Chapter I Intro & Objectives - SPREP
Chapter I Intro & Objectives - SPREP
Chapter I Intro & Objectives - SPREP
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The Phoenix Islands<br />
Protected Area<br />
Management Plan<br />
-2007-<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
(CHAPTERS I, II, and III)<br />
First Draft 3-5-07<br />
By:<br />
K. Roger Uwate<br />
Consultant<br />
New England Aquarium<br />
And<br />
Tukabu Teroroko<br />
Director,<br />
Phoenix Islands Protected Area<br />
Phoenix Islands Protected Area<br />
Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development<br />
Government of Kiribati<br />
[March 2007]
Dear Reviewer:<br />
5 March 2007<br />
Draft #1 of <strong>Chapter</strong>s I (<strong>Intro</strong>duction), II (Methods), and III (Background) of the management<br />
plan are now completed. These files are in PDF format. A limited number of hard copies are<br />
also available at the PIPA office.<br />
Your review of these chapters is greatly appreciated.<br />
Please write down (or type up) your comments, insights, and editorial findings on a separate<br />
sheet. Please indicate the chapter, section, page number, and line number for each comment.<br />
This is so that the appropriate place in the text for your comment can be identified.<br />
We apologize for the length of the draft, but there was so much previous information that it<br />
was impossible to trim this down without losing the colorful, complex and varied history of<br />
the Phoenix Islands. We encourage you all to spend the time to read through this background<br />
information. We are confident that you will, as we did, find the journal most interesting. The<br />
knowledge you will gain will most certainly be extremely useful as we formulate<br />
management approaches for this very important protected area.<br />
There are still more than 100 reports that have been identified relating to the Phoenix Islands.<br />
We are sure that there are other reports that we are not aware of. If you uncover reports not<br />
cited here, please provide this office with a copy.<br />
We would appreciate if you could have your review comments back to the PIPA office by the<br />
1 st of May 2007.<br />
Your timely review of this material is greatly appreciated. We look forward to receiving your<br />
review comments.<br />
Sincerely,<br />
K. Roger Uwate, Ph.D.<br />
NEAq Consultant<br />
Tukabu Teroroko<br />
PIPA Director
Table of Contents<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> Title Page<br />
No.<br />
Table of Contents<br />
List of Acronyms<br />
I. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
A. Settting<br />
B. Need for Management Plan<br />
C. Previous Phoenix Islands Management Plans<br />
2. VISION AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES<br />
3. MANAGEMENT PLAN OBJECTIVE<br />
4. REFERENCES CITED<br />
II. METHODOLOGY<br />
1. LITERATURE SEARCH<br />
2. SYNTHESIS OF BACKGROUND MATERIALS<br />
3. STAKEHOLDER INPUTS<br />
A. Residents of the Phoenix Islands<br />
B. Government of Kiribati<br />
C. Foreign Stakeholders<br />
4. CRITICAL ISSUES<br />
5. ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES<br />
6. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND APPROACHES<br />
7. REFERENCES CITED<br />
III. BACKGROUND<br />
1. PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE ISLANDS<br />
A. Geological<br />
B. Oceanographic<br />
C. Bathymetric<br />
D. Meteorological<br />
E. References Cited<br />
2. HUMAN ACTIVITIES<br />
A. Archaeological Aspects<br />
B. Discovery<br />
C. Guano Era (c1856 to 1887)<br />
D. Post-Guano Era to the Start of World War II (c1887 to<br />
1939)<br />
E. World War II (1940 to 1945)<br />
F. Post World War II to Independence (1946 to 1979)<br />
G. Post Independence (1979 to present)<br />
H. References Cited<br />
3. TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES<br />
A. Freshwater<br />
B. Vegetation and Fungi<br />
C. Insects<br />
D. Other Invertebrates
E. Amphibians<br />
F. Reptiles<br />
G. Birds<br />
H. Mammals<br />
I. References Cited<br />
4. MARINE RESOURCES<br />
A. Marine Flora<br />
B. Corals and Other Coelenterata<br />
C. Sponges<br />
D. Echinoderms<br />
E. Annelids<br />
F. Molluscs<br />
G. Arthropods<br />
H. Fishes<br />
I. Turtles<br />
J. Marine Mammals<br />
K. Other Marine Biota<br />
L. References Cited<br />
5. FISHERIES RESOURCES<br />
A. Offshore Fisheries Resources (Tuna)<br />
B. Offshore Fisheries (Tuna)<br />
C. Inshore Fisheries Resources<br />
D. Inshore Fisheries<br />
E. References Cited<br />
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, REGULATIONS, AND<br />
AGREEMENTS<br />
A. Environmental Issues<br />
B. National Regulations and Laws<br />
C. International and Regional Agreements<br />
D. References Cited
List of Acronyms<br />
Acronym full name<br />
AFB Air Force Base<br />
AUD Australian dollar<br />
BP before present<br />
CAA U.S. Civil Aviation Authority<br />
CCOP/SOPAC SOPAC former name<br />
CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund<br />
CI Conservation International<br />
CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species<br />
Co Cobalt<br />
CORAL Coral Reef Alliance<br />
CPUE catch per unit effort<br />
Cu Cooper<br />
CVA cumulative volcano amplitude<br />
D Dimensional<br />
DOI U.S. Department of Interior<br />
ECD Environment and Conservation Department, MELAD<br />
EEZ exclusive economic zone<br />
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation<br />
ESCAP U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Asian and the Pacific<br />
FAA U.S. Federal Aviation Agency<br />
FAO Food and Agriculture Department of the United Nations<br />
GBRMPA Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority<br />
GCF Global Conservation Fund<br />
GEF Global Environment Facility<br />
GEIC Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
GOK Government of Kiribati<br />
IFREMER Institu Francais de Recherche Pour L'exploitation de la Mer<br />
IUCN World Conservation Union<br />
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency<br />
JOGMEC Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation<br />
KSSL Kiribati Shipping Services, Ltd.<br />
LMS London Missionary Society (now the Kiribati Protestant Church)<br />
LORAN Long Range Navigation Station<br />
MARC Micronesia Area Resource Center, University of Guam<br />
MARPOL Maritime Pollution Convention<br />
MELAD Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Agricultural Development, Kiribati<br />
MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation<br />
MLPID Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development, Kiribati<br />
Mn Manganese<br />
MOU Memorandum of Understanding<br />
MPA marine protected area<br />
NASA U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration<br />
NEAq New England Aquarium<br />
Ni Nickel<br />
NOAA U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration<br />
PAA Pan American Airways<br />
PCBs Polychorinated biphenyl<br />
PCRF Planetary Coral Reef Foundation<br />
PI Phoenix Islands<br />
PIKS Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme<br />
PIMRIS Pacific Islands Marine Resources Information System
PIPA Phoenix Islands Protected Area<br />
PIPA SC Inter-governmental Steering Committee overseeing PIPA<br />
POBSP Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme<br />
POFI Pacific Ocean Fishery Investigations<br />
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants<br />
Pt Platinum<br />
RNZAF Royal New Zealand Air Force<br />
SAMTEC USAF Space and Missile Test Center<br />
SOI Southern Oscillation Index<br />
SOPAC Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission<br />
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community<br />
<strong>SPREP</strong> Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme<br />
TBAP Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme of SPC<br />
TL Total Length<br />
TOGA Tropical Oceans and Global Atmosphere Program<br />
U.K. United Kingdom<br />
UH University of Hawaii<br />
UNCLOS U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea<br />
UNDP United Nations Development Programme<br />
UNESCO U.N. Economic, Social, and Culture Organization<br />
UOG University of Guam<br />
USA United States of America<br />
USAF U.S. Air Force<br />
USD U.S. dollar<br />
USP University of the South Pacific<br />
WWF World Wildlife Foundation<br />
WWII World War II
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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1. INTRODUCTION<br />
A. SETTING<br />
CHAPTER I<br />
INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE<br />
The Republic of Kiribati is located at the center of the Pacific Ocean (see Figure 1). The<br />
Phoenix Islands are in the center of the Republic of Kiribati between the Line Islands to the<br />
east and the Gilbert Islands to the west. The Phoenix Islands are composed of eight islands<br />
(see Figure 2). These include: Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. The Phoenix Islands have been known by a variety of names over the<br />
years (see Table xx below).<br />
Figure I-1.1. The Phoenix Islands, Kiribati, located<br />
in the center of the Pacific Ocean.<br />
(source: Lawson 2005).<br />
Figure I-1.2. Map of the Phoenix Islands, Kiribati.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
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Table I-1.1. Various names attributed to the Phoenix Islands over time.<br />
Current<br />
Name<br />
Other Names References<br />
Abariringa Maude 1937; Garnett 1983a<br />
Canton Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1974; McIntire 1940;<br />
Hempstead 1871<br />
Kanton Garnett 1983a; Douglas and Douglas 1994; Neemia and<br />
Thaman 1993<br />
Mary Balcout Hydrographic Office 1916; Douglas and Douglas 1994;<br />
McIntire 1960<br />
Mary Balcourt Garnett 1983a<br />
Swallow Hydrographic Office 1916; McIntire 1960; Hempstead<br />
1871<br />
Balcout Gardner 1938; Sharp 1960<br />
Bulcot Gardner 1938<br />
Balcut Van Zwaluwenburg 1941<br />
Mary Bryan 1941; Bryan 1942; Hydrographic Office 1916;<br />
Douglas and Douglas 1994; McIntire 1960; Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg 1941; Hempstead 1871.<br />
Barney’s Island Sharp 1960; Maude 1968<br />
Tinaari Government of Kiribati 1995; Tauati 1997<br />
Birnie Douglas and Douglas 1994; Hempstead 1871<br />
Enderbury Bryan 1941, 1942 and 1974; Douglas and Douglas 1994;<br />
Sharp 1960; Maude 1968; Hempstead 1871<br />
Enderby Maude 1968<br />
Rawaki Stone et al 2001; Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004<br />
Manra Maude 1937<br />
Sydney Maude 1968<br />
McKean Hydrographic Office 1940; Wilkes 1845; Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942; Hempstead 1871<br />
M’Kean Hartlaub and Finsch 1872; Rhodes 1936a<br />
Drummond’s Douglas and Douglas 1994; Throssell and Specht 1989;<br />
Island Maude 1968<br />
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Arthur Island Sharp 1960; did not exist according to Hempstead 1871<br />
Wigram’s<br />
Island<br />
Maude 1968<br />
Wilkes Hempstead 1871<br />
Nikumaroro Maude 1937<br />
Gardner Pompey 1972 and 1974<br />
Kemins Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hydrographic Office 1916<br />
Kemin’s Laxton 1951<br />
Mary Letitia’s<br />
Island<br />
Laxton 1951<br />
Kimins Tudor 1968; Pompey 1972 and 1974<br />
Kemin Rhodes 1936; Maude 1968<br />
Orona Maude 1937<br />
Hull Wilkes 1845; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969<br />
Halls Hempstead 1871<br />
Rawaki Republic of Kiribati 1992<br />
Phoenix Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tudor 1968; Hempstead 1871<br />
Phenix Sharp 1960<br />
Thoenix Rickman 1871<br />
Carondelet<br />
Reef<br />
Winslow<br />
Reef<br />
Hydrographic Office 1916; Hydrographer of the Navy<br />
1969<br />
Mary Reef Kursenstern 1835; Maude 1968<br />
Hydrographic Office 1940; Degener and Gillaspy 1955;<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy 1969.<br />
With the exception of Abariringa (Canton), the Phoenix Islands were among the least<br />
influenced by human activities of tropical Pacific Islands (Fosberg et al 1973). There were<br />
two major reasons for maintaining their ecological integrity.<br />
1) Several of the Phoenix Islands, especially Rawaki (Phoenix), Orona (Hull),<br />
Birnie, and Enderbury, were breeding grounds for the remnants of the once<br />
enormous seabird populations in the Pacific Islands. This was evident by the<br />
vast guano deposits that had been extracted from these islands.<br />
2) The smaller Phoenix Islands including Rawaki (Phoenix), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
and McKean, provide some of the very few remaining examples of fairly<br />
intact natural small island ecosystems in the Pacific. Studying these relatively<br />
simple eco-systems almost un-touched by man, could provide clues for<br />
understanding more complex eco-systems such as found in continental areas.<br />
The Phoenix Islands were identified as a Key Biodiversity Area in Conservation<br />
International’s Ecosystem Program for the Polynesia/Micronesia Hotspot under the Critical<br />
Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) (Pierce 2006). The Phoenix Islands was identified as an<br />
Important Bird Area by Birdlife International.<br />
In March 2006, the Government of Kiribati (GOK) declared the Phoenix Islands Protected<br />
Area (PIPA), making it the third largest marine protected area in the world today. The GOK,<br />
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New England Aquarium (NEAq), and Conservation International (CI) signed a Memorandum<br />
of Understanding (MOU) for the development of a management and financial plan to support<br />
the creation of the PIPA. The Global Conservation Fund (GCF) at CI is financing the<br />
implementation phase and has committed to begin the capitalization of the endowment to<br />
support the PIPA.<br />
The overall purpose of this project is to create a long-term conservation and sustainable<br />
development program for the Phoenix Islands. This includes natural, cultural and historic<br />
conservation for the islands of Abariringa (Kanton or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney), Nikumaroro (Gardner) and McKean, known<br />
collectively as the Phoenix Islands. The marine protected area extends 60 nautical miles out<br />
from the coastline of each island and including both marine and terrestrial habitats.<br />
B. NEED FOR MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
The Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) represents the third largest marine protected area<br />
in the world. The newly designated Northwest Hawaiian Islands National Monument<br />
(designated in 2006) is the largest MPA in the world. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park<br />
Authority (GBRMPA) is the second largest MPA in the world.<br />
The history of the Phoenix Islands goes back to prehistoric times. In more recent times, both<br />
the British and Americans have both claim some if not all of the Phoenix Islands. In 1979,<br />
the Phoenix Islands became part of the newly independent country of Kiribati.<br />
Over the years, various researchers have conducted research in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
However, reports of these studies rarely are provided to the Government of Kiribati and are<br />
also rarely available locally.<br />
As such this management plan provides an opportunity to learn the history of the Phoenix<br />
Islands as well as to reveal the scientific understanding of the area. There are always<br />
important lessons that can be learned from history. In addition, research findings can provide<br />
a foundation for improved resource management.<br />
With such a large protected area as PIPA, it is important to develop plans and strategies for<br />
effective management of natural resources and anthropogenic influences within the<br />
constraints of the management resources available. PIPA is a very remote location. Logistics<br />
and sustainability will be major challenges facing PIPA.<br />
C. PREVIOUS PHOENIX ISLANDS MANAGEMENT PLANS<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) provided guidance on management of Phoenix Islands terrestrial and<br />
marine resources. These included:<br />
1) Severely restrict visits to Phoenix Islands, except Abariringa (Canton), except<br />
for scientific or other urgent reasons. Casual visits should not take place.<br />
2) Helicopters should not operate at an elevation of less than 1,500 ft and one<br />
half-mile offshore.<br />
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3) If helicopters need to land, landing sites should be on sand areas, not vegetated<br />
areas. Areas around landing sites should be cleared of bird nests (up to 300<br />
m).<br />
4) Movement of vehicles on islands should be restricted so as not to disturb sea<br />
bird nesting areas.<br />
5) Islands should be monitored for evidence of exotic plant species. Ornamental<br />
plants should not be introduced, especially to Abariringa (Canton).<br />
6) Domestic animals should be controlled. No additional introductions should be<br />
allowed (including chickens).<br />
7) No collection of marine life. Turtle breeding sites should not be disturbed.<br />
8) New ship grounding should be investigated to ensure that rats are not<br />
introduced.<br />
Dahl (1980) reported that there was an IUCN/WWF project based on Christmas Island that<br />
was developing proper surveillance and enforcement for the following Phoenix Islands<br />
reserves: Birnie, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Abariringa (Canton). Dahl (1980)<br />
recommended that the Phoenix Islands be upgraded from wildlife sanctuaries to a national or<br />
international reserve. Abariringa (Canton) should be the communications link and<br />
surveillance centre. The reserve should include: Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) and Orona (Hull). Nikumaroro (Gardner), Abariringa (Canton) and Manra<br />
(Sydney) were excluded. According to Dahl (1980), regular enforcement visits could be<br />
undertaken by the government ships traveling between Kiritimati and Tarawa.<br />
Garnett (1983b) reviewed and summarized the conservation conclusions of King (1973) and<br />
Stoddart (1976) for each of the Phoneix Islands (see Table I-1.2 below).<br />
Table I-1.2. Conservation suggestions and conclusions of each of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Garnett 1983b).<br />
Island Priority<br />
Enderbury Potential or major importance due to its seabird colonies<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) Outstanding value for its seabird colonies<br />
Birnie Outstanding importance for its unaltered state<br />
McKean Outstanding value for its seabird colonies<br />
Manra (Sydney) No special importance<br />
Orona (Hull) No special importance, but worthy of conservation for its<br />
seabird colonies<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) No special importance.<br />
Garnett (1983a, b and c) wrote a management plan for nature conservation in the Line and<br />
Phoenix Islands. The stated policy “recognized the need to integrate conservation with the<br />
development of the islands’ natural resources …” and that “… the role of conservation could<br />
only be rationalized in the wider context of the present and future social and economic needs<br />
of the country.” The stated major aim of that plan was “to identify areas of concern where<br />
future progress needs to be mad to reach the specified objectives of … the stated policy, …<br />
and to suggest the methods by which the policy can be implemented.”<br />
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Garnett (1983b) developed criteria for determining the conservation status of key features and<br />
species. Summary tables for each major plant and animal species and physio-geographic<br />
feature (freshwater lake, brackishwater lagoon, mudflats, small islets, etc.) were constructed.<br />
Each of the Phoenix and Line Islands with that key feature/species was then listed and the<br />
recommended status was then assigned to each island. Much of Garnett (1983b) was devoted<br />
to presentation of the results of this rating system, first by key feature, then by island.<br />
Garnett (1983c) made several recommendations regarding wildlife conservation in the Line<br />
and Phoenix Islands. These included the following:<br />
1) Protection of animals;<br />
2) Protection of plants;<br />
3) Control of introduced plants and animals;<br />
4) Control of fires;<br />
5) Control of vehicles;<br />
6) Control of soils; and<br />
7) Control of dumping and littering.<br />
Under the 1994 Kiribati National Environmental Management Strategy (<strong>SPREP</strong> 1994), a<br />
proposal was put forward for the review and improvement of conservation arrangements for<br />
the Phoenix and Line Islands.<br />
Bleakley (1995) reported that the following areas had been identified as being a national<br />
priority for the establishment and management of MPAs: Birnie, McKean, Enderbury, and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 1995, the Government of Kiribati (1995) recommended that Spam Island on Abariringa<br />
(Tunaari) be declared a wildlife sanctuary.<br />
Kepler (2000) noted that the Phoenix Islands were widely scattered and mostly uninhabited.<br />
This made monitoring of activities which may have detrimental effects such as illegal fishing<br />
or disturbance from careless yachters extremely difficult.<br />
Stone et al (2001) provided various recommendations for development of a management plan<br />
for marine conservation in the Phoenix Islands. They noted that, “full development of an<br />
integrated management plan may take 5 to 10 years…” Five key issues were identified: (1)<br />
multiple-use management, (2) fully protected marine-terrestrial sanctuaries, (3) the<br />
preservation of future options, (4) high seas issues, and (5) financing and economic<br />
implications.<br />
Anon. (2006) reported that CORAL [a U.S. organization] assisted in the creation of an action<br />
plan for the long term protection of Kiribati’s reefs, including the Phoenix Islands. Attempts<br />
by the PIPA office to obtain a copy of this action plan were not successful.<br />
2. VISION AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES<br />
The guiding principles for the development of this management plan include the following:<br />
1) Learn from history and scientific research, so that critical issues are revealed<br />
and can be accounted for during planning.<br />
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2) Develop sustained long term management operations. Short term<br />
unsustainable management is not an option.<br />
3) Be flexible and innovative in management approaches for PIPA as traditional<br />
marine protected area (MPA) management theories may not fit.<br />
Various documents provide guidance on the issue of marine and coastal conservation in<br />
Kiribati (Magnubhai 2002). These include the following.<br />
1) The 1993 National Environmental Management Strategy provides long-term<br />
strategies and proposals.<br />
2) The National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan has been drafted in order to<br />
comply with commitments to the Convention on Biological Diversity.<br />
3) An Environment and Conservation Act was drafted in 1996 and redrafted in<br />
2006. Final approval for this draft act is expected in 2007.<br />
3. MANAGEMENT PLAN OBJECTIVE.<br />
The overall objective of this plan is:<br />
to preserve terrestrial and marine resources of the Phoenix Islands<br />
for the sustained benefit of the people of the Republic of Kiribati and<br />
the world.<br />
Under this overall objective, there are several goals including:<br />
1) preserve of biodiversity;<br />
2) preserve of natural habitats and endemic species (basically the ecosystem);<br />
3) identify and fill data gaps with baseline and surveys using standard<br />
quantitative methods;<br />
4) designate core wilderness protected areas (Category IB- IUCN), buffer zones,<br />
and zones for specific activities;<br />
5) include all Phoenix islands reefs within the proposed management area.<br />
6) eliminate exotic species;<br />
7) enhance populations of threatened or endangered species;<br />
8) develop ecologically sound tourism and economic development;<br />
9) identify long term resource monitoring needs and develop programs to address<br />
those needs;<br />
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10) identify efficient and cost effective surveillance and enforcement approaches;<br />
11) develop endowment for sustained management of PIPA; and<br />
12) educate the public regarding the conservation value of the Phoenix Islands<br />
through public awareness and education programs at the local, regional, and<br />
global level.<br />
4. REFERENCES CITED<br />
Anon. 2006. Kiribati designates new marine protected area. Coral Reef Alliance. Summer<br />
2006. p. 7.<br />
Bleakley, C. (ed.). 1995. Marine region 14, South Pacific. Pages 13-53 in G. Kelleher, C.<br />
Bleakley, and S. Wells (eds.), A global representative system of marine protected areas.<br />
Volume IV. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, The World<br />
Conservation Union (IUCN).<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1941. American Polynesia: coral islands of the central Pacific. Honolulu:<br />
Tongg Publishing Co. 208 pp.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian chain. Honolulu: Tongg<br />
Publishing Co. 253 pp.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1974. Panala'au memoirs. Pacific Science Information Center, B.P. Bishop<br />
Museum.<br />
Dahl, A.L. 1980. Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN<br />
Technical Paper 179, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.<br />
Degener, O., and E. Gillaspy. 1955. Canton Island, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin<br />
41: 1-50.<br />
Douglas, N., and N. Douglas. 1994. Pacific islands yearbook, 17th Edition. Suva: Fiji<br />
Times Ltd.<br />
Fosberg, F.R., D.R. Stoddart, and R.B. Clapp. 1973. Visit to the Phoenix Islands. 29th May<br />
to 12 June 1973. Preliminary report of ecology review team. Royal Society Southern Zone<br />
Research Committee.<br />
Gardner, I.C. 1938. Crusoes of Canton. National Geographic Magazine 73(6): 749-766.<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983a. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands. Part 1. Description. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and<br />
Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 318 pp.<br />
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<strong>Chapter</strong> I. <strong>Intro</strong>duction and Purpose<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983b. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands. Part 2. Policy. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati.<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983c. Part 3. Recommendations. Unpublished report prepared for the<br />
Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 125 pp.<br />
Government of Kiribati. 1995. Ana ribooti te tiim n tutuo ibukin, te aono n Rawaki (Report<br />
of the Survey Team, Phoenix Islands).<br />
Hartlaub, G. and O. Finsch. 1872. On the fourth collection of birds from Pelew and<br />
Mackenzie Islands. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1872: 87-114.<br />
Hempstead, E. 1871. Sailing directions for Phoenix Island. The Friends, Aug. 1871, p. 61.<br />
(see Ward 1967, p. 531).<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy. 1969. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, The central group comprising<br />
New Caledonia and Iles Loyalty; the New Hebrides Group and Santa Cruz Islands; the Fiji<br />
Islands; and the Tonga, Samoa, Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Phoenix, and Tokelau Islands. N.P.<br />
No. 61. Ninth Edition 1969.<br />
Hydrographic Office. 1916. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, Eastern Group. Secretary of the<br />
Navy. Washington, Government Printing Office.<br />
Hydrographic Office. 1940. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. II. (Eastern<br />
groups). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 166 pp.<br />
Kepler, A.K.K. 2000. Report: Millenium sunrise, Line and Phoenix Islands Expedition,<br />
December 15, 1999 - January 28, 2000.<br />
King, W.B. 1973. Conservation status of birds of central Pacific atolls. Wilson Bulletin 85:<br />
89-103.<br />
Krusenstern, A.I. von. 1835. Supplémens au Recueil de Mémories Hydrographiques, pour<br />
servir d’Analyse et d’Explication a l’Atlas de l’Océan Pacificque. 4 vols. and atlas. St.<br />
Petersbourg, A. Pluchart. [cited unseen from Maude 1968].<br />
Langley, A. 2003. Kiribati national tuna fishery status report no. 2. Oceanic Fisheries<br />
Programme, Secretariat of the Pacific Community.<br />
Lawson, T.A. 2005. Tuna fishery yearbook 2004. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries<br />
Commission, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia.<br />
Laxton, P.B. 1951. Nikumaroro. Journal of the Polynesian Society 60 (2,3): 134-160.<br />
Mangubhai, S. 2002. Viable long-term options for isolated atolls of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
9
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> I. <strong>Intro</strong>duction and Purpose<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Maude, H.E. 1937. Report on the colonization of the Phoenix Islands by the surplus<br />
population of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Govt Press,<br />
Suva.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1968. Of islands and men; studies in Pacific history. Melbourne: Oxford Univ.<br />
Press. 397 pp.<br />
McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of<br />
California. 42 pp.<br />
Neemia, U., and R. Thaman. 1993. The environment and sustainable development. <strong>Chapter</strong><br />
27 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for<br />
Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP.<br />
Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix<br />
Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report<br />
prepared for: Conservation International, Samoa and Pacific Islands Initiative, Auckland<br />
University, Auckland.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2004. Health of the Phoenix Islands reefs.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/Canton/reefreport.html.<br />
Pompey, S.L. 1972. A history of Gardner Island in the Phoenix Islands. Kingsbury,<br />
California. 2 pp.<br />
Pompey, S.L. 1974. A history of Gardner Island in the Phoenix Islands. Kingsbury,<br />
California. 3 pp.<br />
Republic of Kiribati. 1992. Kiribati 7th National Development Plan 1992-1995. Republic of<br />
Kiribati.<br />
Rhodes, F. 1936. The pageant of the Pacific; being the maritime history of Australasia.<br />
Sidney, N.S.W.: F.J. Thawites (Pty) Ltd. Vol. 1<br />
Rickman, G.D. 1871. Report of Schooner C.M. Ward. The Friends, Honolulu. May 1, 1871<br />
(see Ward 1967d, p. 528).<br />
Sharp, A. 1960. The discovery of the Pacific islands. Westport: Greenwood Press,<br />
Publishers.<br />
South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (<strong>SPREP</strong>). 1994. Kiribati national<br />
environmental management strategy. <strong>SPREP</strong>, UNDP.<br />
Stoddart, D.R. 1976. Scientific importance and conservation of central Pacific atolls.<br />
Typescript report. [cited unseen from Garnett 1983b.]<br />
Stone, G., D. Obura, S. Bailey, A. Yoshinaga, C. Holloway, R. Barrel, and S. Mangubhai.<br />
2001. Marine biological surveys of the Phoenix Islands, Summary of expedition conducted<br />
from June 24 - July 15, 2000. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Tauati, T. 1997. Project Proposal for Te Kakai on Orona, Nikumaroro, and Manra. Ministry<br />
of Home Affairs and Rural Development.<br />
Throssell, B., and J. Specht. 1989. Stone structures on McKean Island, Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. Australian Archaeology 29: 17-21, Dec. 1, 1989.<br />
Tudor, J. 1968. Pacific Islands year book and who's who. Tenth Edition. Sydney: Pacific<br />
Publications.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1941. Canton Island. Hawaiian Planters Record 45: 15-24.<br />
Ward, R.G. 1967. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history,<br />
geography, and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the<br />
Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc.<br />
Volume 5.<br />
Wilkes, C. 1845. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838,<br />
1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume III.<br />
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<strong>Chapter</strong> II. Methodology<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
CHAPTER II<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
Text in yellow means that it will be developed later.<br />
1. LITERATURE SEARCH<br />
Phoenix Islands related reports were searched for at a variety of information resources.<br />
These included:<br />
1) Ministry of Fisheries – Tanaea, Tarawa, Kiribati.<br />
2) National Archives – Bikenibeu, Tarawa, Kiribati.<br />
3) Department of Agriculture – Tanaea, Tarawa, Kiribati.<br />
4) Ministry of Line & Phoenix – Bikenibeu, Tarawa, Kiribati.<br />
5) Ministry of Line & Phoenix – Christmas Island, Kiribati.<br />
6) Christmas Island Library – Christmas Island, Kiribati.<br />
7) Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) – Suva, Fiji.<br />
8) Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) – Noumea, New Caledonia<br />
9) FFA – Honiara, Solomon Islands<br />
10) University of Hawaii Hamilton Library – Honolulu, Hawaii.<br />
11) University of Hawaii Sinclair Library – Honolulu, Hawaii.<br />
12) Micronesia Area Resource Center (MARC) – University of Guam, Mangilao,<br />
Guam.<br />
13) South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (<strong>SPREP</strong>) (on-line) –<br />
http://www.sprep.org/publication/moana_library.asp<br />
14) Bishop Museum – Honolulu, Hawaii.<br />
15) National Marine Fisheries Service – Honolulu, Hawaii.<br />
16) University of Guam – Mangilao, Guam<br />
17) University of the South Pacific – Tarawa, Kiribati<br />
18) University of the South Pacific Main Library – Suva, Fiji<br />
19) Robert Johannes Special Collection – University of the South Pacific, Suva,<br />
Fiji.<br />
20) Pacific Islands Marine Resources Information System (PIMRIS) Library –<br />
University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.<br />
21) Marshall Islands National Library – Majuro, Marshall Islands<br />
22) College of the Marshall Islands Library – Majuro, Marshall Islands.<br />
In addition, a variety of database services were checked for Phoenix Islands related reports.<br />
These included:<br />
1) Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstract<br />
2) BioOne Abstract Series<br />
3) Abstracts in Anthropology<br />
4) Google Academic – online.<br />
In addition, two bibliographies were identified (for the Phoenix Islands see Krause 1973; for<br />
Kiribati fisheries reports see Gillett et al 1991) and searched for relevant reports. In addition,<br />
general Micronesia bibliographies were searched (see Sachet and Fosberg 1955 and 1971).<br />
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As reports were identified, hardcopy or PDF electronic copy of each report was searched for.<br />
Many reports were identified, but copies could not be located. Some reports were very old<br />
(1800s) and copying them was not allowed.<br />
An Excel database was made of identified reports. This was up-dated each time a Phoenix<br />
Islands related report was identified, or each time a hard copy of a relevant report was<br />
obtained. The Excel database is available at the PIPA office in MELAD in Bikenibeu,<br />
Tarawa. This database is continuously being up-dated as new reports are identified and<br />
obtained. As of 1 March 2007, there were about 700 reports identified, and about 575 reports<br />
collected (81 percent).<br />
Collected documents were the basis for the background section of this plan. All documents<br />
collected were read and summarized into the appropriate background section. Hard copies of<br />
all documents collected are on-file at the PIPA office in MELAD in Bikenibeu, Tarawa.<br />
2. SYNTHESIS OF BACKGROUND MATERIALS<br />
