Paganism an overview introduction - South African Pagan Council

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PAGANISM
AN OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Paganism represents a wide variety of contemporary traditions of non-Abrahamaic
religions and spiritualities which mostly draw on the ancient and traditional religions
of indigenous peoples throughout the world.
Paganism is not a traditional religion as such, mainly because it does not hold onto
any official doctrine, but it does have certain common characteristics joining together
a great variety of traditions. One of the common beliefs is the Divine presence in
nature and the reverence of the natural order in life. Spiritual growth is also often
related to the natural cycles of the Earth.
Most Pagan traditions are particularly interested in the revival of ancient polytheist
religious traditions including the Norse and Celtic traditions. Many traditions are
intentionally reconstructionist as they aim to revive many of the lost rituals of the
ancient traditions including holy days and seasonal celebrations.
Besides respect for nature, many Pagans also worship a variety of gods and
goddesses, and Pagans honour their ancestry and ancestors. Many traditions include
magick, but this practice is not universal.
Pagan as a self-designation of NeoPagans appeared in 1964 and 1965, in the
publications of the Witchcraft Research Association; at that time, the term was in use
by “revivalist Witches” in the United States and the United Kingdom, but this was
unconnected to the broader, “counter-culture NeoPagan movement”.
The modern popularisation of the terms “Pagan” and “NeoPagan”, as they are
currently understood, is largely traced to Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, co-founder of “the
1st Neo-Pagan Church of All Worlds” who, beginning in 1967 with the early issues of
Green Egg magazine, used both terms for the growing movement. This usage has
been common since the Pagan revival in the 1970s, and is now used by academics and
adherents alike to identify new religious movements that emphasise pantheism or
nature-worship or that revive or reconstruct aspects of historical polytheism.
Increasingly, however, scholarly writers and adherents prefer the term “contemporary
Paganism” or simply “Paganism” (capitalised).

PART ONE
ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY PAGANISM
Rooted in ancient traditions while finding new spiritual expressions in the postmodern
age, contemporary Paganism encompasses many different beliefs and
practices.Paganism is simultaneously a prehistoric and postmodern religion - it is as
ancient as the fertility symbols associated with the veneration deities thousands of
years ago, while its newest forms have emerged as recently as the early 20th century.
Broadly speaking, Paganism encompasses two key characteristics:
1) Religious and spiritual practices concerning the worship of, or devotion to, the
earth, the natural world, and/or the manifest universe; and/or
2) Belief in spiritual beings: goddesses, gods, nature spirits, ancestral spirits, etc
However, not all expressions of Paganism incorporate both of these characteristics; it
is possible to be a nature mystic without worshiping the goddesses or the gods, and
vice versa.
By their very nature, prehistoric religions have left behind no written records, but are
known by interpretation of archaeological remains.Throughout the world, graveyards
and ceremonial sites reveal evidence of magickal practices, sacrificial rites and the
veneration of deities and/or mythic beings. Other archaeological evidence suggests
early magickal/religious practices, often with a strong focus of nature symbolism.
Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods, may be one of the earliest detectable
forms of religious practice since it may signify a concern for the dead that transcends
daily life.
Mythologies from around the world often include stories of gods and goddesses with
strong ties to the natural world, including deities associated with the earth, such as
Gaia or Rhea (Greek), Nantosuelta (Gaulish), Danu and Don of the Celts, Terra Mater
or Tellus (Roman), etc. Many deities were associated with particular elements of
nature, such as the Greek gods Zeus (sky/thunder), Poseidon (the sea) and Demeter
(grain/harvest), etc
Paganism has such strong ties with nature and physical reality that among many
practitioners Paganism is also practised as Nature religion. And this has in fact rather
ancient roots: In 279 BCE, a Gaulish chieftain, Brennus, led a raiding party into
Greece and sacked Delphi, the seat of a renowned oracle. According to the 1stcentury
Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, when Brennus entered a Greek temple and
saw idols of gods in human form, he laughed. Brennus, and apparently all the Gauls,
seems to have understood the gods and goddesses not as projections of human
personalities, but as embodiments of various forces of nature.
Although practitioners of modern forms of Paganism appeal to the past to legitimise
their practice, it could be argued that these contemporary expressions of naturecentered
religions are essentially “new” religions/spiritual movements, formed in
response to issues and concerns of their day and related to the past only insofar as
they look to archaeological and mythological data for inspiration.
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Between the 18th and the 20th centuries, a variety of religious movements
(re)emerged, particularly in Europe and North America, religions that are to various
degrees based on Pagan practices such as nature veneration or goddess devotion.
Examples of these would include modern Druidism, Wicca, Witchcraft and revivals
of ethnic religions (such as Asatru).
Whether Pagans see themselves as returning to ancestral practices or creating a new
Paganism for today’s world, contemporary Pagans constantly deal with questions of
authenticity, identity and historicity.
With no single sacred text, no unifying teacher or prophet and no pilgrimage site
revered by practitioners the world over, Paganism is extremely diverse and varied.
While most Pagans regard this decentralised diversity as a strength, it leads to
significant problems for anyone wishing to understand Paganism as a whole. These
problems include two key issues:
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• the question of identity - what separates Pagan religion from all other
expressions of religion or spirituality; and
• the question of historicity - what is the difference between the Paganism of the
distant past, and similar Pagan religious and spiritual activities of today?
The question of identity begins with controversy concerning the concepts of nature
and of religion. Does, Paganism, as a Nature Religion, include any practice that
reveres the physical world in any form, or is it more properly understood in a more
exclusionary way - only consisting of religions with clear ties to agricultural, fertility,
polytheism, goddess worship or prehistoric practices?
Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in or worship of multiple deities, called gods and/or
goddesses. These are usually assembled into a pantheon, along with their own
mythologies and rituals. Many religions, both historical and contemporary, have a
belief in polytheism, such as Shinto, Ancient Greek Polytheism, Roman Polytheism,
Germanic Polytheism, Slavic polytheism,Chinese folk religion, contemporary Pagan
faiths and Anglo-Saxon Paganism. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods
equally, but can be monolatrists, specialising in the worship of one particular deity.
Other polytheists can be kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times.
In certain religions, such as Wicca, the various deities are seen as emanations of a
greater Godhead.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytheism

Contemporary Pagans tend to see Divinity as able to manifest both in the natural and
“supernatural” realms and able to take many forms, which may be acknowledged by
either an individual or a community. Some of today’s Pagans do reject the term
Nature Religion, choosing rather to emphasise the historic or ethnic roots of their
religious and spiritual practices.
Equally contested is the use of the world “religion” to describe the practices typically
included under the aegis of Paganism. Some of these practices are explicitly magickal
rather than devotional or ceremonial in their orientation and perhaps a descriptor other
than “religion” may be more accurate: spirituality, spiritual practice, magickal
practice, spiritual-magicko practice, or something along these lines.
Paganism might exhibit some qualities normally associated with religion, but in other
important ways might more properly be seen as something fundamentally different
from religion as it is generally understood.
Part of the challenge in studying Pagan identity is trying to understand and respect the
diversity within the Pagan community.
Paganism, Witchcraft, Wicca, Druidism, Shamanism, Hellenic or Egyptian Religion,
Asatru, Odinism, Heathenry, etc - each of these concepts are understood in many
different ways, by practitioners and outside observers. For example, many
practitioners have strong beliefs regarding the difference between Wicca and
Witchcraft - some regard Wicca as a dilution of true Witchcraft, while others see
Wicca as originating from British Traditional Witchcraft (BTW) as a religion whereas
Witchcraft is limited to magickal practice.
Due to the wide variety of beliefs and viewpoints regarding questions of identity,
contemporary Paganism - regardless of its relationship to the past - qualifies as a postmodern
religion in the sense that, as a whole, it shuns claims for overall truth, in
favour of “truth” as residing only in personal experience or in socially constructed
contexts.
For non-Pagans wishing to learn something about Paganism, the best approach may
be simply to do what practitioners themselves tend to do: learn all one can about
Pagan beliefs and practices, recognising that just about any statement that can be
made about this path as a whole is subject to interpretation by at least some segments
of the Pagan community.
HISTORY
Sketching the historical development of Paganism, in its many forms, is practically
impossible, and this is mainly because Paganism refers not only to a particular
religious tradition, but also to a particular religious type. The Pagan “type” involves
religions that are magickal, polytheistic, and/or animistic, and often anchored in
agricultural or fertility or seasonal rituals.
The Pagan movement that (re)emerged in Europe and in the English-speaking world
in the mid-20th century-draws largely from Indo-European and Egyptian religions,
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particularly as those spiritualities shaped the religious life in Europe up until the
arrival of Christianity, and, in certain hidden ways, even into the Christian era.
Proto-Indo-Europeans
The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the Copper Age, or roughly the 5th to
4th millennia BCE. Mainstream scholarship places them in the general region of the
Pontic-Caspian steppe in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. By the mid-2nd
millennium BCE offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached Anatolia, the
Aegean, Northern India and possibly Western Europe.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were the ancestors of virtually all European cultures - as
attested by the many European languages that belong to the Indo-European family.
But not only did they bequeath a common root language, but they also generated
common religious practices, which can be pieced together through the study of
language, archaeology and mythology.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were mostly polytheists, worshiping a variety of gods,
such as a father-god of the sky; a god of abundance and wealth; a river goddess; a
water or sea god; and many others. Like the gods and the myths, our knowledge of the
ritual practices of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is rather sketchy. Scholars cannot
identify words for “religion” or “temple” within Proto-European language, but words
do exist for concepts such as “prayer”, “holiness”, “cosmic order”, “consecration”,
“sacred meals” and “libation”, and “sacred groves” or enclosures.
The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-
European peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European religion and
mythology. While similar religious customs among Indo-European peoples can
provide evidence for a shared religious heritage, a shared custom does not necessarily
indicate a common source for such a custom; some of these practices may well have
evolved in a process of parallel evolution. Archaeological evidence, where any can be
found, is difficult to match to any specific culture. The best evidence is therefore the
existence of cognate words and names in the Indo-European languages. This religion
– although it probably did not exist as a singularity - could have been the ancestor of
the majority of the religions of pre-Christian Europe, of the Indian religions and even
of Zoroastrianism in Iran.
The main functionaries of the “Proto-Indo-European religion” would have been
maintained by a class of priests or shamans. There is evidence for sacral kingship,
suggesting the tribal king at the same time assumed the role of high priest. This
function would have survived as late as 11th century Scandinavia, when kings could
still be dethroned for refusing to serve as priests. Divination was performed by priests,
perhaps from parts of slaughtered animals (haruspex). Watching birds possibly also
played a role in divination (augur). Some Indo-European societies can be interpreted
as being divided into three parts: a clerical class, a warrior class, and a class of
peasants or husbandmen.
Examples of the descendants of this class in historical Indo-European societies would
be the Celtic Druids, the Indian Brahmins, the Latin Flamines and the Persian Magi.
Historical Indo-European religions also had priestesses, either hierodoules (temple
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prostitutes), dedicated virgins or oracles, eg the Roman Vestal Virgins, the Greek
Sibyls or the Germanic Völvas. It should be noted that modern scholars are disputing
the traditional interpretation of heirodoules as prostitutes.
Linguists are able to reconstruct the names of some deities in Proto-Indo-European
language from names occurring in widely spread, old mythologies. Some of the
proposed deities are more readily accepted among scholars than others.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans may also have distinguished between different races of
gods, such as the Aesir, and Vanir of Norse mythology and the Titans and Olympians
of Greek mythology. Possibly, these were the Deiw-o-, literally “celestial, those of the
sky/daylight” (Deva, Daimon, deities) and the Ansu-, literally “spirits, those with vital
force” (Aesir, Asura, Ahura).
There seems to have been a belief in a World Tree, which in Germanic mythology
was an ash tree (Norse Yggdrasil; Irminsul), in Hinduism a banyan tree, in Lithuanian
mythology Jievaras, and an oak tree in Slavic mythology, and a hazel tree in Celtic
mythology.
One common myth which can be found among almost all Indo-European mythologies
is a battle ending with the slaying of a serpent, usually a dragon of some sort. Related
to the dragon-slaying myth is the “Sun in the rock” myth, of a heroic warrior deity
splitting a rock where the Sun or Dawn was imprisoned. Such a myth is preserved in
RigvedicVala (ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns), where
Ushas (the Dawn) and the cows, stolen by the Panis (a class of demons) were
imprisoned, connected with other myths of abductions into the netherworld such as
the mysteries of Eleusis connected with Persephone, Dionysus and Triptolemus -
“threefold warrior” also known as Buzyges - seen as the primordial man.
There may have been a sort of nature spirit or god akin to the Greek god Pan and the
Satyrs, the Roman god Faunus and the Fauns, the Celtic god Cernunnos and the Dusii,
Slavic Veles and the Leszi, Vedic Pashupati, Prajapati and Pushan, the Germanic
Woodwose, elves and dwarves; There may also have been a female cognate akin to
the Greco-Roman nymphs, Slavic vilas, the Huldra of Germanic folklore, the Hindu
Apsaras, the Persian Peri.
There may also have been a savage dog or wolf (hellhound) guarding the underworld,
such as Greek Kerberos, and Norse Garm; Kerberos and Garm (and Grendel) are
derived from the Proto-Indo-European root, gher- (thought to be an onomatopoetic
reference to the dog’s growl). It is also likely that they had three fate goddesses, see
the Norns in Norse mythology, Moirae in Greek mythology, Sudjenice of Slavic
folklore and Deiv÷s Valdytojos in Lithuanian mythology.
The various Indo-European daughter-cultures continued elements of Proto-Indo-
European religion, syncretising it with innovations and foreign elements, notably
Ancient Near Eastern and Dravidian elements, the reforms of Zoroaster and Buddha,
and the spread of Christianity and Islam.
Meanwhile, archaeological evidence suggests ceremonial practices particularly
associated with burial and with astronomical observances. For example, Stonehenge,
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was built according to astronomical alignments. The evidence suggests that the
ancient forebears of European Paganism had a clear understanding of gods and
goddesses, generally aligned with aspects of the natural world, to whom they would
offer sacrifices, pour libations and conduct ceremonies.
STONEHENGE
More than nine hundred stone rings exist in the British Isles, and scholars estimate
that twice that number may originally have been built. Scholars usually classify these
types of megalithic structures as rings rather than circles, because the rough
proportions for the different shapes are 2/3 true circles, 1/6 flattened circles, 1/9
ellipses, and 1/18 eggs. Stonehenge, however, is roughly circular. It is difficult to
precisely date the stone rings because of the scarcity of datable remains associated
with them, but it is known that they were constructed during the Neolithic period. In
southern England the Neolithic period dates from the development of the first farming
communities around 4000 BCE to the development of bronze technology about 2000
BCE, when the construction of the megalithic monuments was mostly over. Because of
the limited nature of the archaeological record at the stone rings, attempts to explain
the functions of the structures are often interpretive. Interpretations of the stone rings
made in previous centuries tended to reflect the cultural biases of their times and
were sometimes wildly imaginative. Only in the past few decades have truly
comprehensive examinations of Stonehenge been conducted by archaeoastronomers
such as John Michell, Robin Heath and John North. It is interesting to note that more
than 40 000 megalithic sites have survived in the British Isles, this number exceeding
the number of modern towns and villages, and yet only a small percentage of these
have been thoroughly studied.
http://www.sacredsites.com/europe/england/stonehenge.html
Natural Diversity
While prehistoric religion will always have a shroud of mystery about it, the
knowledge of ancient Paganism is immeasurably enhanced by the cultures that
adopted literacy. With the advent of writing came the preservation of myths, prayers,
hymns, devotional practices, cultic and votive inscriptions and engraved statues or
other ceremonial objects, all of which contribute to an understanding of ancient
religious practices.
Unlike religions that were literary from their beginning (such as Christianity and
Islam), questions of schisms in Paganism are basically meaningless because European
Pagans never had a common or universal belief system from which schismatic groups
could break away. On the contrary, ancient Paganism was never a dogmatic religion
with a unified core body of teachings or beliefs.
Rather than schisms, a more helpful way to think about Paganism is in terms of
natural diversity. Just as there are countless myths and supernatural folktales that
appear to have their roots in Pagan spirituality, so Paganism thrived in an innumerable
variety of ways. Celtic mythology and Norse mythology were preserved among the
people of northern Europe. Meanwhile Greek and Roman mythology represent two
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other forms of myth, in some ways closely related but nevertheless distinct. Various
other mythologies were found in Europe, including those of the Baltic, Slavic, Balkan
and other regions. Egyptian religion, while not of Indo-European origin, spread to
southern Europe so that some in Pagan Greece and Rome practiced the worship of Isis
and other Egyptian deities.
But it is misleading to speak of “Greek religion” and “Roman religion” as if these
were two monolithic entities. Not only were the religious practices within each
culture varied but even the mythology itself was unsystematic. Rather than think in
terms of Celtic myth, it would be more accurate to speak of “Celtic myths” - in the
plural - for the written records suggest that different regions in the Celtic world had
their own myths, their own cultic practices, and their own local deities.
While some deities may have achieved sufficient renown to be worshipped
throughout the Celtic world, these would have been the exceptions rather than the
rule; most gods and goddesses were local, anchored to a specific location or a specific
feature in the natural world. A British Pagan and a French (Gallic) Pagan from 2000
years ago may have worshiped completely different gods with distinctive ritual or
ceremonial practices. This was true throughout Europe. Only with the arrival of
writing - as in the case of classical Greece and Rome - did mythologies begin to be
recorded, and therefore, to be systematised.
Because of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing written Gaulish, it is surmised
that the Pagan Celts were not widely literate, although a written form of Gaulish using
the Greek, Latin and North Italic alphabets was used (as evidenced by votive items
bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and the Coligny Calendar). Julius Caesar attests to the
literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, the druids, were forbidden to
use writing to record certain verses of religious significance (Caesar, De Bello Gallico
6.14) while also noting that the Helvetii had a written census (Caesar, De Bello
Gallico 1.29).
Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions and broke the power
of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to deities discovered
in Gaul (modern France and Northern Italy), Britain and other formerly (or presently)
Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest.
Although early Gaels in Ireland and parts of modern Wales used the Ogham script to
record short inscriptions (largely personal names), more sophisticated literacy was not
introduced to Celtic areas that had not been conquered by Rome until the advent of
Christianity. Indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian monks,
albeit without most of their original religious meanings.
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Ogham script
Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/forfeda
The Ogham alphabet is thought to be named after the Irish god Ogma. One theory of
its origins is that it evolved out of a system of tallies used for accounting. Ogham is
also known as or ogham craobh, beth luis fearn or beth luis nion. About 500 Ogham
inscriptions have been found in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England dating from
between the 4th and 7th centuries AD. There are inscriptions in archaic forms of
Gaelic and Pictish, which have not been deciphered. A handful of inscriptions
featuring the Ogham script and the Latin alphabet have also been found. While all
surviving traces of Ogham are inscriptions on stone, it was probably more commonly
inscribed on sticks, stakes and trees. Inscriptions generally take the form of
somebody's name and the name of a place and were probably used to mark
boundaries.
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ogham.htm
The oldest body of myths is found only from the early medieval period of Ireland. As
Christianity began to take over, the gods and goddeses were slowly eliminated as such
from the culture. What has survived includes material dealing with the Tuatha Dé
Danann and the Fomorians, which forms the basis for the text Cath Maige Tuireadh
(the Battle of Mag Tuireadh), as well as portions of the history-focused Lebor Gabála
Érenn (the Book of Invasions). The Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human
society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and
wild nature.
The Celts also worshipped a number of deities of which we know little more than
their names. Classical writers preserve a few fragments of legends or myths that may
possibly be Celtic. According to the Syrian rhetorician Lucian, Ogmios was supposed
to lead a band of men chained by their ears to his tongue as a symbol of the strength
of his eloquence.
The Roman poet Lucan (1st century AD) mentions the gods Taranis, Teutates and
Esus, but there is little Celtic evidence that these were important deities.
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A number of objets d’art, coins, and altars may depict scenes from lost myths, such as
the representations of Tarvos Trigaranus or of an equestrian “Jupiter” surmounting a
snake-legged human-like figure. The Gundestrup cauldron has been also interpreted
mythically.
The Gundestrup cauldron
The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel, thought to date to the 1st
century BCE It was found in 1891 in a peat bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup, in the
Aars parish in Himmerland, Denmark, and it is now housed at the National Museum
of Denmark in Copenhagen.The Gundestrup cauldron is the largest known example of
European Iron Age silver work (diameter 69cm, height 4cm). The style and
workmanship suggest Thracian origin, while the imagery seems Celtic. This has
opened room for conflicting theories of Thracian vs Gaulish origin of the cauldron,
some suggesting even influence by Indian iconography. For many years scholars have
interpreted the cauldron's images in terms of the Celtic pantheon. The antlered figure
has been commonly identified as Cernunnos, and the figure holding the broken wheel
is more tentatively thought to be Taranis. There is no consensus regarding other
figures. The elephants depicted have been explained by some Celticists as a reference
to Hannibal's crossing of the Alps.
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundestrup_cauldron
Along with dedications giving us god names, there are also many deity
representations to which no name has yet been attached. Among these are images of a
three headed or three faced god, a squatting god, a god with a snake, a god with a
wheel, and a horseman with a kneeling giant. Some of these images can be found in
Late Bronze Age peat bogs in Britain, indicating the symbols were both pre-Roman
and widely spread across Celtic culture. The distribution of some of the images has
been mapped and shows a pattern of central concentration of an image along with a
wide scatter indicating these images were most likely attached to specific tribes and
were distributed from some central point of tribal concentration outward along lines
of trade. The image of the three headed god has a central concentration among the
Belgae, between the Oise, Marne and Moselle rivers. The horseman with kneeling
giant is centered on either side of the Rhine. These examples seem to indicate regional
preferences of a common image stock.
The classic entry about the Celtic gods of Gaul is the section in Julius Caesar’s
“Commentarii de Bello Gallico” (52–51 BC; The Gallic War). In this he names the
five principal gods worshipped in Gaul (according to the practice of his time, he gives
the names of the closest equivalent Roman gods) and describes their roles. Mercury
was the most venerated of all the deities and numerous representations of him were to
be discovered. Mercury was seen as the originator of all the arts (and is often taken to
refer to Lugus for this reason), the supporter of adventurers and of traders, and the
mightiest power concerning trade and profit. Next the Gauls revered Apollo, Mars,
Jupiter, and Minerva. Among these divinities the Celts are described as holding
roughly equal views as did other populations: Apollo dispels sickness, Minerva
encourages skills, Jupiter governs the skies and Mars influences warfare. In addition
to these five, he mentions that the Gauls traced their ancestry to Dis Pater.
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Dis Pater
Dis Pater (Donn, In Dagda) is the Gaulish supreme deity, known from Roman
writings about the Celts where Dis Pater is named as the god of the underworld and
the dead. However, he many well be related to and equated with the Irish gods Donn
and In Dagda and though we do not have the Gaulish name for this deity, there are
many representations of this god throughout Gaul. Julius Caesar in his De Bello
Gallico VI, 18 (Gallic Wars) calls Dis the transcendant god amongst the Gauls, one
of the six in their pantheon, and asserts that all Gauls claimed him as their ultimate
ancestor. Thus we know of Dis Pater only through interpretatio romano; yet there
probably was a native Gaulish deity associated on whom the likeness with Dis Pater
was based and whose name is now lost. Dis Pater is thus used in place of the true
name of this original Celtic deity. The association of the Gaulish Allfather with the
Roman Dis Pater is associated with the Celtic emphasis on the continued existence of
the soul after death and the continuing cult of the ancestors that survives from the
Neolithic through the bronze age to the Iron Age of the Celts (which may well be why
ancient burial mounds and other ancient tumuli are regarded as the dwellings of the
departed, the sídh mounds of the gods and the enclaves of the Tylwyth Teg. However,
if the Dis Pater is also the ancestral deity of the people he may also be equated with
Teutates whose name is interpreted as “Father of the Tribe”. In southern Germany
and the Balkans inscriptions invoke Dis Pater along with the native deity Aericura.
The associated imagery reveals a goddess posessing all the emblems of a Celtic
mother deity; though her consort holds a scroll that may be the ‘Book of Life’,
symbolic of the passage from youth to old age. On a stele from Varhély, Rumania Dis
Pater is depictad with a three-headed canid; the native equivalent to Cerberus,
guardian of the netherworld.
http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_d/dis_pater.html
Throughout ancient Europe, Paganism thus evolved into a variety of forms, adapting
itself to local regions and venerating gods and goddesses anchored in specific places.
Ancient Paganism was not missionary in nature - in other words, Pagans did not travel
abroad, seeking converts to their way of life. When cultures were expansionist (as
were the Celtic, Greek and Roman), the motivation was political and economic rather
than religious or spiritual. Paganism has no (or little) sense of damnation and
therefore no urgency to convert other people to the “truth”. The defining feature of
ancient European Paganism was polytheism, which by its very nature stressed
tolerance and coexistence.
PHILOSOPHERS VISIONARIES
Paganism has no overall founding figure (such as Krishna, the Buddha, Jesus Christ,
or Muhammad) who functions as an object of worship or veneration. Because ancient
Paganism is prehistoric in origin, key figures from the beginnings of this religious
path are lost to the mists of time. However, various traditions and lineages within the
Pagan world can be traced to one or more key visionaries who founded (or
popularised) his or her particular community. It would be inaccurate, however, to see
any one of these figures as “founders” for the Pagan community.
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A more contemporary example for this would be Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), the
British author whose books Witchcraft Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft
(1959), as well as his ritual writings, are largely credited with the creation-or rebirthof
British Witchcraft (know known as Wicca). Gardner himself maintained that he
was initiated into a pre-existing secret community of Witches who were practicing a
Pagan religion (and not devil-worship).
Others insist that Wicca as it exists today is largely the creation of Gardner and his
associates. That said, many groups of Witches and Wiccans pay no allegiance to
Gardner at all; furthermore, among other Pagans such as Druids, Celtic
Reconstructionists, Odinists, devotees to Hellenic or Egyptian deities and other
practitioners who do not identify as Wiccans or Witches, Gardner has little or no
influence.
Paganism, like any spiritual tradition, has numerous contributors who have shaped the
many forms that it takes today. The following list of individuals represent a sampling
of some of the many other writers, teachers and practitioners who are renowned for
their impact on the continuing development of the overall modern Pagan movement.
Pythagoras
Source: http://home.comcast.net/~sean.day/html/Pythagoras.jpg
Pythagoras (570-495 BCE) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the
religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about
Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable
information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have
travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge.
Around 530 BCE, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set
up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed
by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role
in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean
meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said by
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some to have ended his days in Metapontum (ancient Greek city in Italy on the Gulf
of Tarentum, near the mouth of the Bradanus (Bradano) River).
Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in the
late 6th century BCE. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and
scientist, and he is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name.
However, because legend and obfuscation cloud his work even more than with the
other pre-Socratic philosophers, one can say little with confidence about his
teachings, and some have questioned whether he contributed much to mathematics
and natural philosophy. Many of the accomplishments credited to Pythagoras may
actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues and successors.
We do know that his disciples believed that everything was related to mathematics
and that numbers were the ultimate reality. It was said that he was the first man to call
himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom, and Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked
influence on Plato, and through him, all of western philosophy.
Many myths were created - such as that Apollo was his father; that Pythagoras
gleamed with a supernatural brightness; that he had a golden thigh; that Abaris came
flying to him on a golden arrow; that he was seen in different places at one and the
same time.With the exception of a few remarks by Xenophanes, Heraclitus,
Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates, we are mainly dependent on Diogenes
Laërtius, Porphyry, and Iamblichus for the biographical details. Aristotle had written a
separate work on the Pythagoreans, which unfortunately has not survived. His
disciples Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus had written on the same
subject. These writers, late as they are, are among the best sources from whom
Porphyry and Iamblichus drew, besides the legendary accounts and their own
inventions. Hence historians are often reduced to considering the statements based on
their inherent probability, but even then, if all the credible stories concerning
Pythagoras were supposed true, his range of activity would be impossibly vast.
It was the standard belief in antiquity that Pythagoras had undertaken extensive
travels, and had visited not only Egypt, but Arabia, Phoenicia, Judaea, Babylon, and
even India, for the purpose of collecting all available knowledge, and especially to
learn information concerning the secret or mystic cults of the gods. The journey to
Babylon is possible, and not very unlikely. That Pythagoras visited Egypt, may be
more probable, and many ancient writers asserted this. Enough of Egypt was known
to attract the curiosity of an inquiring Greek, and contact between Samos and other
parts of Greece with Egypt is mentioned.
It is not easy to say how much Pythagoras learned from the Egyptian priests, or
indeed, whether he learned anything at all from them. It is stated that he knocked on
their doors for seven years. There was nothing in the symbolism which the
Pythagoreans adopted which showed the distinct traces of Egypt. The secret religious
rites of the Pythagoreans exhibited nothing but what might have been adopted in the
spirit of Greek religion, by those who knew nothing of Egyptian mysteries. The
philosophy and the institutions of Pythagoras might easily have been developed by a
Greek mind exposed to the ordinary influences of the age. Even the ancient authorities
note the similarities between the religious and ascetic peculiarities of Pythagoras with
the Orphic or Cretan mysteries, or the Delphic Oracle.
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His followers established a select brotherhood or club for the purpose of pursuing the
religious and ascetic practices developed by their master. The accounts agree that
what was done and taught among the members was kept a profound secret. The
esoteric teachings may have concerned the secret religious doctrines and usages,
which were undoubtedly prominent in the Pythagorean system, and may have been
connected with the worship of Apollo.Temperance of all kinds seems to have been
strictly urged. There is disagreement among the biographers as to whether Pythagoras
forbade all animal food, or only certain types. The group was in practice at once “a
philosophical school, a religious brotherhood, and a political association”.
As an active and organised brotherhood the Pythagorean order was suppressed, still
the Pythagoreans continued to exist as a sect, the members of which kept up among
themselves their religious observances and scientific pursuits, while individuals, as in
the case of Archytas, acquired now and then great political influence. Concerning the
fate of Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some say that he perished in the
temple with his disciples, others that he fled first to Tarentum, and that, being driven
from there, he escaped to Metapontum, and there starved himself to death. His tomb
was shown at Metapontum in the time of Cicero.
Socrates
Socrates (469–399 BCE) was a Classical Greek philosopher. Credited as one of the
founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known only through the
classical accounts of his students. Plato’s dialogues are the most comprehensive
accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.
Through his portrayal in Plato’s dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his
contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his
name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or Elenchus. The
latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of
pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual
answers, but to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand..
Forming an accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical
viewpoints is problematic at best. This issue is known as the Socratic problem.
Socrates did not write philosophical texts. The knowledge of the man, his life, and his
philosophy is based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among
them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide
important insights. The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these
works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories.
Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in
general), there is in fact no such thing as a straightforward history contemporary with
Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that the sources
which do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and
are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no
testament).
However, it is also clear from other writings, and historical artifacts that Socrates was
not simply a character, or invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and
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Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes’ work within The Clouds, can be usefully
engaged in fleshing out our perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work; at the very
least, Socrates was a popular manifestation of a common rhetorical tool of the era,
that of using argumentum ad verecundiam by having a hypothetical teacher make the
argument for the philosopher.
Mysticism
In the Dialogues of Plato, Socrates often seems to support a mystical side, discussing
reincarnation and the mystery religions; however, this is generally attributed to Plato.
Regardless, this cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the
differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the culmination of the
philosophic path as discussed in Plato’s Symposium and Republic, one comes to the
Sea of Beauty or to the sight of the form of the Good in an experience akin to mystical
revelation; only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his
speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even
sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.)
In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand
Socrates’ answers better if only he could stay for the initiations the following week.
Socrates relied on on what the Greeks called his “daemonic sign”, an averting inner
voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that
prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates
considered this to be a form of “divine madness”, the sort of insanity that is a gift
from the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself.
Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call “intuition”; however,
Socrates’ characterisation of the phenomenon as “daemonic” suggests its origin is
divine, mysterious and independent of his own thoughts.
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Plato
Source: L. W. Yaggy and T. L. Haines, Museum of Antiquity (New York: Standard
Publishing House, 1882)709: http://etc.usf.edu/clipart/1200/1247/plato_1_lg.gif
Plato (about 428/427-348/347 BCE), was a Classical Greek philosopher,
mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in
Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his
mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of
natural philosophy, science, and Western philosophy.
Platonism is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of
denying, as Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues,
most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts the common man’s intuition about what is
knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be
real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has
to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are “eu
a-mousoi”, an expression that means literally, “happily without the muses”. In other
words, such people live without the divine inspiration that gives him, and people like
him, access to higher insights about reality.
Socrates's idea that reality is unavailable to those who use their senses is what puts
him at odds with the common man, and with common sense. Socrates says that he
who sees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famously captured in his
allegory of the cave, and more explicitly in his description of the divided line. The
allegory of the cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the
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invisible world is the most intelligible (“noeton”) and that the visible world
(“(h)oraton”) is the least knowable, and the most obscure.
Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to
be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits
that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a
terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to
help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule.
According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are “shadows” of their
ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect
versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential
epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting
phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere
instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not
clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it.
The word metaphysics derives from the fact that Aristotle's musings about divine
reality came after (meta) his lecture notes on his treatise on nature (physics). The term
is in fact applied to Aristotle's own teacher, and Plato’s “metaphysics” is understood
as Socrates’ division of reality into the warring and irreconcilable domains of the
material and the spiritual. The theory has been of incalculable influence in the history
of Western philosophy and religion.
Many have interpreted Plato as stating that knowledge is justified true belief, an
influential view which informed future developments in modern analytic
epistemology. This interpretation is based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein
Plato argues that belief is to be distinguished from knowledge on account of
justification.
Aristotle
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of
Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics,
metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics,
biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato’s teacher), Aristotle is
one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle’s
writings constitute a first at creating a comprehensive system of Western philosophy,
encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in
the late nineteenth century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism
had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and
Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology,
especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic
Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the
modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle’s philosophy continue to be
the object of active academic study today.
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Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the
branch of philosophy with the same name. The principal subject is “being qua being”,
or “being understood as being”. It examines what can be asserted about anything that
exists just because of its existence and not because of any special qualities it has. Also
covered are different kinds of causation, form and matter, the existence of
mathematical objects, and a prime-mover god.
The Metaphysics is considered to be one of the greatest of philosophical works. Its
influence on the Greeks, the Arabs, the scholastic philosophers and even writers such
as Dante, was immense. It is essentially a reconciliation of Plato’s theory of Forms
that Aristotle acquired at the the Academy in Athens, with the view of the world given
by common sense and the observations of the natural sciences.
According to Plato, the real nature of things is eternal and unchangeable. However,
the world we observe around us is constantly and perpetually changing. Aristotle’s
genius was to reconcile these two apparently contradictory views of the world. The
result is a synthesis of the naturalism of empirical science, and the mysticism of Plato,
that informed the Western intellectual tradition for more than a thousand years.
At the heart of the book lie three questions. What is existence, and what sorts of
things exist in the world? How can things continue to exist, and yet undergo the
change we see about us in the natural world? And how can this world be understood?
By the time Aristotle was writing, the tradition of Greek philosophy was only two
hundred years old. It had begun with the efforts of thinkers in the Greek world to
theorise about the common structure that underlies the changes we observe in the
natural world. Two contrasting theories, those of Heraclitus and Parmenides, were an
important influence on both Plato and Aristotle.
Heraclitus argued that things that appear to be permanent are in fact always gradually
changing. Therefore, though we believe we are surrounded by a world of things that
remain identical through time, this world is really in flux, with no underlying structure
or identity. Parmenides, by contrast, argued that we can reach certain conclusions by
means of reason alone, making no use of the senses. What we acquire through the
process of reason is fixed and unchanging and eternal. The world is thus not made up
of a variety of things, in constant flux, but of one single Truth or reality. Plato’s
theory of Forms is a synthesis of these two views. Following Heraclitus, he argues
that the objects of the world we see - including our own bodies - have no true
existence. Following Parmenides, he says that they are merely copies of eternally true
realities, an imperfect reflection of the pure form prototype.
Aristotle would have encountered the theory of Forms when he studied at the
Academy, which he joined at the age of about 18 in the 360’s BCE. For a time, he
must have been a convert to this theory, and may even have written a popular book
about it. However, at some point he turned against it, feeling that there must be a
connection between the science of nature and the abstraction of existence.
The result is the theory of the Metaphysics. Aristotle believes that in every change
there is something which persists through the change (for example, Socrates), and
something else which did not exist before, but comes into existence as a result of the
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change (musical Socrates). To explain how Socrates comes to be born (since he did
not exist before he was born) Aristotle says that it is “matter” (hyle) that underlies the
change. The matter has the “form” of Socrates imposed on it to become Socrates
himself.
Thus all the things around us, all substances, are composites of two radically different
things: form and matter. This doctrine is sometimes known as Hylomorphism (from
the Greek words for matter and form).
Iamblichus
Iamblichus. Source:
http://arturovasquez.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/iamblichus.jpg.
Iamblichus (250- (about) 330 CE), also known as Iamblichus Chalcidensis (Chalcis),
was an Assyrian Neoplatonist philosopher who determined the direction taken by later
Neoplatonic philosophy, and perhaps western Paganism itself. He is perhaps best
known for his compendium on Pythagorean philosophy.
He reworked the doctrines of Plotinus and Porphyry, thereby creating a unique branch
of Neoplatonism. He was known as “the Divine” or “the Inspired” because he
believed more in magickal practices than preceeding or existing philosophers.
Thinking that the virtues of Theurgy were more valuable than those of the intellect,
Iamblichus transformed Plotinus’ Neoplatonism into a Pagan religious philosophy by
replacing Plotinus’ spiritual and intellectual mysticism with the religious rites, rituals
and myths of Paganism.
In addition, he divided Plotinus’ second Hypostasis (the Intelligence) into two realms,
the Intelligence in so far as it was intelligible (as object of thought or being), and the
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Intelligence in so far as it was intellectual (the act of thought or intelligence).
Iamblichus also believed that beyond Plotinus’ One there was a greater, higher One
(possibly an early concept of The Source) which existed beyond any possible human
knowledge.
Iamblichus was the chief representative of Syrian Neoplatonism, though his influence
spread over much of the ancient world. The events of his life and his religious beliefs
are not entirely known, but the main tenets of his beliefs can be worked out from his
extant writings. According to the Suda (The Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century
Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world), and his biographer
Eunapius, he was born at Chalcis (modern Qinnasrin) in Syria. He was the son of a
rich and illustrious family, and he is said to have been the descendant of several
priest-kings of Emesa. He initially studied under Anatolius of Laodicea, and later
went on to study under Porphyry, a pupil of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism. It
was with Porphyry that he is known to have had a disagreement over the practice of
theurgy, the criticisms of which Iamblichus responds to in his attributed De Mysteriis
Aegyptiorum (On the Egyptian Mysteries).
Only a fraction of Iamblichus’ books have survived, most of them having been
destroyed during the Christianisation of the Roman Empire. For our knowledge of his
system, we are indebted partly to the fragments of writings preserved by Stobaeus and
others. Proclus seems to have ascribed to him the authorship of the celebrated treatise
The Theurgia, or De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum or On the Mysteries of the Egyptians.
However, the differences between this book and Iamblichus’ other works in style and
in some points of doctrine have led some to question whether Iamblichus was the
actual author. Still, the treatise certainly originated from his school, and in its
systematic attempt to give a speculative justification of the polytheistic cult practices
of the day, it marks a turning-point in the history of thought where Iamblichus stood.
Iamblichus was highly praised by those who followed his thought. By his
contemporaries, Iamblichus was accredited with miraculous powers. The Roman
emperor Julian regarded Iamblichus as more than second to Plato, and claimed he
would give all the gold of Lydia for one epistle of Iamblichus.
During the revival of interest in his philosophy in the 15th and 16th centuries, the
name of Iamblichus was scarcely mentioned without the epithet “Divine” or “Most
Divine”.
Theurgy
Theurgy (Greek, theurgeia, from theos, “gods” and ergeia, “work”) describes the
practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magickal in nature, performed with the intention
of invoking the action or presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of
uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.
Originally in ancient times theurgy served as a traditional religious purification ritual
that was adopted by the magickal wing of Platonism. It was a process of cleansing the
lower aspects of the self to establish a foundation for higher philosophical
contemplation. During the first centuries of the Common Era it developed into a
distinct school and served as part of the same fusion of Platonic philosophy and
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popular occultism which gave birth to Hermeticism and many Gnostic traditions. The
chief contributor to its formulation was Iamblichus of Chalcis.
The theurgists led what was nearly the last organised resistance against Christianity in
the classical world. Julian, the last Pagan Roman Emperor, was a staunch theurgist
and a reverent student of Iamblichus’ writings, promoted a resurgence of Paganism in
the fourth century based heavily on theurgy for a philosophical stance, and a basis for
mutual tolerance and support. Even after the political defeat of Paganism, theurgists
such as Proclus and Sosipatra continued its teaching and practice. However it
dwindled out slowly on the edges of the Byzantine Empire but seemed to survive in
outposts such as Harran until the Middle Ages.
The language and various practices of theurgy were revived during the Renaissance.
This revival was assisted by the spread of classical Platonism and Hermerticism.
Renaissance theurgy greatly aided the occult tradition of that time and is discussed at
length in such works as Agrippa’s Three Books of Occult Philosophy (1531).
Currently theurgy refers to any form of magick that encompasses the transformation
of the magician, which, incidentally, was the classical aim of theurgy. However,
several variants exist. There are some French esoteric Christian versions in which the
word is used for focused contemplative prayer seeks practical as well as spiritual
goals. In some current Pagan traditions, theurgy calls on the help of the gods in
magick workings, opposed to thaumaturgy, using powers of natural substances or
those of the magician.
In Neoplatonism
The first recorded use of the term is found in the mid-second century neo-Platonist
work, the Chaldean Oracles: “For the theourgoí do not fall under the fate-governed
herd'). In late Neoplatonism, the spiritual Universe is regarded as a series of
emanations from the One. From the One emanated the Divine Mind (Nous) and in
turn from the Divine Mind emanated the World Soul (Psyche). Neoplatonists insisted
that the One is absolutely transcendent and in the emanations nothing of the higher
was lost or transmitted to the lower, which remained unchanged by the lower
emanations.
Although the Neoplatonists were polytheists, they also embraced a form of monism.
For Plotinus, and Iamblichus’ teachers Anatolius and Porphyry, the emanations are as
follows:
21
• To En, The One: Deity without quality, sometimes called The Good.
• Nous, Mind: The Universal consciousness, from which proceeds
• Psychè , Soul: Including both individual and world soul, leading finally to
• Physis , Nature.
Plotinus urged contemplations for those who wished to perform theurgy, the goal of
which was to reunite with The Divine (called henosis). Therefore, his school
resembles what we now may think of as a school of meditation or contemplation.
Iamblichus taught a more ritualised method of theurgy that involved invocation and
religious, as well as magickal, ritual. Iamblichus believed theurgy was an imitation of

the gods, and in his major work, On the Egyptian Mysteries, he described theurgic
observance as “ritualised cosmogony” that endowed embodied souls with the divine
responsibility of creating and preserving the cosmos.
Iamblichus’ analysis was that the transcendent cannot be grasped with mental
contemplation because the transcendent is supra-rational. Theurgy is a series of rituals
and operations aimed at recovering the transcendent essence by retracing the divine
'signatures' through the layers of being. Education is important for comprehending the
scheme of things as presented by Aristotle, Plato and Pythagoras but also by the
Chaldaean Oracles. The theurgist works “like with like”: at the material level, with
physical symbols and “magic”; at the higher level, with mental and purely spiritual
practices. Starting with correspondences of the divine in matter, the theurgist
eventually reaches the level where the soul’s inner divinity unites with The Divine.
The Chaldean Oracles
The Chaldean Oracles have survived as fragmentary texts from the 2nd century CE,
and consist mainly of Hellenistic commentary on a single mystery-poem (which may
have been compilations from several oracular sources, considering the random subject
changes) that was believed to have originated in Chaldea (Babylonia). They appear to
be a syncretic combination of Neoplatonic elements with others that were Persian or
Babylonian in origin. Later Neoplatonists, such as Proclus and Iamblichus, rated them
highly. The 4th-century Emperor Julian suggests in his Hymn to the Magna Mater that
he was an initiate of the God of the Seven Rays, and was an adept of its teachings.
When Christian church fathers or other Late Antiquity writers credit “the Chaldeans”,
they are probably referring to this tradition.
An analysis of the Chaldean Oracles demonstrates a similarity with contemporary
Gnostic teachings: fiery emanations initiate from the transcendental First Paternal
Intellect, from whom the Second Intellect, the Demiurge comprehends the cosmos as
well as himself. Within the First Intellect, a female Power, designated Hecate, is, like
Sophia, the mediating World-Soul. At the base of all lies created Matter, made by the
Demiurgic Intellect. The matter farthest from the Highest God (First Father/ Intellect)
was considered a dense shell from which the enlightened soul must emerge, shedding
its bodily garments. A combination of ascetic conduct and correct ritual are
recommended to free the soul from the confines of matter and limitations, and to
defend it against the demonic powers lurking in some of the realms between gods and
mortals.
The origins of the texts are unknown and mysterious. Some have claimed that the
Chaldean Oracles, in the form in which they survive, were attributed to Julian the
Theurgist, son of Julian the Chaldean, who served in the Roman army during Marcus
Aurelius’ campaign against the Quadi. Julian claimed to have saved the Roman camp
from a severe drought by causing a rainstorm. At least four other religious groups also
claimed credit for this rainstorm. The circumstances surrounding the writing of the
Oracles are mysterious, the most likely explanation being that Julian uttered them
after inducing a sort of trance akin to that of the archaic oracles of Greece.
Whether or not they were composed by Julian or whether they are in any sense
translations from supposed Chaldean originals, the oracles are mainly a product of
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Hellenistic (and more precisely Alexandrian) syncretism as practiced in the cultural
melting-pot that was Alexandria, and were credited with embodying many of the
principal features of a “Chaldean philosophy”. They were held in the greatest esteem
throughout Late Antiquity, and by many later followers of Neoplatonism. The
doctrines contained therein have been attributed by some to Zoroaster.
The essence of Hellenistic civilization was the fusion of a Hellenic core of religious
belief and social organisation with Persian-Babylonian (Chaldean) and Egyptian
cultures, including their mysterious and enthusiastic cults and wisdom-traditions.
Hellenistic thinkers philosophised the mythology and cults, as well as foreign oracular
utterances and initiatory lore. Philosophy originating from these two areas, or simply
attributed to them, was regarded as possessing knowledge transmitted from the most
ancient wisdom traditions.
In Egypt, the attempt to philosophise and synthesise ancient religious content resulted
in part in the writings conventionally attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. The
Chaldean Oracles are a parallel endeavour, on a smaller scale, to philosophise the
wisdom of Chaldea. However, rather than the prose writings that came out of Egypt,
the Chaldean Oracles originated from the fragments of a single mystery-poem, which
has not been entirely preserved. By far the greatest number of the poem’s known
fragments are found in the books of the later Platonic philosophers, who from the time
of Porphyry, and probably that of Plotinus, held these Oracles in the highest
estimation. Iamblichus of Syria referred frequently to the Oracles and mingled their
ideas with his own.
Ammonius Saccas
Ammonius Saccas (3rd century CE) was a Greek philosopher from Alexandria who
was often referred to as one of the founders of Neoplatonism. He is mainly known as
the teacher of Plotinus, whom he taught for eleven years from 232 to 243. He was
undoubtably the biggest influence on Plotinus in his development of Neoplatonism,
although little is known about his own philosophical views. Later Christian writers
stated that Ammonius was a Christian, but it is now generally assumed that there was
a different Ammonius of Alexandria who wrote biblical texts.
Not much is known about the life of Ammonius Saccas. He had a humble
background, and appears to have earned a living as a porter at the docks of
Alexandria, hence his nickname of "Sack-bearer" (Sakkas for sakkophoros). Most
details of his life come from the fragments left from Porphyry's writings. The most
famous pupil of Ammonius Saccas was Plotinus who studied under Ammonius for
eleven years. According to Porphyry, in 232, at the age of 28, Plotinus went to
Alexandria to study philosophy:
In his twenty-eighth year he (Plotinus) felt the impulse to study philosophy and was
recommended to the teachers in Alexandria who then had the highest reputation; but
he came away from their lectures so depressed and full of sadness that he told his
trouble to one of his friends. The friend, understanding the desire of his heart, sent
him to Ammonius, whom he had not so far tried. He went and heard him, and said to
his friend, “This is the man I was looking for.” From that day he stayed continually
with Ammonius and acquired so complete a training in philosophy that he became
23

eager to make acquaintance with the Persian philosophical discipline and that
prevailing among the Indians.
According to Porphyry, the parents of Ammonius were Christians, but upon learning
Greek philosophy, Ammonius rejected his parents’ religion for Paganism. This
conversion is contested by the Christian writers Jerome and Eusebius, who state that
Ammonius remained a Christian throughout his lifetime.
To add to the confusion, it seems that Ammonius had two pupils called Origen:
Origen the Christian, and Origen the Pagan. It is quite possible that Ammonius Saccas
taught both Origens. Among Ammonius’ other pupils there were Herennius and
Cassius Longinus.
Philosophy
Hierocles, writing in the 5th century, states that Ammonius’ fundamental doctrine was
that Plato and Aristotle were in full agreement with each other:
He was the first who had a godly zeal for the truth in philosophy and despised the
views of the majority, which were a disgrace to philosophy. He apprehended well the
views of each of the two philosophers (Plato and Aristotle) and brought them under
one and the same nous and transmitted philosophy without conflicts to all of his
disciples, and especially to the best of those acquainted with him, Plotinus, Origen,
and their successors.
Little is known about Ammonius’s role in the development of Neoplatonism.
Porphyry seems to suggest that Ammonius was instrumental in helping Plotinus think
about philosophy in new ways: But he (Plotinus) did not just speak straight out of
these books but took a distinctive personal line in his consideration, and brought the
mind of Ammonius’ to bear on the investigation in hand.
Two of Ammonius’s students - Origen the Pagan, and Longinus - seem to have held
philosophical positions which were closer to Middle Platonism than Neoplatonism,
which perhaps suggests that Ammonius’s doctrines were also closer to those of
Middle Platonism than the Neoplatonism developed by Plotinus, but Plotinus does not
seem to have thought that he was departing in any significant way from that of his
master.
Plotinus
Plotinus (204–270 CE) was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely
considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his teacher Ammonius Saccas).
Neoplatonism was an influential philosophy in Late Antiquity. Much of our
biographical information about Plotinus comes from Porphyry’s preface to his edition
of Plotinus’ Enneads.
His metaphysical writings have inspired centuries of Pagan, Christian, Jewish, Islamic
and Gnostic metaphysicians and mystics.
24

Plotinus taught that there is a supreme, totally transcendent “One” containing no
division, multiplicity or distinction; likewise it is beyond all categories of being and
non-being. The concept of “being” is derived by us from the objects of human
experience called the dyad, and is an attribute of such objects, but the infinite,
transcendent One is beyond all such objects, and therefore is beyond the concepts that
we derive from them. The One “cannot be any existing thing”, and cannot be merely
the sum of all such things (compare the Stoic doctrine of disbelief in non-material
existence), but “is prior to all existents”. Thus, no attributes can be assigned to the
One. We can only identify it with the Good and the principle of Beauty.
For example, thought cannot be attributed to the One because thought implies
distinction between a thinker and an object of thought. Even the self-contemplating
intelligence (the noesis of the nous) must contain duality. “Once you have uttered
‘The Good’, add no further thought: by any addition, and in proportion to that
addition, you introduce a deficiency.”
Plotinus denies sentience, self-awareness or any other action (ergon) to the One.
Rather, if we insist on describing it further, we must call the One a sheer Dynamis or
potentiality without which nothing could exist. As Plotinus explains it is impossible
for the One to be Being or a self-aware Creator God. Plotinus compared the One to
“light”, the Divine Nous (first will towards Good) to the “sun”, and lastly the Soul to
the “moon” whose light is merely a “derivative conglomeration of light from the sun”.
The first light could exist without any celestial body.
The One, being beyond all attributes including being and non-being, is the source of
the world - but not through any act of creation, willful or otherwise, since activity
cannot be ascribed to the unchangeable, immutable One. Plotinus argues instead that
the multiple cannot exist without the simple. The “less perfect” must, of necessity,
“emanate”, or issue forth, from the “perfect” or “more perfect”. Thus, all of “creation”
emanates from the One in succeeding stages of lesser and lesser perfection.
25

