effectiveness of remedial techniques on the performance of students ...

EFFECTIVENESS OF REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES
ON THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS
SUFFERING FROM DYSLEXIA IN SCHOOLS OF
ISLAMABAD
NADIA DILPAZIR
ROLL NO. Y-741099
Department <strong>of</strong> Secondary Teacher Education
Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
2010

EFFECTIVENESS OF REMEDIAL TECHNIQUES
ON THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS
SUFFERING FROM DYSLEXIA IN SCHOOLS OF
ISLAMABAD
NADIA DILPAZIR
ROLL NO. Y-741099
Submitted in partial fulfillment <strong>of</strong> the requirement for the Master <strong>of</strong> Philosophy in
Education (specialization in Teacher Education) Department <strong>of</strong> Teacher Education,
Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education
Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad
2010
ii

Dedicated to
My beloved father,
To the eyes <strong>of</strong> my Mother who lost their
vision to envision us,
and to my husband for his love, patience
and sacrifice that was a constant source
<strong>of</strong> inspiration during the study.
iii

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I Nadia Dilpazir, daughter <strong>of</strong> Muhammad Dilpazir, Roll No. Y-741099,
Registration no. 02-FID-0851, student <strong>of</strong> Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, do
hereby solemnly declare that the thesis entitled, Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> Remedial Techniques
on the Performance <strong>of</strong> the Students Suffering from Dyslexia in Schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad,
submitted by me in partial fulfillment <strong>of</strong> M.Phil degree in discipline <strong>of</strong> Teacher
Education, is my original work, and has not been, submitted or published earlier and
shall not, in future, be submitted by me for obtaining any degree from this or any other
university or institution.
Date: May 14, 2011 Signature
iv
Name

APPROVAL SHEET
Title <strong>of</strong> Thesis: Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> Remedial Techniques on the Performance <strong>of</strong> the
Students Suffering from Dyslexia in Schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad
Name <strong>of</strong> Student: Nadia Dilpazir
Accepted by the Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education, Allama Iqbal Open University, in Partial
fulfillment <strong>of</strong> the requirement for the Degree <strong>of</strong> Master <strong>of</strong> Philosophy in Education with
specialization in Teachers Education.
Viva Voce Committee
Dr. Umar Ali Khan
External Examiner
Dr. Naveed Sultana
Member
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. Rehana Masrur
Chairperson, Secondary
Teacher Education Department/
Dean, Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education
Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad
Dated: 14-05-2011
v
Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani
Supervisor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All the glories be to “Almighty Allah”, The most Beneficent, The Omnipotent,
The Omniscient, The Omnipresent, The Real Creator, The Cherisher and The Sustainer
<strong>of</strong> mankind. Countless Darood-o-Salam to Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him),
the great Messenger, Educator and the Leader <strong>of</strong> all times, for enlighting us with the
essence <strong>of</strong> faith in Allah and guide the mankind the true path <strong>of</strong> life.
I feel pleasure in expressing my pr<strong>of</strong>ound gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Nabi
Bux Jumani, for his kind supervision, cooperation and valuable suggestions for the
completion <strong>of</strong> this research work.
Cordial thanks to all staff <strong>of</strong> O.P.F. Girls College, Islamabad, especially Mrs.
Shahina Masood, principal, Mrs. Parveen Subhan, vice principal, Mrs. Rizwana Shafiq,
Mrs. Samina Aurangzeb, Boys Section Head, Mrs. Anees Qidwai, Librarian and Ms.
Ambreen Shabbir for their kind heartedness and help in completion <strong>of</strong> this write up.
I am greatly indebted to Mrs. Nel<strong>of</strong>er Rauf, NIPS, Quaid-e-Azam University,
Islamabad who really made this work possible by providing valuable information and
guidance.
I express my sincere thanks to Major (R) Umair Bin Tahir, Director, Step to
Learn, Islamabad and his teaching staff for sparing their time and helping me in
collection, interpretation and analysis <strong>of</strong> data.
Here I will thank all my friends especially Saima, Shazia, Hina, Riffat, Shagufta,
Sadia and Sabohi, for their cooperation, memorable company, valuable suggestions and
great help in completion <strong>of</strong> my research.
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Whatever I am today was not if my parents were not so much affectionate to me. I
<strong>of</strong>fer my humble gratitude to my parents who inspired me for higher ideals <strong>of</strong> life and
prayed for my success. I am also thankful to my all relatives especially khalas, khalos
mamis, mamoos and in laws for their moral support and prayers that are the great asset
<strong>of</strong> my life. Here is a special thanks to my sisters Kiran, Honey, Hira, Nudrat and
brothers Hammad and Zahid for their cooperation and moral support during research.
I owe a special debt, deepest respect and gratitude for my husband Muhammad
Javaid Iqbal for his moral and practical support in completion <strong>of</strong> this write up.
May Allah Bless all these people.
vii
Nadia Dilpazir

ABSTRACT
TOPIC: Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> Remedial Techniques on the Performance <strong>of</strong> the
Students Suffering from Dyslexia in Schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad
NAME: Nadia Dilpazir
PROGRAM: M.Phil. Teacher Education
PAGES: 145
UNIVERSITY: Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
SUPERVISOR: Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani
YEAR: 2010
The research was conducted to find out the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>
on the performance <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia in schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad. The
main objectives <strong>of</strong> the study were to identify the students suffering from dyslexia, to
find out the possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia, to determine the extent to which dyslexia affect
student acheivement, and to find out the IQ level <strong>of</strong> students suffering from dyslexia.
The study was carried out in a private institute, Step to Learn, Islamabad. The
students were first tested for dyslexia through the criteria <strong>of</strong> DSM-IV-TR i.e. Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders <strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric Association. The
identified students were pre-tested and then they were grouped in the control group and
the experimental group on the basis <strong>of</strong> their obtained marks. Students <strong>of</strong> both groups i.e
control and experimental group, were kept in same conditions. The results were
recorded.
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The students <strong>of</strong> control group were taught for ten weeks with normal teaching
m4ethods while the students <strong>of</strong> experimental group were taught with <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong>. The teachers were trained in order to implement new <strong>techniques</strong> with which
students suffering from dyslexia can improve their acheivment level.
The <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> involved one-to-one teaching, pair reading, and drill <strong>of</strong>
work sheets and activities to improve their behavioral problems. After ten weeks both
groups were post-tested.
Data collected through pre-test and post-tests were analyzed by using t-test. The
level <strong>of</strong> significance selected for study was 0.05. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the findings, the
conclusion drawn was that dyslexia affects the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students while
the <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> have a positive effect on the performance <strong>of</strong> the students
suffering from dyslexia. Therefore teachers play a key role in improving and solving the
problem <strong>of</strong> such students suffering from dyslexia.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
x
Page No.
Author‟s declaration iv
Approval sheet v
Acknowledgement vi
Abstract viii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Learning Disabilities 1
1.1.1 Definitions 1
1.1.2 DSM-IV Criteria for Learning Disabilities 2
1.1.3 Types <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities 2
1.2 Dyslexia 3
1.2.1 Definitions 4
1.2.2 DSM-IV Criteria for Dyslexia 4
1.2.3 Remedial Techniques 4
1.3 Statement <strong>of</strong> the problem 5
1.4 Objectives <strong>of</strong> study 5
1.5 Hypotheses 6
1.6 Assumptions <strong>of</strong> the study 6
1.7 Significance <strong>of</strong> study 7
1.8 Methodology <strong>of</strong> the study 7
1.8.1 Population 7
1.8.2 Sample 8
1.8.3 Delimitation 8
1

1.8.4 Instruments 8
1.8.5
1.8.6
Reliability and validity <strong>of</strong> the instruments
Analysis <strong>of</strong> data
1.9 Definition <strong>of</strong> Terms 9
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
2.1 Learning 10
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Learning Disabilities
2.2.1 Definitions 11
2.2.2 Catagorize a Learning Disability
2.2.3 Causes <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
2.2.4 Risk factors associated with Learning disabilities
2.2.5 Assessment <strong>of</strong> Learning disabilities
2.2.6 Types <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
2.2.7 Helping Students with Learning Disabilities
Dyslexia
2.3.1 Defining Dyslexia
History <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Causes <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Treatment <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Remedial Techniques
xi
9
9
10
15
16
19
20
20
25
28
28
30
30
36
37
39

Chapter 3 METHODS AND PROCEDURE 46
3.1 Research Design 46
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Procedure <strong>of</strong> the Study
3.2.1 Collection <strong>of</strong> Information
3.2.2 Preparation <strong>of</strong> Test Instruments
Methodology
Population
Sample
Data Collection
Statistical Analysis
Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 53
4.1 Analysis <strong>of</strong> data 53
4.2
4.3
Calculations
4.2.1: t-test
4.2.2: Means
Questionnaire
Chapter 5 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMANDATIONS 69
5.1 Summary 69
5.2 Findings 72
5.3 Conclusions 76
5.4 Discussion 77
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48
48
48
48
50
50
51
51
52
57
57
61
67

5.5 Recommendations 79
Bibliography 80
Appendices 83-146
xiii

LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
Table 4.1 Test results <strong>of</strong> pre-test 53
Table 4.2 Experimental group pre-test results 54
Table 4.3 Control group pre-test results 54
Table 4.4 Experimental group post-test-1 results 55
Table 4.5 Experimental group post-test-2 results 55
Table 4.6 Control group post-test-1 results 55
Table 4.7 Control group post-test-2 results 56
Table 4.8: t-test for non-independent samples
(pre-test and post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group) 57
Table 4.9: t-test for non-independent samples
(pre-test and post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group) 58
Table 4.10: t-test for independent samples
(post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group and post-test
results <strong>of</strong> control group) 59
Table 4.11: t-test for independent samples
(post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group and post-test-2
results <strong>of</strong> control group) 60
Table 4.12: Means <strong>of</strong> scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> experimental group 61
Table 4.13: Means <strong>of</strong> scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> control group 61
Table 4.14: Characteristic features <strong>of</strong> students suffering from
Dyslexia 67
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
figure 5:
figure 6:
figure 7:
figure 8:
figure 9:
figure 10:
Flow chart to different types <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities
Learning difficulties such as dyslexia, dysgraphia and
dyscalculia and their association with lack <strong>of</strong> brain
access and lack <strong>of</strong> brain and sensory integration.
Images <strong>of</strong> corpus callosum from frontal and lateral sides
<strong>of</strong> brain
The regions <strong>of</strong> brain under activation <strong>of</strong> poor readers
before and after <strong>remedial</strong> reading instruction.
Design <strong>of</strong> the study
Comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> experimental group and control group
Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> mean values <strong>of</strong> pre-test and
post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group
Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> mean values <strong>of</strong> pre-test and
post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group
Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> mean values <strong>of</strong> post-test-1
results <strong>of</strong> control group and experimental group
Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> mean values <strong>of</strong> post-test-2
results <strong>of</strong> control group and experimental group
xv
3
34
35
45
47
62
63
64
65
66

ABBREVIATIONS USED
LD Learning disabilities
MC Magno cellular
CC Corpus callosum
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
xvi

1.1 Learning Disabilities
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Learning is a central focus <strong>of</strong> education. Mainly the purpose <strong>of</strong> schools and
other educational institutes is to help students in learning. It has been observed that
some <strong>of</strong> students are not capable <strong>of</strong> learning despite <strong>of</strong> number <strong>of</strong> efforts made by
teachers, parents and even in some cases students as well. Now this situation is very
well recognized and is referred to as learning disability. A learning disability doesnot
mean low intelligence <strong>of</strong> the student instead research indicates that people with
learning disabilities may have average or above-average intelligence.
1.1.1.Definition
A learning disability is not a type <strong>of</strong> disease or is not an illness. It is not
acquired in adulthood or also not caused due to some injury or disease. In most
cases, causes <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities are not clear but they are visible from
childhood. In other cases, genetics, chromosomal abnormalities or
environmental factors may be the cause.
According to Crowl, et al., (1997, p. 255) students who have average or
above average intelligence but they perform poorly in one or more specific
academic areas rather than in all areas have learning disabilities. The specific
nature <strong>of</strong> students‟ poor academic performance distinguishes them from
xvi
i

underachievers, whose academic performance falls short <strong>of</strong> their potential in
virtually every academic area.
1.1.2. DSM-IV Criteria for Learning Disabilities
DSM-IV-TR is the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental
Disorders <strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric Association.
DSM-IV-TR (1994) criteria for learning disorders is:
achivement in reading, mathematics, or written expression below levels
expected, given the person‟s age, schooling, and intelligence
significant interferance with academic performance or activities <strong>of</strong>
daily living.
1.1.3 Types <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
There are so many learning disabilities that it‟s impossible to classify
them or even draw up a specific list <strong>of</strong> the different types. We can distinguish
two broad categories <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities: developmental and academic. The
major components <strong>of</strong> developmental learning disabilities are attention,
memory, perception, and perceptual motor disorders, and thinking and
language disorders. Academic learning disabilities include disabilities in
reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic. (Figure 1 shows types <strong>of</strong> learning
disabilities). These are the first problems to be noticed by teachers but require
careful analysis to discover the basic causes. Often academic disabilities are
ii
2

influenced by intrinsic or developmental conditions (Kirk and Gallagher, 1986,
p. 363-364).
Attention disorders
Memory disorders
Perceptual and perceptual-
motor disorders
Reading
disabilities
Learning Disabilities
Developmental Learning Disabilities
Academic Learning Disabilities
Spelling and
written
expression
disabilities
iii
Thinking disorders
Language disorders
Handwriting
disabilities
Arithmetic
disabilities
Figure 1: Flow chart to different types <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
1.2 Dyslexia
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children and persists
throughout life. It is a learning disability in which children have difficulty in learning
to read despite traditional instruction, at least average intelligence, and an adequate
opportunity to learn. It is caused by impairment in the brain's ability to translate
images received from the eyes or ears into understandable language. It does not result
from vision or hearing problems. It is not due to mental retardation, brain damage, or a
lack <strong>of</strong> intelligence.
3

