 0 .4 

23-61 Ck 25 45 30 56 .2 9 .5 43 .0 8 .4 0 .4

CALCAREOUS BLACK CHERNOZEMIC OXBOW ASSOCIATION 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


Ap 0-23 

(0-9) 

Bmk 23-41 

(9-16) 

Cca 41-61 

(16-24) 

Ck 61-}- 

(24-I-) 

Regina Map Sheet 72 I, Saskatchewan 

Approx 2,200 ft (670 m) AS L 

Gently rolling glacial till plain 

Well drained 

Medium-textured, strongly calcareous glacial till 

Fescue Prairie and field crops 

Cool Boreal, subhumid 

Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 m) sandy loam ; compound moderate, medium 

subangular blocky and granular. 

Pale brown (10YR 6/3 m) sandy loam ; compound moderate, medium to 

coarse, prismatic and subangular blocky ; moderately effervescent . 

Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m) sandy loam ; amorphous to weak, coarse 

pseudoprismatic and subangular pseudoblocky ; strongly effervescent . 

Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4 m) sandy loam ; amorphous ; strongly 

effervescent .

SOIL TYPE : CALCAREOUS BLACK CHERNOZEMIC OXBOW ASSOCIATION 

Depth cm Horizon % 

Particle size 

Coarse & 


sand sand sand sand Silt clay clay N C CaCO, eq 

3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 6B1a 6A2 6E1 e 

0-23 Ap 31 .7 18 .1 11 .2 61 .0 20 .8 18 .2 13 .1 0 .23 2 .72 7 .7 

23-41 Bmk 34 .0 16 .9 14 .5 65 .4 19 .0 15 .6 12 .4 14 .65 7 .9 

41-61 Cca 40 .7 17 .7 11 .2 69 .6 19 .7 10 .7 6 .6 26 .40 8.1 

61+ Ck 27 .8 22 .5 16 .3 66 .6 17 .7 15 .7 10 .8 19 .00 8.3 


Capacity Ca Mg K EC 

5A1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 8A1 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g mmhos/cm 

0-23 Ap 19 .8 29 .0 4 .5 1 .7 0 .6 

23-41 Bmk 0 .4 

41-61 Cca 0.4 

61+ C k 0 .4 

pH 

8B1b

ELUVIATED BLACK CHERNOZEMIC ANGUS RIDGE SERIES 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ah 0-33 

(0-13) 

Ahe 33-48 

(13-19) 

Ae 48-56 

(19-22) 

Bt 56-102 

(22-40) 

BC 102-127 

(40-50) 

Ck 127+ 

(50+) 

Edmonton Map Sheet 83H, Alberta 

Undulating to rolling till plain 

Well drained 

Medium-textured, moderately calcareous till 

Parkland - Fescue Prairie 

Moderately cold Cryoboreal, humid to subhumid 

Black (10YR 2/1 m, 2/2 d) clay loam ; weak, coarse prismatic ; friable ; 

gradual, wavy boundary ; 15 to 41 cm (6 to 16 in .) thick ; neutral . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 m, d) loam ; weak, coarse prismatic ; friable ; 

clear, wavy boundary ; 0 to 20 cm (0 to 8 in .) thick ; medium acid . 

Light brownish gray (10YR 5/2 m, 6/2 d) loam ; weak, fine platy ; very 

friable ; abrupt, wavy boundary ; 2 to 10 cm (1 to 4 in .) thick ; medium acid . 

Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4 m, 5/3 d) sandy clay loam ; compound, 

moderate, fine prismatic and moderate, fine subangular blocky ; friable ; 

gradual, wavy boundary ; 36 to 61 cm (14 to 24 in .) thick ; strongly acid . 

Yellowish brown (10YR 5/5 m, 5/3 d) loam ; compound, moderate, medium 

prismatic and moderate, medium subangular blocky ; friable ; clear, wavy 

boundary ; 20 to 41 cm (8 to 16 in .) thick ; slightly acid . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 m, d) loam to clay loam ; moderate, coarse pseudoblocky ; 

friable ; moderately effervescent ; moderately calcareous ; mildly to 

moderately alkaline .

SOIL TYPE : ELUVIATED BLACK CHERNOZEMIC ANGUS RIDGE SERIES 


Sand 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Silt Clay 

3A1 b 3A1 b 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6B1a 

C 

6A1 a 

C :N CaCO3 eq 

0- 33 Ah 33 38 29 12 0 .6 7 .3 13 6.6 

33- 48 Ahe 39 39 22 10 0 .2 2 .4 12 5 .6 

48- 56 Ae 44 41 15 7 0 .1 1 .1 11 5 .6 

56-102 Btj 47 26 37 14 0 .0 0 .4 10 5 .2 

102-127 BC 44 33 23 9 6 .5 

127+ Ck 43 31 26 9 6 .4 7 .8 


Capacity 

5A1b 

meq/100 g 

Ca 


Mg 

5B1b 5B1b 

% % 

0- 33 Ah 40 79 11 2 1 7 

33- 48 Ahe 21 52 20 1 1 26~ 

48- 56 Ae 11 54 25 1 2 18 

56-102 Btj 19 56 32 1 1 10 

102-127 BC 18 61 34 1 2 2 

127+ Ck 

K 

5B1b 

Na 

5B1b 

H 

5B1b 

6E1a 

% 

pH 

8B1b

ORTHIC DARK GRAY CHERNOZEMIC 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


H 3-0 

(1-0) 

Ah 0-8 

(0-3) 

Ahe 8-43 

(3-17) 

Bt1 43-61 

(17-24) 

Bt2 61-112 

(24-44) 

C 112+ 

(44+) 

WINTERBURN SERIES 

Buck Lake and Wabamun Lake area, Alberta 

Undulating to rolling glaciofluvial plain 

Well drained 

Medium- to fine-textured glaciofluvial, pitted deltaic deposits 

Transition, mixed wood forest-parkland Fescue Prairie 

Cold Cryoboreal, humid 

Dark colored organic litter . 

Very dark brown to very dark grayish brown (10YR 2/2-3/2 d) silt loam ; 

granular ; soft ; pH 6.1 . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 d) silt loam ; weak platy ; slightly hard ; 

pH 6.0 . 

Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4 d) silty clay loam : fine to medium subangular 

blocky ; slightly hard ; pH 5.9 . 

Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4 d) silt loam matrix with thin silty clay loam 

bands ; subangular blocky ; slightly hard ; pH 6.2 . 

Pale brown to light yellowish brown (10YR 6/3-6/4 d) silt loam with 

distinct finer-textured bands ; pH 7 .1 .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC DARK GRAY CHERNOZEMIC WINTERBURN SERIES 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Clay 

3A1 b 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6B1 a 

C 

6A1 a 

C :N CaCO, eq 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % % % 

0- 8 Ah 13 63 24 12 0 .32 3 .30 10 6 .1 

8- 43 Ahe 15 62 23 15 0 .22 2 .81 13 6 .0 

43- 61 Bt1 16 53 31 18 0.06 0 .84 14 5 .9 

61-112 Bt2 5 69 26 11 0 .06 0 .58 10 6 .2 

112+ C 5 77 18 6 0.05 0.0 7 .1 


Capacity Base sat . Ca Mg K Na H 

5A1 b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1 b 5B1b 5B1 b 5B1b 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % % % % % 

0- 8 Ah 34 .3 93 54 36 3 0 7 

8- 43 Ahe 30 .5 94 81 11 2 0 6 

43- 61 Bt1 24 .6 96 76 17 2 1 4 

61-112 Bt2 25 .1 96 78 16 1 1 4 

112+ C 20 .4 100 79 18 1 2 0 

% 

Me 

pH 

8B1 b

BROWN SOLONETZ FOX VALLEY ASSOCIATION 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ap 0-10 

(0-4) 

Ae 10-20 

(4-8) 

Bnt1 20-33 

(8-13) 

Bnt2 33-43 

(13-17) 

Bntk 43-66 

(17-26) 

Ck 66-102 

(26-40) 

NE S11 T12 R29 W2 -Willow Bunch Map Sheet 72H, Saskatchewan 

Gently undulating lake marginal plain 

Good 

Lacustrine clay loam 

Summerfallow, mixed prairie 

Cool to moderately cool Boreal, semiarid to subhumid 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 d, 2.5Y 3/2 m) loam to clay loam ; 

subangular blocky crushing to medium granular ; soft ; slightly acid . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 d, 2 .5Y 3/2 m) loam to clay loam ; compound 

weak, coarse, platy and medium, granular ; soft ; slightly acid . 

Very dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 d, m) clay ; compound columnar and 

blocky ; hard ; neutral . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 d, 3/2 m) clay ; compound columnar and 

blocky ; hard ; mildly alkaline . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 d, 2/2 m) clay loam ; amorphous to 

compound weak, columnar and weak, medium, subangular blocky ; hard ; 

weakly calcareous ; moderately alkaline . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 d, 2.5Y 4/4 m) clay loam ; amorphous ; hard ; weakly 

calcareous ; moderately alkaline .

SOIL TYPE : BROWN SOLONETZ FOX VALLEY ASSOCIATION 


Particle size 

Coarse & Very 

medium Fine fine Total Total Fine H ,O 

sand sand sand sand silt clay clay N C CaCO3 eq EC at sat . 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

6B1a 

o/a 

6A1 a 

% 

6E1d 8A1 

o/o mmhos/cm 

0- 10 Ap 2 .2 5 .6 29 .4 37 .2 34.6 28 .3 16.4 0 .21 2 .29 0 .6 47 .2 6 .4 

10- 20 Ae 2 .5 6 .1 27 .3 35.9 36.9 27 .1 15.8 0 .17 1 .63 0 .9 44.4 6 .3 

20- 33 Bnt1 1 .1 3 .6 18 .3 23 .0 27 .9 49 .2 36 .2 0 .12 1 .10 0 .6 55 .6 6 .6 

33- 43 Bnt2 0 .9 3 .6 22 .3 26 .8 29 .7 43 .5 29.3 0.4 51 .2 7 .4 

43- 66 Bntk 0 .5 1 .5 22 .6 24.6 43 .2 32 .1 20.1 1 .85 0 .8 47 .2 8 .0 

66-102 Ck 0 .5 2 .6 30 .9 34 .0 31 .7 34 .3 26 .2 2 .85 2 .6 49 .6 7 .9 


Capacity 

5A1 a 

Ca 

5B1 b 


Mg 

5B1b 

meq/1 00 g 

Soluble cations 

0- 10 Ap 23 .7 10 .5 6 .0 2 .2 0 .0 5 .0 1 .6 2 .6 1 .6 

10- 20 Ae 26 .2 9 .2 6 .8 1 .3 0 .2 8 .7 2 .9 4 .8 0 .9 

20- 33 Bnt1 45 .7 10 .8 15 .3 1 .2 0 .7 17 .8 0 .9 1 .5 0 .1 

33- 43 Bnt2 0 .5 1 .0 0 .2 

43- 66 Bntk 0 .9 1 .9 0 .2 

66-102 Ck 3 .9 12 .1 0.5 

K 

5B1 b 

Na 

5B1b 

H 

5B1b 

Ca 

6N1 

Mg 

601 

meq/I 

K 

6Q1 

Na 

6P1 

1 .0 

2 .5 

4 .0 

4 .0 

7 .7 

17 .4 

0 /o 

pH 

8B1 a

BLACK SOLONETZ DUAGH SERIES 

Location : Edmonton Map Sheet 83H, Alberta 

Physiography : Lacustrine plain, topography level to gently sloping 

Drainage : Moderately well to imperfectly 

Parent material : Stone-free silty clay to clay, slight to moderately calcareous lacustrine 

deposit 

Vegetation : Open parkland, Fescue Prairie 

Climate : Moderately cold Cryoboreal, humid to subhumid 

Depth 

cm 


Ah 0-13 Black to very dark gray (10YR 2/1 -3/1) silty clay ; loose granular, 

(0-5) pH 5 .3 . 