Hypatia of Alexandria
- Pronunciation: In Greek it is Ipateeah. A reasonable Americanisation is Hipahtyah.
The English give the Greek name the peculiar pronunciation of 19th-century school
Latin. They call her Highpayshya. -
From Euphrosyne Doxiadis (1995): The Mysterious Fayum Portraits: Faces from
Ancient Egypt, Portrait of a woman, probably from er-Rubayat, c. 160-170 AD
British Museum, London, An idea of how Hypatia might have looked.
“There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher
Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the
philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus,
she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from
a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of
manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she
not infrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she
feel abashed in coming to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her
extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more. Yet even she fell a victim to
the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews
with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was
she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them
therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader
named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they
took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and
then murdered her with tiles (oyster shells). After tearing her body in pieces, they took
her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. This affair
brought not the least opprobrium, not only upon Cyril, but also upon the whole
Alexandrian church. And surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity
than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort. This happened
in the month of March during Lent, in the fourth year of Cyril's episcopate, under the
26

tenth consulate of Honorius, and the sixth of Theodosius – 415 CE.” - Ecclesiastical
History (VII.15) - Socrates Scholasticus – 450 CE
Hypatia (born between 350 and 370; died 415) was a Greek scholar from Alexandria
in Egypt, considered the first notable woman in mathematics, who also taught
philosophy and astronomy. She lived in Roman Egypt, and was killed by a Christian
mob who falsely blamed her for religious turmoil. Some suggest that her murder
marked the end of what is traditionally known as Classical antiquity - although
Hellenistic philosophy continued to flourish until the age of Justinian in the sixth
century. With her death the Dark Ages started, but her life’s work may have helped to
spark the Renaissance and the second Age of Reason.
In the 4th century CE, Egyptian Alexandria – with a population of about 600 000 -
succumbed to monotheism. The city had been founded on the orders of Alexander the
Great to be a Hellenic centre for his empire. It was his general, Ptolemy (323-285
BCE) who chose it as his capital and it flourished under the Ptolemaic dynasty to
become the second largest city in the world. Ptolemy I (Soter) founded a Museum on
the Athenian model, to be a centre of learning, at the heart of which was a great
Library. Under royal patronage, scientists and mathematicians flocked to Alexandria,
but it was not until the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty that the great school of
Alexandrian philosophy and science arose.
Hypatia’s father was the last recorded scholar-member of what still remained of the
great Library of Alexandria.
The Library of Alexandria was the greatest repository of knowledge in the ancient
world. For six centuries prior to Hypatia’s birth, the greatest intellectuals of the
Western world made their home in Alexandria and studied at the great Library. The
Library was probably established in the third century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy
II of Egypt (281-246 BCE). The Library probably contained over half a million
scrolls. It is possible that much of this collection was lost in a fire when Julius Caesar
conquered Alexandria in 48 BCE. There is a legend that the collection was partially
restored by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), who plundered the Library of Pergamon
(the second largest library of the ancient world) in order to present a wedding gift of
more than 200 000 scrolls to Cleopatra. Whether or not this story is true, it appears
that the collection at Alexandria decreased over the centuries, due to fires and the
wear and tear of age. By the time of Theon, who lived in the 4th century CE, the only
surviving building of the Library complex may have been the Museum (the Temple of
the Muses, from which we get the modern word museum) The Museum appears to
have been a research institute, perhaps the world’s first.
The fact that Hypatia was a high-profile woman espousing philosophies that were
anathema to the Church must have exacerbated the Christians’ hostility towards her.
What seems to have precipitated her brutal murder was that she undoubtedly became
embroiled in the politics of the city through her friendship with the Roman Prefect of
Egypt, Orestes, who consulted her. When Cyril, a fanatical Christian, became
Patriarch of Alexandria in 412, an “intense hostility” developed between him and
Orestes. Cyril succeeded in driving thousands of Jews from the city, and then turned
his attention to the Neoplatonists.
27

Hypatia refused to convert to Christianity, despite the pleading of Orestes, and the
rumour began to spread among the Christians that it was she who was the cause of the
rift between the Roman Prefect and the Patriarch. Adair suggests that Cyril focussed
his hatred on her because of her profound influence on the community and the
possibility that she could hinder the spread of Christianity.
Rumours spread throughout Alexandria claiming that Hypatia was “a witch that
influenced people using black magic” - this was a chilling pre-cursor of the
widespread accusations of Witchcraft that devastated European women several
hundred years later. As a result, in 415, a gang of monks, led by one Peter, waylaid
her on her way home one evening. They dragged her from her carriage and took her to
the church called Caesareum, where they ripped off her clothes and cut her to shreds,
using either sharp shells or broken roof-tiles – the Greek word used by Scholasticus
can mean either. The monks then took her dismembered body to a place called
Cinaron and burned her remains.
That Hypatia was a formidable academic although many of the works attributed to her
are believed to have been collaborative works with her father, Theon Alexandricus;
this kind of authorial uncertainty being typical for the situation of feminine
philosophy in Antiquity.
A partial list of specific accomplishments:
28
• A commentary on the 13-volume Arithmetica by Diophantus.
• A commentary on the Conics of Apollonius.
• Edited the existing version of Ptolemy's Almagest.
• Edited her father’s commentary on Euclid’s Elements
• She wrote a text “The Astronomical Canon” (Possibly a new edition of
Ptolemy’s Handy Tables).
• Her contributions to science are reputed to include the charting of celestial
bodies and the invention of the hydrometer, used to determine the relative
density and gravity of liquids.
Hypatia, the Witch
“And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a Pagan
named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments
of music, and she beguiled many people through Satanic wiles...A multitude of
believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate...and they
proceeded to seek for the Pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and
the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was,
they proceeded to her and found her...they dragged her along till they brought her to
the great church, named Caesareum. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they
tore off her clothing and dragged her...through the streets of the city till she died. And
they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire.” - John
of Nikiû (7th-century)
The punishment of witchraft had been determined decades earlier by Emperor
Constantius, but in 1843, German authors Soldan and Heppe argued in their highly

influential History of the Witchcraft Trials (Geschichte der Hexenprozesse) that
Hypatia may have been, in effect, the first famous Witch punished under Christian
authority.
They wrote: “Things changed with Constantius, who thoroughly tried to get rid of
magic and therefore of Paganism. In one of the laws he passed for that reason he
complains that there were many magicians who caused storms with the help of
demons and who harmed others’ lives. The magicians caught in Rome were supposed
to be thrown to wild animals, the ones picked up in provinces were to be tortured and,
if they persistently denied, the flesh should be torn off their bones with iron hooks.”
With no iron hooks available, Hypatia’s death seems to match the prescribed
punishment for witchraft precisely. She may have been the first famous Witch, as was
noted by many church-critical authors. In spite of Cyril’s involvement in her murder,
he was later declared a saint.
Despite this, there is no clear evidence that the charge of witchcraft was actually
brought against Hypatia.
The persecution and murder of Hypatia was a transformative event. Her murder
coincided with the death of the Pagan world. After Hypatia, the stature of women -
which had been enhanced via involvement in Pagan systems of worship - was
significantly diminished, and after her death Alexandria became steadily less stable,
overrun by the monks who evolved into the Copts, who incorporated the old
Alexandrian prejudices towards foreigners with the new prejudice towards any
scientific or classical knowledge.
Hypatias death marked the end of progress in science for about 1000 years until the
spirit of ancient Greece started again to shine.
“After a thousand years of night, when the world awoke from her sleep, the first song
it sang was the last long of the dying Pagan world. This is wonderfully strange. In the
year 1493, when the Renaissance ushered in a new era, the first book brought out in
Europe was the last book written in Alexandria by a Pagan. It was the poem of Hero
and Leander. The new world resumed the golden thread where the old world had lost
it. The severed streams of thought and beauty met again into one current, and began to
sing and shine as it rushed forth once more, as in the days of old. A Greek poem was
the last product of the Pagan world; the same Greek poem was the first product of the
new and renascent world.” - Mangasar Magurditch Mangasarian (American rationalist
and writer)
29

30
PART TWO
CONTEMPORARY HISTORY
The roots of contemporary Paganism begin with the Renaissance, and the
reintroduction of Classicism and the resurgence of interest in Graeco-Roman
polytheism in the wake of works such as the Theologia mythologica in 1532 -
Theologia mythologica is a book by Georg Pictorius and was one of the first treatises
of Classical mythology in the German Renaissance in which Pictorius interprets the
Greek pantheon as allegory, eg Cybele as the Earth, her chariot wheels as symbolising
the rotation of the Earth.
The Romantic movement of the 18th century led to the re-discovery of Old Gaelic and
Old Norse literature and poetry. Neo-Druidism can be taken to have its origins as
early as 1717. In that year a group of people fascinated by the Druids met at the
Apple Tree Tavern at Covent Garden in London and founded the Ancient Druid
Order. Or This was possibly the first group of people who called themselves Druids
for nearly one and a half millennia.
Neo-Druidism is established in Britain by Iolo Morganwg from 1792, and is
considered by some to be the first real Neo-Pagan revival.
By the 19th century, these revival projects heighten and we find Germany’s Völkisch
movement. During this time renewed interest in Western occultism rises in England
and various other European societies. These early views of occultism attempts to
merge the early beliefs of the Celtic and German Shamans, Druids, Greeks and
Egyptians into a documented reconstructionalised system of belief. This led to the
formation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi
Orientis.
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (The Golden Dawn) was a magickal order
founded in Great Britain during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which
practiced theurgy and spiritual development. It has been one of the largest single
influences on 20th-century Western occultism. Concepts of magick and ritual at the
centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca and Thelema, were inspired by the
Golden Dawn. The "Golden Dawn" was the first of three Orders, although all three
are often collectively referred to as the "Golden Dawn". The First Order taught
esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development
through study and awareness of the four Classical Elements as well as the basics of
astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. The Second or "Inner" Order, the Rosae
Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Ruby Rose and Cross of Gold), taught proper magick,
including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy. The Third Order was that of the "Secret
Chiefs", who were said to be highly-skilled but no longer incarnate; they supposedly
directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs
of the Second Order.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn

Many prominent writers and artists become involved in these “new occult studies”.
Writers and artists such as Arthur Edward Waite, William Butler Yeats, Maud Gonne
and Aleister Crowley begin writing about their experiences publicly. Many returning
colonials and missionaries brought home to Britain and the Americas, perspectives
and practices of native traditions from developing cultures. One of the best known
works comes from anthropologist Sir James George Frazer in his book “The Golden
Bough” (1900).
The Victorian Era was in full swing and many in the elite society were also increasing
their interest in divination and magick. Supernatural phenomena become the “in
thing” for this late 19th century and early 20th century culture. Madame Blavatsky is
a pioneer in this movement. Creating the Theosophical Society in 1875 with Henry
Steel Olcott and Colonel Olcott William Q Judge. Calling her message Theosophy,
Blavatsky's views and perspectives are the talk of New England and spread quickly to
other continents.
Many family traditions see this resurgence of Pagan beliefs as a sign that society is
ready to accept their religious practices on their merits and not through the bigotry of
old. In the 1880s and 1890s, many new covens, clans and groves began to pop up and
meet in public gatherings. In the US these family traditions were often mixes of
European Paganism and Native American beliefs. One of the most common mixes
come from the merging of Celts and Cherokee in the south east. But other melding of
belief and culture can be found throughout the Americas with Germanic immigrations
merging with other European Pagan practices.
The term “Neo Pagan” first appears in an essay by F Hugh O’Donnell, Irish MP in the
British House of Commons, written in 1904. O’Donnell, writing about the theatre of
WB Yeats and Maud Gonne, criticised their work as an attempt to “marry Madame
Blavatsky with Cuchulainn”. Yeats and Gonne, he claimed, openly worked to create a
Reconstructionist Celtic religion which incorporated Gaelic legend with magick .
Along with these organisations, there were other social phenomena such as the
interest in mediumship, which suggest that interest in magick and other supernatural
beliefs were at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
PEOPLE OF INFLUENCE
Because most forms of Paganism are decentraliaed and emphasiae personal spiritual
experience rather than religious dogma or doctrines, founding figures play a much
smaller role in most Pagan paths than do the founders of other religious traditions.
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (August 12, 1831 and died May 8, 1891)
“We assert that the divine spark in man being one and identical in its essence with
the Universal Spirit, our "spiritual Self" is practically omniscient, but that it cannot
manifest its knowledge owing to the impediments of matter. Now the more these
impediments are removed, in other words, the more the physical body is paralyzed,
as to its own independent activity and consciousness, as in deep sleep or deep
trance, or, again, in illness, the more fully can the inner Self manifest on this plane.
31

This is our explanation of those truly wonderful phenomena of a higher order, in
which undeniable intelligence and knowledge are exhibited.” - Madame Blavatsky
Source: http://www.crystalinks.com/blavatsky.html
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky was born at Dnepropetrovsk (Ekaterinoslav), Russian
Ukraine, daughter of Colonel Peter Alexeyevich von Hahn and novelist Helena
Andreyevna. In 1849, at the age of 16, she married the much older NV Blavatsky, and
some months later began more than 20 years of extensive travel, bringing her into
contact with mystic traditions the world over. The travels provided a basis for
Blavatsky’s claim to have studied for seven years under Hindu Mahatmas (masters) in
the East. She claimed to have several times entered Tibet, which at that time was
practically inaccessable to foreigners.
In 1873 Blavatsky arrived in New York. In July 1875 she was urged “to establish a
philosophico-religious society” and in the Fall of the same year she became the
principal founder, along with Colonel Henry Steel Olcott and William Quan Judge, of
The Theosophical Society. She devoted the rest of her life to its humanitarian and
educational objectives.
During these times Blavatsky was the first Russian woman to become naturalised as
an American citizen. She started to write her first major work, Isis Unveiled, and after
its publication in 1877 she and HS Olcott left for India. There they worked to reestablish
Oriental philosophical and religious ideas, largely through the pages of The
Theosophist, a magazine which Madame Blavatsky founded and edited. She and
Olcott established a new headquarters for the Theosophical Society in India. Whilst
on a visit to Sri Lanka they joined with a Buddhist tradition of faith.
In 1884, while Blavatsky was travelling in Europe, disgruntled Theosophical Society
employees in India went to local missionaries with forged documents, bringing
charges of fraud against her. These charges were investigated and, although an initial
report was unfavourable to Madame Blavatsky, it was eventually deemed that the
charges were unjustified.
32

The stress associated with the investigation contributed to a break down in
Blavatsky’s health and in 1885 she left India for Europe, where she continued to write
and organise on behalf of the Theosophical Society. In 1887 she settled in London,
and began a new magazine Lucifer (Light-bringer).
Blavatsky claimed to have been given access to what she called a secret doctrine that
had been passed down the ages from ancient sages. In this respect Blavatsky’s ideas
followed in the tradition of Freemasonry and Rosicrucianism. The difference was that
Blavatsky’s esoteric wisdom was supposed to be derived from Eastern sages, rather
than from Egyptian or Judaic traditions. Furthermore, Blavatsy claimed that the
ancient wisdom to which she had access was consistent with modern science, in
particular with physics and evolutionary biology. This claim that esoteric spiritual
knowledge is consistent with new science may be considered to be the first instance of
what is now called “New Age thinking”. In fact, many researchers feel that much of
New Age-thought started with Blavatsky.
Her principal work entitled The Secret Doctrine was published in 1888 and, in the
same year, aided by William Q Judge, she formed the Esoteric Section of The
Theosophical Society. The Secret Doctrine outlines a vast scheme of evolution
relating to the universe and to humanity, and to the unseen as well as the seen worlds
of manifestation in which life is said to exist in thousands of forms. Shortly
afterwards she wrote The Key to Theosophy and The Voice of the Silence. In 1890
she became head of a newly-established European Section. She died in London on
May 8 1891 after many years of chronic illness.
Theosophy
Theosophy, or divine wisdom, refers either to the mysticism of philosophers who
believe that they can understand the nature of God by direct apprehension, without
revelation, or it refers to the esotericism of eclectic collectors of mystical and occult
philosophies who claim to be handing down the great secrets of some ancient wisdom.
Theosophical mysticism is indebted to Plato (427-347 BCE), Plotinus (204/5-270
BCE) and other neo-Platonists, and Jakob Boehme (1575-1624), among others. It
experienced its last great Western philosophical burst in 19th century German
Idealism.
While in America, she became intensely involved in Spiritualism. During a trip to
Tibet, she claimed to make contact with disembodied higher spiritual beings whom
she called “Mahatmas”. These masters of the spirit-world, she claimed, “guided her
entire life through letters and messages”.
Madame Blavatsky claimed to be the messenger of these highly evolved Adepts and
Masters, who knew and taught her “the Ancient Wisdom”. This Ancient Wisdom is
said to be the answer to life’s most basic questions; including: “Why are we born?”,
“What's life all about?” and “Is there some kind of life after death?”
33

The stated purpose of the Theosophical Movement is:
34
• to form a nucleus of universal brotherhood, regardless of race, creed, sex,
caste or colour,
• to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the latent powers of man;
and
• to encourage a comparative study of religion, science, and philosophy.
The Theosophical philosophy encompasses the ideas of pantheism, the belief that “All
is One, and One is God, thus All, including mankind, and the entire universe is God”.
God is believed to be an all encompassing, impersonal principle or force, similar to
the beliefs of Eastern Religious traditions, a power to be harnessed for an individual’s
personal use. Theosophy also includes the ideas of reincarnation and karma.
Cultural Impact
Because of her labours, the rich spiritual treasury of India was introduced to public
scrutiny. She encouraged William Q Judge, a co-founder of the Theosophical Society
and head of the American section, to publish Oriental scriptures in translation. From
this grew his Oriental Department Papers, with Charles Johnston and others
contributing. Judge prepared a recension and commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
Translations of other ancient scriptures became more generally known, not only in
India, Ceylon and Japan, where they had been the closed preserve of the learned and
the clergy, but also throughout Europe and America.
Her magazine The Theosophist (founded in 1879) struck a key note beyond the mere
text and academic commentary. In addition, the study of Sanskrit was encouraged as a
means of circulating metaphysical ideas in the modern currency of Western languages
otherwise devoid of the terms to express them.
The knowledge of Sanskrit had previously been the domain of the few. Many terms
known to specialists for years entered into general literature, such as karma, avatar,
akasa and astral light - terms rhat have become in common usage among many
Pagans.

Arthur Edward Waite (October 2, 1857 – May 19, 1942)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org:80/wiki/File:ArthurEdwardWaite~1880.JPG
Arthur Edward Waite was a scholarly mystic who wrote extensively on occult and
esoteric matters, and was the co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck. As his
biographer, RA Gilbert described him: “Waite's name has survived because he was
the first to attempt a systematic study of the history of western occultism - viewed as a
spiritual tradition rather than as aspects of proto-science or as the pathology of
religion.”
AE Waite joined the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in January 1891 after being
introduced by EW Berridge.He became a Freemason in 1901, and entered the Societas
Rosicruciana in Anglia in 1902. The Golden Dawn was torn by further internal
feuding until Waite’s departure in 1914; later he formed the Fellowship of the Rosy
Cross, not to be confused with the Societas Rosicruciana. By that time there existed
some half-dozen offshoots from the original Golden Dawn, and as a whole it never
recovered.
Aleister Crowley, foe of Waite, refered to him as a villainous Arthwate in his novel
Moonchild and referred to him in his magazine Equinox. Lovecraft has a villainous
wizard in his short story The Thing on the Doorstep called Ephraim Waite.
Waite was a prolific author with many of his works being well received in academic
circles. He wrote occult texts on subjects including divination, esotericism,
Rosicrucianism, Freemasonry, and ceremonial magick, Kabbalism and alchemy; he
also translated and reissued several important mystical and alchemical works. His
works on the Holy Grail, influenced by his friendship with Arthur Machen, were
particularly notable. A number of his volumes remain in print, the Book of
Ceremonial Magic (1911), The Holy Kabbalah (1929), A New Encyclopedia of
Freemasonry (1921), and his edited translation of Eliphas Levi's Transcendental
Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual (1896) having seen reprints in recent years.
35

Tarot deck
Waite is best known as the co-creator of the popular and widely used Rider-Waite
Tarot deck and author of its companion volume, the Key to the Tarot, republished in
expanded form the following year, 1911, as the Pictorial Key to the Tarot, a guide to
Tarot reading. The Rider-Waite-Smith tarot was notable for being one of the first tarot
decks to illustrate all 78 cards fully, in addition to the 22 major arcana cards. Golden
Dawn member Pamela Colman Smith illustrated the cards for Waite, and the deck
was first published in 1909.
The Rider-Waite tarot deck is the most popular Tarot deck in use today in the
English-speaking world - the Tarot de Marseille being the most popular deck in Latin
countries. Other suggested names for this include the Rider-Waite-Smith, Waite-
Smith, Waite-Colman Smith or simply the Rider deck.
The Rider-Waite tarot deck has been vastly influential in the development of later
divinatory tarot decks to the extent that many are called “Rider-Waite clones” to
indicate that they are easily read by those familiar with Rider-Waite. Examples of
Rider-Waite clones include the Universal Waite tarot deck, Golden Tarot, Aquarian
tarot deck, Nigel Jackson Tarot, Gilded Tarot, Golden Rider, and many more.
Eliphas Levi (February 8, 1810 - May 31, 1875)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eliphas_levi.jpg
Eliphas Lévi, born Alphonse Louis Constant was a French occult author and
purported magician. Eliphas Lévi, the name under which he published his books, was
36

his attempt to translate or transliterate his given names Alphonse Louis into Hebrew
although he was not Jewish.
1853, Lévi visited England, where he met the novelist Edward Bulwer-Lytton, who
was interested in Rosicrucianism as a literary theme and was the president of a minor
Rosicrucian order. Levi’s first treatise on magick appeared in 1854 under the title
Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, and was translated into English by Arthur
Edward Waite as Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual. Its famous opening
lines present the single essential theme of Occultism and gives some of the flavor of
its atmosphere:
“Behind the veil of all the hieratic and mystical allegories of ancient doctrines, behind
the darkness and strange ordeals of all initiations, under the seal of all sacred writings,
in the ruins of Nineveh or Thebes, on the crumbling stones of old temples and on the
blackened visage of the Assyrian or Egyptian sphinx, in the monstrous or marvelous
paintings which interpret to the faithful of India the inspired pages of the Vedas, in the
cryptic emblems of our old books on alchemy, in the ceremonies practised at
reception by all secret societies, there are found indications of a doctrine which is
everywhere the same and everywhere carefully concealed.”
In 1861, he published a sequel, La Clef des Grands Mystères (The Key to the Great
Mysteries). Further magickal works by Lévi include Fables et Symboles (Stories and
Images), 1862, and La Science des Esprits (The Science of Spirits), 1865. In 1868, he
wrote Le Grand Arcane, ou l'Occultisme Dévoilé (The Great Secret, or Occultism
Unveiled); this, however, was only published posthumously in 1898.
Lévi’s version of magick became a great success, especially after his death. That
Spiritualism was popular on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1850s contributed to
this success. His magickal teachings were free from obvious fanaticisms, even if they
remained rather murky; he had nothing to sell, and did not pretend to be the inititate
of some ancient or fictitious secret society. He incorporated the Tarot cards into his
magickal system, and as a result the Tarot has been an important part of the
paraphernalia of Western magicians.
He had a deep effect on the magick of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and
later on the ex-Golden Dawn member Aleister Crowley. He coined the term “black
magick” to distinguish the magick performed in “the Dark Continent” (Africa), from
the “more worthwhile” endeavors performed by ceremonial magicians in Europe.
Also, he is the first occultist author to proclaim that a five pointed star (a geometric
figure appearing on old American flags and children drawings in a multitude of
positions) connotates evil when drawn upside down. This wide-spread superstition
that a star is evil if one point is positioned downwards has led some to suppose and
crudely conclude sinister origins underly the Masonic female organisation know as
the Order of the Eastern Star It was largely through the occultists inspired by him that
Lévi is remembered as one of the key founders of the twentieth century revival of
magick.
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Levi identified three fundamental principles of magick:
38
• That the material universe is only a small part of total reality, which includes
many other planes and modes of consciousness. Full knowledge and full
power in the universe are only attainable through awareness of these other
aspects of reality. One of the most important of these levels or aspects of
reality is the astral light, a cosmic fluid which may be molded by will into
physical forms.
• That human willpower is a real force, capable of achieving absolutely
anything, from the mundane to the miraculous.
• That the human being is a microcosm, a miniature of the macrocosmic
universe, and the two are fundamentally linked. Causes set in motion on one
level may equally have effects on another.
George Pickingill (1816-1909)
Source:
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_iq2vQY1Jeaw/SU1hhAph_eI/AAAAAAAAKN0/10ztx
UJSkDM/s320/george.gif
George Pickingill was a legend in his own time, a “Cunning Man” and a sought after
Witch and Magician by those in occult circles. Born to Charles and Susannah
Pickingill on the 26th May 1816, George was the eldest of nine children. They lived
in a small Essex village called Hockley in East Anglia, from where he later he moved
to the nearby village of Canewdon, were he remained until his death in 1909.
“Old George” as he became known, was a hereditary Witch and claimed he could
trace his ancestry back to the time of “Julia Pickingill - The Witch of Brandon, who
lived in a village north of Thetford in Norfolk. Julia as legend would have it, was
hired in 1071 to make magickal chants for the troops of “Lord Harewood the Wake”,
inspiring them into battle against the Normans. During the battle, Julia was seen
standing in a wooden tower overlooking the two opposing armies where her chants

could be heard across the battlefield. Her chants seemed to be working, but then the
Normans set fire to the dry reeds around the tower and Julia died in the flames. Since
that time each generation of the Pickingill family have served as Priests and
Priestesses in the Old Religion.
In occult circles he was highly regarded, and was widely acknowledged as the world’s
foremost authority on Witchcraft and magick. Overtime, many of the days leading
Witches, Rosicrucian’s, Ceremonial Magicians and other magically inclined people,
came from all over England, Europe and the United States to consult with him. As his
reputation grew, Old George became just as infamous as Aleister Crowley was in his
time. He was also known to have encouraged Satanism, which horrified other Craft
Elders who considered him a renegade and a disgrace to the Craft.
Over the course of his lifetime, Old George established a total of nine hereditary
covens, situated in Norfolk, Essex, Hertfordshire, Sussex and Hampshire. In many
ways he was a zealot, for when he started a new coven; he insisted its leaders produce
evidence that they came from hereditary witch lineage. The Pickingill’s including Old
George were renowned for their allegiance to the Horned God and adopted many
ancient Craft practices that were not observed in other parts of the country. The rites
developed by the Pickingill tradition were a unique blend of French and Scandinavian
craft practices. This was due in part by the influx of French and Flemish weavers into
East Anglia, who introduced elements of the Cathar faith and the Old Religion as
observed in France during the Middle Ages.
Up until Old George’s time, many existing covens were based on oral tradition, their
knowledge and rituals having been passed down from generation to generation, and
instilled upon their members by repetition, memory and practice. This in part due to
the secrecy imposed on witches during the “Burning Times”, inevitably led to some
fragments of their traditions being lost over time. However, some hereditary covens
kept a “coven rulebook” that contained a list of all the coven members and outlined
the coven’s basic rites. For safekeeping, the book was always held by the coven’s
secret “male” deputy (often referred to as the “Man in Black”), and only made
available on special occasions at the Master’s bidding to add/delete names or transfer
authority. No members, particularly woman, were ever permitted to read it. This may
have been due to the opinion that a woman would reveal the location of the book if
her children were tortured in front of her, whereas a man probably would not.
As the fear of the “Witch hunts” began to decline in the later half of the 18th century,
Old George always willing to change, adapt and evolve took the idea of the coven
rulebook and developed it, starting the tradition of keeping a “Book of Shadows” for
the exclusive use of all coven members. The original Book of Shadows as compiled
by Old George and modified over a period of his lifetime was then passed on to each
of his nine covens, a legacy that lives on today. Many think Aleister Crowley passed
on the details of one of Old George’s Book of Shadows to Gerald Gardner who
adopted the same into his own tradition. The concept of keeping an individual “Book
of Shadows” in your own handwriting, evidently originated from Alex Sanders who
founded the Alexandrian Tradition witchcraft.
Aleister Crowley is reported to have been a member of one of Old George’s covens in
or around 1899. He is thought to have obtained his Second Degree before being
39

dismissed because of his contemptuous attitude toward women and his deplorable
behaviour. Other pupils of note were two Master Masons by the names of “Hargrave
Jennings” and “W.J. Hughan”. Both later become founder members of the “Societas
Rosicruciana in Anglia”; from which the “Order of the Golden Dawn” would
eventually emerge.
Aside from his famous “Nine Covens”, there was a more sinister side to “Old
George” for which he became notorious. Old George had an intense dislike for
Christianity and local authority. He openly campaigned for the overthrow of the
Christian religion and the establishment in generally. Some claim he even collaborate
with Satanists, because he believed that by promoting Satanism, he was helping to
ensure the destruction of the Christian church. This brought him into conflict with
other Craft Elders who strongly objected to his activities.
Contrary to popular belief for many misinformed articles were sensationalised in the
Press during those times. Witches do not believe in “devil-worship”, nor do they
invoke Satan during ritual to carry out evil deeds. The Old Religion was being
practiced well before Christianity came along. This in mind, the other Craft Elders
had good cause for objecting to what “Old George” was advocating, preferring
secrecy and discretion to the unwanted attention he was arousing.
After Old George’s death in 1909 and some 30 years on, Gerald B Gardner was
initiated into one of his descendent covens in Hampshire. He and others began
writing openly about Wicca and Witchcraft. Gardner met with Aleister Crowley
shortly before his death and Crowley “allegedly” passed on what he could remember
of the old Pickingill rituals, these Gardner “allegedly” incorporated into his own Book
of Shadows. When in 1951 the old antiquated witchcraft laws were repealed, causing
a resurgence of interest in the “Old Religion”. Many of the Craft Elders became
concerned fearing that exposure of Old George’s satanic activities would distort and
damage the newly evolving image of Wicca and Witchcraft.
To protect against this, the Elders of the Hereditary Tradition in East Anglia conspired
to discredit any claims made by Gardner and others concerning the survival of
Hereditary Witches. This in part involved the eradication of many traces of “Old
George” and his “Nine Covens” as was possible. Today as a result, the real
importance of Old George’s contributions to the revival of present day Witchcraft and
Paganism may never be determined.
40

Margaret Murray (July 13, 1863 – November 13, 1963)
Source: http://lanceandgraal.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/Murray_2_WEB.gif;
and http://lanceandgraal.net/?paged=2
In the 1920s Margaret Alice Murray writes that Witchcraft as a religion existed
underground and in secret, and had survived through the religious persecutions and
Inquisitions of the medieval Church. Murray was an eminent and respected
Anthropologist, Archaeologist and Egyptologist. She was also the first female
Egyptologists to be employed by the Manchester Museum at the University of
Manchester.
In the 1920’s she began writing about her theories on the origins and organisation of
witchcraft predating Christianity. At the time many of her colleagues ridiculed her
work, yet today some of her books have gained classical status. These include: The
Witch-Cult in Western Europe - published in 1921, The God of the Witches -
published in 1933 and The Divine King in England – published 1954.
Margaret’s second book on Witchcraft: The God of the Witches (First published by
Sampson Low, Marston and Co, 1931), concerned the Horned God of Witchcraft and
her theories on how this figure dated back to Palaeolithic times as a fertility god. The
book was almost totally ignored until after the Second World War, and the repeal of
the witchcraft Laws in 1951. At this time (Oxford University Press, New York, and
Faber and Faber, London.), reissued the book in 1952 whence it became a classic best
seller.
Most historians reject Murray’s theory, as it was partially based on the similarities
between the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft. Scholars have gone too
far in their retreat from Murray, since many fragments of Pagan religion do certainly
appear in medieval witchcraft. But the fact remains that the Murray thesis on the
whole is untenable. However, if we believe that family traditions exist today; then
there is no reason to think they did not exist through out the 18th to 20th centuries.
Family traditions have a great oral history that shares the beliefs, practices and
implementations of belief and magikal efforts.
41

However, Murray’s theories generated interest, which are recounted in novels by
prominent authors. Such as Naomi Mitchison’s The Corn King and the Spring Queen
published in 1931. More and more covens move out of the broom closet and let their
existence be known to the world.
Murray’s works were to become popular bestsellers from the 1940s onwards and were
popularly believed to be accurate. Indeed, Murray’s influence is still massive in
popular thought, though, as noted above, academics have since cited major flaws in
Murray’s works which call her conclusions into question.
It has been claimed that in the thirties her books led to the founding of Murrayite
covens (small circles of witches), one of which taught Gerald Gardner in the 1940s. In
the 1950s Gardner publicised Wicca, which in turn helped to inspire the modern
Pagan movement. The phrase “the Old Religion”, used by Wiccans and Pagans to
describe an ancestral Pagan religion, derives from Murrayite theory.
Other Wiccan terms and concepts like coven, esbat, the Wiccan Wheel of the Year,
and the Horned God are, it has been suggested, influenced by or derived directly from
Murray’s works. Her ideas also inspired other writers, ranging from horror authors
such as HP Lovecraft and Dennis Wheatley to Robert Graves.
Gerald Gardner (June 13, 1884-February 12, 1964)
Source: http://hubpages.com/hub/What-exactly-is-Wicca--the-Goddess--Witchcraft-and-why-is-it-so-frowned-upon-in-todays-society_2
Gerald Brousseau Gardner was an English civil servant, amateur anthropologist,
writer and occultist. He was instrumental in founding Wicca and NeoPaganism,
published some of its definitive texts, and is perhaps the best known and most talked
about figures in modern Witchcraft, dubbed by the press as “Britain’s Chief Witch”
and described by others as the “Father of Modern Wicca”.
In 1936, at the age of 52, he retired to Highcliffe, Hampshire, England, and it was
only then that he became seriously interested in the occult. He published an
authoritative text, “Keris and other Malay Weapons”, in 1936, based on almost 20
42

years of field research as an amateur anthropologist into South-East Asian weapons
and magical practices.
The New Forest area of Hampshire where he had settled was steeped in folklore and
Witchcraft, and Gardner threw himself into research and study. He became a member
of the Folklore Society in 1939, making his first contribution to its journal “Folklore”
in June 1939 (a description of a box of witchcraft relics). Later, in 1946, he became a
member of the society’s council, claiming spurious doctoral degrees from the
Universities of Singapore and Toulouse in order to achieve academic acceptance.
Gardner discovered the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, which was active in
the Christchurch area of Dorset, and he helped them to put on amateur plays with
occult and spiritual themes. It was through this theatre that Gardner claims he first
met members of the New Forest coven, a surviving tradition of English witchcraft that
he believed to be a continuation of European Paganism. He was initiated him into the
group by the coven’s leader, Dorothy Clutterbuck (affectionately referred to as “Old
Dorothy”), or possibly by a mysterious figure with the craft name of Dafo (identified
by some sources as Edith Woodford-Grimes) in 1939.
Under the pen name or craft name of Scire, Gardner published two works of fiction,
“A Goddess Arrives” (1939, a story about worship of Aphrodite in Cyprus in the year
1450) and “High Magic's Aid” (1949, a portrayal under the guise of fiction of the
basic ideas of the witchcraft tradition that was later to become known as “Gardnerian
Wicca”, although without revealing secret oath-bound material).
In 1947, Gardner’s friend Arnold Crowther introduced him to Aleister Crowley (who
had allegedly also been a member of one of Old George Pickingill’s original “Nine
Covens” in the New Forest), and Gardner was initiated into Crowley's Ordo Templi
Orientis. Their brief association would later lead to controversy over the authenticity
of Gardner’s original “Book of Shadows”.
Following the repeal of the last antiquated witchcraft laws in England in 1951,
Gardner was free to go public and to break away from the New Forest coven, and he
began to establish his own, as well as taking over the running of Cecil Williamson’s
famous Museum of Magic and Witchcraft at Castletown in the Isle of Man.
In 1953, Gardner met Doreen Valiente, and initiated her into his coven. She was to
become his greatest asset, and helped him rewrite and expand his existing Book of
Shadows, embellishing the numerous text and rituals he had collected (and which he
claimed to have been passed down to him from the New Forest coven), as well as
borrowing from other identifiable and unidentifiable sources, weeding out much of
Aleister Crowley’s materials on account of his black name, and putting more
emphasis onto Goddess worship. So, Valiente and Gardner between them established
a new working practice and coherent system, which evolved into what is today one of
the leading traditions of the Wicca movement, Gardnerian Wicca.
After the Witchcraft Act of 1951, Gardner was also able to discuss the tradition more
openly, resulting in two classic books, “Witchcraft Today” (1954) and “The Meaning
of Witchcraft” (1959), which inspired the growth and development of many traditions
of modern witchcraft and Wicca throughout the United Kingdom, Europe and the
43

United States. “Witchcraft Today” also supported the theories of anthropologist
Margaret Murray who claimed that modern witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an
organised Pagan religion that had existed before the witch hunts and trials of the Early
Modern Period. The book was an immediate success on its release and new covens
practising its dictates sprang up all over England: the Gardnerian tradition had been
born.
Gardner soon became a media celebrity, and he was dubbed “Britain’s Chief Witch”
by the British press. He loved being in the spotlight and made numerous public
appearances. Gardner felt that one of his missions was to attract young people to the
Old Religion, rather than older people who would let the craft die with them. In
addition to Doreen Valiente, he initiated some of the most influential Wiccans into his
covens, including Eleanor Bone, Patricia Crowther, Monique Wilson and Raymond
Buckland, who were to go on to spread Wicca to a whole new generation.
Many witchcraft practitioners, however, believed that he was wrong to make public
what had always been considered by them to be secret, and many believed that so
much publicity would eventually harm the craft. There was also conflict between
Gardner’s penchant for ritual nudity and other hereditary witches who claimed that
they had always worked robed. His egotism and publicity-seeking even tried the
patience of his own coven members (including that of Valiente, who was by now his
High Priestess), and splits began to develop over his relentless pursuit of publicity. In
1957, Doreen Valiente and others members, having had enough left and went their
separate ways.
Gardner himself never used the term Wicca, instead typically referring to the faith as
Witchcraft or the Witch-Cult, and he claimed that it was the survival of a pre-
Christian Pagan Witch cult that he had been initiated into by a New Forest coven in
1939.
The tradition that he propagated took influence from such sources as Freemasonry and
ceremonial magick, particularly The Key of Solomon and the writings of occultist
Aleister Crowley, and has become known as Gardnerian Wicca. But, contrary to
popular belief, Gardner is indeed responsible for bringing the Wiccan Religion “out of
the broom closet”. Though some discredit him for the work he did in his lifetime
concerning the occult, it is possible to prove that Gardner, through his writings and
experiences, helped create the foundation for the religion known today as Wicca.
44

Doreen Valiente (4 January, 1922-1 September 1999)
Source: http://Paganbookworm.org/authors/doreen-valiente/
Doreen Valiente was born Doreen Edith Dominy in Mitcham, South London January
4 1922. She grew up in the West of England. Her studies in magick began as a
teenager with simple magick.
In 1952 she was introduced to Gerald Gardner by a member of New Forest Coven. A
year later, she received her first year initiation by Gardener taking the craft name
Ameth.
She co-wrote with Gardner many of the basic rituals and other materials that helped to
change and shape contemporary witchcraft and Wicca. Unlike Gardner, however, she
generally shunned publicity, believing that a certain amount of secrecy on the part of
covens should and ought to be maintained. She also came to believe that the future of
Paganism and NeoPaganism lies in feminism and environmentalism.
Valiente recognised some information in Gardener’s Book of Shadows as the work of
Alleister Crowley. When she confronted him about this, he replied that the work he
had been given was incomplete and he had filled in the rest as best as he could. He
asked her if she could do better and she did, the end result being what is known today
as Wicca.
Regarding the origins of the Wiccan rituals Doreen Valiente wrote: “The big question
which remains to be answered is, how much of the Gardnerian 'Book of Shadows'
represents the rites of the old New Forest coven and how much is Gerald Gardner's
own concoction? I braved some hostile criticism from devoted Gardnerians by trying
to answer this question when I collaborated with Janet and Stewart Farrar in their
book The Witches' Way. I remain totally unrepentant, because I too seek the answer
and shall continue to do so. There has been too much childish cloak-and-dagger
business in the world of the occult, too much of what Aleister Crowley satirized as
swearing someone to the most frightful penalties if they betray the secret knowledge
and then confiding the Hebrew alphabet to their safekeeping. “
45

By 1964, when Gardner died, Witchcraft was becoming more acceptable. Many
Witches spoke openly to the media. Doreen did not deny Paganism, nor did she
hesitate to speak out in its defence, but she remained low key. In 1972, a member of
British Parliament attempted to pass legislation that would ban Witchcraft. A ban on
Witchcraft would have been a loss of religious freedom to many people. It could have
potentially resulted in innocent people losing their jobs, homes, children and freedom.
It could have started a modern day witch hunt. Doreen challenged this attempt and
lobbied the concerned Member of Parliament. As it turned out, the man was entirely
uninformed as to what modern day witchcraft actually is. As a result of Doreen's
intervention, the laws were not passed.
She spoke of this experience at the National Conference of the Pagan Federation
November 22, 1997:
“I well remember back in the 1970s going to the Houses of Parliament to lobby a
Welsh MP who was proposing to get the old Witchcraft Act back on the Statute Book,
after some silly posturing on TV by our old friend Alex Sanders. The MP and his wife
proved to be very nice people, and gave me tea in the tea-room of the House of
Commons. I do not know what sort of person they expected to meet, but after I had
talked to them and explained what present day witchcraft was really all about, I am
glad to say that the proposed ban on witchcraft never materialised. I remember too
telling the representatives of the media who questioned me about my visit, that
witches would consider going to International Court of Justice to claim our civil
rights, if such a ban ever again did become law in this country.”
After the death of her husband, Casimiro, in April 1972, Valiente began to devote
much of her time to writing, producing three books that did much to established her as
an authority on witchcraft and magic: “An ABC of Witchcraft” (1973), “Natural
Magic” (1975) and “Witchcraft for Tomorrow” (1978). She also helped other writers
on the subject, making available her large and extensive private library to the more
discerning, and she contributed, directly or indirectly, to many of today's leading
Wiccan titles. She published her own autobiography, “The Rebirth of Witchcraft”, in
1989.
Regarding the existence of Dorothy Clutterbuck, however, there is considerable
evidence, as researched by Doreen Valiente: “Dorothy Clutterbuck had been born on
19 January 1880 and baptised in St Paul’s Church, Umbala, on 21 February 1880. Her
parents were Thomas St Q Clutterbuck, Captain in the 14th Sikhs and Ellen Anne
Clutterbuck.”
Other material that Valiente acquired places Dorothy Clutterbuck (later, Mr Fordham)
in the right area (Gardner was a resident in Christchurch in 1939) from 1933 to at
least 1938, so it is highly likely that Gardner knew a real Dorothy Clutterbuck.
After a long struggle with cancer, Doreen Valiente died on 1 September 1999 in
Brighton, where she had lived the last years of her life. She bequeathed to John
Belham-Payne her personal library, copyrights to all her writings and research
materials, and her extensive collection of Witchcraft artefacts (including many items
made for her by Gardner, together with some of his ritual items and his original Book
of Shadows), as well as her own Book of Shadows.
46

A book of her collected poetry, including her famous “Charge of The Goddess”, was
published posthumously in 2000.
Aleister Crowley (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947)
Source: http://to55er.wordpress.com/2009/08/03/
Aleister Crowley was, and still is, perhaps the most controversial and misunderstood
personality to figure in the new era of modern day Witchcraft and Paganism.
Crowley was born Edward Alexander Crowley on the 12th October 1875 in
Leamington Spa, Warwickshire. His parents Edward Crowley and his wife Emily
were wealthy brewers and the epitome of respectability. They were also devout
Christians and staunch members of the Plymouth Brethren sect - a conservative,
Evangelical Christian movement, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in
the late 1820s. They brought up young Crowley in an atmosphere of pious religious
narrow-mindedness, against which he constantly rebelled. His whole life thereafter
seems to have been a revolt against his parents and everything they stood for. His
father died when he was 11 years old.
After the death of his father, Crowley inherited the family fortune and went on to be
educated at Trinity College Cambridge. There he wrote and studied poetry. It was
while he was at Trinity that Crowley became interested in the occult and with his
roommate Allan Bennett, they began to study whatever they could. One of the books
he read about this time was by the author Arthur Edward Waite, entitled “The Book of
Black Magic and of Pacts”. It hinted at a secret brotherhood of occultists and Crowley
became even more intrigued. He wrote to Waite for more information and was
referred to The Cloud upon the Sanctuary by Karl von Exkartshausen. This book tells
of the “Great White Brotherhood” and Crowley determined he wanted to join this
group and advance to its highest levels. Later that year on the 18th November 1898,
47

he and Bennett both joined the “Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn”, the elusive
Great White Brotherhood.
In 1899 Crowley is reported to have become a member of one of “Old George
Pickingill’s” hereditary covens situated in the New Forrest, although apparently he
was not welcome for long. It is alleged that he obtained his “Second Degree” before
being dismissed due to his contemptuous attitude toward women, failure to attend
rituals with regularity, his personal ego and sexual perversion. As well as being
dismissed and outcaste by the New Forrest witches, all was not well within the
Golden Dawn. By this time Crowley had moved out of Trinity College without
earning his degree, and taken a flat in Chancery Lane, London. There he renamed
himself Count Vladimir and began to pursue his occult studies on a full-time basis.
Crowley had a natural aptitude for magick and advanced quickly through the ranks of
the Golden Dawn, but the London lodge leaders considered him unsuitable for
advancement into the second order. Crowley went to Paris in 1899 to see SL
MacGregor Mathers, the then head of the Order and insisted that he be initiated into
the second Order. Mathers at the time was experiencing growing dissension to his
absolute rule from London, and sensed in Crowley an ally. To the consternation of
the London lodge he readily agreed to Crowley’s request and initiated him into the
second order.
However their allegiance was an uneasy one, for Mathers like Crowley was a
powerful magician and both were intensely competitive. Mathers taught Crowley
Abra-Melin magick but neither attained any of the grades of the Astro Argentum.
They quarrelled constantly and allegedly engaged in magickal warfare. In April 1900,
Mathers due to problems within the London lodge, dispatched Crowley back to
England as his special envoy where he made an abortive attempt to regain control.
Shortly thereafter both Mathers and Crowley were expelled from the order.
Crowley began to travel, mostly in the East studying Eastern Occult systems and
Tantric Yoga; he also studied Buddhism and the I Ching. In 1903 he met and then
married Rose Edith Kelly, sister of the well-known artist Sir Gerald Kelly. She bore
him one child. While they where on holiday in Egypt the following year, April 1904,
he and Rose took part in a magickal ritual during which he alleges to have received a
message from the gods. As a result of this communication he wrote down the first
three chapters of his most famous book “Liber Vel Legis, the Book of Law”. This
book contains his oft-quoted dictum: “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the
Law. Love is the Law, Love under Will”, upon which Crowley based the rest of his
life and teachings.
Crowley established a Thelemic magical fraternity called A.’.A.’, also know as
Argenteum Astrum (or “Silver Star”) Arcanum Arcanorum (or “Secret of Secrets”), in
1907. Its goals were the pursuit of light and knowledge, and it was organized such
that members only officially knew those directly above and below in the chain of
instruction. Crowley performed his series of dramatic rites and public invocations, the
Rites of Eleusis, with members of the Silver Star order in 1910.
Also in 1910, Crowley met Theodor Reuss and was admitted to the early degrees of
Ordo Templi Orientis (Order of the Temple of the East). O.T.O. was originally
modelled after and associated with Freemasonry but, under Crowley’s leadership, it
48

was reorganized based on the Law of Thelema, and most of the rituals' ties to
Masonry were rewritten. Crowley became head of the order in 1921, eventually
claiming the title of Magus, although there is some doubt as to whether Reuss had
actually designated him as his successor before his own death.
Crowley spent most of the years between 1914 and 1918 in the United States, first
working for the British intelligence in World War I, then ghost-writing two books on
astrology for Evangeline Adams while staying at her New Hampshire cottage. He
experimented with ethyl oxide as a recreational drug, which he claimed gave him a
unique vision of the universe that he frequently referred to in later writings. He
formed a sexual and magical relationship with Leah Hirsig, and with her help began
painting canvases with more creativity and passion. At one point, he achieved some
local notoriety by painting "Do what thou wilt" in huge red letters on the cliffs at both
sides of an island in the Hudson River.
In 1920, he established, with Leah Hirsig, an idealistic commune and magical school
at Cefalù, Italy, which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the anti-monastery
dedicated to free will and pleasure described in François Rabelais' medieval satire
“Gargantua and Pantagruel”. Mussolini's Fascist government expelled Crowley from
the country at the end of April 1923.
He wrote prolifically throughout his life. Some of his most influential books on occult
matters include: “The Book of the Law” (1904, the central sacred text of Thelema, as
dictated by Crowley’s personal Holy Guardian Angel, an entity known as Aiwass),
“Magick, Liber ABA, Book 4” (a lengthy treatise on magic and his own system of
Western occult practice, synthesized from many sources including Eastern Yoga,
Hermeticism, medieval grimoires and contemporary magical theories), “The Book of
Lies” (1913, poems, rituals, instructions, obscure allusions and cryptograms with
corresponding Qabalistic meanings), “The Vision and the Voice” (an exploration of
the 30 Enochian Aethyrs originally developed in the 16th Century by John Dee and
Edward Kelley) and “777 and other Qabalistic writings” (a reference book based on
the Hermetic Qabalah).
He also wrote “The Confessions of Aleister Crowley”, which he subtitled “An
Autohagiography” (the autobiography of a saint), as well as several fictional or semifictional
novels, some published poetry and several works on philosophy, politics and
culture.
Crowley was addicted to heroin for some years towards the end of his life, after being
prescribed morphine for his asthma and bronchitis (although he had for many years
experimented with the drug-induced experiences of laudanum, opium, cocaine,
hashish, alcohol, ether, mescaline, peyote and heroin). He died of a respiratory
infection in Hastings, England on 1 December 1947 at the age of 72.
Readings at the cremation service in nearby Brighton included one of his own works,
the “Hymn to Pan”, and the newspapers of the time referred to the service as a “black
mass”.
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Thelema
Thelema is the mystical cosmology Crowley announced in 1904 and expanded upon
for the remainder of his life. The diversity of his writings illustrates his difficulty in
classifying Thelema from any one vantage. It can be considered a form of magickal
philosophy, religious traditionalism, humanistic positivism, and/or an elitist
meritocracy.
The chief precept of Thelema, derived from the works of François Rabelais, is the
sovereignty of Will: “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law”. Crowley’s
idea of will, however, is not simply the individual's desires or wishes, but also
incorporates a sense of the person's destiny or greater purpose: what he termed “True
Will”.
The second precept of Thelema is “Love is the law, love under will” - and Crowley’s
meaning of “Love” is as complex as that of “Will”. It is frequently sexual:
Crowley’s system, like elements of the Golden Dawn before him, sees the dichotomy
and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence, and sexual
"magick" and metaphor form a significant part of Thelemic ritual. However, Love is
also discussed as the Union of Opposites, which Crowley thought was the key to
enlightenment.
This “Law of Thelema”, as it is called, is not to be interpreted as a license to indulge
every passing whim, but rather as the mandate to discover one’s True Will or true
purpose in life, and to accomplish it; leaving others to do the same in their own
unique ways.
Alex Sanders (1926 - 1988)
Alex Sanders was the founder of the Alexandrian tradition of Wicca, which has
proved popular particularly in Britain and Canada. He deliberately courted publicity
and controversy, and was proclaimed “King of the Witches” by his followers, which
created dissent with many other Wiccans. However, many, including Stewart Farrar,
claim that Sanders has made major contributions to the modern development of the
Craft.
Several contradictory accounts have been given of Sanders’ initiation into Witchcraft,
and even his own accounts are inconsistent. According to one story, he was initiated
at the age of seven by his Welsh grandmother, Mary Bibby, a hereditary witch,
supposedly descended from the Welsh chieftain Owain Glynd?r. She let him copy her
Book of Shadows when he was nine and taught him the rites and magick of Witches,
along with techniques of scrying in inky water and in crystals. Sanders claimed that
following the Blitz, and a few months before her death at age 74, his grandmother
conferred upon him second- and third-grade initiations, involving ritual sex.
In another version (corroborated by his future wife and High Priestess, Maxine
Sanders), he claimed to have been initiated (and given his craft name, Verbius) as late
as 1961 in a coven led by a woman from Nottingham, although he was indeed also
taught a form of Witchcraft and magic by his grandmother when he was young, with
his mother's knowledge.
50

He studied the works of Abramelin the Mage, and smuggled out and copied an
original copy of the grimoire “The Key of Solomon” from the John Rylands Library
in Manchester, where he was working for a time until his dismissal. His first contact
with Wicca was in the early 1960s, through correspondence and meetings with
Patricia Crowther, although she considered him a troublesome upstart and refused to
initiate him (particularly after he convinced the Manchester Evening News to run a
front-page article on Wicca). He was eventually initiated by a priestess who had been
a member of Crowther’s coven.
He worked with several different covens, including one led by Pat Kopanski and
another led by a priestess called Sylvia. When Sylvia and several others later left the
group amicably, Sanders continued as High Priest, working out of his home in
Manchester. He continued to attract media attention which brought him more and
more followers, who apparently gave him the title of “King of the Witches”, and by
1965 he claimed 1623 initiates in 100 covens. He joined several other esoteric and
chivalric orders throughout the 1960s and 1970s, including the Knights Templars, the
Order of Saint Michael, the Order of Saint George and the Ordine Della Luna (aka the
Order of the Romaic Crescent).
During the 1960s, Sanders met Maxine Morris, a Roman Catholic 20 years his junior,
whom he initiated into the craft and made his High Priestess. In 1965, they handfasted
and, in 1968, they married in a civil ceremony. They moved into a basement flat in
West London, where they ran their coven and taught classes on Witchcraft.
Sanders was projected into the national public spotlight after a sensational newspaper
article in 1969, which in turn led to the romanticised 1969 biography, “King of the
Witches” by June Johns, and the film “Legend of the Witches” in 1970. These led to
greater publicity, guest appearances on talk-shows, and public speaking engagements
(although many accused him of exploiting the Craft and dragging it through the gutter
press).
According to his wife, Sanders never actually courted publicity, and blamed his initial
rise to fame on an attempt to distract media attention away from other, more
vulnerable,
From 1979, he began working in magickal partnership with Derek Taylor, a psychic
and trance medium, and together they developed the magickal work of Sanders’ order,
the Ordine Della Luna, and reportedly worked with celestial intelligences,
disembodied spirits and the demiurge itself. He continued to train a small number of
personal students during the 1980s.
Sanders died in Sussex on 30 April 1988, after suffering from lung cancer. But even
after his death he continued to arouse controversy, declaring in a taped message that
his son, Victor, (who had moved to the United States and wanted nothing to do with
his father’s schemes) was to succeed him as King of the Witches, and to lead the
“Witchcraft Council of Elders” which Sanders claimed to number an incredible 100
000 members. In 1998, ten years after his death, a New England Wiccan coven
claimed to have contacted Sanders in spirit, and channelled his messages, addressed to
all Wiccans, urging love for the Goddess and strength and unity within Wicca.
51

Raven Grimassi (born 1951)
Raven Grimassi is the pen name of the author of over a dozen books on Paganism
and Witchcraft. He is perhaps best known for his popularisation of Stregheria, which
he and others describe as “the Old Religion of Italy... the Witch sect of Old Italy”.
(More on Italian Witchcraft elsewhere)
Grimassi is without a doubt among the most controversial figures today in the Craft
community.
Grimassi is reportedly descended from an Italian witch named Calenda Tavani, who
lived in Naples several generations ago. Grimassi states that his early training was a
mixture of Italian witchcraft and folk magic. His later interest in Paganism began in
1969, and he was initiated into a system claiming to be Gardnerian Wicca in San
Diego (the tradition’s claim eventually proved to be false). Ten years later, Grimassi
began teaching the “Aridian Tradition”, which he describes as a “modern system” of
Italian Witchcraft (Stregheria) that he created for non-initiates. According to
Grimassi, one of his students was Scott Cunningham.
In 1994, the new age publisher Llewellyn Publications accepted his manuscript for
Ways of the Strega, which was reprinted the following year as Italian Witchcraft: The
Old Religion of Southern Europe . The publication of this book launched Grimassi’s
professional career as an author. Grimassi went on to produce over a dozen popular
books on Witchcraft and Wicca.
Grimassi's intimation of belonging to a “family tradition” of religious witchcraft, a
claim made by a number of other Llewellyn authors and which has never been
substantiated, has opened him to criticism. Grimassi responds by saying that, although
he wrote about such a family tradition, he never specifically mentions his own family,
and it was only Llewellyn’s marketing department that made such a statement,
although he has admitted that some Italian-American immigrants had adapted a few
Wiccan elements into their ways.
Grimassi is well known for his research on Charles Leland and Italian witchcraft. He
has studied these subjects for over thirty years. Grimassi views Lelands book Aradia,
or the Gospel of the Witches as a “Christianised and distorted version” of the original
story of Aradia, whom he believes to be a mortal woman named Aradia di Toscano.
However, Grimassi does point to genuine elements within Leland’s Aradia material,
such as the inclusion of a full moon ritual and a sacred meal at the Treguenda
(Sabbat), along with the pantheon of a goddess and god figure.
As indicated in his writings, Grimassi considers it his life work to preserve and
present sources of information related to his belief in the survival and continuation of
witchcraft as a religion and practice of great antiquity.
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Starhawk (June 17, 1951)
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
license. Source: : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Starhawk_2.JPG
Starhawk, born Miriam Simosis an American writer, anarchist activist, and selfdescribed
Witch. She is well known as a theorist of Paganism, and is one of the
foremost popular voices of ecofeminism. Born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Starhawk
lives in San Francisco, where she works with Reclaiming, a tradition of Witchcraft
that she co-founded in the late 1970s.
She is internationally known as a trainer in nonviolence and direct action, and as an
activist within the peace movement, women’s movement, environmental movement,
and anti-globalization movement. She travels and teaches widely in North America,
Europe and the Middle East, giving lectures and workshops. She was influential in the
decision by the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations to include earthcentred
traditions in the UUA sources of faith.
Starhawk was a major voice in the feminist spirituality movement. Her view of
Witchcraft as Goddess Religion and the model of nurturing strength she saw in the
figure of the historical Witch caused a resurgence of interest in contemporary Pagan
traditions. Her first book, The Spiral Dance: A Re-birth of the Ancient Religion of the
Great Goddess (1979 and 1989), was a panoramic introduction to Wicca. It was also
heralded as a manifesto for a truly feminist religion that welcomed men. Starhawk
explored the roots of the Wiccan revival in earliest prehistory, comparing Witchcraft
more to tribal, shamanic practices than the world religions of the patriarchal era. She
traced the persecution of native European, nature-based religions into the mass witch-
53

hunts of medieval times. She contended that the Roman Catholic Inquisition drove
Paganism underground, passed on secretly until its re-discovery in the 20th century.
The Spiral Dance presented an eclectic mix of theology, feminist theory, mindexpanding
exercises, poetry, and rituals for celebrating the ancient seasonal festivals
of the year. In it Starhawk espoused three principles central to her theology:
54
• Goddess was seen as immanent in the world.
• All things are interconnected; therefore, magick - “the art of changing
consciousness at will” - must be ethical and include a focus on social justice.
• Goddess Religion fostered community to re-define maleness/femaleness and
to transform a deteriorating planet into a place for life-affirming culture.
In her next work, Dreaming the Dark: Magic, Sex, and Politics (1982), Starhawk
elaborated the role of ritual as an agent of societal change. Advocating the fusion of
spirituality and politics, she developed her theories of the “culture of estrangement”,
the patriarchal mainstream based on “power-over”, and the emerging Goddess-centred
communities which emphasise “power-from-within”. Her experience in the 1981
blockade of the Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant in coastal California formed the
backdrop of the work. Confronting “the dark” - her own fear of nuclear annihilation -
she wove historical material from 16th-and 17th-century Europe with personal
reflections from the women’s jail near the power plant.
Positing magick as directed energy, an art, and as will, she argued that it necessitates
an “ethics of integrity”, which demands consistency between images and actions. Yet
these “are not based on absolutes imposed upon chaotic nature, but upon the ordering
principles inherent in nature”. She pondered that if such political events as the
blockade are acts of magick (aimed at changing consciousness), then applying the
principles of magick to political actions can make the latter more effective. The
results of this cross-pollination were several exercises for consensus group process
and an analysis of political groups from a magickal world view.
In Dreaming the Dark Starhawk contended that when we recoil from words like
Witch and Goddess, our discomfort is a sign of potential liberation into new thought
forms. She added that the God, consort or son of the Goddess, can become an image
to guide men back into the “mother-ground”, healing their separation from woman
and from nature. The Goddess and God, she asserted, “can become doorways leading
out of patriarchal cultures, channels for the powers we need to transform ourselves,
our visions, and our stories”.
Her third work, Truth Or Dare: Encounters with Power, Authority and Mystery
(1987), synthesised her views on personal development, political action, and
witchcraft into a “psychology of liberation”. Again, autobiographical accounts of the
antinuclear movement were abound. This time she identified a third form of power in
political communities, “power-with”, described as “the art of gaining influence and
using it creatively to empower”. Power-from-within and power-with, she argued, can
overthrow the internal Judge, Conqueror and Censor, thus changing their
manifestations in patriarchal culture.