1.2.1 Definitions
Dyslexia has been around for a long time and has been defined in
different ways. Some <strong>of</strong> the definitions are:
The World Federation <strong>of</strong> Neurologists defined dyslexia as
“A disorder in children who, despite conventional
classroom experience, fail to attain the language skills <strong>of</strong>
reading, writing, and spelling commensurate with their
intellectual abilities."
According to the U.S. National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health (retrieved from
www.brightsolution.us on18 July 2002)
“Dyslexia is a learning disability that can hinder a
person's ability to read, write, spell, and sometimes speak.”
1.2.2 DSM-IV Criteria for Dyslexia
Acccording to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders
<strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric Association i.e. DSM-IV-TR (1994) criteria for
dyslexia is:
“reading disorder, better known as dyslexia,
involves significant difficulty with word recognition,
reading comprehension, and typically written spelling as
well.”
1.2.3 Remedial Techniques
The kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> program used for dyslexic individuals depends on
the age <strong>of</strong> the person and the severity <strong>of</strong> the disability. A large number <strong>of</strong>
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4

emedial reading methods have been prepared for children who are not reading
at age level.
1.3 Statement <strong>of</strong> the problem
Dyslexia, or specific reading disability, is among the most prevalent <strong>of</strong>
learning disabilities, affecting several million school-age children and comparable
numbers <strong>of</strong> adults. The societal costs <strong>of</strong> dyslexia are enormous in terms <strong>of</strong> the
educational, socio-emotional and vocational consequences associated with the
disorder, and as a result the highest priorities are placed on the early identification and
treatment <strong>of</strong> reading disorders in children. Dyslexia is, in fact, a multi-faceted
disorder, and it can manifest itself in myriad ways over the lifespan. The
heterogeneous nature <strong>of</strong> dyslexia necessitates that the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> the disorder and its
treatment be individualized. The study was designed to identify the students suffering
from dyslexia and the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> on their performance.
1.4 Objectives <strong>of</strong> study
The objectives <strong>of</strong> the study were:
1. To identify the students suffering from dyslexia.
2. To find out the possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia.
3. To determine the extent to which dyslexia affect student acheivement.
4. To find out <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> the applied <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> on the
improvement <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia.
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5