All documents and reports collected were read and summarized into the Background section<br />
of this report (<strong>Chapter</strong> III).<br />
3. STAKEHOLDER INPUTS<br />
A. RESIDENTS OF THE PHOENIX ISLANDS<br />
According to Government of Kiribati officials, there are about 50 people currently living in<br />
the Phoenix Islands. All of them reside on Abariringa. All of these 50 people are either<br />
employed by the Government of Kiribati to take care of the Phoenix Islands, or are relatives<br />
of these government employees. These people are on Abariringa for fixed periods of time<br />
(years), and then are reassigned elsewhere. There are no permanent residents of the Phoenix<br />
Islands.<br />
The standard approach to development of marine protected area is to include early<br />
discussions with local reef owners. These can include villagers, village chiefs, or island<br />
councils. However, since the Phoenix Islands do not have permanent residents or villages,<br />
this approach does not fit.<br />
B. GOVERNMENT OF KIRIBATI<br />
The Phoenix Islands are owned by the Government of Kiribati. Therefore the primary<br />
stakeholder is the Government of Kiribati. The government is composed of a variety of<br />
ministries and departments. Each has its own mandate and priority. In 2005, the GOK<br />
established the Intergovernmental Steering Committee to oversee development of the<br />
Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA). This steering committee is composed of<br />
representatives from the following agencies:<br />
1) Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD),<br />
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2) Environment and Conservation Department (ECD), MELAD,<br />
3) Attorney General’s Office,<br />
4) Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development (MFMRD),<br />
5) Kiribati National Tourism Office,<br />
6) USP Research Centre,<br />
7) Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID),<br />
8) Kiribati Police Service,<br />
9) Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration,<br />
10) Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.<br />
A one page questionnaire was developed to solicit opinions from the owner of the Phoenix<br />
Islands, the Government of Kiribati. The questionnaire was distributed in August 2006 to<br />
Phoenix Islands Steering Committee members. Follow-up discussions were held with<br />
relevant ministries and departments. A copy of this questionnaire is attached (see Attachment<br />
1). Responses from opinion surveys (see <strong>Chapter</strong> IV) provided part of the basis for<br />
development of management priorities and proposed actions.<br />
C. FOREIGN STAKEHOLDERS<br />
Do we still want to forward a questionnaire to foreign stakeholders? If so, any suggestions<br />
for format?<br />
Foreign stakeholder inputs – Many global environmental conservation groups have interest<br />
in the conservation of pristine natural areas such as the Phoenix Islands. Relevant<br />
international conservation organizations (CI, IUCN, TNC, TOC, <strong>SPREP</strong>, etc.) will be briefed<br />
regarding the PIPA’s development. In addition, they will be approached for their views,<br />
perspectives, and wants and desires regarding the management of the PIPA. Their insights<br />
and inputs are important. However, priority or lead agencies for this work are: GOK, NEAq,<br />
and CI.<br />
- other stakeholders are users of the resource (dwfn) when to close 60 or 200nm. Would be<br />
useful to have their concerns noted in order to address them – loss in fishing ground (Govt<br />
can allocate another site or increase catch quota or fishing days, etc – MFMRD can assist)<br />
4. CRITICAL ISSUES<br />
Based on the background summaries and the stakeholder inputs, various critical issues were<br />
identified and summarized in <strong>Chapter</strong> V on Critical Issues.<br />
5. ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES<br />
The critical issues identified in <strong>Chapter</strong> V provided the foundation from which alternative<br />
management approaches were developed (see <strong>Chapter</strong> VI).<br />
6. SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND APPROACHES<br />
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Based on local conditions and the background history of the Phoenix Islands (see <strong>Chapter</strong><br />
III, Background), alternative management approaches were considered and the most<br />
appropriate approaches were selected (see <strong>Chapter</strong> VII). These included:<br />
1) development of proposed rules and regulations,<br />
2) identification of possible cooperation and collaboration between PIPA and<br />
other agencies,<br />
3) formulation of surveillance and enforcement approaches,<br />
4) identification of maintenance and administrative requirements, and<br />
5) development of plans for periodic review of this management plan.<br />
6) need to mention site(s) and extent of area to manage???<br />
7. REFERENCES CITED.<br />
Gillett, R., M. Pelasio, and E. Kirschner. 1991. Kiribati fisheries bibliography. FAO/UNDP<br />
Regional Fishery Support Programme, Suva, Fiji. Field Document 91/8. RAS/89/039.<br />
Krauss, N.L.H. 1970. Bibliography of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Honolulu:<br />
University of Hawaii. 13 pp.<br />
Sachet, M.-H., and F.R. Fosberg. 1955. Island bibliographies. Micronesian botany, land<br />
environment and ecology of coral atolls, vegetation of tropical Pacific Islands. National<br />
Academy of Sciences. Contract No. NR 338-001. NAS/NAE/NRC-335.<br />
Sachet, M.-H., and F.R. Fosberg. 1971. Island bibliographies supplement. Micronesian<br />
botany, land environment and ecology of coral atolls, vegetation of tropical Pacific Islands.<br />
National Academy of Sciences.<br />
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<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 1. Physical Setting of the Islands<br />
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CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
1. PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE ISLANDS<br />
A. GEOLOGICAL<br />
Zimmerman (1947) noted that there was a definite cycle of geological metamorphosis that is<br />
illustrated by atolls such as the Phoenix Islands. Systematic deep core boring of atolls was<br />
suggested as a priority area in the study of atolls. Zimmerman (1947) speculated that many<br />
atolls including the Phoenix Islands may have been high islands in the past with more<br />
complex species communities.<br />
Table III-1.1. Key physical features and vegetation of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
Island Total Land Lagoon Substrate Vegetation<br />
area (ha) area (ha)<br />
Manra - c.500 Closed Not visited Forest, scrub,<br />
coconut<br />
Rawaki 73.24 58.14 Closed Rubble, c.50% sand Grass, low scrub<br />
Enderbury 596.6 500+ Closed Rubble, extensive<br />
sand<br />
Grass, low scrub<br />
Birnie 50.95 48.2 Closed Rubble, limited sand Grass, low scrub<br />
Kanton - c.900 Open Varied, extensive Forest, scrub,<br />
sand<br />
coconut<br />
McKean 74.32 48.77 Closed Rubble, < 30% sand Grass, low scrub<br />
Orona - c.600 Open Rubble, sand Forest, scrub,<br />
coconut<br />
Nikumaroro - c.400 Open Rubble, sand Forest, scrub,<br />
coconut<br />
Note: Land areas are total atoll area minus lagoon area; Rawaki, McKean and Birnie data courtesy of T.<br />
Conaghan, NZ Department of Conservation, others from Garnett (1983). Note that some land area estimates are<br />
significantly greater than previously reported, notably Birnie (48.2 ha, c.f. 20 ha in Garnett 1983).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Dimensions - Abariringa is the largest coral atoll in the Phoenix Islands (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). It is 7.2 km (4.5 miles) wide on the west and 14.5 km (9 miles) from the northern<br />
point to the southeastern point (Bryan 1941 and 1942). It is shaped like a pork chop.<br />
The maximum island height is 6.1 m (20 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The width of the land is between 91 to 457 m (100 to 500<br />
yards) (Hydrographic Office 1940; 46 to 549 m (50 to 600 yards) according to Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942; not wider than 975 m (3,200 ft) according to Hatheway 1955). The beach is<br />
composed of coral sand or broken fragments of reef rock (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The beach<br />
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on the lagoon side was sand. There were a few sandy beaches primarily on the northeast<br />
coast.<br />
A satellite image of Abariringa (Kanton) is provided in Figure III-1.1 below.<br />
Figure III-1.1. Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
A – Satellite image (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanton_Island);<br />
B- Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1946).<br />
A B<br />
Lagoon – The lagoon was up to 18 m (60 ft) deep (Bunker 1951; 18 to 22 m (3 to 12<br />
fathoms) according to Hydrographic Office 1916). Large coral heads and reefs inside the<br />
lagoon limited navigation within the lagoon. The lagoon was navigable only by boats with<br />
very shallow drafts 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to 1.5 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940). The lagoon was<br />
about 52 square km (20 square miles) (Bryan 1974). It was about 6.4 by 14.5 km (4 miles by<br />
9 miles) (Freeman 1951).<br />
During 1938 to 1939, much of the southwestern portion of the lagoon was dredged in<br />
preparation for the seaplane landings (Bryan 1974).<br />
The water in the lagoon had higher salinity than in the ocean (Van Zwaluwenburg 1941; see<br />
also Wiens 1962). Open ocean water was 20,300 mg chlorine per liter (Degener and<br />
Gillaspy 1955), while the lagoon backwater was 90,000 mg chlorine per litter.<br />
In 1973, the U.S. Naval Undersea Research and Development Center commissioned an<br />
environmental survey of Abariringa’s (Canton) lagoon (Smith and Henderson (1976 and<br />
1978). Water exchange was by tidal flushing that was most efficient near the single pass. In<br />
other parts of the lagoon, flushing was by tidal and wind mixing. Evaporation in the back<br />
lagoon exceeded rainfall producing salinities of 40 ppt, 4 ppt over oceanic values.<br />
Water entering Abariringa’s (Canton) lagoon) was nutrient rich (Smith and Henderson 1976<br />
and 1978). By the time water reached the back lagoon, nutrients had been depleted to almost<br />
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zero. Most of the carbon produced remained in the lagoon. Phosphorus utilization in<br />
Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon was estimated at 0.027 m moles m -2 day -1 (Smith and Jokiel<br />
1978). Nitrogen utilization was 8.5 higher. Net excess organic carbon production was<br />
estimated to be about 3 m moles m -2 day -1 , or 35 mg C m -2 day -1 . Gross carbon production<br />
was estimated to be 6 g C m -2 day -1 . CaCO3 production was estimated to be 13 m moles m -2<br />
day -1 , or 1.4 g CaCO3 m -2 day -1 .<br />
Jokiel and Maragos (1978) analyzed sediment composition and water quality in Abariringa’s<br />
(Canton’s) lagoon, based on distance from the lagoon passage. Results are provided here in<br />
Tables III-1.2 and III-1.3. Sediment closer to the lagoon passage had hard substrata or larger<br />
median grain size, while sediments far from the lagoon passage consisted of calcareous mud<br />
(smaller median grain size).<br />
Table III-1.2. Sediment composition in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon<br />
(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978).<br />
Table III-1.3. Water quality in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon.<br />
(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978).<br />
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Henderson et al (1978) reported that the predominant aspects of lagoon circulation on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) were wind drift and tidal flow. Lagoon tide showed a pronounced lag<br />
compared to ocean tides. However, there was no measurable amplitude attenuation from the<br />
ocean to the back lagoon.<br />
Guinther (1978) reported that salinity was moderate (13 to 18 ppt) in channel bid ponds.<br />
Lower salinities (less than 8 ppt) were measured in potholes and water filled burrows in the<br />
surrounding flats. High salinities (greater than 24 ppt and up to 152 ppt) were measured in<br />
two larger ponds in the lagoon tidal channels and in the saltern [saltworks building]. There<br />
was wide variation in nutrient levels and chlorophyll a between sites surveyed.<br />
Smith and Jokiel (1975a and b and 1978) developed a salt and water budget for Abariringa’s<br />
(Canton) lagoon. They estimated that the oldest lagoon water was about 95 days old, the<br />
average residence time was 50 days. They concluded that eddy diffusion was the major<br />
process by which water entered the lagoon on the incoming tide. Lagoon water evaporation<br />
rate at Abariringa (Canton) was about twice that of the open ocean in the vicinity of<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In the last 8,000 years about 20 m of sediment has been deposited in the lagoon on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (Smith and Jokiel 1978). Smith and Jokiel (1978) speculated that the entire reef<br />
was not more than 8,000 years old and that it grew from a based maximum depth of about 25<br />
m.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the slightly supersaline lagoon was seldom more than 2 m deep<br />
with extensive mudflats and coral patches.<br />
Lagoon Openings - The western side of the island had several openings (Hydrographic Office<br />
1916; two openings according to Hydrographic Office 1940; four openings according to<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942). One opening was dry during low tide, and two were blocked by coral<br />
heads (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Bryan 1974).<br />
A deepwater entrance was dredged through the western rim to allow shall ships to anchor<br />
within the lagoon (Bryan 1974). This was done in 1943 (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). In the<br />
1950s the secondary channel north of the western side was blocked by construction (Obura in<br />
press). Neemia and Thaman (1993) reported that Abariringa (Kanton “in the Line Islands”)<br />
had navigable channel access to the lagoon.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that there were three channels to the lagoon on Abariringa (Canton),<br />
but causeways were built across the two northernmost channels. The southern channel was<br />
dredged so that vessels could enter the lagoon.<br />
A comparison was made of the changes in lagoon entrances of Abariringa (Canton) by<br />
Henderson et al (1978). Entrances from 1938 and 1973 are compared in Figure III-1.2 below.<br />
Figure III-1.2. Comparison of changes in the lagoon entrances of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) between 1938 and 1973.<br />
(source: Henderson et al 1978).<br />
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Henderson et al (1978) provided detailed background information on the characteristics of<br />
each of the lagoon entrances and the history of dredging of Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon<br />
entrance.<br />
Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the sea, called by their<br />
Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner)<br />
had no hoa. Abariringa (Canton) had paleohoa (ancient hoa).<br />
In the lagoon entrance, tidal current can run over 11.1 km per hour (6 knots) (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940; 7.4 to 11.1 km per hour (4 to 6 knots) according to Hydrographic Office 1916;<br />
11.1 to 14.8 km per hour (6 to 8 knots) according to McIntire 1960; Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that tidal current was up to 14.8 km<br />
per hour (8 knots).<br />
Reef Shelf - The reef shelf extended about 183 to 366 m (200 to 400 yards) from the shore<br />
line (Hydrographic Office 1940; 91 to 732 m (100 to 800 yards) according to Bunker 1951).<br />
Depth outside of the reef dropped off from 183 m (100 fathoms) to more than 549 m (300<br />
fathoms) within a few hundred meters (yards).<br />
Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soil on Abariringa (Canton) was brownish sand, with<br />
the exception of the middle portion of the south coast where soil was much lighter. Soil was<br />
not as rich as that on Nikumaroro (Gardner), but richer than that on Orona (Hull), and<br />
superior to any in the Gilbert Islands.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there was primarily clay or silt along the lagoon.<br />
Foraminifera shells of Baculogypsina sp., Spaerulata lessoni and Heterostegina sp. were<br />
common along the beach among the coral fragments, shells and rubble (see also Garnett<br />
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1983a). Degener and Gillaspy (1955) provided details on soil mirco-habitats on Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
Degener and Gillapsy (1955) noted that there were extensive areas of thin porous hardened<br />
guano. In 1958, an expert from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service could not find a speck of<br />
guano on Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Degener 1959). In 1995, the Government of<br />
Kiribati (1995) reported finding guano on Abariringa (Tuunaari) at Tebaronga, Uamari,<br />
Tirieta, and Bikentabakea.<br />
Soil analysis was completed at various sites including rapid rock analysis and quantitative<br />
spectrographic analysis (see Degener and Degener 1959 for result details). Hatheway (1955)<br />
reported that Abariringa (Canton) was derived from coral rock and calcareous sand. In all<br />
places investigated there was a dark brown layer 18 to 38 cm (7 to 15 inches) thick under<br />
either sand or coral rock. This dark layer contained a large proportion of guano.<br />
McIntire (1960) provided a detailed description of the soils of Abariringa (Canton). Soil<br />
samples were collected and analyses. Results were presented in Appendix 1 in McIntire<br />
(1960). McIntire (1960) noted that many parts of the island had a hardpan found at various<br />
depths. Plant taproots were not able to penetrate this layer.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that all materials on Abariringa (Canton) were derived from coral and<br />
coralline algae, except for minor amounts of soil attached to plants brought in from Hawaii or<br />
from trees that drifted to Abariringa (Canton). McIntire (1960) noted that on the windward<br />
side of Abariringa (Canton), there were fragments of pumice up to 0.3 m (1 ft) diameter (see<br />
also Degener and Gillaspy 1955). These presumably floated across the ocean to Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
Guinther (1978) noted that the surface of inland flats was composed of a continuous sheet of<br />
detrital limestone, commonly less than 1 cm thick. In the channel bed, the hardpan surface<br />
was covered by a thin crumbly crust (dried cyanophytes).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that the soils on Abariringa (Canton) were composed of coral sand and<br />
larger fragments of dead corals and other biogenic materials. Little or no humic material was<br />
in the soil. Soil samples at most sites around Abariringa (Canton) were primarily sand<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Dimensions - Birnie is less than 1.2 km (0.75 mile) long (northwest and southeast) by 549 m<br />
(600 yards) at its greatest width (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
The east side of the island was rocky with slabs of coral sandstone and broken coral (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942). The maximum elevation of the island was 6.1 m (20 ft).<br />
A satellite image of Birnie is provided in Figure III-1.3 below.<br />
Figure III-1.3. Birnie:<br />
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A<br />
A – Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/birnie.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
B<br />
Lagoon - Birnie has a small shallow brackish pond (274 x 46 m (300 yards x 50 yards)) in its<br />
center (Hydrographic Office 1940; brackish lagoon according to Pompey 1972a). Dahl<br />
(1980) reported that the lagoon was brackish (see also Hydrographic Office 1916; supersaline<br />
according to Garnett 1983). The depth of the lagoon was 1.8 m (Hydrographer of the Navy<br />
1969). Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that in some accounts the lagoon was nearly dry, but in<br />
other accounts the lagoon had a depth of 1.8 m (6 ft).<br />
Wester et al (1992) citing Bryan (1942) noted that the lagoon on Birnie had limited subsurface<br />
exchange with ocean waters. The size and salinity of the lagoon depended on<br />
rainfall. Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon on Birnie was fed by a small stream that first<br />
went through a curious artificial pond formed by coral slabs cemented together.<br />
Reef Shelf - The shelf dried at low tide and extends about 46 m (50 yards) offshore<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940). On the southern point of the island, a shoal extends out 1.2 km<br />
(1,300 yards) southward. The depth of this bank is less than 5.5 m (Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969).<br />
Soil - There may be some phosphate deposits on Birnie, but only in small amounts since it<br />
was never worthwhile to exploit them (Garnett 1983).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Enderbury emerged about 2,400 years before present (BP) with an average emergence<br />
magnitude of about 1.0 m (Tracy 1972; see also Nunn 1994).<br />
Dimensions - Enderbury is a nearly solid island with a small shallow pond a few hundred<br />
meters (yards) across which was the remains of the lagoon (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974).<br />
The island is almost 4.8 km (3 miles long) (north and south) and about 1.6 km (1 mile) wide<br />
(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974).<br />
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Enderbury has an elevation of 3.96 m (13 ft) along the rim and an elevation of about 1.2 m (4<br />
ft) in the middle (Hydrographic Office 1940). The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969)<br />
reported that the island was 10.1 m in elevation. Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported the<br />
elevation to be 4.6 to 6.7 m (15 to 22 ft).<br />
A satellite image of Enderbury is provided in Figure III-1.4 below.<br />
A<br />
Figure III-1.4. Enderbury:<br />
A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/enderbury.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
B<br />
Lagoon - In the middle was a small sunken lagoon (Hydrographic Office 1940). Waesche<br />
(1938) reported that in the center of the island was a depression that was partially filled with<br />
soft muddy materials that was principally bird guano. The big pond in the middle of the<br />
island was identified as a fish pond (Government of Kiribati 1995). Dead clam shells were<br />
found inside of the big pond.<br />
Lagoon Openings - Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the<br />
sea, called by their Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Enderbury had paleohoa<br />
(ancient hoa) that were associated with lagoonal emergent reefs of the Holocene. Tracey et al<br />
(1972) noted that the small islets in the lagoon were relict reefs 0.8 to 0.9 m (2.5 to 3.0 ft)<br />
above the lagoon surfaced. Carbon-14 dating of Tridacna shells and coral from an islet<br />
indicated that the reef was living 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. At that time, the lagoon was open<br />
to the sea.<br />
Reef Shelf - The shelf was about 69 m (75 yards) wide, the shelf then dropped off rapidly<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940, 55 to 183 m (60 to 200 yards) according to Bryan 1941, 1942,<br />
and 1974). The northeast corner has a shoal that extends out about 1,097 m (1,200 yards).<br />
On the southeastern corner, the shoal extends out about 594 m (650 yards).<br />
Soil – The soil on Enderbury was primarily large slabs of compact coral rock interspersed<br />
with sandy soil (Maude 1937). The soil appeared to be more fertile than Abariringa<br />
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(Canton). The coastline was composed of sandstone slabs and coral rubble, with short<br />
stretches of sand (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974).<br />
In 1971, the phosphate resources of Enderbury were investigated (Tracey et al 1972). This<br />
included the taking of core samples and the construction of a geologic map of Enderbury (see<br />
Figure III-1.5.<br />
Figure III-1.5. Geologic map of Enderbury<br />
(source: Tracey et al 1972).<br />
There were three forms of phosphate on Enderbury (Tracey et al 1972): (1) powdery crust<br />
(primarily harvested in the 1800’s); (2) finely particulate phosphate in dark organic soil; and<br />
(3) phosphorite or phosphate rock. There remains only about 6.35 cm (2.5 inches) of the<br />
powdery curst (from an original 0.3 m (1 foot). Phosphate types 2 and 3 were not collected in<br />
the 1800s. Test drilling results indicated that phosphatic sand was present 3.7 to 13.8 m (12<br />
to 45 ft) below the surface (at 3 of 4 sites) and were a few feet to 2.4 m (8 ft) thick. Tracey et<br />
al (1972) concluded that phosphates on Enderbury were of no economic interest for the<br />
foreseeable future.<br />
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Gulbrandsen (1975) reported that whitlockite and apatite were the principal phosphate<br />
minerals in surface deposits on Enderbury. Monetite and brushite were also present in small<br />
amounts. All were derived from bird guano. Whitlockite appeared to have been formed<br />
directly from guano, but it changed over time into apatite.<br />
Burnett and Lee (1980) citing Tracey (1979) reported that there was about 9,072 metric tons<br />
(10,000 tons) of phosphate left on Enderbury and that more than 90,072 metric tons (100,000<br />
tons) had been mined. In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that guano was<br />
found on Enderbury. Black rich soil was also found under bushes and trees there.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Dimensions - Manra (Sydney) is shaped like a triangle with rounded corners (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942). It is about 3.2 km (2 miles) (east to west) with 2.8 km (1 ¾ mile) long sides. The<br />
beach is covered with sand, sandstone slabs, and coral rubble.<br />
Manra (Sydney) had an elevation of 4.6 m (15 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
A satellite image of Manra is provided in Figure III-1.6 below.<br />
A<br />
Figure III-1.6. Manra:<br />
A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/manra.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
B<br />
Lagoon - It has an enclosed, very salty lagoon with a depth of 5.5 m (3 fathoms)<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). The lagoon has numerous islets<br />
and shoal patches.<br />
The salty lagoon will no longer support marine life (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Fish and<br />
mollusks were formerly abundant in the lagoon. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the<br />
depth of the lagoon had dropped 60 cm (2 ft) in the last 50 years.<br />
Wester et al (1992) citing Bryan (1942) noted that the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) had limited<br />
sub-surface exchange with ocean waters. Garnett (1983) noted that the water level of the<br />
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lagoon was 30 cm lower than sea level. The size and salinity of the lagoon depended on<br />
rainfall. Manra (Sydney) had one large lagoon and several smaller ones which were mostly<br />
dry (Arundel 1890; see also Wiens 1962). The large lagoon was not connected to the sea.<br />
There were no fish as the salinity was too high.<br />
Bigelow (1939) reported that on the north side of the lagoon, there were two locations and<br />
numerous points around there edges that showed evidence of seepage above normal water<br />
levels. There was evidence that the lagoon water level was at least 60 cm (2 ft) higher during<br />
the guano work (1860 to 1890).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that on the southeast side was a low area with a slightly brackish pond.<br />
These were the remains of guano collection (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
Lagoon Openings - The lagoon has no openings to the sea (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969;<br />
see also Maude 1937).<br />
Reef Shelf - The island was surrounded by a platform reef from 46 to 183 m (50 to 200<br />
yards) wide (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soils were lighter and sandier than on other Phoenix<br />
Islands and richer than that found in the Gilbert Islands (see also Garnett 1983).<br />
Guano was found on the island (Government of Kiribati 1995). The soil was fertile.<br />
Knudsen (1965) reported that the soil on Manra (Sydney) was better than Abariringa<br />
(Canton), but poorer than on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Dimensions - McKean is less than 805 m (half a mile) long (north to south) by 732 m (800<br />
yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The beach was primarily beach rock and coral shingles.<br />
The maximum elevation was 4.6 to 5.2 m (15 to 17 ft) (see also Hydrographic Office 1940)<br />
A map of McKean is provided in Figure III-1.7 below [no satellite image could be located].<br />
Figure III-1.7. McKean Chart<br />
(source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
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Lagoon - There was a very shallow lagoon in the center of the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Maude 1937). Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon<br />
on McKean was closed. Bryan (1934) reported that the dry lagoon was a source of guano.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that the lagoon was salty that varied in size. Timeon (2001)<br />
noted that there were no fish in the lagoon. Sometimes the lagoon was dry. Lagoon size also<br />
varied with tide, despite not having an opening to the sea. The lagoon includes areas where<br />
guano was dug. Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that the basin within the rim of land had been<br />
increased in depth due to guano digging (1859 to 1870) (see also Garnett 1983a).<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon water was almost pure salt water. The lagoon<br />
contained deposits of gypsum and guano.<br />
Reef Shelf - The reef area was about 1,372 by 1,143 m (1,500 by 1,250 yards) (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the fringe reef was 91 to 183 m (100 to<br />
200 yards) wide, with the inner 27 m (30 yards) or so drying during low tide.<br />
Soil - There was no information on the soils on McKean (Garnett 1983). They were probably<br />
mainly coral sand and rubble with little humus.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Dimensions - Nikumaroro (Gardner) is 6.0 km (3.75 miles) long (north northwest by south<br />
southeast) and about 1.6 km (1 mile) wide at the widest (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The rim was<br />
less than 0.4 km (¼ mile) wide, except at the two furthest ends.<br />
The land was about 3.7 m (12 ft) above sea level (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
A satellite image of Nikumaroro is provided in Figure III-1.8 below.<br />
Figure III-1.8. Nikumaroro:<br />
A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/nikumaroro.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
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A.<br />
Lagoon - According to Wilkes (1845), the lagoon was shallow and there were no navigable<br />
passages, but on western side, the tide could flow into the lagoon. Maude (1937) reported<br />
that there was no daily tidal rise and fall in the lagoon due to the nature of the two passages to<br />
the sea.<br />
The lagoon was between 5.5 to 7.3 m (3 to 4 fathoms) deep (Hydrographic Office 1940). It<br />
was surveyed by the New Zealand Navy in 1938. The lagoon was filled with coral heads<br />
(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). There were two small ponds with milkfish fingerlings that<br />
were closed to the lagoon (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Lagoon Openings - There were two breaks from the lagoon to the sea (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon on Nikumaroro (Nikumarora, Gardner) was<br />
open. There was no navigable passage from the lagoon to the sea (Hydrographer of the Navy<br />
1969). However, the passages into the lagoon could be navigated by canoe, but local<br />
knowledge was required.<br />
Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the sea, called by their<br />
Poloynesian name, hoa. They reported that Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner)<br />
had no hoa.<br />
Reef Shelf - Nikumaroro (Gardner) was surrounded by an unbroken fringe reef that dries<br />
during low tide (Hydrographic Office 1940; about 91 m (100 yards) dries according to Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942). The fringe reef was 91 to 274 m (100 to 300 yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942). Arrundel (1885) reported observing enormous masses of rock that had been uplifted<br />
on the flat fringing reef.<br />
Soil - Maude (1937) reported that the soil included a dark brown mould that extended down<br />
to 1.2 m (4 ft). This was composed of guano and white coral fragments. In the 1978 survey<br />
of Nikumaroro (Gilbert Islands 1978), soil profiles were taken. Details of these soil profiles<br />
were provided in Gilbert Islands 1978).<br />
In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) reported guano on Nikumaroro. Some of the soils<br />
were rich in humus. In some areas, there was rich black topsoil. The soil profile was topsoil,<br />
sand, gravel and sand, hard rock, small gravel, then water. Knudsen (1965) reported that the<br />
soil on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was relatively rich (see also Garnett 1983).<br />
B.<br />
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The soil on Nikumaroro was reasonably developed (Neilson 2002).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Dimensions - Orona (Hull) is about 7.2 by 4.0 km (4.5 by 2.5 miles) (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
The greatest length is about 8.9 km (5.5 miles).<br />
A satellite image of Orona is provided in Figure III-1.9 below.<br />
Figure III-1.9. Orona:<br />
A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/orona.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943).<br />
A. B.<br />
Lagoon - There were 4 ponds on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995). Milkfish were<br />
observed in some of these ponds.<br />
Lagoon Openings - In 1887, there were more than 15 openings, but none were navigable<br />
(Ellis 1937). Hydrographic Office (1916) noted that there was a boat passage on the<br />
northwest side.<br />
The north and south sides were cut by narrow, shallow channels to the lagoon (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942). The number and position of these channels varies with storms and shifting sand.<br />
In 1924, there were 17 channels on the north and 4 on the south (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see<br />
also Maude 1937). In 1941, there were 20 channels on the north. According to the<br />
Hydrographic Office (1940), the lagoon had two openings to the ocean.<br />
Hobbs (1945) noted that the only opening could accommodate a small boat had been blasted<br />
through. The lagoon had a depth of 15.2 to 18.3 m (50 to 60 ft) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). It<br />
contained several coral heads, some come close to the surface.<br />
Dahl (1980) reported that the lagoon on Orona (Hull) was open. Tioti et al (2001) noted that<br />
the channels had a depth of 1 m.<br />
According to Neemia and Thaman (1993), Orona has navigable channel access to the lagoon.<br />