True to form, scholarship had its place in this multifaceted work as well. An important
chapter focused on the transition from matrifocal to patriarchal times in the Middle
East. Through Starhawk’s poetry throughout the work, the Sumerian Goddess Inanna
points the way for feminist women and changing men who would confront authority
and encounter mystery.
In 1988 Starhawk was teaching at the Institute in Culture and Creation Spirituality in
Oakland, California, headed by the renegade Roman Catholic priest Matthew Fox.
When Fox was investigated and silenced by the Vatican late that year, he showed the
press a letter from Cardinal Ratzinger of the Vatican’s Congregation for the Doctrine
of the Faith. It urged him to “disassociate himself” from “Wicca, the ideology of
Starhawk”. In response, Starhawk remarked that she was puzzled by the cardinal’s
apprehension, for it was the Church who had burned Witches, not the other way
around.
During the 1990s, Starhawk continued her Wicca evangelicalism through teaching
week-long “Witch Camps” and working in the Covenant of the Goddess, a legally
recognised Church since 1975. She was also active in demonstrations against the clear
cutting of old growth redwoods. Keeping up with the electronic age Starhawk
established a home page on the Internet providing information on her appearances and
witch camps. She published Walking to Mercury (1997), a prequel to The Fifth
Sacred Thing. Mercury, the story of Maya Greenwood’s wild experiences with
magick, sex, and politics in the sixties, has been portrayed as an autobiographical
work. Starhawk denied that the work was autobiographical, but that Maya “often does
things I thought about doing”.
OTHER PEOPLE OF INFLUENCE
55
• Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (September 14, 1486 – February
18, 1535) was a German magician, occult writer, theologian, astrologer, and
alchemist. Agrippa's wrote on a great many topics, including marriage and
military engineering, but his most important work is the three-volume De
Occulta Philosophiae (written c. 1510, published 1531), a defense of "hidden
philosophy" or magic, which draws on diverse mystical traditions -- alchemy,
astrology, Kabbalah. A later work, De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum (Of
the Uncertainty and Vanity of the Sciences), attacks contemporary scientific
theory and practice.
• John Dee was a noted English mathematician, astronomer, astrologer,
geographer, occultist and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I. Although not a
witch as such, he devoted much of his life to alchemy, divination and
Hermetic philosophy, particularly in association with his rather less scrupulous
"scryer", Edward Kelley. Over the centuries, he has come to be seen as the
archetypal image of a magician, on whom many fictional magicians have been
modelled. He devoted the last third of his life almost exclusively to attempting
to commune with angels in order to learn the universal language of creation.
At his house in Mortlake, Dee amassed the largest library in England and one
of the largest in Europe, including many important Medieval grimoires such as
"The Sworn Book of Honorius".
• Eliphas Levi is the pseudonym of Alphonse Louis Constant, a French occultist
and author whose work greatly influenced many of the early revivalists of the

56
19th century. Interestingly Aleister Crowley was born the same year Levi died
and later claimed to be his reincarnation. Early in the 1830’s Constant became
acquainted with an old couple called 'Ganneau' who practiced witchcraft.
Ganneau believed himself a prophet and a reincarnation of Louis XVII, while he
also believed his wife was the reincarnation of Marie Antoinette. Constant
joined Ganneau and became one of his followers delving deeper into the
mysteries of magic and the occult.
• Alexander Rud Mills (1885-1964) founded the First Anglecyn Church of Odin
in Australia in 1936, a forerunner of the 20th-century revival of Norse
Heathenism. Although today his religious vision is seen as too heavily
influenced by Christianity, he is regarded as a contributor to later, more
authentic, expressions of Heathenry. Mills is the author of The Odinist Religion
(1939) and The Call of Our Ancient Nordic Religion (1957).
• Ross Nichols (1902-1972) founded the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids in
1964, which (unlike previous Druid revivalist groups) began to incorporate more
explicitly Pagan elements into the group's practice, including an emphasis on
Celtic mythology. He developed the eight-festival calendar that was adopted by
various other Pagans. An anthology of his writings was published posthumously
as The Book of Druidry (1975).
• Carlos Castaneda (1925-1998) authored several controversial books that
describe his alleged studies with Don Juan, a Yaqui “shaman”. Despite that fact
that the authenticity of Castaneda's writings are contested, his books have sold
over eight million copies and helped to create a popular understanding of the
"shaman" as an indigenous spiritual elder who can initiate others into the
spiritual mysteries of nature.
• Alex Sanders (1926-1988) established his own lineage of Wicca, the
Alexandrian Tradition, which incorporated more elements of ceremonial Magick
into its rituals than Gardnerian witchcraft.
• Michael Harner (b. 1929) founded the Foundation for Shamanic Studies, an
institution that teaches “core shamanism”, a distillation of general principles of
indigenous magicko-religious spirituality from tribal cultures around the world.
He is the author of The Way of the Shaman (1980), detailing his own
experiences with tribal spiritual elders in the Amazon rainforest.
• Zsuzsanna Budapest,born 30 January 1940 in Budapest, Hungary, was one of
six women who founded the Susan B Anthony Coven in 1971, now generally
regarded as the birth of feminist or Dianic Witchcraft (after the Greek Goddess
Diana). Budapest has written numerous books on witchcraft and feminist
spirituality, notably The Feminist Book of Lights and Shadows (1975) and The
Holy Book of Women’s Mysteries (1989).
• Isaac Bonewits (b. 1949) established a Pagan Druid organisation, Ár nDraíocht
Féin: A Druid Fellowship (ADF), which promotes a more scholarly approach to
Paganism (and which accepts all varieties of Indo-European Paganism, not just
Celtic Druidism). He is the author of several books.
• Edred Thorsson (pen name of Stephen Flowers) (b. 1953) is a leading writer of
books on the spirituality of the Runes and the religion of the ancient Norse. His
books include Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magick (1984) and A Book of
Troth (1989).

The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in Neo-Druidism as well as the rise of
Germanic Neo-Paganism and Ásatrú in the United States and in Iceland.
PART THREE
THE ‘REBIRTH’ OF PAGANISM
A wide array of spiritual, cultural, and philosophical currents combined to affect the
rebirth of Paganism. Paganism in fact has been influenced by a variety of sources, not
all explicitly religious or spiritual.
In The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (2000), Ronald
Hutton traces literary, social, cultural, folkloric and mythological antecedents to the
writings of Gerald Gardner, who is widely regarded as the single most influential
figure in the emergence of British Witchcraft or Wicca in the 1950s. Since Wicca is
the largest part of modern Paganism, its influences have been traced to the largest
extent.
When Gardner published his book Witchcraft Today in 1954, he probably was not
inventing his tale of a surviving Witch cult in England, but it is unlikely that he was
reporting on a genuine coven" of witches, known as the New Forest coven, that had
persisted for centuries. Rather it is very likely that Gardner drew on a variety of
sources in creating the new fertility religion known as Wicca.
57
• Literary adoration of nature - Modern forms of nature spirituality emerged out
of the Romantic movement of the 19th century.
• Romantic interest in primitive religion - Certainly vestigial forms of
indigenous European Paganism could be deduced from folklore as well as
certain folk practices. Veneration of water at holy wells, ceremonial bonfires
during seasonal festivals, and the "cunning man" traditions of folk healers and
diviners, all point to religious and spiritual sensibilities that run counter to the
prevailing Christian faith.
• Speculations of a Great Mother Goddess cult in antiquity - By the early 21st
century, the concept of one single Great Mother Goddess had fallen out of
scholarly favour, but in the late 19th and early 20th century it was a popular
idea.
• The culture of “Merrie England” - One way in which Romanticism flourished
in England was through a nostalgic celebration of English folklore and
customs, some of which may well have had ancient roots but others of which
could have been more recent in origin. May Day celebrations (particularly the
Maypole), Yuletide customs, fairy lore, druidism and various other seasonal
festivals all became popular.
• Anthropological speculation about witchcraft - Another by-product of
Romanticism was an interest in occultism and supernatural phenomena,
including Theosophy, Spiritualism and ceremonial magick. As the age of
revolution, the 19th century was also marked by hostility toward Christianity
as the religion of the establishment. In this context, scholars began to speculate
about the true nature of witchcraft as suppressed by Christianity, particularly
in late medieval and early modern periods.
• A romantic re-visioning of the witch persecutions of early modern Europe -
Following the new scholarly consensus about the meaning of witchcraft, the

58
witch trials of Europe became interpreted as a form of religious persecution, in
which the dominant faith systematically attacked the weaker “Old Religion”.
• Ceremonial magick - Many of the ceremonies of Gardner's witch coven drew
upon rituals practiced by established secret societies of his day, including
Freemasonry and ceremonial magick groups such as the Order of the Golden
Dawn.
MAYPOLE
Vintage Victorian MAY POLE Celebration Clipart Photo:
www.VictorianTraditions.com
The maypole is a tall wooden pole (traditionally of maple (Acer), hawthorn or birch)
erected to celebrate May Day or Midsummer. It may be a semi-permanent feature,
standing in position year-round until it has to be repainted or replaced, or it may be a
shorter, temporary structure. It may be decorated with several long coloured ribbons
suspended from the top, festooned with flowers, draped in greenery, hung with large
circular wreaths, or adorned with other symbols or decorations, depending on local
and regional variances.
With roots in Germanic Paganism, the maypole traditionally appears in most
Germanic countries, Germanic country-bordering and countries invaded by
Germanic tribes after the fall of the Roman Empire (such as Spain, France and Italy),
but most popularly in Germany, Sweden, Austria, England, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Finland in modern times for spring, May Day,
Beltane, and Midsummer festivities and rites.

What is often thought of as the "traditional" English maypole (a somewhat shorter,
plainer version of the Scandinavian pole with ribbons tied at the top and hanging to
the ground) is a relatively recent development of the tradition, probably derived from
the picturesque, Italianate dances performed in mid-19th century theatricals. It is
usually this shorter, plainer maypole that people (usually school children) perform
dances around, weaving the ribbons in and out to create striking patterns.
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maypole
Although other traditions of Paganism have had different influences this variety of
influences serves as an example of how diverse the factors were that contributed to
modern revivals or recreations of the Pagan Path.
THE SARACEN/MOOR INFLUENCE
Saracen was a term used by the ancient Romans to refer to people who inhabited the
deserts near the Roman province of Syria and who were distinct from Arabs. The term
was later applied to Arab peoples and by the time of European chroniclers during the
time of the Crusades came to be synonymous for Muslim.
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of
Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim) people of Berber, Black African and Arab descent
from North Africa, some of whom came to conquer and occupy the Iberian Peninsula
for nearly 800 years. The North Africans termed it Al Andalus, comprising most of
what is now Spain and Portugal. Moors are not distinct or self-defined people, but the
appellation was applied by medieval and early modern Europeans primarily to
Berbers, but also Arabs, and Muslim Iberians and West Africans from Mali and
Niger who had been absorbed into the Almoravid dynasty.
In “Legends and Romances of Spain”, written in 1920, Lewis Spence says the Moors
were famous for magical and alchemical studies, although “the Moors themselves
have left so few undoubted memorials of their labours in this direction that we remain
in considerable ignorance of the trend of their efforts, so that if we desire any
knowledge upon this most recondite subject we must perforce collect it painfully from
the fragmentary notices of it in contemporary European and Arabic literature”.
The first name of importance which we encounter in the broken annals of Moorish
occultism is a great one-that of the famous Geber, who flourished about 720-750 CE,
and who is reported to have penned upward of five hundred works upon the
philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life. He believed that a preparation of gold would
heal all diseases in both animals and plants, as well as in human beings, and that all
men were in a condition of chronic sickness in so far that they had departed from their
natural and original state of gold. His works, all of which are in Latin, are not
considered authentic, but his Summa Perfectionis manual for the alchemical student,
has frequently been translated.
The Moorish alchemists taught that all metals are composed of varying proportions of
mercury and sulphur. They laboured strenuously to multiply drugs out of the various
mixtures and reactions of the few chemicals their disposal, but although they believed
59

in the theory of transmutation of metals they did not strive to effect. They were a
school of scientific artisans and experimentalists, first and last. They probably owe
their alchemical knowledge to Byzantium, which in turn had received it from Egypt;
or it may be that the Arab drew their scientific inspiration at first hand from the land
of the Nile, where the great art of alchemy undoubtedly had its birth.
Gerber (born c. 721 in Tous - died c. 815 in Kufa)
Geber is the Latinised form of Jabir, with the full name of Abu Musa Jābir ibn
Hayyān al azdi, a prominent polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and
astrologer, engineer, geologist, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician.
He is considered by many to be the “father of chemistry”. His ethnic background is
not clear, although some sources state that he was an Arab, other sources introduce
him as Persian. Geber or Jabir is held to be the first practical alchemist. As early as
the tenth century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Geber was in dispute in
Islamic circles. Entirely separately from that, in 13th century Europe an anonymous
writer produced a body of alchemy and metallurgy under the pen-name Geber. This
individual is known today as Pseudo-Geber.
Geber’s alchemical investigations ostensibly revolved around the ultimate goal of
takwin — the artificial creation of life. The Book of Stones includes several recipes
for creating creatures such as scorpions, snakes, and even humans in a laboratory
environment, which are subject to the control of their creator. What Geber meant by
these recipes is today unknown. In his writings, Geber pays tribute to Egyptian and
Greek alchemists Hermes Trismegistus, Agathodaimon, Pythagoras, and Socrates.
Geber’s alchemical investigations were theoretically grounded in an elaborate
numerology related to Pythagorean and Neoplatonic systems. The nature and
properties of elements was defined through numeric values assigned the Arabic
consonants present in their name, ultimately culminating in the number 17.
To Aristotelian physics, Geber added the four properties of hotness, coldness,
dryness, and moistness. Each Aristotelian element was characterised by these
qualities: Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air
hot and moist. This came from the elementary qualities which are theoretical in nature
plus substance. In metals two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior.
For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was hot and moist. Thus, Geber
theorised, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, based on their sulfur/mercury
content, a different metal would result. This theory appears to have originated the
search for al-iksir, the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible —
which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher’s stone.
The elemental system used in medieval alchemy was developed by Geber. His
original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical
elements found in the ancient Greek and Indian traditions (aether, air, earth, fire and
water), in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, ‘the
stone which burns’, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury,
which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this
evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles:
60

sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability,
and salt giving solidity.
Geber also made important contributions to medicine, astronomy/astrology, and other
sciences.
The Arabic corpus of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) can be divided into four categories:
61
• The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid.
This group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work
that proved a recurring foundation of and source for alchemical operations. In
the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin (Tabula Smaragdina) and widely
diffused among European alchemists.
• The Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the
Middle Ages. This group includes the Kitab al-Zuhra (Book of Venus) and the
Kitab Al-Ahjar (Book of Stones).
• The Ten Books on Rectification, containing descriptions of alchemists such as
Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
• The Books on Balance; this group includes his most famous 'Theory of the
balance in Nature'.
Astrology
Source: sleeping-gypsy.com/links.html
Astrology was also an important branch of occult study with the Moors of Spain,
whose consideration greatly assisted the science of mathematics, especially that
branch of it which still retains its Arabic name-algebra (al = the, jabara = to set,
compute). It is probable that the Arabs first received an insight into the practice of
foretelling events by the position of the planets at a given time from the Chaldeans,
who undoubtedly were its earliest students.

References to astrology are plentifully encountered in Spanish story, as the reader will
have observed. But high as it stood in the estimation of the Moorish sages, it was still
subservient to the grander and more mysterious art of magic, whereby the spirits of
the air could be forced to do the will of the magus, and carry out his behests in four
elements. Most unfortunately, we are almost entirely ignorant of the tenets of Moorish
magick, owing probably to the circumstance that it was averse to the spirit of Islam.
But we know that it was founded upon Alexandrian magick, and therefore recognised
the principles of that art as laid down by the great Hermes Trismegistus.
About the end of the tenth century the learned men of Europe began to resort to Spain
for the purpose of studying the arts, occult and otherwise. Among the first to do so
was Gerbert, who became Pope Sylvester II, who spent several years in Cordova, and
who introduced into Christendom the knowledge of the Arabic numerals and the art of
clock-making.
12 th century English historian William of Malmesbury says that Gerbert made many
discoveries of treasure through the art of necromancy. Ignorant Europe took Gerbert’s
mathematical diagrams for magickal signs, and his occult reputation increased.
Mystery Schools
There is, however, no way to discover exactly when or how the Saracen Mysteries
first began filtering into European Witchcraft. But the influence was certainly there in
the Medieval period. Arab invaders at one time had conquered most of Spain and
southern France. With them came the Saracen Mystery Schools.
The Berber mystery school located in Aragon reportedly taught both Basque and
Cathar dissidents in its time. The Navarre Witches also absorbed a great deal of the
Saracen Culture. Berengaria of Navarre, who became the bride of King Richard the
1rst, was said to have brought some of the Navarre Witches to England with her.
Henry V accused Joan of Navarre in 1419 of an attempt on his life involving
witchcraft – she allegedly also practised necromancy – and was was confined without
trial until 1422.
And it was from those Navarre Witches that the Saracen Mystery traditions entered
English Witchcraft.
The Basque witch trials of the 17th century represent the most ambitious attempt at
rooting out witchcraft ever undertaken by the Spanish Inquisition. The trial of the
Basque witches at Logroño, near Navarre, in northern Spain, which began in January
1609, against the background of similar persecutions conducted in Labourd by Pierre
de Lancre, was almost certainly the biggest single event of its kind in history. By the
end some 7000 cases had been examined by the Inquisition.
Another theory was advanced concerning the Norman, English, French and German
Knights who fought for the kingdom of Sicily. It was speculated that these knights
may have learned the Saracen Mysteries and then brought them back to their
respective homelands. For several sons of English Kings were made Kings of Sicily.
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The Craft techniques that were derived from the Saracen schools included the use of
cords.
Some of the symbolism that has come to us from the Saracen Mystery schools are the
Triangle, the Pentagram, the Circle, the Diamond Lozenge and the Square.
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• The upright triangle delineates the God, and in a triad arrangement, the
representative of the God would be in the north.
• The inverted Triangle would represent the Goddess. This is also commonly
called the “Delta of Venus” which refers to the pubic patch.
• The Square itself is delineated with the Northern part open. This is because the
North is the realm of the God and He cannot be limited, bound, or qualified.
The Square represents the LIFE aspect, and is ascribed to the God.
• The Circle within the Square represents the aspect of FORM, and is ascribed
to the Goddess. The initiate “squares the circle” by balancing the male and
female aspects of his/her whole being. Becoming the self-conscious, selfperfected
God.
• The Diamond Lozenge, inverted triangle and Circle have all been associated
with Scandinavian Fertility Goddesses for thousands of years.
• The Diamond Lozenge represents the yoni, or vaginal opening, and can be
divided into both an upright and an inverted triangle. This arrangement
suggest the sexual polarity, which was observed by the French Craft. In the
Circle, a male always opposed a female, and a female was always opposite a
male. This emphasises that the power must pass from male to female to male,
and that one must strive for balance within oneself.
• In the Medieval French Traditions, the Magister stood at full power in the East
representing the rising Sun. The Lady stood at full power in the West to
represent the Moon. The Red Priest, or Magister’s deputy took up a position in
the South to represent the sun at its meridian.
• In covens that were god-oriented, the Lady would wear a combination of red
and green. Red was a color attributed to the God, and Green to the Goddess.
The female members wore blue to signify the Goddess, the males usually wore
red, but sometimes the Magister wore Black signifying the God in his
underworld aspect. Later during the times of Witch persecutions, all Witches
took to wearing black cloaks in order to better hide themselves in the shadows
of the night.

64
ALCHEMY
Sample of alchemical symbols in Kitab al-Aqalim by Abu 'l-Qasim al-Oraqi.
Source: alchemy-forums.forumotion.com/the-sacred-art-...
Alchemy, originally derived from the Old Persian word “Kimia” meaning gold, later
arabised as al-kimi , is both a philosophy and an ancient practice focused on the
attempt to change base metals into gold, investigating the preparation of the “elixir of
longevity”, and achieving ultimate wisdom, involving the improvement of the
alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual
properties. The practical aspect of alchemy generated the basics of modern inorganic
chemistry, namely concerning procedures, equipment and the identification and use of
many current substances.
The fundamental ideas of alchemy are said to have arisen in the ancient Persian
Empire. Alchemy has been practiced in Mesopotamia (comprising much of today’s
Iraq), Egypt, Persia (today’s Iran), India, China, Japan, Korea and in Classical Greece
and Rome, in the Post-Islamic Persia, and then in Europe up to the 20th century, in a
complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.
The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals
into gold (called chrysopoeia) or silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or

spagyric); the creation of a “panacea”, or the elixir of life, a remedy that, it was
supposed, would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a
universal solvent. Although these were not the only uses for the discipline, they were
the ones most documented and well-known. Certain Hermetic schools argue that the
transmutation of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical
body (Saturn or lead) into (gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. This is
described as Internal Alchemy.
Starting with the Middle Ages, Persian and European alchemists invested much effort
in the search for the “philosopher's stone”, a mythical substance that was believed to
be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Pope John XXII issued a
bull against alchemical counterfeiting, and the Cistercians banned the practice
amongst their members. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of
Alchemy. In the late 14th century, Piers the Ploughman and Chaucer both painted
unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars. By contrast, Rudolf II, Holy
Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work
at his court in Prague.
It is a popular belief that Alchemists made mundane contributions to the “chemical”
industries of the day - ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of
gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture,
preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae,
the “water of life”, was a fairly popular experiment among European alchemists). In
reality, although Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe, they did little
for any known industry. Long before Alchemists appeared, goldsmiths knew how to
tell what was good gold or fake, and industrial technology grew by the work of the
artisans themselves, rather than any Alchemical helpers.
The double origin of Alchemy in Greek philosophy as well as in Egyptian and
Mesopotamian technology set, from the start, a double approach: the technological,
operative one and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one. These are not
mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the
real world, and conversely.
Several early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis, are recorded as viewing
alchemy as a spiritual discipline, and, in the Middle Ages, metaphysical aspects,
substances, physical states, and molecular material processes as mere metaphors for
spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformations. In this sense, the
literal meanings of “Alchemical Formulas” were a blind, hiding their true spiritual
philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity
that could have otherwise led them to the “stake and rack” of the Inquisition under
charges of heresy.
Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea
symbolised evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state
towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosopher's
stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied
to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolised his evolution from ignorance to
enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would
lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic
65

alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically
contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories and references to other equally cryptic
works; and must be laboriously decoded in order to discover their true meaning.
Origins
The origins of Western alchemy are traceable back to ancient Egypt. The Leyden
papyrus X and the Stockholm Papyrus along with the Greek magical papyri comprise
the first “book” on alchemy still existent. Greek and Indian philosophers theorised
that there were only four classical elements (rather than today’s 117 chemical
elements, a useful analogy is with the highly similar states of matter); Earth, Fire,
Water, and Air. The Greek philosophers, in order to prove their point, burned a log:
The log was the earth, the flames burning it was fire, the smoke being released was
air, and the smoldering soot at the bottom was bubbling water. Because of this, the
belief that these four elements were at the heart of everything soon spread, only later
being replaced in the Middle Ages by Geber’s theory of seven elements, which was
then replaced by the modern theory of chemical elements during the early modern
period.
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning four millennia and
three continents. These traditions’ general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language
makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and “genetic” relationships. Alchemy
starts becoming much clearer in the 8th century with the works of the Persian
Alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (known as Geber in Europe), who introduced a
methodical and experimental approach to scientific research based in the laboratory,
in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were mainly
allegorical.
Other famous alchemists include Rhazes, Avicenna and Imad ul-din in Persian
alchemy; Wei Boyang in Chinese alchemy; Nagarjuna in Indian alchemy; and
Albertus Magnus and pseudo-Geber in European alchemy; as well as the anonymous
author of the Mutus Liber, published in France in the late 17th century, which was a
“wordless book” that claimed to be a guide to making the philosopher’s stone, using a
series of 15 symbols and illustrations. The philosopher’s stone was an object that was
thought to be able to amplify one’s power in alchemy and, if possible, grant the user
ageless immortality, unless he fell victim to burnings or drowning; the common belief
was that fire and water were the two greater elements that were implemented into the
creation of the stone.
In the case of the Chinese and European alchemists, there was a difference between
the two. The European alchemists tried to transmute lead into gold, and, no matter
how futile or toxic the element, would continue trying until it was royally outlawed
later into the century. The Chinese, however, paid no heed to the philosopher’s stone
or transmutation of lead to gold; they focused more on medicine for the greater good.
During Enlightenment, these “elixirs” were a strong cure for sicknesses, unless it was
a test medicine. In general, most tests were fatal, but stabilised elixirs served great
purposes. On the other hand, the Persian alchemists were interested in alchemy for a
variety of reasons, whether it was for the transmutation of metals or artificial creation
of life or for practical uses such as Persian Medicine.
66

Dateline
67
• Egyptian alchemy (5000-400 BCE), beginning of alchemy
• Indian alchemy (1200 BCE-Present), related to Indian metallurgy; Nagarjuna
was an important alchemist
• Greek alchemy (332 BCE-642 CE), studied at the Library of Alexandria
Stockholm papyrus
• Chinese alchemy (142 CE), Wei Boyang writes The Kinship of the Three
• Islamic alchemy (700-1400), Persians were at the forefront of Alchemy and
Chemistry in the period of the Islamic Golden Age.
• Persian chemistry (800-Present), Alkindus and Avicenna refute transmutation,
Rhazes refutes four classical elements, and Tusi discovers conservation of
mass
• European alchemy (1300-Present), Saint Albertus Magnus builds on Persian
alchemy
• European chemistry (1661-Present), Boyle writes The Sceptical Chymist,
Lavoisier writes Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry), and
Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory
Hermetic Alchemy
The writings of the Hermetic Alchemists have exercised a fascination upon the
imaginations of scholars and casual seekers alike for centuries. On the one hand, the
Hermetic writings have a well deserved reputation for being among the most obscure
writings ever penned. But on the other hand, they have also managed to retain their
status as one of the most authoritative original sources of ancient wisdom.
Alchemy is Change. The Process of Change is the ultimate “Atom” of the ancient
Greeks, the original building block of the Cosmos. All of the symbols of Alchemy
emphasise the aspect of Change: the transmutation of the baser metals into Gold
through a process of Solve et Coagula, Separatio et Coniunctio (“disintegrate” and
“unite;” “separate” and “join”). Alchemy is the “spagyric art,” from Greek words
meaning “to tear apart” and “to bring together.”
Since the earliest times, Alchemists have been interested in applying their Hermetic
wisdom towards the perfecting of the body and soul of man - the quest for Gold being
left to the “puffers”. For the Alchemist, the first stage of the “Great Work” is the
Nigredo, the stage of Blackness, disintegration, chaos, where the material (metal, the
soul of Man) is reduced to the “prima materia” or formless original stuff, before it can
proceed to the second stage, the Albedo (whiteness), where the material may be
unified once again. The Alchemical process is circular, alternating between Solve and
Coagula on its path towards perfection.
Originally, “Alexandrian Alchemy” had as its purpose the transmutation of the baser
metals into Gold. Although this goal was quickly superseded by the loftier notions of
the Alchemical Adepts, it is instructive to review the original understanding of the old
“Masters of Fire.” Aristotle laid the groundwork with his famous dictum: “Nature
strives towards Perfection”.

Next, it is necessary to understand that metals were considered to be alive in some
sense, and already undergoing a very slow process of gradual evolutionary growth
towards perfection. That is, the most primitive form of metal was considered to be
Lead (Saturn). If left in the earth on its own, it would eventually evolve its way
towards Tin (Jupiter). Centuries later it would grow to become Iron (Mars), followed
by Copper (Venus), Quicksilver (Mercury), Silver (the Moon), and finally, at the end
of a very long road, it would achieve the ultimate realisation of Perfection: Gold (the
Sun). This was already happening on its own; nothing at all needed to be done - if you
had sufficient patience. Now the Alchemist comes along and decides to speed up the
natural process: the Art of the Alchemist replaces the Time of Nature.
So Alchemy is not black magick. The Alchemist thought that, by diligent searching
into the ways of Nature, he might be able to imitate the natural process in his
laboratories in order to realise the perfection of gold in his own lifetime, instead of
waiting centuries for the same thing to happen more slowly.
The Four Elements of Fire, Water, Air, and Earth (established by Aristotle) illustrate
the four cardinal points of change, of which the four Seasons are the most common
analogy. Since the process is circular, we can not really speak of first, but, to start
with a new beginning, we start with Fire, corresponding to Spring. This is the stage of
“Active Concentration”. At a pivotal point, the energy suddenly changes to “Active
Expansion”, Air, Summer: COAGULA. The next change is very gradual, as both the
activity and the expansion peter out, being followed by “Passive Contraction” , Water,
Autumn. This accelerates until there is a sudden change at the point where the energy
turns to “Passive Expansion”, Earth, Winter: SOLVE. The next change is very
gradual, as the active yang energy re-asserts itself in a fresh “Active Concentration” .
The most famous theory of the composition of the metals held that all metals were
some sort of compound (“marriage”) of Sulphur and Mercury (the King and the
Queen, the Sun and the Moon, the Fixed and the Volatile, the Tiger and the Dragon,
etc) Then, along about the sixteenth century, Paracelsus, a famous Swiss Alchemist
and Physician (the real father of holistic medicine) introduced Salt as a third essential
ingredient in the work. His ideas must have been rubbed fresh from the “collective
unconscious” because they were immediately absorbed into the dogma of orthodox
Alchemy.
The esoteric significance of the number three has impressed occult philosophers since
time immemorial. There are many expressions for the most primary ideas of occult
philosophy, but the numbers of mathematics suggest the most logical catalogue of
primary mysteries. According to this idea (dating from Pythagoras), the number
“One” expresses the highest mystery, about which nothing more can be said. The
number “Two” represents a mystery that can be spoken of: it is the Distinction
between undifferentiated primal Unity expressed Expansion and Contraction, Solve et
Coagula, etc. But it is the number “Three” which suggests the point of perspective
which separates the two complimentary illusions that are the consequence of every
distinction.
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The Emerald Tablet (The text of the original, in Latin, is said to be: Tabula
Smaragdina)
Source:
http://www.mysteriesoftheunexplained.com/LB/categories/emeraldtablet.html
The most famous original source of Hermetic Alchemy is the Emerald Tablet of
Hermes Trismegistus. While there are lots of writings attributed to “Hermes,” there is
little agreement about the actual authorship of any of these writings. However, the
author of the Emerald Tablet, whoever he may have been, is the Hermes who has
given his name to “Hermetic Philosophy”.
The basic Hermetic axiom is expressed there: “As Above, so Below”. This line has
more than one meaning. In the first place, it suggests that the laws of the Cosmos may
be found mirrored in Man: as the Macrocosm, so the Microcosm. But many other
ideas are linked by the doctrine of correspondence. For example, there is a plane of
pure energy, magnetism, or electrical field “above” that corresponds to the physical
body of Man “below”. Even Plato voiced a similar idea: the Form of the Good (for
example) exists “above” in correspondence to some physical reality of some good
thing “below”. Astrology also posits the movements of the Heavenly bodies to exert
corresponding influences on earthly events. Likewise, sympathetic magick is the art
of establishing associative correspondence between objects not demonstrably
connected.
“Alchemy” is usually understood as the Western Alchemical tradition which may
have come from the Arabs of the Middle East and reached its highest development in
the famous European Alchemists, but it is very interesting to notice that a parallel
alchemical tradition has flourished in China with no perceivable connection to the
Western tradition, but which has symbols that are strikingly familiar. In The Secret of
the Golden Flower, for example, there is described a process of evolution towards
perfection featuring a “circulation of the light” that is practically a translation of the
69

Emerald Tablet (from the Emerald Tablet: “It rises from Earth to Heaven, and then it
descends again to the Earth, and receives Power from Above and from Below.”)
The Emerald Tablet is the most important original source of Hermetic Philosophy and
Alchemy. It was thought to conceal a recipe for the preparation of the Philosophers’
Stone, including the Transmutation of Base Metals into Gold. However, it has always
been clear to the Masters of the Alchemical Art that the process described was of far
more universal application; in fact, it is nothing less than the process of change itself
through which (in the words of Aristotle) “Nature strives towards Perfection.”
The Emerald Tablet, also known as Smaragdine Table, Tabula Smaragdina or The
Secret of Hermes, is a text purporting to reveal the secret of the primordial substance
and its transmutations. It claims to be the work of Hermes Trismegistus (Hermes the
Thrice-Greatest), a legendary Hellenistic combination of the Greek god Hermes and
the Egyptian god Thoth.
This short and cryptic text was highly regarded by European alchemists as the
foundation of their art, in particular of its Hermetic tradition.
The oldest documentable source for the text is the Kitab Sirr al-Asrar, a compendium
of advice for rulers in Arabic which purports to be a letter from Aristotle to Alexander
the Great. This work was translated into Latin as Secretum Secretorum (The Secret of
Secrets) by Johannes “Hispalensis” or Hispaniensis (John of Seville) 1140 CE and by
Philip of Tripoli 1243 CE.
In the 14th century, the alchemist Ortolanus wrote a substantial exegesis on “The
Secret of Hermes”, which was influential on the subsequent development of alchemy.
Many manuscripts of this copy of the Emerald Tablet and the commentary of
Ortolanus survive, dating at least as far back as the 15th century.
The Tablet has also been found appended to manuscripts of the Kitab Ustuqus al-Uss
al-Thani (Second Book of the Elements of Foundation) attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan,
and the Kitab Sirr al-Khaliqa wa San`at al-Tabi`a (Book of the Secret of Creation and
the Art of Nature), dated between 650-830 CE.
The text in English
“Truly, without Deceit, certainly and absolutely —
That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above
corresponds to that which is Below, in the accomplishment of the Miracle of One
Thing. And just as all things have come from One, through the Mediation of One, so
all things follow from this One Thing in the same way.
Its Father is the Sun. Its Mother is the Moon. The Wind has carried it in his Belly. Its
Nourishment is the Earth. It is the Father of every completed Thing in the whole
World. Its Strength is intact if it is turned towards the Earth. Separate the Earth by
Fire: the fine from the gross, gently, and with great skill.
70

It rises from Earth to Heaven, and then it descends again to the Earth, and receives
Power from Above and from Below. Thus you will have the Glory of the whole
World. All Obscurity will be clear to you. This is the strong Power of all Power
because it overcomes everything fine and penetrates everything solid.
In this way was the World created. From this there will be amazing Applications,
because this is the Pattern. Therefore am I called Thrice Greatest Hermes, having the
three parts of the Wisdom of the whole World.
Herein have I completely explained the Operation of the Sun.”
Influence
In its several Western recensions, the Tablet became a mainstay of medieval and
Renaissance alchemy. Commentaries and/or translations were published by, among
others, Trithemius, Roger Bacon, Michael Maier, Aleister Crowley, Albertus Magnus,
and Isaac Newton. CG Jung identified “The Emerald Tablet” with a table made of
green stone which he encountered in the first of a set of his dreams and visions
beginning at the end of 1912, and climaxing in his writing Seven Sermons to the Dead
in 1916.
Because of its longstanding popularity, the Emerald Tablet is the only piece of non-
Greek Hermetica to attract widespread attention in the West. The reason that the
Emerald Tablet was so valuable is because it contained the instructions for the goals
of alchemists. It hinted at the recipe for alchemical gold, as well as how to set one’s
level of consciousness to a new degree.
WITCH HUNTS
Source: http://merlinravensong2.tripod.com/The_Burning_Times.html
71