1.5 Hypotheses
H0: There is no significant difference between the achievement scores <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students before and after applying <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>.
H1: There is a significant difference between the achievement scores <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students before and after applying <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>.
H0: Teachers don‟t play significant role in improving the learning conditions <strong>of</strong>
dyslexic students.
H2: Teachers play significant role in improving the learning conditions <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students.
H0: There is no significant difference between IQ and achievement level <strong>of</strong>
dyslexic students.
H3: There is a significant difference between IQ and achievement level <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students.
1.6 Assumptions <strong>of</strong> the study
It is assumed that:
1. Learning disabilities are not recognized by teachers and parents as a result the
problem <strong>of</strong> the child continues.
2. Remedial <strong>techniques</strong> have a positive effect on performance <strong>of</strong> students
suffering from dyslexia.
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1.7 Significance <strong>of</strong> study
The study data are essential to making informed decisions about the students
suffering from learning disabilities. The study provides information to the Ministry <strong>of</strong>
Education to educate the teachers about the learning disabilities and how to over come
the problems. This program provides pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and parents an understanding <strong>of</strong>
the factors that underlie dyslexia, how dyslexia <strong>of</strong>ten co-exists with other learning and
behavior disorders, how dyslexia can be identified, and the range <strong>of</strong> approaches and
accommodations that can be implemented to assist children with dyslexia to be more
successful in the academic environment. General and special educators, psychologists,
speech-language pathologists, counselors, learning disabilities specialists, social
workers and other school personnel, as well as parents, will find this research
beneficial and enlightening.
1.8 Methodology <strong>of</strong> the study
The investigation was an experimental type <strong>of</strong> research. It involved the
collection, analysis and interpretation <strong>of</strong> data collected for the purpose.
1.8.1 Population
All the students <strong>of</strong> elementary level studying in the schools <strong>of</strong>
Islamabad were taken as population. The detail <strong>of</strong> institutions is given in
appendix-A.
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1.8.2 Sample
Most <strong>of</strong> the students who are enrolled in Model Schools but are unable
to work out in main stream are sent to different private institute for special
education. The present study was also conducted in one <strong>of</strong> the private institute,
Step to Learn, located in Islamabad. The students who complete their special
education are assessed and if found recovered are admitted back in Model or
Federal Schools. In order to have reasonable sample all the students <strong>of</strong> institute
were tested for dyslexia through diagnostic test. The ten students from
different elementary level with age group differing from 7 years to 12 years
were identified with reading disability and were included in study.
1.8.3 Delimitation
Due to non-availability <strong>of</strong> standardized achievement tests, researcher
made validated achievement tests which were used to measure the
achievement level <strong>of</strong> students. Also the study was delimited to one institute
that is Step to Learn, Islamabad. The study was further delimited to the use <strong>of</strong>
one-to-one teaching, pair reading and work sheet drill to improve the reading
disability problem <strong>of</strong> the dyslexic students.
1.8.4 Instruments
Pre-test and post-tests were used as instrument in the study. The tests
were constructed on the basis <strong>of</strong> the course content that was taught to both
control group and experimental group. The pre-test and post-test-1 were <strong>of</strong> 40
marks while post-test-2 was <strong>of</strong> 75 marks and was converted into 40 marks. The
scores <strong>of</strong> the students were used to find the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students
after <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> were applied.
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1.8.5 Reliability and validity <strong>of</strong> the instruments
Data for the study was collected through primary sources through
administration <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-tests. The tests were improved with the help
<strong>of</strong> supervisor, head <strong>of</strong> institute, and teachers who are already teaching dyslexic
students, which made it authentic and valid. The data obtained through these
tests provided an authentic and valid data. The relevant teachers, who were
consulted, provided the reliability <strong>of</strong> these tests.
1.8.6 Analysis <strong>of</strong> data
The data collected through tests and questionnaire to the parents and
teachers was arranged according to the objectives and hypothesis <strong>of</strong> the study
and were put into tables. A comparative analysis was expressed in terms <strong>of</strong>
mean. The data about students‟ performance were treated by Mann-Whitney U
test and significant difference was calculated from it. Conclusions were drawn
from the calculated values.
1.9 Definition <strong>of</strong> Terms
1) Learning disabilities: refers to a group <strong>of</strong> disorders that affect a broad
range <strong>of</strong> academic and functional skills including the ability to speak,
listen, read, write, spell, reason and organize information.
2) Dyslexia: is an impairment <strong>of</strong> reading ability, such that a person can make
little sense <strong>of</strong> what he or she reads; letters or words <strong>of</strong>ten appear to be
transposed.
3) Remedial <strong>techniques</strong>: are the curative <strong>techniques</strong> applied to dyslexic
students to improve their achievement level.
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2.1 Learning
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The study <strong>of</strong> learning is considered most important in education The main
purpose <strong>of</strong> education is to bring about learning. According to Santrock (2006, p. 210)
learning is defined as:
“A relatively permanent influenece on behavior, knowledge, and thinking
skills, which comes about through experience.”
The main emphasis <strong>of</strong> both teacher and the pupil in the entire teaching-
learning process is on learning. The central point <strong>of</strong> the whole education system is
learning. If learning is not properly going on, quality <strong>of</strong> education then goes downhill.
2.2 Learning Disabilities
There are number <strong>of</strong> students who are unable to perform well in studies
although they have average or above average intelligence. These students are called as
learning disable students. A learning disability doesnot mean low intelligence <strong>of</strong> the
student instead research indicates that people with learning disabilities may have
average or above-average intelligence.There are number <strong>of</strong> causes <strong>of</strong> learning
disabilities and may include a deficit in the brain that affects the processing <strong>of</strong>
information.
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2.2.1 Definitions
A learning disability is not a type <strong>of</strong> disease or is not an illness. It is not
acquired in adulthood or also not caused due to some injury or disease. In most
cases, causes <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities are not clear but they are visible from
childhood. In other cases, genetics, chromosomal abnormalities or
environmental factors may be the cause. The World Health Organization
(WHO) (retrieved at January 17, 2010 from
http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/) has defined learning disabilities as a
state <strong>of</strong> arrested or incomplete development <strong>of</strong> mind.
According to web (retrieved at August 17, 2009 from http://www.about
learningdisabilities.co.uk/how-define-catagorize-learning-disabilities.html) it
is thought that a person should display three fundamental criteria before being
diagnosed as having a learning disability. These are identified by three
approaches, namely:
• Assessing any intellectual impairment (IQ)
• Assessing social dysfunction combined with IQ
• Identifying <strong>of</strong> early onset <strong>of</strong> the above
Some people with learning disabilities do, however, tend to use the
term „learning difficulties‟, although this does tend to refer to problems with
learning in children rather than an overall description <strong>of</strong> functional and
intellectual impairment.
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But the WHO definition with so many other definitions is open to
discussion. In fact there is no ultimate answer with clear boundaries that can be
identified on a learning disability scale to define it.
It is has been observed that different types <strong>of</strong> learning disability has
different symptoms and behaviors, and the way in which these show
themselves depend on the individual as well. In view <strong>of</strong> that it is important to
remember first and chiefly that when defining and describing a learning
disability, one is not purely labeling an individual. The overall impact and
intensity <strong>of</strong> care and support required by the individuals will always be
assessed on the performance and their social perspective.
In the United States and Canada, the term learning disability (LD)
refers to a group <strong>of</strong> disorders that affect a broad range <strong>of</strong> academic and
functional skills including the ability to speak, listen, read, write, spell, reason
and organize information (wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, retrived at
14/8/2008)
Learning disabilities can be described as reading, writing or
mathematical disorders, if they are „pure‟ and exhibit difficulty in anyone area.
But <strong>of</strong>ten deficits occur in combinations. For example, the children with
reading problems also have learning difficulties. Similarly variation is also
seen within a disorder. For instance, in reading some are deficient in
associating sound with symbols while some others may be deficient in visual
processing. Hence, a clinical picture should have ample scope to include
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heterogeneity so that each child‟s disabilities must be carefully assessed to
maximize the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> intervention (Reddy, et al., 2005, p. 235).
According to Dworetzky, (1996, p.516) a learning disability is defined
as a learning problem that is caused by environmental factors, mental
retardation, or emotional disturbances. It is a form <strong>of</strong> intellectual handicap.
Confirming learning disability takes knowledge, skill, and sophisticated
testing. With a reasonable amount <strong>of</strong> teaching, many <strong>of</strong> these children correct
their errors.
IDEA's Definition <strong>of</strong> "Learning Disability"
The definition <strong>of</strong> "learning disability" just below comes from the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The IDEA is the federal
law <strong>of</strong> United States that guides how schools provide special education and
related services to children with disabilities. According to 34 Code <strong>of</strong> Federal
Regulations §300.7(c) (10) (1999) (retrieved at March 17, 2010 from
http://cfr.vlex.com/vid/300-7-child-with-disability-19761359),
learning disability is defined as:
". . . a disorder in one or more <strong>of</strong> the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or
do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as
perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia."
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However, learning disabilities do not include,
"...learning problems that are primarily the result <strong>of</strong>
visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, <strong>of</strong> mental retardation, <strong>of</strong>
emotional disturbance, or <strong>of</strong> environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage”
Definition <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities According to NJCLD
Crowl, et al., (1997, p. 255) states that the National Joint Committee on
Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) is a group comprised <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial representatives
from six pr<strong>of</strong>essional organizations involved with learning disabled students.
The organizations are American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
(ASHA), Association for Children And Adults with Learning Disabilities
(ACLD), Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD), Division for Children with
Communication Disorders (DCCD), International Reading Association (IRA),
and Orton-Dyslexia Society.
The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD)
defines the term learning disability as:
“learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a
heterogeneous group <strong>of</strong> disorders manifested by significant
difficulties in the acquisition and use <strong>of</strong> listening, speaking,
reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These
disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed
(emphasis added) to be due to Central Nervous System
Dysfunction and may occur across the life span…Although
learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other
handicapping conditions (e.g. sensory impairment, mental
retardation, social and emotional disturbance) or extrinsic
influences (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient or
inappropriate instruction) they are not the result <strong>of</strong> these
conditions or influences.” (Crowl, et al., 1997, p. 255)
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2.2.2 Categorize a Learning Disability
Learning disabilities can be categorized in four very fundamental
groups – mild, moderate, severe and pr<strong>of</strong>ound. Intellectual impairment based
on IQ scores is one way to categorize a learning disability:
• 50-70 - Mild
• 35-50 - Moderate
• 20-35 - Severe
• less than 20 - Pr<strong>of</strong>ound
An IQ score is not enough in defining the level <strong>of</strong> learning disability
because IQ scores can vary due to personal development, improvement and
growth. Most people with mild learning disabilities mix in society with little
problem, due to their ability to communicate through spoken language and
adapting to their social environment. Lower level support, particularly during
education may help with managing the learning disabilities in these cases.
On the other hand individuals with moderate or severe learning
disabilities may also exhibit other linked physical and mental health problems.
This indicates that these individuals are more in danger and require added
support with healthcare management, mobility and continence (retrieved at
August 17, 2009 from http://www.aboutlearningdisabilities.co.uk/how-define-
catagorize-learning-disabilities.html)
categories:
Acccording to DSM-IV-TR (1994) learning disorders include three
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• Reading disorder, better known as dyslexia, involves significant
difficulty with word recognition, reading comprehension, and typically
written spelling as well.
• Disorder <strong>of</strong> written expression involves an impairment
2.2.3 Causes <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
Although the actual cause <strong>of</strong> a specific learning disability can almost
never be known, the suspected causes can be grouped into three categories.
a) Learning disabilities can be caused by brain damage. However,
research has not shown a direct cause-effect relationship between the
two.
b) Other researchers feel that various types <strong>of</strong> biochemical imbalances
cause learning disabilities. While research has failed to prove this
contention. It is still a matter <strong>of</strong> considerable debate.
c) Many pr<strong>of</strong>essionals believe that environment-including quality <strong>of</strong>
instruction-is a major cause <strong>of</strong> learning problems. They stress direct
instruction in problem skill areas as the best approach to remediation.
(Heward & Orlansky, 1989, p. 147)
Learning disability is a general term that describes specific kinds <strong>of</strong>
learning problems. A learning disability can cause a person to have difficulty
in learning and using certain skills. The skills or the abilities that are most
<strong>of</strong>ten affected includes: reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and
doing math.
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Learning disabilities vary from person to person. One person with
learning disabilities may not have the same kind <strong>of</strong> learning problems as
another person with learning disabilities. One person may have trouble with
reading and writing. Another person with learning disabilities may have
problems with understanding math. Still another person may have trouble in
each <strong>of</strong> these areas, as well as with understanding what people are saying.
It has been discovered by researchers that learning disabilities are
caused by differences in how a person's brain works and how it processes
information. Children with learning disabilities are not "dumb" or "lazy." In
fact, they frequently have average or above average intelligence. Their brains
process information in a different way as compared to normal individuals.
The causes for learning disabilities are not well understood, and
sometimes there is no clear cause for a learning disability. However, some
causes <strong>of</strong> neurological impairments include:
Heredity - Learning disabilities may be present in the family
and transfer from one generation to other.
Problems during pregnancy and birth - Learning disabilities can
result from abnormalities in the developing brain, illness or
injury, continuous exposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth
weight, less oxygen availability, or by premature or prolonged
labor.
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Accidents after birth - Learning disabilities can also be caused
by head injuries, malnutrition, or by toxic exposure (such as
heavy metals or pesticides).
Individuals with a learning disability may not feel comfortable in
society and separate themselves as they feel:
Ashamed <strong>of</strong> the types <strong>of</strong> difficulties they struggle with, such as
poor literacy skills, attention or memory difficulties.
Fear <strong>of</strong> failure, criticism, ridicule or rejection.
Fear <strong>of</strong> discrimination.
Fear that others may think that they are stupid or incapable.
Ashamed that they are unable to read or that they have poor
handwriting.
Left out <strong>of</strong> every day discussions due to lack <strong>of</strong> understanding
Depressed
Alone (Learning Disability, Retrieved at August 14, 2008 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/learning_disabilities)
Plomin and Kovas (2005, p. 592) reviewed recent quantitive genetic
research on learning disabilities that led to the conclusion that genetic
diagnoses differ from traditional diagnoses in that the effects <strong>of</strong> relevant genes
are largely general rather than specific. This research suggests that most genes
associated with common learning disabilities- language imparement, reading
disability and mathematics disability-are generalists in three ways. First, genes
that affect common learning disabilites are largely the same genes responsible
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for normal variation in learning abilities. Second, genes that affact any aspect
<strong>of</strong> a learning disability affect other aspects <strong>of</strong> the disability. Third, genes that
affect one learning disability are also likely to affect other learning disabilities.
These quantitative genetic findings have far-reaching implicaitons for
molecular genetics and neuroscience as well as psychology.
2.2.4 Risk Factors Associated with Learning Disabilities
According to Swanson (1999, p. 199) a number <strong>of</strong> factors are
associated with risk in learner. In terms <strong>of</strong> the home environment such factors
include:
• Belonging to an impoverished family
• Parental unemployment
• Mental illness
• Being situated in an unsafe and unhealthy neighborhood.
Risk factors associated with the school environment include:
• Low academic achievement
• Few resources
• Low expectations for achievement
• Large numbers <strong>of</strong> students from poor or minority families
• Inadequate teaching staff
• Poor leadership
• An unsafe school
• Large class sizes
• Too little time devoted to instructions
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• Negative labeling <strong>of</strong> students with special needs
2.2.5 Assessment <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
According to Hardman, Drew, and Egan (1996, p. 281) the assesment
<strong>of</strong> individual with learning disabilites have several purposes. The ultimate goal
is appropriate screening, identification, and placement <strong>of</strong> individuals who
require services beyond those needed by most people. This may mean
additional help academically, socially, or in various combinations, including
nearly all aspects <strong>of</strong> life and nearly all human service disciplines. Decisions <strong>of</strong>
such a varied nature require differing types <strong>of</strong> information from a variety <strong>of</strong>
assessment procedures.
A wide variety <strong>of</strong> academic interventions have been employed
including cognative, attention, spoken language, reading, writing and
mathematic treatment. Programs and multiple intervention approaches have
been developed for the specific sub types <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities.
Heward and Orlansky (1989, p. 125) say that a variety <strong>of</strong> tests and
procedures are used in the assessment <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities.
2.2.6 Types <strong>of</strong> Learning Disabilities
Many specific types <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities exist. Some affect the
ability to use or understand spoken language. A child with a reading disorder
(called dyslexia) may have trouble learning to recognize letters <strong>of</strong> the alphabet.
To the child the letters, may at times, appear backwards or jumbled, or even
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seem to move around on the page. Another type <strong>of</strong> disorder relates to
arithmetic skills. The child may be unable to count objects or recognize basic
shapes. In many cases, more than one type <strong>of</strong> disorder is present (Stephens,
1996, p. 527)
Learning disabilities can be categorized either by the type <strong>of</strong> information
processing that is affected or by the specific difficulties caused by a processing
deficit.
• Information processing deficits
Learning disabilities are divided into four categories depending upon
the stages <strong>of</strong> information processing used in learning. They are input,
integration, storage, and output.
Input
This is the information gained through the senses, such as visual and
auditory perception. Any problem with visual perception can cause difficulty
with recognizing the shape, position and size <strong>of</strong> items seen. There can be
problems with sequencing which are related to deficits with processing time
intervals. Difficulties with auditory perception can make it difficult to screen
out similar sounds in order to focus on one <strong>of</strong> them, such as the sound <strong>of</strong> the
teacher's voice. Some children appear to be unable to process stimulative
inputs. For example, they may seem insensitive to pain or dislike being
touched.
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Integration
This is the stage during which gained input is interpreted, categorized,
placed in a sequence, or related to previous learning. Students with problems
in these areas are unable to memorize sequences <strong>of</strong> information such as the
days <strong>of</strong> the week, may be unable to tell a story in the correct sequence, may
not be able to use a new concept other areas <strong>of</strong> learning, or unable to put the
facts together to see the "big picture." A poor vocabulary may contribute to
problems with comprehension.
Storage
Problems with memory can occur with short-term or working memory,
or with long-term memory. Most memory difficulties occur in the area <strong>of</strong>
short-term memory, which can make it difficult to learn new material without
many more repetitions than is usual. Difficulties with visual memory can cause
problem in learning to spell.
Output
Information comes out <strong>of</strong> the brain either through words i.e., language
output, or through muscle activity, such as body expressions, writing or
drawing. Difficulties with language output can create problems with spoken
language, for example, answering a question on demand, in which one must
retrieve information from storage, organize the thoughts, and put the thoughts
into words before speak. It can also cause trouble with written language for the
same reasons. Difficulties with motor abilities can cause problems with gross
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and fine motor skills. People with gross motor difficulties may not be that
active and are prone to stumbling, falling, or bumping into things. They may
also have trouble in running, climbing, or learning to ride a bicycle. People
with motor difficulties may have trouble in buttoning their shirts, tying
shoelaces, or with handwriting.
• Specific learning disabilities
A variety <strong>of</strong> specific learning disabilities are caused due to deficits in any
area <strong>of</strong> information processing.
Reading disability
The most common learning disability is the reading disability. Seventy
to eighty percent students from all with specific learning disabilities have
deficits in reading. The term "dyslexia" is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym for reading
disability; however, many researchers believe that there are different types <strong>of</strong>
reading disabilities and dyslexia is one <strong>of</strong> them. A reading disability can affect
any part <strong>of</strong> the reading process, including difficulty with word recognition,
word decoding, reading rate, oral reading with expression, and reading
comprehension.
Common indicators <strong>of</strong> reading disability include difficulty with
phonemic awareness -- the ability break up words into their component
sounds, and difficulty with matching letter combinations to specific sounds
(sound-symbol correspondence).
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Writing disability
Speech and language disorders can also be called Dysphasia/aphasia.
Impaired written language ability may include impairments in handwriting,
spelling, organization <strong>of</strong> ideas, and composition. The term "dysgraphia" is
<strong>of</strong>ten used as a generalized term for all disorders <strong>of</strong> written expression. While
the term "dysgraphia" exclusively refer to difficulties with handwriting.
Math disability
It is also known as dyscalculia, Its a math disability which causes
difficulties in learning math concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time),
difficulty in memorizing math facts, difficulty in organizing numbers, and
understanding how problems are solved and organized on the page.
Non-verbal learning disability
Nonverbal learning disabilities <strong>of</strong>ten are shown in motor clumsiness,
poor visual-spatial skills, problematic social relationships, difficulty with
math, and in poor organizational skills. These individuals <strong>of</strong>ten have specific
strengths in the verbal domains, including early speech, large vocabulary, early
reading and spelling skills, excellent rote-memory and auditory retention, and
frequent self-expression.
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Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia refers to a variety <strong>of</strong> difficulties with motor skills. Dyspraxia
can cause difficulty with single step tasks that may include combing hair or
waving goodbye. Also multi-step tasks like brushing teeth or getting dressed,
or with establishing far relationships such as being able to accurately position
one object in relation to another are also affected.
Disorders <strong>of</strong> speaking and listening
Difficulties that sometimes occur with learning disabilities include
difficulty with memory, social skills and executive functions (such as
organizational skills and time management).
Auditory processing disorder
Difficulties processing auditory information include difficulty in
managing more than one task at a time and a relatively stronger ability to learn
visually. (Learning Disability. Retrieved at August 14, 2008 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/learning_disabilities)
2.2.7 Helping Students with Learning Disabilities
Crowl, et al., (1997, p. 258) states number <strong>of</strong> ways through which
students with learning disabilities can be helped to overcome their problems.
Increasing Attention
Students with learning disabilities learn best in an environment free <strong>of</strong>
distractions. Classrooms equipped with opaque or translucent windows,
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carpeting, and sound pro<strong>of</strong>ing make particularly good learning environments
for learning disable students. Even in an ordinary classroom distracting sights
and sounds can be reduced by having students to work in cubicles or some
other three-sided work area that shields them from distractions to the front and
to the sides.
When preparing written material to hand out to students with learning
disabilities, relevant stimuli should be highlighted and competing irrelevant
stimuli should be eliminated. For example, important written information can
be highlighted by using capital letters, underlining, or different colors. It is
important to keep in mind that the worksheets should not be decorated in ways
that may have visual appeal to nondisabled students but may distract students
who have learning disabilities. A clean and uncluttered design should be use
on written materials.
Similarly, when lessons are orally presented to students with learning
Disabilities, important information should be highlighted and necessary talk
should be eliminated. Students should be informed when some important
information is supposed to be given. The information should be repeated,
stress should be placed on its importance, and it should be explained how the
new information relates to other aspects <strong>of</strong> the lesson or to what students
already know.
Direct Instruction
Many years ago it was common practice to remediate learning
disabilities by strengthening students‟ underlying perceptual problems and
weaknesses. For example, students with learning disabilities spent hours
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carrying out visual-motor tasks, such as connecting dots with a straight line, on
the assumption that such practice would improve hand-eye coordination and
ultimately enable such students to perform better at academic tasks. Numerous
studies have shown that instructional practices based on a perceptual deficit
approach do not help students with leaning disabilities overcome their
difficulties.
Instead, use <strong>of</strong> direct instruction to help students with learning
disabilities, overcomes deficiencies in specific academic skills. For example, a
student has difficulty in decoding printed words; the student should be taught
how to decode words. Direct instruction emphasizes the mastery <strong>of</strong> specific
academic skills, not the improvement <strong>of</strong> basic perceptual processes.
Direct instruction <strong>techniques</strong> typically follow highly structured formats
that permit teachers little discretion in deviating from the instructional plan.
Teachers using direct instruction usually follow a detailed written script <strong>of</strong>
step-by-step instructions that emphasizes repetition, student participation, and
teacher feedback. Although direct instruction <strong>techniques</strong> effectively achieve
both their short- and long- term goals, some educators claim the goals are
inappropriate. Critics argue that direct instruction <strong>techniques</strong> make no attempt
to achieve the most important goal <strong>of</strong> all: correcting students‟ underlying
cognitive deficits.
Strategy Training
Many teachers also use strategy training to teach students learning
strategies that apply in a variety <strong>of</strong> situations. One example <strong>of</strong> a learning
strategy is the “multipass” method, which is used to improve reading
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comprehension. Students read written material three times; that is, they “pass”
through written material three times. Each pass serves a different purpose.
2.3 Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a term that is used for reading disability. It is the most common
type <strong>of</strong> learning disability in which students suffer severe difficulty in learning to read.
A child with this problem have poor acquisition and use <strong>of</strong> words skills, might have
difficulty in blending sounds into words, suffers with problems in remembering
auditory sequences and also manifest more speech and language difficulties. They
have great difficulty with spellings. They also have some visual memory disorder and
are not able to interpret accurately what they observe. A dyslexic child might see
certain letters backward and upside down and also see parts <strong>of</strong> words in reverse.
Dyslexia can go undetected in the early grades <strong>of</strong> schooling. The child can
become frustrated by the difficulty in learning to read, and other problems can arise
that disguise dyslexia. The child may show signs <strong>of</strong> depression and low self-esteem.
Behavior problems at home as well as at school are frequently seen. The child may
become unmotivated and develop a dislike for school. The child's success in school
may be jeopardized if the problem remains untreated.
2.3.1 Defining Dyslexia
There is a range <strong>of</strong> definitions that are currently used to describe
dyslexia. Most <strong>of</strong> the definitions include the following aspects:
• The neurological and genetic causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia
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• The characteristic difficulties associated with dyslexia, such as
phonological, visual and auditory processing difficulties
• The associated characteristics <strong>of</strong> dyslexia - difficulties relating to
memory, , time management, processing speed, organization, and
sequencing and planning
• The need for over-learning and specific teaching approaches
• The overlap with other conditions such as dyspraxia, dyscalculia and
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Reid, G., 2007, p.
5)
Dyslexia is an impairment <strong>of</strong> reading ability, such that a person can
make little sense <strong>of</strong> what he or she reads; letters or words <strong>of</strong>ten appear to be
transposed. Dyslexia is not caused by a sensory defect. It is not vision
problem. It‟s not just that the letters don‟t make sense or can‟t be put together
to form words. Dyslexic children have difficulty making sense <strong>of</strong> any
conceptual information given to them in written form (Dworetzky, 1996, p.
516).
According to Ormrod (2000, p. 180) students may have trouble
recognizing printed words or comprehending what they read. An extreme form
<strong>of</strong> this condition is known as dyslexia.
Martleu (1992, p. 375) states that it was predicted that the dyslexic
children would have particular difficulities in writing words to a dictation
because <strong>of</strong> problems in relating phonemes to graphemes and applying
orthographic rules
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2.3 History <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
It was noted in late nineteenth century that some patients who had suffered
from a brain injury or have cerebral vascular injury lost the ability to read and speak, a
condition known as aphasia. With the passage <strong>of</strong> time as more cases were reported,
two different types <strong>of</strong> word-blindness were found. In one type, a person could not read
nor write, and in the other, the person was having ability to write but was still unable
to read. When the brains <strong>of</strong> these patients were studied, they revealed lesions or
hemorrhages in the occipito-parietal region.
Another important contribution to the understanding <strong>of</strong> dyslexia was made by
an American psychiatrist and neurologist, Samuel Orton. He observed reading and
writing disorder in some children and found that most had a tendency to reverse letters
and transpose their order. He named this condition as “Strephosymbolia”. Orton also
coined the terms, developmental word deafness (difficulty recognizing spoken word,
delayed and confused speech), developmental motor aphasia (slow development and
disorders <strong>of</strong> speech) and developmental alexia (an unusual difficulty in learning to
read with no accompanying physical or mental abnormalities), which served as
initiator for new categories (retrieved at March 12, 2010 from http://www.
Macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/dyslexia/history.html)
2.4 Causes <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Exact causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia are still a question to be answered by the scientists,
psychologists and educationists. It has been proposed that reading disabilities result
from independent deficiets and orthographic deficits (Castles & Colthert, 1993, 150)
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and deficits in rapid naming (Wolf & Bowers, 1999, 416). Double deficit modules
(Wolf & Bowers, 1999, 417) and triple deficit modules (Badian, 1997, 69) have also
been proposed in which reading disability requires two or three deficits, but these
deficits are also implicitly independent.
Genetics
Many studies have focus on the role <strong>of</strong> genetics in reading, writing and
language disabilities. Studies have shown strong evidences that dyslexia is a
hereditary disability. The cause <strong>of</strong> word-blindness has been assumed to be due to
hereditary transmission. Research study <strong>of</strong> family histories <strong>of</strong> children who displayed
substantial learning deficit showed that most <strong>of</strong> the children had an immediate family
member with a reading disorder, and therefore it is suggested to be a hereditary trait.
Brain Dysfunctions
The brain is the control center <strong>of</strong> the body. When something goes wrong with
the brain, something happens to any or all <strong>of</strong> the physical, emotional, and mental
functions <strong>of</strong> the organism. Learning difficulties such as Dyslexia (difficulties with
reading), Dysgraphia (difficulties with writing) and Dyscalculia (difficulties with
mathematics) are associated with lack <strong>of</strong> brain access and lack <strong>of</strong> brain and sensory
integration. Figure 2 shows the brain and functions performed by different hemisphere
<strong>of</strong> brain. According to Marshall (2003, no paging) scientists studying the brain have
found that dyslexic adults who become capable readers use different neural pathways
than non-dyslexics. Research shows that there are two independent systems for
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eading: one that is typical for the majority <strong>of</strong> readers, and another that is more
effective for the dyslexic thinker.
The Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum is a central nerve bundle that allows communication
between the right and left lobes <strong>of</strong> the brain (figure 3 shows images <strong>of</strong> corpus
callosum). Because it is so integrally involved in interhemispheric communication,
researchers believe that any significant malfunctioning <strong>of</strong> the corpus callosum could
lead to serious disruptions in the processing <strong>of</strong> sensory information. The evidence
implicating the corpus callosum, however, is <strong>of</strong>ten conflicting and confusing. One
study, for example, reports that children with dyslexia have abnormalities in the
corpus callosum. The results, however, show no particular trend -- many <strong>of</strong> the
dyslexic children had either an undersized or oversized corpus callosum (Njiokiktjien,
1994, p. 213). Other studies which have found that the anterior region <strong>of</strong> the genu <strong>of</strong>
the corpus callosum in dyslexics is significantly smaller than normal (Hynd, 1995, p.
32) are only followed by studies which show that the posterior region is significantly
larger and the only corpus callosum region affected (Rumsey, 1996, p. 12).
In addition to possible size differences, other experimental evidence suggests that
dyslexics have a thicker corpus callosum. This research suggests that increased
thickness prevents neurons from making the appropriate connections across the
corpus callosum, inhibiting right hemispheric competence and impairing reading
abilities (Njiokiktjien, 1994, p. 213). Analyzing this information, it becomes clear that
researchers studying the corpus callosum have been left in a precarious position.
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The Magnocellular
This theory suggests that a deficit in the magnocellular pathway (MC) may be
responsible for the visual, learning, and processing problems found in dyslexia.
Because the magnocellular pathway, along with the parvocellular pathway, connects
the retina to eye to be the occipital and parietal lobes <strong>of</strong> the brain, it allows
information brought in by the processed by the necessary areas <strong>of</strong> the brain. The MC
pathway, therefore, is believed to be a crucial component <strong>of</strong> several different visual
processes.
This pathway is also particularly sensitive to visual motion, and direction <strong>of</strong>
movement and gaze. It is this system, therefore, that detects the direction and meaning
<strong>of</strong> objects in motion, while remaining "blind" to details such as color. In addition, the
magnocellular pathway helps control eye movement.
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Figure 2: Learning difficulties such as Dyslexia (difficulties with reading),
Dysgraphia (difficulties with writing) and Dyscalculia (difficulties
with mathematics) are associated with lack <strong>of</strong> brain access and lack
<strong>of</strong> brain and sensory integration. This is symbolized by the two red
parallel lines in the picture
Source:
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/dyslexia/history.html
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Figure 3: Images <strong>of</strong> Corpus callosum from frontal and lateral sides <strong>of</strong> Brain
Source:
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/dyslexia/biology.html
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Recent studies have suggested that many <strong>of</strong> the functional deficits found in
dyslexics are processes controlled by the magnocellular pathway. Researchers have
found that most dyslexics show reduced contrast sensitivity at low spatial frequencies
and low luminance levels. This implies that their visual abilities are impaired in times
<strong>of</strong> low light. Visual motion sensitivity, regardless <strong>of</strong> the frequency and illumination
levels, is also greatly impaired. Recent evidence gathered by both elicited potential
and MRI studies have supported this visual motion deficit. All <strong>of</strong> these deficits
indicate a possible disruption to the magnocellular pathway. (Stein, 1997, 147).
2.6 Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> dyslexia is not an easy task. It is a difficult disorder to be
diagnosed. There are many factors that a psychologist, educationist or health
pr<strong>of</strong>essional reviews to diagnose the reading disability. The assessment determines the
child's functional reading level and compares it to reading potential, which is
evaluated by an intelligence test. All aspects <strong>of</strong> the reading process are examined to
find out where the breakdown is occurring. The assessment also finds that how a child
takes in and processes information and what the child does with the information. The
tests determine whether a child learns better by hearing information (auditory),
looking at information (visual), or by doing something (kinesthetic). The assessment
also help in finding that whether a child performs better when allowed to give
information (output), by saying something (oral), or by doing something with their
hands (tactile-kinesthetic). The assessment also evaluates how all <strong>of</strong> these sensory
systems work in concurrence with each other.
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A standard battery <strong>of</strong> tests (retrieved at January 10, 2010 from
http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/hp.asp) can be used to assess dyslexia and it
may include the following tests:
1. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)
2. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC)
3. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
4. Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery
5. Peabody Individual Achievement Tests-Revised (PIAT)
6. Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests (WIAT)
7. Kaufman Tests <strong>of</strong> Educational Achievement (KTEA)
8. Bender Gestalt Test <strong>of</strong> Visual Motor Perception
9. Beery Developmental Test <strong>of</strong> Visual-Motor Integration
10. Motor-Free Visual Perception Test
11. Visual Aural Digit Span Test (VADS)
12. Test <strong>of</strong> Auditory Perception (TAPS)
13. Test <strong>of</strong> Visual Perception (TVPS)
14. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised
15. Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test
16. Test for Auditory Comprehension <strong>of</strong> Language
2.7 Treatment <strong>of</strong> Dyslexia
Before any treatment is started, an evaluation must be done to determine the
child's specific area <strong>of</strong> disability. There are many theories about successful treatment
for dyslexia yet there is no actual cure for it. The school can develop a plan with the
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parent to meet the child's needs. The plan may be implemented in a Special Education
set-up or in the regular classroom. A treatment plan according to the need <strong>of</strong> child will
focus on strengthening the hiss weaknesses while utilizing the strengths. A direct
approach may include a systematic study <strong>of</strong> phonics. Special <strong>techniques</strong> designed can
be used to help all the senses work together efficiently. Specific reading approaches
that require a child to hear, see, say, and do something (multisensory), such as the
Slingerland Method, the Orton-Gillingham Method, or Project READ can be used.
Computers are powerful tools for these children and should be utilized as much as
possible. The child should be taught compensation and coping skills. Attention should
be given to optimum learning conditions and alternative paths for student
performance.
There are alternative treatment options also available outside the school setting
in addition to school activities. Although alternative treatments are commonly
suggested, there is a limited research supporting the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> these treatments.
In account, many <strong>of</strong> these treatments are very expensive and it may be easy for
disturbed parents to be deceived by something that is expensive and sounds attractive.
The most important feature <strong>of</strong> any treatment plan is attitude. The child will be
prejudiced by the attitudes <strong>of</strong> the adults around him. Dyslexia should not become an
excuse for a child to avoid written work. Because the academic demands on a child
with dyslexia may be great and the child may exhaust easily, work increments should
be broken down into appropriate portions. Frequent breaks should be built into class
and homework time. Corroboration should be given for efforts as well as
achievements. Substitute to traditional written assignments should be explored and
utilized. Teachers are learning to deliver information to students in a variety <strong>of</strong> ways
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that are not only more interesting but helpful to students who may learn best by
different <strong>techniques</strong>. Interactive technology is providing interesting ways for students
to feedback on what they have learned, in contrast to traditional paper-pencil tasks.
2.8 Remedial Techniques
There are number <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> programs available for students suffering from
dyslexia. According to Hardman, Drew, and Egan (1996, p. 287-289) individualized
reading instruction is <strong>of</strong>ten required for a student with serious reading disabilities.
Such individualization may be accomplished with many different materials (e.g., trade
books), which are typically selected for reading levels and topics <strong>of</strong> high interest to
the students. The basis for individualization falls on the shoulders <strong>of</strong> the teacher, who
needs to have considerable knowledge <strong>of</strong> reading skills and procedures for specific,
individually tailored instruction.
Depending on the severity <strong>of</strong> the problem, specific instruction may improve
performance, although there may not be significant generlization beyond the limited
focus <strong>of</strong> the training. In some cases if the disability is quite severe, a person must be
taught to compensate through alternative means <strong>of</strong> accessing informaiton and even
than used reading sparangily.
Electronic technology can provide an effective means <strong>of</strong> instruction for some
students with learning disabilities. Developmental reading instruction programs are
<strong>of</strong>ten successful for students with learning disabilities and typically use the approach
<strong>of</strong> introducing controlled sight vocabulary with an analytic phonics emphasis.
Individualised reading instruction is <strong>of</strong>ten required for a student with serious reading
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disabilitis. Such individualisation may be acomplished with many different materials
for example trade books which aere typically selected for reading levels and topics <strong>of</strong>
high interests to the students. The basis for individualisation falls on the shoulder <strong>of</strong>
the teacher, who needs to have considerable knowledge <strong>of</strong> reading skills and
procedures for specific, individually talored instruction.
According to Dworetzky, (1996, p.517) a number <strong>of</strong> interesting <strong>techniques</strong> are
used to help dyslexics overcome their difficulties, and they have <strong>of</strong>ten proved very
effective.
Spira, Brackan and Fischels (2005, p.230) states that improvement in reading
achievement through elementary school was strongly related to individual linguists
and behavioral attributes that were measured in kindergarten. Simple correlations
between kindergarten skills and growth indicated that those children who had a
relative strength in phonological awareness, oral language, print knowledge, letter-
word identification, and class room behavior in kindergarten were more likely to show
improvement after encountering initial reading difficulties in first grade. In addition,
measurement <strong>of</strong> any <strong>remedial</strong> instruction received by the children would be useful in
determining the effects <strong>of</strong> special intervention services, tutoring, or any other extra
help on children‟s improvement.
Over the past 20 years, researchers have focused their attention on different
aspects <strong>of</strong> instructional methods that accelerate reading development in young
children who are either experiencing or are at risk for reading failure. Within the
broad context, perhaps the most important simple conclusion about reading disabilities
is that they are most commonly caused by weakness in the ability to process the
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phonological features <strong>of</strong> language. The study clearly demonstrated that phonological
intervention had influenced the reading competence among the reading disabled
readers. The performance <strong>of</strong> these children has been improved considerably from pre
treatment to post treatment condition, (Pani, 2004, 102).
Parkay, and Stanford (1995, p. 171) say that classroom teachers play an
important role in providing for the education <strong>of</strong> learning-disabled students. By being
alert for students who exhibits several <strong>of</strong> the following symptions, teachers can help in
the early identification <strong>of</strong> learning disable students so that they can receive the special
education services they need.
• Short attention span (restless, easily distracted)
• Reverse letters and numbers (sees b for d, 6 or 9)
• Reads poorly, if at all (below age and grade level)
• Often confused about directions and times (right-left, up-down,
yesterday-tomorrow)
• Personal disorganisation (cant follow simple schedules)
• Impulsive and inappropriate behavior (poor judgement in social
situation, talks and acts before thinking)
• Poor coordination (clumy, has trouble using pencil, scissors, crayons)
• Inconsistant performance (cant remember today what was learned
yesterday)
• Fails written tests but scroes high on oral exams (or vice versa)
• Speech problems (immature speech development, has trouble
expressing ideas)
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After and initial referrel by a classroom teacher a team consisting a learning
disabilities teacher, psychologist, and social worker or nurse evaluate the student to
determine if the child has a learning disability. In the event the child does, he or she is
usually placed in a classroom with a teacher trained in dealing with learning
disabilities. In that classrooom, the child is taught through teachniques that involved
not only the child‟s sense <strong>of</strong> hearing and vision but alo touch and movement
(Hardman, Drew, and Egan,1996, p. 287-289)
According to Kirk & Gallagher (1986, p.391-393) some <strong>of</strong> the <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> are:-
1) The Kinesthetic Method
In this method reading is taught in four developmental stages
Stage-1. The child traces the form <strong>of</strong> a known word while saying it, and then
writes it from memory, comparing each trial with the original model.
Stage-2. The child looks at the word or phrase while saying it, then tries to
write it from memory, comparing each trial with the model.
Stage-3. The child glances at the word and says it once, then produces it from
memory.
Stage-4. The child begins to generalize to read new words on the basis <strong>of</strong>
experience with previously learned word.
2) The phonic-grapho-vocal Method
A revised version <strong>of</strong> this method is „Phonic Remedial Reading
Program‟. It is a programmed phonic system that emphasizes sound blending
and incorporates kinesthetic experience. The lessons follow the principles <strong>of</strong>
effective programmed learning:
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• Minimal change (each lesson incorporating only one new
sound)
• Over learning through repetition <strong>of</strong> each new sound in a
variety <strong>of</strong> settings and frequent review drills
• Prompting and confirmation
• Only one response taught for each symbol
• Self-reinforcement (the student‟s immediate knowledge <strong>of</strong>
success) and social reinforcement (by the teacher)
3) The Visual-auditory-kinesthetic (VAK) Method
It is a phonic system for the remediation <strong>of</strong> reading disabilities. In this
method children learn both the names and the sounds <strong>of</strong> the letters. The names
are used for spelling; the sounds, for reading. A systematic procedure is
followed in which the child is told the name <strong>of</strong> a letter and then its sound. The
child then says the sound and traces it or writes it from memory. After learning
some consonants and vowels, the child is required to sound each letter and
blend the sounds into a word. Once the child has learned to sound, write, and
read three –letter words, the words are used in stories that the child reads
silently and a loud.
4) Multi Sensory Approach
Multi Sensory Approach is a variation <strong>of</strong> VAK method. The program
includes a teacher‟s guide and a set <strong>of</strong> auxiliary material. The child first hears
the sound or letter or word, then sees it on a card, and then traces it with large
arm swings. The procedures were designed to teach writing, spelling, and
reading to a small group <strong>of</strong> children in a class room setting.
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The purpose <strong>of</strong> the present study was to find out the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> on the performance <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia and to find the
role <strong>of</strong> teachers in this regard.
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Figure 4: The regions <strong>of</strong> brain under activation <strong>of</strong> poor readers (shown red) are
eliminated after <strong>remedial</strong> reading instruction.
Source:
http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/dyslexia/history.html
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CHAPTER 3
METHODS AND PROCEDURE
The investigation <strong>of</strong> present study was experimental type <strong>of</strong> research. It
involved the collection, analysis and interpretation <strong>of</strong> data collected for the purpose.
The study was carried out to find out the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> on the
performance <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia in schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad.
3.1 Research Design
The design <strong>of</strong> the study was Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. According
to Gay (2005) this design involves at least two groups, both <strong>of</strong> which are formed by
random assignment; both groups are adminstered a pretest <strong>of</strong> the dependent variable,
one group receives a new, or unusual treatment, and both groups are posttested.
Posttest scores are compared to determine the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> the treatment.
In order to eliminate the possibility <strong>of</strong> placing more participants into one group
who have already higher (or lower) level <strong>of</strong> knowledge, the students were first pre-
tested. All students were given same pre-test in same condition. The results were
recorded. Then students with highest score were paired and randomly assigned one to
the control and other to the experimental group. The next two highest scoring
participants were then randomly assigned to both groups and so on.
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PRE-TEST
Experimental Group Control Group
One-to-one
teaching Pair-reading
Continuous
practice
General
activities to
improve
behavior and
attention
POST-TEST-1
POST-TEST-2
Figure 5: Design <strong>of</strong> the study
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Teaching
without any
special
intervention
program
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3.2 Procedure <strong>of</strong> the Study
stages.
The study was carried out in various stages. Following is the detail <strong>of</strong> these
3.2.1 Collection <strong>of</strong> Information
Before the study was started the necessary information related to
dyslexic student was collected through interviews from parents and teachers
who already were teaching these students.
3.2.2 Preparation <strong>of</strong> Test Instruments
One pre-test and two post-tests were prepared by researcher with the
help <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essionals <strong>of</strong> the institute. These tests were prepared from the
course that was specially designed for these students, keeping in mind the
disabilities <strong>of</strong> these students in mind. The purpose <strong>of</strong> constructing pre-test
(appendix-B) was to determine the current level <strong>of</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students and to prepare experimental and control groups while post-tests
(appendices C-D) were prepared to measure change in the performance <strong>of</strong> the
two groups.
3.3 Methodology
The study was carried out during a period <strong>of</strong> four months from January 2010 to
April 2010 in an institute, Step to Learn, Islamabad for slow learners. All the students
enrolled in this institute suffers from different learning disabilities. The students were
enrolled in Model Schools or Federal Schools, but were unable to work out in main
stream and thus were sent to this institute for special studies. The successful students
were admitted back in Model or Federal Schools after recovery.
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3.3.1 Teacher‟s Training Programme
Teachers were given training in order to make them understand the
<strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>. The <strong>techniques</strong> used by the teachers to teach students <strong>of</strong>
dyslexia were one-to-one teaching, pair-reading, phonetic <strong>techniques</strong>, and drill
method. The teachers were also given training to improve behavioral problems
<strong>of</strong> students. After training the teacher‟s applied the <strong>techniques</strong> to the students
for ten weeks.
3.3.2 Diagnosis <strong>of</strong> Dyslexic Students through criteria <strong>of</strong> DSM-IV
The students enrolled to the institute are first subjected to various tests
to identify their specific learning disability. DSM-IV-TR is current Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders published by American Psychiatric
Association. It is an <strong>of</strong>ficial diagnostic system widely used by mental health
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. In present study also its criteria is used for the diagnosis <strong>of</strong>
dyslexia. Acccording to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders
<strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric Association i.e. DSM-IV-TR (1994) criteria for
dyslexia is:
“reading disorder, better known as dyslexia,
involves significant difficulty with word recognition,
reading comprehension, and typically written spelling as
well.”
3.3.3 Questionnaire to parnets and teachers to find possible causes
<strong>of</strong> dyslexia
A questionnaire designed by the researcher was used to collect
information about dyslexic students from parents and teachers. The
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purpose <strong>of</strong> questionnaire was to find out the possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia
in students.
3.3.4 Pre-test
After the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> students with dyslexia they were subjected to
pre-test. The purpose <strong>of</strong> pre-test was to find out their current acheivment level.
Also the pre-test was conducted to equate the students in two groups, i.e.,
control and experimental groups.
3.3.5 Preparation <strong>of</strong> Course for Dyslexic students
A course out-line was designed by researcher and trained teacher that
was taught in duration <strong>of</strong> research. Special kinds <strong>of</strong> work sheets were prepared
to teach them (appendix E-G). The work sheets were prepared according to the
need <strong>of</strong> student. The work was taught with continuous practice and drilling <strong>of</strong>
work sheets.
3.3.6 Applying Remedial <strong>techniques</strong> to improve behaviour
problems <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students
It was found that dyslexic students show behavior problem that hinders
their process <strong>of</strong> learning so it was the first step to improve their behavior with
the help <strong>of</strong> certain activities. They were first subjected to general class
activities to improve their behavior problems, to develop their interest and
concentration in work, to build their eye contact, to develop or increase griping
such as using pencil, rubber, scale, color pencils or crayons etc.
Students were subjected to both in-door as well as out-door activities.
The in-door activities included different games like puzzles, drawing, and
setting <strong>of</strong> class room, books and bags. Also the students were trained to sit in
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groups and eat their lunch. Out-door activities included different games like
races, jumping etc.
3.3.7 Applying Remedial <strong>techniques</strong> to improve reading problems
<strong>of</strong> dyslexic students
Remedial <strong>techniques</strong> were applied to the five students <strong>of</strong> experimental
group. They were taught with one-to-one teaching i.e., individual attention was
given to each student by teacher. As stated by Elbaum et. al., (2000, p. 605)
one-to-one instruction, provided as a supplement to classroom teaching, is
generally considered to be the most effective way <strong>of</strong> increasing student‟s
achievement. The <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> one-to-one instruction has been validated
by empirical research, especially for students who are considered at risk for
school failure or have been identified as having reading or learning disabilities.
3.3.8 Post-tests
After completing the duration <strong>of</strong> ten weeks, two post tests were
conducted to find out the achievement level <strong>of</strong> students after <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> had been applied. Post tests were taken from the students <strong>of</strong> control
group as well.
3.3.9 Comparison <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-tests
The pre and post test were compared to find out the improvement. Post
test <strong>of</strong> both the groups were also compared.
3.4 Population
All the students <strong>of</strong> elementary level studying in the schools <strong>of</strong> Islamabad were
taken as population. The detail <strong>of</strong> institutions is given in appendix-D.
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3.5 Sample
Most <strong>of</strong> the students who are enrolled in Model Schools but are unable to work
out in main stream are sent to different private institute for special education. The
present study was also conducted in one <strong>of</strong> the private institute, Step to Learn, located
in Islamabad. The students who complete their special education are assessed and if
found recovered are admitted back in Model or Federal Schools. In order to have
reasonable sample all the students <strong>of</strong> institute were tested for dyslexia through
diagnostic test. The ten students [7 (70%) boys and 3 (30%) girls, mean age 8 years,
range 7 to 11] were identified with reading disability and were included in study. The
students were diagnosed as dyslexic on the basis <strong>of</strong> criteria <strong>of</strong> DSM-IV-TR (1994) i.e.,
current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders <strong>of</strong> American
Psychiatric Association, and IQ testing.
3.6 Data Collection
Number Percentage Mean age
Boys 7 70 9
Girls 3 30 8
Similar pre-test and post-tests were used to test the achievement level <strong>of</strong>
dyslexic students <strong>of</strong> control and experimental group.
Pre-test was administered to ten students that were identified as dyslexic with
help <strong>of</strong> teachers <strong>of</strong> institute under the supervision and guidance <strong>of</strong> researcher. The
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students were given one hour to complete the test. The test was collected, scored and
compiled by the researcher.
The post-test I was administered to both groups in same environment as were
available for pre-test. Both groups completed their post-test I in allotted time i.e., one
hour. Thus the scores were obtained from each group. Two days later the post-test II
was carried out in same environment that was available for the pre-test and post-test I.
The students completed their post-test II in allotted time i.e., one hour. Thus the scores
were obtained from each group.
3.7 Statistical Analysis
The data collected through tests and questionnaire to the parents and teachers
was arranged in tables. Mean (defined as total observations divided by the number <strong>of</strong>
observations) was calculated for both control and experimental group on pre-test and
post-tests. Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the performance <strong>of</strong> the students
<strong>of</strong> experimental group in the pre-test and post-test. Also the post-test <strong>of</strong> experimental
group was compared with the post-test <strong>of</strong> control group. A P-value <strong>of</strong> 0.05 was
regarded as significant. The data was stored in Micros<strong>of</strong>t Excel.
3.8 Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
Data collected through questionnaire, pre test and post tests was tabulated and
analyzed through standard treatments. On the basis <strong>of</strong> analysis, findings were drawn,
conclusions were made and recommendations were prepared in the last chapter.
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
4.1 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data collected through tests and questionnaire was arranged in tables.
Statistical tests were applied and interpretations were made to draw conclusions <strong>of</strong> the
study.
Table 4.1: Test results <strong>of</strong> pre-test
S.NO. TEST SCORE PERCENTAGE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
9
12
17
8
18
8
12
12
9
11
liv
22.5
30
42.5
20
45
20
30
30
22.5
27.5
A pre-test was taken from ten students in order to obtain score for equating the
students into two groups. Table 1 shows the initial results <strong>of</strong> the first test, i.e., pre-test.
54