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Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) described the channels from the lagoon to the sea, called by their<br />
Poloynesian name, hoa, in coral atolls such as Orona (Hull). Orona (Hull) hoa were confined<br />
to the northern rim of the atoll. The origin Orona (Hull) hoa was attributed to overtopping<br />
storm water associated with hurricanes.<br />
Reef Shelf - Orona (Hull) is a coral atoll with a 91 m (100 yard) wide fringing reef which<br />
dries in patches (Hydrographic Office 1940; 73 to 229 m (80 to 250 yards) wide according to<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
Soil - In 1995, Government of Kiribati (1995) noted guano on Orona. Knudsen (1965)<br />
reported that the soil on Orona (Hull) was better than Abariringa (Canton), but poorer than on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner). Maude (1937) reported that the soil was light and sandy (see also<br />
Garnett 1983a).<br />
The soil on Orona was reasonably developed (Neilson 2002). Orona’s foreshore and substata<br />
had high amounts of pyroclastic ash and pumice. This added to the soil that was dominated<br />
by alkaline carbonaceous materials.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Diminsions - Rawaki (Phoenix) was a little less than 1.2 km (¾ mile) long and less than 0.8<br />
km (½ mile) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
The highest elevation on Rawaki (Phoenix) was about 4.9 m (16 ft) (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940; 5.5 m (18 ft) according to Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
A satellite image of Rawaki is provided in Figure III-1.10 below.<br />
A.<br />
Figure III-1.10. Rawaki:<br />
A - Satellite image (source: http://oceandots.com/pacific/rawaki/rawaki.htm);<br />
B – Chart (source: U.S. Government Chart of 1943)<br />
B.<br />
Lagoon - Bryan (1934) reported that in the middle of Rawaki (Phoenix) there was a puddle of<br />
a lagoon that may dry at times (see also Hydrographic Office 1916). In 1924, the lagoon was<br />
brackish and only a few cm (inches) deep. Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon was very<br />
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salty, but might become fresh after heavy rains. Hydrographic Office (1940) reported that<br />
there was a dried up lagoon in the center. Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the<br />
shallow lagoon was brackish and may sometimes dry. Anon. (1940) reported that there was a<br />
large freshwater lake at the center of Rawaki (Phoenix). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported a<br />
very shallow salty lagoon that fluctuated greatly in size. Dahl (1980) report freshwater pools<br />
on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Reef Shelf - Rawaki (Phoenix) was surrounded by a wide platform reef (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). The narrow reef was 27 to 91 m (30 to 100 yards) wide (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
On the western side there is a break through the reef (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that the small break was apparently blasted.<br />
CARONDELET REEF<br />
Carondelet reef was 1.2 km (¾ mile) north-northeast and south-southwest in the shape of a<br />
horse shoe (Hydrographic Office 1916; about 732 m (800 yards) long (north-south) and 640<br />
m (700 yards) wide (east-west) according to Hydrographic Office 1940). It did not bare at<br />
any stage (Hydrographic Office 1940). The maximum depth was 3.7 m (2 fathoms). Depth<br />
just off the reef was 9.1 to 18 m (5 to 10 fathoms).<br />
According to Hydrographer of the Navy (1969), has a depth of less than 1.8 m. There was an<br />
occasional wave break over it. This reef was confirmed by the H.M.S. Wellington in 1937. It<br />
is about 0.8 km (0.5 mile) in a northerly and southerly direction in a horse-shoe shape<br />
(concave westward).<br />
WINSLOW REEF<br />
Winslow reef extended about 1.6 km (1 mile) in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction<br />
and was about 1.2 km (¾ mile) wide with two rocks awash (Hydrographic Office 1940; see<br />
also Hydrographic Office 1916). Hydrographic Office (1916) noted that at that time, the<br />
position was doubtful.<br />
The exact location of Winslow reef was confirmed in 1944 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
The depth was 11.0 m. It was 1.6 km (1 mile) long in an east to west direction, and 0.8 km<br />
(0.5 miles) wide.<br />
Apparently, there was a small area of breaking water about 4.8 km (3 miles) east of Winslow<br />
reef that was reported in 1945 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
B. OCEANOGRAPHIC<br />
The Phoenix Islands were in the path of the westerly drift (Wiens 1962). Offshore currents<br />
were generally westward. The strength of the currents varied with the wind. Usual speed<br />
was 1.9 km per hour (1 knot), with a maximum of 3.7 km per hour (2 knots).<br />
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In the 1980s, four German cruises (Midpac 1 to IV) were undertaken in the Pacific (Line<br />
Islands, Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands, and Marshall Islands) (Glasby 2002).<br />
The Phoenix Islands were oriented along the equator and was predominantly influenced by<br />
the westward-flowing Equatorial Current (northern equatorial branch of the South Equatorial<br />
Current (BEN) and south equatorial branch of the South Equatorial Current (BES)) (Tuna and<br />
Billfish Assessment Program 1993). The Phoenix Islands were subject to the El Niño<br />
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) that occurs every two to seven years and lasts for 18 to 24<br />
months. During ENSO events, the westward tradewinds were reduced and variations and<br />
even reversal of the main currents. This deepens the eastern Pacific thermocline.<br />
The Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993) provided diagrams of the seasonal<br />
changes in major equatorial surface currents around the Phoenix Islands. These are provided<br />
in Figures III-1.11 to III-1.18 below.<br />
Figure III-1.11. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in MARCH<br />
Including below the surface temperature and current profiles.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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Figure III-1.12. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in JUNE<br />
Including below the surface temperature and current profiles.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Figure III-1.13. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in SEPTEMBER<br />
Including below the surface temperature and current profiles.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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Figure III-1.14. Major currents around the Phoenix Islands in DECEMBER<br />
Including below the surface temperature and current profiles.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Figure III-1.15. Vertical sections of the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Showing mean temperature, and current profiles for<br />
MARCH between the surface and 400 m<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Figure III-1.16. Vertical sections of the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Showing mean temperature, and current profiles for<br />
JUNE between the surface and 400 m<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Figure III-1.17. Vertical sections of the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Showing mean temperature, and current profiles for<br />
SEPTEMBER between the surface and 400 m<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Figure III-1.18. Vertical sections of the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Showing mean temperature, and current profiles for<br />
DECEMBER between the surface and 400 m<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Lehodey et al (1997) examined the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in relationship to<br />
the western equatorial Pacific warm pool. During ENSO events this warm water pool shifts<br />
to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Water temperatures measured in 2002 averaged 29.4 0 C, with a maximum over 30 0 C recorded<br />
in shallows and when snorkleing (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported that water temperature at 2 m below the surface all survey<br />
sites (around all Phoenix Islands, except Abariringa (Canton)) was 28 o C. The surface<br />
temperature varied from 28 to 30 o C. There was no significant thermocline down to 50 m<br />
depth.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Current – The ocean current near Abariringa (Canton) was about 255 0 at about 1.5 km per<br />
hour (0.8 knots) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also McIntire 1960). However, the current<br />
can be stronger at the northwest and southeast points of the island. The Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy (1969) noted that the west current can be at least 2.8 km per hour (1.5 knots) (see also<br />
Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
Kamachi and O’Brien (1995) examined drift buoy trajectory models for the equatorial Pacific<br />
Ocean. One site tested in their models was Abariringa (Canton). Simulated upper layer<br />
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thickness (ULT) estimates improved through iterations and were eventually similar to true<br />
upper layer thickness readings for the time series examined.<br />
Tides – Spring tide was about 1.2 m (4 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). Tidal variation was<br />
1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) during the full moon (Bunker 1951; ranged 1 m (3.3 ft) and spring<br />
range was 1.2 m (4 ft) according to McIntire 1960). At other times it was 0.6 m (2 ft)<br />
(Bunker 1951). Mean high-water interval was exactly 5 hours (McIntire 1960). McIntire<br />
(1960) noted that slack tide was frequently only 10 minutes.<br />
Groves (1956) reported that sea-level observations on Abariringa (Canton) showed regular<br />
four-day oscillations that were related to equatorial waves in the easterly winds over the<br />
island. Similar results were observed on Ocean Island. Tide gages on Butaritari and Tarawa<br />
did not show such a regular record.<br />
The tidal station at Abariringa (Canton) recorded unaccountable change in sea levels of 15 to<br />
18 cm (6 or 7 inches) at 3.8 day intervals (Wiens 1962).<br />
Using sea level records of various central Pacific islands, including Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Wunsch and Gill (1976) calculated the spectral energy density and demonstrated that there<br />
were higher energy levels associated with inertia-gravity wave frequencies. In Abariringa<br />
(Canton), there was a 4 day oscillation that dominated the energy spectrum. This was not<br />
found in higher latitudes. Wunsch and Gill (1976) compared the wind and sea level data and<br />
found them to be statistically significantly, particularly at the 0.25 day -1 (4 day oscillation).<br />
They suggested that the oscillation was due to oceanic resonance rather than atmospheric<br />
resonance since oceanic resonance had higher energy.<br />
Henderson et al (1978) installed tidal monitors in Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon to monitor<br />
and compare ocean and lagoonal tides. Results were similar. Drift cards and dye tracks were<br />
also used to study Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon. Wind-driven cards moved down-wind,<br />
but in a complicated pattern. Some cards became entrained in small eddies.<br />
Sea-level data from Abariringa (Canton) indicated that there was an anomalous rise in sea<br />
level during the latter half of the 1965 El Niño year (Busalacchi et al 1983). There were great<br />
difficulties in interpreting sea-level data at Abariringa (Canton) because of the interplay<br />
between equatorially trapped Kelvin waves and long Rossby waves.<br />
Khandekar et al (2005) reported that for 28 years there was no detectable change in sea level<br />
on Abariringa (Kanton). This example was provided in the global warming debate context.<br />
Waves/Swells - Banner and Banner (1964) noted that strong winds and surf at times rendered<br />
collection on the outer side of the ocean reef too hazardous on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Environmental Data Services (1966) reported that at long intervals high sea swells occurred<br />
several times in the past. An event was recorded in January 1958 when swells 4.6 to 6.1 m<br />
(15 to 20 ft) high lasted over a period of several days.<br />
Gilbert (2000) examined equatorial inertia-gravity waves for various locations in the central<br />
Pacific, including Abariringa (Kanton). Christmas, Abariringa (Kanton), and Tarawa had<br />
significant peaks at frequencies corresponding to first and second meridional mode inertia-<br />
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gravity waves. Between September to late January, temporal structures with high energies<br />
were confined to the central Pacific (including Abariringa).<br />
Water Characteristics - Open ocean water was 20,300 mg chlorine per liter (Degener and<br />
Gillaspy 1955).<br />
Smith and Jokiel (1978) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was exposed to some of the highest<br />
major inorganic nutrient levels to be found in open ocean surface waters. As such, neither<br />
phosporus nor nitrogen would limit reef metabolism. Micronutrients, such as trace metals,<br />
may also be important is the distribution of some reef algae.<br />
In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa (Kanton) (3 sites); Orona<br />
(2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site); Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site)<br />
(Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Current - Close to the western shore the current is northward (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Farther offshore, the current is 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots) in a westerly direction (see also<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Current - On the west side of the island, the current was about 1.9 km per hour (1 knot) in a<br />
southward direction (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Clear of the island, the current is about 1.5 km per hour (0.8 knots) in a 255 0 direction (1.6 to<br />
3.2 km/hour) (1 to 2 miles per hour) westward according to Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
Tides - Spring tides were 1.8 m (6 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916). Neap tides were 0.9 to 1.2<br />
m (3 to 4 ft).<br />
Water Characteristics - In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (3 sites); Orona (2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site);<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Current - The current was about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots) in a westerly direction<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; 1.9 to 2.8 km per hour (1 to 1.5 knots) in a westerly direction<br />
according to Hydrographic Office 1916). Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the<br />
current can vary between 0.9 to 2.8 km per hour (0.5 to 1.5 knots) and ran westward.<br />
Tides - Spring tides were about 1.2 m (4 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
Waves/Swell - In 1914, Manra (Sydney) was swept by a tidal wave (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940).<br />
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Water Characteristics - In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (3 sites); Orona (2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site);<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Current - The current is strong past the northern and southern points and converge on the<br />
west side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Offshore current velocity is about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots).<br />
Water Characteristics - In 2000, McKean water temperature was slightly cooler than that of<br />
Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). This suggested up-welling and mixing of deeper water on<br />
McKean.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Current - The current is westerly (Hydrographic Office 1940). Inshore, the current follows<br />
the land to the west. Near the western reef, the current is northward (Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969).<br />
Tides - Tidal fluctuation was 1.4 m (4.5 ft) (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
Water Characteristics - In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (3 sites); Orona (2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site);<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
The minimum water temperature recorded was 26.7 0 C at Nikumaroro (Obura and Stone<br />
2003).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Current - Inshore currents have a velocity of 1.9 km per hour (1 knot) and run westward<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). Offshore, currents<br />
run westward at about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots).<br />
Water Characteristics - In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (3 sites); Orona (2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site);<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
The current was strong on the northern and southern points of the island (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940). Offshore, the current was about 0.9 km per hour (0.5 knots). A 3.7 km per<br />
hour (2 knot) west current has been observed (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969) setting<br />
westward past the island (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
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In 2002, seawater temperature loggers were deployed at Abariringa (Kanton) (3 sites); Orona<br />
(2 sites); Nikumaroro (2 sites); Manra (1 site); Enderbury (1 site); Rawaki (Phoenix) (1 site)<br />
(Obura and Stone 2003). No temperature loggers were deployed at Birnie.<br />
C. BATHYMETRIC<br />
In 1974, the Committee for Co-ordination of Joint Prospecting for marine resources in the<br />
South Pacific (CCOP/SOPAC) noted that Nauru through the Phoenix Islands to the Line<br />
Islands had the greatest potential for offshore phosphate at depths of 400 m (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
It was recommended that surveys for the phosphate be initiated.<br />
Tiffin (1981) summarized findings of KI-81(3) survey of Kiribati waters for manganese<br />
nodules that were completed from 7 to 17 May 1981. Tiffin (1981) noted that Cruise No. 37<br />
included an area east of the Phoenix Islands. For KI-81(3), four stations were surveyed.<br />
However, based on the cruise track, none appeared to be within the EEZ of the Phoenix<br />
Islands, even though the cruise was titled, “Kiribati Phoenix Islands manganese nodule<br />
survey”.<br />
Teiwaki (1988) noted that there have been several seabed surveys for manganese resources.<br />
These have included surveys by CCOP/SOPAC, Minex, Japan, West German, and the U.S.A.<br />
Teiwaki (1988) noted that only the CCOP/SOPA and Minex surveys were officially<br />
recognized by the Government of Kiribati.<br />
Aslanian et al (1988b) examined cumulative volcano amplitude (CVA) and CVA maxima<br />
related to seamounts in the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands. There is a CVA<br />
maximum underlined by flowlines from the Phoenix Islands. The Mid-Cretaceous ridges of<br />
the Phoenix fracture zone intersect flowlines at the biggest and brightest CVA maxima in the<br />
vicinity of Rarotonga and Rurutu. In addition, Phoenix Islands crustal flowlines appeared to<br />
have a role in both the Mehetia and MacDonald CVA maxima, however, cannot be linked to<br />
both hot-spots. Aslanian et al (1988b) concluded that hot-spotting was flawed by errors and<br />
that its application was not age independent.<br />
Cronan et al (1991) reported on manganese (Mn) nodules in the EEZ around the Phoenix<br />
Islands (see also Cronan 1987; Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993; JICA et al 2005; see Figure III-<br />
1.19). These were based on Japanese cruises (Glasby 2002). The highest abundance (>25<br />
kg/m 2 ) was in a small area around 5 0 S, 170 0 W (Cronan et al 1991; on the southern Phoenix<br />
Islands area according to Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). On the northern area,<br />
abundance was less than 5 kg/m 2 (Cronan 1987), but nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) content was<br />
high in the north and decreased towards the south (see also Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and<br />
1991). Cobalt (Co) grades were generally low overall. Average Co content was 0.83 percent<br />
(Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991).<br />
Figure III-1.19. The abundance of nodules in the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Source: Cronan et al 1991 and Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991).<br />
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The highest manganese nodule abundance was at depths between 5,100 to 5,400 m (Cronan<br />
et al 1991; 5,000 to 5,600 m according to Cronan and Hodkinson 1991; 5,200 to 5,300 m<br />
according to Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993). Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993) estimated that there<br />
were about 571 million tonnes (630 million tons) of manganese nodules in the Phoenix Island<br />
EEZ. More than 272 million tonnes (300 million tons) of nodules may exist in the southeast<br />
part of the Phoenix Islands EEZ.<br />
The highest Ni and Cu concentrations were also at this depth range (Cronan et al 1991 and<br />
Cronan and Hodkinson 1991; see Figure III-1.20). The total amount of Ni in nodules within<br />
the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands was about 11.8 million tonnes (see also Cronan and<br />
Hodkinson 1989 and 1991) According to Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993), the manganese nodule<br />
nickel content needed to be more than 2.67 percent for mining to be cost effective. Phoenix<br />
Islands manganese nodules had an average of 1.35 percent nickel content. Therefore these<br />
nodules (and nodules from all of Kiribati’s EEZs) are of low grade and have no economic<br />
value for commercial harvest in the foreseeable future.<br />
Figure III-1.20. Metal quantity distribution in the EEZ around the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Source: Cronan et al 1991 and Cronan and Hodkinson 1989 and 1991).<br />
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There was more combined Ni + Cu + Co in the nodules than in the crust (Cronan and<br />
Hodkinson 1989 and 1991). Crust resource potential was estimated at 1,970,000 tonnes Mn,<br />
69,000 tonnes Co, 55,800 tonnes Ni, and 3.7 tonnes platinum (Pt) (Cronan and Hodkinson<br />
1989 and 1991).<br />
Kinoshita and Tiffin (1993) identified the benthic sediment composition around the Phoenix<br />
Islands. The three main types of sediments included: brown clay, siliceous-calcareous clay,<br />
and calcareous ooze. The distribution of these benthic materials is illustrated in Figure III-<br />
1.21 below.<br />
Figure III-1.21. Benthic composition around the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Kinoshita and Tiffin 1993).<br />
Aslanian et al (1998a) analyze cumulative volcano amplitude (CVA) in the central Pacific.<br />
They note that the Phoenix Islands crustal flowlines have a strong role in both Mehetia and<br />
MacDonald CVA maxima. However, the Phoenix Islands flowline cannot be linked with<br />
both hot-spots.<br />
JICA et al (2005) provided a 2 and 3-D bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands based on 1987<br />
survey results. The 2 and 3-D images are presented in Figures III-1.22 and III-1.23 below.<br />
Figure III-1.22. Two dimensional view of the bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: JICA et al 2005)<br />
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Figure III-1.23. Three dimensional view of the bathymetry of the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: JICA 2005)<br />
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JICA et al (2005) also presented results of surveys of five seamounts within the Phoenix<br />
Islands EEZ. Their locations are identified in Figure III-1.24 below. Figure III-1.25 provides<br />
details of seamount survey findings.<br />
Figure III-1.24. Location of the five seamounts within the EEZ around<br />
the Phoenix Islands that were surveyed.<br />
(source: JICA et al 2005)<br />
Figure III-1.25. Detailed results of seamount surveys<br />
(source: JICA et al 2005)<br />
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Allain et al (2006) noted that Greg Stone conducted a fine-scale analysis of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. They also reported that an exploratory cruise will be conducted in the Phoenix<br />
Islands by the RV Alucia that belongs to Deep-Ocean Quest. This will be in conjunction with<br />
the New England Aquarium and Conservation International. The primary objective of this<br />
cruise will be to obtain information on seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area.<br />
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New England Aquarium (2006) completed a report on the bathymetry around the Phoenix<br />
Islands. The report was limited to figures (with no titles) and there was no text or reference<br />
citations in this report. Existing and predicted seamounts (including the 8 Phoenix Islands)<br />
are presented in Figure III-1.26.<br />
Figure III-1.26. Existing and predicted seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area.<br />
(source: New England Aquarium 2006).<br />
Known and shallow seamounts in the Phoenix Islands area were also illustrated by New<br />
England Aquarium (2006) (see Table III-1.27 below).<br />
Figure III-1.27. Known and shallow seamounts in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: New England Aquarium 2006).<br />
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On May 3, 2006, Wragg observed the scar from a 100 m length of reef that had broken away<br />
and slipped down the reef slope out of sight (Kerr and Wragg 2006). This may have been<br />
related to the 6.5 Richter scale earthquake in the Tonga Trench that morning. The subsidence<br />
appeared to have occurred just hours prior to the survey dive.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Jenks and Crawford (1970) modified a two dimensional hydrographic map of Abariringa<br />
(Canton) into a three dimensional map using 3-D mapping techniques. This is presented in<br />
Figure III-1.28 below.<br />
Figure III-1.28. 3-D image of Abariringa (Canton) based on a two dimensional<br />
hydrographic map (source: Jenks and Crawford 1970).<br />
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NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Side-scan sonar was used to search the reef face to a depth of 610 m (2,000 ft) (King et al<br />
2001). A remotely operated vehicle was available to examine anything found by the sidescan<br />
sonar. The side-scan sonar fish hit the reef and broke halting the side-scan sonar survey.<br />
New England Aquarium (2006) presented a predicted bathymetric map of Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (Figure III-1.29).<br />
Figure III-1.29. Predicted bathymetric map of Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
(source: New England Aquarium 2006).<br />
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CARONDELET REEF<br />
New England Aquarium (2006) presented a contour map of Carondelet Reef (seamount) that<br />
was based on multi-beam surveys (Figure III-1.30).<br />
Figure III-1.30. Contour Map of Carondelet Reef (seamount).<br />
(source: New England Aquarium 2006)<br />
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UNNAMED SEAMOUNT (NW of Carondelet Reef).<br />
New England Aquarium (2006) presented a multibeam bathymetric map of an unnamed<br />
seamount just northwest of Carondelet Reef (Figure III-1.31).<br />
Figure III-1.31. Unnamed seamount just northwest of Carondelet Reef.<br />
(source: New England Aquarium 2006).<br />
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D. METEOROLOGICAL<br />
There was a severe drought from 1890 to 1894 throughout the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen<br />
1965).<br />
Ellis (1937) noted that there were periods of bad weather that could last for months. These<br />
were set off by easterly weather and the current setting to the west for several years in<br />
succession.<br />
In the last months of 1940, severe gales hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen 1965). All islands<br />
had damage to housing, coconut trees, and new plantings.<br />
In 1947, another drought hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudsen 1965).<br />
Maude (1953) noted that it appeared that the strong heat radiation from bare Phoenix islands<br />
split approaching rain clouds. This resulted in precipitation lower on the island than in the<br />
surrounding seas. Maude (1953) suggested that if reflection of heat could be reduced, then<br />
rainfall could be increased.<br />
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The wind rose (force and direction of winds) for the Phoenix Islands was presented by Wiens<br />
(1962), see Figure III-1.32 below. South of the equator (between 0 to 10 0 including the<br />
Phoenix Islands), northeast winds appeared more prevalent than southeast winds (Wiens<br />
1962).<br />
Figure III-1.32. Wind rose for the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Wiens 1962).<br />
Rainfall in the Phoenix Islands was probably the lowest in the central Pacific (Wiens 1962).<br />
Isohyets of annual rainfall are presented below in Figure III-1.33. The northern most islands<br />
in the Phoenix were the driest, Abariringa and Enderbury. Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), and<br />
McKean were wetter. Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were the wettest.<br />
Figure III-1.33. Oceanic isohyets showing annual rainfall (in inches)<br />
(source: Wiens 1962).<br />
*note: dashed lines indicate speculative construction. Underlining indicates high<br />
island.<br />
37
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Quinn and Burt (1970) developed a method for predicting abnormally heavy rainfall in the<br />
Pacific equatorial dry zone (including the Phoenix Islands). This was partially based on<br />
Abrariringa (Canton) rainfall data. The method was 76 percent effective in predicting heavy<br />
rainfall between 1 to 8 months in advance based on pressure changes over time.<br />
Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993) provided 40 years of SOI in figure form<br />
(see Figure III-1.34 below). When the SOI is positive, it is a La Niña event. When SOI is<br />
negative, it is an El Niño events.<br />
Figure III-1.34. Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), 1950 to 1990. Dots are actual<br />
index values and lines are 5 month average. Positive values are<br />
La Niña events, negative values are El Niño events.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
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Stoddar and Fosberg (1994) noting the number of paleohoa (ancient lagoon passages) in<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) speculated that hurricanes must have been<br />
more frequent in the Central Pacific in the mid-Holocene period.<br />
The Southern Oscillation refers to variations in air pressure between Indonesia and the South<br />
Pacific (Nunn 1994). When air pressure was anomalously high in one area, it was<br />
anomalously low in the other. The measure for this variation is called the Southern<br />
Oscillation Index (SOI). Extremes of SOI values are associated with extreme weather<br />
conditions such as droughts in the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands), and<br />
changes in ocean currents and temperatures.<br />
Nunn (1994) illustrated average annual pressure (mbar) at sea level in January and July based<br />
on observations between 1900 and 1939 (see Figure III-1.35 below). The Phoenix Islands<br />
atmospheric pressure of between 1006 mbars in January to 1009 mbars in July.<br />
Figure III-1.35. Average annual atmospheric pressure (mbar) at sea level in January<br />
and July for the central Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: Nunn 1994)<br />
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Nunn (1994) noted that the intertropical convergence zone remains relatively stationary<br />
during the year over the central Pacific Ocean. However, the South Pacific convergence zone<br />
moves north from January to July (see Figure III-1.36 below). The Phoenix Islands are<br />
between the two zones throughout the year.<br />
Figure III-1.36. Locations of the intertropical convergence zone and South Pacific<br />
convergence zone in the central Pacific, with the Phoenix Islands between the two zones.<br />
(source: Nunn 1994)<br />
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Nunn (1994) noted that between 5 0 N to 5 0 S particularly in the central Pacific Ocean (where<br />
the Phoenix Islands are located), there was persistent high pressure preventing the<br />
development of tropical cyclones (hurricanes).<br />
Lehodey et al (1997) examined the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in relationship to<br />
the western equatorial Pacific warm pool. During ENSO events this warm water pool shifts<br />
to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) presented a climate diagram map with climate zones in<br />
the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands) with rainfall isohyets (see Figure III-1.37<br />
below).<br />
Figure III-1.37. Climate diagram map with climate zones in the central Pacific<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands) with rainfall isohyets<br />
(source: Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998).<br />
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Mueller-Dombois (1999) noted that there was a precarious dry zone centered on the Phoenix<br />
Islands (see Figure III-1.38). It was precarious because of the unpredictable fluctuations<br />
including occasional wet years (Stoddard and Walsch 1992).<br />
Figure III-1.38. Central Pacific atolls including the Phoenix Islands,<br />
plotted by latitude and by mean annual rainfall<br />
(source: Mueller-Dombois 1999).<br />
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Anderson (2002) noted that the Line and Phoenix Islands were in an area of low rainfall and<br />
were settled and abandoned prehistorically (see Figure III-1.39 below).<br />
Figure III-1.39. The Distribution of Islands with Anomalous settlement histories<br />
(+ = population declines, ● = settled and abandoned prehistorically),<br />
In relation to annual rain fall (in mm) (source: Anderson 2002).<br />
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Thomas (2003) noted that prolonged droughts were common in many of the Phoenix Islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Meteorological data for Abariringa (Canton) for 1937 to 1950 was reported in Fellgren<br />
(1950). Detailed data on rainfall, temperature, humidity, and wind from 1951 to 1965 for<br />
Abariringa (Canton) were reported in Weather Bureau (1951 to 1965). Meteorological data<br />
for Abariringa (Canton) for 1966 was reported in Environmental Data Service (1966).<br />
There was a NOAA meteorological station on Abariringa (Kanton) (Kaufmann 2000).<br />
Winds - Prevailing winds are easterly from the east or east-northeast (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). Westerly winds are practically unknown on Abariringa (Canton). Wind velocity<br />
was 22 to 26 km per hour (12 to 14 knots) (McIntire 1960). Over 90 percent of the wind was<br />
from east-northeast to east-southeast, with east winds predominating.<br />
Between December 1940 and February 1941, there were several weeks of strong westerly<br />
winds on Abariringa (Canton) (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942). Wind speeds up to 102 km per<br />
hour (55 knots) were attained.<br />