History
The classical period of witch hunts in Europe falls into the Early Modern period or
about 1480 to 1700, spanning the upheavals of the Reformation and the Thirty Years’
War, resulting in an estimated 40 000 to 100 000 executions of what the church
termed “heretics”.
Punishment for sorcery and witchcraft is addressed in the earliest law codes
preserved; both in ancient Egypt and in Babylonia it played a conspicuous part
(although in the example below it appears that only unjustified spells are to be
punished). The Code of Hammurabi (18th century BCE short chronology) prescribes
that: “If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom
the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the
holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall
take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains
unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the
river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him.”
The pre-Christian Twelve Tables of Pagan Roman law has provisions against evil
incantations and spells intended to damage cereal crops.
The 6th century CE Getica of Jordanes records a persecution and expulsion of
Witches among the Goths in a mythical account of the origin of the Huns. The ancient
fabled King Filimer is said to have: “found among his people certain Witches, whom
he called in his native tongue Haliurunnae. Suspecting these women, he expelled them
from the midst of his race and compelled them to wander in solitary exile afar from
his army. There the unclean spirits, who beheld them as they wandered through the
wilderness, bestowed their embraces upon them and begat this savage race, which
dwelt at first in the swamps, a stunted, foul and puny tribe, scarcely human, and
having no language save one which bore but slight resemblance to human speech.”
During the Early Middle Ages, “witch trials” were the direct result of Christian
Church doctrine, despite Canon law, which in Canon Episcopi, followed the views of
the church father Augustine of Hippo (400 CE) that belief in the existence of
witchcraft was heresy, since according to Augustine “a heretic is one who either
devises or follows false and new opinions, for the sake of some temporal profit”.
The Council of Paderborn in 785 explicitly outlawed the very belief in witches, and
Charlemagne later confirmed the law. The Council of Frankfurt in 794, called by
Charlemagne, was also very explicit in condemning “the persecution of alleged
witches and wizards”, calling the belief in witchcraft “superstitious”, and ordering the
death penalty for those who presume to burn witches.
Nonetheless, Pope John XXII formalised the persecution of witchcraft in 1320 when
he authorised the Inquisition to prosecute “sorcerors”. In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII
issued Summis desiderantes affectibus, a Papal bull authorising two inquisitors,
Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, to systemise the persecution of witches. There
were also secular laws against witchcraft.
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Although it has been proposed that the witch hunts developed in Europe after the
Cathars and the Templar Knights were exterminated, and the Inquisition had to turn to
persecution of witches to remain active, this hypothesis remains unproven. The
Inquisition hunts probably originated amongst common people who pressed the civil
courts to support them. Inquisitorial courts became systematically involved in the
witch hunts only in the 15th century: in the case of the Madonna Oriente, the
Inquisition of Milan was not sure what to do with two women who in 1384 and in
1390 confessed to have participated in a type of white magick.
The witch trials in Early Modern Europe came in waves and then subsided. There
were trials in the 15th and early 16th centuries, but then the witch scare went into
decline, before becoming a big issue again and peaking in the 17th century. Some
scholars argue that a fear of witchcraft started among intellectuals who believed in
“maleficium”: that is, harm committed by magick. What had previously been a belief
that some people possessed supernatural abilities (which were sometimes used to
protect the people) now became a sign of a pact between the people with supernatural
abilities.
Witch hunts were seen across early modern Europe, but the most significant area of
witch-hunting in modern Europe is often considered to be southwestern Germany.
Germany was a late starter in terms of the numbers of trials, compared to other
regions of Europe. Witch hunts first appeared in large numbers in southern France and
Switzerland during the 14th and 15th centuries. The peak years of witch hunts in
southwest Germany were from 1561 to 1670. The first major persecution in Europe,
when “witches” were caught, tried, convicted, and burned in the imperial lordship of
Wiesensteig in southwestern Germany, is recorded in 1563 in a pamphlet called “True
and Horrifying Deeds of 63 Witches”.
In Denmark, the burning of “witches” increased following the reformation of 1536.
Christian IV of Denmark, in particular, encouraged this practice, and hundreds of
people were convicted of witchcraft and burnt. In the North Berwick witch trials in
Scotland, over 70 people were accused of witchcraft on account of bad weather when
James VI of Scotland, who shared the Danish king's interest in witch trials, sailed to
Denmark in 1590 to meet his betrothed Anne of Denmark.
Current scholarly estimates of the number of people executed for “witchcraft” vary
between about 40 000 and 100 000. The total number of witch trials in Europe which
are known for certain to have ended in executions is about 12 000.
During early 18th century, the practice subsided. The last executions for witchcraft in
England had taken place in 1682, when Temperance Lloyd, Mary Trembles, and
Susanna Edwards were executed at Exeter. Jane Wenham was among the last subjects
of a typical witch trial in England in 1712, but was pardoned after her conviction and
set free. Janet Horne was executed for Witchcraft in Scotland in 1727. The Witchcraft
Act of 1735 saw the end of witchcraft itself as a legal offence in Britain: those
accused under the new Act were restricted to people who falsely pretended to be able
to procure spirits, generally being the most dubious professional fortune tellers and
mediums, and punishment was light. In Switzerland Anna Göldi was executed in
1782. Poland saw the burning of two women in 1793. Helena Curtens and Agnes
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Olmanns were the last women to be executed as Witches in Germany, in 1738 and
Barbara Zdunk in Rößel (West Prussia) in 1811..
The early Church had tried to eradicate the vestiges of an older non-hierarchical
tradition by denying the existence of witches or magick outside of the Church. The
Canon Episcopi, a Church law which first appeared in 906, decreed that belief in
witchcraft was heretical. After describing Pagan rituals which involved women
demonstrating extraordinary powers, it declared: “For an innumerable multitude,
deceived by this false opinion, believe this to be true and, so believing, wander from
the right faith and are involved in the error of the Pagans when they think that there is
anything of divinity or power except the one God.”
Nevertheless, the belief in magick was still so prevalent in the fourteenth century that
the Council of Chartres ordered anathema to be pronounced against sorcerers each
Sunday in every church.
It took the Church a long time to persuade society that women were inclined toward
evil Witchcraft and devil-worship. Reversing its policy of denying the existence of
Witches, in the thirteenth century the Church began depicting the witch as a slave of
the devil. No longer was she or he to be associated with an older Pagan tradition. No
longer was the witch to be thought of as benevolent healer, teacher, wise woman, or
one who accessed divine power. She was now to be an evil satanic agent. The Church
began authorising frightening portrayals of the devil in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Images of a witch riding a broom first appeared in 1280. Thirteenth century
art also depicted the devil’s pact in which demons would steal children and in which
parents themselves would deliver their children to the devil. The Church now
portrayed witches with the same images so frequently used to characterise heretics.
The Church developed the concept of devil-worship as an astoundingly simplistic
reversal of Christian rites and practices. Whereas God imposed divine law, the devil
demanded adherence to a pact. Where Christians showed reverence to God by
kneeling, witches paid homage to the devil by standing on their heads. The
sacraments in the Catholic Church became excrements in the devil’s church.
Communion was parodied by the Black Mass. Christian prayers could be used to
work evil by being recited backwards. The Eucharist bread or host was imitated in the
devil’s service by a turnip. The baptismal “character” or stigmata of the mysteries was
parodied by the devil’s mark impressed upon the Witch’s body by the claw of the
devil’s left hand. Whereas saints had the gift of tears, Witches were said to be
incapable of shedding tears. Devil worship was a simple parody of Christianity.
The Church also projected its own hierarchical framework onto this new evil
witchcraft. The devil’s church was to be organised such that its dignitaries could
climb the ranks to the position of bishop, just like in the Catholic Church. Julio Caro
Baroja explains: “...the Devil causes churches and altars to appear with music... and
devils decked out as saints. The dignitaries reach rank of bishop, and sub-deacons,
deacons and priests serve Mass. Candles and incense are used for the service and
water is sprinkled from a thurifer. There is an offertory, a sermon, a blessing over the
equivalents of bread and wine... So that nothing should be missing there are even false
martyrs in the organisation.”
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Pope John XXII formalised the persecution of Witchcraft in 1320 when he authorised
the Inquisition to prosecute sorcery. Thereafter papal bulls and declarations grew
increasingly vehement in their condemnation of Witchcraft and of all those who
“made a pact with hell”. In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII issued the bull Summis
desiderantes authorising two inquisitors, Kramer and Sprenger, to systematise the
persecution of witches. Two years later their manual, Malleus Maleficarum, was
published with 14 editions following between 1487-1520 and at least 16 editions
between 1574-1669. A papal bull in 1488 called upon the nations of Europe to rescue
the Church of Christ which was “imperilled by the arts of Satan”. The papacy and the
Inquisition had successfully transformed the Witch from a phenomenon whose
existence the Church had previously rigorously denied into a phenomenon that was
deemed very real, very frightening, the antithesis of Christianity, and absolutely
deserving of persecution.
It was now heresy not to believe in the existence of Witches.
As the authors of the Malleus Maleficarum noted: “A belief that there are such things
as witches is so essential a part of Catholic faith that obstinately to maintain the
opposite opinion savors of heresy.”
Passages in the Bible such as “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live” were cited to
justify the persecution of Witches. Both Calvin and Knox believed that to deny
Witchcraft was to deny the authority of the Bible. The eighteenth century founder of
Methodism, John Wesley, declared to those sceptical of Witchcraft: “The giving up of
witchcraft is in effect the giving up of the Bible.” And an eminent English lawyer
wrote: “To deny the possibility, nay, actual existence of Witchcraft and Sorcery, is at
once flatly to contradict the revealed Word of God in various passages both of the Old
and New Testament.”
The persecution of witchcraft enabled the Church to prolong the profitability of the
Inquisition. The Inquisition had left regions so economically destitute that the
inquisitor Eymeric complained: “In our days there are no more rich heretics... it is a
pity that so salutary an institution as ours should be so uncertain of its future." By
adding witchcraft to the crimes it persecuted, however, the Inquisition exposed a
whole new group of people from whom to collect money. It took every advantage of
this opportunity.
In many parts of Europe trials for Witchcraft began exactly as the trials for other types
of heresy stopped.
The process of formally persecuting witches followed the harshest inquisitional
procedure. Once accused of witchcraft, it was virtually impossible to escape
conviction. After cross- examination, the victim’s body was examined for the witch’s
mark.
Should a woman show no sign of a “witch’s mark”, guilt could still be established by
methods such as sticking needles in the accused's eyes. In such a case, guilt was
confirmed if the inquisitor could find an insensitive spot during the process.
Confession was then extracted by the hideous methods of torture already developed
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during earlier phases of the Inquisition. “Loathe they are to confess without torture,”
wrote King James I in his Daemonologie.
A physician serving in witch prisons spoke of women driven half mad: “...by frequent
torture... kept in prolonged squalor and darkness of their dungeons... and constantly
dragged out to undergo atrocious torment until they would gladly exchange at any
moment this most bitter existence for death, are willing to confess whatever crimes
are suggested to them rather than to be thrust back into their hideous dungeon amid
ever recurring torture.”
Unless the “witch” died during torture, she was taken to the stake. Since many of the
burnings took place in public squares, inquisitors prevented the victims from talking
to the crowds by using wooden gags or cutting their tongue out. Unlike a heretic or a
Jew who would usually be burnt alive only after they had relapsed into their heresy or
Judaism, a Witch would be burnt upon the first conviction.
Physicians often attributed their own incompetence to witchcraft. When an illness
could not be understood, even the highest body of England, the Royal College of
Physicians of London, was known to accept the explanation of witchcraft.
Elizabethan Witchcraft and Witches
The Elizabethan Period and the intellectual era of the Renaissance introduced English
persecution of Elizabethan Witches and Witchcraft. Ironically, this period of great
learning brought with it a renewed belief in the supernatural including a belief in the
powers of witchcraft, witches and witch hunts! Ironically the introduction of the
printing press, one of the greatest tools in increasing knowledge and learning was
responsible! Johannes Gutenberg introduced the printing press 1456. The first printed
books were bibles or contained religious themes. Unfortunately many of these books
promoted ideas about witches and witchcraft which in turn led to the intensified witch
hunts of the 15th and 16th centuries! Additional new renaissance thinking and books
about Astrology, Alchemy and Magick increased the interest in witchcraft, witches
and witch hunts even further. The 1562 Elizabethan Witchcraft Act was passed during
the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It was an act “agaynst Conjuracions Inchauntmentes
and Witchecraftes”.
During the Elizabethan era people blamed unexplainable events as the work of
witches. There were frequent outbreaks of the deadly Black Death (Bubonic Plague)
for which there was no cure. The fear and anger about this terrible disease had to be
directed at someone - witches were the obvious target. When people died from terrible
diseases, when animals died, when there was a bad harvest, when houses were burnt
down in fires even when foods curdled - witches were the obvious targets. During the
Elizabethan era there was limited medical knowledge or facilities and there was no
form of insurance. Such events as those described above were devastating and there
was no means of minimising their terrible effects on the lives of Elizabethans -
someone had to be blamed - witches were the obvious targets.
There were 270 Elizabethan witch trials of 247 were women.
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The hysteria and paranoia regarding witches which was experienced in Europe did not
fully extend to England during the Elizabethan era.
Queen Elizabeth I passed a new and harsher witchcraft Law in 1562 but it did not
define sorcery as heresy. Witches convicted of murder by witchcraft were to be
executed but the punishment for witches in England was hanging, not burning at the
stake which was the terrible death that was inflicted, for the most, on French and
Spanish witches. Lesser crimes relating to witchcraft resulted in the convicted witch
being pilloried.
In England, torture was not allowed as part of the investigatory or punishment
procedure for witches. As the Witchcraft Law did not define sorcery as heresy the
matter of religion was not involved in the prosecution of witches. The attitude of
Queen Elizabeth was certainly more lenient than those of her neighbours in France
and Spain. Her mother, Anne Boleyn had been accused of being a witch (Anne
Boleyn had a sixth finger growing from her fifth small finger. Anne also had a
prominent mole on her neck - these deformities were seen by her enemies as a sure
sign that Anne Boleyn was a witch). Queen Elizabeth was known to consult John Dee
and she also showed an interest in Astrology. Perhaps these explain her leniency
towards witches.
Up to the Renaissance period the wisdom of the “Wise women” or “Cunning Folk” -
the so-called White Witches - were seen as helpful, if not invaluable, members of the
community. Their knowledge of the healing properties of various plants and herbs
were often passed down through the generations. Their role was to provide help for
people in need. The “White” witches were clearly distinguished from the “Black”
witches. The “Black” witches were seen as those who practised the secret arts in
order to do physical or practical harm to others. This distinction between “White” and
“Black” witches was lost during the hysteria of the era of the Renaissance witch hunts
Feminism and witch hunts
Not surprisingly, churchmen portrayed the healing woman as the most evil of all
witches. William Perkins declared” :The most horrible and detestable monster... is the
good witch.”
The Church included in its definition of witchcraft anyone with knowledge of herbs
for “those who used herbs for cures did so only through a pact with the Devil, either
explicit or implicit.”
Medicine had long been associated with herbs and magick. The Greek and Latin
words for medicine, “pharmakeia” and “veneficium” (poison), meant both “magick”
and “drugs”. Mere possession of herbal oils or ointments became grounds for
accusation of witchcraft.
Witch-hunters also targeted midwives. Orthodox Christians believed the act of giving
birth defiled both mother and child. In order to be readmitted to the Church, the
mother should be purified through the custom of “churching”, which consisted of a
quarantine period of forty days if her baby was a boy and eighty days if her baby was
a girl, during which both she and her baby were considered heathen
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Some thought that a woman who died during this period should be refused a Christian
burial. Until the Reformation, midwives were deemed necessary to take care of what
was regarded as the nasty business of giving birth, a dishonourable profession best left
in the hands of women. But with the Reformation came an increased awareness of the
power of midwives. Midwives were now suspected of possessing the skill to abort a
foetus, to educate women about techniques of birth control, and to mitigate a woman's
labour pains.
A midwife’s likely knowledge of herbs to relieve labour pains was seen as a direct
affront to the divinely ordained pain of childbirth. In the eyes of churchmen, God's
sentence upon Eve should apply to all women. As stated in Genesis: “Unto the
woman (God) said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow
thou shalt bring forth children; and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall
rule over thee.”
A question that has debated often within Paganism, is whether the witch hunts and
trials specifically targeted women.
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (160-220 CE) “the
father of Latin Christianity”, wrote: “And do you not know that you are an Eve? The
sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live
too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that tree: you are the first
deserter of the divine law: you are she who persuaded him whom the devil was not
valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of
your desert that is, death even the Son of God had to die.”
Others expressed the view more bluntly. The sixth century Christian philosopher,
Boethius, wrote in The Consolation of Philosophy: “Woman is a temple built upon a
sewer.” Bishops at the sixth century Council of Macon voted as to whether or not
women had souls. In the tenth century Odo of Cluny declared: “To embrace a woman
is to embrace a sack of manure...”
The thirteenth century Thomas Aquinas suggested that God had made a mistake in
creating woman: “nothing (deficient) or defective should have been produced in the
first establishment of things; so woman ought not to have been produced then.” And
Lutherans at Wittenberg debated whether women were really human beings at all.
Orthodox Christians held women responsible for all sin. As the Bible’s Apocrypha
states, “Of woman came the beginning of sin/ And thanks to her, we all must die.”
It is obvious that early Christians found fault with women on all sorts of counts.
Sticking to facts
What many Pagans seem to ignore, however, is the fact that most of the deaths related
to “witch hunts- and trials’ took place in Western Europe in the times and areas where
Protestant-Roman Catholic conflict, and thus social turmoil was at its maximum. No
conclusive proof, for or against the actual guilt of the accused, remains, but it is likely
that the vast majority of the accused were completely innocent. Also, the majority
were probably not witches. And in some countries, especially in Scandinavia, the
majority of the people accused of witchcraft were male. In Finland some 70% and in
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Iceland almost 80% of the accused were men. Taking Europe as a whole between
1450 and 1700, males made up between 20%-25% of those accused.
In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, several British Witches and occultists started
talking about 9-million “witches” killed during what has become known as “The
Burning Times” in much of the Pagan community.
In order to support this contention, the definition of the Burning Times was changed.
First, the period of the major witch hunts was extended from its peak, 1550-1675,
backwards to the founding of the Inquisition (early 13th century). Second, the figures
for judicial executions of heretics, notably the Cathari and the Waldensians, were
included in the total. Finally, all judicial executions which took place during the
Catholic “civil war” (the Avignon Papacy) were included. In effect, the definition of
“witch” was changed to include “heretic”. This definition change is most interesting,
since it parallels the definition change that took place in the Catholic churches
construction of demonic magical workings.
There is also no evidence that the majority of those accused were healers and
midwives; in England and also some parts of the Continent, midwives were in fact
more than likely to be found helping witch-hunters. Also the fact remains that most
women used herbal medicines as part of their household skills, and a large part of
witches were accused by women.
The term “The Burning Times” was coined by Mary Daly and first used in her 1978
book, Gyn/Ecology: The Meta-Ethics of Radical Feminism. The term refers to the
persecution of women by patriarchy to include both the European Witchhunts as well
as the “entire patriarchal rule”. The use of the “Burning Times” to refer to the
Witchhunts by Pagans occurred when Starhawk subsequently introduced the term into
her book The Spiral Dance in 1979.
The term was adopted by various American feminist historians and popularised in the
1970s for all historical persecution of witches and Pagans. They also referred to it as
the Women’s Holocaust. However, the figure of nine million casualties is grossly
inflated; among other things, the entire adult female population in Europe at the time
was no more than 20-22 million.
Gerald Gardner is retroactively attributed to using the term. Gardner is claimed to
have used the phrase in reference to his claim that Wicca was an ancient persecuted
religion, relying in turn heavily on the work of Margaret Murray. Gardner believed
Wiccans should remember their forebears who were burned by the Church. In fact,
witches in England were never burnt, but were hanged; burning of witches was
practiced on the European continent (additionally, many aspects of Wicca are of
modern origin and were not part of the historical Pagan practices).
Modern witch hunts
In many African societies the fear of witches drives periodic witch-hunts during
which specialist witch-finders identify suspects, even today, with death by mob often
the result. Amongst the Bantu tribes of Southern Africa, the witch smellers were
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esponsible for detecting witches. In parts of southern Africa several hundred people
have been killed in witch hunts since 1990.
Several African states, Cameroon, Togo for example, have reestablished witchcraftaccusations
in courts. A person can be imprisoned or fined for the account of a witchdoctor.
In March 2009 Amnesty International reported that up to 1 000 people in the Gambia
had been abducted by government-sponsored “witch doctors” on charges of
witchcraft, and taken to detention centers where they were forced to drink poisonous
concoctions. On May 21 2009, The New York Times reported that the alleged witchhunting
campaign had been sparked by the Gambia’s President Yahya Jammeh.
In Sierra Leone, the witch hunt is an occasion for a sermon by the kɛmamɛi (native
Mende witch-finder) on social ethics: “Witchcraft … takes hold in people’s lives
when people are less than fully open-hearted. All wickedness is ultimately because
people hate each other or are jealous or suspicious or afraid. These emotions and
motivations cause people to act antisocially”. The response by the populace to the
kɛmamɛi is that “they valued his work and would learn the lessons he came to teach
them, about social responsibility and cooperation.”
In India, labeling a woman as a witch is a common ploy to grab land, settle scores or
even to punish her for turning down sexual advances. Cases have also come up where
a strong-willed woman is targeted because she is assertive and is seen as a threat. In a
majority of the cases, it is difficult for the accused woman to reach out for help and
she is forced to either abandon her home and family, commit suicide or is brutally
murdered. Most cases are not documented because it is difficult for women to travel
from isolated regions to file reports, and because the violence is largely directed
toward women, the police often fail to take it seriously when they do. Less than 2
percent of those accused of witch-hunting are actually convicted, according to a study
by the Free Legal Aid Committee, a group that works with victims in the state of
Jharkhand.
The most recent publicised case in India spread international uproar was in October
2009 when five Muslim women were paraded naked, beaten and forced to eat human
excrement by villagers after being branded as witches in India’s Jharkhand state. The
incident was only made public after a cellphone video surfaced of the event. Many
national research agencies contend events such as these happen daily around the
world, without any reports to the police out of fear of retribution.
Though the practice of “white” magick (such as faith healing) is legal in Papua, the
1976 Sorcery Act imposes a penalty of up to 2 years in prison for the practise of
“black” magick. In 2009, the government reports that extrajudicial torture and murder
of alleged witches - usually lone women - is spreading from the Highland areas to
cities as villagers migrate to urban areas.
On February 16 2008 a Saudi woman, Fawza Falih, was arrested and convicted of
witchcraft and now faces imminent beheading for sorcery unless the King issues a
rare pardon. And on November 9 2009, Lebanese TV presenter Ali Sibat (who was
arrested in Medina in 2008) was sentenced to death on charges of witchcraft.
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According to Sarah Leah Whitson, the Middle East director at Human Rights Watch,
“Saudi courts are sanctioning a literal witch hunt by the religious police.” Also
according to Human Rights Watch, two other people have been arrested on similar
charges in November 2009 alone.
Occasional prosecutions under the Witchcraft Act continued in 19th and 20th century
Britain. A well-publicised recent case was that of the medium Helen Duncan in 1944.
Supposedly the authorities feared that by her alleged clairvoyant powers she could
betray details of the D-Day preparations, but the accusations in court centered round
defrauding the public. She spent nine months in prison. The last conviction under the
Act was that of Jane Rebecca Yorke. The Act was repealed in 1951 and replaced with
the Fraudulent Mediums Act 1951. This act prohibited a person from claiming to be a
psychic, medium, or other spiritualist while attempting to deceive and to make money
from the deception (other than solely for the purpose of entertainment).
The McMartin preschool trial of 1984 to 1990 is the longest trial currently recognised
in American history. The victims were accused of satanic ritual abuse in underground
tunnels, involving flying witches, blood drinking, mutilated corpses, and human
sacrifice. More than 350 people were involved in the fabrication of the allegations,
which were taken seriously by the media, the public, the courts, and the prosecution.
The jury did not believe the allegations, and the victims were freed.
FEMINISM WITHIN PAGANISM
Pagan myths and legends gave dignity to the female principal of Divinity in the form
of a plethora of multi-functional Goddesses. The sexes are equal yes, yet different in
many natural ways and every balanced Pagan knows this truth.
Women’s rights suffered a crushing blow with the onset of most monotheistic
religions. Ancient myths originating around the Goddess were usurped, subverted
then drastically altered by the patriarchal authors in order to force out any mention of
feminine divinity (the Goddess) from native traditions, customs and mind-set of the
masses.
Contemporary Goddess spirituality draws inspiration from all the variations of earthbased
religions, including Native American Spiritism, which isn't matriarchal at all. It
also embraces European nature religions (especially Witchcraft), Westernized
Hinduism, Chinese Taoism, Japanese Shintoism and Buddhism.
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The Goddess Movement
Source: Spiral_Goddess_symbol_neo-Pagan.svg
The Goddess movement is a loose grouping of social and religious phenomena
predominantly seen in North America, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand
in the 1970s, and the metaphysical community as well. Spurred by the perception that
women were not treated equitably in many mainstream religions, many women turned
to a female deity, as more in tune with their beliefs and spiritual needs. A unifying
theme of this diverse movement is the female-ness of Deity (as opposed and
contrasted to a patriarchal, male god).
Goddess beliefs take many forms, some people in the Goddess movement recognise
multiple goddesses; some also include gods; others honour what they refer to as “the
Goddess”, which is not necessarily seen as monotheistic, but is often understood to be
an inclusive, encompassing term incorporating many goddesses in many different
cultures. The term “the Goddess” may also be understood to include a multiplicity of
ways to view deity personified as female, or as a metaphor, or as a process. The term
“The Goddess” may also refer to the concept of The One Divine Power, or the
traditionally worshipped “Great Goddess” of ancient times.
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• The Goddess or the Great Goddess is a type of female deity who is primary.
She historically existed in many cultures, though not under the same names
and not necessarily with the same traits. These terms are not usually
understood to refer a single deity that is identical across cultures but rather a
concept common in many ancient cultures, which those in the Goddess
movement want to restore.When Goddess is spoken of as a personal guardian,
as in “my Goddess” it means “my worldview in Goddess spirituality”.

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• Goddess Spirituality is sometimes used as a synonym for Goddess Movement
and sometimes as the spiritual practice that is part of the Goddess movement.
• Goddessing is a recent contribution to Goddess vocabulary, possibly derived
from the British journal of the same name, following from Mary Daly’s
linguistically suspect suggestion that deity is too dynamic, too much in process
and changing continually, to be a noun, and should better be spoken as a verb.
Goddessing may also mean Goddess culture, Goddess way of life, Goddess
practice, or “my goddessing” as in my individual interpretation and experience
of Goddess.
• Priestess refers to women who dedicate themselves to one or more goddesses.
It may or may not include leadership of a group, and it may or may not include
legal ordination. The analogous term for men is priest. However, not everyone
who dedicates themselves to the Goddess or goddesses calls themselves a
priestess (or priest).
• Thealogy is a term whose first use in the context of feminist analysis of
religion and discussion of Goddess is usually credited to Naomi Goldenberg
(1979). It substitutes the Greek feminine prefix “thea” for the supposedly
generic use of the Greek masculine prefix “theo”. Frequently used to mean
analysis of Goddess thought and mysticism, it can also be used more liberally
to mean any kind of divine, not just deity divine, as in meditation, ethics, ritual
pragmatics, etc
History
The Goddess movement draws some inspiration from ideas of feminist archaeology,
in particular by Marija Gimbutas claiming that the societies of Neolithic Europe were
“matristic” or “goddess-centered”.
Heide Göttner-Abendroth, working in the 1970s to mid 1980s and writing originally
in German, called these cultures “matriarchies”, introducing a feminist field of
Modern Matriarchal Studies She presented an analysis of the supposed transformation
of prehistoric cultures in which the local goddess was primary and the male god, if
there was any, derived his power from the goddess. In what she terms the “Downfall”,
which occurred at varying times in various cultures, the gods overcame the goddesses
and made them subservient.
Göttner-Abendroth’s terminology is idiosyncratic. The term “matriarchy’ to describe
these cultures has been rejected by many Goddess movement authors, especially those
in North America, because it implies female domination as the reverse of the male
domination present in patriarchy. These authors claim that such a reversal was not the
case, but rather these prehistoric cultures had a social structure that included
matrilineality, that is, parentage traced through the maternal line. Others use the terms
matrifocal (Starhawk 1979).
Many archaeologists and historians, however, dispute the existence of matriarchal or
matrifocal cultures and Gimbutas - “the Grandmother of the Goddess Movement” in
the 1990s - and her theories have been widely criticised as mistaken on the grounds
of dating, archeological context and typologies with most archeologists considering
her goddess hypothesis implausible and her work has been called pseudo-scholarship.
This has been echoed by feminist authors such as Cynthia Eller and religion writers

such as Philip G Davis. Her histories have been seen as a poetic projection of her
personal life onto history hidden behind a facade of positivistic explanation, with her
goddess-orientated society being based on her childhood and adolescence.
Female deity
Inclusive spirituality in the West initially gained ground in 19th century, when North
American first-wave feminists such as Matilda Joslyn Gage introduced the idea of
female Deity, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton published The Woman’s Bible. Their
contemporary, the Swiss Johann Jakob Bachofen, increased the attention given in
Europe to the idea of prehistoric matriarchal Goddess cultures. However these ideas
were largely ignored in the North America and much of Europe until second-wave
feminism. In addition to Bachofen, second-wave feminists who became interested in
the history of religion also referred to the work of Helen Diner (1965) and M Esther
Harding (1935) Elizabeth Gould Davis and Merlin Stone.
Since 1970 a growing Western movement of Goddess Spirituality has emerged as an
international, well networked and richly documented culture. From 1974 to 1984,
WomanSpirit, a journal edited in Oregon by Jean and Ruth Mountaingrove, published
articles, poetry, and rituals by hundreds of women, exploring ideas and feelings about
female deity. The journal The Beltane Papers, which started publication at about the
same time, has been publishing continuously for more than 30 years, making it the
longest still-published Goddess publication in the US. In 1983, Jade River and Lynnie
Levy founded the Re-formed Congregation of the Goddess, International(RCG-I).
Motherhoused in Madison, Wisconsin, RCG-I continues today with groups called
“Circles” in many US localities, as well as an educational programme, priestess
training, and ordination.
Participants in the Goddess movement sometimes use myths either from reconstructed
ancient or classical mythologies or received in oral tradition or even invented. These
myths are not understood literally, but rather figuratively or metaphorically. For
instance, creation myths are not seen as conflicting with scientific understanding but
rather as being poetic, metaphoric statements that are compatible with, for example,
the theory of evolution, modern cosmology and physics.
Myths from ancient or classical cultures are often rewritten or reinterpreted because
there is little evidence from what is considered pre-patriarchal times, beginning 3500-
3000 BCE in the ancient near east and Europe. Because myths from religions that
included goddesses after this time, including Greek and Roman mythology, are
believed to have patriarchal bias, such myths are often rewritten or reinterpreted by
Goddess movement writers to eliminate or minimise what they feel to be misogynist
bias. One commonly reworked myth is that of Demeter and Persephone.
Goddess Spirituality characteristically shows diversity: no central body defines its
dogma. Yet there is evolving consensus on some issues including: the Goddess in
relation to polytheism and monotheism; immanence, transcendence and other ways to
understand the nature of the Goddess.
One question often asked is whether Goddess adherents believe in one Goddess or
many goddesses: Is Goddess spirituality monotheistic or polytheistic? This is not an
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issue for many of those in the Goddess movement, whose conceptualisation of
divinity is more all-encompassing. The terms “the Goddess” or ‘Great Goddess” may
appear monotheistic because the singular noun is used. However, these terms are most
commonly used as code or shorthand for one or all of the following: to refer to certain
types of prehistoric goddesses; to encompass all goddesses (a form of henotheism ); to
refer to a modern metaphoric concept of female deity; to describe a form of energy, or
a process.
The concept of a singular divine being with many expressions is not a new
development in thought: it has been a major theme in India for many centuries, at the
very least as far back as the 5th century, though hymns in the early Vedas too speak of
a one-Goddess-many-goddesses concept.
One of the underlying themes of the earlier forms of Goddess religion is the concept
of the aspects of deity. This is neither syncretism nor henotheism but a realisation of
the unity behind a multiplicity of manifestations. It is apparent from the earliest
written records that we have from Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Mediterranean. The
Goddess speaks of herself as being known by many names and in many forms, and
then recounts the individual names, attributes and placenames. This is as true of
Inanna from Sumer as it is of the Isis in Rome and Egypt.
Another point of discussion is whether the Goddess is immanent, or transcendent, or
both, or something else. Starhawk (1988) speaks of the Goddess as immanent
(infusing all of nature) but sometimes also simultaneously transcendent (existing
independently of the material world). Many Goddess authors agree and also describe
Goddess as, at one and the same time, immanently pantheistic and panentheistic. The
former means that Goddess flows into and through each individual aspect of nature -
each tree, blade of grass, human, animal, planet; the latter means that all exist within
the Goddess. Starhawk also speaks of the Goddess as both a psychological symbol
and “manifest reality.
Perhaps, we should be building on Mary Daly’s (1973 and 1978) suggestion that the
Divine be understood not as a Being (noun), but as Be-ing (verb).
The Aristasian religion, Deanism, on the other hand, states strongly that the Mother
created us, that She exists independently of human beings and is the First Cause of all
things.
Ethics
Although the Goddess movement has no commandments dictating a specific code of
behaviour, there are commonly held tenets and concepts within the movement that
form a basis for ethical behavior. Those participants in Goddess spirituality who
define themselves as Wiccan, usually follow what is known as the Wiccan Rede.
Many also believe in the Threefold Law.
Some people in the Goddess movement honour the Triple Goddess of Maiden,
Mother, and Crone. The Maiden aspect of the Goddess shows women how to be
independent and strong; the Mother aspect shows women how to be nurturing; and the
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Crone aspect shows that respecting elders is important and focuses on wisdom,
change, and transformation.
Other Goddess ethical beliefs are that one should not harm the interconnected web of
life, and that peace and partnership should be the goals, rather than war and
domination. According to Goddess theologian Carol P Christ the following are ethical
touchstones:
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• Nurture life;
• Walk in love and beauty;
• Trust the knowledge that comes through the body;
• Speak the truth about conflict, pain, and suffering;
• Take only what you need;
• Think about the consequences of your actions for seven generations;
• Approach the taking of life with great restraint;
• Practice great generosity;
• Repair the web
The Goddess in Wicca
In Wicca the Goddess is a deity of prime importance, along with her consort the
Horned God. In the earliest Wiccan publications she is described as a tribal goddess
of the Witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal, and it was recognised that
there was a greater “Prime Mover”, although the Witches did not concern themselves
much with this being.
Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal
deity, more in line with her description in the Charge of the Goddess, a key Wiccan
text. In this guise she is the “Queen of Heaven”, similar to Isis; she also encompasses
and conceives all life, much like Gaia. Much like Isis and certain late Classical
conceptions of Selene, she is held to be the summation of all other goddesses, who
represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is
often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities
such as Diana, Hecate and Isis, and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother and
Crone triad popularised by Robert Graves. Many depictions of her also draw strongly
on Celtic goddesses. Some Wiccans believe there are many goddesses, and in some
forms of Wicca, notably Dianic Wicca, the Goddess alone is worshipped, and the God
plays very little part in their worship and ritual.
Robert Graves popularised the triad of Maiden (or Virgin), Mother and Crone, and
while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a
tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures
exists, as typically occurs in Paganism and indeed in )Pagan religions in general.
Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman’s life. Others find this too
biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth
(independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated,
compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic,
remote, unknowable) - and all three erotic and wise.

Some, but not all, participants in the Goddess movement self-identify as Witches
and/or Wiccans. Likewise, some, but not all, Wiccans and Witches consider
themselves to be part of "he Goddess movement. Other participants in the Goddess
movement call themselves Goddessians, and others use Paga as a generic label for
their spiritual worldview.
Some Witches, especially Dianics, believe in a witch-cult hypothesis. This theory
attempts to trace the historical origins of their beliefs to Neolithic pre-Christian
cultures. Believing that Wicce (a spelling matching the Old English feminine word for
a witch, and therefore preferred by Dianic Wiccans) is a distillation of a religion
found at the beginning of most, if not all, cultures. They consider wise women and
midwives to be the first witches. Dianic Witchcraft first became visible in the 1970s,
with Z Budapest’s writings.
For their time, Gardner and Valiente advocated a fairly feminist ideal of priestess
authority in service to the Wiccan God and Goddess. Covens in traditional Wicca
(i.e., those run along the lines described by Gardner and Valiente) were and still are
led pretty much equally by both a priest and a priestess; but the priestess is often
considered first among equals. Other early authors on Wicca and Witchcraft, such as
Paul Huson in his book Mastering Witchcraft, and Charles Cardell of the Coven of
Atho, and Robert Cochrane of the Clan of Tubal Cain, generally saw the male priest
or magister as being of more importance.
While virtually all Wiccans honour the Goddess as one of their two main deities, they
may or may not consider themselves to be feminists. For this reason, they may or may
not identify with the label Goddess worshipper when it is construed as connoting a
feminist ideological position, or when it is regarded as an ideology that aims at
elevating the Goddess to a position of more importance than the God. Thus, the
worship of a goddess or even a Great Goddess should not necessarily be construed as
a feminist position per se.(For example, the worship of feminine deities by both men
and women in India was historically very widespread, as it was in ancient Greece;
even though both of those cultures can be considered more patriarchal than most.
In formulating an outline of Wiccan theology and liturgy, Gardner drew not only upon
the writings of Margaret Murray and her ideas about the worship of an ancient Horned
God, but also upon the writings of Charles Godfrey Leland, author of Aradia, the
Gospel of the Witches - who speculated that witchcraft involved the worship of a
moon goddess. In combining ideas from these two authors, Gardner arrived at Wicca
as a duotheistic religion that honoured both the male and female deities, and that saw
them as divine lovers, in a polar male-female dyad.
Wicca and contemporary Paganism, and to some extent the Goddess movement, were
influenced by 19th-century occultism, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden
Dawn, and romantic nature movements in which both male and female were valued
and honored as sacred, in contrast to and perhaps in reaction to mainstream Christian
spirituality. Such views are described, for example, in the work of Robert Graves,
especially The White Goddess (the origin of the Pagan “Triple Goddess” concept) and
Mammon and the Black Goddess.
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Wicca was also heavily influenced by the ideas of alchemic symoblism, which
emphasised the essential complementary polarity of male and female, and that
characterised that basic duality or gender polarity as a partnership of the solar (male)
and the lunar (female). In Wicca the moon is the symbol of the Goddess and the sun is
the symbol of the God; and the central liturgical mystery and ritual act is “The Great
Rite” or Hieros Gamos, which is a symbolic union of the God and the Goddess, as the
primal male and female powers of the cosmos. In alchemy this was known as the
alchemical wedding of the sun and the moon. In a parallel vein, traditional Wicca also
draws heavily upon the Western Hermetic Tradition and its roots in the kabbalistic
Tree of Life; where the twin pillars of masculine and feminine divine forces are joined
by a Middle Pillar that encompasses and transcends both male and female. These twin
pillars as they are shown in tarot decks are analogous to Valiente’s depiction of the
God and the Goddess as the two mystical pillars. In this emphasis on the feminine as
the equal and complementary polar opposite of the masculine, Wicca echoes not only
kabalistic sources but also the polarity of yin and yang - feminine and masculine - in
Taoism.
The main forums for the movement during the 70s and 80s were independently
produced magazines and journals such as Green Egg in America and Wood and Water
in the UK, among many others. These periodicals attempted to represent the diversity
of thought and belief. Mention should also be made of the work of UK feminist
groups such as the London-based Matriarchy Study Group which produced the
Goddess issue of the feminist periodical Shrew (this was an occasional publication,
produced by a different collective each issue) as well as the pamphlets Menstrual
Taboos and The Politics of Matriarchy; these featured the early writings of Asphodel
(Pauline) Long and the artist Monica Sjoo among others. Internal newsletters of the
Matriarchy Study Group and the later Matriarchy Research and Reclaim Network
contained much discussion of goddesses and their significance to modern and ancient
women, and some of their members produced the periodical Arachne, which brought
similar material to the public.
One of the founders of modern American Goddess religions is Zsuzsanna Budapest,
(Zee or Z), who started a women-only Dianic Craft or Dianic Tradition version of
Witchcraft; this was in the mid-1970s, a few decades after Gerald Gardner. She was a
prolific author, and who twinned Tarot and witchcraft from her Hungarian
background, with feminism. Z challenged laws in California against Tarot reading and
won.
The Dianic view is that separatism, in a world where gender roles were once strictly
defined, is sometimes considered dangerous because it challenges what they see as
patriarchal assumptions of Western culture (Budapest 1980). Zee is considered by her
sect to be the honoured Mother of the American Dianic Craft and a primary proponent
of modern separtist Goddess thealogy.
Later, in America came Starhawk, activist and author of numerous books, is an
influential author/priestesses in the American Goddess movement. Her 1979 book,
The Spiral Dance, played a large role in popularising the Goddess movement as well
as modern Witchcraft among committed feminists, and is considered a classic of
modern Paganism.
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Many non-Dianics, as well as Starhawk (herself considered to be one of Zee
Budapest’s students), who also reject monotheistic patriarchal culture, do not agree
with Zee’s justification for separatism. Starhawk’s Paganism was more broadly based
and also drew on the Feri tradition of Witchcraft which, itself, incorporated Hawaiian,
European, and Middle Eastern elements. She was initiated into the Feri tradition in
California by Victor and Cora Anderson. Starhawk is one of the founders of the
Reclaiming Tradition of Witchcraft, which includes both women and men, and which
honors both the God and the Goddess.
Many people involved in the Goddess movement consider the Earth to be a living
Goddess. For some this may be figurative, for others literal. This literal belief is
similar to that proposed by Gaia theory, and the Goddess-name Gaia is sometimes
used as a synonym for the Earth. Many of those in the Goddess movement become
involved in ecofeminism, and are concerned with environmental and ecological issues
(Starhawk 1988). Goddess movement adherents claim the hierarchical scheme giving
humans dominion over the Earth (and nature) has led to the lack of respect and
concern for the Earth, and thus to what environmentalists feel are current
environmental crises, such as global warming. Rather than having dominion over the
Earth, Goddess movement theorists see humans living as part of the Earth
environment, and also refer to Earth as “Mother”. (Budapest 1980, Starhawk 1979)
Dianic Wicca
Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft and Dianic Feminist Witchcraft, is a
tradition, or denomination of neo-Wicca. It was founded by Zsuzsanna Budapest in
the United States in the 1970s, and is notable for its focus on the worship of the
Goddess, and on feminism. It combines elements of British Traditional Wicca, Italian
folk-magic recorded in Charles Leland's Aradia, feminist values, and ritual, folk
magic, and healing practices learned from her mother.
It is most often practiced in female-only covens.
Most Dianic Wiccans worship the Goddess only, acknowledging that She is the
source of all living and contains all within Her. There are Dianic witches who practice
other forms of Paganism (possibly including honoring a male deity or deities) outside
of their Dianic practice. Some Dianics are monotheistic, some are polytheistic, some
are non-theistic.
Most Dianics worship in female-only circles and covens, but there are mixed-gender
Dianic traditions. Eclecticism, appreciation of cultural diversity, ecological concern,
and familiarity with sophisticated concepts of psyche and transformation are
characteristic. Originally lesbians formed the majority of the movement, however
modern Dianic groups may be all-lesbian, all-heterosexual or mixed.
Most Dianic Wiccans as “positive path” practitioners do neither manipulative
spellwork nor hexing because it goes against the Wiccan Rede; other Dianic witches
(notably Zsuzsanna Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack
women to be wrong.
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Like other Wiccans, Dianics may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight
major Wiccan holidays, Samhain, Beltane, Imbolc, Lammas, the solstices and
equinoxes (see Wheel of the Year) and the Esbats, which are rituals usually held at the
full moon or dark moon. They use many of the same altar tools, rituals and
vocabulary as other Wiccans. Dianics may also gather in more informal Circles.
The most noticeable differences between the two are that Dianic covens are usually
female-only while other Wiccan covens are usually mixed, some aiming for equal
numbers of men and women, and that most Wiccans worship the God and Goddess,
while Dianics generally worship the Goddess as Whole Unto Herself; or if they
worship the God, it is as a consort of the Goddess, rather than an equal.
It should be noted many Wiccans do not consider the Dianic path to be Wiccan at all
as they only venerate, and sometimes espouse only the existence of, the Goddess.
Broadly speaking, Dianic tradition refers to the beliefs, practices, practitioners and
history of woman's mysteries, earth-religion, neo-Pagan Goddess worshippers. It is
synonymous with the NeoPagan religious traditions that place emphasis on the
feminine divine. The term Dianic is derived from the Roman goddess of the moon,
hunting and childbirth, Diana whose companion Nymphs were female.
The three main branches of Dianic Paganism are known as:
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• Dianic Wicca, a feminine tradition of Wicca started by Zsuzsanna Budapest
and her 1980s book, The Holy Book of Women’s Mysteries.
• McFarland Dianic, a Pagan Fairy lineage tradition started by Mark Roberts
and Morgan McFarland. One of relatively few Dianic traditions which accepts
male members.
• (Non-Wiccan) Dianic Witches, who may have been inspired by Z Budapest,
the New York Redstocking’s W.I.T.C.H. manifesto, or woman’s spirituality
movements, who emphasise self-initiation, womanism and non-hierarchical
organisation. Most Dianic’s fall into this category, even if some acknowledge
Z Budapest as a foremother, because they do not participate in the
initiation/ordination lineage of Dianic Wicca.
Dianic tradition is difficult to define, because it is a spiritual tradition that encourages
creativity, celebrates diversity, and demands personal empowerment and
responsibility. For some, Dianic tradition is every day folk religion, hedge-witchery or
kitchen-witchery. For others, Dianic tradition is more formal, with highly developed
liturgy and cosmology. For most, in its essence Dianic tradition is a Woman’s
Mysteries tradition, linked to such traditions across time and across cultures. They are
a celebration of woman’s bodies, woman’s experiences, the Divine Feminine, and the
biology and culture of womanhood, rather than rejection or dismissal of men and
masculinity.
Most Dianic’s conceive of and experience the Wheel of the Year in terms of both
seasonal reality and also the life stages of women and of the Great Goddess: maiden,
mother, queen, crone and hag.

Some Dianics, like other Wiccans, celebrate together in large-group rituals and spellcrafting
on the sabbats (seasonal holy days) or the esbats (full-moon days). There are
Dianic covens and circles, however many Dianics are solitary practitioners by
preference or circumstance.
Thealogy
Thealogy is a neologism coined by Isaac Bonewits in 1974. The term echoes theology
“discourse on the gods” and Greek θεά thea “goddess” and is intended to suggest a
feminist approach to theism and the context of God and gender within the context of
Paganism.
Thealogy also came to be used in the feminist literature associated with the Goddess
movement during the 1980s to 1990s, perhaps coined independently of Bonewits. In
1993, Charlotte Caron defined thealogy as “reflection on the divine in feminine and
feminist terms”. However, more recently the term thealogy has also been used by
feminists within mainstream monotheistic religions to describe their efforts to
describe in more detail the feminine aspect of a monotheistic deity or trinity, such as
Sophia.
In The Druid Chronicles (Evolved), privately published in 1976, Isaac Bonewits used
thealogian to refer to a Wiccan author (Aidan Kelly, aka “C Taliesin Edwards”, who
may have given him the term or vice versa) and “theoilogy” (defined as “the study of
more than one God”). Bonewits also used theilogy (and possibly “thealogy”, since he
thinks he coined them at the same time) in the pages of the widely-distributed
Gnostica magazine he edited in 1974 and 1975.
The Druid Chronicles (Evolved) were a three-year project starting in 1974 and
finished (published) in 1976. The article referred to within The Druid Chronicles
(Evolved) is dated to the summer of 1976. Moreover, this is almost certainly not the
first usage; the context of thealogian is in citing a work by C Taliesin Edwards,
Essays towards a Metathealogy of the Goddess. There is, however, a possibility that
Bonewits altered the name of the work to fit with his terminology.
Also in 1979, in the first revised edition of Real Magic, Bonewits defined thealogy in
his Glossary this way: “Intellectual speculations concerning the nature of the Goddess
and Her relations to the world in general and humans in particular; rational
explanations of religious doctrines, practices and beliefs, which may or may not bear
any connection to any religion as actually conceived and practiced by the majority of
its members.” While the last clause was his editorialising, the majority of the
definition was adapted by removing sexist assumptions from a dictionary then in his
library. Also in the same glossary, he defined theology and theoilogy with nearly
identical words, changing the pronouns appropriately. He has since dropped the use of
theoilogy in favour of polytheology, also first published by him in the 1976 Druid
Chronicles.
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THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES
Two days before the Mysteries began the holy things were brought in baskets to
Athens by the ephebes, young Athenians in military training (red dots). On the
15th, the initiates gathered in Athens and met their mystagogus (a person already
initiated who helped them through the process). On the 16th, the initiates took little
piglets down to the sea, bathed with them, and purified themselves with blood of the
sacrificed piglet (Seaward Initiates; blue dots). The initiates spent the next two days
indoors at Athens - doing what, we are not too sure, but perhaps sacrificing
privately to Demeter and Persephone, and performing what we might now call
meditation. Then on the fifth day (the 19th), they made the long march with the
sacred things back to Eleusis (purple dots), where the sacred things were revealed
in the Telesterion on the 20th. This was followed by plemochoai on the 21st, the last
day, on which two odd-shaped vessels filled with water were tipped out to the east
and west by each initiate, who uttered a mystical phrase...which has not been
recorded.
(Source: http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/achilles/festivals/festivals.html)
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The Eleusinian Mysteries, held annually for a period of seven days in honour of
Demeter and Persephone, were the most sacred and revered of all the ritual
celebrations of ancient Greece. They were instituted in the city of Eleusis, some
twenty-two kilometres west of Athens, possibly as far back as the early Mycenaean
period (1600-1100 BCE), and continued for almost two thousand years. Large crowds
of worshippers from all over Greece (and later, from throughout the Roman Empire)
would gather to make the holy pilgrimage between the two cities and participate in the
secret ceremonies, generally regarded as the high point of Greek religion. As
Christianity began to spread, the Mysteries were condemned by the early Church
fathers; yet the rites continued for hundreds of years more and exercised considerable
influence on the formation of early Christian teachings and practices.
Our sources of information regarding the Eleusinian Mysteries include the ruins of the
sanctuary there; numerous statues, bas reliefs, and pottery; reports from ancient
writers such as Aeschylos, Sophokles, Herodotus, Aristophanes, Plutarch, and
Pausanias - all of whom were initiates - as well as the accounts of Christian
commentators like Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus, Tertullian, and Astorias. Yet
for all this evidence, the true nature of the Mysteries remains shrouded in uncertainty
because the participants did, with remarkable consistency, honour their pledge not to
reveal what took place in the Telesterion, or inner sanctum of the Temple of Demeter.
To violate that oath of secrecy was a capital offense - Aeschylus, for example, once
had to fear for his life on account of coming too close to revealing forbidden truths.
Aeschylus (525/524-456/455 BCE)
Greek Playwright Aeschylus. Source: Clipart.com
The “Father of Tragedy”, Aeschylus was born in the city of Eleusis. Immersed early in the mystic rites
of the city and in the worship of the Mother and Earth goddess Demeter, he was once sent as a child to
watch grapes ripening in the countryside. According to Aeschylus, when he dozed off, Dionysus
appeared to him in a dream and ordered him to write tragedies. The obedient young Aeschylus began a
tragedy the next morning and “succeeded very easily”. Before Aeschylus, there was only one actor in
tragedy, and he was limited to conversing with the chorus. Aeschylus is credited with having added a
second actor. Now two actors could converse or have dialogue with the chorus, or change their masks
to become entirely different characters. The increase in cast size permitted substantial plot variation.
According to Aristotle's Poetics, Aeschylus “reduced the chorus' role and made the plot the leading
actor”. He was reportedly charged with “impiety” for revealing the Eleusinian mysteries - the secret
rites of the city of his birth - to outsiders. It is likely, however, that these charges were politically
motivated, and he was not convicted.
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For these reasons, scholars today must make use of circumstantial evidence and
inferences, with the result that there is still no consensus as to what did or did not take
place.
Eleusis was by no means the only place in Greece that featured yearly festivals in
honour of a goddess of grain and the annual renewal of life. Similar rituals were
characteristic of many centres of ancient eastern Mediterranean civilisation, including
islands as far north as Samothrace, as far east as Cyprus, and as far south as Crete. In
all of these regions were cults of one or another Great Goddess of life, fertility, and
the harvest, whose worship involved secret rites of purification and initiation. In Pylos
(western coast of Messenia), for example, an ancient tablet mentions annual rites in
honour of a pair of goddesses draped in a veil, who would be led in a formal
procession with great pomp and solemnity down to the sea for washing and
purification. On the west coast of Asia Minor, Greek city-states were practicing the
cult of the Phrygian goddess Cybele as far back as the seventh century BCE. Known
among the Greeks primarily as the Great Mother, or simply as Meter, this originally
foreign goddess of nature and fertility was early associated with Rhea or Demeter
herself.
Most closely related to the Mysteries at Eleusis were the so-called “Thesmophoria”
(from thesmoi, meaning laws, and phoria, carrying, in reference to the goddess as
law-bearer). These rites were celebrated by women only throughout all Greece in the
month of Pyanepsion (late October), their characteristic feature being pigs sacrifice,
the usual sacrifice to chthonic deities. The Greeks attributed special powers to pigs on
account of their fertility, the potency and abundance of their blood, and perhaps
because of their uncanny ability to unearth underground tubers and shoots. It was
believed that mingling their flesh with the seeds of grain would increase the
abundance of next year's harvest. The ceremonies comprised fasting and purification,
a ritualized descent into the underworld, and the use of sympathetic magick to bring
renewed life back out of the jaws of death.
Similarly, the Eleusinian Mysteries also revered swine and their rituals featured the
washing and sacrificing of young pigs sacred to Demeter (although this took place on
the beaches at Pireas near Athens rather than at Eleusis itself). The numerous
correspondences suggest that the Eleusinian Mysteries were of a piece with the
Thesmophoria, and perhaps shared the same historical origins.
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The Hymn to Demeter
Source: http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/religion/blgrk_demeter02.htm
The Hymn to Demeter, 495 verses in length, is the canonical work associated with the
Eleusinian Mysteries. Although traditionally attributed to Homer, it was probably
written somewhat later, in the seventh century BCE. The hymn recounts the story of
Demeter and Kore (the Maiden Persephone), how they were separated when Hades
snatched Persephone up in his chariot as she was gathering flowers in a meadow and
bore her down with him to the underworld. The story continues that Demeter,
disconsolate over her daughter’s loss, searched all over the world for her in vain.
Finally, with the help of Hekate and Helios, she learned of her daughter’s abduction
and discovered, besides, that it had been approved in advance by Zeus himself.
When the goddess realised the role of the other Olympians in her misfortune, she
abandoned her divine form and set forth disguised as an old woman from Crete.
Eventually she reached Eleusis and set herself down by an old well (the Maiden Well,
which later figured prominently in the Mysteries), her heart overflowing with grief. At
this point she was accosted by the four lovely daughters of Celeus, a local chieftain,
who befriended her and introduced her to their mother, Metaneira. So impressed was
Metaneira by the old woman’s dignified bearing that she offered her the position of
nurse for her own infant son. Demeter accepted, and under her care the child thrived
marvellously well. What the mortals did not know, however, was that Demeter was
secretly treating the infant with a series of mystical practices. The child might have
become ageless and deathless had the procedure continued; but unfortunately,
Metaneira spied on Demeter one night, and when the boy was put into the flames she
screamed in fright. At this, the indignant goddess broke off the treatment, revealed
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herself in her full divine majesty, and demanded that a temple be built in her honour.
There, she would teach the people her special rites. And with that promise, Demeter
disappeared.
After the Eleusinians had built their temple to Demeter, she stayed there and pined for
her daughter, refusing to rejoin the other gods on Mount Olympus. Moreover, she
refused to make the seeds sprout in the dark earth, and the entire world began to suffer
famine. Even the gods suffered from the lack of gifts and sacrifices. Zeus sent Iris
and other gods to intercede with her, yet Demeter would not relent. Finally, the king
of the gods dispatched Hermes down to Hades, bidding the lord of the underworld to
give Persephone up and return her to her mother. Hades reluctantly agreed, but first he
contrived to make Persephone taste a small morsel of food - consisting of a single
pomegranate seed - just enough to ensure, by a kind of divine symmetry, that she
would always have to spend one third of every year with him (during the winter). And
so Persephone was able to leave the underworld and return to the light, where she was
reunited at last with her mother.
The poem ends with an invocation of the two goddesses and a promise of rich rewards
to their devotees, both in this life and the next:
“Happy is he among men upon earth who has seen these mysteries; but he who is
uninitiated and who has no part in them, never has lot of like good things once he is
dead, down in the darkness and gloom.... Right blessed is he among men on earth
whom they freely love ...
Only those who spoke Greek and had shed no blood (or had subsequently been
purified) were eligible to participate in the rituals at Eleusis. Each new initiate, known
as a “mystes” would receive preliminary instructions and guidance from an
experienced sponsor, or “mystagogos” that was often from one of the leading families
of Eleusis. A mystes who returned a second time to Eleusis for induction into the
highest levels of esoteric knowledge was known as an epoptes.
There were also numerous priestly functionaries connected with the proceedings:
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• The Hierophant, or High Priest, would preside over the most mysterious and
solemn portions of the ritual. He alone had the right to enter the secret
chamber of the Anaktoron, where the sacred Hiera, or cult objects, were
housed.
• The High Priestess of Demeter would share with the Hierophant the primary
responsibility for presiding over the Mysteries. It is thought that she would
assume the role of Demeter in a sacred drama re-enacting the goddess's
anguish and desperate search for Persephone. Most scholars also believe that
the High Priestess would join the High Priest in performing an ieros gamos, or
sacred wedding of symbolic significance (see below).
• The Hierophantides were two chief female assistants of the Hierophant who
played a major role in the drama and initiation ceremonies. The
• Panageis Priestesses, also known as “bees” were celibate auxiliaries whose
precise function remains unknown. Possibly they played a role in carrying the
Hiera in the stately procession from Eleusis to Athens and back again.

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• The Dadouchos, second male in rank after the Hierophant, was the
torchbearer, who played an important role in the initiations. He alone at
Eleusis had the authority to remove the stain of impurity from aspirants who
had shed human blood. He and his female assistant, the Dadouchousa, were
probably also responsible for the lighting effects in the Telesterion during the
ceremonies.
• The Hieorokeryx was the official herald, whose stentorian voice would call the
initiates to silence in order for the Mysteries to begin. Finally, the Priest at the
Altar would preside over the animal sacrifices and other offerings to the two
goddesses.
It is well known that the Mysteries continued for almost two thousand years, during
which time the Greek world evolved tremendously in both intellectual and religious
aspects. This period saw the transition from the traditional polytheism of Homer and
Hesiod, through the beginnings of scientific philosophy in Thales, Pythagoras,
Anaxagoras and others, to the pinnacles of philosophical monotheism represented by
Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus. Similar transformations also occurred in the realms of
literature, art, and historiography. It would be unreasonable, therefore, to deny that
there could have been corresponding changes within the sacred precincts of the
Telesterion as well. We know that the greatest intellects of the ancient world testified
repeatedly to the salvific power of participation in the Mysteries - why then assume
that those secret rites and teachings would not also have adapted to the times, so as to
contain allusions to the deepest spiritual insights of which their devotees were
capable?
To be sure, the outward phenomena of the rituals probably retained a remarkable
consistency of form throughout the millennia of their practice, for this conservative
tendency is characteristic of archaic religions in general. Yet the interpretations given
to the ritual performances by the participants themselves may well have undergone
substantial modifications over time. In particular, it seems not unlikely that a
proclivity toward syncretism and theokrasia could have fused with philosophical
speculations from about the fourth century BCE onwards, leading to a new type of
religious mysticism and perhaps even containing intimations of monotheism or
pantheistic monism.

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PART FOUR
RECONSTRUCTIONISM
Polytheistic reconstructionism (Reconstructionism) is an approach to Paganism first
emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s, and gathering momentum in the 1990s to
2000s. Reconstructionism attempts to re-establish historical polytheistic Pagan or
Heathen religions in the modern world, in contrast with syncretic movements like
Wicca, and channeled movements like Germanic mysticism or Theosophy.
Many practitioners of folk religions live outside of the original cultures and territories
from which those historical religions arose, and reconstructonists consequently face
the problem of understanding, and then implementing, the worldview of pre-modern
rural societies in a modern, possibly urban environment
The term Reconstructionist Paganism is thought to have been coined by Isaac
Bonewits in the late 1970s. Bonewits has said that he is not sure whether he “got this
use of the term from one or more of the other culturally focused Pagan movements of
the time, or if he just applied it in a novel fashion”. Margot Adler later used the term
Pagan Reconstructionists in the 1979 edition of Drawing Down the Moon to refer to
those who claimed to adhere to some sort of historical religion.
Reconstructionist Paganism has evolved into Polytheistic Reconstructionism, and is a
distinct movement from the syncreticism and eclecticism of popular NeoPagan
culture, and the Wiccan ritual format that has been widely adopted by many Pagan
groups. Reconstructionist religions are based on the surviving historical record, and
on surviving folk practices of the culture in question.
This Reconstructionist Movement originates around 1970 with early attempts to
reconstruct pre-Christian religions, with Germanic Paganism in the USA, the UK and
Iceland focussing on Norse religion of the Viking Age, and reconstruction of Hellenic
polytheism in Greece, and of Baltic polytheism with Romuva.
In a second phase beginning in the 1990s, these movements have been joined by
serious attempts at reconstructing Roman polytheism and Celtic polytheism. Many of
these groups focus on the 1st millennium CE (with the exception of Greek and
Roman polytheism which is already well-attested in sources of the mid to late 1st
millennium BCE), up to the period of Christianisation of the respective populations.
Most also include folkloric practices that have survived into recent history or, in some
cases, the present day.
Syncretism
Indigenous religions and folkways did not just blink out of existence when they were
subsumed by modern religions. There were periods of time in almost every Pagan
culture where the populace attempted to reconcile their native beliefs with the new
ones being presented (or instituted by force). This often led to a type of syncretism
which, in some cases, gradually evolved into monotheism - eclipsing the old folk
religions. As a result of this phenomenon, a few adherents of reconstructionist
religions practice monolatry, henotheism and pantheism.