Bnt1 13-28 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay ; columnar to coarse blocky ; very 

(5-11) hard ; stained columns may have tapered tops, pH 5.8 . 

Bnt2 28-48 Brown to dark grayish brown (10YR 5/3-4/2) clay ; blocky : less staining 

(11-19) and definition of structure than in Bnt1 . pH 7.7 . 

Csk at 51 Dark grayish brown (2 .5Y 4/2) clay ; amorphous to fine pseudoblocky . 

(at 20) pH 8.0 . 

C at 122 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2) silty clay to clay ; amorphous ; pH 7 .7 . 

(at 48)

SOIL TYPE : BLACK SOLONETZ DAUGH SERIES 

epth cm 

orizon 

Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size 

Silt 

3A1 b 

% 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% 

N 

6B1a 

% 

C 

6A1 a 

% 

CaCO, eq 

6E1 d 

% 

C :N pH 

0-13 Ah 10 52 38 1 .00 12 .0 12 5.3 

13-28 Bnt1 5 19 76 0 .25 2 .5 10 5 .8 

28-48 Bnt2 4 18 77 0 .07 7 .7 

at 51 Csk 3 43 54 5 .0 8 .0 

at 122 C 4 18 78 7 .7 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na H Hydraulic 

conductivity 

5A1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % % % % % cm/h 

0-13 Ah 42 36 25 3 10 26 12 .7 

13-28 Bnt1 44 18 53 3 18 8 0 .03 

28-48 Bnt2 38 22 44 3 31 0 .03 

at 51 Csk 0 .50 

at 122 C 0 .13 

8B1a

BLACK SOLOD ESHER SERIES 

Location : NW S14, T93 R23 W5 . Hotchkiss - Keg River Area, Alberta 

Physiography : Nearly level to undulating lake plain 


Weakly calcareous and saline clay and silt loam lacustro-till material 

Vegetation : Boreal forest-grassland transition 

Climate : Cold Cryoboreal, subhumid 

Depth 

cm 


L-H 5-0 Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) leaf litter ; pH 6 .5 . 

(2-0) 

Ahe 0-8 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silty clay loam ; granular ; friable ; pH 6.2 . 

(0-3) 

Ae 8-10 Pale brown (10YR 6/3) silt loam ; weak platy ; firm ; pH 5 .9 . 

(3-4) 

AB 10-15 Grayish brown (10YR 5/2) silty clay ; strong subangular blocky ; very firm ; 

(4-6) peds have a pale brown coating from horizon above ; pH 5.2 . 

Btn 15-36 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay ; compound weak columnar and 

(6-14) strong subangular blocky ; dark colored stains on columns ; very firm ; 

pH 4.9 . 

BCk 36-48 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay ; subangular blocky ; firm ; 

(14-19) weakly effervescent ; pH 7 .5 . 

Cks 48-I- Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay with thin brownish silt loam 

(19-{-) strata ; weakly effervescent ; weakly saline ; pebbles common ; pH 7.7 .

SOIL TYPE : BLACK SOLOD ESHER SERIES" 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Particle 

size 

Clay 

3A1 b 

Fine clay 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % % °/r, 

3A1 b 

N 

6131a 

Org . C 

6A2c 

CaCO3 eq 

6E1d 

C :N pH 

0- 8 Ap 12 38 50 18 0 .33 5 .0 15 5 .9 

8-10 AB 18 48 34 10 0 .14 1 .8 12 5 .2 

10-15 Btn1 8 29 63 34 0 .11 1 .5 14 4.9 

15-36 Btn2 4 18 78 40 0 .09 1 .2 14 5 .6 

36-48 BC 4 24 72 36 0 .08 1 .1 0 .9 14 7 .5 

48+ Cks 6 25 69 27 2 .1 7,7 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na Ca :Na Acidity Base sat. EC 

5A1 a 5B1 b 5131b 5B1b 5B1b 5131b 5A3a 581b 8A3 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % mmhos/cm 

0- 8 Ap 27 .8 12 .7 9 .8 1 .7 0 .0 3 .6 87 

8-10 AB 14 .6 5 .0 4 .6 0 .6 0 .6 3 .8 74 

10-15 Btn1 28 .3 8 .7 12 .5 0 .7 1 .7 5 4 .6 84 

15-36 Btn2 35 .0 12 .0 18 .8 0 .6 3 .0 4 0 .6 98 3 .0 

36-48 BC 

48+ Cks 

' Analysis does not represent the profile described on page 194, but is representative of the Esher series. 

8B1 b

GRAY SOLOD NAMPA SERIES 

Location : NE S35 T100 R23 W5- Hotchkiss-Keg River Area, Alberta 

Physiography : Nearly level to undulating lake plain 

Parent material : Weakly calcareous and saline clayey lacustrine material 


Climate : Cold Cryoboreal, subhumid 

Depth 

cm 


L-H 3-0 Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) leaf mat ; pH 6 .1 . 

(1-0) 

Ae 0-5 Very pale brown (10YR 7/3) silt loam ; strong platy ; firm ; iron staining in 

(0-2) lower portion ; pH 6.3 . 

AB 5-13 Brown (10YR 5/3) silty clay ; strong subangular blocky ; firm ; pH 5.4 . 

(2-5) 

Btn 13-41 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) clay ; compound weak columnar and 

(5-16) strong subangular blocky ; dark-colored stain on columns ; very firm ; 

pH 5.0 . 

Ck 41-74 Very dark gray (10YR 3/1) clay ; weakly effervescent ; pH 7.5 . 

(16-29) 

Cks 74-I- Very dark gray (10YR 3/1) clay ; weakly effervescent ; weakly saline ; pH 7 .6 . 

(29-I-)

SOIL TYPE : GRAY SOLOD NAMPA SERIES 


Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Clay 

3A1 b 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6B1a 

Org . C 

6A2c 

CaCO3 eq 

6E1d 

C :N pH 

3- 0 L-H 6 .1 

0- 5 Ae 20 59 21 4 0 .07 0 .8 11 6 .3 

5-13 AB 19 41 40 21 0 .07 0 .5 8 5 .4 

13-41 Btn 11 24 65 38 0 .05 0 .5 11 5 .0 

41-74 BC 16 19 65 26 0 .0 6 .2 

74+ Cks 4 22 74 19 5 .3 7 .6 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na Ca :Na Acidity Base sat. EC 

5A1 a 5B1b 5B1b 5B1 b 5B1b 5B1b 5A3a 5B1b 8A3 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % mmhos/cm 

3- 0 L-H 23 .5 14 .2 4 .7 1 .8 0.3 2 .5 89 

0- 5 Ae 10 .5 6 .5 1 .5 0 .8 0 .2 1 .5 86 

0-13 AB 31 .3 20 .4 6 .8 0 .7 1 .2 2 .2 93 

13-41 Btn 32 .3 16 .4 10 .2 0 .9 1 .8 9 2 .9 91 

41-74 BC 31 .2 18 .0 10 .0 0 .9 1 .3 14 1 .0 97 

74+ Cks 1 .9 

8B1b

ORTHIC GRAY BROWN LUVISOL 

Location : 



Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


Ah 

0-13 

(0-5) 

Ae 13-15 

(5-6) 

BA 

Bt 

15-22 

(6-8'h) 

22-46 

(8'/2-18) 

Ck 46+ 

(18+) 

HURON SERIES 

Lot 8, Concession 11, West Wawonash Township, Huron 

Moderately undulating till plain 

Clayey, weakly to moderately calcareous glacial till 

Hardwood forest 

Mild Mesic, humid 

County, Ontario 

Very dark grayish brown (10YR 2.5/2 m) loam ; strong, medium and fine, 

granular ; friable ; clear, smooth boundary . 

Grayish brown (2.5Y 5/2 m) clay loam ; moderate, medium and fine 

subangular blocky ; friable ; pebble line ; abrupt, smooth boundary. 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 + 3/3.5 coatings, 4/4 matrix) clay loam ; 

clear wavy boundary . 

Very dark gray (10YR 3/3 + 3/1 coatings, 3.5/3 matrix) clay ; strong, 

medium and fine blocky ; compound friable and firm ; clay films thin, 

continuous ; abrupt wavy boundary . 

Dark brown (10YR 3/3 coatings, 4/3 matrix) clay ; moderate to strong, 

medium and fine pseudoblocky ; firm ; weakly to moderately calcareous .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC GRAY BROWN LUVISOL HURON SERIES 


Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size Dithionite Oxalate Cation exchange capacity 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% 

Fine clay' 

3A1 b 

% 

OM 

6A1 a 

% 

Fe 

6C3a 

% 

AI Fe 

6G5 6C5 

AI 

6G6 

% 

pH 

8131b 

NaCl 

5A3b 

Acetate 

5A1 b 

meq/100 g 

0-13 Ah 32 .3 12 .9 8 .9 7 .94 0 .65 0 .16 0 .32 0 .20 6 .9 21 .4 26 .5 21 .4 

13-15 Ae 25 .0 29 .0 21 .5 1 .34 0 .87 0 .21 0 .41 0 .18 6 .9 11 .0 14 .0 11 .0 

15-22 BA 

22-46 Bt 15 .5 47 .0 40 .5 1 .00 0 .92 0 .23 0 .28 0 .25 7 .1 18 .3 20 .7 18 .3 

46 -I- Ck 14 .0 40.2 33 .6 0 .36 0 .65 0 .16 . 0 .17 0 .14 

'

BRUNISOLIC GRAY BROWN LUVISOL BRANT SERIES 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

Cm 


Ah 0-13 

(0-5) 

Ae1 13-25 

(5-10) 

Ae2 25-36 

(10-14) 

Bt 36-66 

(14-26) 

Btj 66-86 

(26-34) 

Ck 86+ 

(34-}-) 

Concession north of Erbs Road, Lot 1, Wilmot Township, Waterloo 

County, Ontario 

Gently undulating lacustrine plain 

Well drained 

Lacustrine loam and silt loam 

Hardwood forest 

Mild Mesic, humid to subhumid 

Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 m) loam ; weak, fine granular ; very friable ; 

abundant, fine and very fine roots ; clear, smooth boundary ; 10 to 15 cm 

(4 to 6 in .) thick ; mildly alkaline . 

Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4 m) loam ; weak, fine granular ; very 

friable ; plentiful, fine roots ; few, fine pores ; clear, smooth boundary ; 13 to 

15 cm (5 to 6 in .) thick ; neutral . 

Brown (10YR 4.5/3 m) silt loam ; weak, fine platy ; very friable ; plentiful, 

fine roots ; very few, fine pores ; abrupt, irregular boundary, with some fine 

tongues extending into the underlying horizon ; 5 to 30 cm (2 to 12 in .) 

thick ; neutral . 

Layered, dark brown (10YR 4/3 m) clay, that has a redder hue (7.5YR 

4/4 m) with depth ; some thin layers of brown (10YR 4.5/3 m) sandy loam 

interspersed with the clay ; compound, strong, coarse and medium platy, 

and medium blocky ; firm ; few, fine roots ; clear, wavy boundary with 

relatively deep tongues extending into the underlying horizon ; 15 to 61 cm 

(6 to 24 in .) thick ; medium acid . 

Layered brown (10YR 5/3 m) loam, and dark brown (7 .5YR 4/4 m) silt 

loam ; the loam layers range from 1 to 5 cm ('h to 2 in .) thick ; the silt loam 

layers range between 0.6 and 1 cm ('/4 and '/2 in .) thick ; loam layers are 

single grain and loose ; silt loam layers are weak, medium platy and friable 

to firm ; abrupt, wavy boundary ; 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in .) thick ; 

medium acid . 