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Buxton (1952) reported that since 1990 the monsoonal westerlies periodically surge easterly<br />
and can reach Abariringa (Canton). The most recent case was in December 1940.<br />
Prevailing winds were from ENE to ESE at a steady 22 to 26 km per hour (12 to 14 knots)<br />
(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). West winds were rare.<br />
Wunsch and Gill (1976) examined wind velocity spectra. There were no statistically<br />
significant energy peaks in the appropriate frequency band. They noted wind and sea level<br />
data were found to be statistically significantly, particularly at the 0.25 day -1 (4 day<br />
oscillation).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the prevailing wind on Abariringa (Canton) was from the east<br />
with average wind speed of about 20 km per hour.<br />
Rain - Maude (1937) noted that heat radiation from Abariringa (Canton) split rain clouds and<br />
resulted in higher rain fall in adjacent waters than on the atoll. This might be minimized with<br />
additional plant ground cover.<br />
There are frequent rain squalls around the island, but rain rarely falls on the island itself<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940). This was attributed to the heat rising from the warm waters of<br />
the lagoon (see also Bryan 1940).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Abariringa<br />
(Canton)) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches).<br />
Rainfall from 1937 to 1949 was provided by Luomala (1951). Rainfall data for Abariringa<br />
for 1938 to 2002 was obtained from the Meteorological Division. A summary graph is<br />
provided in Figure III-1.40 below.<br />
Figure III-1.40. Rainfall data for Abariringa (Canton), 1938 to 2002 (in mm).<br />
(Kiribati Meteorological Division data).<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
rainfall (mm)<br />
4,000.0<br />
3,500.0<br />
3,000.0<br />
2,500.0<br />
2,000.0<br />
1,500.0<br />
1,000.0<br />
500.0<br />
0.0<br />
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970<br />
year<br />
1980 1990 2000 2010<br />
In 1947, rainfall was only 21 cm (8.46 inches) on Abariringa (Canton) (Knudsen 1965).<br />
Anon. (1952) noted that annual rainfall at Abariringa (Canton) ranged from 229 cm (90<br />
inches) to less than 22 cm (8.5 inches).<br />
Hatheway (1955) noted that rainfall was extremely variable. In 1947, rainfall was 21 cm<br />
(8.46 inches), while in 1941, rainfall exceeded 229 cm (90 inches).<br />
Knudsen (1965) note that there appeared to be a periodicity to rainfall cycles in the Phoenix<br />
Islands of between 7 and 8 years (see also Knudsen 1977). For years 1938, 1947, 1954,<br />
annual rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was less than 10 inches (Knudsen 1965). 1961 and<br />
1962 were also drought years. Knudsen (1977) noted that after the settlement of Gilbertese to<br />
the Phoenix Islands, it was discovered that these islands were subject to repeated and lengthy<br />
droughts.<br />
Austin (1954) compared rainfall at Abariringa (Canton) with rainfall from some of the Line<br />
Islands. Abariringa (Canton) annual rainfall was lower than Palmyra, Washington, Fanning,<br />
Christmas, and Malden Islands.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that there was a current of warm air that rises from<br />
Abariringa (Canton). This warm air current can split passing large rain clouds that pass over<br />
the island, resulting in reduced rainfall on the island itself.<br />
Abariringa (Canton) was virtually a desert island with annual rainfall of 43 cm (17 inches)<br />
(Wiens 1962).<br />
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On Abariringa (Canton), rainfall ranged from less than 20 cm (8 inches) in 1954, to almost<br />
178 cm (70 inches) in 1958, and 284 cm (112 inches) in 1941 (Bryan 1974). Rainfall varied<br />
considerably between years and between months (McIntire 1960).<br />
In 1973, Abariringa (Canton) had 250 cm (98.42 inches) of rain (Mueller-Dombois and<br />
Fosberg 1998). In 1994, there was no rainfall at all.<br />
A summary of monthly Abariringa (Kanton) rainfall was presented in Department of<br />
Agriculture (1987). In that year, 125 cm (49.53 inches) of rain fell.<br />
In January 1994, Canton Island had 3 mm rainfall, just 4 percent of average (Anon. 1994a).<br />
In February 1994, Canton Island again had 3 mm rainfall. In March 1994, no rainfall was<br />
measured on Canton Island. Record high rainfall (31.5 cm; 12.40 inches) was recorded for<br />
Canton in August 1994 (Anon. 1994b). This was six times the average monthly rainfall.<br />
Banner and Banner (1964) reported that rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was slight. Knudsen<br />
(1965) reported the average annual rainfall between 1938 and 1954 was 48 cm (18.77<br />
inches).<br />
In 1972, NOAA shut down the upper-air and sea-level stations at Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(TOGA Panel 1996). This closed down occurred right at the beginning of the 1972-1973 El<br />
Niño event and ended the 20 years time series data set. TOGA Panel (1996) reported that the<br />
U.S. entered into a bilateral agreement with New Zealand for the maintenance of the upperair<br />
station at Abariringa (Canton) which was subsequently closed.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the mean rainfall for Abariringa (Canton) was 70 cm (0.7 m) (23<br />
year average; 27.56 inches) with maximum of 160 cm (1.6 m; 62.99 inches) and minimum of<br />
20 cm (0.2 m; 7.87 inches).<br />
Abariringa (Canton) had a mean annual rainfall of 71.0 cm (27.95 inches) between 1942 and<br />
1967 and 1972 to 1975) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994).<br />
In August 1994, Abariringa (Canton) experienced record high rainfalls of 31.5 cm (12.40<br />
inches) just over six times average (Anon. 1994b). This was related to the continuation of the<br />
1991 to 1994 ENSO episode.<br />
Oates (2003) noted that rain water collection was usually adequate from March to August,<br />
but after that freshwater stills were needed.<br />
Temperature and Humidity - McIntire (1960) reported that since Abariringa (Canton) was<br />
low (less than 6.1 m (20 ft) in elevation), it had no impact on climate. There were no<br />
noticeable seasonal changes, however, temperatures were slightly lower during December to<br />
February (averaged 28.3 ° C (83 0 F) compared with 28.7°C (83.7 0 F) during the rest of the year).<br />
Hatheway (1955) reported average temperatures of 28.9°C (84 0 F) and ranged from 21.7 to<br />
36.7°C (71 0 to 98 0 F). Relative humidity ranged from 57 to 85 percent.<br />
Air temperatures were constant at 25.6°C (78 0 F) at night and 31.1°C (88 0 F) during the day<br />
(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). In 1955, the maximum temperature on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
was 32.2°C (90 0 F) and the lowest temperature was 22.8°C (73 0 F) (Wiens 1962).<br />
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Humidity ranged from 64 to 80 percent (McIntire 1960).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that air temperature reached 31 0 C and dropped to 25 0 C at night.<br />
Relative humidity was about 75 percent.<br />
Storms - Lighting and thunder on Abariringa (Canton) were rare (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). Hurricanes were unknown.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that typhoons were unknown on Abariringa (Canton). Thunder and<br />
lightning storms were also rare.<br />
According to McIntire (1960), most days were partly cloudy (202 days a year), some days<br />
were cloudy (87 days a year), while only 76 days were clear.<br />
Garnett (1983a) reported that lightening and thunder were rare on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
cyclones were unknown.<br />
Air Quality - There was periodically a haze caused by salt particles cast into the air by waves<br />
breaking on the reef (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). This was termed, “ehukai” in Hawaiian.<br />
This periodically caused difficulties to air operations.<br />
Solar Radiation – Quinn and Burt (1968) reported that incoming solar radiation over the<br />
tropical Pacific was much larger than previously thought. This was based on solar radiation<br />
readings on Wake and Abariringa (Canton). Abariringa (Canton) had recorded average solar<br />
radiation of 218 kLangleys based on 12 years of records. Even during rainy years,<br />
Abariringa (Canton) received 195 kLangleys. Even with a 43 percent increase in annual sky<br />
cover, there was only an 11 percent decrease in solar radiation for Abariringa (Canton).<br />
ENSO - Morris (1975) analyzed the sequence of meteorological events on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) during the 1972-1973 El Niño cycle. There was a strong correlation of heavy<br />
rainfall with positive sea surface temperature anomaly and positive sea surface minus air<br />
temperature difference (see Figure III-1.41 below). This did not indicate a causative<br />
relationship. During rainy periods, easterlies were weak, or became westerlies. The<br />
temperature in the upper troposphere was significantly warmer during El Niño months than<br />
during dry periods.<br />
Figure III-1.41. (a) Central Pacific rainfall in mm (12 month mean 1949 to 1969);<br />
(b) sea surface temperature anomalies 5°N-5°S, 80°W-180°W<br />
(12 month mean 1949 to 1969) (source: Morris 1975).<br />
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Mock (1981) reviewed the history of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). In early studies<br />
by Bjerknes (1969 and 1972; see also Mock 1981), Abariringa (Canton) was identified as a<br />
focal point of SOI activities. Bjerknes (1969) noted that the warming of the surrounding sea<br />
surface temperature around Abariringa (Canton) above ambient air temperature correlated<br />
with excessive rainfall. During this period, the northeast trades and mid-latitude westerlies<br />
were strong compared with the very weak equatorial easterlies. Bjerknes (1972) also<br />
examined winds and sea surface temperatures for Abariringa (Canton) between 1962 to 1967.<br />
There was good correlation between the slackening of the equatorial easterlies and the<br />
warming of the surface waters.<br />
Fairbanks et al (1997) reported that Abariringa (Kanton) was located nearest to the maximum<br />
thermal signal associated with the El Niño/La Niña phenomena. It experienced both the sea<br />
surface temperature and precipitation effects of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).<br />
Fairbanks et al (1997) suggested that Abariringa (Kanton) be included in the network to<br />
monitor for the ENSO. Fairbanks (1997) noted that Abariringa (Kanton) was in the middle of<br />
an area of the central Pacific with sea surface temperature anomalies of more than 3 0 C.<br />
Climate Research Committee (1995) investigated the decade-to-century time scale in terms of<br />
bio-chemical-physical systems. As part of that study, the El Niño Southern Oscillation<br />
(ENSO) was reviewed. The two main phases of ENSO were diagrammed (including<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) see Figure III-1.42 below).<br />
Figure III-1.42. Equatorial Pacific showing major features of the warm and cool<br />
Phase of ENSO in relationship to sites where coral paleoclimatic reconstruction of<br />
ENSO were being studied: Bali, Wulawesi, Tarawa,<br />
Abaririrnga (Kanton), and the Galapagos.<br />
(source: Climate Research Committee 1995, after Cole 1992).<br />
50
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Climate Research Committee (1995) reported that studies were on-going to examine highresolution<br />
δ 18 O records and records of other trace elements at key locations in the Pacific,<br />
including Abariringa (Kanton). This included collection of old coral (hundreds of years old)<br />
from key sites. Climate Research Committee (1995) reported that old corals had already<br />
been collected from Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Xavier (2002) noted that the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) had the strongest signal in<br />
the eastern and central tropical Pacific. Intraseasonal variability was characterized by a 40 to<br />
50 day oscillation referred to as the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO). Available data from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) and other stations were analyzed. Spectral peaks were observed in 41 to<br />
53 day intervals. In addition, large coherence between variables was noticed such as surface<br />
pressure at Abariringa (Canton) following that of Balboa in Panama by 5 to 6 days. Xavier<br />
(2002) noted that the MJO affected the entire tropical troposphere and interacts with El Niño.<br />
The various models that have been proposed to model MJO were not yet adequate (Xavier<br />
2002).<br />
Clarke and Van Gorder (2003) used Abariringa (Kanton) sea level data to test their model for<br />
improving El Nino predictions. They integrated Indo-Pacific winds and equatorial Pacific<br />
upper ocean heat content data in their model.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Rain - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Birnie) as<br />
dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches).<br />
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The inferred mean annual rainfall on Birnie was 60 to 80 cm (0.6 to 0.8 m) per year (Garnett<br />
1983a). The prevailing winds were the easterly trades.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Wind - The prevailing winds vary from northeast to southeast (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Rain - Very little rain falls on Enderbury, however, it rained heavily in the immediate vicinity<br />
of the island (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
Enderbury experiences frequent, but brief rain squalls (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Enderbury) as<br />
dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches).<br />
Mean annual rainfall on Enderbury was inferred at 60 cm (0.6 m) per year (Stoddart 1976;<br />
see also Garnett 1983a).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Wind - The winds are primarily easterly (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Garnett 1983).<br />
Rain - Wiens (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney) annual rainfall was 105 cm (41.41 inches)<br />
per year.<br />
Average annual rainfall for Manra (Sydney) was about 102 cm (40 inches) per year (Knudsen<br />
1965).<br />
There was a severe drought in 1938 when settlers first came to Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen<br />
1965).<br />
Manra (Sydney) had a mean annual rainfall of 98.5 cm (38.8 inches) (based on data from<br />
1948 to 1949, and 1952 to 1961) with the highest annual rainfall of 184.6 cm (72.7 inches),<br />
and lowest annual rainfall of 46.3 cm (18.2 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall on Manra (Sydney) was 100<br />
cm (39.4 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976). Garnett (1983a) noted that Manra (Sydney)<br />
suffered from period and severe droughts.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Wind - The winds are easterly (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Garnett 1983).<br />
Rainfall - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including<br />
McKean) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches).<br />
52
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Garnett (1983a) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall of McKean was 80 cm (0.8 m)<br />
(see also Stoddart 1976).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Winds – The prevailing winds were easterly trades (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Rain - Wiens (1962) reported that the annual rainfall on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was 117 cm<br />
(46.06 inches).<br />
Average annual rainfall for Nikumaroro (Gardner) was estimated to be 152 cm (60 inches)<br />
per year (Knudsen 1965).<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) had a mean annual rainfall of 131.9 cm (51.9 inches) (based on 1951<br />
to 1961 data) with the highest annual rainfall of 272.2 cm (107.2 inches), and the lowest<br />
annual rainfall of 27.5 cm (10.8 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994).<br />
Garnett (1983a) reported that inferred mean annual rainfall on Nikumaror (Gardner) was 130<br />
cm (51.2 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was subject to periodic and<br />
severe droughts.<br />
Storms - In about 1990, there was a large storm that hit Nikumaroro (King et al 2001). The<br />
only thing left of the landing monument was the foundation. The storm wash was 46 m (150<br />
ft) back in the trees.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Rain - The rainy season was primarily from January to March and June (Bryan 1934).<br />
Wiens (1962) reported that the annual rainfall on Orona (Hull) was 83 cm (32.68 inches).<br />
Between 1952 and 1963), the mean annual rainfall at Orona (Hull) was 117.1 cm (46.1<br />
inches), with a highest recorded annual total of 259.9 cm (102.3 inches) and a lowest of 56.5<br />
cm (22.3 inches) (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the inferred mean annual rainfall on Orona (Hull) was 120 cm<br />
(1.2 m) (see also Stoddart 1976). Orona (Hull) suffered from periodic and severe droughts.<br />
Temperture - The average daily temperature was 27 0 C (Garnett 1983). The prevailing winds<br />
were easterly trades (see also Maude 1937).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Wind - Winds are easterly, varying from east-northeast to east-southeast (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940; easterly trades according to Garnett 1983).<br />
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Rain - Bryan (1941 and 1942) classified the 5 northern Phoenix Islands (including Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix)) as dry islands with average annual rainfall not exceeding 64 cm (25 inches).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that the inferred mean annual rainfall for Rawaki (Phoenix) was 80 cm<br />
(31.5 inches) (see also Stoddart 1976).<br />
E. REFERENCES CITED.<br />
Allain, V., D. Kirby, J.-A. Kerandel. 2006 Report of the seamount research planning<br />
workshop held at the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia, 20-21<br />
March 2006. Paper presented at the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission,<br />
Scientific Committee Second Regular Session. 7-18 August 2006. Manila, Philippines.<br />
Anderson, A. 2002. Faunal collpase, landscape change and settlement history in remote<br />
Oceania. World Archaeology 33(3): 375-390.<br />
Anon. 1940. A transfer of population: from Gilbert to Phoenix Islands. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 10(9): 20. April 16, 1940.<br />
Anon. 1994a. Last quarter's climate. SPC Fisheries Newsletter No. 69, April - June 1994.<br />
pp. 21 - 23.<br />
Anon. 1994b. Last quarter's climate. SPC Fisheries Newsletter No. 71, October - December<br />
1994. pp. 22-23.<br />
Anon. 1952. Canton Island plants. Pacific Islands Monthly 22(6): 84. January 1952.<br />
Arundel, J.T. 1885. The Phoenix group and other islands. Typed copy. 10 pp.<br />
Arundel, J.T. 1890. The Phoenix Group and other islands of the Pacific. New Zealand<br />
Herald, Auckland: 5th and 12th July 1890, 12.7.1890 (Read before the Geographic Society of<br />
the Pacific. San Francisco. 3 March 1885. [cited unseen from Wiens 1962.]<br />
Aslanian, D., L. Geli, and J-L. Olivet. 1998a. Hotspotting called into question. Nature<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Kinoshita, Y. and D. Tiffin. 1993. Report on the economic potential of manganese nodules<br />
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Technical Report 177.<br />
Knudson, K.E. 1965. Titiana: a Gilbertese community in the Solomon Islands. Eugene:<br />
University of Oregon. 245 pp.<br />
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Lehodey, P., M. Bertignac, J. Hampton, A. Lewis, and J. Picaut. 1997. El Nino Southern<br />
Oscillation and tuna in the western Pacific. Nature 389: 715-719.<br />
Luomala, K. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. B.P. Bishop Museum<br />
Occasional Paper 20(11): 157-174.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1937. Report on the colonization of the Phoenix Islands by the surplus<br />
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Suva.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1953. The British central Pacific Islands: a report on land classification and<br />
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McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of<br />
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Mock, D.R. 1981. The Southern Oscillation: historical origins. Unpublished paper,<br />
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Morris, V.F. 1975. The sequence of meteorological events at Canton Island during the 1972-<br />
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Mueller-Dombois, D. 1999. Biodiversity and environmental gradients across the tropical<br />
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253-261.<br />
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Mueller-Dombois, D., and F.R. Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands.<br />
New York: Springer.<br />
Neemia, U., and R. Thaman. 1993. The environment and sustainable development. <strong>Chapter</strong><br />
27 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for<br />
Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP.<br />
Neilson, P. 2002. Phoenix Island Expedition Report June 5th - July 10, 2002. Ministry of<br />
Environment & Social Development, Environment & Conservation Division.<br />
New England Aquarium. 2006. Phoenix Islands bathymetry data.<br />
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Oates, C. 2003. Canton Island aerial crossroads of the South Pacific. McLean: Paladwr<br />
Press.<br />
Obura, D. in press. Coral reef structure and zonation of the Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research<br />
Bulletin.<br />
Obura, D., and G.S. Stone (eds). 2003. Summary of marine and terrestrial assessment<br />
conducted in the Republic of Kiribati, June 5-July 10, 2002. New England Aquarium,<br />
Conservation International, Cordio, Primal Ocean Project Tech. Rpt: NEAq-03-02.<br />
Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix<br />
Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report<br />
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University, Auckland.<br />
Pompey, S.L. 1972a. History and description of Birnie Island in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Kingsbury, California. 1 pp.<br />
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59
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
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Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme. 1993. Kiribati country report 1991. South<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
_____. 1954. Local climatological data annual summary with comparative data, 1954,<br />
Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
_____. 1962. Local climatological data 1962, Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S.<br />
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Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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_____. 1964. Local climatological data annual summary with comparative data, 1964,<br />
Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
_____. 1965. Local climatological data annual summary with comparative data, 1965,<br />
Canton Island, South Pacific. U.S. Department of Commerce.<br />
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1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume III.<br />
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level variations, Deep Sea Res., 23, 371-390. [cited unseen from Gilbert 2000.]<br />
Xavier, P.K. 2003. Simulation of tropical intraseasonal variability using GCMs-A review.<br />
Center for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.<br />
Zimmmerman, E.C. 1947. Insects of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.<br />
Volume1. (reissued 2001).<br />
62
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 2. Human Activities<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
2. HUMAN ACTIVITIES<br />
CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
A. ARCHAELOGICAL ASPECTS<br />
Te Rangi Hiroa (1938) noted that early Society Islands habitation was by the manahune who<br />
may be related to the menehune of Hawaii. They could pass from the Gilberts through the<br />
Phoenix to the Society Islands. The coral limestone temples in the Phoenix Islands were the<br />
sole witness of previous occupation.<br />
The entire Phoenix group, especially Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull) had ruins that<br />
suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941). Clune (1951)<br />
noted that migratory Polynesians had resided in the Phoenix Islands during their sea<br />
explorations. Hilder (1959) noted that ruins on the Phoenix Islands show that groups of<br />
Polynesians and Micronesians had lived there during pre-historic times.<br />
Sharp(1964) noted that west to east settlements were infrequent partially due to the west<br />
setting equatorial currents and the predominant westerly winds. Sharp (1964) reported that<br />
these would have made the west to east Micronesian voyages to Tahiti through the Phoenix<br />
Islands improbable.<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. The Line and Phoenix Islands were in an area of low rainfall and were<br />
settled and abandoned prehistorically (see Figure III-2.1 below).<br />
Figure III-2.1. The Distribution of Islands with Anomalous settlement histories<br />
(+ = population declines, ● = settled and abandoned prehistorically),<br />
In relation to annual rain fall (source: Anderson 2002).<br />
1
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 2. Human Activities<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Carson (1998) noted that Phoenix architecture had close affinity with prehistoric Polynesian<br />
culture, especially that of eastern Polynesia (the Society Islands) (see also Rainbird 2004).<br />
Human occupation in the Phoenix Islands may not have been a long-term, or large-scale<br />
endeavour. Human occupation was dependent on the scarcity and unpredictable supply of<br />
freshwater. Carson (1998) concluded that structures in the Phoenix Islands were made<br />
between AD 950 to 1500.<br />
During the Little Ice Age (about 1400 AD), there were more storms, thus making sailing<br />
difficult (Crocombe 2001). McCall (1993) suggested that the great Polynesian sweep around<br />
the Pacific declined due to the Little Ice Age not unlike the Vikings voyages in the Northern<br />
Hemisphere. Crocombe (2001) noted that the Little Ice Age was cooler and dryer and could<br />
have made many central Pacific Islands (like the Phoenix Islands) uninhabitable due to severe<br />
droughts. Polynesian settlers either died out or abandoned them long before European<br />
contact (Crocombe 2001).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted that Maude (1937) and Garnett (1983a, b, or c not specified) both<br />
reported that the Phoenix Islands were visited and/or settled by Melanesian and/or Polynesia<br />
peoples.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
2
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 2. Human Activities<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
The coral block ruins on Abariringa (Canton) were considered to be ancient temples by<br />
Meinicke (1888).<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). No ruins were discovered<br />
on the other Phoenix Islands.<br />
Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Abariringa (Canton). Two gravelike<br />
platforms were found at the middle of the northeast part of the island. They were parallel<br />
to the lagoon and about 27.4 m (30 yards) apart. Each had an upright slab near the middle.<br />
These structures were not excavated to determine if they were graves. According to Bryan<br />
(1939) Polynesian graves were not usually marked in this manner. About 4.8 to 6.4 km (3 to<br />
4 miles) east of these two platforms, there was a single slab upright about 0.8 m (2.5 ft)<br />
(Bryan 1934). Seven or eight small slabs lie against the base. Bryan (1939) considered these<br />
monuments as comparatively modern as they were in open unprotected parts of the island.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported quadrangular ruins of large coral blocks on Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
Ward (1967a) noted that the island discovered by the Agate (Anon. 1850) with the ancient<br />
stone pyramid (Anon. 1850 and 1860b) was possibly Abariringa (Canton), not Orona (Hull).<br />
Garnett (1983a) reported no direct archaeological evidence had been found on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). Garnett (1983a) speculated that the Polynesia rat was an indication that the island<br />
was visited by Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that the sites described by Bryan during the 1924<br />
visit were probably bulldozed during the construction of the airport.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed most of Abariringa (Kanton) for prehistoric<br />
structures. Only guano mining structures dating from the mid to late 19 th century were<br />
identified.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(MacGregor n.d.).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no sign of former inhabitation on Birnie (see also Bryan<br />
1941).<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the lagoon on Birnie was fed by a small stream that first went<br />
through a curious artificial pond formed by coral slabs cemented together.<br />
Garnett (1983a) reported that there were no archaeological remains or artifacts on Birnie.<br />
However, the presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that Birnie had been visited by<br />
Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers.<br />
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ENDERBURY<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(MacGregor n.d.).<br />
Byran (1934) noted three man-made structures on Enderbury and suggested that some may<br />
rest on platforms similar to such as Polynesians built.<br />
Bryan (1941) reported that Enderbury was certainly known to the Polynesians.<br />
Garnett (1983a) noted that there was no evidence that Enderbury was inhabited during<br />
prehistoric times. The presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that the island was visited by<br />
either Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) conducted archaeological surveys on Enderbury. They<br />
mapped prehistoric features (see Figure III-2.2). Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that<br />
19 th century guano mining focused on the north and south ends of Enderbury. The west side<br />
was relatively undisturbed (the location of archaeological sites).<br />
Figure III-2.2. Archaeological sites on Enderbury Island<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that there were 10 possible habitation features on<br />
Enderbury. In addition, there were 2 rectangular enclosures, 2 low mounds, and numberous<br />
probably agricultural pits on Enderbury. Detailed descriptions of each were provided. In<br />
addition, a diagram was provided of the 2 rectangular enclosures at the north landing site<br />
(Figure III-2.3).<br />
Figure III-2.3. Two rectangular enclosures at the north landing site on Enderbury.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that the south guano camp on Enderbury was probably<br />
partially built over an archaeological site (see Figure III-2.4). Slab remnants of prehistoric<br />
pavements were identified within the guano camp enclosure. Detailed descriptions of the site<br />
and slabs were provided. This was considered East Polynesian architecture.<br />
Figure III-2.4. Diagram of the south guano camp on Enderbury, with<br />
prehistoric slabs in grey, and upright slabs in black with height in cm.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) also noted numerous stepping stone trails on Enderbury.<br />
Detailed descriptions of these trails were provided. Paved courts and pit gardens were also<br />
located along the trails.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Manra (Sydney) had at one time supported a considerable<br />
populaton.<br />
Expeditions – The first expedition to Manra (Sydney) that included archaeology was the 1889<br />
British Admiralty Survey (mentioned in MacGregor n.d.;Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
The second expedition to Manra (Sydney) that included archaeology was Bryan’s 1924 visit<br />
as part of the Whitney expedition (documented in Bryan 1942; see also Di Piazza and<br />
Pearthree 2004),<br />
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The third Manra (Sydney) archaeological visit was the 1933 MacGregor and Stuart survey<br />
using the yacht Zaca (MacGregor n.d., Emory 1939; Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
The fourth Manra (Sydney) archaeological visit was the 1939 Bigelow visit (Bigelow 1939,<br />
see also Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
The most recent archaeological visit to Manra (Sydney) was the 1997 Di Piazza and<br />
Pearthree visit (Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
Fish Pond & Weir – Arundel (1885) reported a fish pond on Manra (Sydney) (see also Bryan<br />
1941; Ellis 1937; Garnett 1983a). The fish pond was located on the western side of the<br />
lagoon and was about 8.8 m (29 ft) in diameter ringed by flat coral blocks piled on to of each<br />
other (Arundel 1885).<br />
The 1889 British survey of Manra (Sydney) reported an ancient fish pond and an ancient<br />
stone weir by the lagoon (MacGregor n.d.).<br />
In 1933, fish cairns were located on Manra (Sydney) (Macgregor n.d.).<br />
Bryan (1934) could not locate the fish pond reported by Arundel (1885).<br />
Douglas and Douglas (1994) indicated that the fish traps in the lagoon indicated that the<br />
lagoon was once open to the sea (see also Maude 1937).<br />
Dahl (1980) reported the saline lagoon on Manra had been partly modified for aquaculture.<br />
No fish were found in the fish pond (Government of Kiribati 1995). The area of the pond<br />
was estimated to be 4 km 2 .<br />
Structures - Anon. (1860c) noted that there were an extensive enclosure and a pyramid of<br />
stone on a newly discovered island near the Phoenix group (Manra (Sydney) according to<br />
Ward 1967b).<br />
Arundel (1885) reported a large collection of graves and mounds. Arundel (1885) noted long<br />
lines of flat plates of coral that form roads over 0.8 km (0.5 miles) in length (see also Ellis<br />
1937). Mr. Arundel had one of the maraes opened, but could not determine if they were<br />
places of burial or of sacrifice (Ellis 1937).<br />
The 1889 British survey of Manra (Sydney) reported ancient stone sites (MacGregor n.d.).<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.). No ruins were discovered<br />
on the other Phoenix Islands.<br />
MacGregor (1934) reported that 31 stone structures were found on Orona (Hull) and Manra<br />
(Sydney) in three days.<br />
Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Manra (Sydney). Eight to ten<br />
were observed along the northwest curve of the island, 91 km (100 yards) or more from the<br />
beach. More may be hidden in the thick woods in that area. A larger one measured 8.8 x 4.6<br />
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m (29 x 15 ft) and 76 cm (2.5 ft) in height. There were also stone trails between these sites.<br />
More than 20 structures were documented by the 1933 Zaca party (Macgregor n.d.).<br />
However, documentation for nine sites was lost in an accident on the reef.<br />
Another platform was located 55 m (60 yards) northwest of the first site (Bryan 1934). This<br />
platform was identical to another platform near the southeast point of Manra (Sydney).<br />
Additional platforms were along the guano tramway.<br />
Ellis (1937) noted that on Manra (Sydney) there were numerous traces of prehistoric natives<br />