Most Reconstructionists see recent hybridisations as culturally inauthentic corruptions
of the traditional religions. The World Congress of Ethnic Religions has specifically
spoken against this practice and has instituted a policy to not “support, accept as
member or have relations with newly invented hybrid, non-traditional religious
groups...Our purpose is not to mix different religions, but to find our common
interests and defend them.”
However, many Reconstructionists also note that the operative concept there is
“recent’. Some historical syncretisms, such as those that occurred when ancient
polytheistic cultures interacted over a long period of time, and created a hybrid
culture, have become what some consider a legitimate part of the living traditions. An
example of this would be the presence of some customs and deities of Nordic origins
found among the Scottish traditions, Imperial Roman policy, and other examples of
the ways these cultures historically intermingled and influenced one another. These
sorts of ancient, polytheistic syncretisms are seen as different from the syncretisms of
oppression, which were instituted with the aim of co-opting and eventually eclipsing
the native religions.
The use of the terms Pagan to apply to polytheistic Reconstructionists is still very
controversial. Some Reconstructionist, ethnic and indigenous religious groups, take
great issue with being referred to as Pagan, viewing Pagan as a pejorative term used in
the past by institutions attempting to destroy their cultures and religions. In addition,
Reconstructionists may choose to reject the terms Pagan and NeoPagan in order to
distance themselves from aspects of popular NeoPaganism, such as eclecticism,
cultural appropriation, the practice of magick, and a tendency to conduct rituals within
a Wiccan-derived format, that they find irrelevant or even inimical to their religious
practice.
Other Reconstructionist groups actively self-identify as Pagan Reconstructionists and
may participate in pan-Pagan organisations. However, even among those who see
themselves as part of the broader, Pagan spectrum, or who simply see some members
of the Pagan community as allies, there is still a refusal to accept or identify with the
more problematic aspects of that community, such as the above-noted eclecticism,
cultural appropriation or Wiccan-inspired ritual structures. Many Polytheistic
Reconstructionists see Reconstructionism as the older current in the Pagan
community, and are unwilling to give up this part of their history simply because
eclectic movements are currently more fashionable
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The triple goddess (Hekate in this case). Source: http://www.mothergod.com/images/triple-goddess.jpg
Pagan Reconstructionism differs from other types of modern Paganism primarily on
its reliance on solid academic and historical sources regarding deities, worship and
symbolism. Other major differences include the following:
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• the rejection of eclectic practices in favour of cultural specificity.
• a respectful attitude toward ancient religious authority along with
acknowledgement of the need for reasonable religious innovation.
• an emphasis on hard polytheism (many deities, each as a separate and distinct
being).
• a sceptical attitude toward modern unifying theologies, such as (1) Wiccan
duotheism (All gods are one God; all goddesses, one Goddess.); (2) the triple
goddess paradigm (Maiden-Mother-Crone); and (3) Jungian archetypalism.
• a respect for individual spiritual inspiration (personal gnosis), while making a
clear distinction between practices derived from such inspiration and those
based on historical precedent.
While the above list addresses many Reconstructionist beliefs, Reconstructionists are
aware of the need to adapt ancient practices to modern circumstances and societal
norms. With a few exceptions, Reconstructionists accept worshippers regardless of
race, nationality/ancestry or sexual preference. This site will not knowingly link to
any sites that support religion as a discriminatory practice.
As Wicca is the best known modern Pagan religion, people often believe that Pagan
Reconstructionist religions are similar to Wicca in their beliefs and practices, even if
they are more academic in orientation. This belief is fostered by a large number of
poorly researched popular press books on Paganism that imply that the terms Wicca
and Pagan are interchangeable. In reality, the beliefs and practices of Wicca have very
little in common with the beliefs and practices of the various Pagan Reconstructionist
religions
A great deal of Paganism has combined components of occultism and magick such as
Hermetic philosophy with mythology of many cultures to create new traditions. An

example of this is the use of the four elements and the magic circle as well as
honouring gods from different pantheons used in Wiccan traditions. Some
reconstructionists believe that such ideas support a one-size-fits-all path. In order to
provide authenticity to their path, they research how the ancestors of their chosen
culture worshipped the gods and lived their beliefs in daily life.
Not everyone agrees, however, on the practice of mixing of pantheons. Since many
recons are hard polytheists, they would not honour gods from vastly different and
sometimes warring cultures at the same altar. Others take a softer approach and
honour those they are called to while respecting differences.
People active in this rebirth of polytheistic worship are from paths such as Celtic
Reconstruction, Hellenism (Greek), Asatru (Germanic), and Kemetism (Egyptian).
The goal is not to re-enact history but to piece together fragments from the past into a
belief system that might have emerged into modern times without interrupting
influences such as Christianity.
Sources used for reconstructionism are taken from mythology such as the Tain from
Irish lore and the Eddas from Germanic mythology. Archaeological evidence of
religious worship and daily living is also studied.
An example of putting these ideas to use is that of a home water shrine. There is
evidence that many cultures worshipped and made offerings at wells, lakes, and
springs. A modern person may honour this tradition by making offerings in or near a
fountain or bird bath they have in their own back yard.
The task of reconstructing fragments which have been scattered over centuries and
interrupted by outside influence is often times arduous. That is why research is so
important. They do not want to misrepresent something as coming from the ancient
Celts when in fact it may be a mixture of several different cultures and time periods.
Celtic Reconstructionist
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (also Celtic Reconstructionism ) is a polytheistic,
animistic, religious and cultural movement. It is an effort to reconstruct and revive, in
a modern Celtic cultural context, pre-Christian Celtic religions.
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism originated in discussions among amateur scholars
and Neo-Pagans in the mid 1980s, and evolved into an independent tradition by the
early 1990s. Celtic Reconstructionism represents a polytheistic reconstructionist
approach to Celtic Paganism, emphasising historical accuracy over eclecticism such
as is found in Neo-Druidism. Currently, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism is an
umbrella term, with a number of recognised sub-traditions or denominations.
As modern Paganism grew in scope and cultural visibility, some Americans of
European heritage saw the pre-Christian religions of their ancestors as being worthy
of revival, and the study of mythology and folklore as a way to accomplish this.
While most Neo-Druid groups of the period were primarily interested in “revitalising
the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain”, the
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Celtic Reconstructionists focused on only “reconstructing what can be known from
the extant historical record.”
The people who went on to establish Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism were
involved in Pagan groups in the 1970s and 1980s. Often these groups contained many
Celtic elements that eventually found their way into core Celtic Reconstructionism
practice. Much of the dialogue in the 1980s took place at workshops and discussions
at NeoPagan festivals and gatherings, as well as in the pages of Pagan
publications.This period, and these groups, are referred to in retrospect as “Proto-
Celtic Reconstructionism”. Later, with the establishment of the Internet in the late
eighties and early nineties, many of these ProtoCeltic Reconstructionism, or early
Celtic Reconstructionism, groups and individuals came together online. This began a
period of increased communication, and led to the growth of the movement.
The first appearance in print of the term Celtic Reconstructionist, used to describe a
specific religious movement and not just a style of Celtic Studies, was by Kym
Lambert ní Dhoireann in the Spring, 1992 issue of Harvest Magazine. Ní Dhoireann
credits Kathryn Price NicDhàna with originating the term “Celtic Reconstructionist”;
however, NicDhàna credits her early use of the term to a simple extrapolation of
Margot Adler’s use of the term Pagan Reconstructionists in the original, 1979 edition
of Drawing Down the Moon.
Though Adler devotes space to a handful of Reconstructionist traditions, none of
those mentioned are specifically Celtic. In chapter eleven, while describing his Neo-
Druidic group, New Reformed Druids of North America, Isaac Bonewits uses the
phrase Eclectic Reconstructionist. However, by the time CR became a recognised
tradition, this pairing of terms had become oxymoronic; in the Pagan/polytheist
communities, Reconstructionist had now come to mean traditions that specifically
exclude Eclecticism.
With the growth of the Internet over the 1990s, hundreds of individuals and groups
gradually joined the discussions online and in print, and the movement became more
of an umbrella group, with a number of recognised sub-traditions.
Druidism
Neo-Druidism, commonly referred to as Druidism or Druidry by its adherents is a
form of modern spirituality that generally promotes harmony and worship of nature,
and respect for all beings, including the environment. It is considered to be a Pagan
faith though some assert that Druidry is not a religion at all, not even necessarily a
spirituality, but simply a philosophy of living that can be adhered to by followers of
any religion.
Originally inspired by 17th, 18th and 19th century Romantic movements,
contemporary Druidism is based upon theories about the Iron Age Celtic. However,
Druidism has no demonstrable historical link to the ancient Celts or their culture. In
the first half of the twentieth century, modern druids developed fraternal organisations
based on Freemasonry that employed the romantic figure of the British Druids and
Bards as symbols of indigenous British spirituality. Some of these groups were purely
fraternal and cultural, creating traditions from the national imagination of Britain.
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Others merged with contemporary movements such as the physical culture movement
and naturism.
Since the 1980s some Druid groups have adopted similar methodologies to those of
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism in an effort to create a more historically accurate
practice. However, there is still controversy over how much resemblance modern
Druidism may or may not have to Iron Age or earlier druidism.
Beliefs vary widely, and there is no set dogma or belief system which all adherents
follow. Indeed, it is a central tenet of many Druidic groups that there should not be
strict dogmas (and most of the beliefs described in this article are not shared by all
Druids). There is no central authority over the entire movement, nor any central
religious text or religious leader. In most cases, the ideas and inspiration of all Druids
is respected. Core ideas shared by many Druids include “honouring of the ancestors
and honouring of the land”. Druidry is said to connect with all the other Earthancestor
traditions around the globe, such as the Native American, the Maori and
Huna, the Aboriginal, the Romany and the indigenous spiritualities of Africa and
Asia.
Respect for the ancestors is a core belief for some Druids. This idea of great ancestor
respect or ancestor worship is common in many Pagan folk religions. Revivalists and
Reconstructionist alike agree that knowing as much as possible about the lives of our
ancestors and preserving national or tribal heritage is important and good.
Archaeological evidence does suggest that the ancient peoples of Britain, Ireland, and
other parts of Europe practiced burial customs that we assume imply particular respect
for ancestors and probably a belief in life after death in some form.
This veneration of the ancestors primarily emphasises the Iron Age “Celtic” peoples
of western Europe, because these were the peoples amongst whom the ancient druids
lived. This connection to the Celtic peoples can be through both a “blood link to a
modern Celtic land or merely a soul allegiance”. However some Druids, particularly
those with no ethnic connection, do not emphasise such a Celtic link, instead focusing
on other historical cultures, such as that of the Anglo-Saxons or the Norse.
Most contemporary Druids perform ceremonies within a circle around an altar or
central fire. They often meet and practice in groups called variously groves or henges.
Sometimes they meet at stone circles and other megaliths which are pre-Celtic, but
which since the romantic revival have been associated in the popular imagination with
the ancient druids. At the Summer solstice, a Druidic ritual is notably held at
Stonehenge in England. Another particularly sacred place is Glastonbury in southern
England. In parts of the world beyond the range of the original Celtic tribes in Europe
and the pre-Celtic megalithic cultures, modern druids seek an understanding of the
sacred qualities of landscape and place.
When performing rituals, some Druids wear ceremonial cloaks and robes, which in
some cases imitate the Iron Age style of the Celts. In some orders, robes or tabards of
different colors are used to indicate the grade of the Druid within the order. In the
case of the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, the colours blue, green, and white are
respectively assigned to these grades. Some modern Druids also use ritual staffs, a
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symbolic magical instrument long associated with both Druids and wizards generally.
Many modern druids do not adopt any ceremonial garb.
Many Druids follow eight festivals a year, which are collectively known as the Wheel
of the Year (more about this elsewhere). Four of these are solar festivals, being
positioned at the solstices and equinoxes. The other four are the “Celtic” festivals of
ancient Ireland. The idea of the Wheel of the Year was introduced into Druidry by
Ross Nichols, who founder the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids in 1964, and he
had gained this idea from his friend Gerald Gardner, who had implemented it in his
Bricket Wood coven of Gardnerian Witches in 1958.
Although some documentation and sources still exist revealing evidence of how the
ancient Druids lived, what their rituals were and what they practiced, there is still a lot
of gaps in the amount of knowledge that has been recovered, as much of it has been
wiped out. Thus contemporary Druids have reconstructed what they could from past
texts and documents, but have added many adaptations themselves which in some
cases are diverse and dynamic personal beliefs which are directed into re-discovering
the old ways and to act as a healing force to this world. Although there are many
voids in what we know about ancient Druids, modern movements of Druidism cling
to what they do know and simply adapt new ideas to older concepts. Although the
Druids do not totally replicate what the ancient Druids practiced, they follow their
hearts and practice things which they perceive to be good and true.
In the 1970s, Wicca was notably influenced by feminism, leading to the creation of an
eclectic, Goddess-worshipping movement known as Dianic Wicca. The 1979
publication of Margot Adler’s Drawing Down the Moon and Starhawk's The Spiral
Dance opened a new chapter in public awareness of Paganism.
With the growth and spread of large, Pagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s,
public varieties of Neo-Wicca continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic
sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by the New Age and counter-culture
movements. These open, loosely-structured or unstructured traditions contrast with
British Traditional Wicca, which emphasises secrecy and initiatory lineage.
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Heathenism
The World Tree of Norse mythology Yggdrasil . Source:
http://www.hammerheadrabbits.com/blog/images/yggdrasil.jpg
Heathenism or Heathenry (also known as Germanic Paganism) is the modern revival
of historical Germanic Paganism. Precursor movements appeared in the early 20th
century in Germany and Austria. A second wave of revival began in the early 1970s,
variously under the branches of Asatru (Norse Heathenism), Odinism (Universalistic
Pan-Germanic Heathenism which focuses on the worship of Odin as the Primum
Movens), Yrminism (Continental Heathenism, German Heathenism), Fyrnsidu
(Anglo-Saxon Heathenism, English Heathenism), Urglaawe (Pennsylvania Deitsch
Heathenism) and Theodism (Neotribal Heathenism).
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Attitude and focus of adherents may vary considerably, from strictly historical
polytheistic reconstructionism to syncretist (eclectic), pragmatic psychologist, occult
or mystic approaches. Heathen organisations cover a wide spectrum of belief and
ideals.
Solitary practice, or practice in small circles of friends or family is common. These
are often called kindreds or hearths, although often they are not formal. Heathen
organisations have been active since the 1970s, but most of these larger groups are
loose federations and do not require committed membership comparable to a church.
Consequently, there is no central authority, and associations remain in a state of
fluidity as factions form and break up.
There are several possibilities to analyse Germanic Neo-Paganism into individual
currents or sub groupings. One common approach is the classification by notions of
ethnicity (“folk”). This may range from ethnic nationalist to moderate “tribalist”
notions of ethnicity as based in tradition and culture, and to “universalist” approaches
which de-emphasize differences between ethnic traditions (such as Seax Wicca).
The Asatru Folk Assembly and the Odinic Rite encourages recognition of an ethical
code, the Nine Noble Virtues, which are culled from various sources, including the
Hávamál from the Poetic Edda.
Germanic Paganism reveres the natural environment in principle; Heathenism
opposes neither technology nor its material rewards. More mystical currents of
Heathenry may be critical of industrialisation or modern society, but even such
criticism will focus on decadence, lack of virtue or balance, rather than being a radical
criticism of technology itself.
Theodsmen operate under specific “thau”. Thau is defined as the customs and beliefs
of a specific tribe, and each Theodish tribe has their own thau which may or may not
be mirrored in other Theodish circles.
Heathenism/Heathenry means “teaching/practice of the men of the heath”. Heathen
(“man of the heath”), originally used by Christians as an insult, is today proudly used
by Germanic Pagans because of its emphasis on connection with nature and the Earth.
Different terms exist for the various types of Germanic Paganism. Some terms are
specific in reference whereas other are blanket terms for a variety of groups.
In a 1997 article in Pagan Dawn, the authors list as more or less synonymous the
terms Northern Tradition, Norse Tradition, Ásatrú, Odinism, Germanic Paganism,
Teutonic Religion, The Elder Troth (as the name of a specific organisation and at the
same time an attempt to replace trú with an English equivalent) and Heathenry. Forn
Siðr and its equivalents has become a popular self-designation in Scandinavian
Paganism. The terms Odalism and Wotanism designate currents of white
supremacism outside of mainstream Germanic Paganism.
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Ásatrú
Ásatrú is an Old Norse compound derived from Áss, which refers to the Æsir, (one of
the two families of gods in Norse mythology, the other being the Vanir), and trú,
literally “troth” or “faith”. Thus, Ásatrú is the “Æsir's faith”. The term is the Old
Norse/Icelandic translation of Asetro, a neologism coined in the context of 19th
century romantic nationalism, used by Edvard Grieg in his 1870 opera Olaf
Trygvason. Ásatrúar, sometimes used as a plural in English, is properly the genitive of
Ásatrú.
Modern Scandinavian forms of the term, Norwegian Åsatru, Swedish Asatro, Danish
Asetro, were introduced in NeoPaganism in Scandinavia in the 1990s.
In Germany, the terms Asatru and Odinism were borrowed from the Anglosphere in
the 1990s, with a chapter of Odinic Rite formed in 1995 and the Eldaring as a partner
organisation of The Troth formed in 2000. Eldaring takes Asatru as a synonym of
Germanic Paganism in general, following usage by The Troth. Other organisations
avoid Asatru in favour of Germanisches Heidentum (Germanic Heathenry). Eldaring
is the only Pagan organisation at the national level in Germany self-described as
Asatru, but the internet domain asatru.de has been squatted by German Neo-Nazi
Jürgen Rieger's neo-völkische Artgemeinschaft since 1999.
The term Vanatru is coined after Ásatrú, implying a focus on the Vanir (a second tribe
of gods in Germanic Paganism) rather than the Æsir.
Sacred Days
Asatru sacred days centre on the seasons and are similar to other Pagan holidays. The
major celebrations are:
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• Summer Finding (spring equinox, March 21) - dedicated to Ostara
• Winter Finding (fall equinox, September 21)
• Midsummer (summer solstice, June 21)
• Yule - the most important holiday; starts on the winter solstice (December 21)
and lasts for 12 days
The Norse gods are of three different types:
• Aesir - the gods of the tribe or clan, representing kingship, order, craft, etc.
(incl. Odin and Thor)
• Vanir - gods of the fertility of the earth and forces of nature (including Freyr
and Freyja)
• Jotnar - giant-gods who are in a constant state of war with the Aesir,
representing chaos and destruction
The four main deities in Germanic religion and Asatru are:
• Odin (Germanic Woden) - god of magic, poetry, riches and the dead; ruler of
Valhalla (gave his name to Wednesday)
• Thor - sky god who wields a hammer, controls the weather, and protects the
law and the community (gave his name to Thursday)

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• Freyr - fertility god represented with a phallic statue and seen as the founder of
the Swedish royal dynasty
• Freyja - fertility goddess of love and beauty, sister of Freyr, known by many
names (including Frigg, Odin's wife and patron of families, who gave her
name to Friday)
Other deities:
• Njord - father of Freyr and Freyja, god of ships, sea and lakes
• Tyr (Germanic Tiu) - god of battle, sacrifice, and justice (gave his name to
Tuesday)
• Ullr - god of death, winter, and hunting
• Loki - the trickster
Forn Siðr
Old Norse Forn Siðr, Anglo-Saxon Fyrnsidu and its modern Scandinavian analogues
Forn Sed, all meaning “old custom”, is used as a term for pre-Christian Germanic
culture in general, and for Germanic Paganism in particular, mostly by groups in
Scandinavia. Old Norse forn “old” is cognate to Sanskrit purana, English (be)fore and
far. Old Norse siðr “custom”, Anglo-Saxon sidu, seodu “custom”, cognate to Greek
ethos, in the sense of “traditional law, way of life, proper behaviour”. In meaning, the
term corresponds closely to Sanskrit sanātana dharma, a term coined as a “native”
equivalent of Hinduism in Hindu revivalism. In contradistinction to Ásatrú, inn forni
siðr is actually attested in Old Norse, contrasting with inn nýi siðr “the new custom”,
and similarly Heiðinn siðr, contrasting with Kristinn siðr, and í fornum sið “in old
(heathen) times”. Forn Siðr is also the name of the largest Danish Pagan society,
which since 2003 is recognised as a religion by the Danish government (meaning they
have the right to conduct weddings, etc.)
Heathenry
Heathen (Old English hæðen, Old Norse heiðinn) was coined as a translation of Latin
Paganus, in the Christian sense of “non-Abrahamaic faith”.
In the Sagas, the terms heiðni and kristni (Heathenry and Christianity) are used as
polar terms to describe the older and newer faiths. Historically, the term was
influenced by the Gothic term haiþi, appearing as haiþno in Ulfilas’ bible for
translating gunē Hellēnis, “Greek (i.e. gentile) woman” of Mark 7:26, probably with
an original meaning “dwelling on the heath”, but it was also suggested that it was
chosen because of its similarity to Greek ethne “gentile” or even that it is not related
to “heath” at all, but rather a loan from Armenian hethanos, itself loaned from Greek
ethnos.
The Miercinga Rice Theod and several other groups, narrow the sense of the word to
Germanic Paganism in particular, and prefer it over Pagan as a self-designation.
Heathenry is used for strictly polytheistic reconstructionist approaches, as opposed to
syncretic, occult or mysticist approaches. While some practitioners use the term
Heathenry as an equivalent to Paganism, others use it much more specifically. It is
used by those who are re-creating the old religion and world view from the literary

and archaeological sources. They describe themselves as Heathen in part to
distinguish themselves from other Pagans whose rituals come from more modern
sources.
Odinism
The term Odinism was coined by Orestes Brownson in his 1848 Letter to Protestants.
The term was re-introduced in the late 1930s by Alexander Rud Mills in Australia
with his First Anglecyn Church of Odin and his book The Call of Our Ancient Nordic
Religion. In the 1960s and early 1970s, Else Christensen's Odinist Study Group and
later the Odinist Fellowship brought the term into usage in North America. In the UK,
Odinic Rite has specifically identified themselves as Odinists since the 1970s, and is
the longest running group to do so. Elsewhere, the mysterious Odin Brotherhood, a
strictly non-racist group that has pockets of members scattered around the world, also
refers to itself as Odinist.
The term Odinism tends to be associated with racist or racialist Nordic ideology, as
opposed to Asatru which may or may not refer to racialist or folkish ideals. As
defined by Goodrick-Clarke (2002), Nordic racial Paganism is synonymous with the
Odinist movement (including some who identify as Wotanist). He describes it as a
“spiritual rediscovery of the Aryan ancestral gods... intended to embed the white races
in a sacred worldview that supports their tribal feeling”, and expressed in
“imaginative forms of ritual magick and ceremonial forms of fraternal fellowship”.
The term Wotanism is used in a somewhat different sense from Odinism. It is the
name of a white supremacist Pagan current initiated by David Lane.
Theodism
Theodism, or Þéodisc Geléafa originally sought to reconstruct the beliefs and
practices of the Anglo-Saxon tribes which settled in England. þéodisc is the adjective
of þéod “people, tribe”, cognate to deutsch. As it evolved, the Theodish community
moved past solely Anglo-Saxon forms and other Germanic tribal groups were also
being reconstituted; Theodism, in this larger sense, now encompass groups practicing
tribal beliefs from Scandinavia and the Continent, following in the model set forth by
the Anglo Saxon theods founded in the 1970s. The term Theodism now encompasses
Norman, Frisian, Angle, Saxon, Jutish, Gothic, Alemannic, Swedish and Danish tribal
cultures. This relaxing of the original term “Theodism” functionally identifies
Germanic Pagans who practice or advocate Neo-Tribalism.
Ethics
Ethics in Germanic Paganism are guided by a concept of personal ørlög or wyrd,
encompassing the notions of both fate and luck. The belief in Wyrd - a concept of
fatalism or determinism, similar to some Graeco-Roman concepts of destiny is a
commonly held belief amongst most Germanic Pagans. People’s personal destinies
are shaped in part by what is past, in part by what they and others are now doing, by
the vows they take and contracts they enter into. The Germanic Pagan community is
primarily bound together by common symbological and social concepts. Personal
character and virtue is emphasized: truthfulness, self-reliance, and hospitality are
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important moral distinctions, underpinning an especially cherished notion of
honour.Germanic Paganism notably lacks any discussion of redemption or salvation.
Although Germanic Pagans revere the forces of nature, Germanic Paganism is not a
nature religion in the sense of other currents often found in contemporary Paganism,
and adherents oppose neither technology nor its material rewards. More mystical
currents of Heathenry may be critical of industrialization or modern society, but even
such criticism will focus on decadence, lack of virtue or balance, rather than being a
radical criticism of technology itself.
The Asatru Folk Assembly and the Odinic Rite encourages recognition of an ethical
code, the Nine Noble Virtues, which are culled from various sources, including the
Hávamál from the Poetic Edda.
Nine Noble Virtues:
Texts
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1. Courage
2. Truth
3. Honour
4. Fidelity
5. Discipline
6. Hospitality
7. Industriousness
8. Self-Reliance
9. Perseverance
Neither ancient Norse religion nor modern Asatru is predominantly text-based, but
Norse myths are beautifully preserved in two Icelandic epics called the Eddas.
The first Edda dates from the 12th century AD, when Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241),
an Icelandic poet, historian and politician, retold many Norse myths with quotations
from poems and explanations of mythological imagery. His goal was to provide a
handbook for poets so the ancient lore would not be lost. It was called Edda, which
means “great-grandmother”, but may also be derived from Oddi, Sturluson’s
hometown. It is now known as Snorri’s Edda or the Prose Edda.
In 1643, a 13th-cent. manuscript book known as the Codex regius was found in an
Icelandic farmhouse, containing poems on gods and heroes. This collection, together
with a few poems from other manuscripts, is called the Elder Edda, Poetic Edda, or
Saemund’s Edda (after an 11th-century. scholar). The poems may date from as early
as 800 AD and appear to have been composed in pre-Christian times in Norway. They
recount the exploits of the gods Freyr, Loki, Odin, and Thor and include riddle
contests between gods and giants, and much about the creation and destruction of the
worlds of gods and humans.

Rites and practices
The primary deities of Germanic Paganism are those of Anglo-Saxon religion and of
Norse Mythology. Germanic Paganism also has a component of ancestor worship or
veneration. In the simplest form, the gods are viewed as distant ancestors or
progenitors who are honoured and revered, while in the adherent’s personal practices,
direct ancestors (referred to sometimes as Dis) are often praised and honoured during
the rituals of sumbel and blót. Animism or land veneration is most evident in the
rituals dedicated to the elves and wights.
Blót
Blót is the historical Norse term for sacrifice or ritual slaughter. In Germanic
Paganism, blóts are often celebrated outdoors in nature, the celebrants sometimes clad
in home-made Medieval Scandinavian attire. A blót may be highly formalised, but the
underlying intent resembles inviting and having an honored guest or family member
in for dinner. Food and drink may be offered. Most of this will be consumed by the
participants, and some of the drink will be poured out onto the soil as a libation.
Home-brewed mead as the "Germanic" drink par excellence is popular.
Offerings during a blót usually involve mead or other alcohol, sometimes food,
sometimes song or poetry, specially written for the occasion or for a particular deity,
is delivered as an offering. The blót ritual may be based on historical example,
scripted for the occasion or may be spontaneous. Certain Germanic groups, most
notably the Theodish, strictly adhere to historical formulaic ritual, while other groups
may use modernized variants. Usual dress for a blót is whatever suits the seasons -
many blóts are outdoors, sometimes at sacred sites. Some Germanic Pagans, most
notably the Theodish, wear clothing modeled on those of the Anglo-Saxon or Norse
Viking during ritual, while others eschew this practice.
Hellenic
The phrase Hellenic polytheism is actually, much like the word Pagan, an umbrella
term. It is used to apply to a wide range of polytheistic spiritual paths that honour the
pantheon of the ancient Greeks. In many of these groups, there is a trend towards the
revival of the religious practices of centuries past. Some groups claim that their
practice is not a revival at all, but the original tradition of the ancients, passed down
from one generation to the next.
Hellenismos is the term used to describe the modern equivalent of the traditional
Greek religion. People who follow this path are known as Hellenes, Hellenic
Reconstructionists, Hellenic Pagans, or by one of many other terms. Hellenismos
originated with the Emperor Julian, when he attempted to bring back the religion of
his ancestors following the arrival of Christianity.
Hellenic (Greek) Reconstructionism is a modern Pagan religious movement that bases
its worship and cultic practices on the traditional, polytheistic religion of Ancient
Greece.
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Although Hellenic Reconstructionism accepts personal gnosis as a part of its
spirituality, the predominant source of information comes from the works of Homer,
Hesiod and other ancient writers. Ritual practices are taken from these authors and
from modern academic research on this religion. Where modernization of some ritual
elements is needed and understood, those elements are not presented as “ancient” fact.
Combining unrelated cultural beliefs (as opposed to historical syncretism) with those
of the Ancient Greeks is unacceptable.
While Greek Reconstructionism is an attempt to recreate traditional Hellenic worship,
it is not an attempt to recreate Ancient Greek society.
Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism (also Hellenic Reconstructionism) refers to
various reconstructionist movements that revive ancient Greek religious practices,
emerging since the 1990s. Since 1997 the movement in Greece has been
institutionalized under the Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Polytheistic
reconstructionism is not a religion itself, but is the methodology for re-establishing a
historical polytheistic (or pre-Christian) religion in the modern world.
Hellenismos, or Hellenism, is the Hellenic religion, a traditional polytheistic religion
and way of life, revolving around the Greek Gods, primarily focused on the Twelve
Olympians, and embracing ancient Hellenic values and virtues.
There are no official naming practices for this religion, but there does seem to be an
informal naming convention, based on academically accepted descriptive definitions,
adhered to by groups and most individuals. Additionally, subgroups use a variety of
names to distinguish branches focusing on specific schools of thought, or modern
traditions focusing on the public practices of individual city-states.
These subgroups can be described as denominations. Hellenismos, Hellenism, the
Hellenic tradition, the Hellenic religion and Hellenic polytheism all can be said to be
used interchangeably to refer to the religion, and are synonymous. The phrase
Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism refers to the overall movement, and a
methodology used to revive the religion, but is not the religion itself. Dodekatheism
and Olympianism refer to specific “denominations”, but are within the classification
of the Hellenic tradition, and part of the Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionist
movement.
Hellenismos is a popular identifier, especially in English speaking nations. The word
corresponds to the English word Hellenism, and means (in ancient Greek) the
civilisation and culture of ancient Greece, but is also used in modern Greek to refer to
the totality of the Greek people and culture. The term’s use in religion stems from a
systemisation of Greek Religion done by the Roman Emperor Julian. Its use to refer
to modern revivalist Hellenic polytheism was popularised by Andrew Campbell, the
author of Old Stones, New Temples.
The religion of Classical Greece was polytheistic, practiced in the area surrounding
the Aegean Sea, continuing traditions of the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean period, and
from the 4th century BCE evolving into Hellenistic religion dominated by mystery
religions, and during the Roman period by emerging monotheism of Neo-Platonism.
Emperor Theodosius I issued edicts outlawing many forms of Hellenistic worship at
the close of the 4th century.
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The cult practices of the ancient Hellenes extended beyond mainland Greece, to the
islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern
Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massilia
(Marseille in France). The ancient Greek concept of divinity was generally
polytheistic. Religious practices varied from place to place, but all Greek peoples
recognised the twelve Olympian gods (Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Apollo, Artemis,
Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, and Hestia or Dionysus).
Other gods and heroes were also prominent in Greek mythology.
The most widespread public act of worship in ancient Greece was sacrifice, whether
of grain or the blood sacrifice of animals. Adherents of the various deities sacrificed
animals specific to the god or goddesses being worshiped. Sacrifices served multiple
functions: one might perform a sacrifice as the culminating act of a public religious
festival, before an important undertaking to gain the assistance of the gods, or as part
of a rite of passage. The temples of the Greek religion generally were not public
gathering places where people gathered socially for collective indoor prayer; most
temples held little more than a cult image of the deity and the accumulated votive
gifts, which might amount to a treasury.
Votive gifts were offered to the gods by their worshipers. They were often given in
thanks for benefits conferred by the gods, in anticipation of future divine favours or to
receive oracular advice from the god or goddess. They could also be offered to
propitiate the gods for crimes involving blood-guilt, impiety, or the breach of
religious customs. They were kept on display in the god's sanctuary and then usually
ritually discarded after a set period of time.
Modern Hellenic Polytheists typically perform bloodless sacrifice or meat/bones from
animals that have not been killed in situ. Consumable items such as fruit, vegetables,
grains, and sweets are offered instead. Religionists make votive offerings in a similar
fashion to what we know of the ancient practice.
In modern terms, the ancient Greeks had nothing which could be called a
systematized theology. The art, literature, and even architecture of the time abounded
with images and accounts of gods and heroes, and expressed a generally understood
symbology. Hesiod’s Theogony provides a polytheistic creation myth and a wideranging
family tree of the Greek gods.
Very late in the history of classical religion, the Neo-Platonists, including the Roman
emperor Julian, attempted to organise the classical religions into a systematic belief
system, to which they gave the name of Hellênismos: the belief system of the Greeks.
Julian also attempted to organize Greek and Hellenistic cults into a hierarchy
resembling that which Christianity already possessed. Neither of these efforts
succeeded in the limited time available. Finally, the public practice of the Greek
religion was made illegal by the Emperor Theodosius I and this was enforced by his
successors. The Greek religion, stigmatised as “Paganism”, the religion of countryfolk
(Pagani) - other scholars suggest the force of Paganus was “(mere) civilian” -
survived only in rural areas and in forms that were submerged in Christianized rite
and ritual, as Europe entered into the Dark Ages.
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Modern theology is synthesided from a variety of ancient texts, including but not
limited to Sallust’s On the Gods and the Cosmos and Hesiod’s Works and Days.
Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers also contribute to the modern
movement’s theological base, in addition to scholarship on mystery schools such as
the Orphics and Pythagoreans.
Hellenic polytheists worship the ancient Greek Gods, including the Olympians, nature
divinities, underworld deities (Chthonic Gods) and heroes. Both physical and spiritual
ancestors are honoured. It is primarily a devotional or votive religion, based on the
exchange of gifts (offerings) for the gods’ blessings. The ethical convictions of
modern Hellenic polytheists are often inspired by ancient Greek virtues such as
reciprocity, hospitality, self-control and moderation. The Delphic Maxims, Tenets of
Solon, the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, or even Aristotle’s Ethics each function as
complete moral codes that a Hellenic Polytheist may observe. Key to most ethical
systems is the idea of kharis (or "charis", grace), or the reciprocity between humanity
and the Gods, between individuals, and among community members.
Another key value in Hellenic Polytheism is eusebeia, often translated as piety. This
implies a commitment to the worship of the Hellenic Gods and action to back this up.
There is no central “ecclesia” (church/assembly) or hierarchal clergy, though some
groups (Hellenion) do offer training in that capacity. Individual worshipers are
generally expected to perform their own rituals and learn about the religion and the
gods by reference to primary and secondary sources on ancient Greek religion and
through personal experience of the Gods. Information gained from such personal
experiences is often referred to in Hellenic groups as "UPG" (Unverified Personal
Gnosis), a term borrowed from Ásatrú.
Worship of the Greek Gods is frequently incorporated into the practice of other Pagan
paths but it is not termed “reconstructionist” as it does not intend to specifically revive
ancient practice.
While there are some Pagan groups and practitioners that make associations with
Greek deities, many forms of Paganism do not require practitioners to dedicate
themselves to a specific pantheon, ethical code, or worldview. Many Pagans see the
deities of diverse cultures as being different expressions of one goddess and one god,
or even, ultimately, a single godhead (see Pagan concepts of the divine and Wiccan
views of divinity), this is different to the view of many Hellenic polytheists,
especially reconstructionsts.
Magick is a source of much controversy within Hellenic circles. Some find the
practice of any magick irreligious. Magick is not often used within a reconstructionist
framework as there is little academic material to suggest that it was used widely in
ancient religion. Reconstructionists are often also critical of people who promote
historically inaccurate portrayals of the Hellenic religion and claim they are authentic,
or generalise and stereotype modern Paganism as Wicca-ish or only within the New
Age movement.
In contrast to the eclectic traditions, Reconstructionists are very culturally oriented
and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of religion and spirituality, in a modern
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context. Therefore, Kemetic, Canaanite, Hellenic, Roman, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic
and Slavic Reconstructionists aim for the revival of historical practices and beliefs of
Ancient Egypt, Ancient Canaan and Phoenicia, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, the
Celts, the Germanic peoples, the Balts and the Slavs, respectively.
Roman Reconstructionism
Roman polytheistic reconstructionism (Roman Recon, for short) is the Pagan
reconstruction of Ancient Roman religion. As with other reconstructionist movements
it differs from syncretic movements like Wicca, which may use Roman deities on
occasion, by the importance given to historical research.
Pagan religions believed in many gods and generally worshipped the earth, sea, sun,
sky and various other elements of nature. The Romans were polytheistic and much of
their lives were spent in a fervent effort to please their gods. This was because
ancient Romans believed that their gods had great influence over their daily lives and
fates. In order to placate the gods, the Romans believed that certain rituals and rites
must be performed in appreciation of the gods works. As the religion progressed, so
too did the rituals, this made it necessary to form priesthood’s with specific rituals and
traditions. In keeping with the Pagan tradition the Romans had a deep respect for the
earth and her cycles. The ancient Roman religion is one of the better known Pagan
religions.
Early Roman religion was based on spirits. The Romans did not build great
mythologies like the Greeks, rather they believed everything had a spirit. These spirits
were thought to influence for good or evil, daily life. The Romans therefore had to
keep them happy through worship and sacrifice. If the rituals and sacrifices were
performed properly the Romans believed the gods would be happy and help them.
Romans believed each God had a specific “field” of expertise. There was a god of the
sun, Apollo, a god of the sea, a god of the sky and many others. As Roman life had
many different aspects there were many different Gods. If a Roman wanted a good
crop he would pray to Ceres, the goddess of agriculture. The most important of all the
spirits was Vesta the goddess of the hearth and home and the centre of Roman family
life. Each household had a small shrine dedicated to the household spirits. The
Romans were great copiers. They borrowed many of their gods from the Greeks, but
unlike Greek gods, theirs did not have the same definitely conceived personality, they
were more cold and formal. The Romans lived under the gods and constantly tried to
please them.
The Romans has a well defined state pantheon of gods. These were the official gods
led by Jupiter, the father of the gods. Others included;
Mars; god of war, Ceres; Goddess of agriculture, Diana; moon goddess, Juno;
goddess of women and childbirth, Minerva; goddess of wisdom and healing in war.
The Roman religion was based on rituals and sacred rites. These rituals had become
very complex over the years and needed special people to perform them. This is
where the priests came in. The chief priesthood’s were usually filled by distinguished
statesmen or generals. Roman religion and politics were intermeshed. There were two
types of priests:
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• priests for the general supervision of religion
• priests of particular deities
As the Roman empire expanded it came into contact with new and different religions.
Many were absorbed into the state religion. Religious tolerance was a policy among
the emperors. They introduced a policy of syncretism designed to encourage the
merging of Pagan religions to unite people and effect greater political stability. This
cemented and united the empire. So it came to pass that Romans could worship
whoever they liked as long as it didn’t interfere with others.
The ancient Roman religion is one of the most well known Pagan religions. It was
worshipped not only by the Romans, but by the various communities which were
absorbed into the Roman Empire. These communities added to the state religion with
their own specific beliefs until it was a truly diverse and all encompassing religion.
Throughout the modern world, the ancient roman religion is known as one of the
world’s first and most famous Pagan religions. It is the Roman and the Greek
religions which are the basic from modern Pagans take their beliefs.
Egyptian Paganism
Source: http://www.lifeinthefastlane.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2007/08/egyptian_carving_5_sfw.jpg
Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals
practiced in ancient Egypt over more than 3000 years, from the predynastic period
until the adoption of Christianity in the early centuries CE. Initially these beliefs
centered on the worship of multiple deities who represented various forces of nature,
thought patterns and power, expressed by the means of complex and varied
archetypes. By the time of the 18th dynasty (1550-1292 BCE) they began to be
viewed as aspects of a single deity who existed apart from nature, similar to trinitarian

concepts also found in Christianity: the belief that one god can exist in more than one
person.
These deities were worshipped with offerings and prayers, in local and household
shrines as well as in formal temples managed by priests. Different gods were
prominent at different periods of Egyptian history, and the myths associated with
them changed over time, so Egypt never had a coherent hierarchy of deities or a
unified mythology. However, the religion contained many overarching beliefs.
Among these were the divinity of the pharaoh, which helped to politically unify the
country, and complex beliefs about an afterlife, which gave rise to the Egyptians’
elaborate burial customs.
Egyptian religion was not based on firm theological principles. Its primary focus was
simply the interaction between humans and the gods. These gods were believed to be
present in every aspect of the natural world, yet their true natures remained to some
degree mysterious. Hundreds of gods were believed to exist, and the exact nature of
their complex interrelationships is still the subject of scholarly debate. The Egyptians
saw the actions of the gods behind all the elements and forces of nature. However,
they did not believe that the gods merely controlled these phenomena, but that each
element of nature was a divine force in itself. The forces deified in this way included
animals, as with Sekhmet, who represented the ferocity of lions, and inanimate
elements, such as Shu, the deification of air. The gods could also represent more
abstract things, as Horus represented the power of kingship. The Egyptians thus
believed in a multitude of gods, which were involved in every aspect of nature and
human society.
Egyptian myths about the gods were intended to explain the origins and behaviour of
these phenomena, and the hymns, prayers and offerings given to the gods were efforts
to placate them and turn them to human advantage. This polytheistic system was very
complex, as some deities were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and
some had multiple mythological roles. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the
sun, were associated with multiple deities.
The Egyptians recognised that different natural phenomena are interrelated, and they
often placed deities in groups to symbolise this relationship. Sometimes deities were
grouped into pairs, linked because of a relationship between the two phenomena they
represented, or simply to give one deity a counterpart of the opposite sex. They could
also be grouped into threes; often these triads formed mythological families consisting
of a father, mother, and usually male child. There were also many larger groups,
including two different sets of creator deities - the eight gods of the Ogdoad and the
nine gods of the Ennead—and several sets of minor gods with similar functions but no
individual identity, such as the deities representing each hour of the day and night.
In Egyptian belief, the universe was governed by the force of ma’at. This Egyptian
word encompasses several concepts in English, including “truth”, “justice” and
“order”. It referred to the fixed, eternal order of the universe, both in nature and in
human society. This was the most fundamental of all natural forces, believed to have
existed from the creation of the universe, which ensured the continued existence of
the world. Among humans, ma'at meant that all people and all classes of society lived
in harmony. Any disruption of ma’at was inherently harmful, so all people were
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expected to behave in accordance with it. In nature, ma’at meant that all the forces of
nature existed in balance. It included the cyclical patterns of time—the cycle of day
and night and of the seasons, and of human generations. While the Egyptians
recognised that time is linear, they also saw it as cyclical, in that each of these patterns
represented a renewal of ma'at and a defeat of disorder, and thus a repetition of the
original creation of the universe. Therefore, the theme of cosmic renewal was present
in many Egyptian rituals.
Egyptians viewed kingship itself as a force of nature. Thus, even though the
Egyptians recognised that the pharaoh was human and subject to human frailties, they
simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was
incarnate in him. He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt’s people and the
gods. He was key to upholding ma’at in society, by defending the country from
enemies, appointing fair officials, settling disputes between his people, managing the
food supply, and appeasing the gods with temples and offerings. For this reason,
temple reliefs often depict the pharaoh presenting an emblem of ma’at to the gods,
representing his maintenance of the divine order. Theoretically, he held dominion
over the entire world, and thus the Egyptian word for “king” referred only to the
pharaoh, and not to any foreign ruler.
The king was also associated with many specific deities. While alive, a pharaoh was
logically identified with Horus, the god of kingship. Due to analogy between the sun,
the dominant force in nature, and the king, the dominant force in human society, the
pharaoh was also associated with Ra and regarded as his son. Once Amun had been
syncretized with Ra, Amun was also identified with the king and seen as his father.
Several goddesses functioned as the "mother" of the pharaoh, and he could also
symbolically take the place of the child deity in many family triads of gods.
Upon his death, the king became fully deified. In this state, he was directly identified
with Ra, and was also associated with Osiris, god of death and rebirth and the
mythological father of Horus. Many mortuary temples were dedicated to the worship
of deceased pharaohs as gods.
Afterlife
The Egyptians had elaborate beliefs about death and the afterlife. They believed that
humans possessed a ka, or life-force, which left the body at the point of death. In life,
the ka received its sustenance from food and drink, so it was believed that, to endure
after death, the ka must continue to receive offerings of food, whose spiritual essence
it could still consume. Each person also had a ba, the set of characteristics
distinguishing one individual from another, similar to the concept of a personality.
Unlike the ka, the ba remained attached to the body after death. Egyptian funeral
rituals were intended to release the ba from the body so that it could move freely, and
to rejoin it with the ka so that it could live on as an akh. However, it was also
important that the body of the deceased be preserved, as the Egyptians believed that
the ba returned to its body each night to receive new life, before emerging in the
morning as an akh.
Originally, however, the Egyptians believed that only the pharaoh had a ba, and only
he could become one with the gods; dead commoners remained dead. The nobles
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eceived tombs and the resources for their upkeep as gifts from the king, and their
ability to enter the afterlife was believed to be dependent on these royal favors. In
early times the deceased pharaoh was believed to dwell among the circumpolar stars,
which never set in the Egyptian sky and were therefore regarded as eternal. Over the
course of the Old Kingdom, he came to be more closely associated with the daily
rebirth of the sun god Ra and with the cyclical death and resurrection of the fertility
god Osiris as those deities grew more important.
Mythology
Egyptian myths were metaphorical stories intended to illustrate and explain the gods’
actions and roles in nature. The details of the events they recounted could change as
long as they conveyed the same symbolic meaning, so many myths exist in different
and conflicting versions. Mythical narratives were rarely written in full, and more
often texts only contain episodes from or allusions to a larger myth. Partly this was
because the Egyptians avoided explicitly describing or depicting negative events
within myths, believing that this risked giving power to the forces of chaos.
Much of what mythological information is known comes from papyri originally kept
in temple libraries, from devotional writings, and from funerary texts. Surprisingly
little comes from inscriptions in the temples themselves, as temples were meant to
celebrate the eternal power and benevolence of the gods, and the turbulent events
often found in myths conflicted with this purpose
Among the most important Egyptian myths were the creation myths. While there were
several different creation myths, they all shared common elements: an infinite, lifeless
ocean which preceded the creation, and a pyramidal mound of land which was the
first thing to emerge from this ocean.
Another story central to Egyptian belief was the myth of Osiris and Isis. It tells of the
god Osiris, who had inherited his rule over the world from his ancestor Ra. Osiris was
murdered and dismembered by his jealous brother Set, a god often associated with
chaos. Osiris' sister and wife Isis reassembled Osiris' body and resurrected him so that
he could conceive an heir to take back the throne from Set. Osiris then entered the
underworld and became the ruler of the dead, while Isis eventually gave birth to his
son Horus. Once grown, Horus fought and defeated Set to become king himself.
Priests
The pharaoh was Egypt’s official representative to the gods, so in theory, temple
priests merely acted on his behalf. In fact, during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, there
was no separate class of priests; instead, many government officials served in this
capacity for several months out of the year before returning to their secular duties.
Only in the New Kingdom did professional priesthood become widespread, although
most lower-ranking priests were still part-time. The pharaoh theoretically retained the
right to make all priestly appointments, although he often delegated this duty.
There were several different varieties of priests and temple personnel. One class of
priests worked outside temples: those who served in the mortuary cults of private
individuals. The lector priests, who recited the incantations during temple rituals and
were versed in many magical texts, also performed outside duties, such as officiating
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at funerals. The priests serving in each temple were divided into several ranks and
specialized roles. At the top of this hierarchy was the high priest, or "first servant of
the god." This office was frequently passed from father to son and tended to become
hereditary. Temples also employed many people outside the priesthood, including
farmers and artisans to supply their needs, and musicians and chanters who assisted in
temple rituals. All were paid with portions of the temple’s income.
Priests were usually male. During the Old Kingdom, many women from wealthy
families held important priestly roles, mainly in temples to female deities. However,
during the Middle Kingdom women became less prominent in public life, and
afterward most of the women involved in temple activities seem to have been in more
minor roles. There was an exception to this during the Third Intermediate Period,
when important female roles emerged in the cults of several deities, most notably the
“god”s wives” of Amun.
While actively serving the temple, priests adhered to strict standards of purity. They
were required to shave their heads and bodies, wash several times a day, and wear
only clean linen clothing. In the service of some specific gods, there were also
particular behaviors, such as eating certain foods, from which priests had to refrain.
They were not required to be celibate, but sexual intercourse rendered them unclean
until they underwent further ritual purification.
Festivals
The Egyptians celebrated a variety of religious festivals. Most were annual, tied to
one or more specific days of the year, but some took place at longer intervals or on
irregular occasions. Some, such as the celebration of the new year, took place across
the country, but most were celebrated only locally, at a specific temple. Temple
festivals usually involved a procession carrying the god's image out of the sanctuary
in a model barque to visit other significant sites, such as the temple of a related deity.
Commoners celebrated these events along with the priesthood, gathering to watch the
procession and sometimes receiving portions of the unusually large offerings given to
the gods on these occasions. Other festivals were part of the rituals of kingship rather
than the cult of a deity; these included coronation ceremonies and the sed festival, a
ritual renewal of the pharaoh’s strength which took place periodically during his
reign.
Magick
The word magick is used to translate the Egyptian term heka, which meant “the
ability to make things happen by indirect means” or also “by the spoken word”. Heka
was believed to be a natural phenomenon, the force which was used to create the
universe and which the gods employed to work their will. Humans could also use it,
however, and magical practices were closely intertwined with religion. In fact, even
the regular rituals performed in temples were counted as magick.
Magick was closely associated with the priesthood. Temple libraries contained
numerous magickal spells, and many of the spells found in other contexts seem to
derive from temple books; thus, great magical knowledge was ascribed to the lector
priests who studied these books. These priests often worked outside their temples,
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hiring out their magikcal services to laymen. Other professions also commonly
employed magick as part of their work, including doctors, scorpion-charmers and
makers of magickal amulets. It is also likely that the peasantry used simple magick for
their own purposes, but because this magickal knowledge would have been passed
down orally, there is limited evidence of it.
Language was closely linked with heka, to such a degree that Thoth, the god of
writing, was sometimes said to be the inventor of heka.Therefore, magick frequently
involved written or spoken incantations, although these were usually accompanied by
ritual actions. Often these rituals invoked the power of an appropriate deity to perform
the desired action, using the power of heka to compel it to act. Sometimes this
entailed casting the practitioner or subject of a ritual in the role of a character in
mythology, thus inducing the god to act toward that person as it had in the myth.
Rituals also employed sympathetic magic, using objects believed to have a magically
significant resemblance to the subject of the rite. The Egyptians also commonly used
objects believed to be imbued with heka of their own, such as the magically protective
amulets worn in great numbers by ordinary Egyptians.
Kemetism
With the Pagan emergence in the 20th century, a form of reconstructed ancient
Egyptian religion called Kemetism was formed.
Kemetic Reconstructionism (Kemet is the ancient word for Egypt) is a re-creation of
the religion of Ancient Egypt, and includes the revival of its belief systems, its
spirituality and other relevant aspects of its culture, such as literature and art. It is a
belief in the Neteru (Gods and Goddesses). It is a way of living in harmony with and
upholding ma’at, which is balance in all things: the cosmos, the natural world and that
of human society. The practice of the Kemetic religion today strives to be a living
revival of the religion of the peoples of Ancient Egypt.
Kemeticism is a reconstructionist religion which utilises scholarly methods to recreate
the structures and practices of the ancient religion, and apply these to contemporary
times. It bases its religious practices on modern scholarly and academic research. It is
not a modern “New Age” interpretation of the beliefs of Ancient Egypt, nor is it an
extrapolation based on any Western religio-magickal traditions such as Wicca or
Ceremonial Magick, but rather the actual religious practices as recorded by the
Ancient Egyptians. As Kemeticism can be considered one of the African Traditional
Religions, which come from similar geographic and sociological sources, many
Kemetics share styles and approaches to religious experience, rituals and life with
such religions.
Some temples within Kemeticism have a King or Nisut Bity (male) or Nisut Bityt
(female) and this person within that temple is believed to hold the Kingly Ka or
emanation of Heru the Living. The Nisut is the link between Netjer (God) as a whole
and Humanity as a whole. Only a few Nisuts were worshipped during ancient times,
and this is not encouraged today. Others believe their First Priest Heri Tep Hem
Netjer or the highest priest present at any given ritual holds the Kingly Ka for the
duration of that ritual and thus a Nisut is not needed. Still others believe that we are in
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the Diaspora, and thus the Kingly Ka is our own personal conduct in the larger
community.
Hem Netjer (m) and Hemet Netjer (f) are priests in the faith. Each is trained in their
own temples and is ordained ministers. Wab (m) and Wabet (f) ensure everything is
pure in ritual and are the lowest rank of priests.
Shemsu Netjer (m) and Shemsut Netjer (f) are followers of the Egyptian deities.
There are three main groups, each of which take a different approach to their beliefs,
ranging from eclectic to polytheistic reconstructionist.
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• Kemetic Wicca (also Tameran Wicca) is an eclectic approach combining
Ancient Egyptian elements with Wicca.
• Kemetic Revivalism and Reconstruction, a reconstructionist, which include
academic approaches informed by Egyptology, notably Kemetic Orthodoxy of
Tamara L Siuda and Kerry Wisner’s Akhet Hwt Hwr and others informed
principally by phenomenology of religion and religious studies, notably
Kemetic Traditionalism of Dr Renee Levant and Dr Sedgwick Heskett.
• The Ausar Auset of Ra Un Nefer Amen is a syncretic Pan-Africanist approach
targeted at the African diaspora.
Kemetic revivalism appears in the 1970s with the rise of Paganism in the United
States, the Church of the Eternal Source promoting New Age receptions of Egyptian
spiritualism, founded in 1970, and the Ausar Auset Society promoting Pan-
Africanism founded in 1973, Tamara Siuda’s Kemetic Orthodoxy following in the
late 1980s and Kerry Wisner’s Akhet Kemetic reconstructionism in the 1990s and Dr
Renee Levant’s Kemetic Traditional Religion in 2000.
More recent foundations include Kimata (Camden, NJ), the International Kemetic
Network (Chicago since 2000), the Nuhati Temple Fellowship (Herndon, VA, since
2001), and the Per Ankh The Kemetic Traditional Religion (Racine, Wisconsin since
2000). By the mid 2000s, there is also evidence of “Kemetic movements” outside the
United States, with Ta Noutri (Podensac, France since 2004) and Kamitik (Aulnay,
France,since 2004).
The movement is composed of a mixture of New Age, Wicca, and Afrocentrism, the
latter in the context of "Afrocentrist Egyptology" which emerged in the United States
in the 1990s, making Ancient Egypt a “Black Culture”.
Kemetic Reconstructionists acknowledge that there is no unbroken Kemetic tradition,
and because of this believe that to really understand ancient ways requires much
serious study. Kemetic Reconstructionists emphasise the Reconstruction of the ritual
and religious practices of the ancient Egyptians as accurately as possible based on
Egyptological and archeological academic research. They identify themselves with
Pagan Reconstructionist Religions

The experience of Netjer occurs in the context of ritual practice and daily life. Each
member is seen as having a unique and personal relationship with Netjer. The truth of
the one’s experience of Netjer is always measured against the scholarly sources so as
to avoid falling into “personal gnosis” (knowledge of the divine based solely on
experience) .
There is little discussion of culture in these groups, which tend to believe that
moderns applying such ancient cultural constructs to modern lives outside of religious
practices is in most cases unnecessary. An example of this is their position regarding
the role of the "Nisut". They believe that in modern times there is no nation, thus no
basis or need for a King. Further they believe that giving that sort of power to any one
individual in modern times is dangerous and ultimately may lead to a cult. The
temples leadership runs like a modern committee making decisions for the faith based
on research and experience.
The largest of these organisations is Akhet Het Heru which describes itself as a
mystery school like other occult organizations and provides material for individual
study and practice which draws on both western mystery schools and Egyptological
sources. A big difference between the reconstructionists and both the Orthodox and
Traditional Kemetic practitioners is the focus on solitary practitioners and individual
distance instruction.
In addition, Kemetic reconstructionists are most likely to identify themselves with
modern Pagan organisations, although through the influence of the two other schools
of thought more and more reconstructionists speak of Kemetic faith as an African
religion. However, neither practices nor teaching draws on African sources or those of
other African Traditions. Rather they feel the ideas and principles of Kemetic
Religion are best understood through Egyptological sources and the mystery
traditions.
Beliefs
Kemetic Reconstructionists honour the ancient Egyptian gods, whom they call by
their original Egyptian names rather than the more familiar Greek forms. These gods
include:
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• Amun
• Anubis
• Bast
• Bes
• Hathor (Egyptian name: Het-heru, Het-hert, or Hwt-hru)
• Horus (Hor or Heru)
• Isis (Aset, Iset, Ast, or Auset)
• Khonsu
• Khnum
• Ma'at
• Nepthys
• Osiris (Ausar, Asar, or Wesir)
• Ra

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• Sekhmet
• Set
• Thoth
How these Gods are viewed depends on the individual belief. Polytheism is the most
common form, in both ancient and modern forms of the religion. From this
perspective, all the gods are understood as individual beings and are worshiped as
individuals.
Many Kemetic Reconstructionists define their form of polytheism as monolatry, a
term coined by Egyptologists. This means that the many individual deities are
regarded as parts of an ultimately unknowable self-created Oneness, known in ancient
texts as Netjer, “being of divine power” or as Atum, “the complete one/the one who is
not”.
The ancient Egyptians had a variety of different myths to describe Earth’s creation,
which are meaningful to modern Kemetics despite their own (usually) scientific view
of creation.
Views of Kermetics about the afterlife can vary significantly. Some Kemetic
Reconstructionists accept the ancient Egyptian view of the afterlife, while others
believe in reincarnation or hold other views. The ancient Egyptians saw the afterlife
as a journey through several “tests”, the climax of which is the Weighing of the Heart,
in which the heart is weighed against an ostrich feather (Feather of Ma’at). If the
heart is too heavy with sin, it is fed to the monster-goddess Ammit and the person is
destroyed forever. Those who pass this test become Akhu, or Blessed Ancestors. They
reside in Duat, the land of Osiris, and can be communicated with by humans on Earth.
If a person flees judgement or gets lost on the way, he or she may become a Muet, or
angry dead person, terrorizing living descendants.
Ethics
Kemetic ethics are based in the Egyptian concept of Ma’at, which is truth, justice,
order, and “that which is right”. In addition, Kemetics look to ancient Egyptian law
texts such as the Declaration of Innocence (also called the Negative Confessions),
which contain a list of 42 sins a deceased person claims not to have done, and the
Wisdom Texts, which are pieces of advice written by Ancient Egyptians.
The Declaration of Innocence includes such sins as murder, muddying the rivers of
the Nile river, adultery, theft, eavesdropping, and sexual perversion. This last sin is
often translated in older texts as committing homosexuality, but Kemetic
Reconstructionists consider this a mistranslation and are open to homosexual
members. A common theory is that the prohibition refers to child prostitution.
Practices
The most common form of religious ritual in Kermetic Reconstructionism is informal
offerings and prayers at a personal shrine. A person may also adapt various
community priestly rituals from ancient Egypt to be done by one person.