Scores from the Table 4.1 were equated into two groups i.e., control group and
experimental groups to find out the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>.
Table 4.2: Experimental group pre-test results
Pre-test Score
Percentages
Student-1
9
22.5
Student-2
12
30
lv
Student-3
17
42.5
Student-4
8
Student-5
Table 4.2 shows the scores with percentages <strong>of</strong> the students included in
experimental group.
Table 4.3: Control group pre-test results
Pre-test Score
group.
Percentages
Student-1
8
20
Student-2
18
45
Student-3
12
30
20
Student-4
9
22.5
12
30
Student-5
11
27.5
Table 4.3 shows scores with percentages <strong>of</strong> the students included in control
The two groups were taught a common course but with different methods. The
experimental group was taught with special <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> while control group
student were taught with usual teaching <strong>techniques</strong>. After completing the duration <strong>of</strong>
ten weeks the students were twice post-tested and the results were recorded.
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Table 4.4: Experimental group post-test-1 results
Post-test Score
Percentages
Student-1
23
57.5
Student-2
29
72.5
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Student-3
35
87.5
Student-4
25
62.5
Student-5
33
82.5
Table 4.4 shows the post-test-1 scores with percentages <strong>of</strong> students included
in experimental group.
Table 4.5: Experimental group post-test-2 results
Post-test Score
Percentages
Student-1
21
52.2
Student-2
28
70
Student-3
34
85
Student-4
23
57.5
Student-5
31
77.5
Table 4.5 shows the post-test-2 results with percentages <strong>of</strong> students included in
experimental group.
group.
Table 4.6: Control group post-test-1 results
Post-test Score
Percentages
Student-1
10
25
Student-2
12
30
Student-3
11
27.5
Student-4
10
25
Student-5
13
32.5
Table 4.6 shows the post-test-1 results with percentages <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> control
56