who once lived there.<br />
Bigelow (1939) investigated the various archaeological sites on Manra (Sydney) and<br />
provided brief descriptions of each. Bigelow (1939) discovered a circular paved pathway on<br />
the southwest side of Manra (Sydney). Bigelow’s (1939) observations of archaeological sites<br />
on Manra (Sydney) differed from those of Emory (citation not provided in Bigelow 1939).<br />
Some of Emory’s sites were found, but others could not be located.<br />
In 1939, H.W. Bigelow investigated all archaeological sites on Manra (Sydney) and was able<br />
to provide detailed measurements and documentation for all sites (Macgregor n.d.). Bigelow<br />
also found three shallow pits about 0.9 m (3 ft) diameter and 46 cm (1.5 ft) deep between<br />
sites H and I. It was speculated that they were pit ovens. Ten other pits were found south of<br />
a line between platforms C to G.<br />
On the southwest side of Manra (Sydney), Bigelow (1939) observed two large holes<br />
surrounded by an irregular ring of slabs set on edge. These may be related to Emory’s J and<br />
K sites (Bigelow 1939).<br />
On the northwest and northeast sides of Manra (Sydney) there were several ruins of ancient<br />
altar platforms and house foundations (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941) reported<br />
that there were a dozen or more platforms and closures of sandstone slabs.<br />
Luke (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Garnder) had<br />
archaeological evidence that they were occupied before the coming of Europeans (see also<br />
Sharp 1956).<br />
UN Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization (1979) noted evidence<br />
of pre-European habitation on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a map of Manra archaeological sites (see Figure III-<br />
2.5).<br />
Figure III-2.5. Map of Manra archaeological sites.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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During their 1997 visit, Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed the entire perimeter of<br />
Manra. They compared sites they located with those identified in MacGregor (n.d.) and<br />
provided detailed descriptions of each of 16 sites investigated.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were three concentrations of prehistoric<br />
sites on Manra. The most important sites were on the west shore. This appeared to be the<br />
main are for prehistoric habitation. In addition, there were two marae on the west shore. Di<br />
Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that these two marae had been significantly disturbed<br />
since the 1933 visit by MacGreagor (as reported in MacGregor n.d., see Figure III-2.6<br />
below).<br />
Figure III-2.6. Marae (Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004 sites Syd-1, 2) on Manra<br />
showing disturbance between 1933 (B) and 1997 (A)<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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*note: upright slabs in black, heights in cm.<br />
In addition to the marae, Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided illustrations of several<br />
other prehistoric structures on Manra (see Figure III-2.7 below).<br />
Figure III-2.7. Raised rectangluar platform (Di Piazza and Pearthree<br />
2004 sites Syd-3 (A), Syd-6 & 7 (B), Syd-11 (C), and Syd-12(D)) on Manra.<br />
Slabs set on edge in grey, heights in cm.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004)<br />
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Other Findings - An old water hole was located near the fish pond with excellent freshwater<br />
(Arundel 1885; see also Ellis 1937). In addition, a collection of 1.8 m (6 ft) deep holes about<br />
2.4 m (8 ft) diameter were noted (Arundel 1885).<br />
Bigelow (1939) reported that Jack Pedro, a former employee of Captain Allen as well as the<br />
Burns-Philp Co., had visted Manra (Sydney) several times in the past. Pedro reported finding<br />
a canoe in the lagoon. The canoe’s outrigger was broken, but Pedro noted that the<br />
construction was not Gilbertese nor was it Tokelan.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were several wells. In addition, there were several<br />
pits that might have been used for cooking.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) excavated a trash pit on Manra. A variety of materials were<br />
uncovered including: basalt flakes, basal cores, fish hooks, pear shell debitage (worked pieces<br />
of pearl shell), bird bones, and charcoal assemblage.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2001) identified basalt rocks on Manra that were derived from the<br />
Tataga Matau quarry on Tutuila in American Samoa. These had to have been transported to<br />
Manra, a distance of 1,075 km.<br />
Origin of Inhabitants – MacGregor (1934) reported that the stone structures on Orona (Hull)<br />
and Manra (Sydney) were closely related to maraes and house foundations in Polynesia but<br />
have not been recorded in uninhabited islands of western Polynesia.<br />
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Bryan (1934) noted that platforms found on Manra (Sydney) were identified as Polynesian in<br />
origin and resembled a marae or shrine.<br />
The entire Phoenix group, especially Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull) had ruins that<br />
suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941).<br />
According to Emory (1939), Macgregor found marae on Manra (Sydney) that were similar to<br />
those in Tahiti and the Tuamotus. These types of marae were long absent from western<br />
Polynesia (MacGregor n.d.). The conclusion may be that the stone structures were built by<br />
people from eastern Polynesia.<br />
Other structures on Manra (Sydney) were not similar to marae structures in Tahiti or<br />
Tuamotus (Emory 1939). Emory (1939) speculated that people other than Tahitians or<br />
Tuamotuans settled for a time on both Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). Emory (1939)<br />
noted that these structures were strongly reminiscent of Caroline Islands structures. Sharp<br />
(1956) noted that in the early 1800’s, there was no knowledge of the Marshall Islands in the<br />
Gilbert Islands and that Marshallese were not visited by people outside the Marshall Islands.<br />
Emory (1939) suggested that the eastern Polynesian structures were constructed after the<br />
other structures.<br />
Bryan (1941) reported that K.P. Emory, Bishop Museum ethnologist, concluded that there<br />
were at least two groups of early visitors (see also Garnett 1983a). One group built the marae<br />
or shrines typical of eastern Polynesia. The other built platforms and probably came from<br />
Micronesia.<br />
Carson (1998) re-examined the archeological evidence from Manra (Sydney) (26 sites) and<br />
concluded that these sites, especially sites A and B, were related to Eastern Polynesian marae<br />
(see Figure III-2.8). The other structures on Manra (Sydney) also shared some affinities with<br />
the ancestral East Polynesian marae complex. Carson (1998) suggested that colonization<br />
probably occurred between A.D. 950 to A.D. 1500.<br />
Figure III-2.8. Map of Manra (Sydney) with Archaeological Sites A to W<br />
(Source: Carson 1998)<br />
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Pearthree and Di Piazza (2003) examined archaeological items (fish hooks, basalt flakes,<br />
basalt cores, chisels, and abraders) from Manra and compared them with similar items from<br />
the Pacific. They concluded that the Manra items were similar to those found in eastern<br />
Polynesia. Charcoal samples from ancient fires were carbon dated to the 12 th and 13 th<br />
century A.D. These finding suggested a period of explosive migration in eastern Polynesia.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Orona and Manra were examples of Polynesian<br />
colonisation in the 13 th century. The reasons for abandonment were examined by Di Piazza<br />
and Pearthree (2004). They speculate that initially the population flourished with virgin<br />
resources. As local resources were depleted, resources were obtained from adjacent islands.<br />
Once these resources were depleted, coupled with the effects of drought, settlements had to<br />
be abandoned.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(MacGregor n.d.).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no sign of human occupation of McKean.<br />
On the western side of the island was the ruin of a large building with a coral slab wall 2.1 m<br />
(7 ft) high (Hydrographic Office 1940; Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that there was a trough-like depression on the north side of<br />
McKean. It was about 146 m (160 yards) long with steep sides. It appeared to have been dug<br />
and faced by human hands. No insights were provided regarding the origin of this walled<br />
depression.<br />
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Garnett (1983a) reported that no archaeological evidence had been found on McKean. The<br />
existence of the Polynesian rat suggested that McKean had been visited earlier.<br />
In 1985, as part of Australia’s assistance to Kiribati in setting up its Exclusive Economic<br />
Zone, a team visited McKean and documented several stone structures there (Throssell and<br />
Specht 1989; see Figure III-2.9 below). Stone structures were primarily on the west side of<br />
the island. There was one structure each on the north and south side of McKean. These<br />
structures were of uniform construction of coral limestone boulders placed on top of each<br />
other with no mortar. Walls were 40 to 50 cm thick. All walls have partially collapsed,<br />
except one that stands 2.1 m high. Throssell and Specht (1989) described three different<br />
types of structures: (1) six with three or four straight walls (see Figure III-2.10 below), (2)<br />
two with irregular walls and sizes, and (3) two boulder trails across the lagoon forming a v<br />
shape.<br />
Figure III-2.9. Locations of stone structures on McKean<br />
(source: Throssell and Specht 1989).<br />
A. Map of McKean with stone lined trails in<br />
lagoon and archaeological sites on the west side<br />
B. Enlargement of west side of<br />
McKean with archaeological sites<br />
Figure III-2.10. Structure of group A, standing 2.1 m high, on McKean<br />
(source: Throssell and Specht 1989).<br />
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Throssell and Specht (1989) speculated that the two boulder trails may be the remains of a<br />
fish trap. But they noted that now there were no fish in McKean’s lagoon as it was no longer<br />
open to the sea.<br />
No metal or foreign objects were found at these sites which would have indicated that they<br />
were used by the guano collectors (Throssell and Specht 1989). However, Throssell and<br />
Specht (1989) noted that some of these structures may have been constructed or used by<br />
guano collectors in the late 1800s.<br />
Since these structures required a substantial amount of labor, Throssell and Specht (1989)<br />
postulate that these were not constructed by short or infrequent visitors to McKean. The<br />
resources of McKean could not support human settlement.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(MacGregor n.d.).<br />
Bryan (1934) did not visit Nikumaroro (Gardner), but provided a summary of Wilkes’ visit in<br />
1840. Wilkes did not mention finding any evidence of human occupation.<br />
Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had been occupied for only a short<br />
period in its history.<br />
Luke (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Garnder) had<br />
archaeological evidence that they were occupied before the coming of Europeans (see also<br />
Sharp 1956).<br />
Garnett (1983a) noted that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had no ruins or artefacts from prehistoric<br />
times. The presence of the Polynesian rat suggested that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had been<br />
visited earlier by either Polynesian or Micronesian voyagers.<br />
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ORONA (HULL)<br />
Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that Orona (Hull) had been occupied for only a short period in<br />
its history.<br />
Expeditions – Orona (Hull) was discovered by the Agate in 1859 and it reported signs of<br />
previous inhabitation on the island (Pompey 1970).<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition visited Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton) as well<br />
as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.).<br />
In 1933, the yacht Zaca, stopped at Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) and allowed Gordon<br />
Macgregor to survey archaeological remains there (Emory 1939).<br />
The most recent archaeological visit to Orona was the 1997 Di Piazza and Pearthree visit (Di<br />
Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
Structures – There was a large stone pyramid on the east side of Orona’s (Hull) lagoon<br />
(Anon. 1860a and 1860d; 1850). No recent signs of habitation were found.<br />
In 1887, Ellis (1937) stayed on Orona (Hull) and found a burial ground on the far northeastern<br />
end of the island (eastern end according to Tudor 1968). About 100 maraes were<br />
observed in this area. They were built from coral slabs about 1.8 m (6 ft) long and 1.2 m (4<br />
ft) high. In addition, a much smaller graveyard was found elsewhere on Orona (Hull).<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported finding archaeological structures on Orona (Hull). A number of small<br />
stone platforms were reported. The largest was at the eastern end of the island (see also<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942). It was surrounded by three stone shelters along a wall in the form of<br />
a semi-circle. On the northwest side, west of the lagoon entrances, there were structures that<br />
resembled graves (see Bryan 1941 and 1942). These were excavated, but nothing was found.<br />
Luke (1962) reported that Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Garnder) had<br />
archaeological evidence that they were occupied before the coming of Europeans (see also<br />
Sharp 1956).<br />
Ward (1967a) noted that the island discovered by the Agate (Anon. 1850) with the ancient<br />
stone pyramid (Anon. 1850 and 1860b) was possibly Abariringa (Canton), not Orona (Hull).<br />
Pompey (1972b) reported that on the west side of the lagoon, there was a large stone square<br />
built enclosure.<br />
Pompey (1972b) reported that there was a large pyramid built of stone on the east side of<br />
Orona’s (Hull) lagoon entrance. It appeared that the pyramid was very old.<br />
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UN Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization (1979) noted evidence<br />
of pre-European habitation on Orona (Hull).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided an up-dated map of archaelogical sites on Orona<br />
(see Figure III-2.11). They also reviewed site descriptions from MacGregor (n.d.) and<br />
provided detailed descriptions of prehistoric sites on Orona.<br />
Figure III-2.11. Map of Orona archaeological sites<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004)<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented a detailed diagram of Orona site Hull-1 (see Figure<br />
III-2.12), and a profile of the prehistoric artifical mound (Hull-2) (see Figure III-2.13).<br />
Figure III-2.12. Marae diagram of Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) Hull-1 site.<br />
Grey slabs set on edge, black slabs upright, height in cm.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Figure III-2.13. Prehistoric artificial mound diagram of<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) Hull-2 site.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Other Findings – Bryan (1934) reported that plantation workers had dug up human skulls.<br />
One had been presented to Bishop Museum.<br />
On the extreme west end of the lagoon was a large artificial mound (Bryan 1934). The<br />
mound contained bird and turtle bones. Bryan (1934) reported that a shell adze made from<br />
Tridacna shell and baslt adz had been found in the mound. Emory (1939) noted that the shell<br />
adze was found by Bryan during a 1924 visit to Orona (Hull). The adze was brought back by<br />
Bryan.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that they excavated two trenches and a square pit.<br />
Findings from these sites were poorly preserved.<br />
Origin of Inhabitants - MacGregor (1934) reported that 31 stone structures were found on<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) in three days. These structures were closely related to<br />
maraes and house foundations in Polynesia but have not been recorded in uninhabited islands<br />
of western Polynesia.<br />
Referring to the shell adze found on Orona (Hull), Bryan (1934) noted that shell adze was<br />
common to western Polynesia.<br />
According to Emory (1939), structures on Orona (Hull) were not similar to marae structures<br />
in Tahiti or Tuamotus. Emory (1939) speculated that people other than Tahitians or<br />
Tuamotuans settled for a time on both Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). Emory (1939)<br />
noted that these structures were strongly reminiscent of Caroline Islands structures. Sharp<br />
(1956) noted that in the early 1800’s, there was no knowledge of the Marshall Islands in the<br />
Gilbert Islands and that Marshallese were not visited by people outside the Marshall Islands.<br />
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The entire Phoenix group, especially Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull) had ruins that<br />
suggested that they had been visited from both the east and west (Bryan 1941).<br />
Lewis (1974) reported on traditional astronomy as it related to the position of stars and their<br />
use in navigation. In Arorae, stone patterns for learning astronomy and navigation were<br />
examined and the “Orona stone” was noted. However, it was not until 1938 that Hull Island<br />
was renamed Orona. Lewis (1974) noted that these stones may represent an ancient school of<br />
navigation.<br />
Carson (1998) re-examined the archeological evidence from Orona (Hull) (13 sites) and<br />
concluded that these sites shared some affinities with the ancestral East Polynesian marae<br />
complex (see Figure III-2.14). Carson (1998) suggested that colonization was probably<br />
between A.D. 950 to A.D. 1500.<br />
Figure III-2.14. Map of Orona (Hull) with Archaeological Sites 1 to 13<br />
(Source: Carson 1998)<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Orona and Manra were examples of Polynesian<br />
colonisation in the 13 th century. The reasons for abandonment were examined by Di Piazza<br />
and Pearthree (2004). They speculate that initially the population flourished with virgin<br />
resources. As local resources were depleted, resources were obtained from adjacent islands.<br />
Once these resources were depleted, coupled with the effects of drought, settlements had to<br />
be abandoned.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition found ancient stone structures on Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as well as Manra (Sydney), but none on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(MacGregor n.d.).<br />
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Bryan (1934) reported that no prehistoric remains were found on Rawaki (Phoenix) (see also<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
Garnett (1983a) noted that there were no prehistoric remains or artefacts from Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix). Rawaki (Phoenix) did not appear to have been visited by prehistoric voyagers.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) surveyed Rawai (Phoenix) for prehistoric structures. During<br />
their survey, one possible agricultural pit, one small shelter, a well and a stone monument<br />
were identified. Descriptions of each were provided. They noted that the stone monument<br />
examined was probably left by guano collectors in the late 19 th century.<br />
B. DISCOVERY<br />
During the first voyage of Alvaro de Mendana in 1568, his two ships that passed between the<br />
Phoenix and Tokelau Islands (Maude 1959). This voyage almost seemed to be designed to<br />
avoid any contact with Polynesian islands.<br />
In 1791 maps of the Pacific, there was a large blank area in the middle of the Pacific where<br />
the Phoenix Islands were located (Boggs 1938).<br />
In 1794, Captain Barber on the Arthur passed through the northern islands of the Phoenix<br />
Islands (Stackpole 1935). Arthur Island was Arrowsmith’s 1798 chart.<br />
Townsend (1935) summarized whale takes based on American whaleship logbooks for the<br />
period 1800 to 1870 (see also Boggs 1938). The Phoenix Islands were at the center of these<br />
whale landings. American whalers probably discovered or knew of many of the Phoenix<br />
Islands in the early 1800s.<br />
Maude (1952 and 1968) noted that the question of actual discovery was not well documented.<br />
Maude (1952 and 1968) concluded that the Phoenix Islands were most certainly discovered<br />
by British or American whaling ships between 1820 and 1830.<br />
In 1828, plans were made in the U.S. to send an expedition to the Pacific (Skaggs 1994).<br />
Information was collected from whalers and their maps from the New England area. The<br />
initial expedition was cancelled by President Jackson. The list of islands collected from<br />
American whalers was published in 1835.<br />
In 1836, the U.S. Congress appropriated USD 300,000 to fund the “United States Exploring<br />
Expedition” in the Pacific (Skaggs 1994). This was popularly known as the Wilkes<br />
Expedition after Lt. Wilkes who was placed in charge of the expedition. The expedition<br />
began in 1838 with a six ship squadron. After 4 years, two of the six ships returned. The<br />
total cost was almost USD 1 million. Detailed information was obtained on about 280 Pacific<br />
islands (including the Phoenix Islands) (see Wilkes 1845a and b).<br />
American activities in the Central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1790 to 1870<br />
were documented by Ward (1966, 1967a to g). The documentation was primarily in the form<br />
of newspaper articles from that period.<br />
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In 1845, Captain Netcher found the new guano islands (including the Phoenix Islands)<br />
(Anon. 1856). He went ashore and found a grave of a sailor buried by Captain Baker of the<br />
Gideon Howland of New Bedford, who was there 2 to 3 years earlier.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Abariringa (Canton) was not on maps published in 1791 (Murphy 1954; see also Gardner<br />
1938).<br />
In 1816, Kotzebue crossed the equator at 175 0 27’ 55” W and was within 55 miles of both<br />
Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) (Maude 1968). Great numbers of birds were observed,<br />
but no land was sighted.<br />
Abariringa (Canton) was probably discovered prior to 1820 by various ships, primarily<br />
American whalers (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hobbs 1945; Schuyler 1940). It was<br />
known by a variety of names such as Mary, Swallow, Mary Balcourt, and Balcout and Bulcot<br />
Island (see also Gardner 1938). Prior to 1820, Captain Balcourt discovered Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and named it after his daughter Mary Balcourt (Wright 1951).<br />
According to Rienzi (1836-1838), Abariringa (Mary) was discovered by a vessel named<br />
Mary (see also Maude 1968).<br />
In 1823 to 1824, Captain Joseph Barney, on the whaler Equator, cruised the area of<br />
Abariringa (Canton), it was speculated that he discovered Abariringa (Maude 1968; see also<br />
Garnett 1983a).<br />
In the 1825 map by English Hydrographer Norie, Mary’s Island was identified (Sharp 1960).<br />
In his 1828 report to the U.S. Navy Department, Reynolds indicated the position of Mary<br />
Balcout’s island and Barney’s Island (Sharp 1960). These all appear to be the same island,<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Sharp 1960).<br />
In 1841, Abariringa (Canton) was visited by Captain Wilkes and the U.S. Exploring<br />
Expedition (Hobbs 1945).<br />
On March 4, 1954, the whaleship Canton grounded on the reef at Abariringa (Canton) (Anon.<br />
1940c; Cresswell 1939; 1854 and 1872 according to Follett 1943; Searles 1938; March 5,<br />
1954 according to Nicholas 1946; Pompey 1970; see also Anon. 1854a, b, and c; 1855a to e;<br />
and 1939g; Degener and Gillaspy 1955). The Canton was a New Bedford whaleship<br />
according to Murphy et al (1954; see also Oates 2003). The Canton carried 1,300 barrels of<br />
oil (Anon. 1854a; 1854b; 1,050 barrels according to Anon. 1854c; 1,200 barrels according to<br />
Anon. 1855e and d).<br />
All aboard made it ashore (Anon. 1940c; Cresswell 1939). By March 30, after almost a<br />
month on island with no prospects for rescue, Captain Andrew Johnson Wing and his crew<br />
left in 4 boats for the Gilbert Islands (31 member crew according to Searles 1938). They<br />
apparently missed the Gilbert Islands and eventually landed on the Mariana Islands, then<br />
went to Guam. The voyage was 5,370 km (2,900 nautical miles) and took 49 days. The most<br />
detailed account of this mishap was provided by Cresswell (1939), Gardner (1938), and Oates<br />
(2003).<br />
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One American ship named Canton was identified by Clune (1951) to have sailed from New<br />
York to Australia in 1853, then it was offered for sale there. There were no bids. It was then<br />
sailed to Guam, but ended up in Singapore where it was sold and renamed Santubong. The<br />
sale was by the ship’s mate, William Henry Hayes, who later was known as “Bully” Hayes,<br />
the notorious pirate of that time. Clune (1951) speculated that the story of the wreck of the<br />
Canton on Abariringa (Canton) may have been fabricated to deceive the owner and insurers.<br />
As a side note, Townsend (1935) reviewed the logs of 744 American whaleships operating in<br />
the nineteenth century. There were two ships named Canton listed in the appendix of the<br />
Townsend (1935) report. One operated from 1794 to 1866, the other from 1875 to 1909. The<br />
Townsend review did not cover all American whaleships of the period. Dates of operation<br />
for the two ships named Canton suggest that neither could be the whaleship Canton that<br />
grounded on Abariringa.<br />
Anon. (1867a) reported that while looking for the wreck of the La Belle on Wake Island, the<br />
Caroline Mills visited Sibello Island and discovered the wreck of the Canton. The Canton<br />
left Sitka in 1816 and was never heard from again. In a note to Anon. (1867a), Ward (1967f)<br />
suggested that it was extremely doubtful that the wreck of the Canton reported in Anon.<br />
(1867a) here was the same as the Canton that was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1854.<br />
In April 1854, Captain Handy on the Bell of Fairhaven, saw the wreck of the Canton on<br />
Abariringa (Canton), but saw no crew (Pompey 1970).<br />
During the 1850s, the H.M.S. Curacao under Captain Gibson also visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Murphy et al 1954). According to Anon. (1938e), in<br />
the 1850s , Abariringa (Canton) was annexed by Captain Gibson of the H.M.S. Curacoa<br />
when laying of the Pacific cable (Anon. 1938e).<br />
Captain Eldridge of the Amazon, described an island he found in the Central Pacific (Anon.<br />
1860g). However, based on detailed descriptions of items on the island, Captain Wing<br />
reported that it was the same island that he had been ship wrecked on in 1854 (Abariringa<br />
(Canton)).<br />
Gardner (1938) noted that details of the wreck of the Canton were largely derived by word of<br />
mouth from Captain Wing and other crew members to Mrs. Clara Wing Guild of Medford,<br />
Massachusetts.<br />
Commander R.W. Meade of the U.S.S. Narrgansett surveyed the island and named it after<br />
the New Bedford whaleship, Canton, which was wrecked on the island in 1854 (Hobbs 1945;<br />
Nicholas 1946; Office of Territories 1963). Commander Meade’s survey of Abariringa<br />
(Canton) was in 1872 during one of his attempts to bring Captain Bully Hayes to justice<br />
(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Murphy et al 1954).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 1823, Birnie was discovered and named by Captain Emments (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
Maude 1968; Captain Emment according to Douglas and Douglas 1994; Robson 1956;<br />
Captain Emmet according to Pompey 1972a; Captain Emmert or Emmett according to Sharp<br />
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1960; Captain Emmett according to Garnett 1983a). Emmet captained the Sydney Packet<br />
that was owned by Birnie and Company (Maude 1968). The island name was that of a well<br />
known British ship owner (Birnie) at the time (Douglas and Douglas 1994; James Birnie<br />
according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock, part of Wilkes’ fleet, passed Birnie (Te Rangi Hiroa<br />
1953; sighted the island according to Wilkes 1845a; Bryan 1941). On January 11, 1841, the<br />
Peacock and Flying Fish landed and surveyed Birnie (Wilkes 1845b; see also Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942).<br />
According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was responsible for providing<br />
the first reliable fixing of the positions of Birnie.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 1816, Kotzebue crossed the equator at 175 0 27’ 55” W and was within 55 miles of both<br />
Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) (Maude 1968). Great numbers of birds were observed,<br />
but no land was sighted.<br />
Enderbury was discovered in 1823 by Captain James J. Coffin of Nantucket while in<br />
command of the British whaling ship Transit (Robson 1956; Sharp 1960; Maude 1968). The<br />
island name was a misspelling of Enderby, a London whale merchant (Maude 1968).<br />
Anon. (1835) noted a small group of islands at lat 3 0 S and 171 0 W. This was the approximate<br />
location of Enderbury.<br />
In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock, part of Wilkes’ fleet, surveyed Enderbury (Wilkes<br />
1845a; Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported that the Vincennes<br />
visit Enderbury in 1840, while the Peacock visited Enderbury in 1841. According to Wilkes<br />
(1845b), the Peacock and Flying-Fish made Enderbury on January 9, 1841. According to<br />
Schuyler (1940), the Flying Fish visited Enderbury in 1841.<br />
According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was responsible for providing<br />
the first reliable fixing of the positions of Enderbury.<br />
In 1859, C.A. Williams on the E.L. Frost discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and<br />
Enderbury (Anon. 1860h).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1787, La Pérouse was at 4 0 17’S and 171 0 21’W next to Manra (Sydney) at 4 0 27’S and<br />
171 0 16’W (Maude 1968). Despite having a large number of birds flying around his vessel,<br />
he did not see Manra (Sydney) or any land.<br />
In 1823, Manra (Sydney) was discovered by Captain Emment (Robson 1956; Tudor 1968;<br />
Captain Emmert or Captain Emmett according to Sharp 1960; Captain Emmett according to<br />
Garnett 1983a) of the vessel Sydney Packet that was owned by Birnie and Company (Maude<br />
1968). Manra (Sydney) was named after the vessel that discovered it. Garnett (1983a) noted<br />
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that Manra (Sydney) had already been know by whaling vessels that frequented the Phoenix<br />
Islands in the early years of the 19 th century.<br />
In 1823, the French explorer Tromelin also found Manra (Sydney) (Sharp 1960).<br />
Manra (Sydney) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S. Exploring Expedition (Baarslag 1940).<br />
When the U.S.S. Vincennes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition discovered Orona (Hull), there<br />
was a sick Frenchman and 11 Tahitians on the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Dickson 1939;<br />
Douglas and Douglas 1994). They provided directions to Manra (Sydney) some 97 km (60<br />
miles) to the south (Sharp 1960; east according to Bryan 1941 and 1942; Wilkes 1845a).<br />
The Vincennes did not visit Manra (Sydney) due to poor weather (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
Wilkes 1845a).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
In 1794, McKean was discovered by Captain Barber of the Arthur (Douglas and Douglas<br />
1994; Maude 1968; Throsell and Specht 1989). Captain Barber named the island<br />
Drummond’s Island. Sharp (1960) reported that the island was named Arthur Island and the<br />
location was 1 3/4 0 west of the actual position of McKean.<br />
The location of McKean (Dummond’s Island) was on Arrowsmith’s 1798 chart as Arthur<br />
Island after Captain Barber’s ship (Maude 1968).<br />
In 1828, the position of an unnamed island with location matching McKean was tabulated by<br />
J.N. Reynolds (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1830, McKean was visited by the whaler Japan (Maude 1968). In 1832, it was visited by<br />
Captain Worth. In 1834, it was visited by an unknown whaling captain who called it<br />
Wigram’s Island.<br />
McKean was probably visited by several whalers prior to 1840 (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
McKean was discovered by Lieutenant Wilkes, of the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; Tudor 1968; Pompey 1972c). The Vincennes and Peacock, part<br />
of Wilkes’ fleet, discovered and described McKean (Wilkes 1845a; Te Rangi Hiroa 1953).<br />
The name McKean was after a prominent officer in the U.S. Navy (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953).<br />
The island was named for the person who first sighted it (Wilkes 1845a; see also Cooley<br />
1940; Douglas and Douglas 1994; Nicholas 1946). The only crew whose name resembles<br />
McKean was M’Keen, the ship’s cook (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The surf was too heavy to<br />
permit a landing (Wilkes 1845a).<br />
According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was responsible for providing<br />
the first reliable fixing of the positions of McKean.<br />
In 1859, C.A. Williams on the E.L. Frost discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and<br />
Enderbury (Anon. 1860h). Williams tried to take credit for the discovery according to<br />
Pompey (1972c).<br />
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NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Between 1800 and 1825, Nikumaroro (Gardner) was sighted by whalers (Laxton 1951).<br />
In 1820, Captain Joseph Allen of the American whaler, Maro, discovered Nikumaroro<br />
(Garder) (Pompey 1974 and 1972d). Captain Allen called the island Gardner, and the reef<br />
Maro.<br />
Anon. (1821a, b, and c) noted the discovery of Gardner Island. However, the location given<br />
was not within the Phoenix Islands, but closer to the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) was probably known to whaling ships of the early 19 th century<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1824, Captain Kemins located Nikumaroro (Douglas and Douglas 1994; Maude 1968).<br />
Captain Kemins named the island Kemin Islands (Maude 1968). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was<br />
also known as Kimins (Pompey 1974 and 1972d).<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) was discovered by Captain Joshua Coffin, of the American ship<br />
Ganges, in about 1825 (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Day 1966; 1828 according to<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tudor 1968; between 1821 and 1827 according to Nicholas 1946; in<br />
1825 according to Sharp 1960; in 1828 according to Pompey 1974 and 1972d; 1821 or 1828<br />
according to Garnett 1982a). It was named Gardner after Gideon Garner, the owner of the<br />
Ganges (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Laxton 1951). According to Day (1966),<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) was named by Joshua Gardner of the whaler Ganges (see also Sharp<br />
1960).<br />