Grayish brown (10YR 4.5/2 m) loam with occasional layers of silt loam and 

silty clay loam ; weak, fine pseudoplaty ; loose ; moderately calcareous ; 

moderately alkaline .

SOIL TYPE : BRUNISOLIC GRAY BROWN LUVISOL BRANT SERIES 


Gravel 

3A1 b 

% 

Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size Dithionite Oxalate 

Silt 

3A1 b 

% 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% 

OM 

6A1 a 

CaCO, eq 

0-13 Ah 41 46 13 5 .5 0.6 0 .72 0 .37 0 .17 0 .23 7 .7 

13-25 Ae1 2 41 47 12 2 .4 0 .0 0 .65 0 .43 0 .23 0 .35 7 .2 

25-36 Ae2 0 36 51 13 0 .9 0 .0 0 .50 0 .23 0 .12 0 .17 6 .9 

36-66 Bt 0 30 14 56 0 .4 0.0 0 .62 0 .38 0.21 0 .23 5 .7 

66-86 Btj 0 47 38 15 0 .2 0.0 0 .62 0 .16 0 .25 0 .18 6 .3 

86+ Ck 1 43 48 9 0 .2 10 .9 0 .39 0 .08 0.04 0 .02 8 .2 

6E1f 

Fe 

6C3a 

AI 

6G5 

% 

Fe 

6C5 

% 

AI 

6G6 

% 

pH 

8131b

ORTHIC GRAY LUVISOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 

Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


L- H 4-0 

(1 .5-0) 

Ah 0-3 

(0-1) 

Ahe 3-8 

(1-3) 

Ae1 8-13 

(3-5) 

Ae2 13-18 

(5-7) 

A B 18-23 

(7-9) 

BA 23-33 

(9-13) 

Bt 33-74 

(13-29) 

BC 74-91 

(29-36) 

B Ck 91-104 

(36-41) 

Ck 104-117 

(41-46) 

COOKING LAKE SERIES 

53°22' N 113°10' W East of Edmonton, Alberta 

Approx 2,400 ft (730 m) ASL 

Gently rolling morainic plain 

Well drained 

Mixed Boreal forest, dominantly aspen 

Cold Boreal, subhumid 

Black (10YR 2/1 m, 3 .5/2 d) litter of partly decomposed leaves and roots . 

Black (10YR 2/1 m, 3 .5/1 d) sandy loam ; moderate, fine granular ; very 

friable, soft ; abundant roots . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 3.5/2 m, 5.5/1 .5 d) sandy loam ; color varies 

from light to dark gray ; compound weak, medium platy and granular ; very 

friable, soft . 

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 m, 6/1 .5 d) sandy loam ; moderate, medium 

platy ; very friable, soft ; plentiful roots ; a few pebbles . 

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2.5 m, 7/2 d) loam to sandy clay loam ; compound 

weak, subangular blocky and platy ; friable, slightly hard ; few roots . 

Brown (10YR 5/3 m, 6/2.5 d) clay loam to sandy clay loam ; weak, 

subangular blocky ; firm, hard . 

Brown (10YR 4.5/3 m, 6/2.5 d) clay loam ; tongues of Ae penetrate upper 

boundary ; strong, medium subangular blocky ; firm, hard ; few, thin clay 

films . 

Brown (10YR 4/3 m, 6/3 d) clay loam ; compound moderate, coarse 

prismatic and strong, medium blocky ; firm, very hard ; many to continuous, 

thin clay films . 

Brown (1Y 4.5/3 m, 6/2.5 d) clay loam ; compound moderate, coarse 

prismatic and blocky ; firm, very hard ; common, thin clay films . 

Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4.5/3 m, 5.5/2 d) clay loam ; compound 

moderate, coarse prismatic and blocky ; firm, very hard ; few, thin clay films ; 

weakly effervescent . 

Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4.5/2 m, 5.5/2 d) sandy clay loam to clay loam ; 

compound, medium pseudoblocky and coarse pseudoplaty ; firm, very hard ; 

moderately effervescent .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC GRAY LUVISOL COOKING LAKE SERIES 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Particle size Oxalate Dithionite Cation exchange 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Clay 

3A1 b 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

OM 

6A1 a 

N 

6131a 

CaCO, eq 

6E1f 

Fe 

6C5 

AI 

6G6 

Fe 

6C3a 

pH 

8131b 

Ca -I- Mg AI 

5A3b 5A3b 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % % % % % % meq/100g g/cm3 

4-0 L-F 30 1 .0 0 .19 0 .10 0 .68 6 .9 42 0 

0-3 Ah 24 0 .9 0 .14 0 .08 0 .38 6 .6 37 0 

3-8 Ahe 54 34 12 6 1 .6 0 .1 0 .14 0 .06 0 .42 5 .9 6 .3 0 

8-13 Ae1 54 36 10 2 0 .6 0 .0 0 .09 0 .05 0 .36 5 .8 4 .1 0 

13-18 Ae2 50 28 22 9 0 .7 0 .09 0 .08 0 .50 5 .5 10 0 .1 1 .9 

18-23 AB 43 27 30 16 0 .8 0 .09 0 .10 0 .59 5 .1 13 0 .1 1 .9 

23-33 BA 38 26 36 22 0 .8 0.16 0 .18 1 .1 4 .6 17 0 .4 1 .8 

33-74 Bt 40 25 35 22 1 .0 0 .1 0 .20 0 .15 1 .2 4 .8 18 0 .2 1 .9 

74-91 BC 41 26 33 19 0 .8 0 .18 0 .09 1 .1 5 .3 19 0 1 .9 

91-104 BCk 0.9 0.15 0 .06 1 .1 7 -I- 1 .9 

104-117 Ck 46 25 29 16 0 .9 0 .1 6 .0 0 .15 0 .06 1 .0 7 + 

BD 

4A1 b

DARK GRAY LUVISOL DEKALTA SERIES 

Location : NW S 36 T49 R8 W5 - Chip Lake Area, Alberta 

Physiography : Undulating till plain 


Parent material : Moderately calcareous, clayey glacial till 


Climate : Cold Cryoboreal, humid 

Depth 

CM 


L-H 8-0 Deciduous leaf litter and grasses ; pH 6.3 . 

(3-0) 

Ah 0-8 Dark brown (10YR 4/3 m) silt loam to loam ; weak, medium granular ; loose ; 

(0-3) clear, wavy boundary ; 5 to 13 cm (2 to 5 in .) thick ; pH 6.1 . 

Ae 8-18 Pale brown (10YR 6/3 m) silt loam ; strong, fine platy ; friable ; abrupt, 

(3-7) smooth boundary ; 5 to 18 cm (2 to 7 in .) thick ; pH 5.5 . 

AB 18-25 Brown (10YR 5/3 m) loam ; moderate, fine subangular blocky ; friable ; 

(7-10) clear, wavy boundary ; 3 to 13 cm (1 to 5 in .) thick ; pH 5.4 . 

Bt 25-66 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2 m) clay loam ; weak, coarse prismatic, 

(10-26) breaking to strong, medium to coarse blocky ; firm ; clear, wavy boundary ; 

25 to 64 cm (10 to 25 in .) thick ; pH 5.8 . 

BC 66-117 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 m) clay loam ; weak, medium prismatic 

(26-46) breaking to amorphous ; firm ; clear, wavy boundary ; 13 to 76 cm (5 to 

30 in .) thick ; pH 6 .8 . 

Ck 117+ Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2 m) clay loam ; amorphous ; firm ; slightly to 

(46+) moderately stony till ; moderately calcareous ; pH 7.2 .

SOIL TYPE : DARK GRAY LUVISOL DEKALTA SERIES 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Clay 

3A1 b 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

N 

6B1a 

Org . C 

6A2c 

C :N CaCO, eq 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % % % 

8- 0 L-H 6 .3 

0- 8 Ah 29 52 19 12 0.23 3 .58 15 .0 6 .1 

8- 18 Ae 16 65 19 7 0 .04 0 .48 12 .0 5 .5 

18- 25 AB 24 47 29 17 0.04 0 .38 9 .5 5 .4 

25- 66 Bt 31 31 38 28 0 .04 0 .40 10 .0 5 .8 

66-117 BC 34 33 33 23 6 .8 

117+ Ck 35 32 33 22 5 .52 7 .2 


H Na K Ca Mg Capacity 

5B1 b 5131b 5131b 5131b 5B1 b 5A1 b 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % meq/100 g 

8- 0 L-H 16 .4 0 .6 3 .6 68 .6 10 .8 86 .3 

0- 8 Ah 10 .6 1 .6 3 .7 75 .5 8 .6 19 .8 

8- 18 Ae 17 .1 4 .8 46 .7 31 .4 10 .4 

18- 25 AB 11 .0 0 .6 3 .5 68 .0 16 .9 20 .0 

25- 66 Bt 5 .3 0 .9 2 .6 71 .9 19 .3 26 .1 

66-117 BC 0 .4 0 .8 2 .0 81 .9 14 .9 21 .2 

117+ Ck 0.7 1 .3 92 .4 5 .6 19 .3 

6E1b 

pH 

8B1 b

BISEQUA GRAY LUVISOL 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


LF 5-0 

(2-0) 

Ae1 0-1 .5 

(0-'/2) 

Ae2 

1 .5-9 

(%-31/2) 

Bfgj 9-18 

(3'/2-7) 

Btjgj 18-22 

(7-9) 

Ae 22-30 

(9-12) 

Bt 30-39 

(12-15) 

BC 39-57 

(15-22'h ) 

Ck 57-76 

(22'h-30) 

QUEENS SERIES 

Alba Station, Inverness County, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia 

Undulating plain 

Well drained 

Moderately calcareous clay loam glacial till 

Southeastern mixed (Acadian) forest 

Moderately cold Cryoboreal, perhumid 

Loose leaves and twigs partly decomposed in the lower part . 

Pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/2 d, 5/2.5 m) sandy loam ; weak, medium granular ; 

soft, very friable ; clear, wavy boundary . 

White to pinkish white (7 .5YR 8/1 d, 10YR 7/2 m) sandy loam ; few, 

distinct mottles (10YR 6/2-7/3 d) ; weak, medium platy becoming 

amorphous near base ; slightly hard, friable ; becoming hard, firm near base ; 

few gravels ; many roots at top, fewer at base ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/3 d, 5/2.5 m) loam ; some ped surfaces 5YR 4/3 m ; 

common, fine and medium, distinct mottles 7.5YR 5/5 to 5/3 d ; some pores 

lined with grayish silt ; amorphous at surface becoming weak, fine blocky 

with depth ; hard, friable ; few roots ; few stones ; clear, wavy boundary . 

Light brown to pink (7.5YR 6 .5/4 d, 7 .5YR 5/3 m) loam ; many ped surfaces 

5YR 4/2 moist ; common, distinct mottles 7.5YR 5/5 to 5/3 dry ; some large 

voids lined with grayish silt ; moderate, fine subangular blocky ; hard ; 

friable to firm, clear, wavy boundary . 

Pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/2 d, 8.5YR 5/3 m) loam ; few,distinct mottles 10YR 

5/4 dry ; many large voids lined with grayish silt ; weak, fine subangular 

blocky ; slightly hard, friable ; few stones ; few roots ; abrupt, irregular 

boundary. 

Light brown to brown (7 .5YR 5 .5/4 d, 5YR 4/3 m) clay loam ; light grayish 

tongues of Ae extend down some vertical channels ; distinct, shiny argillans 

(some dark brown, others yellowish brown) coat many ped faces and line 

many pores ; numerous black specks, possibly Mn0z ; weak, coarse blocky ; 

extremely hard, firm ; some stones ; some fine roots ; diffuse lower boundary . 