The Egyptians believed that for a person to survive death indefinitely, he or she must
be remembered. The person’s name and/or image must be remembered past death,
which is the reason mummification was used. Mummification is not practiced by
modern Kermetics, since photographs and other records are sufficient to preserve a
deceased person's memory. Many Kermetics have an Akhu shrine, dedicated to the
“blessed dead”, for this purpose.
There are several Kermetic festivals every month, and in some months there is almost
a festival for every day. As in ancient Egypt, worshipers can choose which to
celebrate, based usually on location, temple affiliation, and personal devotion to a
particular deity. But a few major holidays are celebrated by most Kermetics
regardless of their temple affiliation (most temples have official calendars) or
independent status:
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• Wep Ronpet, the Kemetic New Year
• Feast of Opet
• Feast of the Beautiful Valley
• Solstice Celebrations and Equinox Celebrations (sacred to Hathor, Eye of Ra)
• Feast of the Beautiful Reunion
• Full and New Moon Celebrations (sacred to various moon gods depending on
the season)
• the birthdays and festival days of various gods and goddesses
There are no formal rites of passage for solitary Kemetics, but the Kemetic Orthodox
faith has developed specific rites of passage adapted from the spirit and tradition of
ancient rites. Some of these have caused controversy among other Kemetic
religionists, while others that have been adopted by them. These include Rootnaming,
in which a child born to Kemetic parents is given an additional name indicating the
god of his/her month of birth (for example Setneb for the month of Set), and the Rite
of Parent Divination, a divination ritual performed for adult converts or children at
puberty.
Shamanism
Shamanism comprises a range of beliefs and practices concerned with communication
with the spiritual world. Shamanism is a range of traditional beliefs and practices that
involve the ability to diagnose, cure, by traversing the axis mundi and forming a
special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. Shamans have been credited
with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral
projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanistic traditions have
existed throughout the world since prehistoric times.
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common
beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Shamans are intermediaries or
messengers between the natural world and spirit worlds. They can treat
ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit
enables the physical body to undergo balance and wholeness. The shaman is capable
of entering supernatural realms or dimensions in order to obtain answers to the

problems of their community. The shaman is physically present in the natural world,
but at the same time enters into another dimension - enabling for the travel of the soul.
The shaman has many travels in this other dimension. Some travels may be to bring
guidance to misguided souls, to separate evil spirits from the human souls, or to
alleviate the soul of all elements enacting upon it to cause the illness. The shaman
only affects the spiritual world, which in turn affects the natural world. The result is
that the shaman has brought balance to a soul and this will result in creating balance
for the soul. The creation of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, thus
restored health for the human body.
Shamanism is thus based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by
invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and
animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism
requires specialised knowledge or abilities. Shamans are not, however, organised into
full-time ritual or spiritual associations, as are priests.
The word shaman originated among the Siberian Tungus (Evenks) and literally means
he (or she) who knows; the belief that the word may be derived from Sanskrit is
perhaps due to a confusion of the words “shamanism” and “shramanism”, from the
sanskrit shramana, Pali and Prakrit samana; but the samanas were ascetics, not
shamans.
Shamans are called upon by a higher power and are not self-chosen. Individuals who
are called upon experience an illness of some sort over a prolonged period of time.
This illness will prompt the individual to seek out spiritual guidance and other shaman
healers. Such illnesses are usually not healed/curable by doctors and western
medicine. The role of the shaman is a healer of the spirit world--chosen to bring
spiritual balance and health for the people. The shaman heals through spiritual means
that consequently affects the natural world by bringing about restored health.
The shaman may serve the healer’s role in shamanic societies; shamans gain
knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the spiritual world or dimension.
Often the shaman has, or acquires many spiritual guides in the spirit world; these are
often spiritual guides whose sole purpose is to guide and direct the shaman in his/her
travels. These spirtual guides are always present within the shaman and do not enter
only when the shaman is in a trance. The spiritual guides energises the shaman,
enabling him/her to enter into the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the
spirutal dimension by creating balance and restoring all elements to their properties,
thus bringing the soul back from wherever it has traveled. The result is the creation of
balance in the natural world and restored health for the individual. The shaman also
acts as destroyer in order to destroy the excess of negative energies that enables the
soul to travel astray or pollutes the soul. This occurs as a result of the shaman’s
willingness to create balance and to bring about goodness for the individual.
Shaman also act as mediators in their culture.The shaman is seen as communicating
with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The
shaman is a messenger between the natural world and the spiritual dimension. He/she
enables for the passing of information between the living and the deceased in order to
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alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver monetary gifts back to the spiritual
dimension.
History
Shamanistic practices are thought to predate all organised religions, and certainly date
back to the Neolithic period. Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later,
organised religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek Paganism
was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus,
Medea, Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other
mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion were later adopted
into the Roman religion.
The shamanic practices of many cultures were virtually wiped out with the spread of
Christianity. In Europe, starting around 400 CE, the Christian church was
instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were
systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed. Beginning with the
middle ages and continuing into the Renaissance, remnants of European shamanism
were wiped out by campaigns against witches. These campaigns were often
orchestrated by the Catholic Inquisition.
The repression of shamanism continued as Christian influence spread with Spanish
colonisation. In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests
followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the
destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as “devil worshippers”
and having them executed. In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic
campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. More recently, attacks on
shamanic practitioners have been carried out at the hands of Christian missionaries to
third world countries. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were
being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon.
It has been postulated that modern state campaigns against the use of psychedelic
substances are the offshoot of previous religious campaigns against
shamanism.Today, shamanism, once universal, survives primarily among indigenous
peoples. Shamanic practice continues today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other
rural areas, and also in cities, towns, suburbs and shantytowns all over the world. This
is especially widespread in Africa as well as South America, where “mestizo
shamanism” is widespread.
While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism,
shamanism remains as a traditional, organised religion in Uralic, Altaic people and
Huns; and also in Mari-El and Udmurtia, two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia
with large Finno-Ugric minority populations. Shamanism in Scandinavia may be
represented in rock art dating to the Neolithic era and was practiced throughout the
Iron Age by the various Teutonic tribes and the Fino-Baltic peoples. Some peoples,
which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For
example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location
of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined phytogeographical
and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of
their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central
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Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River. The ancestors of
Hungarian people or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to
the Pannonian Basin. Shamanism played an important role in Altaic mythology.
Tengriism, the major belief among Xiongnu, Turkic peoples, Magyars and Bulgars in
ancient times incorporates elements of shamanism.
There are currently no known historically verifiable accounts that compare the
practices of the Druids of Britain to shamanistic practices though some research has
been undertaken regarding the bog bodies in regard to the bodies being shamans and
also to norse seiðr. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but
some remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.
Contemporary Shamanism
Certain forms of contemporary Paganism have appropriated some ideas from
shamanism as well as beliefs and practices from Eastern religions and Native
American cultures. There is an endeavor in some circles to reinvent shamanism in a
modern form, drawing from core shamanism.
European-based (Neo)Shamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or at times
even imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many mystical practices and belief
systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express
a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some
anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such Shamanism as
“giving extra pay” to indigenous traditions, particularly as many Pagan or Heathen
“shamanic practitioners”of legitimate cultural traditions do not call themselves
shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the older European traditions -
the völva or seidkona (seid-woman) of the sagas being an example.
Shamanism is sometimes used as a disclaimer or qualifier, where revivalists are trying
to piece back together shattered systems that no longer exists as a whole due to
significant changes in the original culture, often as the result of colonisation,
globalisation, or genocide. Shamanism is not a single, cohesive belief system, but a
collective term for many such philosophies. However, certain generalities may be
drawn between Shamans. Most believe in spirits and pursue contact with the spiritworld
in altered states of consciousness which they achieve through drumming,
dance, or the use of entheogens. Most systems might be described as existing
somewhere on the animism/pantheism spectrum.
Many members of traditional, indignenous cultures and religions are suspicious of
Shamanism, believing it to rely too heavily on cultural appropriation, or that it is an
excuse by fraudulent Shamans to cover up inconsistencies in their ceremonies. One
difference between Shamanism and traditional shamanism is the role of fear.
Shamanism tends to dismiss the existence of evil, fear, and failure. In traditional
shamanism, the shaman’s initiation is an ordeal involving pain, hardship and terror.
Shamanism, by contrast is a religious perspective that denies the ultimately reality of
the negative, and this would devalue the role of fear as well.
As with most forms of contemporary Paganism, there is no single dogma or central
authority for Shamanism, and Shamanism is perhaps one of the least readily definable
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of the Pagan religions, being extremely diverse. The spirit world is viewed as part of
everyday reality - it surrounds us and we live with spirits all the time; the Shaman has
the ability to move between the worlds and thus provide a bridge, becoming a
pathfinder for his people. Shamanism is an ecstatic religion, and through training or
calling the Shaman is able to access the spirit worlds and work with the powers there;
through this contact, the Shaman is able to work acts of healing, divination and magic,
revealing human spirituality through vision, poetry and myth.
Shamans place great emphasis on personal experience, and therefore usually follow a
solitary path though some work together in groups. Shamanic practice is characterised
by seeking vision in solitude and is deeply rooted in the mysteries of nature.
A Shaman is one set apart, usually identified at an early age as possessing special
powers of communication with the otherworld. Often they had had a spontaneous,
severe and traumatic experience - an illness or spiritual crisis - which forced open for
them the doors of the otherworld. The work of the Shaman is considered dangerous
and, in many societies, to be chosen as a Shaman is seen as much as a curse as a
blessing.
Contemporary Shamanic trances are essentially employed with the purpose of
enabling modern people to think animistically, and to heal their sense of alienation.
Typically, rhythmic techniques such as hypnotic dancing and drumming are used,
rather than drugs, because they are safer and more controllable. Indeed, no technique
need be used at all, and some people are able spontaneously to self-induce a
‘Shamanic’ state of mind. If a person is able to achieve the necessary detachment
and/or self-hypnosis, then they will experience the desired resurgence of animism.
What is sought, is a state of consciousness sometimes termed ‘active imagination’
(CG Jung) or the ‘poetic trance’ (Robert Graves); a state in which the mind is freed,
associations are broadened and emotions are enhanced - but in which purposive
thinking remains possible and memory systems remain operative. As well as inducing
a sense of belonging, this is potentially a creative state in which (as for shamans)
mental synthesis and integration may occur, personal problems, and intuitive truths
may be reached using otherwise inaccessible mental powers.
It has been said that the difference between shamanism and Shamanism is that one
provides objective knowledge while the other provides a subjective experience.
Cultural appropriation
Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural
group. It denotes acculturation or assimilation, but often connotes a negative view towards
acculturation from a minority culture by a dominant culture. It can include the introduction of forms of
dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or social behaviour. These elements,
once removed from their indigenous cultural contexts, may take on meanings that are significantly
divergent from, or merely less nuanced than, those they originally held. The term cultural
appropriation can have a negative connotation. It generally is applied when the subject culture is a
minority culture or somehow subordinate in social, political, economic, or military status to the
appropriating culture; or, when there are other issues involved, such as a history of ethnic or racial
conflict between the two groups. To many, the term implies that culture can actually be “stolen”
through cultural diffusion.
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PRE-GARDNERIAN CRAFT
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PART FIVE
WITCHCRAFT
The hallmark of the Pickingill tradition that eventually reshaped English Witchcraft
was that all rites were conducted solely by the High Priestess. Pickingill covens were
staunch proponents of the Horned God, who in the Scandinavian traditions was
always served and honoured by women. Conversely, the Mother Goddess in the
Scandinavian traditions could only be served and honoured by men.
During the Iron Age, at the spring festivals, only women were sacrificed to the God
and only men were sacrificed to the Goddess. This was because in the Scandinavian
fertility religions, it was thought that the High Priestess was the wife and consort of
the God, and it was only she who could call upon the God to descend into the body of
the man chosen as His earthly representative (calling down the Sun). And only a High
Priest, consort, and husband of the Goddess, could call upon Her to descend into the
body of the woman chosen as Her earthly representative (calling down the Moon).
It quickly becomes apparent that is where the idea of “only a man can initiate a
woman and only a woman can initiate a man” comes from. And it takes on new
meaning when one considers that a woman initiated by a man embodying the essence
and power of the God, or a man initiated by a woman who is embodying the essence
and power of the Goddess, would receive maximum power.
In Traditional English Witchcraft, the covens were always headed by a Magister, or
Master. The rites were always conducted by him and the Lady, or High Priestess
working together. The Magister always “brought in” the female recruits, and the Lady
always “brought in” the male recruits. So the concept of a woman conducting the rites
by herself was abhorrent to them.
The English Covens also recognised only two levels. The first level was the “Rite of
induction” where the candidate was first “brought in”. This rite of induction into the
Craft required an act of ritual copulation with a member of the opposite sex, which
“passed the power to the Brethren”. The First Rite did not confer Craft status to “The
Entered Brethren”, and “Entered Brethren” could only pass the power along once in
their life, and then only to a member of the opposite sex again through an act of ritual
copulation.
The second rite, the Rite of Initiation, conferred formal admission into “The
Brotherhood.” In order to become of The Brotherhood, Entered Brethren were
required to demonstrate specific skills within a stipulated period of probation, which
was usually a year and a day. Upon satisfying the requirements, the Entered Brethren
was then inducted into the Brotherhood where he or she received full Craft Authority.
Only the Magister could pass Craft Authority along to both sexes. For they believed
that only the male body could “transmit” the Authority of The Brotherhood. This
Authority then empowered the Crafter to initiate in the Name of The Brotherhood,
and to found Covens. This second rite then, conferred the status of Full Crafter onto
the initiate.

Towards the end of the seventeenth century, this began to change. Many scholars and
intellectuals became attracted to the Craft because they believed that it contained
several elements of Druidism. This new breed of Crafter viewed sexual induction as a
barbaric and much out-dated practice. So gradually, during the Craft reforms of the
eighteenth century, sexual inductions all but disappeared. The majority of the English
Covens, by dropping the rite of sexual induction, began observing only one induction
ceremony in which the Magister conferred both power and authority on to the
candidates of both sexes. Some covens still remembered there being two rites, but the
traditional rites were confused with actual initiations, with the second initiation being
performed for outstanding individuals, and coven leaders.
The French traditions always observed three rites. The first rite was as in the English
Covens, the rite of sexual induction. The second rite was the first initiation, which
conferred the status of full Crafter. The third Rite was the second initiation, and it was
only preformed for exceptional individuals, who were deemed worthy of forming
covens. This is where the modern three-degree system originates.
Traditional Witchcraft
Traditional Witchcraft refers to the beliefs and practices of “Crafter families,
individuals, and underground organisations” that pre-date the twentieth century.
Normally, although the lore and practices of Traditional Witchcraft may have root in
very early times, the farthest back in time that most Traditional organisations can date
themselves with any accuracy is at best the 17th century. However, Folklore and
History from the 11th century and onward bear witness to practices similar to those
carried out by Traditional Witches today.
In Traditional Witchcraft, normally, there is no clearly defined group structure. If
there is, it is only locally, and usually not as rigid as Wicca. Titles are not used nearly
as much, and when they are, they are still informal when compared to the Wiccan
emphasis on titles. Traditional Craft groups may have leadership, but they are as
likely to be male as female, and their power as “head” of a group is not the power
wielded by the average eclectic Wiccan “High Priest/ess”. Knowledge, experience,
and willingness to serve are the deciding factor for most leaders of Traditional groups.
Our European ancestors were Polytheists. They believed in many Gods, or in local
Gods. This is true for most Traditional Witches. There are some beliefs now (and in
ancient times as well) of some divinities being “greater” than others, almost to the
philosophical point of transcendence, and universal power. This sometimes appears in
Traditional Craft as well, but in the form of mysteries and not everyday devotion.
In Traditional Witchcraft, the Holy Days that are celebrated are different from region
to region, and from Tradition to tradition, and from person to person. An agriculturebased
tradition may follow tides of planting and harvesting, and celebrate harvest
festivals, while another tradition may celebrate solar tides. Point is, the holy days are
always timed by tides of nature and are different depending on where you go.
The four old Celtic dates of Samhain, Beltane, etc, may still be followed in some
places, but if they are, the solstices and equinoxes tend not to be. In Traditional forms
of Paganism, the Holy Days that are celebrated are different from region to region,
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and from Tradition to tradition, and from person to person. An agriculture-based
tradition may follow tides of planting and harvesting, and celebrate harvest festivals,
while another tradition may celebrate solar tides. Point is, the holy days are always
timed by tides of nature, and are different depending on where you go.
The four old Celtic dates of Samhain, Beltane, etc, may still be followed in some
places, but if they are, the solstices and equinoxes tend not to be. In most cases,
"traditional" Pagans won't be following a common calendar dealing with the Celtic or
Germanic Pagan past - instead, they will have their (usually minimalistic) observances
and rites alongside the standard calendar or melded with local folk customs and folkholidays;
this is the essence of the Old Ways in their very localised form, melded with
modern customs. This is also the approach to the subject of the “hidden festival”.
In Traditional Craft, especially from the British Isles, the culture of the people of the
land, and of the people a few generations back, determines the cultural context of the
tradition. This is because Traditional Craft is part of the land and its people, and its
history. Many Traditional Craft traditions in the Isles have an Anglo-Saxon or
Germanic/Norse feel to them, and beneath this, a folk-memory of the Celtic culture.
Scottish and Irish Traditions tend to be (obviously) Celtic in strain.
Nature is both kind and cruel, giving and taking. There is a great darkness inherent in
Nature, both the natural world, and in the personal nature of spirits and gods, and
humans. Harmful, destructive spirits are facts of life, both in the old times, and now,
and the fact that the “goddess” is just as likely to devour her children as give birth to
them, is also obvious.
Traditional Witches do not tend to use formal sets of tools, although they do have
certain implements, depending on tradition. The four-element system is not all that
common, though some Traditionals influenced by eastern or hermetic thought may
have traces of it. By far and by large, the tools used by traditional witches do not
resemble the wiccan “working tools”. They tend to be things like Stangs, besoms,
cauldrons, cords, skulls, (of people or animals), hammers, mirrors, various stones,
horns or bowls… some traditions use knives as well, but without the new-agey
symbolism attached. Some Traditions may not use tools at all!
Circles are not cast and used to any major extent. The traditional term for a drawn
circle is “Compass round” and often enough, certain natural places suffice for
working areas, without a need to draw a “circle”. When compasses must be drawn,
they are drawn by traditional ceremonies which bear almost no resemblance to
Wiccan circle castings. The spirits of the Land are invoked to uphold compasses, and
ritual fires are lit….these are the necessary “elements” in most traditional workings.
Sometimes spirits of the four kingdoms or “directions” are called, but this varies from
place to place. The idea is, that Land is sacred already…you do not “consecrate” the
ground. You simply dwell upon it.
In the modern day, some Traditionals have taken to using the word “Witch” to help
lines of communication between them and the new-age world, to “speak in the
language of the modern day”, as it were. But if the word “Witch” is used, it is by
group choice or personal choice.
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In The Traditional Craft, There is some notion that the soul or spirit may enter into
another phase of existence after death, and this usually heralds a return into the power
of the land, to dwell with the ancestors, or become a guardian spirit, or maybe just a
return to being a part of the spiritual dimension of Nature. From this state, a re-birth
into your extended family or clan may be possible, but it is mysterious. There is a
well-defined, though naturalistic notion of spiritual existence for all things, up to an
including humans. That time moves in cycles and so does the power of nature is
obvious, and life and death are mysteries entangled with this flow.
As nature is alive, and so are we, that is immortality. The spirits of the land are also
the spirits of the deceased, so Nature is venerated on many levels.
Through application of some Old Craft rites, a soul may achieve a higher level of
existence, and dwell amongst the “Hidden Company” after death, but this is also a
mystery known best to those traditions that teach this
English Hereditary Traditions
English Hereditary Craft is made up of several disparate groups and individuals who
seldom wish to recognise each other. So it is very difficult to substantiate any of their
claims. However, there are a few fairly standard criteria that may be used to recognise
an authentic “Hereditary Coven”.
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• The Rite of Sexual Induction – In Hereditary traditions, a Witches’ power,
psychic gifts, spirit guides and elemental spirits are passed to the spiritual heir
through an act of ritual copulation with a member of the opposite sex. Even
children born into Craft families are not considered to be Witches until they
too have been sexually inducted. Hereditary covens consider this mandatory
induction as the First Rite. Most English Hereditary covens observe only one
additional rite, though some from East Anglia, and Scotland have adopted the
French tradition of three rites.
• Metallic implements – Metals in any form are not used by Hereditary covens.
This is because they tend to meet on Ley-lines (lines of magnetic force) and
both metal and blood (which contains iron) negate Ley energy, and as they
claim, actually pollute the Ley Center. Hereditary covens consider themselves
as custodians of the more powerful Ley Centres, and go to great lengths to
maintain the purity of their sacred space. The energy used in fertility rites
flows upward from the earth, and the energies are magnified at the Ley
Centers. And as the Hereditaries feel that the mere touch of metal impedes the
flow of this energy, they shun the use of metals in their workings. Generally,
they will mark the boundaries of the square with wooden agricultural
implements, then either imply (most common) or describe the circle within the
square. Those who describe the circle do so using a wooden staff, or a tool
made from horn or stone. More recently, some claiming to have Hereditary
status, though not traditional, have adopted the use of a flint knife for this
purpose. No Hereditary coven would ever consider “desecrating the earth”
with a metal weapon.
• The Book of Shadows – a standard feature in Modern Craft, was unknown to
the old Hereditary covens. Concept of historically “keeping a book in your
own hand of write” evidently originated from Alex Sanders who founded the

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Alexandrian Tradition. The first Book of Shadows was actually compiled by
Old George Pickingill, which as stated earlier was modified over a period of at
least sixty years. Some Hereditary covens DID however keep a coven
rulebook, which was always held in safe keeping by the Magister or his male
deputy, who would have been in line as his successor. No woman was ever
permitted to read it, much less hold it for safekeeping. This may have been due
to the opinion that a woman would reveal the location of the book if her
children were tortured in front of her whereas a man probably would not. Also
in Hereditary covens, the successful transfer of the power and Authority
vested in the Magister was considered to be of primary importance. So the
Magister’s focus was in raising the levels of consciousness of the members of
the coven, rather than insisting upon any set wording or responses. Therefore,
though all Hereditary rituals may follow a basic format, or set pattern, the
actual wording differs widely.
Hereditary Witchcraft
Hereditary Witchcraft is the transfer from an elder or ancestor, of practices, magick,
ritual, belief systems, and culture from one family member to another. Also known as
Family Traditionalism or “FamTrad”, Hereditary Witchcraft is the passing down of a
specific Witchcraft tradition through family members only.
This does not necessarily mean that all practitioners of a FamTrad come from an
unbroken line of Witches because it only takes two family members to start a
hereditary tradition.
Practices, medicines and spells specific to each family tradition are closely guarded
secrets within a family. Such families actually existed, mainly as remnants of cultural
folk religion and magick which was such an integral part of their daily lives, it was
never completely wiped out upon Christianity’s presence over the centuries. The
magick and practices found within Hereditary Witchcraft are often more akin to folk
magick and ancient shamanism than to today’s contemporary Witchcraft practices.
The transfer of power and lore to a family member is an old shamanic practice of
cultures worldwide who believed living or even deceased family members would
teach one of the newer generations the old lore and pass on their familiar spirits to the
student family member as well. Therefore a family tradition can include mothers,
brothers, cousins, nephews, fathers, grandfathers, and any other person considered
adopted family by all members.
“The calling of a shaman was generally hereditary in his family, the order being
usually from maternal uncle to nephew. Before he died he revealed his spirit to his
successor, who might start with a comparatively feeble spirit and acquire stronger and
stronger ones.” - Shamanism and Witchcraft by John R. Swanton
Hereditary Witchcraft is mainly associated with specific Traditional Witchcraft and
cultural traditions, ranging from the cunning folk and fairy doctors of Celtic countries
to the benedicaria and stegoneria of Italy - all of which are among many other familybased
folk traditions found throughout the world. There are also some Traditional
Witchcraft covens (in some cases hereditary ones) who will not accept members from

outside of their cultural heritage. This can be seen as another definition of Hereditary
Witchcraft, where a person only practices a cultural Witchcraft tradition from their
heritage. However, in this day and age of mass immigration where people may come
from two to six different cultural backgrounds, it is very difficult to practice a
heritage-specific tradition.
“…in Britain, as far as I am aware – apart from clairvoyants, patent medicine
mongers, palmists, and their like – only some fragments of what we may call
operative witchcraft survive in certain families and coteries, like broken heirlooms
from some fallen house.” - History of the Devil: The Horned God of the West, R.
Lowe Thompson, 1929
The passing on of traditions through the family is a global concept, and is not
restricted to culture or continent. There are many family traditions existing in the US,
of which some good examples would be the Hexerei and pow wow doctors of the
Pennsylvania Dutch and the conjurers and witch doctors of the Appalachians and
Ozarks - who all bear a striking resemblance to the fairy doctors and cunning folk of
Northern Europe - many of whom were hereditary themselves. The traditions of the
hexerei were strict and binding - they could only teach one student from the next
generation of the family of the opposite sex. In many older Witchcraft families in the
UK, the traditions of transferring knowledge are thought to follow similar rules.
“In Brittany and in other regions, where we find hereditary ‘fairy’ families, the
witches’ children were dedicated to the god as soon as they were born, and thirteen
was the customary age at which they were initiated into the cult.” - History of the
Devil: The Horned God of the West, R. Lowe Thompson, 1929
There is also the cross-cultural folkloric belief in the seventh son of a seventh son
being blessed with magickal powers such as healing and the sight, this person being a
“natural-born” Witch or wise person in the eyes of many.
In general, Hereditary Witches are not found within Wicca, although now that Wicca
is more than 50 years old there are enough subsequent generations for some to be
able to claim they are hereditary due to their parents’ passing on of their Wiccan faith.
Hereditary Witches are mostly found within Traditional Witchcraft and culture-based
folk religions.
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• There are some grey areas that are tough to approach regarding both Family
Traditions and Hereditary Witchcraft.
• In most circumstances there is no documented way to determine whether or
not a person is hereditary in their Craft.
• There are also many variations of Hereditary Witchcraft, which have
developed and spread throughout the world.
• Then (as already mentioned), there is the fact that Hereditary Witchcraft is not
passed down in all cases to a biological relation.
• What if the act of passing on the family’s specific tradition of Witchcraft
skipped a generation (or two)?

RELIGIOUS WITCHCRAFT
Italian Witchcraft
Stregheria is the term most often used to describe Italian witchcraft, and is also used
to refer to a contemporary Pagan Witchcraft-based religion originating from Italy.
Stregheria is sometimes referred to as La Vecchia Religione (meaning the Old
Religion) or the Strega tradition. The word “Stregheria” is, in modern times,
considered to be an archaic Italian word meaning witchcraft, with the modern Italian
word being Stregoneria.
Some scholars, such as Raven Grimassi and Charles G Leland, have claimed that
Stregheria was an ancient pre-Christian, Pagan religion, that survived the witch-hunt
in Italy. Leland published Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches, which he claimed was
a scripture of this ancient religion, though some scholars have questioned the validity
of the work. Unlike most other Witchcraft traditions, with the exception of Gardnerian
Wicca, Stregheria has received attention from the academic community.
Contemporary Stregheria has both similarities and differences with Wicca, and in
some ways resembles other culturally-based Pagan religions. Most notably, Stregheria
honours a pantheon of deities, with a Moon Goddess and a Horned God regarded as
central, as in Wicca. Also similar to Wicca, this core duotheistic pair of deities are
regarded as divine lovers, and they may go by many different names, including: Uni
and Tagni, Tana and Tanus, Diana and Dianus, Jana and Janus, etc. Practices include
the celebration of seasonal holidays, ritual magick, reverence for gods, ancestors and
tradition-specific spirits. Stregheria itself has variant traditions, and individual
practices may vary considerably.
Origins and history
As described in Grimassi's books, especially Ways of the Strega, Stregheria claims an
ancient history. This history incorporates historical and anthropological evidence from
Italian history with a religious origin myth unique to the tradition. Girolamo
Tartarotti, in his 18th century work titled Apologia dell Congresso Notturno Delle
Lamie, refers to Stregheria in the context of a cult devoted to the goddess Diana.
Modern Italian uses stregoneria as the word for witchcraft, but the word stregheria
appears in a variety of dictionaries and other sources from the last three centuries.
The word stregheria is used almost exclusively in Apologia del Congresso Notturno
Delle Lamie, by Girolamo Tartarotti (1751) and also appears as an entry in
Vocabolario piemontese-italiano del professore di gramatica italiana e latina - by
Michele Ponza (1860), Vocabolario Bolognese-Italiano - by Carolina Coronedi Berti
(1874), and Nouveau dictionnaire italien-francais et francais-italien - by Costanzo
Ferrari, Arthur Enkenkel (1900) - where both "stregheria" and "stregoneria" appear as
separate entries with slightly different meanings; the entry on stregoneria refers
strictly to sorcery, whereas the entry on stregheria refers to organised Witchcraft in
connection with the Sabbat. The word stregheria also appears in the 2008 edition of
Lo Zingarelli, the standard modern Italian dictionary, as a literary usage otherwise
equivalent to stregoneria.
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Charles Godfrey Leland’s nineteenth-century books on Italian witchcraft survivals,
Etruscan Roman Remains, and Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches are both cited
extensively by contemporary practitioners but the word stregheria is found only twice
in Etruscan Roman Remains. In the book Materials toward a History of Witchcraft, by
Henry Charles Lea (1890) the author refers to an anonymous collection of stories
(titled il Compendio storico della Stregheria) that was written in 1751. Another
example is found in Lettere Famigliari - by Giuseppe Baretti (1760) and in Arte
magica dileguata, by Scipione Maffei, published in 1750.
Contemporary usage of Stregheria was revived by Raven Grimassi with his
publication of Ways of the Strega in 1994.
Witchcraft in Italy
In the late medieval period and early Renaissance Italy was a stronghold of Roman
Catholicism, and was less affected than other countries by the witch craze that gripped
much of Europe during that period. For that reason, it was somewhat overlooked by
mainstream Witchcraft historians. Witchcraft trials nevertheless took place in Italy,
where Witchcraft was largely conflated with heresy in the view taken by Inquisitors.
After studying manuscripts of these trials, microhistorian Carlo Ginzburg, discerned
an unusual constellation of beliefs about Witchcraft amongst some of the accused. In
his two books on the subject, Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches’ Sabbath and,
especially, Night Battles, Ginzburg described the beliefs of a group of people called
the Benandanti. While the Inquisition treated the Benandanti much the same as it did
others suspected of Witchcraft in Europe, the Benandanti themselves believed that
they were Christians engaged in a supernatural fight against Witches (or the
Malandanti). Grimassi views the Benandanti as secretly being part of the “Witches’
sect”.
The title page of Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches.Anthropologist Sabina
Magliocco has criticised interpreting Italian folk traditions as a religious survival of
Pagan elements as doing “violence” to the way practitioners perceive themselves. It is
important to remember that practitioners think of themselves as Catholic. However,
some Italian scholars, such as David Gentilcore, view elements of Italian folk
traditions and folk magick “as a surviving pre-Christian magical formula on to which
has been tacked the Christian historiola”.
In 1899 Charles Godfrey Leland published Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches.
Leland claimed that the material in the book, which describes a secret messianical
Pagan religion, was found for him by his assistant Maddalena in the course of
studying Italian folklore. In the myths given in the text, the goddess Diana has a
daughter named Aradia, who comes to Earth to teach witchcraft to the oppressed.
Other major characters in the myths include Lucifer and Cain. Leland’s claims of
authenticity have been disputed, but the book became very influential, fifty years after
its publication, as a primary source for Wicca and other Paganism. Grimassi’s
position on Aradia is that Leland’s published version is a “distorted version” of the
story of Aradia, and that, instead, there really had existed a mortal woman named
Aradia di Toscano.
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Grimassi’s history
Grimassi describes the roots of Stregheria as a syncretic offshoot of Etruscan religion
that later blended with “Tuscan peasant religion”, medieval Christian heresy, and
Saint worship.
Grimassi writes that Aradia di Toscano passed on a religion of Witchcraft, based on
ancient Etruscan Paganism, to her followers (whom Grimassi calls The Triad Clans).
The Triad Clans are referred to as “an alliance of three related Witch Clans known as
the Tanarra, Janarra, and Fanarra” that in turn, passed on the myths and practices until
the modern day, when Grimassi published a modernised version of them in Ways of
the Strega.
Along with references to Ginzburg and Leland, Grimassi points to a number of
historians, anthropologists and other scholars who have mentioned witchcraft beliefs
in Italy as demonstrating the survival of Aradia di Toscano's religion.
Stregheria popularised
Italian-American Leo Martello claimed to belong to a “family tradition” of religious
witchcraft in his 1970s book Witchcraft: The Old Religion. Martello does not use the
word Stregheria when referring to his personal practice, but refers to it as the Strega
tradition.
Grimassi began teaching the Aridian Tradition, a modernised public system presented
in his published works, in 1980 in the San Diego, California area. After the release of
Ways of the Strega, people who had not studied under Grimassi began to adopt
Stregheria practices, using the book as either a guide or as an addition to Eclectic
Wiccan practice. Grimassi published additional books on the topic, such as Hereditary
Witchcraft, now manages an annual spiritual retreat for practitioners, and is
developing a mystery school.
Practices
Like Wicca, most systems within contemporary Stregheria use a pentagram as an
important symbol. The pentagram is often worn in the form of ring or necklace piece.
Most traditions of Stregheria use the ritual tools of cup, wand, pentacle and blade,
which are seen in the suits of occult or divinatory tarot cards and amongst many
systems of Western occultism. Some Stregheria rituals take place in a circle, with an
altar facing North. Ritual actions include prayer, and the blessing of food.
Like Wicca, many groups within Stregheria celebrate eight holidays, called
“Treguendas”, while others celebrate the Catholic holidays or the ancient Roman
holidays. One unified practice among Streghe is “ancestor reverence through spirits
known as Lares (Roman deities)”. Some Stregheria groups (a Stregheria group,
according to Grimassi, is called a Boschetto) practice their religion skyclad.The
Aridian tradition contains a rite of initiation, similar to some Wiccan traditions.
Most practitioners of Stregheria think of themselves as Witches and believe that
magick can have an effect upon reality. Some see their practice as more shamanic in
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nature. The more hermetic traditions of Stregheria contain a specific belief about the
influence of spiritual beings on magick. They believe that beings known as the
Grigori (a kind of angel in Judeo-Christian belief) or Watchers witness the ritual
display of prescribed signs and gestures, and that they have the power to negate
magickal energy from the astral plane. Not all traditions of Stregheria work with the
Grigori or any angelic beings. Some traditions of Stregheria incorporate elements of
Christianity into their practice, which establish non-Pagan themes and concepts.
Relationship with other traditions
While Grimassi, whose books on the subject have been through a number of reprints,
remains the principal name associated with contemporary Stregheria, there are also
people who identify with the tradition, and Grimassi’s history of it, but do not
recognise him as a religious leader. Some other parties interested in Italian Witchcraft
have been critical of both him and his writing.
Stregheria shares commonalities with both Wicca and polytheistic Reconstructionism.
Stregheria is one of a number of ethnicity- or culture-oriented traditions of Witchcraft,
such as Celtic Wicca, Kemetic Wicca, or Seax-Wica. Some Stregheria members
attempt to distance themselves from Wicca, in a manner similar to Pagan
Reconstructionism, or argue that their belief system pre-dates it. Some adherents of
these traditions also reject the label of Paganism, preferring to emphasise a cultural
continuity with the past.
In comparing his version of Stregheria to Wicca, Grimassi notes both similarities
between the two and differences. The differences include holiday names and the
element of ancestor reverence. Grimassi has defended his material as being
significantly different from Wicca at the roots level, and asserts that many of the
foundational concepts in Gerald Gardner’s Wicca can be found earlier in works on
Italian Witchcraft and ancient Mediterranean mystery sects.
Stregoneria
What are the differences between Stregoneria and Stregheria, and what exactly is
Stregoneria?
Stregoneria is the modern word in Italian that is commonly translated into English as
the word Witch. In the Italian dictionary – Vocabolario della Lingua (Nicola
Zanichelli, 1970) - Stregoneria is defined as a magical practice intended to produce
harm or illness. Stregheria is referenced in this book as a rare usage, and it is also
defined as Witchcraft. In this article the differences between the two words, and what
they actually mean, will be revealed.
The statement that Stregoneria refers to a harmful magickal practice is supported by
ethnologist Elsa Guggino, who states that words related to stregoneria are always used
disparagingly to describe someone practicing malevolent magic (Stregoneria: The
“Old Religion” in Italy from Historical to Modern Times, by Marguerite Rigoglioso,
2000).
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Stregoneria, from a historical perspective, is a form of sorcery found in pre-Christian
times. With the establishment of the Catholic Church, Stregoneria was opposed and
eventually outlawed. It appears to have survived in fragmented forms well into the
17th century. Practices such as sortilegio, erbaria and fattucheria were regarded as
Stregoneria - this is discussed in her book titled Witchcraft and the Inquisition in
Venice 1550-1650.
The last remaining vestiges of “non-Christian” elements in Stregoneria, appear in the
16th century trial of Elena Draga (also known as Elena Crusichi). Such elements
demonstrate the former Pagan roots of Stregoneria. However, with each passing
century the authentic forms of Stregoneria withered and passed away. It was displaced
with Christian traditions mixed with folk magick beliefs, which bear little if any
resemblance to the authentic forms of Stregoneria that once existed in Italy. This is
very often the fate of inner traditions once they fall into the hands of the general
population.
Some modern practitioners of Italian folk magick traditions now claim to be Witches.
However, folk magick practitioners of Italy usually view themselves as Catholic;
therefore to refer to them as “Witches” is an act of cultural violence against Italian
folk traditions and their practitioners. Many Italian Witches are offended that some
people equate Witchcraft with the Catholic folk traditions of the non-initiate
population of Italy. Therefore it seems that this position is offensive to both the
authentic folk practitioners of Italy and the authentic Witches of Italy.
Stregoneria contrasts sharply with the “tradition” of Stregheria. The former is now a
quasi-Catholic oriented sorcery found in common Italian folk traditions, and the latter
is a Pagan oriented religious system with a magickal structure for rituals and spells.
Those wishing to differentiate themselves from Christian Stregoneria, (which usurped
and distorted the pre-existing tradition of Witchcraft) now seem to use the term
Stregheria.
Stregoneria is not a religion, nor is it a continuation of a religion, nor can it be called
an actual, unified tradition. Instead, Stregoneria consists of a “hodgepodge” of various
magickal practices, folklore, herbal knowledge, and superstition which each
practitioner has lumped together into his or her (usually her) own system.
Most practitioners of Stregoneria will adamantly declare themselves to be devout
Catholics, and the Catholic world-view is the mould into which their own beliefs and
perceptions are cast. However, the practitioner of Stregoneria could be either Catholic
or Pagan, and both would be at home with it, as the contents of Stregoneria are
comprised of a combination of Catholic prayers and Pagan charms, many of which
would appear to have an almost seamless blending. There are charms in Stregoneria
for good and evil, for love or hate, for cursing and curing, and any other sort of thing
that one can imagine.
As a result, the Catholic Church cannot and will not ever be able to give her approval
to Stregoneria or its practitioners, and its practitioners have also come under fire from
members of the Stregheria camp, who insinuate the Stregonerians are “fence-sitting”
between the two religions. However, its very fluidity and consequent ubiquity provide
the manner in which Stregoneria may overcome these prejudices, as many
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Stregherians and Benedicaria practitioners often incorporate Stregoneria techniques
into their own personal practices without even realising it.
Even though Stregoneria is so fluid and ubiquitous, it is interesting to note that
Stregoneria is not as inclusive of persons as Stregheria, as those who would teach
their arts, often pass them down only to another member of their own family or of the
Italian community. Non-Italians are generally not taught or even told about such
things with any degree of detail, and the thought of a non-Italian practicing these arts
is generally viewed as a form of disgrace and cultural piracy.
Over the past decade we have seen the rise of groups and individuals claiming to be
Witches, but are actually only practicing common folk magick and folk healing
traditions that bear a slight resemblance to some elements of Italian Witchcraft. In
Italy the majority of groups have merged eclectic material together, erroneously
portraying this as Italian Witchcraft. In reality it is a mixture of ancient Egyptian Isis
worship, Hermetics, Greco-Roman religion, and Catholic-based folk traditions.
Authentic Italian Witchcraft in Italy is still an underground society and continues to
remain in the shadows.
Some modern groups and individuals claiming to practice Witchcraft have rejected
any Pagan elements in favour of the Catholic-rooted traditions of Italy. Although seen
in Italy to a small degree, this phenomenon is largely found among segments of the
Italian-American population seeking their European roots.
Benedicaria
While (contemporary) Stregheria is for the most an artificial construct and while
Stregoneria is a fluidic and ubiquitous synthesis of Catholic and Pagan disciplines,
Benedicaria, or “the Way of Blessing”, could be said to be Stregheria’s polar
opposite: a collection of staunchly Catholic family traditions which have actually
been passed down for centuries and with which many Italians and Italians-Americans
still identify.
In its purest form, Benedicaria is in line with pre-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, and
its world-view meets with the seven conditions of the Malleus Maleficarum as to what
constitutes a “lawful enchanter”. However, it is rare and seldom that we find
Benedicaria in its purest form, and often its practice is intermixed with Stregoneria,
with the practitioner often not knowing where one begins and the other ends.
For example, the practices of having a household altar, of lighting candles, of praying
Novenas, of giving blessings, and so forth, are all fully Catholic and are mostly
approved by the Church. In fact, in some Italian and Italian-American communities, it
is not unknown for the Benedetto or Benedetta (male and female practitioners,
respectively) to bring his or her tools to the local priest for a blessing, which he freely
gives. However, there are also other practices regarding divination with Holy Cards,
as another example, which venture into the land of Stregoneria and thus cannot be
approved by the Church.
Thus, even while Benedicaria in its purest form is not magick but a tradition of folk
healing and spirituality (which bears some similarities to Mexican Curanderismo - a
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mind-body-spirit healing approach steeped in tradition and ceremony), it is rare to be
encountered in its purest form, which is why some authors have given it the name
“Magical Catholicism” and why it, too, is in a no-man’s land between Church
approval and Church anathema.
In keeping with its status as a polar opposite to Stregheria, Benedicaria is generally an
“Italians only” Craft, with only little bits and pieces being revealed to non-Italians.
Just like with Stregoneria, it is felt that one must be Italian in order to practice
Benedicaria, and non-Italians are encouraged to explore and learn the folk ways and
popular religiosities of their own respective cultures.
Novenas
A novena is a set of prayers repeated for nine consecutive days, usually with a particular intention in
mind. Novenas take many forms. Some are prayed directly to God while others seek the intercession of
saints or express a Catholic devotion. Its name deriving from the Latin word "novem," meaning "nine,"
a novena is nine days' private or public devotion in the Catholic Church to obtain special graces.
Though they are not part of our liturgy and remain a "popular devotion" (a very few are prayed
paraliturgically), they've been prayed since the very beginning of the Church -- and before its official
beginning: Mary and the Apostles prayed from His Ascension to the Pentecost, a period of nine days
(Acts 1). Also, a nine-day period of supplication was a Pagan Roman and Eastern practice, so novenas
were easily accepted by the earliest converts in these lands.
The Christian and Jewish meaning of the number "9" entered into Christian thinking on the matter, as
"9" was associated with suffering, grief, and imperfection, making it a fitting number for when "man's
imperfection turned in prayer to God" (Catholic Encyclopedia). St. Jerome wrote that "the number
nine in Holy Writ is indicative of suffering and grief" (Ezechiel, vii, 24).
Novenas, then, often, but not necessarily, have about them a sense of "urgency"; they are typically
made for special intentions, one's own or another's ("I'll make a novena for you"). Novenas to certain
Saints are often made according to that Saint's patronage; for ex., because of his New Testament letter
encouraging Christians to persevere in the face of persecution, St. Jude is the patron of desperate
situations and "hopeless" causes, so a person who finds himself or a loved one in a real tough bind
might make a novena to St. Jude (by the way, it is traditional, after making a novena to St. Jude, to
make a public expression of your gratitude. This is the reason for those mysterious thank you notes to
St. Jude that you might see in your local newspaper's Classifieds section).
There are four main types of novenas (a novena may fit into more than one category: novenas of
mourning, such as the novena made during the novemdiales -- the nine day period following the death
of a Pope; novenas of preparation, or "anticipation," such as the Christmas or Easter Novenas;
novenas of prayer; and the indulgenced novenas
http://www.fisheaters.com/novenas.html
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Neapolitan Witchcraft
Folklorist JB Andrews wrote the following article on Neapolitan Witchcraft in 1897.
Although typical in many ways of the stereotype depiction of Witchcraft, the article
does present some valuable elements obtained by Andrews directly from native
Italians who identified themselves as Witches. Of particular interest is the mention of
Witchcraft being passed within family lines, and the reference to traditional teachings
not taken from available published books. Also noteworthy is the statement that
Witchcraft is divided into specialty arts. The article deals with them in the realms of
earth, sea, and stars.
While reading this article be aware that you will encounter the stereotypical non-sense
regarding Witches flying and being in league with the devil. While this type of
distortion makes it difficult to discern the authentic elements, a keen eye can discover
small gems that point to a living tradition of Italian Witchcraft during the 19th
century.
The lore recorded in this article is both delightful and disturbing.
The authentic elements include:
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• coloured cords used in knot magick
• the mystical use of shadows
• the connection of the moon in spell casting
• the employment of pins and needles in spell casting
• invocations of stars
• the use of body fluids for magickal purposes
• the crossroads as a place to perform magick
The Christianised distortions include:
• invocation of the Devil
• pact with the Devil
• grave robbing (although using bones in magic is authentic)
• diabolism
It is unfortunate to find here such distortions, and the misuse of Witch lore in general,
but the following article is presented for those who can “read between the lines”
because of its unique elements.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY
Vol III March, 1897 No.1
NEAPOLITAN WITCHCRAFT by JB Andrews
SOUTHERN ITALY has been for many ages the favorite country for witches; they
come from all parts of the peninsula to the Grand Councils held under the walnut-tree
of Benevento, and even from more distant lands, for its fame is celebrated in
Mentonnese tradition. This tree is to have been destroyed by S. Barbato in 660,
during the reign of Duke Romualdo, in contending against superstition. Benevento
was formerly called Malevento, a name perhaps significant. The site of the tree is
now disputed, its very existence doubted; but witches still pretend to meet on the spot
where it grew. The Neapolitans have an occult religion and government in witchcraft,
and the Camorra; some apply to them to obtain what official organizations cannot or
will not do. As occasionally happens in similar cases, the Camorra fears and yields to
the witches, the temporal to the spiritual. There are also wizards, but as elsewhere
they are much rarer; according to the usual explanation they have more difficulty in
flying, being heavier.
It is said that the devil as a man prefers women; they for their part are amiable to him,
at times even seducing him. There are special departments of the art -there is that of
the earth and of the sea- having their special adepts. The first will only be treated of
now; any witch can, however, render service to sea-faring folk, in giving a good haul
of fish or averting a storm. Amongst witches by birth are women born on Christmas
Eve, or on the Feast of the Conversion of St Paul. Whoever invokes the devil on
Christmas Eve before a mirror may become a witch.
An instruction in the methods is by itself sufficient; it is frequently given by the
mother to her daughter, but not exclusively; any one may learn the art, even those
knowing only a single incantation can make use of it. When a new witch has
completed her education, the two women open a vein in their arms; having mixed the
blood, the older witch makes a cross with it under the left thigh of her pupil, who
says: “Croce, croce, sciagurata sono.” There is no visible sign by which to detect
them, they recognise one another by looking into their eyes; then the one who first
leaves salutes the other by striking her with her left hand on the left shoulder and
simply saying: “Me ne vo.” In payment for the power he gives, the devil receives her
soul with those of the others she procures for him; in witness of her fidelity she mocks
at religion, and will profane the Host by trampling on it. But she means to cheat him
and save her soul at the hour of death. She goes to mass, fills her room with pious
pictures, before which, however, she does not work her charms. In her death-agony
she sends for the priest, gives up to him all her apparatus to be burnt, then confesses
and receives absolution. Her companions try to save some of the most precious
objects from the flames. There are certain crimes for which there is no forgiveness,
such as having caused death or made a hunchback. Among the many devils the head
of all is called Satanasso.
Especially malicious is the Diavolo Zoppo (the lame devil), proud, violent, and
treacherous ; he occupies himself much with lovers. Others are Lucibello, Lurdino,
Lurdinino, Quisisizio, Turbionone, Scartellato, Baldassare. Their aid is invoked, they
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are present at the councils. The witches go to meet them flying through the air, often
on horseback. In order to be able to fly, after having completely undressed and
undone their hair, they go a little before midnight to an isolated spot out of sight,
away from every sacred object. It is forbidden to see them, but not to speak to them.
Then they anoint their bodies with the following composition, the quantity varying
according to their weight: ten pounds of spirits of wine, half a pound of salt of Saturn,
half a pound of Dragerio, to be left for four hours in a covered vessel. Then, saying
“Sotto I'acqua e sotto il vento, sotto il noce di Benevento, Lucibello portami dove
debbo andare,” they fly away.
The meetings take place at midnight in the country, when the witches dance and take
council together. Anyone seeing them may claim a gift; thus a hunchback once got rid
of his hump. Hearing them singing “Sabato e Domenica” in endless repetition, he
added “ E Giovedi morzillo” (and Shrove-Thursday), a favourable day for witchcraft,
as is also Saturday. This story is one of those most widely spread in Europe. It is
indispensable that the witches should return before dawn: once the hour has passed,
they fall in their flight and are killed. As a proof, it is said that some have been found
very early in the morning in the streets of Naples lying dead and naked. On their way
they can neither traverse a running stream nor cross roads; they are obliged “to go
round them”. They can turn themselves into animals, especially into black cats, but
not into inanimate objects. However, they may become “wind”, so as to enter a house
in order to carry off someone, or to transform him, or for other bad purposes. If when
in the house the witch is seized by the hair and so held until day-break, she dies; but if
in reply to her question “What do you hold?” is said: “I hold you by the hair,” she
answers, escaping: “And I slip away like an eel.” On entering a house she should say:
“lo entro in questa casa come vento per pigliarmi questo figlio, e a I'ora in cut me lo
rubo, dev' essere presente anche la morte.” If she means to transform the person she
says: “lo non sono cristiano, sono animale e sono eretico, e dopo di avere ereticato, ho
fatto diventare questa donna (uomo o fan-ciullo) animale, ed io divento piu animale di
questa donna.” Beside the bed she says: “Io sono venuto per forza del demonio, il
diavolo mi ha portato su di un cavallo, e come diavolo, e non come cristiano, io mi ho
preso questa donna.” Their aid is invoked in quarrels. The Camorrists and bullies
bring their arms to have them made invincible. A witch present at a fight can prevent
the blows from striking home, or she may stop the fight by saying under her breath:
“Ferma, ferma, arma feroce, come Gesu’ fermo la croce, come il prete all' altare,
I'ostia in bocca ed il calice in mano.”
Witches are much sought after in affairs of the affections between lovers, and between
husbands and wives, and to restore love between parents and children. They use an
"”acqua della concordia” and an “acqua della discordia”. To bring back an unfaithful
lover the witch goes at night to the cemetery, digs up with her nails the body of an
assassin, with her left hand cuts off the three joints of the ring-finger, then reducing
them to powder in a bronze mortar, she mixes it with " acqua benedetta senza morti,"
bought at the chemist's. The lover is to sprinkle the road between his house and his
sweetheart's with this water, and this will oblige the beloved one to return.
Another very powerful powder is made by scraping the left humerus of a dead priest;
the powder is then made into a small parcel and hidden on the altar by the server at a
mass paid for by the witch. When the priest says: “Cristo eleison” she must mutter:
“Cristo non eleison.” Such a bone was shown me by a witch; it had been purchased
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for fifty francs from one of the servants of a confraternity. It had belonged to the
witch’s mother, who was also a witch, and had been stolen from the objects given by
her before dying to the priest to be burnt. It must be the left humerus, the right having
been used for giving the benediction.
It is possible to make a lover come in the following manner. At noon precisely take
hold of a shutter or door of the room with the left hand, shut it quickly three times,
then strike the floor heavily three times with the left foot. This ceremony is repeated
three several times; at the end the shutter is slammed with violence. Each time the
door or shutter is shut, say: “Porta, che vai e vient;” then at the last time of all:
“Prendilo, Diavolo, e non lo trattieni; giacche` set il Diavolo Zoppo, portami N-- o
vivo o morto.”
To prevent a lover from liking another, stand in front of a wall so that your shadow
falls on it; speak to the shadow as if to the lover, saying: “Buona sera, ombricciuola
mia, buona sera a me e buona sera a te; avanti a N--- tutte brutte figure, ed io bella
come una luna.” In speaking of oneself, touch the breast; the shadow, in naming the
lover; in saying bella, touch the face; in mentioning the moon, the wall. Witches
undertake to punish the unfaithful. They prepare three cords with knots, a black cord
for the head, red for the heart, white for the sexual organs. To cause pain in the head,
they take hold of the black cord, gaze at a star, and say: “Stella una, stella due, stella
tre, stella quattro, io le cervella di N-- attacco, glide attacco tanto forte, che per me
possa prendere la morte.” This is repeated five times outside the witch’s door. For the
heart, say: “Buona sera, buona sera, N-- mio, dove e` stato? Diavolo da me non e`
accostato; diavolo, tu questa sera me lo devi chiamare e qui me lo devi portare.”
Taking hold of the white cord, is said: “Diavolo, to in mano ho questo laccio; to gli
lego c---i e c-o, da nessuno possa f/--e ed impregnare; solo a questa f-a possa
adorare.” The incantation finished, the cord must be worn in order to keep the knots
intact, for if untied the charm is broken. A lemon, orange, or even a potato, stuck over
with pins of various colours and nails answers the same purpose. The pins and nails
are inserted at midnight in the open air, deeply or superficially, according to the harm
intended. In sticking in each pin, is said: “Stella, stella, delle fore fore, diavolo
quattro, diavolo nove, io questa spilla in testa a N--- inchiodo,gliela inchiodo tanto
forte che per me ne deve prendere la morte.” Then knots are made round some of the
pins with a cord secretly bought by the witch for this special purpose, refusing to take
change; if the seller calls her back she tells him that he is mad. In knotting the cord, is
said: “Diavolo Zoppo, io metto questa spilla in testa di N-- vivo o morto.” Then the
object is hidden to prevent a disenchantment, as by throwing it into a drain or into the
sea. The head, heart, or liver of an animal is also used, the head of a cock for a man,
of a hen for a woman.
To prevent an unfaithful lover from sleeping, the woman goes to bed quite naked,
takes hold of the left sleeve of her chemise, saying: " Rissa, rissa, diavolo, io mi
vendo questa camicia, non me la vendo per denaro. Pulci, cimici, piattole e tafani e
I'ortica campaiuola, da N-- ve ne andate, ed allora pace fossa trovare, quando questa
camicia si viene a prendere." Then, putting the chemise in the middle of the bed, she
stands at the foot, places her arms crossed on the bed, and turns them four times so
that the last time the-palms are turned upwards, saying: “Il letto di N-- non Io vedo,
non Io so. Ai piedi ci metto due candelieri, alia testa ci metto un capo di morte,
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nel mezzo due spine di Cristo. Diavolo, per me si ha da volt are, spesso e tan to deve
volt are forte, che per me deve pigliare la morte.” Then she must lie down without
speaking, or else she will herself have much suffering. To detach a husband from his
mistress, the wife can go barefooted with unbound hair to a crossroad, where picking
up a pebble and putting it under her left armpit she says : “Mi calo a terra e pietra
piglio, tra M-- e N-- un grande scompiglio, e si vogliono acquie-tare, quando questa
pietra qui sotto si viene a pigliare.” She does the same at a second cross-road, putting
the pebble under the right armpit; then at a third placing the pebble between the chin
and breast. Returning to her house she throws the pebbles into the cesspool, so that
they cannot be got at, saying: “M-- allora con N-- fossa tu parlare, quando queste tre
pietre qui dentro viene a pigliare.”
To attract a lover, the witch provides a magnet wrapped with a knotted cord; it must
be worn. Much recommended are cakes containing, according to the case, menstrual
blood or sperm. A padlock also serves to submit a person to one's will. In opening it,
say: “N--- di lontano ti vedo, da vicino ti saluto, ti chiudo e non ti sciolgo, se non farai
tutta la mia voglia.'” Then lock the padlock, put a knotted cord round it, and keep it in
a safe place. It is possible to overcome the protection of holy medals or other blessed
objects, especially if something belonging to the person can be obtained-a bit of his
skin, nails, or clothing; besides this, the co-operation of four or five witches is
necessary. They sing together, one saying: “u gli I'hai fatta, to gli la leva,'” another
replying: “Tuglilafai, e non gli la nego.” The witches also undertake to break spells.
Suspending a sieve on scissors under the bed of a man made impotent, the witch also
places there her shoes crossed; she provides herself with a rosary without medals or
other blessed objects, and a packet of unwashed herbs, then tearing the packet and
scattering its contents on the ground, she says: “Come io sciolgo questo mazzo, cost
sciolgo questo c-o.”
Sometimes a dance of naked witches takes place round the bed of a sick person,
recalling the devil dances in Ceylon, the object of both being to cure the illness. There
must be three or five witches; if five, one remains at the back, one stands at each
corner of the bed, holding between them cords which must cross the bed diagonally,
then dancing, they sing: “Tit git I’hai fatta, ed io gli la tolgo,” going round the bed.
When there are only three witches the left corner at the foot of the bed remains empty,
the cord being held laterally. They cure all diseases, employing medicinal herbs as
well as magic, or even pious objects. Medals of S. Anastasio are much recommended
against infection; they are also most efficacious amulets against the Evil Eye, as are
also spinning whorls and the well-known horns.
As regards the Evil Eye, witches cannot make it, but they can avert its influence. A
small packet of salt worn on the person is a protection against it; but according to the
Neapolitans it is useless against witchcraft, contrary to the belief in some other places.
For that, a little bag full of sand is good, the witch being obliged to count each grain
before working her spell, in the meanwhile the hour of her power passes. A comb,
three nails driven in behind the house-door, and the horseshoe are also recommended
against witchcraft. Witches can make storms cease, or render them harmless, by
saying before an open window: “Ferma, ferma, tuono, come Gesu` fermo I'uomo, e
come quello schifoso prete all' altare, con ostia in bocca ed il calice in mano.”
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Witchcraft is powerless on Wednesday, during Holy Week, and (contrary to what is
thought in some other countries) on the eve of St John Baptist’s Day. It is believed
that at midnight then Herodiade may be seen in the sky seated across a ray of fire,
saying:
“Mamma, mamma, perche` lo dicesti?
Figlia, figlia, perche' lo facesti? “
The were-wolf is known, but not as the creation of witches. It is a curse on men born
on Christmas live; they are known by the length of their nails. The malady seizes
them in the night; they run on all fours trying to bite, but they retain the human form.
If they are wounded so as to lose blood, the madness is stopped at once. Girls born on
Christmas Eve are not maidens.
The foregoing information was obtained quite recently from witches in Naples. When
asked what books they used, they answered None, that their knowledge is entirely
traditional. The incantations, often composed in verse, have become in time so
damaged that it has seemed better not to attempt to indicate the verses. Still, literal
accuracy in repeating the spells is believed to be of the greatest importance. A scarred
tongue was shown to me as the consequence of a mistake.
Some of the apparatus of witchcraft mentioned was presented to the Society that it
might be placed in the Cambridge Museum.
I owe much to the kind aid of Signor Luigi Molinaro del Chiaro, of Naples, founder of
the paper, Giambattista Basile, so much appreciated by amateurs of Italian traditions.
Unfortunately it exists no longer.
Le Pigautier, Menton, September, 1896.
CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS WITCHCRAFT
Wicca
On the other hand, Wicca is actually a very specific form of religious Witchcraft. It is
a lineaged, initiatory, duotheistic Mystery Tradition. In other words, two deities are
worshipped (The Lord and The Lady/God and Goddess) and one must be initiated
into a coven by a Priest or Priestess of Second Degree or higher. There is no “selfinitiation”
into Wicca, despite the word of many popular books to the contrary. In
fact, a quick glance at the word “initiation” in the dictionary will show that the very
idea of self-initiation in any context is contradictory. Other characteristics of Wicca
include the ritual use of magick, a basic code of morality, and the celebration of eight
seasonally based festivals.
There are various different denominations within Witchcraft, which are referred to as
traditions. Some, such as Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca, follow in the initiatory
lineage of Gardner; these are often collectively termed British Traditional Wicca, and
many of their practitioners consider the term "Wicca" to apply only to these lineaged
traditions.
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Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans, although reincarnation is a traditional
Wiccan teaching dating back to the New Forest coven in the 1930s - a popular saying
amongst Wiccans is that “once a witch, always a witch”, perhaps indicating a belief
that Wiccans are the reincarnations of previous witches. Typically, Wiccans who
believe in reincarnation believe that the soul rests between lives in the Otherworld or
Summerland, known in Gardner's writings as the “ecstasy of the Goddess”.
Despite some belief therein, Wicca does not place an emphasis on the afterlife,
focusing instead on the current one; as the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, “the
instinctual position of most Pagan Witches, therefore, seems to be that if one makes
the most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly
going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present”.
Wiccans believe in magick, a force they see as being capable of manipulation through
the practice of witchcraft or sorcery. Many Wiccans agree with the definition of
magick offered by ceremonial magicians, such as Aleister Crowley, who declared that
magick was “he science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will”,
whilst another prominent ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it was
“the science of the control of the secret forces of nature”.
However, many Wiccans believe magick to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood
or disregarded by contemporary science, and as such they do not view it as being
supernatural, but part of powers that reside in the natural. Some Wiccans believe that
it is making full use of the five senses that achieve surprising results, whilst other
Wiccans do not claim to know how magick works, merely believing that it does
because they have observed it to be so.
Wiccans cast spells or workings during ritual practices, often held inside a sacred
circle, in an attempt to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common
Wiccan spells include those used for healing, for protection, fertility, or to banish
negative influences. Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders and Doreen Valiente,
referred to their own magic as “white magic” which contrasted with “black magic”
which they associated with evil. Sanders also used the similar terminology of “left
hand path” to describe malevolent magick, and “right hand path” to describe magick
performed with good intentions. Many modern Wiccans, however, have stopped using
this terminology, arguing that the colour black should not necessarily have any
associations with evil.
There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all
traditions, however a majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede, which states
“n it harm none, do what ye will” This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the
freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from
one’ actions and minimising harm to oneself and others.
Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which
holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions a person performs will return to
that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body,
mind and spirit, similar to the eastern idea of karma. Both the Rede and the Threefold
Law were introduced into the Craft by Gerald Gardner, and subsequently adopted by
the Gardnerian and other traditions.
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In certain traditions, there is a belief in the five classical elements, although unlike in
ancient Greece, they are seen as symbolic as opposed to literal; that is, they are
representations of the phases of matter. These five elements are invoked during many
magical rituals, notably when consecrating a magic circle. The five elements are: Air,
Fire, Water and Earth, plus Aether (or Spirit), which unites the other four.
Traditionally, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass -
for example: Air with east, Fire with south, Water with west, Earth with north and the
Spirit with centre. However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond, have claimed
that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern
England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions
best suit each element in their region, for instance, those living on the east coast of
North America should invoke Water in the east and not the west because the colossal
body of water, the Atlantic ocean, is to their east. The five elements are symbolised by
the five points of the pentagram, the most prominently used symbol of Wicca.
Some hold to the earlier Greek conception of the four classical elements (air, fire,
water, earth), while others recognise five elements: earth, air, water, fire, and spirit
(also known as akasha). Some see the points of the pentagram symbol as representing
the five elements. The elements are commonly invoked at the beginning of rituals or
used in their physical forms to symbolically purify the ritual circle. Each element has
associated symbols, rituals and meanings, which are outlined in the chart below.
Systems of the elements vary by tradition and the associations below are not used by
all Wiccans.
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Element air Fire water earth spirit/ether
Celtic Name Airt Deas Iar Tuath Aethyr
Direction East South West North Centre
Colour yellow red blue green violet, white or
black
Tool wand athame chalice pentacle circle, cauldron
Time mornings noon twilight midnight all times
Season spring summer Autumn winter all seasons
Goddess Maiden Mother Crone Dark All deities
Symbolises mind,
intellect,
reason,
sciences,
travel,
youth
Ritual
Representations incense
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strength,
passion,
energy,
transformation,
will, sex,
energy
incense,
candles
emotions,
intuition,
daring,
wisdom,
clarity,
healing
stability,
order,
grounding,
silence,
birth,
death,
beginnings,
endings,
fertility
Water salt, soil
Chart of the Wiccan Elements of Nature: Graphic:
http://www.religionfacts.com/neoPaganism/charts/wiccan_five_elements.htm
There are many rituals within Wicca that are used when celebrating the Sabbats,
worshipping the deities and working magick. Often these take place on a full moon, or
in some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat. In typical rites, the coven or
solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified magick circle. Casting the circle
may involve the invocation of the Guardians of the cardinal points, alongside their
respective classical element; Air, Fire, Water and Earth. Once the circle is cast, a
seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells
are sometimes worked. These rites often include a special set of magickal tools. These
usually include a knife called an athame, a wand, a pentacle and a chalice, but other
tools include a broomstick known as a besom, a cauldron, candles, incense and a
curved blade known as a boline. An altar is usually present in the circle, on which
ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be
displayed. Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually
bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess and Guardians are thanked and
the circle is closed.
immanence
and
transcendence,
everything and
nothing
fulfilled by
presence of
practitioners
and deities