group.
Table 4.7: Control group post-test-2 results
Post-test Score
Percentages
Student-1
5
12.5
Student-2
9
22.5
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Student-3
7
17.5
Student-4
7
17.5
Student-5
11
27.5
Table 4.7 shows the post-test-2 results with percentages <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> control
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4.2 CALCULATIONS
4.2.1: Mann-Whitney U Test
Mann-Whitney U Test was used for the comparison <strong>of</strong> results <strong>of</strong> the
pre-test and post-tests results <strong>of</strong> the students. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the calculation,
the null hypotheses were rejected.
Table 4.8: Mann-Whitney U test for pre-test and post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong>
experimental group
Statistics Calculated Values
n1 5
n2 5
R1 15
R2 40
U1 25
U2 0
Critical region U < 2 and U > 23
Significance Level 0.05
Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the pre-test and post-test-1
results <strong>of</strong> experimental group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0. From table
for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test (appendix I), for n1 = 5 and
n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists <strong>of</strong> all values
<strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the
critical region, so null hypothesis is rejected. The calculations are shown in
table 4.8.
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Table 4.9: Mann-Whitney U test for pre-test and post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong>
experimental group
Statistics Calculated Values
n1 5
n2
R1 15
R2 40
U1 25
U2 0
Critical region U < 2 and U > 23
Significance Level 0.05
Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the pre-test and post-test-2
results <strong>of</strong> experimental group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0. From table
for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test (appendix I), for n1 = 5 and
n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists <strong>of</strong> all values
<strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the
critical region, so null hypothesis is rejected. The calculations are shown in
table 4.9.
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Table 4.10: Mann-Whitney U test for post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> experimental
group and control group
Statistics Calculated Values
n1 5
n2
R1 15
R2 40
U1 25
U2 0
Critical region U < 2 and U > 23
Significance Level 0.05
Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong>
both experimental group and control group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0.
From table for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test (appendix I),
for n1 = 5 and n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists
<strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U =
0 falls in the critical region, so null hypothesis is rejected. The calculations are
shown in table 4.10.
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Table 4.11: Mann-Whitney U test for post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> experimental
group and control group)
Statistics Calculated Values
n1 5
n2 5
R1 15
R2 40
U1 25
U2 0
Critical region U < 2 and U > 23
Significance Level 0.05
Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong>
both experimental group and control group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0.
From table for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test (appendix I),
for n1 = 5 and n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists
<strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U =
0 falls in the critical region, so null hypothesis is rejected. The calculations are
shown in table 4.11.
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4.2.2: MEANS
The mean values were calculated from the scores <strong>of</strong> the three tests <strong>of</strong>
experimental group and also from control group.
in table 4.12.
table 4.13.
Table 4.12: Means <strong>of</strong> scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong>
Control group
Level Means
Pre-test 11.6
Post-Test-1 11.2
Post-Test-2 7.8
The mean calculated from the scores <strong>of</strong> experimental group are shown
Table 4.13: Means <strong>of</strong> scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong>
Experimental group
Level Means
Pre-test 11.6
Post-Test-1 29
Post-Test-2 27.4
The mean calculated from the scores <strong>of</strong> control group are shown in
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14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2
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Series1
Figure 6: Comparison <strong>of</strong> Means <strong>of</strong> Pre-tests <strong>of</strong> Experimental group
and Control group
The mean calculated from the scores <strong>of</strong> pre-tests <strong>of</strong> both experimental
as well as control group were found to be same and thus the knowledge level
<strong>of</strong> students at the start <strong>of</strong> the course teaching was same. The figure 6 shows the
comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> pre-test <strong>of</strong> both experimental and control group.
63