Brown to reddish brown (6.5YR 5/4 d, 5YR 4/2.5 m) clay loam ; distinct, 

shiny argillans along major channels ; faint, fine mottling within peds ; very 

weak, coarse blocky ; extremely hard, firm ; roots along major channels ; 

some stones ; gradual, wavy boundary . 

Light brown to brown (7.5YR 5.5/4 d, 5YR 4/3 m) clay loam ; some white 

flecks of lime ; distinct argillans in very few pores ; amorphous ; extremely 

hard, very firm ; few, fine roots in cracks ; some stones usually with horizontal 

orientation ; compact, calcareous glacial till .

SOIL TYPE : BISEQUA GRAY LUVISOL 

Very 

coarse Coarse Medium 

sand sand sand 

3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 

Fine 

sand 

3A16 

QUEENS SERIES 

Particle size 

Very 

fine Coarse Medium Fine 

sand 

silt 

silt 

silt 

3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 

Coarse 

clay 

3A1 b 

Fine 

clay 

3A1 b 

Total 

sand 

3A1 b 

Total 

silt 

3A1 b 

Total 

clay 

3A1 b fraction 3A1 fineb 

Total 

epth cm orizon % % % % 

% 

1 .5-9 Ae2 4 .6 7 .1 6 .9 11 15 24 20 5 .6 3 .5 1 .7 45 50 5 .2 33 

9-18 Bfgj 4 .9 6 .5 5 .6 8 .2 13 24 17 6 .1 8 .9 4 .5 40 46 14 33 

18-22 Btjgj 5 .2 7 .4 6 .1 8 .6 12 20 15 5 .6 9 .9 9 .7 40 40 20 50 

22-30 Ae 4 .5 6 .6 6 .2 9 .2 13 22 15 5 .2 8 .8 7 .1 41 43 16 44 

30-39 Bt 4.2 5 .3 4 .7 7 .0 10 17 13 5 .3 14 18 32 36 32 56 

39-57 BC 3 .5 5 .2 4 .6 6 .9 9 .2 18 15 5 .8 13 18 30 38 31 58 

57-76 Ck 3 .8 4 .5 4 .4 6 .8 8 .8 18 16 6 .1 15 17 29 40 31 53 

Dithionite-citrate Oxalate Cation exchange 

BD Org . C CaC03 eq Fe AI Fe AI pH Ca + Mg AI Base sat . Capacity 

4A1 h 6A1 b 6E1f 6C3 6G5 6C5 6G6 8131b 5A3b 5A3b 5A3b 5A6 

Depth cm Horizon g/cm3 % % % % % % meq/100 g % meq/100 g 

0-1 .5 Ae1 1 .8 5 .0 0 .0 0 .50 0 .15 0 .20 0 .11 3 .53 2 .2 2 .2 50 9 .2 

1 .5-9 Ae2 1 .8 1 .2 0 .0 0 .19 0 .08 0.07 0 .07 3 .70 1 .6 2 .2 42 6 .5 

9-18 Bfgj 1 .7 1 .3 0 .0 1 .37 0 .17 0 .76 0 .24 3 .75 2 .2 4 .6 32 12 .3 

18-22 Btjgj 1 .0 0 .0 1 .25 0 .23 0 .54 0 .30 3 .92 1 .9 3 .2 37 11 .6 

22-30 Ae 0 .6 0 .0 0 .98 0 .20 0 .38 0 .22 4 .06 1 .5 1 .8 45 7 .6 

30-39 Bt 1 .9 0 .3 0 .0 1 .46 0 .25 0 .31 0 .32 4 .12 3 .6 2 .3 61 11 .7 

39-57 BC 1 .9 0 .3 0 .3 1 .33 0 .14 0 .17 0 .16 6 .18 11 .4 0.0 100 13 .4 

57-76 Ck 2 .0 0 .3 9 .5 1 .11 0 .10 0 .12 0.11 7 .66

GLEYED ORTHIC HUMIC PODZOL RICHIBUCTO CATENA 

Location : One mile east of Rexton on Richibucto Village Road, New Brunswick 

Physiography : Gently undulating alluvium 

Drainage : Imperfectly drained 

Parent material : Stratified loamy sand to sandy loam alluvium 

Vegetation : Eastern mixed wood, black spruce, white spruce, balsam, birch 

Climate : Moderately cool Boreal, perhumid 

Depth 

Cm 


LF 27-25 

(10.5-10) 

Litter of poorly decomposed needles and moss . 

H 

Ae 

25-0 Black (N 2/m) well-decomposed organic material ; pleniful roots ; abrupt, 

(10-0) smooth boundary . 

0-8 Reddish gray (5YR 5/2 -I- 3 .5/1 m,10YR 5 .5/2d) loamysand ; amorphous ; 

(0-3) compact, weakly cemented ; few roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Bhc1 8-15 Black (5YR 2/1 m) loamy sand ; weak, fine granular ; weakly cemented ; 

(3-6) very few roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Bhc2 15-23 Very dusky red (1 .5YR 2/2 m, 7.5YR 3 .5/3 d) loamy sand ; amorphous ; 

(6-9) very weakly cemented ; no roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Bh 

Bg 

23-30 Dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2 -}- 7 .5YR 4/3 m, 7.5YR 5/5 d) loamy sand ; 

(9-12) amorphous ; friable, firm ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

30-38 Reddish brown (5YR 4/5 + 7.5YR 4/4 m, 10YR 5.5/4 d) loamy sand ; 

(12-15) many, coarse, prominent brown (10YR 5/3 m) mottles ; amorphous ; 

friab e ; diffuse, smooth boundary . 

Cgl 53-66 Olive gray (5Y 5/2.5 m, 6/2 d) loamy sand ; amorphous ; friable ; abrupt, 

(21-26) smooth boundary . 

IICg 81-91 Brown (7 .5YR 5/1 m, 10YR 6/2 d) sandy loam ; amorphous ; friable . 

(32-36)

SOIL TYPE : GLEYED ORTHIC HUMIC PODZOL RICHIBUCTO CATENA 

Depth cm Horizon % 

0- 8 Ae 73 .4 

8-15 Bhc1 90 .0 

15-23 Bhc2 91 .8 

23-30 Bh 94 .5 

30-38 Bg 

53-66 Cg1 89 .5 

81-91 IICg 


Sand Silt 

3A1 b 3A1 b 

Ca + Mg 

5A3b 

0- 8 Ae 1 .6 

8-15 Bhc1 2 .2 

15-23 Bhc2 1 .7 

23-30 Bh 1 .2 

30-38 Bg 0 .6 

53-66 Cg1 0 .7 

81-91 IICg 1 .9 

Particle size Oxalate Dithionite 

% 

7 .0 

4 .4 

5 .4 

2 .4 

3 .0 

Fine clay* 

3A1 b 

OM 

6A1 a 

Fe 

6C5 

AI 

6G6 

Fe 

6C3 

AI 

6G4 

pH 

8131b 

6 .4 1 .75 0 .01 0.14 0 .04 0 .18 3 .74 

3 .3 9 .62 0.04 0 .66 0 .14 0 .79 3 .76 

2 .9 6 .57 0 .05 0 .63 0 .15 0 .72 4 .10 

1 .6 2 .80 0.05 0 .42 0.16 0 .46 4 .17 

1 .10 0 .06 0 .30 0 .23 0 .31 4 .38 

2 .5 0 .59 0.07 0 .28 0 .27 0 .26 4 .62 

' G 1Am 0.21 0 .08 0 .12 0 .45 0 .14 4 .58 


AI Capacity Base sat . Capacity Base sat. 

5A3b 5A3b 5A3b 5A6 5A6 

meq/100 g % meq/100 g % 

3 .6 5 .2 3 .1 13 .4 

5 .6 7 .8 28 32 .5 

4 .4 6 .1 28 31 .3 

2 .2 3 .4 35 15 .3 

1 .4 2 .0 30 9 .2 

0 .8 1 .4 50 6 .0 

0 .8 2 .7 70 5 .5 

12 

7 

5 

8 

7 

12 

35

ORTHIC FERRO-HUMIC PODZOL 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


L-H 5-0 

(2-0) 

Ae 0-8 

(0-3) 

Bhf Bfh 8-33 

(3-13) 

Bm 33-58 

(13-23) 

BCx 58-76 

(23-30) 

C 76+ 

(30-I-) 

RODNEY SERIES 

Three miles north of Westchester, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia 

Undulating ground moraine 

Well drained 

Gravelly sandy loam till mainly derived from carboniferous gray sandstones, 

and red conglomerate, with some acid igneous material 

Mixed wood, red spruce, birch and shrubs 

Moderately cool Boreal, perhumid to humid 

Felty mor ; moss, twig and needle litter and semidecomposed material ; 

bound tightly by roots and fungal hyphae ; incipient H layer ; abrupt, 

smooth boundary ; pH 3.8 . 

Weak red (2.5YR 4/2 m) gravelly fine sandy loam ; weak, fine subangular 

blocky ; very friable ; many, fine, tubular and interstitial pores ; abundant 

roots ; 40% by volume of subangular stones of all sizes ; horizon 5-15 cm 

(2-6 in .) thick ; clear, smooth boundary ; pH 4.1 . 

Yellowish red (5YR 4/7 m) fine sandy loam ; strong, fine granular ; friable 

and rather fluffy ; many, very fine, interstitial pores ; abundant roots ; 15% 

subangular stones and cobbles ; clear, wavy boundary ; pH 4.8 . 

Reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4 m) fine sandy loam ; compound weak, coarse 

platy and moderate, fine subangular blocky ; common, very fine, tubular 

and vesicular pores ; few roots ; 25% subangular sandstone and crystalline 

cobbles ; gradual boundary ; pH 4.9 . 

Reddish brown (5YR 4/3 m) gravelly fine sandy loam ; moderate, coarse 

platy ; common, very fine, vesicular pores and planar voids ; very few roots ; 

20% sandstone and crystalline stones and cobbles ; with rounded 

conglomerate gravel ; gradual boundary ; pH 5 .0 . 

Reddish brown (5YR 4/3 m) gravelly sandy loam ; weak, coarse 

pseudoplaty ; common, very fine, interstitial pores ; no roots ; 20% sandstone 

and crystalline stones and weathered conglomerates ; pH 5.0 .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC FERRO-HUMIC PODZOL RODNEY SERIES 


Gravel 

3A1 b 

% 

Coarse & 

medium 

sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size Oxalate Dithionite pH 

Fine sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% % 

5- 0 L-H 79 .9 3 .8 3 .0 

0- 8 Ae 52 .3 23 .8 30 .5 41 .7 4 .0 1 .9 0 .05 0 .12 1 .04 0 .14 4 .1 4 .0 

8-18 Bhf 28 .8 25 .4 32 .6 35 .6 6 .4 12 .4 1 .21 2 .20 2 .46 2 .08 4 .6 4 .4 

18-33 Bfh 26 .7 22 .3 30 .4 42 .2 5 .1 7 .7 0 .71 1 .04 1 .88 1 .24 4 .8 4 .4 

33-58 Bm 20 .2 18 .9 32 .8 43 .6 4 .7 1 .9 0 .13 0 .59 1 .40 0 .46 4 .9 4 .4 

58-76 BCx 21 .9 21 .3 37 .5 36 .8 4 .4 1 .4 0 .14 0 .54 1 .38 0 .43 5 .0 4.7 

76 + C 27 .9 23 .3 29 .5 41 .6 5 .6 1 .1 0 .11 0 .48 1 .48 0 .38 5 .0 4 .7 


Capacity 

5A1 a 

Acidity 

5A3a 


Ca 

5B1b 

Mg 

5B1b 

meq/ 100 g 

K 

5B1b 

Ignition 

loss 

% 

Capacity 

5A3b 

Fe 

6C5 

% 

Base sat . 