A sensationalised aspect of Wicca, particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca,
is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad. This practice
seemingly derives from a line in Aradia, Charles Leland’s “record” of Italian
Witchcraft. Other traditions wear robes with cords tied around the waist or even
normal street clothes. In certain traditions, ritualised sex magick is performed in the
form of the Great Rite, whereby a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and
Goddess to possess them before performing sexual intercourse to raise magickal
energy for use in spellwork. In some cases it is instead performed “in token”, thereby
merely symbolically, using the athame to symbolise the penis and the chalice to
symbolise the vagina.
Wiccans celebrate several seasonal festivals of the year, which are known as Sabbats;
collectively these occasions are often termed the “Wheel of the Year”. Many
Wiccans, such as Gardnerians and most eclectics celebrate a set of eight of these
Sabbats, though in other groups, particularly those that describe themselves as
following Traditional Witchcraft, only four are followed. The four Sabbats that are
common to all these groups are the cross-quarter days, and these are sometimes
referred to as Greater Sabbats. They originated as festivals celebrated by the ancient
Celtic peoples of Ireland, and possibly other Celtic peoples of western Europe as well.
In the Egyptologist Margaret Murray’s The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and
The God of the Witches (1933), in which she dealt with what she believed to be a
historical Witch-Cult, she stated that these four festivals had survived Christianisation
and had been celebrated in the Pagan Witchcraft religion. Subsequently, when Wicca
was first developing in the 1930s through to the 1960s, many of the early groups, such
as Robert Cochrane’s Clan of Tubal Cain and Gerald Gardner’s Bricket Wood coven
adopted the commemoration of these four Sabbats as described by Murray. Gardner
himself made use of the English names of these holidays, stating that “the four great
Sabbats are Candlemass, May Eve, Lammas and Halloween; the equinoxes and
solstices are celebrated also”.
The other four festivals commemorated by many Wiccans are known as Lesser
Sabbats, and comprise of the solstices and the equinoxes, and were only adopted in
1958 by members of the Bricket Wood coven, before subsequently being adopted by
other followers of the Gardnerian tradition, and eventually other traditions like
Alexandrian Wicca and the Dianic tradition. The names of these holidays that are
commonly used today are often taken from Germanic Pagan and Celtic polytheistic
holidays. However, the festivals are not reconstructive in nature nor do they often
resemble their historical counterparts, instead exhibiting a form of universalism.
Ritual observations may display cultural influence from the holidays from which they
take their name as well as influence from other unrelated cultures.
Various rites of passage can be found within Wicca. Perhaps the most significant of
these is an initiation ritual, through which somebody joins the Craft and becomes a
Wiccan. In British Traditional Wiccan (BTW) traditions, there is a line of initiatory
descent that goes all the way back to Gerald Gardner, and from him back to the New
Forest coven. Gardner himself claimed that there was a traditional length of “a year
and a day” between when a person began studying the Craft and when they were
initiated, although he frequently broke this rule with initiates. In BTW, initiation only
accepts someone into the first degree, and to proceed to the second degree, an initiate
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has to go through another ceremony, in which they name and describe the uses of the
ritual tools and implements. It is also at this ceremony that they are given their craft
name. By holding the rank of second degree, a BTW is therefore capable of initiating
others into the Craft, or founding their own semi-autonomous covens. The third
degree is the highest in BTW, and it involves the participation of the Great Rite, either
actual or symbolically, as well as ritual flagellation. By holding this rank, an initiate is
capable of forming covens that are entirely autonomous of their parent coven.
Handfasting is another celebration held by Wiccans, and is the commonly used term
for their weddings. Some Wiccans observe the practice of a trial marriage for a year
and a day, which some traditions hold should be contracted on the Sabbat of
Lughnasadh, as this was the traditional time for trial, “Telltown marriages” among the
Irish. A common marriage vow in Wicca is “for as long as love lasts” instead of the
traditional Christian “till death do us part”. The first ever known Wiccan wedding
ceremony took part in 1960 amongst the Bricket Wood coven, between Frederic
Lamond and his first wife, Gillian.
Infants in Wiccan families may be involved in a ritual called a Wiccaning, which is
analogous to a Christening. The purpose of this is to present the infant to the God and
Goddess for protection. Despite this, in accordance with the importance put on free
will in Wicca, the child is not necessarily expected or required to adhere to Wicca or
other forms of Paganism should they not wish to do so when they get older.
In Wicca there is no set sacred text such as the Christian Bible or Islamic Qur’an
although there are certain scriptures and texts that various different traditions hold to
be important and influence their beliefs and practices. Gerald Gardner used a book
containing many different texts in his covens, known as the Book of Shadows, which
he would constantly add to and adapt. In his Book of Shadows, there are texts taken
from various different sources, including Charles Godfrey Leland’s Aradia, or the
Gospel of the Witches (1899) and the works of Aleister Crowley. Also in the Book
are examples of poetry largely composed by Gardner and Doreen Valiente, the most
notable of which is the Charge of the Goddess.
Various different symbols are used by Wiccans, similar to the use of the crucifix by
Christians or the Star of David by Jews. The most notable of these is the pentagram,
which has five points, each representing one of the five classical elements in Wicca
(earth, air, fire, water and spirit) and also the idea that the human, with its five
appendages, is a microcosm of the universe. Other symbols that are used include the
triquetra and the triple Moon symbol of the Triple Goddess.
In the 1950s through to the 1970s, when the Wiccan movement was largely confined
to lineaged groups such as Gardnerian Wicca, a “tradition” usually implied the
transfer of a lineage by initiation. However, with the rise of more and more such
groups, often being founded by those with no previous initiatory lineage, the term
came to be a synonym for a religious denomination within Wicca. There are many
such traditions and there are also many solitary practitioners who do not align
themselves with any particular lineage, working alone. There are also covens that
have formed but who do not follow any particular tradition, instead choosing their
influences and practices eclectically.
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Those traditions which trace a line of initiatory descent back to Gerald Gardner
include Gardnerian Wicca, Alexandrian Wicca and the Algard tradition; because of
their joint history, they are often referred to as British Traditional Wicca, particularly
in North America. Other traditions trace their origins to different figures, even if their
beliefs and practices have been influenced to a greater or lesser extent by Gardner.
These include Cochrane’s Craft and the 1734 tradition, both of which trace their
origins to Robert Cochrane; Feri, which traces itself back to Victor Anderson and
Gwydion Pendderwen; and Dianic Wicca, whose followers often trace their
influences back to Zsuzsanna Budapest. Some of these groups prefer to refer to
themselves as Witches, thereby distinguishing themselves from the BTW traditions,
who more typically use the term Wiccan.
British Traditional Wiccans in particular, but also other groups, insist that to become a
bona fide member of that tradition, a person has to undergo an actual physical
initiation ceremony performed by a pre-existing initiate. In this manner, all BTW’s
can trace a direct line of descent all the way back to Gardner. Other traditions
however do not hold this to be necessary, for instance anyone following a Goddesscentred
form of the Craft which emphasises feminism could be considered to be
Dianic.
Lineaged Wicca is organised into covens of initiated priests and priestesses. Covens
are autonomous, and are generally headed by a High Priest and a High Priestess
working in partnership, being a couple who have each been through their first, second
and third degrees of initiation. Occasionally the leaders of a coven are only seconddegree
initiates, in which case they come under the rule of the parent coven. Initiation
and training of new priesthood is most often performed within a coven environment,
but this is not a necessity, and a few initiated Wiccans are unaffiliated with any coven.
A commonly quoted Wiccan tradition holds that the ideal number of members for a
coven is thirteen, though this is not held as a hard-and-fast rule. Indeed, many US
covens are far smaller, though the membership may be augmented by unaffiliated
Wiccans at “open” rituals. When covens grow beyond their ideal number of members,
they often split (or hive) into multiple covens, yet remain connected as a group. A
grouping of multiple covens is known as a grove in many traditions.
Initiation into a coven is traditionally preceded by a waiting period of at least a year
and a day. A course of study may be set during this period. In some covens a
“dedication” ceremony may be performed during this period, some time before the
initiation proper, allowing the person to attend certain rituals on a probationary basis.
Some solitary Wiccans also choose to study for a year and a day before their selfdedication
to the religion.
In contrast, Eclectic Wiccans (Neo-Wiccans) are more often than not solitary
practitioners. Some of these “solitaries” do, however, attend gatherings and other
community events, but reserve their spiritual practices (Sabbats, Esbats, spell-casting,
worship, magical work, etc.) for when they are alone. Eclectic Wiccans now
significantly outnumber lineaged Wiccans, and their beliefs and practices tend to be
much more varied.
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In the 1990s, amid ever-rising numbers of self-initiates, the popular media began to
explore “Witchcraft” in fictional films such as The Craft and television series such
as Charmed, introducing numbers of young people to the idea of religious Witchcraft.
This growing demographic was soon catered to through the Internet and by authors
like Silver Ravenwolf, much to the criticism of traditional Wiccan groups and
individuals. In response to the way that Wicca was increasingly portrayed as trendy,
eclectic, and influenced by the New Age movement, many Witches turned to the pre-
Gardnerian origins of the Craft, and to the traditions of his rivals such as Cardell and
Cochrane, describing themselves as following “traditional Witchcraft”.
The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and
Reconstructionist Pagan traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in
the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other Pagan movements.
Neo-Wicca
Neo-Wicca (or Eclectic Wicca) can basically be said to be a system of beliefs based
on Outer Court teachings of Wicca. The term Neo, means New. Neo-Wicca, which is
based off of Wicca, is considered a new “form” of Wicca.
Many Wiccans are adamant that others who have not been initiated do not call
themselves Wiccan. Initiated Wiccans go through intense training processes to reach
initiation, and I assume, go through an intense spiritual experience during initiation, in
which the Inner Court material is transmitted to them. Therefore it would be wrong
and unjust to call oneself Wiccan when one has not gone through the training and
initiation, nor knows anything of the Inner Court material, or the Wiccan Mysteries.
So those who base their spiritual practices off of the Outer Court are called Neo-
Wiccan.
The springboard for Neo-Wicca, was the Outer Court material. Gradually however,
and especially in the 1990s, new material was added. A lot of it seemed to come from
the Celtic beliefs, also Norse, Egyptian, Greek and many others. So the face of Neo-
Wicca changed. It now became something that changed with each practitioner,
adopting other mythologies and beliefs, and molding them to Outer Court teachings.
A lot of Neo-Wiccans are solitary, perhaps because they like the freedom of being
able to choose from a wide variety of beliefs. If, however, the basis is not Wiccan, it
can no longer be called Neo-Wicca, instead it is a form of Paganism.
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PART SIX
BASIC PAGAN BELIEFS
Mythology both ancient and modern contributes to the sacred stories through which
Pagans find meaning in themselves, their community, and the cosmos.
In the 1960s, researcher James Lovelock formulated what has come to be known as
the Gaia Hypothesis, which holds that the biological and physiological systems
throughout the earth function in such a closely interactive and self-regulating way that
it is plausible to regard the entire earth ecosystem as a single entity - a “superorganism”,
as it were. While not universally accepted in the scientific community, this
concept - from which it is a short jump to the idea of the earth as a single sentient
being - has become one of many stories, both ancient and modern, to be embraced by
various elements within the modern Pagan community. For many Pagans, not only is
the Gaia Hypothesis a compelling story, but even its name is taken literally: Gaia,
Greek Goddess of the Earth, is she whom many Pagans adore when they revere the
earth.
Contemporary Paganism, however, is more than just a spiritualised approach to
hypotheses. Woven throughout the various expressions of magickal, polytheistic,
nature-centered and goddess-oriented spiritualities are a rich array of myths, both
ancient and modern, that create meaning and spiritual identity for practitioners.
Although adherents tend to be sophisticated and recognize myth as a category
separate from history, approaches to the sacred stories vary widely in the larger Pagan
community. Myth can be understood as meaningful metaphor, as stories imbued with
symbolic truth and even as factual records of the exploits of spiritual heroes and
deities. But because Pagans typically reject the idea of prescribed belief or dogma,
sacred stories - like all other elements in modern Paganism - may be interpreted by
each individual according to her or his own values and worldview.
While some Pagans insist that mythologies from different cultures should not be
mixed in the pursuit of spiritual practice, many others freely integrate myths from
around the world into their rituals and devotions. This practice is known as “eclectic”
Paganism, and results in a uniquely colourful celebration of various gods and
goddesses from all corners of the earth.
Along with the eclectic intermingling of sacred stories from around the world, some
Pagans (including many Wiccans) affirm that “all the gods are one God, and all the
goddesses one Goddess” - meaning that the many different deities of world
mythology can essentially be understood as one archetypal God and one archetypal
Goddess. Others, however, reject this idea as a purely modern innovation, and so have
a more truly polytheistic approach to mythology: seeing the spirit world as populated
by many different gods and goddesses, rather than by a single, universal pair of
deities.
Few if any Pagans rely on their sacred stories to determine what to believe; rather,
myth is celebrated as an evocative tool for inspiring the religious and spiritual
imagination. Even Pagans who speak about praying to a particular god or goddess will
sometimes clarify that they understand these deities as symbolic or archetypal. A
prayer to Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love, may for many Pagans be simply a
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symbolic ritual means of accessing unconscious abilities to give and receive love.
Others, however, may be more literal, accepting the gods and goddesses as factually
real.
Pagans vary widely in their understanding of deities or spirits, although most revere
the natural world as both good and spiritually enchanted.
Few, if any, Pagans orient themselves to a concept of divinity that is situated “above”
or “beyond” nature. The monotheistic worldview - belief in a single god who fully
transcends the physical universe, which god has created and that therefore is not god -
is rejected by many Pagans as dualistic and consequently hostile to nature. By
contrast, most forms of Paganism entail some sort of recognition that nature is in itself
sacred, or divine, and worthy of human respect, honor, and adoration. But the ways in
which such respect and adoration are expressed differ widely among different Pagan
traditions.
In contrast with pantheism, another approach to divinity within nature religion is
polytheism, the belief that the earth (or the cosmos as a whole) is the material home to
a multiplicity of gods and goddesses and/or other spiritual beings. Integrally
connected to the material world is an “otherworld” - a spiritual realm - that functions
as the home of the deities and other spirit beings.
Yet another Pagan belief system, animism, holds that spirit or consciousness pervades
all material things - that every animal, plant, and inanimate object has its own spirit
worthy of respect if not veneration. This view of nature holds that all things are
enchanted, and are alive, even if at a very low level of consciousness - and, therefore,
are sacred. Yet another perspective emphasises the idea that humanity is divine, and
nature is holy simply because it is home.
Generally speaking, Pagans see both the foundation and the purpose of humanity as
embedded in the physical environment. Humans are not “given” nature and purpose
so much as they create it. Pagan wisdom traditions have no consensus on how to
understand human nature or the meaning and purpose of life, other than for each
individual to forge his or her own sense of self-understanding, meaning, and purpose.
One of the priciples is that humanity is part of nature, not above it or outside it.
Closely related to this is the idea that humanity can only be understood in relation to
the natural world.
It is important to note that, as a whole, Paganism offers no pre-given purpose of
existence. Although mythological wisdom from around the world offers suggestions
as to the purpose of life, no dogmatic idea of one eternal, unchanging truth is
universally accepted among Pagans. Even within mythology, many different ways of
approaching the question of life's purpose can be found.
Many Pagans maintain that humans are, both individually and collectively, free to
chart their own course, to determine their own purpose. Without a pre-given,
“supernatural” way of understanding life’s meaning, or even a consensus within the
mythologies of the world, Pagans are free to create their own meaning or sense of
purpose. Although such freedom can be abused, most Pagans would argue that one’s
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own freedom to decide meaning is more important than efforts to judge or evaluate
the meaning-choices of others.
For many Pagans, maintaining balance between humanity and nature is also an
important purpose of being human. Humans exist not merely to enjoy the bounty of
the environment, but also to serve and protect the environment, not only for future
generations of humans, but indeed for the sake of nature itself. Although such a
values-driven understanding of life's purpose is far from universally held within the
Pagan community, for many this is an important part of their chosen spirituality.
Finally, some Pagans do accept a metaphysical understanding of life’s purpose,
derived from mythology and spiritual beliefs. Living a good life can create positive
karma, which can lead to a blessed afterlife existence and/or a favorable reincarnation.
Suffering and harm are natural aspects of life; therefore, Paganism aims for pragmatic
and virtuous ways to respond to these unavoidable realities.
Questions regarding the Pagan response to suffering and evil can best be understood
as two separate issues, even if they are closely related. Suffering, or the experience of
pain, is an experiential reality, whereas evil is an abstract (metaphysical) concept.
Because of this distinction, many in the modern Pagan community have distinct ways
of approaching the problem of suffering versus the question of evil. Suffering is part
of life. So are loss, age, sickness, and death. Simply put, suffering is part of nature.
Evil, which can be defined as a metaphysical principle which that causes suffering or
harm, is more problematic than suffering - for while suffering can be documented,
evil, as a metaphysical principle, cannot. Evil, therefore, is a matter of faith, and
among Pagans, no articles of faith are universally held. Therefore, while some Pagans
might choose to believe in the existence of metaphysical principles such as good and
evil, others argue that such principles are useless or could even be harmful, for
example if used to attack or malign others unfairly. Many Pagans prefer terminology
such as “positive” and “negative” or “order” and “chaos” as alternatives to the
categories of “good” and “evil”, regarding these categories as so heavily freighted
steeped in with Judeo-Christian assumptions that their usefulness is limited.
Pagans regard death as simply part of life, and therefore nothing to be feared. Beyond
death lies either paradise or reincarnation (or both).
Reincarnation
The concept of reincarnation seems to offer one of the most attractive explanations of humanity’s
origin and destiny. It is accepted not only by adherents of Eastern religions or contemporary
spirituality, but also by many who don’t share such esoteric interests and convictions. On the one hand,
reincarnation is a source of great comfort, especially for those who seek liberation on the exclusive
basis of their inner resources. It gives assurance for continuing one’s existence in further lives and thus
having a renewed chance to attain liberation. On the other hand, reincarnation is a way of rejecting
the monotheistic teaching of the final judgment by a god, with the possible result of being eternally
condemned to suffer in hell. Another major reason for accepting reincarnation by so many people
today is that it seems to explain the differences that exist among people.
www.comparativereligion.com/reincarnation.html
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Most Pagans would regard concepts such as salvation or justification as meaningless
to their spiritual path. With no transcendent deity who acts as judge and no concept of
sin, logically no need for salvation or atonement exists. Incentives to live a good life
do not involve pleasing a god or goddess who is exterior to one's self; rather, virtue
and honor are their own rewards and one engages in such behavior out of a sense of
love and personal pride.
Some Pagans accept a simple concept of karma as a way of affirming that a person's
behavior, whether good or ill, will ultimately shape his or her future destiny, whether
in this life or a future life. However, karma is not seen as a system of reward and
punishment, but rather simply as a law of the way things function in nature -
equivalent to the law of gravity.
Closely aligned to belief in karma is belief in reincarnation, or the recycling of souls.
Since the body is "recycled" by decay and decomposition after death, so the soul can
be recycled by taking birth in a new form. Not all Pagans accept reincarnation, but
many do; those who do, point to ancient Pagan beliefs (for example, Julius Caesar
wrote about how the ancient Celtic Druids believed in the transmigration of souls), to
the widespread belief in reincarnation within occult and eastern spirituality, and
finally to the anecdotal evidence of many individuals who claim to have past-life
memories.
Unlike other religions that regard reincarnation as a sort of prison from which one
must eventually be liberated, Paganism generally does not promote such a pessimistic
view of rebirth. Rather, reincarnation is seen as a tool for growth and learning.
In addition to (or instead of) reincarnation, adherents of various Pagan traditions have
mythical understandings of the afterlife in which they place belief. Typically, these
otherworldly destinations of the soul after death are regarded as paradise, although
some have a darker or drearier feel. Here are a few of the mythical otherworlds, as
seen by various Pagan traditions, as destinations for the souls of the dead:
159
• The Summerland - the Wiccan concept of paradise, where one experiences
happiness and sensual pleasure. The Summerland can function as a
destination between reincarnations (a place of rest and renewal) or as the
ultimate destination, when a soul eventually stops reincarnating.
• Tir na n'Og - Literally, the "Land of Youth." In Irish mythology, Tir na n'Og
is a blessed realm across the water where souls journey after death. It is a
land of continual feasting and joy, without old age, sickness, or death.
Perhaps reflecting the sensibilities of the Iron Age culture that gave birth to
Celtic myth, it is also a land where the souls of heroic warriors engage in
valorous battle.
• Valhalla (Literally, the "Hall of the Slain") and Fólkvangr (literally, "Field of
the Host") - Two destinations for the spirits of noble warriors, as recounted
in Norse myth. The great warriors who journey to Valhalla and Fólkvangr
upon their death will assist the gods in the apocalyptic battle prophesied to
occur during Ragnarök, the apocalyptic war that will occur at the end of the
age.

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• Hades - the underworld in Greek myth, ruled over by a god of the same name.
The underworld is the final destination of the souls of the dead; while some
descriptions suggest it is a misty and gloomy place, others suggest it is a
place of peace, and at least one realm within the underworld, Elysium, is a
blessed place destined for the souls of the heroic and the virtuous.
These and other such depictions of otherworldly realms offer insight into the variety
of beliefs that various Pagans might hold.
The Summerland
The Summerland is the name given by Wiccans and some other earth-based religions
for their conceptualisation of an afterlife. The common portrayal of the Summerland
is as a place of rest for souls in between their earthly incarnations. Some believe that
after one experiences life to its fullest, and has come to know and understand every
aspect and emotion of physical human life (usually after many reincarnations), their
deity will allow them to stay in the Summerland for an eternal afterlife, although this
belief is not universal amongst Pagans. Another common element is that the soul has
little, if any, recollection of the Summerland once it arrives on the mortal plane again.
The Summerland is also envisioned as a place for recollection and reunion with
deceased loved ones. As the name suggests, it is often envisaged as a place of beauty
and peace, where everything people hold close to their hearts is preserved in its
fullest beauty for eternity. In many ways, this ideology is similar to the Welsh view of
Annwn as an afterlife realm.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Summerland
PAGAN RITUAL, WORSHIP, DEVOTION and SYMBOLISM
Cycles of the sun and moon establish a sense of sacred time for Pagans, while some
ancient fertility or agricultural festivals are still celebrated today.
Ancient Pagan sacred sites, such as Stonehenge in England or Newgrange in Ireland,
often have an astronomical orientation, with key features of the site oriented toward
specific dates of the year. For example, Stonehenge is oriented toward the sunrise of
the summer solstice, while the doorway of Newgrange is oriented toward sunrise of
the winter solstice. Sites like these suggest not only a high degree of astronomical and
architectural sophistication among ancient Pagans, but also imply that the dates like
the solstices may have had ritual significance to their cultures.
The Pagan movement that emerged in the 20th century draws on a variety of folkloric,
mythological and archaeological sources to establish its own sense of sacred time. As
is always the case among Pagan religions, different traditions often observe different
holy days.
The mythological sources of Paganism are many, including Celtic, Norse, Greek,
Roman, Sumerian, Egyptian and others. Some groups focus on one tradition; others
draw from several or many — for example, Doreen Valiente’s text “The Charge of

the Goddess” used materials from The Gospel of Aradia by Charles Leland (1901),
and Aleister Crowley’s writings.
Worship
As Paganism is a very diverse religion with many distinct though related traditions,
the forms of Pagan worship vary widely. It may be collective or solitary. It may
consist of informal prayer or meditation, or of formal, structured rituals through which
the participants affirm their deep spiritual connection with nature, honour their Gods
and Goddesses, and celebrate the seasonal festivals of the turning year and the rites of
passage of human life.
As Pagans have, for the most, no public buildings specifically set aside for worship,
and most believe that religious ceremonies are best conducted out of doors, rituals
often take place in outside (or at private homes). Women and men almost always
worship together and Paganism generally emphasises equality of the sexes. In certain
paths, however, women may take the leading role as representative of the preeminence
of the female principle.
Ceremonies usually begin with the marking out of a ritual circle, a symbol of sacred
space which has neither beginning nor end, and within which all stand as equals. At
the quarter-points, the four directions and the corresponding elements of Earth, Air,
Fire and Water will be acknowledged and bid welcome.
There may follow, according to the purpose of the rite, any or all of meditation,
chanting, music, prayer, dance, the pouring of libations, recitations of poetry and/or
the performance of sacred drama, and the sharing of food and drink. Lastly the circle
will be formally unmade, the directions, elements, and all the forms of divinity that
have been called upon thanked, as the rite ends.
Pagans do not believe that they are set above, or apart from, the rest of nature. They
understand divinity to be immanent, woven through every aspect of the living earth.
Thus, Pagan worship is mainly concerned with connection to, and the honouring of,
immanent divinity. The rituals are akin to a symbolic language of communication
between the human and the divine: one which speaks not to the intellect alone but also
to the body, the emotions, and the depths of the unconscious mind, allowing Pagans to
experience the sacred as whole people within the act of worship.
The approach is primarily mythopoeic, recognising that spiritual truths are better
understood by means of allusion and symbol rather than through doctrine.
PAGAN TIME
Wicca (religious witchcraft), the most widely practiced form of Paganism, offers the
best example of Pagan sacred time.
Sacred time within Wicca is established by the cycles of the sun and the moon. Lunar
cycles occur every 29 to 30 days, while a solar cycle occurs over the course of a year.
The key events in a lunar cycle include the new moon and the full moon. Many
Wiccan solitaries and groups perform rituals on the nights of the new and full moons,
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seeing those dates as particularly propitious for venerating the goddess as identified
with the moon. Because the duration of menstrual cycles often is equivalent to the
lunar month, many Wiccans understand the phases of the moon as symbolically
attuned to the “phases” of the menstrual cycle. Thus, the full moon represents
ovulation, and signifies a time of fecundity, creativity, and active engagement with
the world; the new moon represents menstruation, and therefore is associated with rest
and withdrawal from worldly activities for a time of reflection and renewal. Wiccan
ceremonies can take these associations into account, with new moon rituals being
more contemplative and full moon ceremonies more ecstatic or celebratory.
The solar cycle as observed by many Wiccan groups involves eight holidays,
collectively known as “The Wheel of the Year”. These holidays include the solstices,
the equinoxes, and four seasonal agricultural festivals with roots in British and Irish
mythology.
The Pagan seasonal cycle is often called the Wheel of the Year. Almost all Pagans
celebrate a cycle of eight festivals, which are spaced every six or seven weeks through
the year and divide the wheel into eight segments. Four of the festivals have Celtic
origins and are known by their Celtic names, Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh and
Samhain. The other four are points in the solar calendar. These are Spring and
Autumn Equinox (when the length of the day is exactly equal to the night), Summer
and Winter Solstice (longest and shortest days of the year). Neolithic sites such as
Stonehenge act as gigantic solar calendars which marked the solstices and equinoxes
and show that solar festivals have been significant dates for hundreds of thousands of
years.
(The seasonal differences between the hemispheres mean solar festivals are celebrated
opposite different dates in the southern hemisphere.)
The Wheel of the Year
Winter Solstice
The Pagan celebration of Winter Solstice (also known as Yule) is one of the oldest
winter celebrations in the world.
Ancient people were hunters and spent most of their time outdoors. The seasons and
weather played a very important part in their lives. Because of this many ancient
people had a great reverence for, and even worshipped the sun. The Norsemen of
Northern Europe saw the sun as a wheel that changed the seasons. It was from the
word for this wheel, houl, that the word Yule is thought to have come. At mid-winter
the Norsemen lit bonfires, told stories and drank sweet ale.
The ancient Romans also held a festival to celebrate the rebirth of the year. Saturnalia
ran for seven days from the 17th of December (Northern Hemisphere). It was a time
when the ordinary rules were turned upside down. Men dressed as women and
masters dressed as servants. The festival also involved decorating houses with
greenery, lighting candles, holding processions and giving presents.
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The Winter Solstice falls on the shortest day of the year (21st June in South Africa)
and was celebrated in Britain long before the arrival of Christianity. The Druids
(Celtic priests) would cut the mistletoe that grew on the oak tree and give it as a
blessing. Oaks were seen as sacred and the winter fruit of the mistletoe was a symbol
of life in the dark winter months.
It was also the Druids who began the tradition of the Yule log. The Celts thought that
the sun stood still for twelve days in the middle of winter and during this time a log
was lit to conquer the darkness, banish evil spirits and bring luck for the coming year.
Many of these customs are still followed today. They have been incorporated into the
Christian and secular celebrations of Christmas.
Imbolc
Imbolc or Oimelc comes from an Irish word that was originally thought to mean “in
the belly” although many people translate it as “ewe's milk” (oi-melc).
Imbolc was one of the cornerstones of the Celtic calendar. For them the success of the
new farming season was of great importance. As winter stores of food were getting
low Imbolc rituals were performed to harness divine energy that would ensure a
steady supply of food until the harvest six months later.
Like many Celtic festivals, the Imbolc celebrations centred on the lighting of fires.
Fire was perhaps more important for this festival than others as it was also the holy
day of Brigid (also known as Bride, Brigit, Brid), the Goddess of fire, healing and
fertility. The lighting of fires celebrated the increasing power of the Sun over the
coming months. For the Christian calendar, this holiday was reformed and renamed
“Candlemas” when candles are lit to remember the purification of the Virgin Mary.
Imbolc is still a special time for Pagans. As people who are deeply aware of what is
going on in the natural world they recognise that there is strength in cold as well as
heat, death as well as life. The Horned God reigns over the Autumn and Winter and
although the light and warmth of the world may be weak, he is still in his power.
Many feel that human actions are best when they reflect the actions of nature, so as
the world slowly springs back into action it is time for the small tasks that are
neglected through the busy year. Rituals and activities might include the making of
candles, planting spring flowers, reading poetry and telling stories.
Spring Equinox
Spring Equinox celebrates the renewed life of the Earth that comes with the Spring. It
is a solar festival, celebrated when the length of the day and the night are equal (this
happens twice a year, at Spring and Autumn Equinox).
This turn in the seasons has been celebrated by cultures throughout history that held
festivals for their gods and goddesses at this time of year. Aphrodite from Cyprus,
Hathor from Egypt and Ostara of Scandinavia. The Celts continued the tradition with
festivities at this time of year.
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Today, Pagans continue to celebrate the coming of Spring. They attribute the changes
that are going on in the world to an increase in the powers of their God and Goddess
(the personifications of the great force that is at work in the world). At the time of
Spring Equinox the God and the Goddess are often portrayed as The Green Man and
Mother Earth. The Green Man is said to be born of Mother Earth in the depths of
winter and to live through the rest of the year until he dies at Samhain.
To celebrate Spring Equinox some Pagans carry out particular rituals. For instance a
woman and a man are chosen to act out the roles of Spring God and Goddess, playing
out courtship and symbolically planting seeds. Egg races, egg hunts, egg eating and
egg painting are also traditional activities at this time of year.
Beltane
Beltane is a Celtic word which means “Fires of Bel” (Bel was a Celtic deity). It is a
fire festival that celebrates of the coming of summer and the fertility of the coming
year.
Celtic festivals often tied in with the needs of the community. In spring time, at the
beginning of the farming calendar, everybody would be hoping for a fruitful year for
their families and fields.
Beltane rituals would often include courting: for example, young men and women
collecting blossoms in the woods and lighting fires in the evening. These rituals
would often lead to matches and marriages, either immediately in the coming summer
or autumn.
Other festivities involved fire which was thought to cleanse, purify and increase
fertility. Cattle were often passed between two fires and the properties of the flame
and the smoke were seen to ensure the fertility of the herd.
Today Pagans believe that at Beltane the God (to whom the Goddess gave birth at the
Winter Solstice) achieves the strength and maturity to court and become lover to the
Goddess. So although what happens in the fields has lost its significance for most
Pagans today, the creation of fertility is still an important issue.
Fire is still the most important element of most Beltane celebrations and there are
many traditions associated with it. It is seen to have purifying qualities which cleanse
and revitalise. People leap over the Beltane fire to bring good fortune, fertility (of
mind, body and spirit) and happiness through the coming year.
Although Beltane is the most overtly sexual festival, Pagans rarely use sex in their
rituals although rituals often imply sex and fertility. The tradition of dancing round
the maypole contains sexual imagery and is still very popular with modern Pagans.
Summer Solstice
Solstice, Midsummer or Litha means a stopping or standing still of the sun. It is the
longest day of the year and the time when the sun is at its maximum elevation.
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This date has had spiritual significance for thousands of years as humans have been
amazed by the great power of the sun. The Celts celebrated with bonfires that would
add to the sun's energy, Christians placed the feast of St John the Baptist towards the
end of June and it is also the festival of Li, the Chinese Goddess of light.
Like other religious groups, Pagans are in awe of the incredible strength of the sun
and the divine powers that create life. For Pagans this spoke in the Wheel of the Year
is a significant point. The Goddess took over the earth from the horned God at the
beginning of spring and she is now at the height of her power and fertility. For some
Pagans the Summer Solstice marks the marriage of the God and Goddess and see their
union as the force that creates the harvest's fruits.
This is a time to celebrate growth and life but for Pagans, who see balance in the
world and are deeply aware of the ongoing shifting of the seasons it is also time to
acknowledge that the sun will now begin to decline once more towards winter.
When celebrating midsummer Pagans draw on diverse traditions. In England
thousands of Pagans and non-Pagans go to places of ancient religious sites such as
Stonehenge and Avebury to see the sun rising on the first morning of summer.
Lughnasadh (Lammas)
Lughnasadh comes at the beginning of February (in South Africa). It is one of the
Pagan festivals of Celtic origin which split the year into four.
Celts held the festival of the Irish god Lugh at this time and later, the Anglo-Saxons
marked the festival of hlaefmass - loaf mass or Lammas - at this time.
For these agricultural communities this was the first day of the harvest, when the
fields would be glowing with corn and reaping would begin. The harvest period
would continue until Samhain when the last stores for the winter months would be put
away.
Although farming is not an important part of modern life, Lughnasadh is still seen as a
harvest festival by Pagans and symbols connected with the reaping of corn
predominate in its rites.
Autumn Equinox
Autumn Equinox (also known as Mabon or Harvest Home) is celebrated when day
and night are of equal duration before the descent into increasing darkness and is the
final festival of the season of harvest.
In nature, the activity of the summer months slows down to the hibernation for the
winter. For many Pagans, now is time to reflect on the past season.
It is also a time to recognise that the balance of the year has changed, the wheel has
turned and summer is now over.
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Samhain
Samhain is a very important date in the Pagan calendar for it marks the Feast of the
Dead. Many Pagans also celebrate it as the old Celtic New Year (although some mark
this at Imbolc). It is also celebrated by non-Pagans who call this festival Halloween.
Samhain has been celebrated in Britain for centuries and has its origin in Pagan Celtic
traditions. It was the time of year when the veils between this world and the
Otherworld were believed to be at their thinnest: when the spirits of the dead could
most readily mingle with the living once again. Later, when the festival was adopted
by Christians, they celebrated it as All Hallows’ Eve, followed by All Saints Day,
though it still retained elements of remembering and honouring the dead.
To most modern Pagans, while death is still the central theme of the festival this does
not mean it is a morbid event. For Pagans, death is not a thing to be feared. Old age is
valued for its wisdom and dying is accepted as a part of life as necessary and welcome
as birth. While Pagans, like people of other faiths, always honour and show respect
for their dead, this is particularly marked at Samhain. Loved ones who have recently
died are remembered and their spirits often invited to join the living in the celebratory
feast. It is also a time at which those born during the past year are formally welcomed
into the community. As well as feasting, Pagans often celebrate Samhain with
traditional games such as apple-dooking.
Death also symbolises endings and Samhain is therefore not only a time for reflecting
on mortality, but also on the passing of relationships, jobs and other significant
changes in life. A time for taking stock of the past and coming to terms with it, in
order to move on and look forward to the future.
North/South Hemispheres
There are other views held on this subject by southern hemisphere Pagans, but the
approach given you is the traditional approach. This traditional approach is based on
the movement of the sun through the sky.
Festival name
Samhain, All Hallow’s Eve, Last/Blood Harvest,
Ancestor Night, Feast of the Dead, Nos Galan Gaeaf
(Welsh)
Midwinter, Yule, Cuidle, Alban Arthan, Winter
Rite, Mothers Night, Gŵyl Galan Gaeaf (Welsh)
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Date
North South
31 Oct – 2 Nov
(alt 5–10 Nov)
19–23 Dec
(winter
1 May (alt 4–
10 May)
19–23 June
(winter

Candlemas, Imbolc, Oimelc, Brigit, Brigid’s Day,
Bride's Day, Brigantia, Gŵyl y Canhwyllau (Welsh)
Vernal Equinox, Ostara, Lady Day, Earrach, Alban
Eilir, Festival of Trees, Gŵyl Ganol y Gwanwyn
(Welsh)
Beltane, Beltaine, May Day, Gŵyl Galan Mai
(Welsh)
Midsummer, Litha, Samradh, Alban Hefin, Aerra
Litha, Gŵyl Ganol yr Haf (Welsh)
Lammas, Lughnasadh, 1st Harvest, Bread Harvest,
Festival of First Fruits, Gŵyl Galan Awst (Welsh)
Autumnal Equinox, Mabon, Foghar, Alban Elfed,
Harvest Home, 2nd Harvest, Fruit Harvest, Wine
Harvest, Gŵyl Ganol yr Hydref (Welsh)
Graphic: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year
167
solstice) solstice)
1–2 Feb (alt 2–
7 Feb)
19–23 Mar
(spring
equinox)
1 May (alt 4–
10 May)
19–23 June
(summer
solstice)
1–2 Aug (alt 3–
10 Aug)
19–23 Sept
(autumn
equinox)
1–2 Aug (alt 3–
10 Aug)
19–23 Sept
(spring
equinox)
31 Oct – 2 Nov
(alt 5–10 Nov)
19–23 Dec
(summer
solstice)
1–2 Feb (alt 2–
7 Feb)
20–23 Mar
(autumn
equinox)
As you can see, the Wheel of the Year for Southern Hemisphere Pagans is directly the
opposite of the Northern Hemisphere Pagans.
Ancient Celtic celebrations
Not only did the Celts believe the boundary between the worlds of the living and the
dead dissolved on this night, they thought that the presence of the spirits helped their
priests to make predictions about the future.
To celebrate Samhain the Druids built huge sacred bonfires. People brought harvest
food and sacrificed animals to share a communal dinner in celebration of the festival.
During the celebration the Celts wore costumes - usually animal heads and skins.
They would also try and tell each other's fortunes.
After the festival they re-lit the fires in their homes from the sacred bonfire to help
protect them, as well as keep them warm during the winter months.

