The Geography of Phytochemical Races

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36 2 Examples Within Continents Mastenbroek (1983) posed two questions: (1) Did S. latifolia follow the spread of agriculture in Europe? (2) What was the impact of glaciation on the history of S. latifolia? Because S. latifolia requires open ground for successful colonization, it could not have advanced into central and northern Europe until appropriate habitats became available. This was accomplished through the deforestation that accompanied preparation of the land for planting. Mastenbroek (1983) suggested that S. latifolia existed in its natural state in nonarable sites in southern Europe and the Middle East at the time that human migration northward began. With the availability of newly cleared sites, establishment of weedy forms likely occurred. These could then have spread by different routes, northward and northwestward from the Balkans, and westward toward the Iberian Peninsula. Differentiation into proto-western and proto-eastern forms (races) may have occurred at that time. Owing to diffi culties in identifying seeds and pollen as coming specifi cally from S. latifolia, it is impossible to state with certainty that the species per se was the progenitor of the modern races, or whether it evolved from some other species near the time of expansion. At any rate, expansion of the weedy forms continued as more and more sites became available leading to eventual contacts from which the present-day intermediate forms arose. In addressing the issue of postglacial history of S. latifolia (or its progenitor), it is necessary to consider where it existed during the time when ice covered most of northern Europe. The species is not well adapted to survive in cold conditions (Thompson, 1973), which Mastenbroek (1983) pointed out, likely accounts for the absence of this species in the more northerly parts of Europe. He went on to say that even southern Europe may not have provided the necessary conditions for growth, and that the species may have occupied refugia in Northern Africa during maximum ice cover. This issue cannot be resolved on the basis of the data at hand. 2.3.5 Achillea (Asteraceae) As part of an extensive series of studies on fl avonoids of members of Anthemideae, Valant-Vetschera and Wollenweber (1988) examined the distribution of aglycones in leaf exudates of members of the Achillea millefolium L. group of species. Both qualitative and quantitative differences were noted for several species. An interesting example involves differences that were noted among specimens of A. aspleniifolia Vent. collected in Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia. Their observations involved three O-methylated quercetagetin derivatives, the 3,6,4′-trimethyl ether, centaureidin [71], the 3,6,7,4′-tetramethyl ether, casticin [72], and the 3,6,7,3′,4′pentamethyl ether, artemetin [73] (see Fig. 2.19 for structures 71–73). The results of their study are summarized in Table 2.4. This system might prove to be useful in studying the action and control of O-methylation as has been done in Chrysosplenium americanum by Prof. Ragai Ibrahim and his colleagues at Concordia University in Montreal (e.g., De Luca and Ibrahim, 1985a, b).
2.3 Europe 37 Fig. 2.19 Compounds 71–73, fl avonoids identifi ed from Achillea millefolium. Compounds 74–78, fl avonoids identifi ed from Pulicaria dysenterica Table 2.4 Flavonoid variation in leaf exudates of Achillea aspleniifolia (from Valant-Vetschera and Wollenweber, 1988) Country Quercetagetin methyl ethersa 3,6,4′ 3,6,7,4′ 3,6,7,3′,4′ Yugoslavia + b Austria-1 tr Austria-2 tr + Hungary-1 tr + ++ Hungary-2 tr + + Romania tr + + a Common names: centaureidin, casticin, and artemetin, respectively. b Relative amounts; tr = trace only. Continuing their study of fl avonoids of Achillea (Asteraceae), Valant-Vetschera and Wollenweber (2001) described exudate aglycones in A. moschata (Mill.) W. D. J. Koch and related alpine species of Achillea sect. Ptarmica. In addition to summarizing the exudate chemistry of all sections of the genus—a valuable contribution in its own right—those authors pointed out the predominance of 6- hydroxyfl avonol 3,6,4′-trimethyl ethers in taxa native to the Balkans and southeastern Europe, in contrast to the predominance of 6-hydroxyfl avone methyl ethers in taxa native to Turkey. Flavonoid aglycone diversifi cation appears to confi rm the origin of the genus in the eastern Mediterranean region. The reader might also examine the companion study of Achillea sect. Filipendulinae (Valant-Vetschera and Wollenweber, 1996). It is convenient to mention at this point a recent study on chemical variation involving the essential oils of Achillea millefolium L. subsp. millefolium growing
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Page 6 and 7: Acknowledgments I thank many worker
Page 8 and 9: x Abstract which biosynthetic step
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Page 18 and 19: 2 1 Introduction It is useful to me
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120 2 Examples Within Continents 2.