5- 0 L-H 19 .5 18 .4 0 .8 0 .2 0 .1 18 .1 98 

0- 8 Ae 8 .9 6 .6 1 .7 0 .5 0 .1 3 .2 52 

8-18 Bhf 9 .1 7 .0 1 .3 0 .5 0 .3 2 .4 49 

18-33 Bfh 6 .6 6 .4 0 .0 0 .0 0 .1 2 .2 52 

33-58 Bm 4 .6 4 .4 0 .0 0 .0 0 .1 1 .1 51 

58-76 BCx 4 .2 3 .8 0 .2 0 .1 0 .1 0 .7 81 

76 + C 0 .9 75 

5A3b 

% 

AI 

6G6 

Fe 

6C3 

AI 

6G5 

H 20 

8B1 b 

CaCI2 

8B1d

ORTHIC HUMO-FERRIC PODZOL HOLMESVILLE SERIES 

Location : Gillespie settlement - 4 miles S of Grand Falls, N .B . 47° N 67°40' W 

Physiography : Undulating ground moraine 


Parent material : Gravelly moderately coarse (sandy loam) till 

Vegetation : Mixed forest, balsam, maple, birch, and shrubs 

Climate : Boreal cool, perhumid 

Depth 

cm 


L- H 10-0 Moderately and well-decomposed litter of needles and twigs . 

(4-0) 

Ae 0-13 Pinkish gray (5YR 6.5/1 m, 8/1 d) silt loam ; very weak, medium platy ; 

(0-5) very friable ; plentiful roots ; abrupt, irregular boundary ; intermittent 

evidence of tree-throws ; extremely acid . 

Bfh 13-38 Yellowish red to strong brown (5YR to 7 .5YR 5/6 m, 8.5YR 6/5 d) silt 

(5-15) loam ; moderate, medium granular ; very friable ; plentiful to few roots ; 

abrupt, wavy boundary ; very strongly acid . 

Bf 38-84 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/5 m, 10YR 7/4 d) sandy loam ; weak, fine 

(15-33) granular ; very friable ; plentiful to few roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary ; 

medium acid . 

BC 84-180 Light olive brown (2.5Y 5/3 m, 6/2 d) sandy loam ; very weak, fine granular 

(33-71) to amorphous ; friable ; few roots ; some pebbles ; clear smooth boundary . 

C 180-206 Dark grayish brown (2 .5Y 4.5/2 m, 6 .5/2 d) gravelly sandy loam ; 

(71-81) pseudoplaty ; slightly firm and compact ; medium acid .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC HUMO-FERRIC PODZOL HOLMESVILLE SERIES 


Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size Dithionite Oxalate pH 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% 

Fine clay 

3A1 b 

0- 13 Ae 24 .7 8 .5 6 .5 1 .88 0 .18 0 .16 0 .05 0 .15 3 .3 

13- 38 Bfh 31 .4 16 .8 12 .7 7 .26 3 .26 1 .40 2 .60 1 .38 4 .3 

38- 84 Bf 55 .4 7 .8 5 .6 2 .13 1 .22 0 .79 0 .56 1 .01 4 .9 

84-180 B C 

180-206 C 59 .0 9 .9 3 .5 0 .22 0 .56 0 .38 0 .18 0 .18 5 .1 

OM 

6A1 a 


Acetate 

Ca -I- Mg AI Capacity Base sat . Capacity Base sat . 

5A3b 5A3b 5A3b 5A3b 5A6 5A6 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % meq/100 g % 

0- 13 Ae 1 .7 5 .7 7 .4 23 14 .7 12 

13- 38 Bfh 1 .5 4 .1 5 .6 27 28 .0 5 

38- 84 Bf 0 .6 0 .9 1 .5 40 9 .8 6 

84-180 B C 

180-206 C 0 .5 0 .1 0 .6 83 4 .6 11 

Fe 

6C3 

AI 

6G5 

Fe 

6C5 

AI 

6G6 

% 

CaCl2 

8131d

ORTHIC MELANIC BRUNISOL 

Location : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ah 0-9 

(0-3'h) 

Bm1 9-22 

(3Y,-9) 

Bm2 22-34 

(9-13) 

Ck 34-41 

(13-16) 

IICk 41+ 

(16+) 

HARKAWAY SERIES 

Lot 10, Concession 14, Kepple Township, Grey County, Ontario . 

Moderately undulating till plain 

Well drained 

Loamy-skeletal, moderately calcareous glacial till 

Hardwood forest, maple, beech 

Mild Mesic, humid 

Black (10YR 2/1 m) loam ; strong, coarse and medium granular ; friable ; 

about 5% stone ; 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in .) thick ; clear, smooth boundary . 

Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 coatings, 3.5/3 matrix) loam with a few black 

worm casts ; moderate, medium and fine subangular blocky ; friable ; 10 to 

13 cm (4 to 5 in .) thick ; clear, smooth boundary . 

Dark-brown (10YR 3/3 coatings, 4/3 crushed) loam containing fewer 

organic coatings and worm casts than in horizon above ; weak, coarse and 

fine subangular blocky ; friable ; about 5% stone, abrupt, wavy boundary . 

Dark yellowish brown (1 Y 4.5/4, 10YR 5/4 crushed) loam containing about 

30% of stone ghosts (10YR 7/4) ; weak, medium and fine subangular 

pseudoblocky ; friable ; 5 to 10% stone, range 3 to 8 cm (1 to 3 in .) thick ; 

weakly calcareous ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Brown (10YR 4/3 and 5/3, 4.5/3 .5 crushed) gravelly loam ; weak, medium 

subangular pseudoblocky ; friable, about 40% of rock ; moderately 

calcareous . 

There is indication of a stone line at a depth of 41 cm (16 in .) All colors given are for the 

moist condition .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC MELANIC BRUNISOL HARKAWAY SERIES 


Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle s :ze Dithionite Oxalate Cation exchange 

Clay 

3A1 b 

% 

Fine clay` 

3A1 b 

% 

OM 

6A1 a 

% 

Fe 

6C3 

% 

AI 

6G5 

% 

Fe 

6C5 

% 

AI 

6G6 

% 

pH 

8131d 

Capacity 

5A3b 

Ca -h Mg 

5A3b 

meq/100g 

0-9 Ah 30 .3 14 .2 9 .4 15 .0 1 .28 0 .34 0 .38 0 .34 6.5 29 .8 29 .8 37 .0 

9-22 Bm1 29 .4 17 .3 14 .4 2 .8 1 .51 0 .34 0 .39 0 .36 6.7 13 .8 13 .8 17 .8 

22-34 Bm2 1 .6 1 .14 0 .26 0 .32 0 .29 7 .1 11 .7 11 .7 14 .6 

34-41 Ck 50 .8 7 .8 7 .0 0 .2 0 .64 0 .11 0 .14 0 .07 

41 -I- I ICk 

'

ORTHIC EUTRIC BRUNISOL MACKENZIE SERIES 

Location : 61'21' N 118°34' W, West of Fort Providence, NWT 

Altitude : 550 ft (168 m) ASL 

Physiography : Alluvial terrace of Mackenzie River 


Parent material : Moderately fine textured, moderately calcareous alluvium 

Vegetation : Mixed forest . White spruce, aspen, white birch, and shrubs 

Climate : Subarctic to cold Cryoboreal, humid to subhumid 

Depth 

cm 


L- F 3-0 Litter of leaves and twigs . 

(1-0) 

Aej 0-1 Light gray (10YR 7/2 d) clay loam ; weak, fine granular ; soft ; abrupt, 

(0-0 .5) smooth boundary. 

Bm 1-25 Brown and yellowish brown (10YR 5/3 and 5/4 m, 6/3 d) clay loam ; weak, 

(0.5-10) fine granular ; plastic, slightly sticky ; noncalcareous ; abrupt, smooth, 

boundary . 

BC 25-43 Brown (10YR 5/3 m, 6/3 d) clay loam ; weak, fine granular ; plastic, 

(10-17) slightly sticky ; moderately calcareous ; clear, smooth boundary . 

Ck 43-91 Stratified silt loam ; each lamina about 3 mm (0 .1 in .) thick with yellowish 

(17-36) brown (10YR 5/4 m) upper surface and dark gray (10YR 4/1 m) below ; 

upper surface slightly sandier than the gray layer ; plastic, slightly sticky ; 

moderately calcareous .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC EUTRIC BRUNISOL MACKENZIE SERIES 


1-25 

25-43 

43-91 

Bm 

BC 

Ck 

OM 

6A1 a 

% 

1 .3 

1 .2 

1 .0 

Dithionite Oxalate Easily Cation exchange Perma- 

Total soluble Mois- nent Est . 

Fe AI Fe AI N P 

pH 

Capacity ture eq wilting BD 

6C3 

% 

1 .36 

1 .00 

1 .01 

6G5 

% 

0.19 

0.09 

0.11 

6C5 

0 .30 

0 .28 

0 .36 

6G6 

0 .15 

0 .09 

0 .10 

6131a 

0 .06 

0 .06 

0 .04 

6T1 

ppm 

0 .8 

0 .5 

0 .8 

8131b 

6 .1 

8 .1 

8 .1 

8131d 

5 .9 

7 .9 

7 .8 

5A3b 5A6 

meq/100g 

% 

21 .6 25 .2 23 .4 

23 .3 

27 .6 

% 

11 .9 

8.0 

11 .4 

g/cm3 

1 .2 

1 .2 

1 .2

CRYIC EUTRIC BRUNISOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


L 3-0 

(1-0) 

Ah 

Bm1 0-15 

(0-6) 

Bm2 15-25 

(6-10) 

B C 25-69 

(10-27) 

CZ 69-98 

(27-38 .5) 

68°20' N 133°20' W, 1'/2 miles east of Inuvik, NWT 

Approx 200 ft (61 m) AS L 

Gently to moderately sloping upland plains 

Well drained 

Moderately fine textured, weakly calcareous glacial till 

Forest - tundra transition, including Picea mariana (Mill .) BSP, Betula 

pumila L, Alnus crispa (Ait .) Pursh, and Salix glauca L . 

Arctic, humid with significant Aquic inclusions 

Litter of leaves and twigs, slightly decomposed at the lower limit. 

A very dark brown (10YR 2.5/2 m) mineral horizon high in organic matter ; 

ranges from a trace to 1 cm (0 .5 in .) thick ; field pH 4.5 . 

Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4 m) silty clay loam ; moderate, fine to medium 

granular ; friable ; clear, smooth boundary ; pH 4.5 . 

Dark grayish brown (1YR 4/2 m) clay loam ; moderate, fine granular ; 

slightly plastic ; a few black pebbles ; gradual, smooth boundary ; pH 5.8 . 

Very dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 m) silty clay ; a few pebbles ; very weak, 

fine granular to amorphous ; plastic ; diffuse, smooth boundary ; pH 6.8 . 

Very dark grayish brown (2.5Y 3/2 m) clay loam ; arnorphous ; frozen, many 

small disseminated ice crystals ; very plastic and sticky when thawed ; 

ph 7 .7 .