Anon. (1828) reported on islands discovered by Captain John Gardner of the ship, Atlantic.<br />
In the notes to this article by Ward (1967a), Gardner Island was mentioned. However, the<br />
location of Gardner Island was in close proximity to Bougainville, not the Phoenix Islands.<br />
In 1840, the Vincennes and Peacock saw Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). The<br />
crew of the U.S.S. Vincennes landed on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Wilkes 1845a; Bryan 1941).<br />
Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition thought that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had<br />
been discovered by Captain Gardner, so retained his name of the island (Wilkes 1845a; Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942).<br />
According to Baarslag (1940) Nikumaroro (Gardiner) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S.<br />
Exploring Expedition. According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was<br />
responsible for providing the first reliable fixing of the positions Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Orona (Hull) was sighted prior to 1828, as one of the locations for Manra (Sydney) in<br />
Reynolds’ report was the exact location of Orona (Hull) (Maude 1968).<br />
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In 1838, Abel Du Petit-Thouars, the French explorer, saw the small uninhabited island of<br />
Orona (Hull) (Te Rangi Hiroa 1953). It is not certain if this is the same island as Orona<br />
(Hull) in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Orona (Hull) was continually being mistaken for Manra (Sydney) which was less than 60<br />
miles away, even up to the Wilkes visit in 1841 (Maude 1968). Orona (Hull) was well<br />
known to whaling vessels in the early 19 th century (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Orona (Hull) was discovered by Commander Wilkes in 1840 (Wilkes 1845a; Hydrographer<br />
of the Navy 1969) and named Hull Island (see also Hobbs 1945; and Dickson 1939). When<br />
the U.S.S. Vincennes discovered Orona (Hull), there was a sick Frenchman and 11 Tahitians<br />
on the island (Wilkes 1845a; see also Dickson 1939; Douglas and Douglas 1994). Wilkes<br />
(1845a) called the Tahitians Kanakas. They had been left there 5 months earlier to catch<br />
turtles (4 months according to Dickson 1939). They provided directions to Manra (Sydney)<br />
some 97 km (60 miles) to the east (Wilkes 1845a; south according to Sharp 1960). In<br />
addition, they knew of two other islands north of Orona (Hull).<br />
Orona (Hull) was named after Commodore Isaac Hull of the U.S. Navy (Cooley 1940; Hobbs<br />
1945; see also Nicholas 1946; a distinguished officer of the Navy according to Wilkes<br />
1845a).<br />
On January 17, 1841, the Peacock and Flying-Fish made Orona (Hull) (Wilkes 1845b). The<br />
island had been surveyed earlier by the Vincennes. The party of Tahitians that were catching<br />
turtles had left.<br />
According to Findlay (1851), the Wilkes 1838-1842 expedition was responsible for providing<br />
the first reliable fixing of the positions of Orona (Hull).<br />
Pompey (1970) reported that Orona (Hull) was discovered by the Agate in 1859 (see also<br />
Anon. 1860a). The Agate also reported that there were signs of previous inhabitation on the<br />
island (Pompey 1970).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1823, the French explorer Tromelin in the Bayonnaise, reported the position of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Sharp 1960; Rawaki (Phoenix) and Manra (Sydney) according to Maude<br />
1968). According to Tromelin, this information had already been published in the map by<br />
Norie (Maude 1968).<br />
In a 1828 report to the U.S. Navy Department based on discoveries by American whaling<br />
vessels, Reynolds noted the location of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Sharp 1960; see also Maude<br />
1968).<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) was discovered prior to 1828 by a ship named Phoenix (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942; Tudor 1968; or Phenix according to Sharp 1960; by Captain Moore on the Phoenix in<br />
1794 according to Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004). According to Garnett (1982a), Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) might have been discovered by Daniel Bennett in the whaler Phoenix in 1815.<br />
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There were three vessels named Phoenix in the region from about 1794 to 1824 (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942). Which of these vessels discovered Rawaki could not be determined. During<br />
1815, the London whaler Phoenix, owned by Daniel Bennett was engaged in whaling in the<br />
Pacific (Maude 1968). In 1821, the Phoenix of Nantucket under Captain Harris was the only<br />
vessel by that name in the central Pacific (Stackpole 1935; 1822 according to Maude 1968).<br />
It was later followed by the Phoenix of New Bedford (Stackpole 1935).<br />
In 1834, the location of Rawaki (Phoenix) was published by the Russian hydrographer<br />
Krusenstern (Sharp 1960).<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) was discovered in 1840 by the U.S. Exploring Expedition (Baarslag 1940).<br />
The Peacock and Flying Fish of the U.S. Exploring Expedition searched for Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) in 1841, but were not able to locate it (Garnett 1983a). Bryan (1941 and 1942)<br />
noted that the U.S. Exploring Expedition did not find the island.<br />
On March 9, 1853, Captain Stuart of the Corinthian discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), but<br />
reported it to be a dangerous reef that could be seen for 8 miles in clear weather (Pompey<br />
1970; see also Anon. 1853b). However, according to the note by Ward (1967d) to Anon.<br />
(1853b), the description provided by Captain Stuart did not exactly correspond with that of<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Anon. (1853a) reported that the schooner John Franklin had drifted ashore on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix).<br />
In 1859, C.A. Williams on the E.L. Frost discovered Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and<br />
Enderbury (Anon. 1860h).<br />
CARONDELET REEF<br />
Carondelet Reef was former known as Mary Reef (Krusenstern 1835; Maude 1968).<br />
The whaling ship Loper discovered a reef at 5 0 30’S, 175 0 00’W (Anon. 1826). In the note to<br />
this article by Ward (1967a), it was stated that this reef was probably Carondelet Reef.<br />
In 1903, Carondelet Reef was sighted by the British steamer Aorangi (Ward 1967a).<br />
A vessel named Carondelet reported the reef about 97 km (60 miles) southweast of<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1916). The sighting was in 1903.<br />
In 1927, the steamship Lume reported sighting Carondelet Reef (Ward 1967a).<br />
In 1937, Carondelet reef was confirmed by the H.M.S. Wellington (Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969).<br />
WINSLOW REEF<br />
Winslow (1853) reported that in 1851 he captained the ship Phoenix from Nantucket and<br />
discovered a dangerous reef at 1 0 40’S, 174 0 50’W (see also Hydrographic Office 1940;<br />
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Degener and Gillaspy 1955). The reef was about 1.6 km (1 mile) NW to SE, and nearly 1.2<br />
km (¾ mile) broad. Sounding indicated the depth of the reef was 7.3 m (4 fathoms).<br />
In the early 1900’s various ships and planes unsuccessfully searched for this reef<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940). In 1922 the steamer Hauraki passed over the reef, and saw no<br />
signs of it (Ward 1967f). In 1928, the British steamer Nassa passed over the site, and saw no<br />
signs of it. In 1932, the American steamer Golden Cross also passed over the position and<br />
saw no sign of it.<br />
The British auxiliary schooner Doris Crane passed a sand bank or coral reef at 0 0 55’W, 174 0<br />
51’W (no year provided, Ward 1967f). This location was about 72 km (45 miles) northward<br />
of Winslow Reef.<br />
Winslow Reef was finally located in 1944 about 16 km (10 miles) northwest of the originally<br />
reported location (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1945, a small area of the sea about 4.8 km (3 miles) east of Winslow reef was reported to<br />
be breaking (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
C. GUANO ERA (c1856 to c1887)<br />
In August 18, 1856, Congress passed the guano act that authorized American citizens to take<br />
possessions of islands that contained guano deposits if those islands were not occupied or<br />
possessed by any other government (Grattan 1941).<br />
Many of the Phoenix Islands were wrongly placed on charts (Ellis 1937). Some were as<br />
much as 24 km (15 miles) out of position. This made their identification and registration as<br />
a guano island difficult.<br />
Obsolete names for Phoenix Islands and locations were identified in Anon (1871).<br />
Hempstead (1871) reported that there were no islands named Favorite Island or Arthurs<br />
Island.<br />
C.A. Williams & Co. discovered five guano islands (Anon. 1859b). In a note to Anon.<br />
(1859b), Ward (1967b) suggested that the Williams Company probably referred to the<br />
Phoenix Islands Guano Co.<br />
The digging of guano on the Phoenix Islands was difficult work under appalling conditions<br />
(Skaggs 1994).<br />
For a detailed history of the guano era see Skaggs (1994).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
In 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune that listed Pacific<br />
Islands with guano deposits (Hague 1862). The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary).<br />
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In 1860, Abariringa (Canton) was bonded by the U.S. (Orent and Reinsch 1941). The bond<br />
was filed by Captain Greene of the American brig Agate on behalf of the Phoenix Guano<br />
Company. However, no certificate was issued. According to Skaggs (1994), the U.S. Guano<br />
Company filed a claim to Abariringa (Canton) on February 12, 1859, and received bond<br />
number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (claim filed for Mary’s Island according to McIntire 1960).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano<br />
Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
There was no evidence that any guano was removed from Abariringa (Canton) by Americans<br />
(McIntire 1960; see also Murphy et al 1954). However, according to Grattan (1961)<br />
American worked the guano deposits on Abariringa (Canton). Gardner (1938) noted that<br />
Abariringa (Canton) guano deposits were not rich enough to justify the expense and labor<br />
costs for extraction.<br />
Anon. (1870) provided detailed discussion of the reported and actual locations of Abariringa<br />
(Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie.<br />
Anon. (1871) provided more accurate positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton),<br />
Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall). In 1871, sailing directions<br />
for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included: Abariringa<br />
(Mary, Swallow, Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls), and Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix).<br />
The Howard de Troop went ashore on Abariringa (Canton) just after the Lorenzo grounded<br />
on Manra (Sydney) (Ellis 1937; see also Rhodes 1936b; Murphy et al 1954). This was in<br />
1884 (Anon. 1940c; 1884-1885 according to Gardner 1938). According to Gardner (1938),<br />
the steam winch of this vessel was still visible on the beach and 61 cm (2 ft) long iron spikes<br />
could be found on the reef where the vessel went aground.<br />
Mr. C.A. Williams transferred his interests in Abariringa (Canton) to J.T. Arundel (Garnett<br />
1983a). By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended<br />
American guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All<br />
of these had been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
Between 1885 and 1886, Arundel and Co. worked large deposits of phosphate-guano on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1938e; see also Ellis 1937; Morrell 1960; 1881 to 1891<br />
according to Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
A steam launch was used to pull surf-boats loaded with guano to the vessel (Ellis 1937).<br />
Abariringa (Canton) was unusual as the lagoon connected to the sea and small boats could<br />
enter or exit the lagoon at any time. In addition, a small stone pier on the north side of the<br />
lagoon was used (Bryan 1941 and 1942; east side of the lagoon according to Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg 1941; Murphy et al 1954).<br />
Forts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were built to protect guano diggers (Wright<br />
1951). U.S. guano ships were sometimes pirated by Peruvians.<br />
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Little guano was dug by the John T. Arundel Co. between 1885 and 1886 (Bryan 1941, 1942,<br />
and 1974).<br />
Abariringa (Canton) was once so covered with guano that guano harvest was a long and<br />
lucrative export during the later half of the 19 th century (Degener and Degener 1959).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Hague (1862) noted that in 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune<br />
that listed Pacific Islands with guano deposits. The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary).<br />
The U.S. Guano Company filed a claim to Birnie on February 12, 1859, and received bond<br />
number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). Birnie was claimed by U.S. guano<br />
interests, but no guano was actually dug (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also King 1973; Garnett<br />
1983a). Pompey (1970a) reported that the Pacific Islands Company held the guano lease,<br />
but there was no record of guano harvest from Birnie.<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano<br />
Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
The reported and actual locations of Abariringa (Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Birnie were published in Anon. (1870).<br />
In 1871, C.A. Williams gave up his interest in Birnie to J.T. Arundel and Co., Ltd. (Garnett<br />
1983a). In 1883, Arundel visited Birnie, but decided not to collect guano as it was not worth<br />
exploiting.<br />
Positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, and Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871).<br />
In 1871, sailing directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These<br />
included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, and Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes),<br />
Orona (Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune that listed Pacific<br />
Islands with guano deposits (Hague 1862). The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary).<br />
The U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Enderbury on February 12, 1859, and received<br />
bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). The following month, the Phoenix<br />
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Guano Company filed a claim dated March 14, 1859, and received bond number 6 dated<br />
December 27, 1859.<br />
Between 1857 and 1860, American companies took possession of McKean, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960; 1858 for Enderbury according<br />
to Gardner 1938).<br />
In 1859, the U.S. Secretary of State issued a proclamation granting Enderbury guano rights to<br />
the Phoenix Guano Company (Abbott 1966, see also Orent and Reinsch 1941). Enderbury<br />
was bonded to Mr. C.A. William of Honolulu (Garnett 1983a). All of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the<br />
Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
In 1859, a group of Hawaiian workers who had worked on Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) sued C.A. Williams for greater compensation due to the hardships (Skaggs 1994).<br />
They lost in court.<br />
The Phoenix Guano Company placed men on Enderbury (Abbott 1966). In April 1860,<br />
guano digging began on Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974).<br />
On January 1, 1961, Captain Lawton of the Agate found two men with scurvy on Enderbury<br />
(Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; see also Pompey 1970; Anon. 1861a). They had 2.3 kg (five<br />
pounds) of wormy bread and plenty of water. Both men could not get out of their house.<br />
They had been there 9 months waiting for relief. One was taken away by the Agate. Both<br />
men had worked for the Phoenix Guano Company (Skaggs 1994). The Agate brought the<br />
new crew and supplies to Enderbury.<br />
In 1861, the U.S. Guano Company, headed by Alfred G. Benson, sent a ship under Captain<br />
John Gunn to Enderbury to gain control of the island (Abbott 1966, see also Bryan 1974).<br />
Gunn kidnapped the Phoenix Guano Company agent, mounted two cannons on the island,<br />
and left two men to guard the island. When the next Phoenix Guano Company ship arrived,<br />
they were not allowed to land and returned to Honolulu (Abbott 1966; see also Bryan 1974).<br />
The agent for the Phoenix Guano Company returned to Enderbury with sufficient force to<br />
remove the U.S. Guano Company guards.<br />
The locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published in Anon.<br />
(1861b). However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions<br />
were not very accurate.<br />
In 1866, the British bark Golden Sunset carrying 20 passengers and a cargo of coal grounded<br />
on Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; on Derby Island on December 11, 1866<br />
according to Anon. 1867b and c). One crew was drowned (Pompey 1970; see also Anon.<br />
1867b and c). The captain, crew and passengers were brought to Honolulu on the Hawaiian<br />
brig Kamehameda V, a supply ship (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). The British<br />
Commissioner in Honolulu investigated the wreck and acquitted the captain and all officers.<br />
The disaster was attributed to the incorrectness of charts (Anon. 1867b and c).<br />
In 1866, a short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 (Cunningham 1866). The voyage<br />
took 32 days.<br />
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In June 1870, Captain Hempstead arrived with 60 Hawaiian laborers under contract with the<br />
Phoenix Guano Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). A railway tram and pier on the western<br />
side of the island were constructed to move guano to awaiting ships (Abbott 1966). Houses<br />
were constructed to house workers. In 64 days, four vessels were loaded and 5,443 tonnes<br />
(6,000 tons) of phosphate were removed (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Garnett 1983a). For a<br />
detailed list of vessels and guano amounts for 1870, see Pompey (1970).<br />
The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871). In 1871, sailing<br />
directions for the Phoenix Islands were also published by Hempstead (1871). These<br />
included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes),<br />
Orona (Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
A short account of the schooner C.M. Ward’s trip from Honolulu to Rawaki (Thoenix) and<br />
Enderbury was published by Rickman (1871).<br />
Phoenix Guano Company mined several of the Phoenix Islands including Enderbury,<br />
McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs 1994). On Enderbury, guano was dug and<br />
exported during the 1870s (Abbott 1966; see also Boggs 1938). The price was USD 29 to 36<br />
per tonne (USD 32 to 40 per ton).<br />
In 1872, 4,375 tonnes (4,822 tons) were exported from Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942, and<br />
1974).<br />
In 1876, there were 4 foreigners and 55 Hawaiians working the guano on Enderbury (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942).<br />
During the guano mining period, there was a mutiny aboard one of the guano ships two<br />
weeks after it left Enderbury (Abbott 1966). No other specifics were provided.<br />
Forts were built on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury to protect guano diggers (Wright<br />
(1951). U.S. guano ships were sometimes pirated by Peruvians.<br />
In 1877, guano collection on Enderbury ceased (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 1878 according<br />
to Schuyler 1940). Enderbury had been worked for guano from 1862 to 1877 (Maude 1952<br />
and 1968; 1861 to 1877 according to Tracey et al 1972). More than 90,720 tonnes (100,000<br />
tons) of phosphate had been mined from Enderbury (Burnett and Lee 1980 citing Tracey<br />
1979; Huchinson 1950).<br />
Guano had been dug on the north side of Enderbury (Bryan 1941, 1942 and 1974). The area<br />
now resembled a great mine dump.<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
After 1881, J.T. Arundel & Co. worked guano deposits on Enderbury for several years<br />
(Douglas and Douglas 1994; Tracey et al 1972). According to Skaggs (1994), Arundel<br />
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arrived at Enderbury in about 1886 and found a horse and mule there (that had been left in<br />
1877 according to Garnett 1983a). Arundel promptly caught both animals and yoked them to<br />
rail cars to transport guano.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune that listed Pacific<br />
Islands with guano deposits (Hague 1862). The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary).<br />
On February 12, 1859, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Manra (Sydney) and<br />
received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). The bonder was probably<br />
C.A. Williams of Honolulu (Garnett 1983a). All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull)<br />
were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano<br />
Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
The Phoenix Guano Company operated at the southeast end of Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor<br />
n.d.). They constructed a dock and tramway at the east end of the lagoon. A tram line was<br />
constructed on the north side of the lagoon (Douglas and Douglas 1944). Another short line<br />
ran to the southeast side of the island to the stone pier on the lagoon. A passage was blasted<br />
through the reef (Hilder 1959). Operations were under Captain Mann with 96 workers from<br />
Niue and the Cook Islands (Garnett 1983a).<br />
American guano interests claimed Manra (Sydney). However, they made no efforts to collect<br />
guano (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1861, Arundel visited Mara (Sydney) twice in 1881 and left three laborers with 12 months<br />
of provisions (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In about 1882 or 1883, John T. Arundel obtained a lease to Manra (Sydney) from Britain<br />
(Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1883 according to Hilder 1959; 1882 according to Tudor 1968; 1881<br />
according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
Between 1883 and 1885, 6,350 tonnes (7,000 tons) of phosphate were exported from Manra<br />
(Sydney) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Between 1884 and 1885, guano was extracted from Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
1883 to 1885 according to Garnett 1983a; 1882 to 1885 according to Douglas and Douglas<br />
1994).<br />
The guano ship Lorenzo was wrecked while loading guano at Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942; Ellis 1937; in 1885 according to Hilder 1959; Rhodes 1936b; Garnett 1983a).<br />
According to Rhodes (1936b) the Lorenzo’s cables parted.<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
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In the southeast corner of the lagoon on Manra was a series of small slightly brackish ponds<br />
that were left from guano collection (Bryan 1941; eastern end of the island according to<br />
Garnett 1983a).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
In 1858, McKean was occupied and guano had been exported (Hague 1862). Much of the<br />
deposits had become covered by a foot of coral mud.<br />
On March 14, 1859, the Phoenix Guano Company filed a claim for McKean and received<br />
bond number 6, dated December 27, 1859 (Skaggs 1994; C.A. Williams and Co. filed the<br />
claim according to Garnett 1983a). In 1859, C.A. Williams and Co. (which became the<br />
Phoenix Guano Co.) filed a claim to McKean with the U.S. State Department under the 1856<br />
Guano Act (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Anon. 1860e).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano<br />
Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968). The<br />
Phoenix Islands Guano Company claimed McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury<br />
(Anon. 1859a). The agent for the Phoenix Islands Guam Company was C.A. Williams & Co.<br />
Between 1857 and 1860, American companies took possession of McKean, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960). It was estimated that there<br />
was over 100,000 tons of guano on McKean (Pompey 1972c).<br />
In 1859, Captain T. Long of the Agate took possession of McKean in the name of the United<br />
States of America for the Phoenix Guano Company (Hydrographic Office 1940). A plaque<br />
bearing that inscription was found by the U.S.S. Bushnell in 1939. Anon. (1859f) reported<br />
that the Agate left 29 workers on McKean for loading guano on the Modern Times. A.M.<br />
Goddard and 29 Hawaiians were planning to go to Rawaki (Phoenix), but ended up on<br />
McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The Modern Times was chartered at $10 per ton to load<br />
guano from McKean (Anon 1859a; see also Anon. 1859c).<br />
In 1859, a group of Hawaiian workers who had worked on Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) sued C.A. Williams for greater compensation due to the hardships (Skaggs 1994).<br />
They lost in court.<br />
The anchorage on McKean was excellent, so no mooring was needed (Anon. 1859f). The lee<br />
of McKean was a good smooth place for a ship to wait (Anon. 1859g). However, the<br />
Asanasia, slipped the large anchor and 137 m (75 fathoms) of chain during a heavy squall<br />
while anchored at McKean (Anon. 1860d).<br />
In 1860, Captain Long probably visited McKean to claim the island for C.A. Williams<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
A load of 1,089 tonnes (1,200 tons) of guano from McKean transported by the White<br />
Swallow, was the first load of guano to be brought to the U.S. (Anon. 1860e; see also Anon.<br />
1860e, f, and h). McKean had nothing whatsoever of value for any useful purpose, except its<br />
abundant wealth of fertilizing substance(Anon. 1860h).<br />
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Locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published by Anon. (1861b).<br />
However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions were not very<br />
accurate.<br />
In 1861, the Osborn Howes, loaded with guano from McKean, sprang a leak and threw<br />
overboard 112 tonnes (123 tons) of guano at about 44 0 S (Anon. 1861c).<br />
In 1861, a report came out proclaiming the benefits of using Phoenix Islands guano,<br />
specifically guano from McKean, for agricultural purposes (Phoenix Guano Co. 1861). The<br />
chemical composition of this guano was presented. At the end of the report were testimonials<br />
regarding the increased plant growth achieved by using this guano. In addition, instructions<br />
were provided on the application rate.<br />
With the development of the guano exports from such islands as McKean, the importance of<br />
the harbor at Aspia (Upolu, Samoa) as a center for commerce had increased (Anon. 1866).<br />
A short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 was provided by Cunningham (1866). The<br />
voyage took 32 days.<br />
During a gale on December 4, 1867, the Washington, under Captain Berry, went ashore on<br />
McKean (Anon. 1868b; see also Anon. 1868b; 1868c). She was carrying 771 tonnes (850<br />
tons) of guano. On December 9, 1867, her crew was rescued by the Kamehaneha V (Anon.<br />
1868d).<br />
From 1859 to 1870, McKean was worked for guano (Maude 1952 and 1968; 1859 to 1870<br />
according to Garnett 1983a). McKean was worked out first (Bryan 1941 and 1942). No<br />
vessels were recorded to have visited there after 1870. Guano was worked until 1870 (Tudor<br />
1968) by the Phoenix Guano Company (Pompey 1972c) when all reserves had been exploited<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
Under the American Guano Act of 1856, three of the Phoenix Islands, including McKean,<br />
were worked exclusively by American guano companies (Freeman 1951). Phoenix Guano<br />
Company had mined Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs 1994).<br />
The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871). In 1871, sailing<br />
directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included:<br />
Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls),<br />
and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
No wrecks of guano ships were recorded (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
The basin within the rim of land on McKean had been deepened by guano digging (1859 to<br />
1870) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The ruins of the Phoenix Guano Company buildings were the<br />
most conspicuous objects on McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942; also Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). These were on the west side of the island and consisted of numerous stone walls. The<br />
highest point was a wall 2.1 m (7 ft) high.<br />
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By 1880, the Pacific Island Company, a British firm) worked the island for guano (Pompey<br />
1972c). According to Garnett (1983a), the Pacific Islands Co., Ltd. applied for a license to<br />
work McKean, but the license was never granted. McKean was therefore never used by a<br />
British firm.<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
John T. Arundel Co. did not use or develop McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942). They reported<br />
no guano left on McKean.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
On February 12, 1869, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim to Nikumaroro (Gardner) and<br />
received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). All of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano Company, or its subsidiary, the<br />
Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
Nikumaroro (Kemins) was claimed by Americans under the U.S. Guano Act of 1856 (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942). This was probably to C.A. Williams (Garnett 1983a). However, there was<br />
no exploitation or development on the island.<br />
There was no record of guano being dug on Nikumaroro (see also Garnett 1983a).<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
There was some confusion regarding the location of Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
This may have lead to Orona (Hull) not being claimed by American guano diggers as Manra<br />
(Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Orona (Hull) was the only Phoenix Island never bonded to the American Guano Company, or<br />
its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968; see also Skaggs 1994;<br />
Garnett 1983a). However, it was mined by the Phoenix Guano Company (Skaggs 1994).<br />
The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon. (1871). In 1871, sailing<br />
directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These included:<br />
Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, or Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona (Halls),<br />
and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
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By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
In 1887, Ellis took samples of guano for analysis (Ellis 1937). The quantity was insufficient,<br />
but of it was high quality.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1859, a list of 48 islands was published by the New York Tribune that listed Pacific<br />
Islands with guano deposits (Hague 1862). The list included Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), and Abariringa (Mary). Hague (1862) noted that the guano<br />
quantity was not very extensive, but was said to be of good quality.<br />
On February 12, 1859, the U.S. Guano Company filed a claim for Rawaki (Phoenix) and<br />
received bond number 9, dated February 8, 1860 (Skaggs 1994). In addition, the Phoenix<br />
Guano Company filed a claim for Rawaki (Phoenix) on May 14, 1859, and received bond<br />
number 6, dated December 27, 1859.<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands, except Orona (Hull) were bonded to the American Guano<br />
Company, or its subsidiary, the Phoenix Guano Company (Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
Between 1857 and 1860, American companies took possession of McKean, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), and Enderbury for guano extraction (Morrell 1960). In 1859, C.A. Williams and<br />
Co. (later the Phoenix Guano Co.) filed notice that Rawaki (Phoenix) had been taken as a<br />
possession of the U.S. (Bryan 1941). A sign board had been erected and a bottle containing<br />
papers had been buried there.<br />
In 1859, the American brig Agate departed Hawaii to set up a base camp on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Landing was too difficult, so the ship went to McKean.<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) had habors affording safe anchorage for large ships (Anon. 1859e).<br />
However, in the notes to this article, it was noted that Rawaki (Phoenix) did not have a harbor<br />
for large ships.<br />
In 1859, a group of Hawaiian workers who had worked on Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) sued C.A. Williams for greater compensation due to the hardships (Skaggs 1994).<br />
They lost in court.<br />
In 1860, guano collection operations began on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
1862 according to Garnett 1983a). The Phoenix Guano Company erected a hut, shed, and<br />
tramline to assist in guano collection (Maude 1937). They also released rabbits on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix).<br />
The locations for McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury were published by Anon.<br />
(1861b). However, according to a note to Anon. (1861b) by Ward (1967e), the positions<br />
were not very accurate.<br />
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A short narrative of the brig Harriet Newell’s reprovisioning trip from Honolulu to Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), Enderbury, and McKean in early 1866 was provided by Cunningham (1866). The<br />
voyage took 32 days.<br />
The reported and actual locations of Abariringa (Canton, Mary, Swallow), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Birnie were discussed in detail in Anon. (1870).<br />
Rawaki had been worked for guano from 1860 to 1871 (Maude 1952 and 1968; 1862 to 1872<br />
by the Phoenix Guano Company according to Douglas and Douglas 1994; 1859 to 1871<br />
according to Garnett 1983a). In 1871, Rawaki (Phoenix) was abandoned by guano collectors<br />
(Bryan 1941 and 1942). A total of between 18,144 to 36,288 tonnes (20,000 to 40,000 tons)<br />
of phosphate were shipped from Rawaki (Phoenix) between 1862 to 1871 (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Guano had been extracted from Rawaki (Phoenix) (Boggs 1938; see also Bryan 1951).<br />
Phoenix Guano Company had mined Enderbury, McKeans, and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Skaggs<br />
1994).<br />
In 1871, sailing directions for the Phoenix Islands were published (Hempstead 1871). These<br />
included: Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean (Wilkes), Orona<br />
(Halls), and Rawaki (Phoenix). The positions of Abariringa (Mary, Swallow, Canton),<br />
Enderbury, Birnie, Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Orona (Hall) were published in Anon.<br />
(1871).<br />
A short account of the schooner C.M. Ward’s trip from Honolulu to Rawaki (Thoenix) and<br />
Enderbury was provided by Rickman (1871).<br />