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
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Means
Pre-test Post-Test-1
Means
Figure 7: Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> Mean values <strong>of</strong> pre-test
and post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> Experimental group
The means <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-test-1 <strong>of</strong> experimental group were
compared and it was found that the mean <strong>of</strong> post test was high then pre-test
which indicated that students have shown a positive change after <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> have been applied. The figure 7 shows the comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong>
pre-test and post-test-1 <strong>of</strong> experimental group.
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30
25
20
lxv
Means
15 Means
10
5
0
Pre-test Post-Test-2
Figure 8: Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> Mean values <strong>of</strong> pre-test and
post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> Experimental group
The means <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-test-2 <strong>of</strong> experimental group were
compared and it was found that the mean <strong>of</strong> post test was high then pre-test
and it also is the indication that students <strong>of</strong> experimental group have shown a
positive change after <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> have been applied. The figure 8
shows the comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-test-2 <strong>of</strong> experimental
group.
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35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
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Means
Post-test-1 <strong>of</strong> Control Group Post-Test-1 <strong>of</strong> Experimental Group
Means
Figure 9: Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> Mean values <strong>of</strong> post-test-1
results <strong>of</strong> Control group and Experimental group
The means <strong>of</strong> post-test-1 <strong>of</strong> both experimental group and control group
were compared and it was found that the mean <strong>of</strong> post test-1 <strong>of</strong> experimental
group was high then post-test-1 mean <strong>of</strong> control group. This comparison <strong>of</strong>
means clearly indicates that students <strong>of</strong> experimental group have shown better
performance in post-test-1 as compared to control group students. The figure 9
shows the comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> post-test-1 <strong>of</strong> both experimental group and
control group.
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30
25
20
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Means
15 Means
10
5
0
Post-tes t-2 <strong>of</strong> Control Group Post-Tes t-2 <strong>of</strong> Experimental Group
Figure 10: Bar chart to show comparison <strong>of</strong> Mean values <strong>of</strong> post-test-2
results <strong>of</strong> Control group and Experimental group
The means <strong>of</strong> post-test-2 <strong>of</strong> both experimental group and control group
were compared and it was found that the mean <strong>of</strong> post test-2 <strong>of</strong> experimental
group was high then post-test-2 mean <strong>of</strong> control group. This comparison <strong>of</strong>
means once more ensures better performance <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> experimental
group in post-test-2 as compared to control group students. The figure 10
shows the comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> post-test-2 <strong>of</strong> both experimental group and
control group.
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4.3 QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire was used to collect information from parents and teachers
about dyslexic students. The students <strong>of</strong> dyslexia showed different characteristics on
the basis <strong>of</strong> which possible causes for dyslexia were identified.
Table 4.14: Possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia in students
Characteristics
Boys
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Percentage <strong>of</strong> Occurrence
70
Girls 30
Family History Positive for Dyslexia 60
Birth Problems 30
Normal Early Development 90
Use <strong>of</strong> Drugs 10
Head Injuries 20
Emotional Crises 50
Disturbed Sleeping Habits 10
Wrong Eating Habits 10
Behavioral Problems 90
Aggressive 90
Reading Problems 100
Writing Problems 60
Mathematic Problems 60
Attention Problems 80
The information collected showed that 60% students showed positive family
history for dyslexia. About 30% dyslexic students have some birth problems but
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mostly have normal birth. 10% dyslexic students have been given drugs in their lives
while 20% suffered from head injuries. 50% students suffering from dyslexia have
emotional crises in their early lives. It was found that 10% dyslexic students have
sleeping disorders and wrong eating habits. 90% students suffering from dyslexia have
behavioral problems and they are aggressive. All dyslexic students have problems in
reading while 60% students have problems in writing and mathematics while 80%
dyslexic students have attention problems. The general characteristics shown by
dyslexic students are summarized in table 4.14. It was found that most <strong>of</strong> the dyslexic
students showed very slow progress in studies but their behavior problems were
recovering a little faster as they were given individual attention. Some <strong>of</strong> them showed
good progress in mathematics, some in English but slow progress in reading.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY
Learning disability is relatively new, rapidly growing field in education.
Learning disability is defined as group <strong>of</strong> disorders that affect a wide range <strong>of</strong>
academic and functional skills including the ability to speak, listen, read, write, spell,
reason and organize information. Students having learning disability have average or
above average intelligence but they due to disabilities are unable to show acheivment
in field <strong>of</strong> education.
According to Chadha (2008, p. 23), the term learning disabilities was first used
in 1963 by Dr. Samuel Kirk to describe children who have serious learning problems
in school but no other obvious “handicap”.
The generally accepted definition <strong>of</strong> learning disabilities given by Chadha
(2008, p. 23) is “learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a groups <strong>of</strong>
disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use <strong>of</strong> listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and mathematical abilities. These disorders are
intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system
dysfunction.”
“Specific learning disability” means a disorder in one or more <strong>of</strong> the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read,
write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as
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perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia.
Acccording to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders <strong>of</strong>
American Psychiatric Association i.e. DSM-IV-TR (1994) criteria for dyslexia,
“reading disorder, better known as dyslexia, involves significant difficulty with word
recognition, reading comprehension, and typically written spelling as well.”
Scientists are carrying out research work to find out possible causes <strong>of</strong>
dyslexia but still no exact cause has been discovered. Studies have shown that the
dyslexia is a genetic disorder which means that due to some problem in genes that
make an individual able to read, transfer generation after generation i.e. it‟s a
hereditary disorder. Also studies showed that brain dysfunctioning causes dyslexia. It
has been observed through number <strong>of</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> like CT scans and MRIs that the part
<strong>of</strong> brain involved in reading shows structural difference among normal and dyslexic
students.
Dyslexia is a long lasting disorder among students and can not be cured in
short duration <strong>of</strong> teaching. Number <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> can be used by the teachers
to solve the problem <strong>of</strong> dyslexia. They may include one to one teaching, pair reading
and phonological interventions.
The aim <strong>of</strong> the present study was to find out the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> on the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia. The study
was especially desigend in order to bring awareness about dyslexia among teachers
and parents, and its possible effects on the performance <strong>of</strong> the dyslexic students. The
main objectives <strong>of</strong> the study were to identify the students suffering from dyslexia, to
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find out the possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia, to determine the extent to which dyslexia
affect student acheivement, and to find out the IQ level <strong>of</strong> students suffering from
dyslexia.
The study was carried out in a private institute, Step to Learn, Islamabad. The
students were first tested for dyslexia through the criteria <strong>of</strong> DSM-IV-TR i.e.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders <strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric
Association. The identified students were pre-tested and then they were grouped in the
control group and the experimental group on the basis <strong>of</strong> their obtained marks.
Students <strong>of</strong> both groups i.e control and experimental group, were kept in same
conditions. The results were recorded.
The students <strong>of</strong> control group were taught for ten weeks with normal teaching
methods while the students <strong>of</strong> experimental group were taught with <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong>. The teachers were trained in order to implement new <strong>techniques</strong> with
which students suffering from dyslexia can improve their acheivment level.
The <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> involved one-to-one teaching, pair reading, and drill
<strong>of</strong> work sheets and activities to improve their behavioral problems. After ten weeks
both groups were post-tested.
Data collected through pre-test and post-tests were analyzed by using t-test.
The level <strong>of</strong> significance selected for study was 0.05. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the findings, the
conclusion drawn was that dyslexia affects the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students while
the <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> have a positive effect on the performance <strong>of</strong> the students
suffering from dyslexia. Therefore teachers play a key role in improving and solving
the problem <strong>of</strong> such students suffering from dyslexia.
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5.2 FINDINGS
In the present study, main focus was to identify students suffering from
dyslexia, possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia and to find out the achievement level <strong>of</strong> dyslexic
students after they were taught with <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>. The students first were
identified with dyslexia through the criteria <strong>of</strong> DSM-IV-TR i.e. Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders <strong>of</strong> American Psychiatric Association. Pre-test
was taken from students and then they were grouped. The students <strong>of</strong> control group
were taught for ten weeks with normal teaching methods while the students <strong>of</strong>
experimental group were taught with <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>. The teachers were given
training in order to learn new <strong>techniques</strong> with which they can improve the acheivment
level <strong>of</strong> students suffering from dyslexia.
The <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> involved one-to-one teaching i.e., individual attention
was given to each student by teacher, pair-reading, drilling <strong>of</strong> work sheets, general
class activities, in-door and out-door activities to improve their behavior problems, to
develop their interest and concentration in work, to build their eye contact and to
develop and increase griping on objects.
5.2.1 Findings through the questionnaire
According to the questionnaire given to the parents and teachers, following
findings were achieved.
1) The students <strong>of</strong> dyslexia also show behavior problems, emotional disturbance,
aggression, poor eye contact, and grip on materials, along with reading
problems.
2) It was found that about 60% <strong>of</strong> the students having dyslexia have positive
family history which means that the disability is hereditary.
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3) 30% dyslexic students have some birth problem that may include caesarian,
jaundice, and respiratory problems.
4) 90% <strong>of</strong> the dyslexic student showed normal early development.
5) 20% dyslexic students have some head injuries while 50% had some emotional
crisis that may include death <strong>of</strong> immediate relative e.g. father, mother &
brother.
6) Students suffering from dyslexia showed very less problems in sleeping and
eating habits but most <strong>of</strong> them shoed behavioral problems like aggression,
being emotional, unknown fear etc.
7) These students also have attention problem which means that they are unable
to concentrate in studies and easily distracted with activities taking place
around.
8) Information collected through questionnaire from the teachers revealed that
dyslexic students are weak in reading but some <strong>of</strong> them may be good in
Mathematics and writing or may be both.
9) The students <strong>of</strong> dyslexia need individual and constant supervision. It was also
observed that students <strong>of</strong> dyslexia are highly unpredictable. They can perform
very well at certain time and may not perform at all at some other time.
5.2.2 Findings through pre-test and post-tests
The students were post-tested after applying <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> and
following were the findings achieved at the end <strong>of</strong> the study.
1) Comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> pre-tests showed that there was no difference in
the mean <strong>of</strong> both control and experimental group.
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2) Comparison <strong>of</strong> mean <strong>of</strong> pre-test and post-test <strong>of</strong> experimental group
showed that there was a positive change in the achievement level <strong>of</strong>
dyslexic students.
3) Comparison <strong>of</strong> means <strong>of</strong> post tests <strong>of</strong> experimental and control group
showed that the students <strong>of</strong> experimental group have positive change in
their achievement level as compared to the achievement level <strong>of</strong> students
<strong>of</strong> control group.
4) Mann-Whitney U test Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the pre-
test and post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> experimental group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was
found to be 0. From table for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney
test, for n1 = 5 and n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region
consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed
value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical region, so null hypothesis is rejected
which states that there is no significant difference between the achievement
scores <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students before and after applying <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>
and that teachers don‟t play significant role in improving the learning
conditions <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students.
5) Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the pre-test and post-test-2
results <strong>of</strong> experimental group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0. From
table for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test, for n1 = 5 and n2 =
5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists <strong>of</strong> all values
<strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in
the critical region, so null hypothesis was rejected again.
6) Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the post-test-1 results <strong>of</strong> both
experimental group and control group. The value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0.
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From table for Critical Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test, for n1 = 5
and n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong> significance is 0.05, the critical region consists <strong>of</strong> all
values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0
falls in the critical region, so null hypothesis once again rejected.
7) From the calculation <strong>of</strong> post-test-2 results <strong>of</strong> both experimental group and
control group the value <strong>of</strong> U was found to be 0. From table for Critical
Values <strong>of</strong> U for the Mann-Whitney test, for n1 = 5 and n2 = 5 and level <strong>of</strong>
significance is 0.05, the critical region consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and
<strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23. The computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical
region, so null hypothesis again rejected.
8) It is proved that there is significant difference between the achievement
scores <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students before and after applying <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong>.
9) It was confirmed that teachers play significant role in improving the
learning conditions <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students.
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5.3 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were drawn from the above study.
• Learning disabilities especially dyslexia goes unobserved in students
from parents and teachers and the problem <strong>of</strong> the students persists.
• Dyslexia is a disability which is a main hindrance in learning and as a
result the purpose <strong>of</strong> education is not achieved.
• Dyslexia affects the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students
• Remedial <strong>techniques</strong> like one-to-one teaching, pair reading and
drilling <strong>of</strong> course, have a positive effect on dyslexic student‟s
performance.
• Teachers play a key role in solving the problem <strong>of</strong> dyslexia.
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5.4 DISCUSSION
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children and persists
throughout life. It is a learning disability in which children have difficulty in learning
to read despite traditional instruction, at least average intelligence, and an adequate
opportunity to learn. It is caused by the malfunctioning <strong>of</strong> brain as a result <strong>of</strong> which a
person gets unable to translate images received from the eyes or ears into
understandable language. It does not result from vision or hearing problems or due to
mental retardation, brain damage, or a lack <strong>of</strong> intelligence.
Present study was carried out in order to find out the possible causes <strong>of</strong>
dyslexia, the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> on the performance <strong>of</strong> students, and
to find out the role <strong>of</strong> teachers in improving the problem <strong>of</strong> dyslexia. The study clearly
showed that <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> like pair reading and one-to-one teaching have
positive effect on the performance <strong>of</strong> the students suffering from dyslexia. As stated
by Elbaum et. al., (2000, p. 605) one-to-one instruction, provided as a supplement to
classroom teaching, is generally considered to be the most effective way <strong>of</strong> increasing
student‟s achievement. The <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> one-to-one instruction has been validated
by empirical research, especially for students who are considered at risk for school
failure or have been identified as having reading or learning disabilities.
It was also found that teachers play an important role in improving the problem
<strong>of</strong> dyslexia. The possible causes <strong>of</strong> dyslexia are not clearly understood but it is evident
from the study that this learning disability is genetic and transfers from one generation
to another. Also the main cause <strong>of</strong> dyslexia was found to be impairment in brain.
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The present study indicated clearly that dyslexia is a learning disability which
affects the achievement level <strong>of</strong> the students despite the fact that student may have
average or above average intelligence level. During study it was found that there is a
very little awareness among teachers, students and parents about this learning problem
as a result the problem <strong>of</strong> the student persist. Unfortunately there are no proper clinics
and institutes for diagnosis and treatment <strong>of</strong> dyslexia.
From the results <strong>of</strong> the present study it is clear that application <strong>of</strong> <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> have improved the performance <strong>of</strong> the students so educationists,
psychologists and counselors must carry out research in this field in order to find out
more <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> to improve achievement level <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students.
Teachers play an important role so there is a great need to train teachers. Also it is
important that awareness about dyslexia should be brought in teachers through
seminars, training programs, refresher courses and educational programs.
Further research should be conducted in order to find out new <strong>remedial</strong>
<strong>techniques</strong> that should not be costly and also with short time duration. Present study
focused only on students <strong>of</strong> elementary level but there should be intervention
programs carried out for elder students also.
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5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
During the research it was found that unfortunately in Islamabad there is no
proper institute for the diagnosis and treatment <strong>of</strong> dyslexia. Most <strong>of</strong> the teachers and
parents do not know about the learning disabilities and the student is blamed for his
failure. From the present study it is recommended that:
1) The Directorate <strong>of</strong> Education may take the steps to educate the teachers about
dyslexia.
2) Teachers may be trained with <strong>remedial</strong> <strong>techniques</strong> to teach the dyslexic
students.
3) Also there is a need <strong>of</strong> proper clinics where students can be diagnosed for
dyslexia and to the extent to which it has affected their achievement level.
4) Forums may be formed where parents can be informed about dyslexia and
ways to overcome it as parents are the second key in solving the problem <strong>of</strong>
dyslexia along with teachers.
5) There is a great need <strong>of</strong> research to be carried out in field <strong>of</strong> dyslexia. Research
in field <strong>of</strong> dyslexia must be promoted and new ways and <strong>techniques</strong> are to be
discovered that can improve reading problems <strong>of</strong> dyslexic students.
6) Educators must organize seminars and workshops to create awareness in
general public, parents, teachers, students, counselors, educationists,
psychologists, schools and colleges.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical manual <strong>of</strong>
mental disorders. (DSM-IV). (4 th ed). Washington, DC:Author
Badian, N. A. (1997). Dyslexia and the Double Deficit Hypothesis. Annals <strong>of</strong>
Dyslexia, 47, 69-87
Castles, A. and Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties <strong>of</strong> Developmental Dyslexia. Cognition,
47: 149-180
Chadha, A. (2008). Special Education, Helping Children with Attention problems.
APH publishing Cooperation: 23
Crowl, T. K., Kaminsky, S. and Podell, D. M. (1997). Educational Psychology,
Windows on teaching: Brown and Benchmark publishers: 255
Dworetzky, J. P. (1996). Introduction to Child Development. (6 th ed).
Minneapolis:West Publishing Company: 516-517
Dyslexia. Retrieved at March 12, 2010 from http://www.
macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/dyslexia/history.html
Elbaum, B., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T. and Moody, S. W. (2000). How effective are
one-to-one tutoring programs in reading for elementary students at risk for
reading failure? A meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> the intervention research. Journal <strong>of</strong>
Educational Psychology. 92(4): 605-619
Gay, L.R. (2005). Educational Research, Competencies for Analysis and Application.
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Hardman, M. L., Drew, C. J. and Egan, M. W. (1996). Human Exceptionality: Society,
School, and Family. Boston: Allyn and Bacon: 281-289
Heward, W. L. and Orlansky, M. D. (1989). Exceptional Children: An Introductory
Survey <strong>of</strong> Special Education. (2 nd ed). Columbus: Merill Publishing
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Hynd, G. W. (1995). Dyslexia and Corpus Callosum. Arch. Neurol. 52 (1): 32-38.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). 34 Code <strong>of</strong> Federal Regulations
§300.7(c) (10) (1999) retrieved at March 17, 2010 from
http://cfr.vlex.com/vid/300-7-child-with-disability-19761359
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Kirk, S. A., and Gallagher, J. J. (1986). Educating Exceptional Children. (5 th ed).
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Learning Disabilities. Retrieved at August 17, 2009 from http://www.about
learningdisabilities.co.uk/how-define-catagorize-learning-disabilities.html
Marshall, A. (2003). Brain Scans Show Dyslexics Read Better with Alternative
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Martleu, M. (1992). Handwriting and Spelling: Dyslexic Children‟s Abilities
Compared with Children <strong>of</strong> same Chronological age and Younger Children
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375-390)
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http://www.brightsolution.us
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Pani, M. K. (2004). Improving Reading Competence Through Phonological
Intervention among reading Disabled Children. Disabilities and
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Reid, G. (2007). Dyslexia. (2 nd ed). Continuum International Publishing Group,
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Rumsey, J. M. (1996). Brain Imaging <strong>of</strong> Reading Disorders. Journal <strong>of</strong> America Acad
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PRAXIS TM and Practice. (2 nd ed). McGraw Hill, New York: 210-211
Spira, G. S., Brackan, S. S. and Fischels, J. E. (2005). Predicting Improvement After
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83