SOIL TYPE : 


CRYIC EUTRIC BRUNISOL 

Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size 

Oxalate 

Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Fine OM N CA CaC0, eq Fe AI pH 

silt 

silt 

silt clay clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

3A1 b 6A1 a 6131a 6E1f 6C5 6G6 8B1 b 

0-15 Bm1 19 .4 12 .2 17 .9 11 .1 20 .5 18 .8 2 .9 0 .12 14 0 .66 0 .19 4 .5 

15-25 Bm2 21 .6 12 .4 19 .6 13 .1 24 .8 8 .5 2 .1 0 .10 12 0 .63 0 .21 5 .8 

25-69 BC 18 .8 13 .9 15 .7 13 .9 28 .9 13 .2 2 .4 0 .11 13 0 .57 0 .17 6 .8 

69-94 Cz 31 .1 11 .0 15 .0 9 .0 23 .4 11 .6 1 .9 0 .08 14 1 .7 0 .48 0 .12 7 .7 

94-98 Cz 27 .5 13 .5 15 .0 10.8 19 .5 13 .7 7 .7 0 .08 12 0 .53 0 .16 7.7 

Depth cm 

Horizon 

Capacity 

5A1 b 

Ca 

5131b 

Cation exchage 

Mg 

5B1 b 

meq/100 g 

K 

5B1 b 

Na 

513115 

Base sat . 

0-15 Bm1 24 .5 11 .0 4 .5 0 .3 0 .1 65 

15-25 Bm2 25 .9 16 .5 5 .8 0 .2 0 .1 87 

25-69 BC 27 .9 19 .0 5 .7 0 .2 0 .1 90 

69-94 Cz 17 .2 17 .5 4 .0 0 .3 0 .1 

94-98 Cz 15 .4 15 .9 3 .0 0 .4 0 .1 

5B1 b 

%

ORTHIC DYSTRIC BRUNISOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 

Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


F-H 3-0 

(1-0) 

Bm1 0-25 

(0-10) 

Bm2 25-88 

(10-35) 

C 88-100 

(35-39) 

ROYSTON SERIES 

Two miles south of Union Bay, Vancouver Island, B.C . 

100 ft (30 m) ASL 

Irregularly sloping till plain, slightly modified by marine environment during 

postglacial uplift 

Well drained 

Red cedar, red alder, red maple, ferns ; very productive coastal forest 

Mild Mesic, subhumid, modified by maritime influence 

Thin moderately well to well-decomposed litter . 

Dark brown (8.OYR 4/4 m, 5/6 d) loam ; weak, fine subangular blocky and 

weak, medium granular ; many -coarse to fine concretions ; soft, very firm 

or very hard concretions ; clear, smooth boundary ; pH 5.0. 

Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4 m, 5/6 d) loam ; weak, fine subangular 

blocky and weak, medium granular ; few, fine concretions ; soft, very firm 

or very hard concretions ; the number of concretions diminishes with depth ; 

clear, smooth boundary ; ph 5.1 . 

Brown (10YR 3 .5/2 m, 5.5/3 d) loam ; amorphous ; firm, hard ; about 10% 

stone ; pH 5.3 .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC DYSTRIC BRUNISOL ROYSTON SERIES 


Org . C 

6A2c 

% 

Fe 

6C5 

% 

Oxalate* Sodium pyrophosphate Cation exchange 

AI 

Fe 

AI 

pH 

Amorphous 

AI 

pH 

Capacity Ca -i- Mg 

6G6 

% 

6C6 

% 

6G7 

% 

6G8 8131b 

8131d 

5A3b 

5A3b 

meq/100 g 

3- 0 F-H 

0- 25 Bm1 1 .63 0 .72 0 .41 0 .33 0 .35 10 .3 5 .0 4 .5 3 .7 3 .4 11 .3 

25- 88 Bm2 1 .04 0 .64 0 .55 0 .29 0 .20 10 .8 5 .1 4 .6 3 .3 3 .1 10 .7 

88-100 C 0 .36 0 .58 0 .16 0 .12 0.10 9 .1 5 .3 4 .5 8 .5 8 .2 13 .5 

Capacity 

CaOAc 

5A6

ORTHIC REGOSOL WHITEHORSE SERIES 

Location : 60°50' N 135°10' W. Near confluence of Takhini and Yukon rivers north 

of Whitehorse, Y.T . 

Altitude : 2,200 ft (670 m) ASL 

Physiography : Undulating to rolling dunes on a wind-modified glaciofluvial plain 

Drainage : Well to excessive 

Parent material : Sandy eolian glaciofluvial deposit 

Vegetation : Sparse productive to nonproductive lodgepole pine with bearberry, grass, 

and rose, patches of bare soil 

Climate : Subarctic very cold, humid to subhumid 

Depth 

cm 


Ahj 0-5 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4.5/2 d) loamy sand ; single grain ; soft ; pH 6.8 . 

(0-2) 

C 5-15 Light gray to white (10YR 7/2 and 8/2 d) sandy loam ; single grain ; soft ; 

(2-6) contains a wavy layer of gray volcanic ash . 

Ck1 15-38 Pale olive (5Y 6/3 d) loamy sand ; soft ; single grain ; coherent in situ ; 

(6-15) weakly calcareous ; pH 8.2 . 

Ck2 38-63 Light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4 d) loamy sand ; weakly calcareous ; 

(15-25) pH 8.6 . 

Ck3 63-91 Light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2 d, 6/4 m) loamy sand ; weakly calcareous ; 

(25-36) pH 8 .7 . 

Ck4 91-}- Gray, weakly calcareous sand ; pH 8.7 . 

(36+)

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC REGOSOL WHITEHORSE SERIES 

OM 

6A1 a 

N 

6131a 

CA Total P 

6S1 a 

CaCO3 eq 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % 

0-5 Ahj 1 .6 0 .05 19 0 .04 6 .8 

5-15 C 

15-38 Ck1 0 .6 0 .03 12 0.03 0 .3 8 .2 

38-63 Ck2 0 .3 0 .01 17 0 .03 0 .2 8 .6 

63-91 Ck3 0 .1 0 .01 6 0.03 0 .4 8 .7 

91 + Ck4 0 .1 0 .02 3 0.03 0 .2 8 .7 

6E1f 

pH 

8131a

SALINE ORTHIC REGOSOL BIG MUDDY ASSOCIATION 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

Cm 


Ahskl 0-8 

(0-3) 

Ahsk2 8-15 

(3-6) 

Csk1 15-30 

(6-12) 

Csk2 30-43 

(12-17) 

Csk3 43-102 

(17-40) 

NE S11 T8 R29, W 2nd-Willow Bunch Lake Area, 72H, Saskatchewan 

2,000 ft (610 m) AS L 

Very gently undulating alluvial plain 

Moderately well drained 

Moderately fine textured sandy clay loam, weakly calcareous, saline, 

alluvium 

Pasture, sparse growth of salt-tolerant grasses and forbs 

Cool to moderately cool Boreal, semiarid to subarid 

Gray (5Y 5/1 d, 4/2 m) loam ; weak, fine subangular blocky crushes to 

granular ; soft ; weakly calcareous ; saline crust on surface . 

Gray (5Y 5/1 d, 2.5Y 3/2 m) clay loam to sandy clay loam ; very weak 

prismatic crushing to granular ; soft ; weakly calcareous . 

Light olive gray (5Y 6/2 d, 4/3 m) sandy clay loam ; amorphous ; soft ; 

weakly calcareous . 

Light olive gray (5Y 6/2 d, 4/3 m) sandy clay loam ; amorphous ; soft ; 

weakly calcareous . 

Light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2 d, 5Y 4/3 m) sandy clay loam ; amorphous ; 

soft ; weakly calcareous .

SOIL TYPE : SALINE ORTHIC REGOSOL BIG MUDDY ASSOCIATION 


Particle size 

Coarse & 

medium Fine Very fine Total Total Fine Org . C N CaC0, eq pH 


Silt 

clay clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

0- 8 Ahsk1 14 .1 14 .4 17 .2 45 .7 27 .3 26 .8 16 .3 2 .17 0.13 5 .80 8 .3 

8- 15 Ahsk2 11 .0 14 .1 18 .5 43 .6 23 .8 32 .4 20 .2 1 .94 0 .13 7 .25 8 .4 

15- 30 Csk1 17 .5 21 .7 21 .5 60 .7 17 .5 21 .5 13 .8 6 .40 8 .5 

30- 43 Csk2 21 .4 18 .6 18 .4 58 .4 19 .6 21 .6 14 .3 5 .90 8 .4 

43-102 Csk3 21 .1 21 .9 16 .3 59 .3 18 .9 21 .7 13 .8 6 .15 8 .4 

Saturation extract 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

Ca Mg K Na EC H 20 at sat . 

6N1a 601a 6Q1 a 6P1a 5B1 b 5131b 

Depth cm Horizon meq/litre mmhos/cm % 

0- 8 Ahsk1 26 .5 146 .7 9 .2 1030 .0 51 .8 52 .8 

8- 15 Ahsk2 23 .2 134 .1 4 .6 617.8 35 .4 63 .6 

15- 30 Csk1 16 .4 113 .1 2 .5 456 .5 28 .0 50.8 

30- 43 Csk2 17 .1 109 .3 2 .0 413.0 27 .6 50 .4 

43-102 Csk3 20 .7 151 .6 2 .4 449.0 30 .5 46 .4 

% 

3A16 

% 

6A1 a 

% 

6131a 

% 

6E1d 

% 

8B1 b

CUMULIC REGOSOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


L-F 5-0 

(2-0) 

Ah 0-18 

(0-7) 

Ck1 18-43 

(7-17) 

Ck2 43-102 

(17-40) 

LITTLE BUFFALO SERIES 

Slave River Lowland, NWT 60°06' N 112'16'W 

About 575 ft (175 m) ASL 

Alluvial terrace of Slave River 

Well drained, low surface runoff 

Loamy calcareous alluvium, rich in organic matter 

Mixed forest ; white spruce, black poplar, trembling aspen, willow 

Subarctic to cold Cryoboreal, humid to subhumid 

Litter of leaves and twigs, somewhat decomposed at lower edge . 

Very dark gray (5YR 3/1 m) loam ; moderate, fine granular ; friable ; 

noncalcareous ; clear, smooth boundary. 

Dark grayish brown (2 .5Y 4/2 m) interstratified loam and silt loam ; fine 

pseudoplaty ; friable ; weakly calcareous ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m) loam and silt loam plus black (5Y 2/1 m) 

streaks of organic matter ; stratified ; friable ; weakly calcareous .

SOIL TYPE : CUMULIC REGOSOL LITTLE BUFFALO SERIES 


OM 

6A1 a 

% 

N 

6131a 

Soluble P 

6T1 

Calcite 

6E1f 

CaCO, eq Fabric analyses 

Dolomite 

6E1f 8B1b 

pH 

8B1d 

Moisture eq Wilting BD 

0- 18 Ah 10 .5 0.44 13 .9 6 .9 6 .6 41 .4 17 .0 0 .8 

18- 43 Ck1 5 .2 0.33 2 .5 0 .8 0 .4 7 .5 7 .4 33 .1 15 .3 1 .0 

43-102 Ck2 7 .7 0.25 2 .0 0 .9 0 .2 8 .1 8 .0 34 .5 16 .3 0 .8 

4A3a 

g/cm3

CRYIC CUMULIC REGOSOL 

Location : 68°42' N, 134'07'W . Two miles east of Reindeer Depot, NWT 

Altitude : 550 ft (167 m) ASL 

Physiography : On crest and eastern flank of Caribou Hills gently to moderately undulating 

till plain with rough microtopography 


Parent material : Noncalcareous clay to clay loam till containing a few pebbles and cobbles 

Vegetation : Tundra . Betula glandulosa, Eriphorum vaginatum, Ledum palustris, 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Vaccinium liginosum, Empetrum nigrum 

Climate : Arctic extremely cold, humid with significant aquic inclusions 

Depth 

cm 


L 8-6 Litter of twigs and leaves . 

(3-2 .5) 

H 6-0 Reddish black (10R 2/1 m) muck . 