In 1882, William relinquished his claim to Rawaki (Phoenix) to J.T. Arundel (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
By the mid-1880s, John T. Arundel & Company held British leases for untended American<br />
guano islands (Skaggs 1994) including: Birnie, Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner), Orona (Hull), McKeans, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). All of these had<br />
been claimed by U.S. Guano, but none had been worked by them.<br />
D. POST-GUANO ERA TO THE START OF WORLD WAR II (c1887 to<br />
1939)<br />
Great Britain’s 1875 Pacific Islanders Protection Act only applied to territories whose<br />
independence Britain did not recognize (Ward 1948). In 1877, the Western Pacific Order of<br />
Council brought the 1875 Act into operation. The 1877 Order listed islands to which the<br />
1875 Act applied including the Phoenix Islands.<br />
From 1877 to 1881, the Phoenix Islands were uninhabited and probably unvisited (Maude<br />
1952 and 1968). John T. Arundel and Co. then either took direct control over, or acted as<br />
agent for the Phoenix Islands. In addition to further exploitation of the guano resources, he<br />
had a policy to turn the islands into coconut plantations.<br />
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When A.F. Ellis was young, he and his brother and three natives worked on Orona (Hull)<br />
(Ellis 1946). This was in 1887 (Anon. 1940b; Ellis 1937). The other seven Phoenix Islands<br />
were uninhabited (Ellis 1946; see also Morrell 1960).<br />
Based on Ellis 1946 and other sources, the following table was assembled regarding the<br />
population of the Phoenix Islands between 1877 to 2000 (see Table III-2.6 below).<br />
TABLE III-2.6. Population of the Phoenix Islands, 1877 to 2000.<br />
*1 *1 *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 *7 *2 *8 *9 *10 *11 *12<br />
1877 1881 1921 1931 1938 1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Abariringa 0 0 0 6 230 205 0 0 24 45 83 61<br />
Birnie 0 0 0 0<br />
Enderbury 0 0 0 4 0<br />
Manra 0 0 16 130 294 0<br />
McKean 0 0 0 0<br />
Nikumaroro 0 0 0 79 230 0 0<br />
Orona 5 5 15 432 530 583 0 0<br />
Rawaki 0 0 0 0<br />
Total 5 5 31 572 1,133 1,018 0 0 0 24 45 83 61<br />
PI Total *13 989 31 984 1,018 0 0 0 24 45 83 61<br />
*sources:<br />
1. Ellis 1946.<br />
2. No breakdown of populaton by island was identified.<br />
3. For each island see Bryan 1951.<br />
4. Abriringa - Anon. 1938c; Enderbury - Schuyler 1939; Manra - Hydrographic Office 1940; Orona -<br />
Bryan 1951.<br />
5. For each island, see Bryan 1951.<br />
6. Abariringa, Nikumaroro, Orona - McArthur and McCaig 1963.<br />
7. Abariringa, Nikumaroro, Orona - Zwart and Groenewegen 1968.<br />
8. Abaririrnga, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona - Kiribati 1983.<br />
9. Abariringa - ADB 2002.<br />
10. Abariringa - ADB 2002; Statistics Office 1991.<br />
11. Abariringa - ADB 2002.<br />
12. Abariringa - ADB 2002.<br />
13. Ministry of Home Affairs and Decentralisation 1978; Statistics Office 2002a and b.<br />
The Phoenix group was annexed by the British between 1888 and 1889 (UN Department of<br />
Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization 1979; for most Phoenix Islands annexation<br />
was in 1889 according to Ellis 1937 and Follett 1943). The symbolic acts of declaring<br />
protectorates were performed on each island (except Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the H.M.S.<br />
Egeria (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the hoisting of the<br />
British flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward<br />
1948; Robson 1956) that provided a new use for these small isolated islands. These<br />
annexations were at the request of Mr. Arundel (Bryan 1941; urgent request according to<br />
Ellis 1937).<br />
Laws enacted in accordance with a Pacific order in council of 1893 were applied to the<br />
Phoenix Islands when they were annexed by the British (Office of Territories 1963).<br />
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In 1897, the John T. Arundel and Company was merged with Henderson, McFalane &<br />
Company to become the Pacific Islands Company, Ltd. (Skaggs 1994). This merger was<br />
necessary as guano production had declined and copra production was needed to offset costs.<br />
Lever Brothers transferred their lease to the Phoenix Islands to the Samoa Shipping and<br />
Trading Company (Foreign Office 1920). Samoa Shipping and Trading Company planted<br />
coconut trees and expected to harvest 635 to 907 tonnes (700 to 1,000 tons) of copra within a<br />
year.<br />
There were about 50 laborers that were working for the Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. on<br />
a few coconut plantations in the Phoenix Islands (Foreign Office 1920). In that report, both<br />
Baker and Howland were included as part of the Phoenix Islands. No details were provided<br />
about which islands had the coconut plantations or how many people were on each island.<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1931, the population of the Phoenix Islands was 31(Wiens 1962).<br />
In the mid-1930s, there were about 50 workers on the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1977).<br />
Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull). There were<br />
no indigenous inhabitants.<br />
The natives of the Phoenix Islands were Polynesians (Rhodes 1936a).<br />
In 1937, Burns Philp and Co. held the lease for the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965).<br />
A major problem of the Phoenix Islands was the lack of anchorage (Ellis 1937). Any deepsea<br />
mooring was liable to slip if any undue strain was put on it. Also, if the easterly wind shifted,<br />
the vessel would swing toward the reef. A square rigged vessel would have no chance of<br />
clearing the lee shore if the anchor slipped.<br />
No one really cared who owned the Phoenix Islands until the Kingsford-Smith pioneer flight<br />
across the Pacific in 1928 and 1934 that drew attention to the need for a half-way stop (Clune<br />
1951; Luke 1962; Murphy et al 1954). Kingsford-Smith flew directly over the Phoenix<br />
Islands (Oates 2003). The Phoenix Islands were an example of how useless, scorned, and<br />
disowned little equatorial islands can become international aviation value overnight (Robson<br />
1942; see also Office of Territories 1963).<br />
On March 18, 1937, the Phoenix Islands became part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
(Bryan 1951; see also Luke 1945a; 1938 according to Robson 1942). According to Grattan<br />
(1963a), the protectorate was cancelled and the islands were annexed by the Gilbert and<br />
Ellice Islands Colony. On April 8, 1937, the Western Pacific High Commission Gazette<br />
reported the official proclamation that the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
had been extended to include all of the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 1937b; Cowell 1966; 1939<br />
according to Bunge and Cooke 1984).<br />
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Burns Philip interests held the lease over the Phoenix Islands until 1938 when it was taken<br />
over by the Gilbert and Ellice government (Anon. 1940a; see also Anon 1938i). GEIC obtain<br />
a grant from the British Colonial Development and Welfare Fund that was used to buy the<br />
leases (Bryan 1951; 1937 according to Freeman 1951). There was a provision in the lease<br />
that allowed the British Government to terminate the license for any cause (Hilder 1959).<br />
The lease for the six Phoenix Islands was bought out for £7,500 (Hilder 1959). One<br />
provision of the buy out was that the islands would be used for resettlement (Anon. 1938i).<br />
Burns Philp withdrew from the Phoenix group so as to remove any embarrassments for<br />
Britain (Anon. 1941a). The lease termination was an “imperial service” of Burns Philp Co.,<br />
Ltd. to the British Government (Anon. 1940e). The fee paid to terminate the lease was based<br />
on the amount Burns Philp invested since 1926 to improve the islands (plant coconuts).<br />
Phoenix Islands were administered through the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific at<br />
Suva (Anon. 1939a; Freeman 1951).<br />
Traditionally, the Gilbertese people were in balance with the limited resources on their atolls<br />
(Maude 1937). However, with the introduction of western religious practices and colonial<br />
rule, traditional checks on population size had been curtailed. Details of traditional methods<br />
of population control were provided. With over-population and limited land, many families<br />
had become landless. The overpopulation problem in the Gilbert Islands was a consequence<br />
of European contact and colonial rule (Schultz and Tenten 1979; Maude 1968). A solution<br />
was sought for this population crisis (Maude 1937).<br />
Wiens (1962) noted that the resettlement scheme was due to drought conditions in the<br />
Southern Gilbert Islands and the subsequent pressure on food resources (see also Laxton<br />
1951).<br />
In 1937, H. Maude led a survey of the entire Phoenix Islands (Maude 1937; see also Knudson<br />
1965; Maude 1952 and 1968). A detailed account of this survey was provided in Maude<br />
(1937, 1952, and 1968) including detailed descriptions of each island.<br />
The survey team included government employees and representatives from the southern<br />
Gilbert Islands, as well as from the Ellice Islands (Maude 1937; see also Knudson 1965).<br />
Each of the Phoenix Islands was surveyed. Key considerations were topography, lagoon<br />
characteristics, fertility, flora, water supply, fishing, anchorages, landing facilities, and any<br />
unusual aspects. Schultz and Tenten (1979) noted that the test wells, except on Manra<br />
(Sydney), had water poorer than that usually found in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.<br />
In 1937, Maude then proposed a resettlement scheme to alleviate population pressures in the<br />
Gilbert Islands (Maude 1937, 1952, and 1968; Knudson 1965). Very detailed plans of the<br />
settlement scheme and budget are documented in Maude (1937, 1952, and 1968). It was<br />
proposed that land be provided on a freehold basis to settlers. In addition to settlement of<br />
select Phoenix Islands, consideration was given to islands in the Line group in Maude (1937).<br />
In July 1937, Amelia Earhart’s airplane was lost in the Central Pacific (King et al 2001).<br />
This was just a few weeks after the solar eclipse expedition left Abariringa (Canton) (Oates<br />
2003). There was speculation that she may have crashed somewhere in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Pam American’s radio station in Hawaii and Wake Island picked up a nondescript<br />
transmission that appeared to be coming from the Phoenix Islands (Loomis and Ethell 1985).<br />
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The minesweeper Swan left for the Phoenix Islands (Leff 1940; see also Wright 1951). Two<br />
days later, the search was given up in the Phoenix Islands. According to Beheim (2004),<br />
three planes from the Colorado began aerial searches of the Phoenix Islands. The four day<br />
search covered about 25,490 square miles.<br />
The H.M.S. Achilles was in the vicinity of the Phoenix Islands when Earhart was lost<br />
(Holbrook 1973). It had transmitted a message that they had received an unidentified signal.<br />
This prompted the search in the Phoenix Islands area. Apparently, the Achilles was<br />
conducting further surveys of the Phoenix Islands area to support the British claim to the<br />
islands.<br />
During the search for Earhart, it became evident that Howland and Baker Islands were<br />
inadequate for seaplanes (Holbrook 1973). The U.S. Navy then began looking for alternative<br />
islands for development of air fields. Their attentions focused on the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Between 1937 and 1938, the migration rate from Beru (Gilbert Islands) to the Phoenix<br />
Islands was 15 percent (Di Piazza and Pearthree 1999). The average migration rate from the<br />
other Gilbert Islands to the Phoenix Islands was about 3 percent.<br />
In 1938, the resettlement scheme was approved (Knudson 1965; see also Maude 1968). In<br />
addition to the overcrowding in the Gilbert Islands, there were political reasons for settling<br />
the Phoenix Islands (Bevington 1990). American claims to part of the Phoenix Islands and<br />
the doctrine of sovereignty based on occupation developed.<br />
The migration program was known as the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme (PISS) (King<br />
et al 2001). This trap was not noticed until a hurried letter from Suva was sent to the officer<br />
commanding the resettlement program using only the program’s acronym (Robson 1941).<br />
In 1938, the British were compelled to relocate about 2,000 Gilbertese to the Phoenix Islands<br />
to relieve population pressures (Freeman 1951; 700 according to Keith-Redi 1996; see also<br />
Maude 1968). Gilbertese from the southern islands were the target audience (Knudson<br />
1965). Persons selected for this scheme possessed the least land, the poorest land, or came<br />
from a large family relative to the quantity and quality of land holdings (Knudson 1965).<br />
However, there appeared to be at least some circumvention of these criteria. Settlers were<br />
told that there was no possibility of return to the Gilbert Islands (see also Maude 1952 and<br />
1968). Settlers to the Phoenix Islands would take over the copra plantations on the Phoenix<br />
Islands previously leased by Burns Philip (Anon. 1939a). For a detailed account of the<br />
relocation voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968).<br />
Post offices were set up on each island resettled (Maude 1952 and 1968). Since the<br />
cancellation stamps had not arrived, letters were hand cancelled.<br />
In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell completed a surveying expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan<br />
Islands (Schultz 1939). This included surveys and collections of terrestrial and marine<br />
species. A general account of the actual expedition is provided in Schultz (1939).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
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Abariringa (Canton) was on a straight line between Australia and Hawaii (Oates 2003).<br />
However, cable companies did not like the “more than mile deep” waters around Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
In 1889, Abariringa (Canton) was visited by the H.M.S. Egeria that was on a cruise to map<br />
the islands of the central Pacific (Murphy et al 1954). J.J. Lister, a naturalist, was on board.<br />
He completed the first bird surveys of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1897, the Pacific Islands Company took over Arundel’s business (Garnett 1983a). In<br />
1899, Abariringa (Canton) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and<br />
1974). The Pacific Islands Co. was to grow copra and to fish for pearl shells (Wright 1951).<br />
There was no development of the island under the Pacific Islands Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and<br />
1974).<br />
In 1902, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to Lever’s Pacific Plantation, Ltd. (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In 1907, there were no inhabitants on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
In 1914, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to the Samoa Shipping and trading Co., Ltd.<br />
(Garnett 1983a). In 1915, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd.,<br />
erected a beacon and planted hundreds of coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon.<br />
1940c).<br />
In 1916, Abariringa (Canton) was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan<br />
1934, 1941, 1942 and 1974; see also Allen 1918; Schuyler 1940; for the copra industry<br />
according to Hobbs 1945 and Wright 1951). However, it was never developed (Hobbs 1945).<br />
In 1919, when Captain Allen returned to Abariringa (Canton), all but 5 or 6 coconut trees had<br />
died (Anon. 1940c; 10 trees according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Only one tree<br />
survived until 1950 (Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The island was often called one tree island<br />
as the one coconut tree was visible by ships at sea.<br />
Abariringa (Canton) had a boat passage into the lagoon (Foreign Office 1920).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1926, control of Abariringa (Canton) changed to the Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd.<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1928, Abariringa (Canton) was selected as the emergency landing place for the Kingsford<br />
Smith Hawaii to Fiji flight (Tudor 1968; Oates 2003). Small coral atolls originally had little<br />
importance, but they may acquire importance because of unique resources, geographical<br />
position, or marine resources on their foreshore (Grattan 1961). This was the case with<br />
Abariringa (Canton), after years of unimportance, it became of great importance as a<br />
refueling stop for trans-Pacific aircraft in the 1930s. It was only the possibility of<br />
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commercial trans-Pacific air transport that gave Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury new<br />
value (Melamid 1955).<br />
In 1931, there was no one living on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
In 1935, an American expedition surveyed the Phoenix Islands and selected Abariringa<br />
(Canton) for trans-Pacific commercial air service (Clune 1951).<br />
In 1936, the H.M.S. Leith visited Abariringa (Canton) and proclaimed British sovereignty<br />
(Anon. 1938e; Baarslag 1940; Leff 1940; Robson 1956). The proclamation was placed in a<br />
container that was buried at the foot of the flagpole (Anon. 1938e). In 1937, the H.M.S. Leith<br />
visited the island again and nailed a sign board proclaiming British sovereignty to a coconut<br />
tree (Anon. 1938e; Degener and Gillapsy 1955).<br />
On April 8, 1937, Abariringa (Canton) and the rest of the Phoenix Islands were placed under<br />
the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941, and 1942; McIntire 1960). The Phoenix<br />
Islands District headquarters was on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; see also Luke<br />
1945a) and was administered by the Colonial Office.<br />
A party of New Zealand astronomers planned to visit Abariringa (Canton) to observe the<br />
1937 solar eclipse (Anon. 1936). In June 1937, the H.M.S. Wellington visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton), but found the U.S.S. Avocet on the only anchorage (Baarslag 1940; Leff 1940; May<br />
26, 1937 according to Mitchell c1937). The commander of the British vessel requested that<br />
the American ship move, but was referred to Washington D.C. (see also Grattan 1941;<br />
Marshall 1938). According to Degener and Gillaspy (1955), the Wellington fired a round<br />
over the bow of the Avocet, and the Avocet responded similarly. Both captains then<br />
communicated with their respective governments regarding the situation. Both were told not<br />
to do anything rash.<br />
When the British lodged a diplomatic complaint again the U.S.S. Avocet, it opened the door<br />
for negotiations between the British and the U.S. regarding the future use of Abaririgna<br />
(Canton) as a stop for planes between Hawaii and New Zealand and for British access to<br />
landing rights in Hawaii (Holbrook 1973).<br />
Detailed accounts of organizing and executing the American solar eclipse expedition in 1937<br />
were provided in a number of reports (see Hellweg 1937; Mitchell 1937, c1937, and 1938;<br />
Gardner 1938; Oates 2003). The eclipse expedition was transported by the U.S.S. Avocet.<br />
According to Follett (1943), the solar eclipse expedition became Abariringa’s (Canton’s) first<br />
settlers since the whaling ship Canton. The solar eclipse expedition built a landing dock in<br />
the lagoon to assist with unloading (Schuyler 1939).<br />
The solar eclipse on June 8, 1937 was in totality for about three minutes (Anon. 1937c; 1939<br />
according to Luomala 1951). This was the longest duration of totality of any solar eclipse in<br />
1,200 years (Michell 1938). The solar eclipse was to pass directly over Abariringa (Canton)<br />
and Enderbury (Bryan 1937). Events of the solar eclipse were broadcast live from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (Mitchell 1938). The expedition was sponsored jointed by the U.S. Navy and the<br />
National Geographic Society (Murphy et al 1954).<br />
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At the time of the solar eclipse expedition (1937), all huts used by guano collectors in the<br />
1800’s were entirely flattened (Gardner 1938). One artifact from that era was a lonely grave<br />
of a native who worked the guano deposits.<br />
During that visit, the British planted another British flag (Baarslag 1940; sign according to<br />
Bryan 1941 and 1942; sign on coconut tree according to Murphy et al 1954). The H.M.S.<br />
Wellington also brought 1,000 coconuts for planting (Hellweg 1937). Relations between<br />
sailors and scientists from both ships quickly became friendly (Anon. 1937g).<br />
The American eclipse expedition planted two large American flags and erected a concrete<br />
marker proclaiming Abariringa (Canton) as U.S. soil (Baarslag 1940; to commemorate the<br />
event according to Follett 1943; see also Marshall 1938; Anon. 1937g). According to Orent<br />
and Reinsch (1941), the U.S. national ensign in stainless steel on a marble marker<br />
commemorated the event. According to Anon. (1937g), two stainless steel American flags<br />
were mounted onto a concrete base.<br />
As part of the mission of the Avocet, both Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed<br />
regarding their possible use as an airfield (Holbrook 1973). Enderbury was found unsuitable.<br />
In August 1937 (according to Degener and Gillapsy 1955), the H.M.S. Leith rushed back and<br />
left two radio operators and a completed radio station (Baarslag 1940; see also Leff 1940). In<br />
addition, 1 Fijian servant was with them according to Maude (1952 and 1968; 1 Gilbertese<br />
servant according to Anon. 1937i). The British technicians were Langdale and Manning<br />
according to Schuyler (1939; Langdale and Rostier according to Anon. 1937h and 1937i;<br />
Murphy et al 1954). One was a radio operator and the other was an engineer (Anon. 1938e).<br />
In 1937, a British officer had been stationed on Abariringa (Canton) (Colonial Office 1951).<br />
According to Bevington (1990), the acting District Officer was the wireless operator. The<br />
Phoenix Islands District headquarters were on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960) and was<br />
administered by the Colonial Office. The significance of posting an officer to Abariringa<br />
(Canton) developed when American increased interest in the area were considered (Grattan<br />
1963a).<br />
With the radio equipment on Abariringa (Canton), vessels were able to check their direction<br />
finders when they passed the island (Anon. 1937i).<br />
In 1937, the U.S. Navy informed the U.S. State Department of its intentions to occupy<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Holbrook 1974) using civilian colonists.<br />
Between 1937 and 1942, various U.S. Coast Guard cutters visited Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury (Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of each trip, personnel, and mission were<br />
provided in Bryan (1974). Visits were at intervals of about 3 months (Murphy et al 1954).<br />
In response to the American concrete marker, placed in 1937, the two British inhabitants of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) erected a small monument with metal sign with the Union Jack on it<br />
(Bevington 1990). The metal sign was beat out of a kerosene tin.<br />
In 1937, the name of Canton was changed to Aba Riringa, the land of sunshine (Maude 1937,<br />
1952 and 1968). This was because the island had little vegetation and was exposed to the full<br />
withering effect of the sun’s rays (Maude 1937).<br />
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In January 1938, Western Pacific High Commission representatives paid an official<br />
inspection visit to Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) (Anon. 1938g). Mr. Rostier, the<br />
radio operator on Abariringa (Canton) was replaced by Mr. Manning.<br />
In 1938, President Roosevelt placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S.<br />
Department of Interior (Bordon 1961; see also Follett 1943; Office of Territories 1963; 1937<br />
according to Grattan 1963a). For the text of the transfer to the Department of Interior, see<br />
Reeves (1939). Anon. (1939f) noted that the U.S. claim was rather pointless. The U.S. did<br />
nothing for over 50 years to exert any claim. It was not until trans-Pacific flights developed<br />
that it asserted its claim.<br />
In February 1938, the U.S. Department of Interior issued orders for the establishment of<br />
permanent American stations on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Schuyler 1939).<br />
On March 3, 1938 (according to Degener and Gillaspy 1955), the United States proclaimed<br />
sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1938a; Anon. 1938d; Enderby<br />
according to Grattan 1961; March 8, 1938 according to Orent and Reinsch 1941). This was<br />
viewed with alarm in Tokyo (Anon. 1938b). Anon. (1937d) noted that the American claim<br />
to Abariringa (Canton) was a little cheeky. It was noted that the 1937 National Geographic<br />
Society map showed the Phoenix Islands as belonging to Britain (Anon. 1937d).<br />
On March 7, 1938 (according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; see also Degener and Gillapsy<br />
1955), seven Hawaiian-Americans were landed on Abariringa (Canton) to support the U.S.<br />
claim over this island (Anon. 1938c, Daniel 1943; Follett 1943; November 1937 according to<br />
Baarslag 1940; March 7, 1938 according to McIntire 1960). Williams (1938) noted that no<br />
U.S. born Japanese Americans were selected as colonists, even though they dominated the<br />
population of Hawaii. Williams (1937) noted that over 100 applications were received for<br />
the colonist posts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury. These colonists were called<br />
“Panala’au” the Hawaiian word for colonists (Oates 2003).<br />
A summary of the off-loading of the colonists was provided by Waesche (1938). As part of<br />
the off-loading process, a shock recorder was installed to record earth waves. During that<br />
visit, two American surveyors completed a survey of Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974). The<br />
colonists were to collect meteorological data in preparation of possible commercial air bases<br />
(Orent and Reinsch 1941).<br />
The American colonists raised the American flag to the official objections of the British<br />
representatives on Abariringa (Canton) (Schuyler 1939).<br />
In 1938, there were 6 New Zealanders on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1938c). The relations<br />
between the two nationalities were friendly (Anon. 1938h).<br />
American colonists were instructed that the friendliest relations be maintained with the<br />
British (Anon 1938f). This included beer drinking, poker, and bridge (see also Williams<br />
1938). Black (1939) added ice cream to this list. Black (1938) reported that during a visit by<br />
the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Roger B. Taney, personal relations between the British and<br />
American residents of Abariringa (Canton) were excellent (see also Williams 1938).<br />
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On April 1, 1938, the U.S. Secretary of the Interior granted Pan American Airways a license<br />
to use Abariringa (Canton) for commercial air flights between Hawaii and Australia (Office<br />
of Territories 1963; Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The official designation for Canton airport<br />
was CIS (Wright 1951).<br />
In 1938, two powerful radio transmitters were installed on Abariringa (Canton) (Black 1938).<br />
The military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that they could be small<br />
naval bases with good airstrips (Hobbs 1945).<br />
In 1938, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa (Canton) as part of the 1938 Line<br />
Island Expedition.<br />
A lighthouse was constructed and named for Captain Edwin H. Musick of Pam American<br />
Airways (Black 1938; Murphy et al 1954). Continuous operation of the lighthouse was<br />
started on November 1, 1938 (Black 1939; Bryan 1974; Schuyler 1939).<br />
In late 1938, Pan American Airways conducted preliminary surveys of Abariringa (Canton)<br />
in preparations for development of airline service there (Anon. 1939e). For details of the<br />
development of Pan American Airways operations on Abariringa (Canton) and the backdoor<br />
politics necessary for this development, see Oates (2003).<br />
In 1939, Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were placed under joint administration of the<br />
United States and Great Britain for 50 years (Bordon 1961; Hobbs 1945; Anon. 1939f; 1938<br />
according to Skaggs 1994). For text of agreement see Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs<br />
(1939). For a summary of text see Reeves (1939). Negotiations for the agreement took three<br />
years (Anon. 1955a). This was done to facilitate the establishment of an airport by an<br />
American company (Colonial Office 1951). This could be used freely by British and<br />
American aircraft (Quinn 1945).<br />
The agreement was an executive agreement, not a treaty that would have to be ratified by the<br />
Senate (Grattan 1941). U.S. Representative Tinkham called the agreement a political alliance<br />
of far reaching and dangerous consequences and that President Roosevelt was guilty of<br />
collusive action (Mackie 1940). Tokyo was concerned over this example of Anglo-American<br />
cooperation (Leff 1940). Luke (1962) noted that this was the world’s smallest condominium.<br />
Reeves (1939) provided legal and legislative insights into the process of creating the<br />
condominium. Holbrook (1973) noted that under this agreement, the British had basically<br />
lost control of Abariringa (Canton). They also failed to obtain landing rights to Hawaii (prior<br />
to World War II), and they had to allow Pan American into Australia. With the agreement,<br />
the question of sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were differed (Maude<br />
1968).<br />
In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell completed a surveying expedition to the Phoenix Islands,<br />
including Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939).<br />
American and British colonists occupied separate camp (Hydrographic Office 1940). A coral<br />
slab pier extended into the lagoon from the northeast rim. After the 1938 U.S./British<br />
agreement regarding Abariringa (Canton), the British maintained a small official party on the<br />
island (Anon. 1939c).<br />
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In May 1939, it was reported that only routine work such as weather data collection was ongoing<br />
on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1939h). Much work was necessary<br />
before seaplanes landed on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1939, the Pan American Airways’ supply ship North Haven, put ashore a construction<br />
crew of 43 (Anon. 1940c). At that time, there were 4 Americans and 2 British colonists on<br />
the island. During construction, P.A.A. had 75 workers on the island (see Anon. 1939i).<br />
Schuyler (1940) reported that 2 radio men had been placed on Abariringa (Canton) to record<br />
and transmit weather information of importance in the development of air service in the<br />
Pacific.<br />
During 1938 to 1939, Pan American Airways constructed the airport and deepened and<br />
cleared the lagoon (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; Oates 2003; completed in 1940 according to<br />
Luke 1945a). The Pam American Airways workers used high explosives to blow up coral<br />
heads to make a safe landing area for giant seaplanes (Anon. 1940c; Oates 2003). The<br />
southwestern portion of the lagoon was dredged in preparation for the seaplane landing area<br />
(Bryan 1974). The sea landing area that was being blasted clear was 2,428 x 610 m (8,000 x<br />
2,000 ft) with minimum depth of 2.1 m (7 ft) (Anon. 1939i; Anon. 1939b).<br />
Since large ships could not dock at Abariringa (Canton), supplies and equipment had to be<br />
brought to shore on lighters (Anon. 1939i). One critical task was the production of distilled<br />
water for domestic use as there was little rainfall on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
The American constructed various buildings, installed equipment, a radio station, generators,<br />
refrigeration plant, meteorological station, and cleared a sea plane landing area and built a<br />
hotel (Anon. 1939c).<br />
University of Hawaii’s Agricultural Extension Service assisted the development of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Warner 1939). Services included recommendations for growing a<br />
variety of plants under atoll conditions. A greenhouse was sent down and tomatoes, papayas,<br />
lettuce, beets, carrots, and cucumbers were being grown. Plants were disease free and grown<br />
using pot-culture.<br />
The 1939 surveying expedition by the U.S.S. Bushnell visited Enderbury, Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 1889, the British proclaimed Birnie as a protectorate (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; see<br />
also Bryan 1941 and 1942). This was done by the H.M.S. Egeria according to (Maude 1952<br />
and 1968; Ward 1948).). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed on<br />
each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal<br />
declaration and the hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was the<br />
proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated<br />
islands.<br />
In 1889, there were no inhabitants on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
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In 1899, Birnie was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916; Tudor<br />
1968). The license was not issued until 1901 (Garnett 1983a). In 1902, Lever’s Pacific<br />
Plantation took over Birnie.<br />
In 1905, a beacon was erected midway along the eastern coast (Garnett 1983a). The beacon<br />
was 8 m high with a base of coral slabs and an iron ladder like structure on top.<br />
In 1914, Samoan Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd. took over Birnie (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Hydrographic Office (1916) reported a beacon 9.1 m (30 ft) high had been constructed 914 m<br />
(1,000 yards) northwest of the southern sandy extremity. A flagstaff 4.6 m (15 ft) in height<br />
was on top of the beacon.<br />
In 1916, Birnie was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan 1934; see also<br />
Allen 1918). This was an 87 year lease (Bryan 1941 and 1942). This lease was taken over<br />
by Burns Philp (South Sea) Co. (in 1926 according to Garnett 1983a). There were no<br />
activities on Birnie from any of these companies (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1931, no one lived on Birnie (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
In 1937, Birnie was placed under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
In 1937, Birnie was investigated as a possible settlement site, but it was considered too small<br />
for settlement (Garnett 1983a). Maude (1937) reported that a large stone beacon encased in<br />
an iron framework was found on Birnie. This was repaired and a flagstaff and notice board<br />
was erected on it.<br />
In 1938, Birnie was declared a bird sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1939, it was decided that coconut trees would be planted on Birnie to support colonies on<br />
Orona, Manra, and Nikumaroro (Garnett 1983a). In May 1939, about one-third of Birnie was<br />
planted with coconut trees.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