PROVISIONAL LIST OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
EDUCATION INSTIUTION, ISLAMABAD
AS IT STOOD ON 31 ST MARCH, 2008
ISLAMABAD MODEL COLLEGES FOR (BOYS) ISLAMABAD
1. Islamabad College for Boys, G-6/3 Ibd
2. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-8/4, Ibd
3. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-7/3, Ibd
4. Islamabad Model College for Boys, G-10/4, Ibd
5. Islamabad Model College for Boys, I-10/1, Ibd
6. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-10/3, Ibd
7. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-8/3, Ibd
8. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-11/1, Ibd
9. Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-11/3, Ibd
10. Islamabad Model College for Boys, G-11/1, Ibd
ISLAMABAD MODEL COLLEGES FOR (GIRLS) ISLAMABAD
1. Islamabad College for Girls, F-6/2 Ibd
2. Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-6/2, Ibd
3. Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-7/4, Ibd
4. Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-10/2, Ibd
5. Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-8/1, Ibd
6. Islamabad Model College <strong>of</strong> Comm (W), F-10/3, Ibd
7. Islamabad Model College for Girls, G-10/2, Ibd
8. Islamabad Model College for Girls, I-8/4, Ibd
9. Islamabad Model College for Girls, I-10/4, Ibd
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84
APPENDIX-A

Q.No.1: Read out following:
PRE-TEST
(Total marks: 40)
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85
APPENDIX-B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (10)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.2: Read out following:
A B C D E F G H I J (10)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.3: Name the following fruits:
Mango, apple, banana, orange, grapes (05)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.4: Name the following animals:
Cat, dog, fish (03)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.5: Name the following shapes:
Circle, square, rectangle, triangle (04)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.6: Name the following body parts:
Eyes, nose, lips, foot, ear, head, leg, hands (08)
(From flash cards)