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Chapter 3 After the Ice According t
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3.1 North America 127 Fig. 3.1 Comp
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3.1 North America 129 7-O-glucoside
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3.1 North America 131 been found to
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3.1 North America 133 structural ty
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3.1 North America 135 Two species c
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3.1 North America 137 3.1.5 Thuja p
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3.1 North America 139 allele freque
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3.2 North American Conifers 141 fro
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3.2 North American Conifers 143 hom
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3.2 North American Conifers 145 Fig
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3.2 North American Conifers 147 cam
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3.2 North American Conifers 149 hig
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3.2 North American Conifers 151 dis
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3.2 North American Conifers 153 Fig
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3.2 North American Conifers 155 agr
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3.2 North American Conifers 157 Tab
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3.2 North American Conifers 159 Fol
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3.2 North American Conifers 161 sim
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3.3 Europe 163 Fig. 3.11 Compounds
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3.3 Europe 165 levels of 3-carene i
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3.4 South America 167 historic time
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3.4 South America 169 Fig. 3.13 Com
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3.4 South America 171 Mediterranean
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174 4 Intercontinental Disjunctions
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220 5 Wide Disjunctions and, unrela
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226 5 Wide Disjunctions differences
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228 5 Wide Disjunctions also been i
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230 5 Wide Disjunctions Table 5.2 A
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234 5 Wide Disjunctions Southern He
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238 5 Wide Disjunctions Table 5.4 O
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240 5 Wide Disjunctions Fig. 5.12 C
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242 5 Wide Disjunctions comparable
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246 6 Oceanic Islands Fig. 6.1 Loca
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248 6 Oceanic Islands Fig. 6.2 Comp
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250 6 Oceanic Islands levels of spe
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254 6 Oceanic Islands Compound Chem
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256 6 Oceanic Islands been cytogene
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260 6 Oceanic Islands compounds wit
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262 6 Oceanic Islands preparation o
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264 6 Oceanic Islands Fig. 6.8 Map
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266 6 Oceanic Islands (formerly the
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268 6 Oceanic Islands It is not pos
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270 6 Oceanic Islands appropriate p
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272 6 Oceanic Islands A single popu
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274 6 Oceanic Islands Fig. 6.11 Map
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276 6 Oceanic Islands primarily of
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278 6 Oceanic Islands the present c
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280 6 Oceanic Islands Fuerteventura
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282 6 Oceanic Islands tetraploid Me
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286 7 Polar Disjunctions and variet
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288 7 Polar Disjunctions Fig. 7.2 C
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290 7 Polar Disjunctions Fig. 7.3 C
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292 7 Polar Disjunctions (1978), an
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294 7 Polar Disjunctions Table 7.1
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296 7 Polar Disjunctions occurs thr
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Chapter 8 Conclusions Some years ag
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302 Bibliography Amico, V., Caccame
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304 Bibliography Bennett, K. D. 199
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306 Bibliography Caccamese, S., R.
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308 Bibliography ———, Hussain
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310 Bibliography Del Pero Martinez,
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312 Bibliography ——— 1987. A
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314 Bibliography ———. 1878. F
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316 Bibliography Herz, W. and Kumar
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318 Bibliography Jutila, H. M. 1996
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320 Bibliography Levin, D. A. 1976.
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322 Bibliography Masuda, M., Abe, T
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324 Bibliography ———. 1966. A
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326 Bibliography Prus-Glowacki, W.
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328 Bibliography Sanders, R. W. 197
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330 Bibliography ———, Morgan,
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332 Bibliography Takhajan, A. 1969.
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334 Bibliography von Rudloff, E. 19
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336 Bibliography ———, Koenig,
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Plant Family Index Algae Codiaceae,
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Plant Genus Index Algae Chondrococc
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Plant Genus Index 343 Bryophytes (l
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346 Subject Index Cyanogenesis, gen
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348 Subject Index Romania, 36 Rooib
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The Geography of Phytochemical Races

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