Several of these festivals have alternative names, sometimes from folkloric or even
Christian sources: thus Samhain is also known as Hallowmas or Halloween; Imbolc as
Candlemas; Lughnasadh as Lammas; and Mabon as Michaelmas
Like the lunar cycle, the wheel of year is rich with symbolism and mythology. Some
traditions weave throughout the eight holidays a running narrative about the birth, life,
and eventual death of the goddess, who over the course of the year is impregnated by
her consort and gives birth to a sacred child. Another narrative associated with the
wheel of the year involves a never-ending cycle of conflict between two mythic kings
- the Oak King and the Holly King - who continually defeat each other at each
solstice, the Oak King triumphing in the summer while the Holly King emerges
victorious each winter.
Each of the agricultural festivals also has rich folklore associated with it. Samhain
(the name literally means “summer’s end”) signifies the onset of winter and is
associated with the end of harvest and the slaughtering of livestock to prepare for the
cold season; thus it has traditionally been linked to death and to contact with ancestral
spirits. Imbolc (“In the belly”) celebrates the coming of spring and a time when ewes
are lactating and pregnant with spring lambs. The celebration of spring reaches its
apex with Beltane (“The fire of Bel”), a festival to mark the onset of summer and
chronologically opposite of Samhain. As Samhain is a festival honoring death,
Beltane is dedicated to the celebration of life and fertility. Finally, the onset of harvest
is marked with Lughnasadh (“Lugh’s festival”), marked by the first harvest and
traditionally observed with games and other festivities. Incidentally, Bel and Lugh are
also the names of Celtic gods.
These holidays are not universally observed among all Wiccans, let alone all Pagans.
Their popularity among many Wiccans and some other Pagans stems from their
symmetry and the rich mythic and folkloric material associated with the festival days.
Sacred Space
A variety of mythical and ritual approaches to sacred space can be found within
Paganism, including ancient ceremonial sites and mythical otherworlds.
Many Pagans embrace the idea that the universe is enchanted; that even the most
mundane and ordinary elements of nature are, at least potentially, pregnant with
spiritual power and possibility. Taken to its pantheistic or monistic extreme, Paganism
celebrates all space - all of nature - as sacred or holy. But within that framework of
overall immanence, particular sites or points within the natural world are revered as
places of special spiritual power and worthy of reverence and veneration.
Stonehenge, Angkor Wat, Newgrange, The Pyramids of Egypt, Macchu Picchu, the
Parthenon, the Great Serpent Mound - all over the world, numerous sites of ancient
ceremonial and religious significance remain today as mysterious mute testaments to
prehistoric or ancient spirituality. Pagans often look to such venerable monuments for
inspiration in the continuing quest to revive or recreate polytheistic, goddess-centred,
or earth-based devotion.
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In addition to such physical forms of sacred space, Pagan traditions often also include
metaphysical or imaginal forms of sacrality as well. These include mythic concepts of
the otherworld, ritually created sacred space (such as the Wiccan “World Between the
Worlds”), and even the concept of sacred space as found within each individual’s own
capacity for inner visualization.
Concepts of the otherworld can take many forms. Nonmaterial realms may exist
above, below, or interwoven with the material world. They can exist in a variety of
metaphorical locations, such as over or beneath the ocean, through the mist, or within
so-called hollow hills (fairy mounds). The otherworld can be a place of ineffable
beauty and wonder, but also a realm fraught with danger and challenge. It can be
populated with gods, goddesses, ancestors, heroes and heroines, as well as spirits,
elves, fairies, or other entities seen as intimately connected with nature.
Many Pagan groups and individuals engage in magickal ritual practices as part of
their spiritual life. Such rituals can be devotional in nature (offering love, honour, and
worship to gods, ancestors, or nature spirits) or thaumaturgical (attempting to create
real change in the world through magickal means). In some Pagan traditions,
performing a sacred ritual involves establishing a bounded space (often a circle) in
which the energy of the ceremony occurs. This space is understood as having a
magickal quality that sets it apart from the rest of the physical universe. In Wicca, for
example, such magickally inscribed ritual circles are said to create a world "between
the worlds" - a spiritual locus between the material and the spiritual realms, allowing
access to both planes. Unlike other faith traditions where rituals need to be performed
in relation to a specific physical location (such as a church or a temple), the magick
circle is, in essence, a portable sacred space that can by psychically created with each
new ritual and then dismantled when the ritual is finished.
For Pagans, sacred space is a key to understanding that all of nature is in fact sacred.
The Magick Circle
Creating a magick circle is known as casting a circle, circle casting, and various other names. There
are many published techniques for casting a circle, and many groups and individuals have their own
unique methods. The common feature of these practices is that a boundary is traced around the
working area. Some witchcraft traditions say that one must trace around the circle deosil three times.
There is variation over which direction one should start in. In Wicca a circle is typically nine feet in
diameter, though the size can vary depending on the purpose of the circle, and the preference of the
caster.
Circles may or may not be physically marked out on the ground, and a variety of elaborate patterns for
circle markings can be found in grimoires and magickal manuals, often involving angelic and divine
names. Such markings, or a simple unadorned circle, may be drawn in chalk or salt, or indicated by
other means such as with a cord.
The four cardinal directions are often prominently marked, such as with four candles. In ceremonial
magick traditions the four directions are commonly related to the four archangels Michael, Gabriel,
Raphael and Uriel (or Auriel), or the four classical elements, and also have four associated names of
God. Some varieties of Wicca use the common ceremonial colour attributions for their "quarter
candles": yellow for Air in the east, red for Fire in the south, blue for Water in the west and green for
Earth in the north (though these attributions differ according to geographical location and individual
philosophy). Other ceremonial traditions have candles between the quarters, i.e. in the north-east,
north-west and so on.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic _circle
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Rites and Ceremonies
From elaborate Wiccan Circles to the simplest of "do-it-yourself" meditations,
Paganism encompasses a wide array of ritual practices.
Many expressions of Paganism are magickal - which is to say, they promote the use of
individual or communal ritual practices to effect personal and environmental change,
particularly changes in consciousness. Rooted in pre-modern magickal practices,
Pagans often have a more sophisticated understanding of magick and ritual,
following Dion Fortune's definition of magick as “the art of changing consciousness
at will”. Such ceremonially enacted changes in consciousness are believed to facilitate
further changes in the practitioner's life circumstances and/or relationship with the
gods.
Magick can be broken down into two categories: thaumaturgy (the working of
wonders) and theurgy (the divine work).
Thaumaturgical magick tends to be practically oriented: magick with a specific goal
in mind, whether that may be gaining a fortune, losing weight, making the crops
grow, or banishing cancer. Practitioners of magick may engage in it for themselves or
on behalf of another. Theurgy, by contrast, has a more spiritual and devotional focus:
magick performed to foster intimacy with a god or goddess, to achieve union with the
deity or deities, or to transform oneself into a more holy or godlike state.
Wiccan and other Pagan ceremonies can incorporate either or both thaumaturgical and
theurgical elements. Depending on the beliefs of the individual or group performing
the ceremony, a ritual can be devotionally oriented toward one or more specific
deities, toward ancestral or fairy spirits, toward nature in general (sometimes
personified as an Earth Goddess), or toward a generic understanding of “the god and
the goddess”. Likewise, depending on the beliefs and values of the ritual’s enactors,
the tone of the ceremony may be devotional, worshipful, or more explicitly magickal.
Actual rituals themselves can take an almost infinite variety of forms, particularly
given the strong ethos within the broad Pagan community for following one’s own
intuition and creating some or all the elements of personal spiritual practice. Rituals
can be learned from elders and teachers, copied from a book, or created by the
individual. Rituals and magickal acts often make use of symbolism, which can include
decorating the ritual site with colors or objects to symbolize the elements or the god(s)
being invoked. Specific tools can be incorporated (for example, the Wiccan athame,
or ceremonial knife, used to cut a magickal boundary in the air that separates the ritual
space from its mundane surroundings), and colorful clothing or robes may be worn, to
help create a sense of separation from ordinary consciousness and openness to the
flow of magickal energy.
Symbolism
While no one symbol is universally held within the Pagan community, several are
widely recognized and revered, with the pentagram perhaps the most commonly used.
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A visitor to a bookstore or gift shop that caters to Pagans will notice a broad
assortment of symbolic jewelry: pentacles and pentagrams, Thor’s hammer and the
Minoan labrys, the Sheela-na-Gig and the crescent moon. Even symbols borrowed
from other faith traditions, including the Yin-Yang, the Qabalistic Tree of Life, and
the Medicine Wheel, feature prominently in the world of nature-centered and magick
al spirituality. What the observer may deduce - and rightly so - is that no single image
or symbol holds universal prominence within this highly diverse and decentralized
spiritual path. Unlike the Christian cross, the Jewish Star of David, or the Sanskrit
OM, no one symbol fully defines the multi-faceted world of Paganism.
That said, the pentagram (the five-pointed star, usually but not always depicted
enclosed by a circle) is nearly universally used by Wiccans and other witches, and
comes closest to being the most commonly used symbol within Paganism as a whole.
Rooted in ancient Greek and Roman Paganism, with ties to goddesses such as Hygeia
and Venus, the pentagram has been associated with occultism, ceremonial magick. By
the 20th century and the rise of religious Wicca, the pentagram had become a more
general symbol representing the cosmos as a whole. One common way of interpreting
the pentagram assigns an element to each point of the star: the highest point represents
spirit, with other points representing fire, air, water, and earth. Surrounded by a circle
that signifies eternity or the vast emptiness of the cosmos, the pentagram functions as
a symbol of the entirety of nature.
Because of its Greco-Roman origins and its usage today embedded in symbolism
drawn from classical occultism - the four elements underneath spirit - not all Pagans
regard the pentacle as important or even useful. Celtic Reconstructionists and
Odinists, for example, do not generally incorporate symbolism from cultures outside
the Celtic or Norse world, and therefore regard the pentacle as irrelevant to their
spirituality as the Christian cross.
Pentacle
This symbol apparently originated as the symbol of a Goddess who was worshiped
over an area which extends from present-day England to Egypt and beyond. Her
name was Kore (a.k.a. Car, Cara, Carnac, Ceres, Core, Kar, Karnak, Kaur, Kauri,
Ker, Kerma, Kher, Kore, Q're, etc.). As Carmenta she was said to have invented the
Roman alphabet. From her alternative Roman name Ceres have evolved many
English words: cardiac, carnal, cereal, core, corn, and kernel. The port of Caraalis,
(now Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia), was named after her. Kore's sacred fruit is
the apple. When an apple is cut through its equator, both halves will reveal a nearperfect
pentagram shape at the core, with each point on the star containing a seed.
The Celts believed that the pentacle was the sign of the Goddess of the Underground,
who they called Morgan (Morrigan). The concept of five points seems to have
permeated at least one of the Celtic lands. "Ireland had five great roads, five
provinces and five paths of the law. The fairy folk counted by fives, and the
mythological figures wore five fold cloaks."
http://www.religioustolerance.org/wic_pent.htm
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Within such ethnically specific expressions of Paganism, symbols with strong cultural
associations generally take precedence. Thus, Pagan Druids often use the Awen, a
symbol depicting three straight lines that diverge as they move downward, with a dot
or point above each line. This symbol was created during the Druid renaissance of the
18th century and has been interpreted in various ways. Practitioners of Norse religion
often regard the Mjöllnir, or hammer of Thor, as emblematic of their distinctive
cultural tradition. Similar symbols include the Caduceus for adherents of Greek
Paganism, the Ankh for Egyptian traditions, and the Medicine Wheel for some Native
American traditions. The labrys, or double-edged axe, has roots in Greek and Cretan
culture, but because of its association with Minoan priestesses it has become a symbol
of Dianic Wicca and witchcraft (traditions with a strong feminist ethos).
Nature religions also employ symbolism borrowed from other faith traditions.
Wicca’s links to ceremonial magick and occultism include, for at least some Wiccan
lineages, a strong emphasis on Hermetic Qabalah (a non-specifically-Jewish
permutation of the Kabbalah that emerged within the occult community between the
15th and 17th centuries); this means that the Tree of Life is significant to their
spiritual practice. Pagans who practice divination use related symbols including the
glyphs of astrology and the imagery from the Tarot. Meanwhile, the Daoist Yin-Yang
symbol and the Christian Celtic Cross (particularly when drawn as an equal-armed
cross) are used by some segments of the Pagan community as symbols of the cosmos
as a whole. Often these images from other religions are re-interpreted within a Pagan
context; for example, the Celtic Cross does not symbolise the death of Jesus for
Pagans, but rather functions as a European variation on the medicine wheel: the circle
symbolising eternity and/or the goddess, the cross symbolising the four directions
and/or the god.
Some Pagans employ more abstract symbolism as well. For example, Wiccans often
will use colours to signify the elements and deity: yellow is associated with air, red
with fire, blue with water, green with earth, black with the goddess, and white with
the god. The four suits of the Tarot deck have similar associations: swords signifying
air, wands fire, cups water, and pentacles earth. Such associations may vary slightly
from group to group; many groups prefer to associate wands with air and swords with
fire, for example.
Perhaps the most ubiquitous symbol of all within Paganism is so widespread and
commonly held that it often goes unnoticed - the circle. The circle has a strong
feminine association, linked to the vulva or the womb (in contrast to the more
masculine/phallic symbolism of the straight line). Likewise, the circle has strong
associations with nature: the earth is round, the earth moves in a circular orbit around
the sun, the moon likewise progresses in a circular progression around the earth.
Reincarnation suggests a circular movement of souls between death and life.
Although not all Pagan traditions explicitly use the circle in rituals in the same way
that Wiccans do with “circle casting”, even culturally specific forms of Paganism
often conduct ceremonies in a circle - subtly reinforcing the nearly universal Pagan
rejection of hierarchy.
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Religious symbolism
Religious symbolism is the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork,
events, or natural phenomena, by a religion. Religions view religious texts, rituals and
works of art as symbols of compelling ideas or ideals. Symbols help create a resonant
mythos expressing the moral values of the society or the teachings of the religion,
foster solidarity among adherents, and bring adherents closer to their object of
worship.
Archetypes are likewise supposed to have been present in folklore and literature for
thousands of years, including prehistoric artwork. The use of archetypes to illuminate
personality and literature was advanced by Carl Jung early in the 20th century, who
suggested the existence of universal contentless forms that channel experiences and
emotions, resulting in recognizable and typical patterns of behavior with certain
probable outcomes. Archetypes are cited as important to both ancient mythology and
modern narratives.
The origins of the archetypal hypothesis date back as far as Plato. Jung himself
compared archetypes to Platonic ideas. Plato's ideas were pure mental forms, that
were imprinted in the soul before it was born into the world. They were collective in
the sense that they embodied the fundamental characteristics of a thing rather than its
specific peculiarities.
Basic Pagan/Wiccan symbols
Pagans and Wiccans of all pasts and traditions use symbols for many things such as
rituals, spells, ceremonies and in everyday life.There are many different symbols with
many different meanings. Each symbol has a basic meaning but they all mean
different things and represent different feelings and actions to different people.
Many Pagan symbols are concerned with the changing of the seasons and a desire for
good harvests and fertility. This is not surprising when you consider that the very
survival of towns, villages and entire populations depended on the benevolence of the
weather, good harvests and production of young animals - and children- to maintain
the population.
Certain days held immense significance for Pagans and one of these was the winter
solstice. It symbolised a time when, at last, days would start to lengthen and the
promise of warmer times and good food supplies ahead was in the air. The summer
equinox - the time when day and night are equal also held significance because it was
the time when the crossingof the two worlds of light and dark could occur.
The longest day was a time of special celebration because it symbolised the epitome
of summer, a promise of harvest for those who worshipped and gave gifts and it also
held great religious symbolism for Pagans. The day was used to its full advantage
with a dawn rising , sunrise observed and rituals performed well into the evening.
The sun itself is a powerful symbol. It is the giver of life, has power to kill or bring
forth bounty and provides energy upon which all other things survive. The moon is
the suns’ companion in the heavens and Pagans knew the moon held influence on
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tides, river surges and other forces. Crops were planted according to the cycles of the
moon (and some still practice moon gardening now) because the pull of the moon
affects the sap rising in plants.
Metals were seen as valuable by Pagans even though they did not really know how
rare they were and precious, they put great symbolism on their strength, the ability to
create weapons and their longevity. Leaders were buried with chatels and weapons of
the most strong metals and the most rare stones, which also held great symbolic
strength.
This is a list of some of the common symbols use by some contemporary Pagans:
Pentacle
The five-pointed star within a circle is probably the most common Pagan symbol, and
it is typically used to identify oneself as a Pagan or Wiccan. The five points represent
the four elements plus Spirit, and the circle connects them all. A five-pointed star
without the circle is sometimes called a pentagram, rather than a pentacle.
Inverted Pentacle
The inverted (or upside down) pentacle is a symbol of some reputation. It is typically
associated with Satanism, though that is not a completely accurate description. The
true emblem of the Church of Satan is the sigil of Baphomet, which is a symbol with a
goat’s head and an inverted pentacle. Within Wicca, the upside down pentacle may in
some traditions stand for the 2nd degree.
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Septagram
The seven pointed star has a few names: septagram, septacle, Elven star or fairy star.
The number seven corresponds to the spirit realm, which is why this symbol is
associated with elves or fairies. There are no set representations for each of the points,
but they are sometimes labelled: earth, air, fire, water, above, below and within. The
septagram is also associated with astrology because the classical view of the sky
contained seven planets.
Triple Moon
The triple moon is a Goddess symbol that represents the Maiden, Mother, and Crone
as the waxing, full and waning moon. It is also associated with feminine energy,
mystery and psychic abilities.
Hexagram
The unicursal hexagram is a variation of the 6-pointed star. The more traditional way
of drawing a 6-pointed star is in the double triangles of the Star of David. But Aleister
Crowley created his own design, to create a symbol that could be drawn in one
continuous line. The number 6 represents unity and balance, specifically balance
between man and the Divine.
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Eye of Horus
The Eye of Horus can be a bit of a confusing symbol. It is seen sometimes as the right
or sometimes as the left eye. The left eye is Eye of Horus and is connected with the
moon. When it is the right eye, it is the Eye of Ra, and associated with the sun.
Though some sources say there is no distinction at all. The Eye represents the eye that
was lost by Horus when he fought with Seth over the murder of his father, Osiris. The
symbol is worn for for protection.
Ankh
The short and traditional meaning for the ankh symbol is everlasting life. This symbol
is a heiroglyph seen in countless ancient Egyptian carvings, usually held in hand by
Gods and pharohs to show how they preside over life (in other words, are immortal).
In these images, the ankh is held by the loop rather than the base. The ankh is a
popular symbol among Pagans, likely due to the similarity to a Christian cross which
makes the ankh much less shocking to others, as compared to a pentacle.
Hekate’s Wheel
This maze-like symbol is associated with the triple aspect of the Greek goddess
Hekate. She is considered a dark goddess by some, and rules over cross-roads and the
Underworld.
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Triskele
There are many variations on the basic triskele (or triple spiral) symbol. The one
illustrated here is very simple to illustrate the basic look of the symbol. The triskele is
a Celtic symbol, and symbolises the power of life and rebirth. It combines the spiral
(often used to illustrate the cycle of life) and the number 3 is a sacred number, as seen
in the phases of the triple Goddess. This symbol is also referred to as a triskelion
Triquetra
Like the triskele, this Celtic symbol embodies the sacred number 3, as seen in the 3
phases of the Goddess (maiden, mother, crone) and the 3 elements of nature (land,
sky, sea). During the period of early Christianity, the triquetra took on further
meaning as the Holy Trinity.
Awen
The three lines make up a modern Druid symbol that takes its name from the Welsh
word for inspiration, usually in the form of poetry. Sometimes seen with three dots
representing Spirit or Divinity. Some variations will have the Awen surrounded by
circles and/or foliage.
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Cauldron
One of many symbols that crosses traditions. The cauldron symbolizes the goddess,
receptivity, inspiration, and Witchcraft. Some traditions hold that the Holy Grail was
originally a cauldron that represented the womb of the Goddess.
Druid Sigil
A modern Druid symbol believed to have originated from the Reformed Druids of
North America. As with the Awen, many variations exist usually with the circle being
a wreath and the two lines being branches.
Horned God
Symbol used by Wiccans and other Pagans which represents the horned god of nature
embodied in gods such as Pan and Cernunnos.
Spiral
An ancient symbol seen in many cultures. Some Pagans believe it represents the
continuity of the life cycle and the inter-relationship of all beings. Commonly used in
goddess spirituality. Sometimes seen interposed on goddess images. This spiral
represents the wheel of the sun in a year.
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Sun Wheel
Several variations exist of the ancient sun wheel including the circle with a dot in the
center, a circle divided into six parts and the fylfot also known as the swastika which
was distorted by the Nazi Regime for its own dishonorable ends. Equal armed crosses
have been found in Celtic artifacts. They are used to represent the sun so important to
our agrarian ancestors. It's also used as the medicine wheel in traditions inspired by
Native American spirituality, each spoke corresponding to the four directions with the
center being spirit.
Thor’s Hammer
Modern heathen symbol also called the Mjollnir meaning crusher. In Norse
mythology, this is the weapon that Thor used to slay challengers and create thunder.
Valknut
Used by modern heathens as a symbol of Odin. The nine points also represent the nine
worlds in Norse mythology.
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Wheel of the Year/Spirit
The eight sections of this circle represents the NeoPagan calendar of eight sabbats.
Also a symbol of the element of spirit used in western magickal tradition.
World Tree
From worldwide traditions including Yggdrasil in Norse mythology and the Bile tree
in Celtic (mainly Irish) myth. The concept of the parts of the tree belonging to
different worlds such as the upper, middle and lower worlds is a common one. There
are as many variations of this symbol as can be imagined but a tree growing above
ground with the roots visible below is common.
Daily Life
Because it is less about obeying an external authority than about trusting one’s inner
guidance, Paganism fosters a daily practice of balance and harmony. No consensus
exists to direct individuals on how to live a “true” Pagan life. Like so many other
aspects of this spiritual path, much is left to the individual practitioner.
Many people choose to integrate Pagan traditions into their daily life by setting up one
or more personal shrines or altars in their home or yard. The personal altar can be
simple or elaborate; it can be set up according to traditional parameters as established
by one’s community, or it can be an innovative, individual expression of faith and
devotion. Since the purpose behind a shrine is to foster a sense of devotion or daily
connection with one's deities, anything that contributes to such a purpose would be
acceptable. One’s shrine might include statues of gods and/or goddesses; symbols of
nature, particularly of the elements of air, water, fire, and earth; candles and/or
incense; the practitioner’s journal or “Book of Shadows” (a journal containing rituals
and magickal lore), meaningful objects from the natural world (such as crystals,
feathers, seashells, or water from a holy well), and any other item that might have
particular religious or spiritual significance.
The shrine can function as a focal point for personal meditation, or as a devotional
“offering” to one's gods or goddesses, or as a working altar, which can be used in
rituals or ceremonies. As in the design of a shrine or altar, the ways in which it is used
are subject to each person's preferences.
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Pagans have a variety of attitudes toward prayer. Some feel that prayer is
meaningless, since it implies an external deity “out there” or “up there” to whom one
addresses one’s petitions. Others think of prayer as an appropriate activity, even if
belief is placed in a god or goddess who is found within. Instead of, or in addition to,
prayer, meditation - whether involving visualisation, recitation of a mantra, or
Buddhist-style breath awareness - can also be a part of an individual’s practices,
depending on his or her interest and inclination. Other borrowed religious practices,
from the use of a mala or rosary, to yoga or Tai Chi, to lectio divina, to chanting, may
also be incorporated into an individual’s daily spirituality.
Many Pagans incorporate divination into their spiritual practice. Divination practices
from around the world, including astrology, Tarot, Runes, the I Ching, Ogham, and
the use of a pendulum as a dowsing tool, all are common within the Pagan
community. Some divinatory practices are culturally specific and therefore may be
particularly common within specific traditions; for example, the runes are especially
popular with Norse Pagans, and the Ogham with druids or other Celtic Pagans.
Divination can be used as a means of predicting the future, but often Pagans will bring
a more sophisticated spiritual sensibility to their divination practice, engaging in it to
seek guidance from the gods and goddesses and insight into their own unfolding
spiritual growth and development. Some Pagans may do readings for others, and
particularly gifted ones may offer their services professionally through a metaphysical
bookstore or at a psychic fair. But many read strictly for themselves or for close
friends, seeing divination as an intimate spiritual practice rather than a mere form of
entertainment or fortune telling.
Since Pagans often resist the idea that “spirituality” is somehow distinct from the rest
of life, ultimately almost any activity can be embraced as a part of a spiritual practice.
Camping, hiking, gardening, nature photography, drawing or other creative pursuits,
the practice of herbalism or the use of essential oils, incense making, the preparation
and use of folk healing remedies - these are some of the many practices that can be
incorporated into daily life with a clear recognition that such activities have spiritual
meaning. Ultimately, every Pagan is responsible for developing his or her most
meaningful practices.
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PART SEVEN
THE CONTEMPORARY PAGAN COMMUNITY
Instead of a professional “clergy”, many Pagan groups have an egalitarian priesthood,
open to most practitioners who assume ritual or organisational leadership positions.
With influences as diverse as ancient mystery religions, shamanism and indigenous
spirituality, 19th-century occultism, and the anti-authoritarian ethos of the 1960s
counterculture, many Pagan communities today feature a priesthood that is unpaid,
relatively easy to enter, and collaborative in its leadership style. Few, if any, groups
concentrate authority and leadership in a small number of “clergy” who “minister” to
a large community of laypersons. Instead, Pagan communities typically will ordain
many - if not most or all - active and committed members to positions of ritual,
educational, and/or organisational leadership.
Not only are both men and women eligible for “clergy” positions within Paganism,
but many groups actually favor women. Many Wiccan communities regard their High
Priestess as first among equals, and organise both new and existing covens around the
leadership of the High Priestess. Generally the only groups that prohibit one gender or
the other from assuming leadership positions are those that limit membership in
general to just one gender.
Few Pagan seminaries exist; most local covens and groups provide their own training
for future “clergy”. Otherwise, in keeping with the non-professional status of most
Pagan “clergy”, training typically does not involve traditional academic coursework.
Rather, training is provided in a small-group or in a one-on-one format, focusing on
oral instruction rather than the study of assigned texts. Groups generally provide
instruction with a strong practical component, with students engaging in ritual
leadership, ritual design, the development of psychic skills, organisational or
administrative classes, and teaching of newcomers as part of their overall training.
Some Wiccan and other Pagan communities feature a rite of passage or initiation
ceremony to mark progress in the spiritual life as well as attainment of priesthood or
leadership responsibility. Not all groups equate initiation with ordination. One
common structure within Wicca is a three-degree initiation process, with new students
receiving training and instruction culminating in three separate levels or degrees of
initiation (often spaced a year or more apart). Some groups regard first-degree
initiates as priests or priestesses, while others consider only second- or third-degree
initiates to be “ordained clergy”.
Since “clergy” and spiritual leadership is generally a social function, solitary
adherents of Paganism may feel no need to regard themselves as priests or clergy.
Solitaries may receive training from a mentor, or may be self-taught through books or
personal intuition. Some solitaries may function as clergy in relation to society at
large - for example performing weddings - even though they are not members of an
established religious or spiritual community.
To the extent that Pagan communities are self-contained and do not interact with
society as a whole, “clergy” credentials are not a significant concern; respect for the

priest or priestess within the group is usually enough of a credential. However, as the
Pagan community has grown and more nature-centered clergypersons engage in
“public” ministries such as performing weddings and funerals, providing pastoral
counseling, prison or hospital ministry, and speaking in public settings on behalf of
their religious tradition, the perceived need for “clergy” credentials has grown.
Within most groups, however, issues such as credentials or the ability to minister to
non-group members is not an issue, and most Pagan “clergy” exercise their ministry
in collaborative community with others who function as their peers, sometimes under
the tutelage of one or more elders who function as mentors. This relatively informal
and unstructured approach to ministry works because it diffuses power and authority
among the group membership, which minimises problems such as abuse or egotism
and also enables each clergyperson to work without pay, since the responsibilities of
the priesthood are shared with others.
Organisation and structure
In most settings, contemporary Paganism is a minority religion, which enables Pagans
to gather in informal, small-scale communities; many practitioners work as solitaries.
Paganism in the 21st century is decentralised and diverse. Unlike other religions
where organisation at the community level often means owning and maintaining a
community building (a church, synagogue, mosque, or meditation centre), nearly all
Pagan groups meet in people's homes or in accessible outdoor settings.
Because Paganism involves the experience of mystical communion with, or devotion
to, nature and/or Pagan deities, it is entirely possible to be a solitary practitioner of the
Pagan path. As a spirituality devoid of dogma, there is no mandate to organise. Many
people may engage in Pagan spirituality as a purely private and personal pursuit;
some writers of nature spirituality books have thus addressed their work specifically
to the solitary practitioner
While solitary practice is acceptable, many Pagans do affiliate with others, typically
in small groups that are either governed by consensus or some form of democratic
process. These groups are known as circles, groves, tribes or covens (a term used
mostly by Wiccans and Witches). Some groups (particularly traditionalist covens)
have established leadership structures, although the small size of these groups
supports direct accountability between the leaders and the membership. Despite a
romantic notion that covens of witches should be limited to thirteen members
(promoted by early authors like Gerald Gardner), in practice Wiccan and other Pagan
groups can have anywhere from three to five or up to 100 or more members. Often
larger groups will “hive” or split into smaller groups, thus enabling the religion to
grow and allowing new leadership to emerge.
Some groups are part of lineages or traditions, established by students of Pagan elders
who go on to form their own groups, but remain under the tutelage of their mentors.
Other groups are newly formed by enterprising individuals who read books on the
religion and simply start their own gathering. On the regional or national level,
umbrella organisations, such as the South African Pagan Council (SAPC) enable
independent Pagan groups to join together for common purposes.
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Requirements for joining Wiccan or other Pagan groups vary. Some groups can only
be joined through a ritual initiation, which typically occurs after a period of study.
Other groups are membership-based: one joins simply by submitting an application.
Some groups have a dues structure; others ask for pledges; others do not require
financial contributions but expect members to shoulder their share of group-related
work.
Groups typically engage in educational and ritual work: elders teach younger and
newer members the theology and spirituality of Pagan religion in general and of their
tradition in particular; communal rituals help the group members to put their
spirituality into practice.
Many Pagans are active online, and that numerous groups, mail lists, bulletin boards,
blogs, meet-up groups, and other online resources are devoted to the learning and
practice of Paganism. The relative anonymity of the internet allows newcomers to
explore Pagan spirituality without necessarily committing to it. The wealth of
resources online enable interested parties to learn about different traditions within
Paganism - and even study one particular tradition in-depth - all from the safety and
comfort of one’s own computer.
Principles of Moral Thought and Action
While moral perspectives within Paganism are as diverse as nature itself, many
Pagans adhere to principles such as personal freedom, honor, and respect for the
rights of others.
“An (if) it harm none, do what ye will.”
Although written in the style of 16th-century English, this maxim, known as the
Wiccan Rede, probably dates back only to the mid-20th century. It was first recorded
in print in 1964, having been spoken by Doreen Valiente. Some observers of modern
witchcraft speculate that it may represent a revision of Aleister Crowley's occult
maxim, “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law”, which first appeared in
1904.
Regardless of its origin, the Rede - as a succinct moral code - spread rapidly
throughout the Wiccan and religious Witchcraft community.
Many variations of the Rede have emerged since its first appearance in the 1960s,
some versions subtly re-defining its moral parameters. One common variant appends
“Lest in thy self-defense it be”, modifying the prohibition against harm in the interest
of self-protection. The Wiccan community does not have a consensus view on how to
interpret the Rede; some see it as a spiritual maxim pertaining only to magick, while
others regard it as governing all conduct.
Despite its popularity among Wiccans and some other modern Pagans, the Wiccan
Rede is hardly universally observed in the Pagan community. Most non-Wiccans
regard it as strictly a Wiccan text, and seek other principles for moral guidance. Many
adherents of ethnic Pagan revivalist traditions look to the heritage of their chosen
culture for guidance. For example, Celtic and Norse Pagans advocate a life grounded
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in virtue as understood in the great myths and legends of northern Europe. Such
values often reflect the importance of tribal kinship, valor among warriors, and
personal pride. Here is a list of "Nine Noble Virtues" as used by some Norse Pagans:
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• Courage - the ability to face both the joys and the challenges of life
fearlessly;
• Truth - honesty and integrity in one's words as well as one's actions;
• Honor - strength of character as reflected in one's behavior and
trustworthiness;
• Fidelity - loyalty and faithfulness to family, tribal, and spiritual
commitments;
• Discipline - consistency in effort toward reaching one's goals;
• Hospitality - kindness to strangers, travelers, and those who are in need;
• Industriousness - willingness to work hard toward excellence in
productivity;
• Self-Reliance - pride in the ability to care for one's own needs;
• Perseverance - refusal to admit defeat or to let obstacles thwart one's
efforts.
The Rede and the Threefold Law
As is the case of the Wiccan Rede, the culturally specific values of various Pagan
traditions are not universally accepted - not even within a specific cultural tradition.
The Rede in its best known form as the “eight words couplet” was first publicly
recorded in a speech by Doreen Valiente in 1964.
The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in Wicca, and
other related witchcraft-based faiths. The most common form of the Rede is: “An it
harm none, do what ye will.”
“Rede” is a word from Middle English meaning “advice” or “counsel”, cognate to the
German Rat or Swedish råd. “An” is an archaic Middle English conjunction, meaning
“if”, as in the Shakespearean “an it please thee”. “Ye” is an archaic or dialect form of
you (plural).
Other variants include:
“Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill, An it harm none do what ye will.”
This is the first published form of the couplet, quoted from Doreen Valiente in 1964.
Later published versions include “ye” instead of either “the” or “it”:
“Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill — an ye harm none, do what ye will”
(Earth Religion News, 1974);
“Eight words ye Wiccan Rede fulfill - An' it harm none, Do what ye will.”
(Green Egg, 1975)
“An it harm none, do what thou wilt.”
“An it harm none, do as thou wilt.”

“That it harm none, do as thou wilt.”
A more modern version reads:
“Do what you will, so long as it harms none.”
In 1974 a complete twenty-six line poem entitled “The Wiccan Rede” was published
in the Pagan magazine Earth Religion News. Each line contained a rhymed couplet
laid out as a single line, the last line being the familiar "short rede" couplet beginning
“Eight words....
This poem was shortly followed by another, slightly different, version, entitled the
“Rede Of The Wiccae”, which was published in Green Egg magazine by Lady Gwen
Thompson. She ascribed it to her grandmother Adriana Porter, and claimed that the
earlier published text was distorted from “its original form”. The poem has since been
very widely circulated and has appeared in other versions and layouts, with additional
or variant passages. It is commonly known as the “Long Rede”.
Thompson’s attribution of the Long Rede to her grandmother has been disputed, since
Adriana Porter died in 1946, well before Gerald Gardner published The Old Laws,
and no evidence for Porter’s authorship exists other than Thompson’s word. The
poem refers to Wiccan concepts that, though ostensibly very old, have not been
proven to pre-date the 1940s. Its attribution to Porter may have formed part of
Thompson’s claim to be an hereditary Witch. Its precise origin has yet to be
determined.
Not all traditional Wiccans follow the Rede; Gardnerians espouse the Charge of the
Goddess as a guide for morality. Its line: “Keep pure your highest ideal, strive ever
towards it; let naught stop you or turn you aside, for mine is the secret door which
opens upon the door of youth.” is used as a maxim for ethical dilemmas.
There is some debate in the Pagan and Wiccan communities as to the meaning of the
Rede. The debate mostly centres on the concept of the Rede being advice, not a
commandment.
The Rede (Long form)
“Hear now the word of the Witches, the secrets we hid in the night,
When dark was our destinys pathway, That now we bring forth in the light.
Mysterious Water and Fire, The Earth and the wide-ranging Air,
By hidden Quintessence we know Them, and we will keep silent and dare.
The birth and rebirth of all Nature, the passing of Winter and Spring,
We share with the life Universal, rejoice in the Magickal Ring
Four times in the year the Great Sabbat, returns, and the Witches are seen,
At Lammas and Candelas dancing, on May Eve and old Halloween
When daytime and nighttime are equal, when sun is at greatest and least,
The four lesser Sabbats are summoned, again Witches gather in feast.
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Thirteen silver moons in a year are, thirteen is the Covens array,
Thirteen times at Esbat make merry, for each golden year and a day.
The power has passed down the ages, each time between woman and man
Each century unto the other, ere times and the ages began.
When drawn is the Magickal circle, by sword or athame of power,
Its compass between two worlds lies, in the land of shades of that hour.
Our world has no right to know it, and the world beyond will tell naught,
The oldest of Gods are invoked there, the great work of Magick is wrought.
For two are the mystical pillars, that stand at the gate of the shrine,
And two are the powers of Nature, the forms and the forces divine.
And do what thou wilt be the challenge, so be it in love that harms none,
For this is the only commandment, By Magick of old be it done.
Eight words the Witches Rede fulfill:
If it Harms none, Do what Thou Will!”
“Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill, ‘An’ it harm none, do what ye will’."
REDE HAS ROOTS IN CHRISTIANITY by Morgause Fonteléve
Truth or diabolical suggestion? Could it be possible that the supreme Pagan Rule is
not Pagan at all in origin? And where does this discovery leave us who live according
to this Law?
In 1904 Aleister Crowley wrote the DO WHAT THOW WILT SHALL BE THE
WHOLE OF THE LAW in his Book of the Law, (Liber al Vel Legis). Gerald
Brusseau Gardner (a speculated Crowlian initiate) later adopted the phrase for his own
Neo-Pagan teachings.
On 3 October 1964, Pentagram (a quarterly newsletter and witchcraft review),
sponsored the first public Witches Dinner of modern times. On this occasion, the
phrase adopted as the Rede, was first publicly uttered by Doreen Valiente, in the form
we currently use today.
Prior to that, a similar phrase appears in Gerald Gardner’s’ “The Meaning of
Witchcraft” whence he wrote that witches generally are inclined to share the morality
of King Pausole in the novel, “The Adventures of King Pausole”, written in 1901 by
the French novelist Pierre Louys. The philosophy of King Pausole was “do what you
like so long as you harm no one”. This means that the Rede is not an ancient Pagan
teaching as some of us believe it to be.
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In Crowley’s the Book of the Law is a verse which states: "Invoke me under my stars!
Love is the law, love under will”. Very similar to our modern day “Love is the Law,
Love is the Bond”, yet totally different in meaning and result. And there goes another
piece of the puzzle.
A second school of thought claims that the Rede was extracted directly from the
Wiccan Credo which is believed by some to have been written circa 1910 by Adriana
Porter. But who inspired her?
Does this teaching appear anywhere else before this time? Yes, in the 16th century
novel Gargantua and Pantagruel written by Benedictine monk, Francois Rabelais.
Francis Dashwood (inspired by Rabelais) adopted the phrase 'Do What Thou Wilt' as
the motto of The Order of the Friars of St. Francis of Wycombe, also known as the
Monks of Medmenham (Hell-Fire Club). The motto was inscribed over the entrance
of the Medmenham Abbey. Dashwood held that man has a natural right to be free
and explained that by freedom it is not meant that every individual can act as he
pleases, according to his own passion, vices and mental infirmities; rather, freedom is
a right every man has to do what he will with his own.
Could Francis Dashwood (1708-1781), the 2nd Baronet Dashwood and 15th Baron le
Despenser have inspired Aleister Crowley’s “Do what thou will shall be the whole of
the Law; Love is the Law, Love under Will”?
It is the writer’s opinion that it was undoubtedly the influence of Francis Dashwood
and his 'Hell-Fire Club' which led Aleister Crowley (1875-1947) to develop the Law
of Thelema, even if Crowley claimed that it had been dictated to him by an Egyptian
entity named Aiwass.
“Dilige, et quod vis fac” (Love and do what thou wilt), was first coined by Saint
Augustine of Hippo (354-430). This meant that if you loved God, you were free to
act according to your will, since a man who loved God would naturally select the path
of virtue.
It was none other than St. Augustine who therefore inspired Francois Rabelais (1494-
15) to adopt the motto “fay ce que voudras” (French for “do what thou wilt) for his
fictional Abbey of Theleme, in his magnum opus Gargantua and Pantagruel. Rabelais
said people could act according to their will, because people who were free, wellbred,
and easy in honest company had good instincts and a natural tendency towards
virtuous deeds which would safeguard them from vice. He called this honour.
Isn’t it important to also note that Crowley’s Abbey of Thelema (Greek for Will) in
Sicily was directly inspired by the Thelemite monks of Rabelais’ Gargantua and
Pantagruel? How many more of these discoveries can we endure and continue to
nurture an interest and love for the Path we have chosen?
In his Satanic Bible, Anton LaVey derides the Satanic rituals and initiation rites of
Francis Dashwood and his Medmenham monks, for they had eliminated the blood,
gore and infanticide of the previous century’s Black Masses. The brotherhood formed
by aristocratic libertine gentlemen, (such as Lord Byron, John Dee, Horace Walpole
and well-known freemasons of the time), recruited prostitutes from brothels in
188

London to act as their monastic companions, dressed them up as nuns in order that
they could partake in erotic, psycho pompous spiritual plays, and LaVey puts it all
down to harmless, good dirty fun. These gentlemen were infamous at the time for
their self-proclaimed “anti-moralistic” behaviour.
Crowley, on the other hand, had been obliged to leave Sicily under the accusation of
being a Diabolicist and Satanic mystic, despite his denials of any involvement with
Satanism and his contradictory declaration of being the Beast of Revelations. LaVey
said Crowley worked overtime, posing as, in Crowley’s words, “the most wicked man
ever to have lived”.
Now if the Rede is a Christian maxim, inverted in its meaning by those who preceded
us on this Path, where does this leave us as Neo-Pagans today? How do we regulate
our PERSONAL morality? What set of secular ethics do we leave to future Pagan
generations? Can we continue to look to the Rede as the paramount guideline for our
moral code? Does the Pagan Society at large need a moral code?
Yes! Morality defines the principles which govern our behaviour and reactions.
Without these principles, no society can survive for long. This rule applies to all
Pagan Paths.
“Do as ye will …” does not mean that if it feels good you can do it. It exhorts one to
maximum personal responsibility. It means that one must exercise caution: use your
power of discernment before putting out any energy in form of thought, words or
deeds. Action causes reaction and these must be executed in full awareness and
complete understanding, in a spirit of love and balance if it is not to cause harm
elsewhere. By harm is intended, mental, physical and spiritual damage. It means, do
what you must do in order to survive, to heal, to improve in life, in order to create, to
be entertained, to be safe, etc. without negative repercussions elsewhere.
I believe that provided we know whence the Rede comes from, provided we are not
ignorant of the facts aforementioned, provided we can deal with whatever objections
may be thrown our way regarding the golden rule of Paganism, we can continue to
fulfill the Rede, knowing that the Goddess has, through the ages, spoken the same
words to us through many a writer’s pen.
And harm none, in whatever you do!
Blessed Be!
Three-fold Law of Return
Basically, this is the natural law of “cause and effect”. It states that whatever energy a
person puts out into the world, be it positive or negative, will be returned to that
person three times. Some subscribe to a variant of this law in which return is not
necessarily threefold.
The Rule of Three has been compared by Karl Lembke to other ethics of reciprocity,
such as the concept of karma in Dharmic religions and the Christian edict, “Do unto
189

others as you would have them do unto you.” (Matthew 7:12), also known as the
“Golden Rule”.
The Rule of Three has a possible prototype in a piece of Wiccan liturgy which first
appeared in print in Gerald Gardner’s 1949 novel High Magick’s Aid:
“Thou hast obeyed the Law. But mark well, when thou receivest good, so equally art
bound to return good threefold.” (For this is the joke in Witchcraft, the Witch knows,
though the initiate does not, that she will get three times what she gave, so she does
not strike hard.)
The first published reference to the Rule of Three as a general ethical principle may
be from Raymond Buckland, in a 1968 article for Beyond magazine.
The Charge of the Goddess
The Charge of the Goddess is a traditional inspirational text sometimes used in the
Paganism, especially in Wicca. Several versions exist, though they all have the same
basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by a Great Goddess to her
worshippers. The most well known version is that written by Gerald Gardner, and
rewritten by his High Priestess Doreen Valiente in the mid 1950s, which is contained
within the traditional Gardnerian Book of Shadows.
The opening paragraph names a collection of goddesses, some derived from Greek or
Roman mythology, others from Celtic or Arthurian legends, affirming a belief that
these various figures represent a single Great Mother:
Listen to the words of the Great Mother; she who of old was also called among men
Artemis, Astarte, Athene, Dione, Melusine, Aphrodite, Cerridwen, Dana, Arianrhod,
Isis, Bride, and by many other names.
This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten
thousand names.
The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia,
the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland’s
1899 book Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches. The third paragraph is largely
written by Doreen Valiente, with some phrases adapted from The Book of the Law
and The Gnostic Mass by Aleister Crowley.
The charge affirms that all acts of love and pleasure are sacred to the Goddess:
“Let my worship be within the heart that rejoices, for behold, all acts of love and
pleasure are my rituals. Therefore, let there be beauty and strength, power and
compassion, honor and humility, mirth and reverence within you.”
The earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the late 1940s,
and draws extensively from Charles Godfrey Leland’s Aradia, or the Gospel of the
Witches and other modern sources, particularly from the works of Aleister Crowley.
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The oldest identifiable source is the 17th Century Centrum Naturae Concentratum of
Alipili (or Ali Puli).
It is believed to have been compiled by Gerald Gardner or possibly another member
of the New Forest coven. Doreen Valiente took his version from his Book of Shadows
and adapted it into verse, and later into another prose version.
The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of
which was :
“Bow before My spirit bright
Aphrodite, Arianrhod
Lover of the Hornéd God
Queen of witchery and night”
Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that “people seemed to have some
difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to
pronounce”, and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her
initial version, and is more akin to Gardner’s version. This prose version has since
been modified and reproduced widely by other authors.
SOCIAL ISSUES
As a postmodern religious tradition inspired by ancient fertility practices, Paganism
generally celebrates freedom and diversity in regard to human sexuality and gender.
When Gerald Gardner and his associates began publicly to discuss and promote
Wicca in the 1950s and 1960s, several elements of the movement had strong erotic or
fertility overtones. Gardner's group performed their rituals in the nude - a
phenomenon called "working skyclad" - and one of the tools used in some rites was a
scourge (which symbolized self-denial or sacrificial suffering). Some rites included
ceremonial kissing between the priest and the priestess, while the dramatic "Great
Rite" involved either actual or symbolic sexual intercourse between the priest and
priestess leading the ritual.
Although Gardnerian Wicca may be extreme in its explicit use of erotic symbolism
and rituals - other forms of Wicca, Witchcraft, and other nature religions do not
always work skyclad or engage in other forms of ceremonial sexual expression - it is
emblematic of the unabashedly positive view that Paganism in general holds toward
sexuality.
Like society at large, Pagans abhor predatory or coercive sexual acts such as rape,
date rape, child molestation, exploitative pornography, or sexual harassment. While
polyamory (non-monogamy) is generally tolerated, opinion is divided among Pagans
as to whether such behavior is truly good. Even those who accept or embrace nonmonogamy
believe it is wrong to lie or deceive one's partner(s) about such behaviour.
Although abortion is not considered immoral in the Pagan community, the use of
contraceptives is seen as preferable to the emotional and physical trauma of abortion.
Persons with sexually transmitted diseases have a moral obligation to either refrain
191

from sexual activity or, at the least, inform partners of their situation and use condoms
or other prophylactics to reduce the risk of transmission.
Along with the liberal and positive approach to sexual behavior and ethics, Paganism
generally endorses feminism and accepts a post-patriarchal understanding of gender.
Nearly all segments of the Pagan community regard men and women as true equals,
complementary to the extent that the biological realities of gender means some
differences in abilities and strengths, but with a clear understanding that this
complementarity does not in any way privilege one gender over the other.
With this basic affirmation of equality between the sexes in place, the Pagan
community nevertheless includes broad possibilities for the expression of gender
identity. Traditional gender roles (such as the strong male warrior and the nurturing
mother) are accepted and in some settings even affirmed. Some Pagan groups
recognize a difference between “Male Mysteries” and “Female Mysteries” - male
mysteries can include a celebration of hunting, athletic competition, the ethos of the
warrior, and the cultivation of virtues such as bravery and honor; likewise, female
mysteries can include the celebration of the menstrual cycle, the feminine journey
from maiden to mother to crone, and the cultivation of traditionally “feminine” skills
such as divination, herbalism, or healing work.
The concept of male and female mysteries, like the construction of gender identity
itself, is fluid and can vary from group to group (or even individual to individual).
And while some groups may enforce restrictions that only allow persons who are
genetically male or female to participate in the mysteries of their gender, on a purely
individual level much latitude exists within the larger Pagan community for men or
women to pursue their own interests, regardless of traditional gender affiliation. Thus,
male herbalists and female warriors are not only acceptable within the Pagan
community, but can even be regarded as prestigious examples of the personal freedom
available within the community.
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersexed, and transgendered persons also are generally
welcomed within the Pagan community. Although some groups specifically cater to
non-heterosexual or non-exclusively-heterosexual Pagans, many groups welcome
diversity in sexual expression among their members. Those whose sexuality and
gender identity differ from societal norms are a sign not only of the diversity of nature
itself, but also the liberality and tolerance that most Pagans consider to be bedrock
values of their spirituality.
THE FUTURE
While Paganism offers no consensus vision for the common good, many adherents
believe in caring for the environment and creating a non-sexist, non-homophobic
society.
Pagans encompass the entire spectrum of social and political value systems.
Adherents of this spirituality may in good conscience espouse liberal, conservative,
moderate, libertarian, green, and other political values. This, in itself, offers an
192

important clue to the Pagan vision for society: it is a society where freedom of
thought, expression, and political ideas are foundational.
Although many Pagans identify with tribal or prehistoric social structures on a mythic
or spiritual level, they also generally accept and espouse the values of liberal
democracy. Many promote social change of some form, usually involving the
promotion of non-sexist, non-homophobic, non-hierarchical, and even nonmonogamous
social values, although some minority groups (particularly among
Ethnic Reconstructionist Pagans) espouse less liberal positions. Alongside such
progressive social values, many Pagans advocate environmentalism).
193

194
SOURCES
ONLINE SOURCES
http://www.patheos.com;
www.allaboutspirituality.org;
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195
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196

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197

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http://www.hammerheadrabbits.com/blog/images/yggdrasil.jpg;
http://www.dowhatyewill.com/Pagansymbols;
http://www.crystalinks.com/blavatsky.html;
L. W. Yaggy and T. L. Haines, Museum of Antiquity (New York: Standard
Publishing House, 1882)709;
Clipart.com;
British Museum, London
GRAPHICS
http://www.religionfacts.com/neoPaganism/charts/wiccan_five_elements.htm;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year
MAP
http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/achilles/festivals/festivals.html
Compiled by Phos Erebos
Disclaimer:
The views of the above represents that of the author alone and is not necessarily
shared by the SAPC executive or membership. This work is © SAPC (South African
Pagan Council) and Phos Erebos. Reproduction or disemination of this work without
explicit, written permission from the SAPC and the author is prohibited.
All efforts have been made to avoid copyright infringement by the author in use of the
sources listed above. Should there be anything in the above work that is copyrighted
or restricted, please contact info@pagancouncil.co.za to allow us to rectify the
situation soonest.
Our heart-felt thanks to Phos Erebos for this Pagan Overview.
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