Q.No.1: Read out following:
POST-TEST-1
(Total marks: 40)
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APPENDIX-C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (10)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.2: Read out following:
A B C D E F G H I J (10)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.3: Name the following fruits:
Mango, apple, banana, orange, grapes (05)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.4: Name the following animals:
Cat, dog, fish (03)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.5: Name the following shapes:
Circle, square, rectangle, triangle (04)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.6: Name the following body parts:
Eyes, nose, lips, foot, ear, head, leg, hands (08)
(From flash cards)

POST-TEST-2
(Total marks: 75)
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APPENDIX-D
Q.No.1: Count them: (03)
Q.No.2: Match the numbers: (06)
2 6
3 7
5 8
6 2
7 3
8 5

Q.No.3: write the Missing words: (05)
2 4 6 _ 8
Q.No.4: What comes after: (03)
7
9
5
Q.No.5: Dictation: (03)
(3, 5, 7)
Q.No.6: Match the letters: (10)
A F
B D
C H
D E
E C
F J
G I
H A
I B
J G
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Q.No.7: Write the Missing letters: (05)
A C E G I
Q.No.8: What comes after: (05)
B
C
G
H
I
Q.No.9: Dictation: (05)
(B, D, F, G, H)
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Q.No.10: Match the following: (05)
Q.No.11: Name the following fruits: (05)
Water melon, pear, peach, melon, loquat
(From flash cards)
Q.No.12: Name the following animals: (05)
Panda, bear, elephant, lion, monkey
(From flash cards)
Q.No.13: Name the following color:
Red, yellow, green (03)
(From flash cards)
Q.No.14: Name the following body parts: (05)
Chin, cheeks, fore-head, elbow, teeth
(From flash cards)
Q.No.15: Social Questions: (02)
(a) What is your name?
(b) How are you?
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A
C
D
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90

A. Counting from 1-10
COURSE OUT-LINES
PART-I
(MATHEMETICS)
• Reading with flash cards and charts
• Writing practice <strong>of</strong> 1-5 with work sheets
B. Matching numbers practice through worksheets.
C. Missing numbers practice through worksheets.
D. Words come after practice through worksheets.
E. Counting and encircling practice through worksheets.
F. Counting and joining practice through worksheets
G. Random writing / dictation practice.
A. Alphabets from A-J
PART-II
(ENGLISH)
• Reading with flash cards and charts
• Writing practice <strong>of</strong> A-E with work sheets.
B. Matching alphabets practice through worksheets.
C. Missing alphabets practice through worksheets.
D. Alphabets come after practice through worksheets.
E. Learning alphabets and objects name starting from them through
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91
APPENDIX-E

• flash cards
• Practice through worksheets.
F. Random writing / dictation practice.
PART-III
(FRUITS AND SHAPES)
A. Learning names <strong>of</strong> following fruits through flash cards
• Apple
• Mango
• Banana
• Grapes
• Orange
• Water melon
• Melon
• Pear
• Peach
• Loquat
B. Drawing <strong>of</strong> following shapes, practice through worksheets
• circle
• square
• rectangle
• triangle
• star
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92

PART-IV (COLORING AND
DRAWING)
A. Learning names <strong>of</strong> following colors through crayons and color pencils.
• red
• yellow
• Blue
B. Practice coloring in following objects through worksheets.
• circle
• square
• rectangle
• triangle
• Apple
• Mango
• Grapes
• Orange
PART-V (BODY
PARTS)
A. Learning names <strong>of</strong> following body parts through flash cards
• Eyes
• Nose
• Lips
• Chin
• Cheeks
• fore-head
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93

• elbow
• teeth
• foot
• ear
• head
• leg
• hands
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE TEACHERS
Students will be first subjected to general activities like puzzles, games,
griping and arranging their things.
Once they develop eye-contact, grip and concentration then they will start
writing.
First they will practice drawing <strong>of</strong> lines i.e., straight, horizontal, vertical etc.
then they will do coloring and then other course contents will be started.
During course teaching, practice <strong>of</strong> general questions should also be carried
out to improve their memory and verbal powers.
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94

Q.No.1: What is your name? Q.No.2:
What is your father name? Q.No.3:
What is your mother name? Q.No.4:
How old are you?
Q.No.5: Where do you live?
Q.No.6: How are you?
SOCIAL QUESTIONS
Q.No.7: What is your date <strong>of</strong> birth? / When will be your birthday?
Q.No.8: What is your religion?
Q.No.9: What do you like to play?
Q.No.10: What do you like to eat?
Q.No.11: In which school you read?
Q.No.12: Who is your best friend?
Q.No.13: What is your teacher name?
Q.No.14: What is your favorite TV show?
Q.No.15: What is your favorite toy?
xcv
95
APPENDIX-F

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
xcv
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96
APPENDIX-G
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS
Name <strong>of</strong> the parent (optional)
Numbers <strong>of</strong> the members in the family
Joint or nuclear family
Number <strong>of</strong> Siblings
How much time do the parents spent
with the child
Did the mother take any
drug/tobacco/alcohol during
pregnancy
Did the mother suffer from any illness
or high fever during pregnancy
Was the delivery normal
Did the child cry at birth
Did the child have lack <strong>of</strong> oxygen
even for a few seconds during the
process <strong>of</strong> birth
what is the birth order <strong>of</strong> the child
Did the child's milestones develop on
time
General Information
Birth History

8
9
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Did the child suffer from any illness or
high fever during or after birth
Did the child take any strong drug or
tranquilizer after birth
Medical History
Is the diet <strong>of</strong> the child high in sugar,
fat or comprise <strong>of</strong> junk food. Please
specify
Does the mother, father or any other
member <strong>of</strong> the family show similar
symptoms
Did he/she show frequent temper
tantrums as an infant.
Did the child have any head injury,
high fever or seizures immediately
after birth?
Did the child have sleeping
disturbance during infancy
Child's Problem's
What are those behaviors symptoms
exhibited by the child that disturbs the
parents?
What are the intensity, duration and
frequency <strong>of</strong> the child's problem
behavior?
How do the parents perceive the
child‟s behaviors/problems?
If the child aggressive towards his/her
siblings. If yes, since when, and in
what situations?
Is there anything particular about the
temperament <strong>of</strong> the child that you
would like to mention?
xcv
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97

1
2
3
4
5
6
Teacher's Observations
What does the teacher feel about the
child's performance in reading, writing
and math?
How does the child's performance in
these subjects compare with that <strong>of</strong> the
other children in the class?
What is the child's behavior at school?
Is the child <strong>of</strong>ten disruptive in school
and needs constant supervision?
Is the child inclined to pay attention to
irrelevant objects/events in or outside
the class room?
How do the peers feel about the child?
xcv
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98

CALCULATIONS
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99
APPENDIX-H
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST APPLIED ON PRE-TEST & POST-
TEST-1 OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
COMPUTATIONS:
Pre-test scores Post-test-1 scores
9 23
12 29
17 35
8 25
12 33
STEP 1: Arranging the observations <strong>of</strong> the combined test scores in order <strong>of</strong>
increasing magnitude and underlining the observations from pre-test score, we get
8, 9, 12, 12, 17, 23, 25, 29, 33, 35
STEP 2: Replacing these values with their ranks (with the ranks <strong>of</strong>
observations from pre-test score underlined), we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
STEP 3: Totaling the ranks <strong>of</strong> the two scores separately, we have
R1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
R2 = 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 40
Now
U = n n + n1 (n1 + 1) 1 1 2
− R 1
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 15
1
2

U 1 = 25 + 15 − 15
U 1 = 25
U 2 = n1 n2 + n2 (n2 + 1) − R 2
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 40
2
2
U 2 = 25 + 15 − 40
U 2 = 0
STEP 4: The smaller the two values for U1 and U2 is taken as U-statistics, i.e,
U = min [0, 25] = 0
STEP 5: Looking in table, we find for n1 = 5, n2 = 5 and α = 0.05, the critical
region consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23.
CONCLUSION:
Since the computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical region, so the null
hypothesis is rejected.
c
100

MANN-WHITNEY U TEST APPLIED ON PRE-TEST & POST-
TEST-2 OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
COMPUTATIONS:
Pre-test scores Post-test-2 scores
9 21
12 28
17 34
8 23
12 31
STEP 1: Arranging the observations <strong>of</strong> the combined test scores in order <strong>of</strong>
increasing magnitude and underlining the observations from pre-test score, we get
8, 9, 12, 12, 17, 21, 23, 28, 31, 33
STEP 2: Replacing these values with their ranks (with the ranks <strong>of</strong>
observations from pre-test score underlined), we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
STEP 3: Totaling the ranks <strong>of</strong> the two scores separately, we have
R1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
R2 = 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 40
Now
U = n n + n1 (n1 + 1)
− R
1 1 2
1
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 15
1
2
U 1 = 25 + 15 − 15
U 1 = 25
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101

U 2 = n1 n2 + n2 (n2 + 1) − R 2
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 40
2
2
U 2 = 25 + 15 − 40
U 2 = 0
STEP 4: The smaller the two values for U1 and U2 is taken as U-statistics, i.e.,
U = min [0, 25] = 0
STEP 5: Looking in table, we find for n1 = 5, n2 = 5 and α = 0.05, the critical
region consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23.
CONCLUSION:
Since the computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical region, so the null
hypothesis is rejected.
cii
102

MANN-WHITNEY U TEST APPLIED ON POST-TEST-1OF
CONTROL & EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
COMPUTATIONS:
Control group Experimental group
10 23
12 29
11 35
10 25
13 33
STEP 1: Arranging the observations <strong>of</strong> the combined test scores in order <strong>of</strong>
increasing magnitude and underlining the observations from pre-test score, we get
10, 10, 11, 12, 13, 23, 25, 29, 33, 35
STEP 2: Replacing these values with their ranks (with the ranks <strong>of</strong>
observations from pre-test score underlined), we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
STEP 3: Totaling the ranks <strong>of</strong> the two scores separately, we have
R1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
R2 = 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 40
Now
U = n n + n1 (n1 + 1)
1 1 2
− R 1
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 15
1
2
U 1 = 25 + 15 − 15
U 1 = 25
ciii
103

U 2 = n1 n2 + n2 (n2 + 1) − R 2
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 40
2
2
U 2 = 25 + 15 − 40
U 2 = 0
STEP 4: The smaller the two values for U1 and U2 is taken as U-statistics, i.e.,
U = min [0, 25] = 0
STEP 5: Looking in table, we find for n1 = 5, n2 = 5 and α = 0.05, the critical
region consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23.
CONCLUSION:
Since the computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical region, so the null
hypothesis is rejected.
civ
104

MANN-WHITNEY U TEST APPLIED ON POST-TEST-2 OF
CONTROL & EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
COMPUTATIONS:
Control group Experimental group
5 21
9 28
7 34
7 23
11 31
STEP 1: Arranging the observations <strong>of</strong> the combined test scores in order <strong>of</strong>
increasing magnitude and underlining the observations from pre-test score, we get
5, 7, 7, 9, 11, 21, 23, 28, 31, 34
STEP 2: Replacing these values with their ranks (with the ranks <strong>of</strong>
observations from pre-test score underlined), we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
STEP 3: Totaling the ranks <strong>of</strong> the two scores separately, we have
R1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
R2 = 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 40
Now
U = n n + n1 (n1 + 1)
− R
1 1 2
1
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 15
1
2
U 1 = 25 + 15 − 15
U 1 = 25
cv
105

U 2 = n1 n2 + n2 (n2 + 1) − R 2
2
U = 5 × 5 + (5)(6) − 40
2
2
U 2 = 25 + 15 − 40
U 2 = 0
STEP 4: The smaller the two values for U1 and U2 is taken as U-statistics, i.e.,
U = min [0, 25] = 0
STEP 5: Looking in table, we find for n1 = 5, n2 = 5 and α = 0.05, the critical
region consists <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U < 2 and <strong>of</strong> all values <strong>of</strong> U > 23.
CONCLUSION:
Since the computed value <strong>of</strong> U = 0 falls in the critical region, so the null
hypothesis is rejected.
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106

n1
cvi
i
107
APPENDIX-I
TABLE OF CRITICAL VALUES OF U FOR THE MANN-
WHITNEY U TEST
4
5
6
7
8
n2
4
0 16
1 15
5
1 19
2 18
2 23
4 21
6
2 22
3 21
3 27
5 25
5 31
7 29
7
3 25
4 24
5 30
6 29
6 36
8 34
8 41
11 38
8
4 28
5 27
6 34
8 32
8 40
10 38
10 46
13 43
13 51
15 49
In this table there are four numbers for each value <strong>of</strong> n1 and n2. The
top pair are the critical values for a two-tailed test for α = 0.05, while
the lower pair are the critical values for one-tailed test for α = 0.05.

WORKSHEETS
cvi
ii
108
APPENDIX-J

cix
109

cx
110

cxi
111

cxi
i
112

cxi
ii
113

cxi
v
114

cxv
115

cxv
i
116

cxv
ii
117

cxv
iii
118

cxi
x
119

cxx
120

cxx
i
121

cxx
ii
122

cxx
iii
123

cxx
iv
124

cxx
v
125

cxx
vi
126

cxx
vii
127

cxx
viii
128

cxx
ix
129

cxx
x
130

cxx
xi
131

cxx
xii
132

cxx
xiii
133

cxx
xiv
134

cxx
xv
135

cxx
xvi
136

cxx
xvi
i
137

cxx
xvi
ii
138

cxx
xix
139

cxl
140

cxl
i
141

cxl
ii
142

cxl
iii
143

cxl
iv
144

cxl
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145