(2.5-0) 

C1 0-3 Very dark brown (10YR 3/2 m) silty clay ; very weak, very fine pseudo- 

(0-1) granular ; pH 5.5 . 

C2 3-18 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2 m) clay loam ; weak, fine pseudo- 

(1-7) granular ; friable ; a few pebbles ; diffuse boundary ; pH 5.3 . 

C3 18-36 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2 m) silty clay ; moderate, fine pseudo- 

(7-14) granular ; friable ; noncalcareous ; a few pebbles ; pH 6.0 . 

Cz1 36-53 Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2 m) clay ; weak, fine pseudogranular ; 

(14-21) noncalcareous ; frozen, segregated ice lenses 0.3 to 0.5 cm (0 .1 to 0.2 in .) 

thick ; pH 5.8 . 

Cz2 53-63 Color and structure as above ; pH 6.0 . 

(21-25)

SOIL TYPE : 


CRYIC CUMULIC REGOSOL 

Sand 

3A1 b 

% 

Particle size 

Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Fine 

silt 

silt 

silt clay clay 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

3A1 b 

% 

OM 

6A1 a 

% 

N 

6131a 

% 

CA Fe 

6- 0 H 1 .56 0 .2 0 .12 4 .8 

0- 3 C1 15 .0 10 .7 19 .1 12 .1 21 .9 21 .3 16 .5 0 .53 18 0 .47 0 .21 5 .5 

3-18 C2 21 .0 12 .0 19 .0 8 .9 23 .5 15 .6 5 .0 0 .14 21 0 .55 0 .18 5 .3 

18-36 C3 17 .8 11 .0 20 .0 8 .4 23 .4 19 .4 5 .2 0 .17 19 0 .77 0 .19 6 .0 

36-53 Cz1 18 .7 8 .6 15 .0 9 .0 23 .4 25 .3 10 .6 0 .31 20 0 .92 0 .21 5 .8 

53-63 Cz2 18 .0 10 .1 15 .6 10 .1 23 .0 23.2 8.1 0 .22 21 1 .15 0 .19 6 .0 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na Base sat . 

5A4 5131b 5B1b 5B1 b 5B1 b 5C3 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100 g % 

6- 0 H 

0- 3 C1 46 .2 22 .2 7 .4 0 .4 0 .1 65 

3-18 C2 25 .0 12 .8 5 .7 0 .2 0 .1 75 

18-36 C3 26 .1 16 .9 6 .9 0 .2 0 .1 92 

36-53 Cz1 34 .9 19 .0 5 .9 0 .4 0 .1 73 

53-63 Cz2 30 .7 20 .0 7 .3 0 .2 0 .1 90 

6C5 

% 

Oxalate 

AI 

6G6 

% 

pH 

8B1 a

REGO HUMIC GLEYSOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 


Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

cm 


Ap 0-10 

(0-4) 

Cg1 10-30 

(4-12) 

Cg2 30-61 

(12-24) 

Southern Manitoba 

700-800 ft (210-240 m) ASL 

Nearly level lacustrine plain 

Poorly drained 

OSBORNE SERIES 

Weakly to moderately calcareous lacustrine clay 

Cultivated 

Cool Boreal, subhumid with significant subaquic inclusions 

Very dark gray (5Y 3/1 d) clay ; amorphous to weak, fine granular ; friable, 

plastic, hard ; slightly acid to neutral ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Dark gray to olive gray (5Y 4/1 -4/2 d) clay ; few, very fine mottles ; 

amorphous ; plastic, firm, hard ; neutral ; may be weakly calcareous . 

Dark gray (5Y 7/2 d) clay ; sticky, plastic, firm ; weakly calcareous ; mottled .

SOIL TYPE : REGO HUMIC GLEYSOL OSBORNE SERIES 

Particle size Cation exchange 

Water 

Sand Silt Clay C N EC pH retention Capacity Ca Mg K Na 

3A1 b 3A1 b 3A1 b 6A1 a 6B1a 8A1 a 8B1 b 4B1a 5B1a 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1 b 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % mmhos/cm % meq/100 g 

0-10 Ap 3 .68 25 .89 72 .93 2 .08 0.27 0 .8 7 .05 50 .5 52 .58 22 .95 21 .67 1 .78 0 .42 

10-30 Cg1 4 .05 25 .19 70 .76 0 .31 0 .08 0 .3 8 .00 45 .9 46 .85 25 .30 21 .52 1 .39 0 .64 

30-61 Cg2 4 .46 25 .21 70 .33 0 .00 0.09 0 .2 7 .80 45 .8

ORTHIC GLEYSOL CRESENT SERIES 

Location : Lower Fraser Valley, B .C . Delta Municipality 

Altitude : 4-8 ft (1-2 m) AS L 

Physiography : Deltaic deposit of Fraser River 

Drainage : Poor 

Parent material : Medium and moderately fine textured marine and fresh water sediments, 

1 m (4 ft) thick underlain by sand 

Vegetation : Cultivated 

Climate : Mild Mesic, humid to subhumid with significant inclusions of subaquic . 

Maritime type 

Depth 

Cm 


Ap 0-20 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 -10YR 4/2 m) silty clay loam ; moderate, 

(0-8) medium to fine subangular blocky ; friable to firm ; some material from 

horizon below mixed in ; abundant roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary ; pH 6.1 . 

Bg 20-38 Dark gray (5Y 4/1 m) silty clay loam ; many, medium, prominent, yellowish 

(8-15) red (5YR 4.5/6, m) mottles ; moderate, medium prismatic breaking to ; 

subangular blocky ; firm ; scattered, thin, clay films on ped surfaces 

abundant roots ; gradual, smooth boundary ; pH 6.4 . 

BC 38-53 Dark gray to gray (5Y 4.5/1 m) silty clay loam ; many, medium, prominent 

(15-21) yellowish red (5YR 4/5 m) mottles ; moderate, coarse subangular blocky ; 

firm ; few to very few roots ; gradual, smooth boundary ; pH 6.6 . 

Cg1 53-79 Dark gray (5Y 4.5/1 m) silt loam or silty clay loam ; common, medium, 

(21-31) prominent yellowish red (5YR 4/7 m) mottles ; amorphous, firm ; few roots ; 

gradual, smooth boundary ; pH 6.5 . 

Cg2 79-127 Dark gray (5Y 4/1 m) silt loam ; common, medium, prominent dark reddish 

(31-50) brown (5YR 3/3.5 m) mottles and hard tubules around old root channels ; 

amorphous ; firm ; gradual, smooth boundary ; pH 5.0 . 

Cgs 127-I- Gray to dark gray (2.5Y 4.5/0 m) silt loam containing thin bands of fine 

(50+) sands ; few, medium, prominent dark reddish brown to reddish brown 

(5YR 3.5/4 m) mottles and hard tubules around old root channels ; 

amorphous ; electrical conductivity 4.9 mmhos/cm ; pH 3.8 .

SOIL TYPE : ORTHIC GLEYSOL CRESENT SERIES 


OM 

6A1 a 

% 

N 

6131a 

% 

CA 

EC 

8A1 a 

mmhos/cm 

pH 

8131b 8B1d 

Capacity 

5A1 a 

Ca 

5131b 

Mg 

5131b 

meq/ 100g 


0- 20 Ap 3 .5 0 .17 12 .0 0 .3 6 .1 5 .4 16 .9 9 .59 3 .32 0 .47 0 .07 79 .7 

20- 38 Bg 0 .9 0 .07 7 .9 0 .1 6 .4 5 .5 14 .5 6 .36 6 .11 0 .45 0 .12 90 .2 

38- 53 Bc 0 .8 0 .05 9 .0 0 .2 6 .6 5 .7 14 .0 4 .40 7 .14 0 .37 0 .18 86 .6 

53- 79 Cg1 0 .7 0 .05 8 .3 0 .2 6 .5 5 .3 15 .7 4 .08 7 .80 0 .32 0 .24 79 .2 

79-127 Cg2 1 .5 0 .07 12 .3 0 .3 5 .0 4 .2 16 .4 2 .19 4 .08 0 .16 0 .24 40 .7 

127+ Cgs 4 .9 3 .8 3 .8 11 .7 2 .44 3 .08 0 .44 0 .08 50 .8 

K 

5B1 b 

Na 

5B1 b 

Base sat . 

5C3 

%

REGO GLEYSOL LAPLAINE SERIES 

Location : Near Ottawa, Carleton County, Ontario 

Physiography : Undulating marine and fresh-water deposits . The site was in a depression 

bounded on three sides by knolls of calcareous till . 

Drainage : Poor drainage 

Parent material : Clayey brackish-water marine deposit 

Vegetation : Wooded . Elm, black poplar, cedar, and ash with understory of various 

shrubs and mosses 

Climate : Mesic mild, humid area with significant inclusions of subaquic regimes 

Depth 

CM 


LF 20-18 Raw litter of twigs, leaves, and bark, which was partly decomposed at 

(8-7) lower boundary. 

H 18-0 Black (N 2/0 m, 10YR 2/1 d) muck ; strong, fine to medium granular ; very 

(7-0) porous ; friable, slightly hard ; many roots ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

Cg1 0-18 Olive gray (5Y 5/2 m, 6.5/2 d) clay ; discontinuous, thin, black (10YR 2 .1) 

(0-7) band at the tops of some of the structural units ; few to common with 

increasing depth, medium, distinct yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) mottles ; 

weak, very coarse pseudoblocky ; sticky, plastic, very hard ; many earthworm 

holes partly filled with material from H horizon ; some roots ; clear, wavy 

boundary. 

Cg2 18-46 Grayish brown (2 .5Y 5/2 m, 5Y 6.5/1 d) clay ; common to few with 

(7-18) increasing depth, medium, distinct yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) mottles ; 

moderate, medium pseudogranular becoming amorphous with depth ; firm, 

very hard ; few roots ; diffuse boundary. 

Cg3 46-76 Dark grayish brown (2.5Y 4/2 m, 5Y 6.5/1 d) clay ; few, faint brownish 

(18-30) mottles ; amorphous breaking to fine and medium subangular pseudoblocky ; 

very few roots ; firm, very hard ; diffuse boundary . 

Cg4 76-91 Dark gray (5Y 4/1 m, 6.5/1 d) clay ; few, faint brownish mottles and very 

(30-36) few, prominent black coatings on clod surfaces ; few, faint brownish 

streaks and mottles in clod interiors ; amorphous breaking conchoidally to 

coarse and very coarse pseudoblocky ; very firm, very hard ; very few fine 

roots . 

Cg5 91-107 The same as Cg4 ; no carbonate . 

(36-42)

SOIL TYPE : REGO GLEYSOL LAPLAINE SERIES 


Sand 

3A1b 

% 

Silt 

3A1b 

% 

Particle size 

Clay 

3A1b 

% 

Fine clay 

3A1b 

% 

OM 

6A1a 

% 

C :N pH 

18-0 H 73 .0 19 6 .0 

0-18 Cg1 0 .3 24.6 75 .1 26 .8 1 .3 14 6 .5 

18-46 Cg2 5 .4 21 .6 72 .9 24 .3 0 .5 9 6 .6 

47-76 Cg3 3 .8 21 .9 74 .1 25 .5 0 .3 8 6 .7 

76-91 Cg4 2 .3 26 .1 71 .6 19 .8 0 .2 6 7 .0 


Capacity 

5A3a 

Ca 

5B1b 


Mg 

5B1b 

meq/100 g 

K 

5B1b 

Na 

5B1b 

Acidity 

61-11 

8B1b 

Base sat . 

18-0 H 193 .8 140 .0 11 .9 0 .4 0 .5 40 .0 79 0 .3 

0-18 Cg1 43 .0 29 .4 4 .3 0 .8 0 .2 8 .3 80 1 .3 

18-46 Cg2 40 .0 26 .9 4.1 0 .9 0 .2 6 .9 82 1 .2 

46-76 Cg3 34 .5 23 .6 3 .9 1 .0 0 .2 5 .8 83 1 .2 

76-91 Cg4 28 .5 19 .5 3 .8 1 .0 0 .2 4 .0 86 1 .3 

5C3 

% 

BD 

4A3 

g/cm3

CRYIC REGO GLEYSOL 

Location : 

Altitude : 

Drainage : 


Vegetation : 

Climate : 

Depth 

CM 


Cg1 0-30 

(0-12) 

Cg2 30-42 

(12-16'/z) 

60°50' N 94°25' W. McConnel River, NWT. West shore of Hudson Bay, 

South of Eskimo Point 

5 ft (1 .5 m) ASL 

Poor drainage 

Sandy alluvium over sandy marine clay 

Very sparse . Calamagrostis deschampsoides 

Arctic, extremely cold, humid with significant aquic inclusion 

Very dark gray to dark gray (N 3/ to 4/ m) fine sandy loam ; surface of soil 

is brown ; amorphous ; soft ; approximate Eh -I- 186 mv, pH 6.8 ; clear, 

smooth boundary. 

Grayish brown (2.5Y 5/2 m) sand ; many, coarse, prominent yellowish 

brown (10YR 5/6 m) mottles ; amorphous ; soft ; approximate Eh + 425 

mv, pH 6.2 ; abrupt, smooth boundary . 

IICg 42-}- Grayish brown (2.5Y 5/2 m) gravelly sand ; many, coarse, prominent 

(16'/z-f-) yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 m) mottles ; 

cobbles . 

single grain ; loose ; contains 

The Eh values indicate the soil is weakly reduced in 0-30 cm horizon and moderately oxidized in 30-42 cm 

horizon . The reduced condition and lack of root aeration probably accounts for the lack of plant growth .

SOIL TYPE : CRYIC REGO GLEYSOL 

Dithionite Oxalate Cation exchange 

Org . C N Fe AI Fe AI pH Capacity Capacity K Sol . P 

6A2c 6131 6C3a 6G5 6C5 6G6 881b 8131d 5A3b 5A6 5B1 b 6T1 

Depth cm Horizon % meq/100 g ppm 

0-30 Cg1 1 .02 0.27 0 .06 0 .25 0 .05 6 .8 6 .7 4 .09 5 .64 0 .25 5.6 

30-42 Cg2 0 .62 0.27 0 .05 0.15 0 .03 6 .2 6 .2 2 .38 4 .08 0 .18 1 .4

MESIC FIBRISOL WITHORN SERIES 

Location : Grahamdale Map Sheet Area, Manitoba S1 /2, S22, T25, R3, E 1 st 

Physiography : Level to depressional areas in the Lake Winnipeg portion of the Manitoba 

Plain 

Drainage : Very poor, ponded 

Vegetation : Stunted black spruce and tamarack with an understory of Sphagnum moss 

and sedges or ericaceous shrubs 

Climate : Moderately cold Cryoboreal, subhumid with significant aquic inclusion 

Depth 

cm 


Of1 0-46 Light yellowish brown to very pale brown (10YR 6/4 to 7/3 w) nonwoody ; 

(0-18) coarse fibered ; spongy Sphagnum moss ; extremely acid ; fiber content 

approximately 93% . 

Of2 46-91 Reddish yellow (7 .5YR 6/6 w) nonwoody, moderately coarse fibered, 

(18-36) spongy ; compacted ; Sphagnum moss ; very strongly acid ; unrubbed fiber 

content approximately 84% ; thin mesic layers of dark brown (7 .5YR 3/2 to 

2/2 w) amorphous granular to coarse-fibered material of mixed origin 

(feather mosses, woody fiber, shrubby remains and leaves) ; very strongly 

acid . 

Om1 91-122 Dark reddish brown to very dark brown (5YR 3/2 to 2/2 and 10YR 2/2 w) 

(36-48) amorphous granular to coarse woody fibered, compacted, moderately 

decomposed mesic material of mixed origin ; very strongly acid ; unrubbed 

fiber content approximately 68% ; upper portion of the layer contains a high 

percentage of woody fibers . 

Om2 122-173 Dark brown to very dark brown (7 .5YR 4/4 to 3/2 and 10YR 2/2 w) 

(48-68) nonwoody, moderately coarse fibered, compacted mesic layer derived from 

herbaceous material ; medium acid ; unrubbed fiber content approximately 

62% . 

Oh 173-183 Very dark brown to black (10YR 2/2 or 2/1, wet) amorphous granular, fine 

(68-72) fibered nonwoody humic ; compacted or matted ; herbaceous material ; 

neutral ; unrubbed fiber content about 26% . 

IIAhg 183-190 Black (5Y 2/1 w) clay ; amorphous to weak, fine pseudogranular ; very 

(72-75) sticky, very plastic ; neutral .

SOIL TYPE : MESIC FIBRISOL WITHORN SERIES 

and 

3A1b 

Particle size 

Silt 

3A1b 

lay 

3A1b 

Fiber 

content 

unrubbed 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % 

rg . C 

6A1a 

N 

6131a 

:N H 

Pyrophosphate 

solubility sh 

0- 46 Of1 93 55 .5 0 .9 64 3 .0 0 .12 2 .7 

46- 91 Of2 84 54 .6 1 .0 55 3 .8 0 .37 7 .2 

91-122 Om1 68 49 .9 1 .7 29 4 .7 0 .17 9 .8 

122-173 Om2 62 57 .1 3 .4 17 5 .6 0 .13 8 .9 

173-183 Of1 26 37 .4 2 .6 14 7 .1 0 .81 37 .6 

183-190 IIAhg 13 31 56 4 .4 0 .3 15 7 .1 88 .5 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na Acidity BD 

5A1 b 5131b 5131b 5B1 b 5131b 6H1 4A3a 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100g g/cm3 

0- 46 Of1 138 .9 14 .0 15 .0 0 .5 0 .4 109 .2 0 .05 

46- 91 Of2 162 .2 61 .2 28 .8 0 .3 0 .4 47 .8 0 .08 

91-122 Om1 221 .8 94 .4 41 .0 0 .4 0 .5 39 .0 0 .11 

122-173 Om2 125.8 76 .9 26 .7 0 .3 0 .3 14 .6 0 .09 

173-183 Oh1 140.9 131 .5 27 .4 0 .4 0 .4 0 .8 0 .11 

183-190 IIAhg 36.0 75 .7 16.7 1 .0 0 .5 0 .9

CRYIC FIBRISOL BATTY LAKE SERIES 

Location : 54°-55° N 100-102° W. Near Cranberry Portage, Manitoba 

Physiography : A peat plateau in a peat bog area, general ground terrain rolling bedrock 

thinly mantled by lacustrine and glacial outwash sediments 

Drainage : Imperfect 

Parent material : Forest peat 

Vegetation : Black spruce, feather moss 

Climate : General climate of area is cold to moderately cold Cryoboreal, humid to 

subhumid with aquic inclusions . Locally the area is one of discontinuous 

permafrost occurring within a peat plateau in a spruce Sphagnum bog. It 

represents one of the most southerly observations of discontinuous 

permafrost in Manitoba . 

Depth 

cm 


Of 0-94 Very dark gray (10YR 3/1 m), slightly woody, fibrous feather moss peat ; 

(0-37) very strongly acid ; fiber content approximately 73% . 

Omz 94-430 Black (10YR 2/1 m), frozen, moderately decomposed, mixed feather moss 

(37-170) and woody peat with segregated ice crystals and ice lenses ; strongly acid ; 

fiber content approximately 57% . 

Om 430-h Black (10YR 2/1 m), moderately well decomposed, mixed feather moss and 

(170-I-) woody peat .

SOIL TYPE : CRYIC FIBRISOL BATTY LAKE SERIES 

Pyro- Cation exchange 

Unrubbed phosphate 

fiber Org . C N C :N Ash solubility pH Capacity Ca Mg K Na Acidity 

6A1 a 6B1 a 8B1 c 5A1 b 5131b 5B1 b 5131b 5B1 b 6H1 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % meq/100 g 

0- 94 Of 72 .9 56 .1 1 .11 50 7 .8 0.09 4 .7 107 .9 60 .8 20 .6 0 .7 0 .5 41 .5 

94-430 Omz 56 .9 50 .0 1 .65 30 0.08 5 .3 60 .1 73 .3 18 .8 0 .3 0 .6 27 .8

TYPIC MESISOL STEAD SERIES 

Location : NE 1/4 S36, T24, R3 E1 . Grahamdale Map Area, Manitoba 

Physiography : Level to depressional area in the Lake Winnipeg portion of the Manitoba 

Plain 

Drainage : Very poorly to poorly drained, under influence of minerotrophic water 

Vegetation : Sedges, mosses, reeds, willows, swamp birch 

Climate : Moderately cold Cryoboreal, subhumid with significant aquic inclusions 

Depth 

cm 

Horizon (in) 

Of 0-31 Very dark brown (10YR 2/2 m) nonwoody, fine fibric ; sedge material with 

(0-12) significant mosses ; neutral ; unrubbed fiber content approximately 71% . 

Om 31-117 Brown (7.5YR 4/2 m) to very dark brown (10YR 2/2 m) medium fibered ; 

(12-46) mesic ; matted to feltlike herbaceous material ; medium acid ; unrubbed fiber 

content ranges from approximately 64% near the top to 58% near the bottom . 

Oh 117-132 Very dark brown to black (10YR 2/2 to 2/1 m) amorphous to granular ; 

(46-52) matted to feltlike humic ; medium acid ; unrubbed fiber content 

approximately 23% . 

II Ahg 132-140 Black (5Y 2/1 w) clay ; amorphous breaking to weak, fine granular ; sticky, 

(52-55) very plastic ; mildly alkaline ; moderately effervescent ; clear, smooth 

boundary . 

II Cgk 140+ Light gray (5Y 7/1 w) clay ; amorphous ; sticky, very plastic ; mildly alkaline ; 

(55+) strongly effervescent .

SOIL TYPE : TYPIC MESISOL STEAD SERIES 

Sand 

3A1 b 

Particle size 

Silt 

3A1 b 

Fiber 

content 

Clay unrubbed 

3A1 b 

Org . C 

6A1 a 

N 

6B1 a 

C :N 

Pyrophosphate 

solubility Ash pH 

Depth cm Horizon % % % % % % % % 

0- 31 Of 71 51 .7 3 .1 17 0 .11 11 .4 6 .8 

31- 61 Om1 64 54 .9 3 .1 18 0 .12 9 .2 5 .9 

61-117 Om2 57 50.4 2 .8 18 0 .18 17 .6 5 .8 

117-132 Oh 23 35 .8 2.4 15 0 .92 38.3 5 .6 

132-140 IIAhg 35 25 40 2 .3 0.2 11 98 .2 7 .7 


Capacity Ca Mg K Na Acidity BD 

5A1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 5B1b 6H1 4A3a 

Depth cm Horizon meq/100g g/cm3 

0- 31 Of 108 .8 72 .9 26 .8 0 .5 0 .6 9 7 0 .12 

31- 61 Om1 123 .9 76 .2 27 .5 0 .4 0 .6 12 .8 0 .13 

61-117 Om2 131 .8 88 .9 25 .7 0 .4 0 .8 10.9 0 .12 

117-132 Oh 143 .3 82 .3 37 .6 0 .4 0 .8 11 .7 0 .12 

132-140 IIAhg 28 .0' 16 .9 15.6 1 .0 0 .6 3.9 

' Exchange capacity by NH, distillation. 

8B1c

VOLUME 1 SOIL REPORT

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