During the 1880’s Enderbury was used by the John T. Arundel Co. (Bryan 1941, 1942, and<br />
1974). They found a hose and mule there.<br />
In 1899, Enderbury was leased by Great Britain to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1916; Orent and Reinsch 1941; rented according to Leff 1940; 1897 according to<br />
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Garnett 1983a). Little was done by that company and Enderbury was later abandoned<br />
(Schuyler 1940).<br />
In 1902, Enderbury was taken over by Lever’s Pacific Plantations (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1914, McKean and Enderbury were the only two Phoenix Islands not leased to the Samoa<br />
Shipping and Trading Company (Pompey 1972c). In 1914, the Samoan Shipping and<br />
Tradition Company, Ltd. took control of Enderbury (Garnett 1983a). In 1926, Burns Philp<br />
(South Seas) Company, Ltd., took control of Enderbury.<br />
In 1931, no one lived on Enderbury (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951). In 1933, Enderbury was<br />
uninhabited (Leff 1940).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported finding a small rusted canon (1 m (3.5 ft) long) on Enderbury.<br />
According to Leff (1940), the canon was used to frighten away Peruvian pirates.<br />
The 1937 solar eclipse could be better observed on Enderbury, but due to a lack of mooring,<br />
the solar eclipse expedition landed on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974;<br />
Follett 1943; for detailed account of attempted landing see Hellweg 1937). The solar eclipse<br />
was to pass directly over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Bryan 1937).<br />
During the 1937 solar eclipse expedition, after the Abariringa (Canton) station was set up, the<br />
U.S.S. Avocet revisited Enderbury for one day (Hellweg 1937). As part of the mission of the<br />
Avocet, both Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed regarding their possible use<br />
as an airfield (Holbrook 1973). It was only the possibility of commercial trans-Pacific air<br />
transport that gave Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury new value (Melamid 1955).<br />
Enderbury was found unsuitable (Holbrook 1973).<br />
Maude (1937) observed two abandoned settlements as well as traces of the old tramways and<br />
buildings. There was a flagpole and large cairn in front of the southern settlement. Notice<br />
boards were observed recording visits to the island. In addition, two cannons were found<br />
lying besides the main house in the settlement. Maude considered Enderbury unsuitable for<br />
settlement (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In April 1937, Enderbury, as well as other Phoenix Islands, were placed under the Gilbert and<br />
Ellice Islands Colony (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Between 1937 and 1942, various U.S. Coast Guard cutters visited Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury (Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of each trip, personnel, and mission were<br />
provided in Bryan (1974).<br />
In 1938, the United States proclaimed sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury<br />
(Anon. 1938a; Anon. 1938d; Enderby according to Grattan 1961; 1939 according to<br />
Schuyler 1940). This was viewed with alarm in Tokyo (Anon. 1938b). In 1938, President<br />
Roosevelt placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. Department of Interior<br />
(Bordon 1961, Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974; 1937 according to Grattan 1963a). For the text<br />
of the transfer to the Department of Interior, see Reeves (1939).<br />
In February 1938, the U.S. Department of Interior issued orders for the establishment of<br />
permanent American stations on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Schuyler 1939).<br />
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In March 1938, four Hawaiian-Americans were landed on Enderbury to support the U.S.<br />
claim over this island (Schuyler 1939; see also Anon. 1938c; Daniel 1943; Follett 1943).<br />
Williams (1938) noted that no U.S. born Japanese Americans were selected as colonists, even<br />
though they predominate the population of Hawaii. Williams (1937) noted that over 100<br />
applications were received for the colonist posts on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury.<br />
These colonists were called “Panala’au” the Hawaiian word for colonists (Oates 2003).<br />
A detailed account on how food and water were of off-loaded during the colonization trip<br />
was provided by Waesche (1938). Substantial stone and frame buildings and a lighthouse<br />
were constructed (Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Luke (1945b) reported that there were 4<br />
men that were manning the U.S. Meteorological Station on Enderbury.<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Enderbury and<br />
reported finding a rusted canon.<br />
In 1939, Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were placed under joint administration of the<br />
United States and Great Britain for 50 years (Bordon 1961; Bryan 1942 and 1974; Clune<br />
1951; Grattan 1963a; 1938 according to Skaggs 1994). For the text of agreement see<br />
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (1939). For a summary of text see Reeves (1939).<br />
This was done to facilitate the establishment of an airport by an American company (Colonial<br />
Office 1951). Tokyo was concerned over this example of Anglo-American cooperation (Leff<br />
1940). Luke (1962) noted that this was the world’s smallest condominium. Reeves (1939)<br />
provided legal and legislative insights into the process of creating the condominium. With<br />
the agreement, the question of sovereignty over Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury were<br />
differed (Maude 1968).<br />
Black (1939) reported several wrecks on the eastern beach. One was a steel ship about 6.1 m<br />
(20 ft) long. The other was of wood and metal fitting that were strewn along the beach north<br />
of the steel wreck.<br />
In May 1939, it was reported that only routine work such as weather data collection was ongoing<br />
on Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury (Anon. 1939h).<br />
The 1939 surveying expedition by the U.S.S. Bushnell visited Enderbury, Orona (Hull),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Schultz 1939).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1886, Arundel was granted a license for coconut planting (Garnett 1983a). Bush was cut<br />
and burned and the entire island was planted in coconuts.<br />
In 1889, Manra (Sydney) was proclaimed a British protectorate (Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
Hydrographic Office 1916). This was done by the commander of H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas<br />
and Douglas 1994; Commander Oldham according to Garnett 1983a). The symbolic acts of<br />
declaring protectorates were performed on each island (except Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the<br />
H.M.S. Egeria (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the<br />
hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific<br />
cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated islands.<br />
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In 1899, Manra (Sydney) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916;<br />
took over Arundel’s business in 1897 according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1905, the island was used by Lever Brothers (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1902 according to<br />
Garnett 1983a). They planted coconuts (MacGregor n.d.; had a coconut plantation there<br />
according to Robson 1956; planted first coconuts according to Bigelow 1939). Lever blasted<br />
a landing passage through the reef and ereted a 15,000 gallon rainwater tank (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1907, there were 13 inhabitants of Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1934; Hydrographic Office<br />
1916).<br />
In 1916, Manra (Sydney) was leased to the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Bryan 1934;<br />
see also Allen 1918; in 1914 according to Hilder 1959; Garnett 1983a) for 87 years (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942; Hilder 1959). A coconut plantation was reported for Manra (Sydney) (Allen<br />
1918). Annual production was about 45 tonnes (50 tons) of copra (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1924, there was a coconut plantation manager and eleven Samoan and Ellice Island native<br />
workers (Bryan 1934).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. passed away (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942). Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. went out of business in 1925 (Hilder 1959). In<br />
1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the lease for<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The original 99<br />
year lease had 75 years remaining. The lease was taken over by Burns Philp Co. (for £2,000<br />
according to Hilder 1959).<br />
In 1931, there were 16 people living on Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
In the mid-1930s, there were about 50 workers on the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1977).<br />
Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull).<br />
In 1932, Burns Philp Co. abandoned Manra (Sydney) due to the low price of copra (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In 1937, there were 11 coconut plantation workers on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965;<br />
Maude 1952 and 1968). Garnett (1983a) noted that between the 1880s to 1937, Manra<br />
(Sydney) was managed as a coconut plantation.<br />
Ellis (1937) speculated that Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) might<br />
be useful to relieve overpopulation in the Gilbert Islands.<br />
In 1937, the H.M.S. Leith visited and reasserted British claim over the island (Bryan 1941).<br />
Also in 1937, the Burns Philp Co. lease was bought out and the island became part of the<br />
Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.<br />
In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Manra (Sydney) with H.E. Maude (Bigelow 1939).<br />
Maude (1937) reported that there were excellent roads and remains of the old tramways<br />
throughout Manra (Sydney). These were said to have been constructed by Lever Bros. which<br />
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worked the island for copra. Maude (1937) reported erecting a flagpole and notice board on<br />
the old beacon on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were to be settled first as there were existing coconut<br />
plantations on them (Knudson 1965). Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) could<br />
follow after Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) had been planted in coconut trees and<br />
coconuts became available for settlers (Knudson 1965).<br />
In 1937, Sydney was re-christened Manra (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951; Maude<br />
1937). Manra was the one of the Gilbertese ancestral homelands in Indonesia (Maude 1952<br />
and 1968). Manra was known to have possessed a lake similar to Sydney’s lagoon.<br />
In 1937, 700 Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull),<br />
Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961).<br />
In 1938, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony purchased Manra (Sydney) from Burns Philip<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
On Christmas day 1938, the first party of 41 settlers aboard the Nimanoa arrived at Manra<br />
(Syndey) (Knudson 1965 and 1977; colony established in the fall of 1938 according to<br />
Bigelow 1939; colony established in 1933 according to Bryan 1941 and 1942). This trip was<br />
lead by District Officer, G. Gallagher (Anon. 1939d). According to Knudson (1965) this<br />
group became the nucleus of the new community. All Manra (Sydney) settlers were<br />
Protestants (Knudson 1965). For a detailed account of the relocation voyages and initial<br />
resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968).<br />
In 1938, a settlement of 130 natives from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands was established on<br />
the southwest point of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; western side according to<br />
Hydrographer fo the Navy 1969). Copra was the sole export. A model village with 117,347<br />
lt (31,000 gallon) cement cistern, and 15 wells was constructed (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The<br />
7,500 coconut palms were distributed to the 260 Gilbertese settlers (Bryan 1951; see also<br />
Freeman 1951).<br />
The relocation scheme was very popular to the point where two men and a woman traveled<br />
across from the Gilbert Islands to Manra (Sydney) against the wind and current in a small<br />
canoe (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1939, there was a drought during which most of the wells became brackish (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942). The cistern was almost empty when the rains finally returned.<br />
In 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell erected two range marks to indicate the channel leading up to<br />
the landing at the village (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941) reported that there was a<br />
beacon on the west side that marked the best anchorage on Manra (Sydney).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
McKean was a British protectorate that was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1916; in the 1890’s according to Tudor 1968; no lease was ever granted according to<br />
Garnett 1983a).<br />
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In 1914, McKean and Enderbury were the only two Phoenix Islands not leased to the Samoa<br />
Shiping and Trading Company (Pompey 1972c).<br />
In 1931, no one lived on McKean (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
In 1936, the H.M.S. Leith visited McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942) and claimed it for the<br />
British. Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that in 1936, the British annexed the<br />
island.<br />
In 1937, the H.S.C.S. Nimanoa visited McKean with the administrative officer of the Gilbert<br />
and Ellice Islands Colony who was now responsible for McKean (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see<br />
also Maude 1937). Bevington (1990) reported that in 1937 the (British) Admiralty was keen<br />
to obtain as much information as possible on McKean. A landing party from the Nimanoa<br />
mapped the island.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that a cairn, flag pole and notice board were constructed on McKean.<br />
McKean was considered as a potential settlement site (Garnett 1983a) however, it was too<br />
dry and too small for settlement considerations.<br />
There was speculation that Amelia Earhart landed on McKean or Nikumaroro (Gardner) in<br />
1937 (Beheim 2004).<br />
In 1938, McKean was declared a Bird Sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1939, McKean was surveyed by the U.S.S. Bushnell (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1939, the decision was made to plant coconut trees on McKean to support the other<br />
settlements in the Phoenix Islands (Garnett 1983a). It was planned that 3,000 coconut trees<br />
were to be planted. The outbreak of World War II prevented the scheme from going forward.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 1881, Arundel obtained his occupation license for 20 years duration (Laxton 1951). Initial<br />
coconut planting was done that year (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1889, the H.M.S. Egeria annexed Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Orona (Hull)<br />
(Morrell 1960 1892 according to Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Hydrographic Office 1916;<br />
1891 according to Grattan 1963a). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were<br />
performed on each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). Captain<br />
Gibson of the H.M.S. Curacao visited Nikumaroro (Gardner), but was not able to land due to<br />
heavy surf (Garnett 1983a). Nikumaroro (Gardner) was formally annexed at that time. The<br />
annexation declaration was read to the two Niuean laborers who swam out to the Curacao.<br />
According to some reports, the H.M.S. Curacoa visited Nikumaroro and raised the British<br />
flag (Robson 1956; Tudor 1968; Pompey 1974 and 1972d). The reason for these<br />
annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for<br />
these small isolated islands.<br />
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In 1891, J.T. Arundel was granted a coconut planting license by the British Scretary of State<br />
(Garnett 1983a). The grant was for 21 years.<br />
In the 1880’s coconut trees were planted on Nikumaroro by the John T. Arundel and Co.<br />
(Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Laxton 1951; 1892 according to Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
In 1892, J.T. Arundel had 20 Niuean laborers who were clearing the land and planning<br />
coconuts on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett 1983a). They were supervised by Mr. Challis.<br />
Coconuts were planted on the northwest end of Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Pompey 1974 and<br />
1972d). Shortly after, laborers were removed from the island (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1897, Arundel’s interests in Nikumaroro (Gardner) were bought by the Pacific Islands Co.,<br />
Ltd. (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1902, Lever’s Pacific Plantation Ltd. took over Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1914, Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. took over control of Nikumaroro (Gardner)<br />
(Garnett 1983a). Allen (1918) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was leased to the Samoan<br />
Shipping and Trading Company. This was in 1916 (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hydrographic<br />
Office 1916). The lease was for 87 years. However, due to World War I, no activities were<br />
completed on Nikumaroro (Laxton 1951).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1931, no one lived on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
In 1931, the Norwich City, a 3,175 tonne (3,500 ton) vessel, grounded on the western reef of<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; 1929 according to King et al 2001).<br />
According to Laxton (1951), the Norwich City was driven ashore in a gale in 1931. It was<br />
wrecked off the west side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940). It is the most<br />
conspicuous object on the island<br />
Ellis (1937) speculated that Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) might<br />
be useful to relieve overpopulation in the Gilbert Islands.<br />
In February 1937, the H.M.S. Leith anchored at Nikumaroro and erected a plaque and<br />
flagpole and raised the British flag (King et al 2001). They claimed the island for Britain.<br />
In March 18, 1937, Nikumaroro was integrated into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
(Laxton 1951).<br />
There was speculation that Amelia Earhart landed on McKean or Nikumaroro (Gardner) in<br />
1937 (Beheim 2004).<br />
In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Nikumaroro (Gardner) with the Administrative Office<br />
of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Bevington 1990).<br />
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This was the trip that H.E. Maude was on to conduct the pre-settlement survey of<br />
Nikumaroro (Laxton 1951).<br />
In 1937, Gardner was renamed Nikumaroro after the home island of a Gilbertese ancestress,<br />
Nei Manganibuka, who swam from her land “i-an Tamoa” (near Samoa) to Nikunau in the<br />
southern Gilbert Islands with the first buka tree in her mouth (Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968).<br />
Since Nikumaroro (Gardner) was covered with buka trees, it must have been the home of Nei<br />
Manganibuka.<br />
In 1937, 700 Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull),<br />
Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961). Fifty eight Gilbertese were<br />
resettled on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951). The forest had to<br />
be cleared and coconut palms needed to be planted. For a detailed account of the relocation<br />
voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968).<br />
In 1938, the GEIC bought out Burns Philp’s interest in Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In December 1938, a plane from the H.M.S. Leander flew over Nikumaroro and took aerial<br />
photographs (King et al 2001).<br />
In 1938, the lagoon on Nikumaroro (Gardner) was surveyed by the New Zealand Navy in<br />
1938 (December 1938 to February 1939 by the Royal New Zealand Air Force according to<br />
King et al 2001). They chartered the MV Yanawai and arrived on November 30, 1938. The<br />
H.S.S. Leander arrived the following day supported the landing party. Bryan (1941 and<br />
1942) reported that the survey was done in either 1935 or 1938. They marked the lagoon<br />
“British Pacific Airways, Gardner Island Sea Aerodrome Reserve”. Part of the lagoon was<br />
marked off as a landing area for British Pacific Airway planes (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
In 1938, there was a drought as new settlers became established on Nikumaroro (Laxton<br />
1951). In December 1938, two water condenser plants from the Nimanoa were left for the<br />
Nikumaroro settlers.<br />
In 1939, there were 80 natives living on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942; see<br />
also King et al 2001). Their village was just south of the western lagoon entrance. A<br />
concrete cistern had been constructed. Drought and limited number of coconut trees (200)<br />
hindered development of the colony on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
As part of the settlement scheme, about 163 Gilbertese were settled on Nikumaroro (Gardner)<br />
(Pompey 1974 and 1972d).<br />
In April 1939, the U.S.S. Pelican visited Nikumaroro and launched a plane to take aerial<br />
photos of the island (King et al 2001). In November to December 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell<br />
spent a week mapping Nikumaroro (King et al 2001).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1887, J.T. Arundel occupied Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a). In 1891, Arundel obtained a<br />
coconut planting license for Orona (Hull).<br />
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Ellis planted coconut trees on Orona (Hull) as a youth while working for John T. Arundel<br />
Company (Ellis 1946). This was in 1887 (Anon. 1940b; Ellis 1937). He and his brother<br />
landed with 20,000 coconuts for planting (Ellis 1937). At that time, he and his brother and<br />
three natives were the only people in the entire Phoenix Islands (Ellis 1946; see also Morrell<br />
1960).<br />
In 1889, the British clamed Orona (Hull) as a protectorate (Dickson 1939; Hobbs 1945;<br />
Hydrographic Office 1916). Orona (Hull) was annexed by the H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas and<br />
Douglas 1994; Morrell 1960). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed<br />
on each island except Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a<br />
formal declaration and the hoisting of the British flag. The reason for these annexations was<br />
the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that provided a new use for these small isolated<br />
islands.<br />
In 1899, Orona (Hull) was leased to the Pacific Island Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916; 1897<br />
according to Garnett 1983a). There were no inhabitants at that time.<br />
In 1901, the Pacific Islands Co., Ltd. requested a long term lease for Orona (Hull) (Garnett<br />
1983a). The lease was granted in 1902 for 99 years.<br />
In 1902, Lever’s Pacific Plantations Ltd. bought out Pacific Islands Co., Ltd.’s holding on<br />
Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1916, Orona (Hull) was leased to Captain Allen and the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co.<br />
(Bryan 1934; see also Allen 1918; 1914 according to Garnett 1983a) for 87 years for the<br />
production of copra (Bryan 1941 and 1942). The Samoa Shipping and Trading Company<br />
established camps on Orona (Hull) for copra cutting (Pompey 1972b; Tudor 1968).<br />
Allen (1918) reported that Orona (Hull) was uninhabited.<br />
In 1924, there were about 20 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). This included 17<br />
Tokelauan workers, and W. Shafer and his family (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Tokelauan and<br />
Ellice islands according to Dickson 1939). After Captain Allen died in 1925, the group<br />
nearly starved to death since no supplies were received. Shafer died on Orona (Hull) in 1931.<br />
In 1925, there were 15 inhabitants, one American and 14 natives, who lived on the west side<br />
of the island (Dickson 1939).<br />
In 1925, Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd. abandoned Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Orona (Hull) had a boat passage into the lagoon (Foreign Office 1920).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1931, there were 15 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
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In the mid-1930s, there were about 50 workers on the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1977).<br />
Most were working the copra plantations on Manra (Sydney) and Orona (Hull).<br />
In 1936, Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd. purchased Orona (Hull) from the Samoan<br />
Shipping and Trading Co. which was in liquidation (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1937, there were 30 coconut plantation workers on Orona (Hull) including 9 women<br />
(Knudson 1965; Maude 1952 and 1968). A European overseer also lived on Orona (Hull)<br />
(the overseer was J.W. Jones according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
Ellis (1937) speculated that Orona (Hull), Manra (Sydney) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) might<br />
be useful to relieve overpopulation in the Gilbert Islands.<br />
On May 14, 1937, the 250 ton schooner Makoa struck an uncharted coral reef at Orona (Hull)<br />
and was lost (Anon. 1937a; see also Robson 1956). According to Anon. (1937e), the Makoa<br />
was lost on May 25, 1937. Her crew swam ashore and were able to salvage the ship’s gear,<br />
stores, cargo, and boats (Anon. 1937a). The survivors were picked up by the R.M.S. Niaaara<br />
in June 1937. Anon. (1937f) noted that the Makoa had just been thoroughly overhauled and<br />
repainted in Fiji. She was carrying laborers to erect dwellings and copra sheds on Orona<br />
(Hull). Captain Jones arrived on the Makoa that wrecked (Bryan 1941 and 1942). He went<br />
there to manage the island for Burns Philp Co.<br />
In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Orona (Hull) and conducted a survey of the island in<br />
preparation for resettlement (Bevington 1990; see also Maude 1937). The landing party met<br />
Captain Jones and a small group of Tokelauan who were working the coconut plantation.<br />
That same year, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony took over the lease (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942). Captain Jones (from the schooner Makoa) was retained as island administrator.<br />
In 1937, Hull was rechristened Orona (Freeman 1951; Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968). Orona<br />
was the old Polynesian name by which Hull had been known (Maude 1937, 1952 and 1968).<br />
In 1937, Orona (Hull) was incorporated into the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In January 1938, Western Pacific High Commission representatives paid an official<br />
inspection visit to Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) (Anon. 1938g).<br />
In 1938, Donaggho (1953) visited Orona (Hull) as part of the 1938 Line Island Expedition.<br />
The island’s governor, Mr. Jones, greeted the expedition members. There were 31<br />
Tokelauans and Ellice Islanders on Orona (Hull) in addition to the governor.<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) were to be settled first as there were existing coconut<br />
plantations on them (Knudson 1965). Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) could<br />
follow after Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) had been planted in coconut trees and<br />
coconuts became available for settlers (Knudson 1965).<br />
Seven hundred Gilbertese were moved from the Southern Gilbert Islands to Orona (Hull),<br />
Manra (Sydney), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Chapman 1961). The settlers to Orona (Hull)<br />
included both Protestants and Catholics. The 15,000 coconut palms there were apportioned<br />
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to the 432 Gilbertese colonists (Bryan 1951; see also Freeman 1951). For a detailed account<br />
of the relocation voyages and initial resettlement activities, see Maude (1952 and 1968).<br />
Between 1938 and 1939, Orona (Hull) was surveyed by a party from New Zealand (Bryan<br />
1941; Hobbs 1945). Principal coral heads were marked with empty drums. The island was<br />
claimed for British Pacific Airways. The military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona<br />
(Hull) was that they could be small naval bases with good airstrips (Hobbs 1945).<br />
In July 1939, seaplanes from the battleship Colorado landed at Orona (Hull) (Dickson 1939)<br />
in their search for Amelia Earhart.<br />
The Gilbertese settled the island in 1938-1940 (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). In 1939,<br />
there were 80 Gilbertese people in a settlement on the western part of the island<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940). There was a well arranged village where the copra camp used<br />
to be on the west end (Bryan 1941 and 1942). A large concrete cistern had been build. The<br />
14,000 coconut trees had been apportioned to the settlers.<br />
In July 1939, the U.S.S. Bushnell surveyed Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1941; as part of the<br />
surveying expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan Islands according to Schultz 1939). In<br />
1939, the Bushnell blasted channel to the lagoon (Hydrographic Office 1940). This was next<br />
to the village where landings could be made (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The blasted<br />
channel was 0.9 m deep at spring tides.<br />
Anon. (1939j) noted that the Phoenix Islands including Orona (Hull) have been under British<br />
control for 70 to 100 years. Paradise of the Pacific magazine was critical of the Pacific<br />
Islands Monthly regarding their biased reporting of U.S. claims to the Phoenix Islands<br />
including Orona (Hull) and other island groups (Anon. 1939j).<br />
By 1939, the population of Orona (Hull) had reached 307 (Garnett 1983a).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1889, the British proclaimed Phoenix as a protectorate (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969;<br />
see also Hydrographic Office 1916). The British vessel that annexed Rawaki (Phoenix) was<br />
the H.M.S. Egeria (Douglas and Douglas 1994; under Commander Oldham according to<br />
Garnett 1983a). The symbolic acts of declaring protectorates were performed on each island<br />
(Orent and Reinsch 1941). This included a formal declaration and the hoisting of the British<br />
flag. The reason for these annexations was the proposed trans-Pacific cable (Ward 1948) that<br />
provided a new use for these small isolated islands. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that a<br />
careful survey was completed of Rawaki (Phoenix) at that time.<br />
In 1891, J.T. Arundel applied for a coconut planting license for Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In 1897, the Pacific Islands Company took over Arundel’s business (Garnett 1983a). In<br />
1899, Rawaki (Phoenix) was leased to the Pacific Islands Co. (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
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The Pacific Islands Company was purchased by Lever’s Pacific Plantations, Ltd. (Garnett<br />
1983a). In 1914, the Pacific Plantations Ltd. sold out to the Samoa Shipping and Trading<br />
Co., Ltd.<br />
In 1914, Rawaki (Phoenix) was leased to Burns Philp (South Sea) Co. for 87 years (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942; in 1926 according to Garnett 1983a). Another account indicated that it was<br />
leased to Captain Allen of the Samoan Shipping and Trading Co. for 87 years (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942; see also Bryan 1934 and Allen 1918).<br />
In 1924, there was almost no trace of the houses, shed, flagpole and tramway that had been<br />
abandoned by the Phoenix Guano Company in August 1871 (Bryan 1934). In 1924, there<br />
was no one living on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1925, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. died (Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955). In 1926, liquidators of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co. (Captain Allen) sold the<br />
lease for Abariringa (Canton), Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie (Birney) to the Burns Philp Co., Ltd. (Anon 1940e). The<br />
original 99 year lease had 75 years remaining.<br />
In 1926, Rawaki (Phoenix) was bought by Burns Philp (South Seas) Co., Ltd. (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
In 1931, no one lived on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
Between 1902 and 1938, Rawaki (Phoenix) was not visited (Garnett 1982a). Garnett (1982a)<br />
noted that Lever’s Pacific Plantation, Ltd., Samoan Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd., and<br />
Burns Philps (South Seas) Co., Ltd. apparently did no development on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 1937, Rawaki (Phoenix) was placed under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942).<br />
In 1937, the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa visited Rawaki (Phoenix) and conducted a survey of the<br />
island in preparation for resettlement (Bevington 1990). Details of that trip were provided in<br />
Maude (1937). Maude (1937) considered Rawaki (Phoenix) not suitable for settlement due to<br />
the small size and absence of potable water.<br />
In 1938, Rawaki (Phoenix) was declared a bird sanctuary under the Gilbert and Ellice Islands<br />
Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1939, the decision was made to plant 3,500 coconut trees on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett<br />
1983a). Planting was stopped with the outbreak of World War II.<br />
E. WORLD WAR II (1940 TO 1945)<br />
In the last months of 1940, severe gales hit the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965; see also<br />
Gallagher 1941). All islands had damage to housing, coconut trees, and new plantings.<br />
Gallagher (1941) noted that the northwesterly gales were almost continuous for the forth<br />
quarter of 1940.<br />
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By 1940, 729 volunteer colonists had been settled in the Phoenix Islands (Maude 1953b).<br />
Between July and September 1940, an additional 76 settlers and 454 tonnes (500 tons) of<br />
supplies were transported to the Phoenix Islands (Gallagher 1940).<br />
In 1940, infant mortality in the Phoenix Islands reached 50 percent (Gallagher 1940). This<br />
was attributed to incorrect care of infants by their mothers. An education program was<br />
initiated in the form of women’s committees. Since its inception, no infant has been lost on<br />
Manra (Sydney).<br />
In 1941, resettlement of the Phoenix Islands ceased due to the war (Maude 1953a). Attempts<br />
to charter a vessel were not successful (Gallagher 1941). Gallagher (1941) noted that despite<br />
air connections from Abariringa (Canton) to the rest of the work, there was no<br />
communication available between the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Robson (1942) reported that nearly 2,000 people had been resettled to the Phoenix Islands<br />
from the overcrowded Gilbert Islands.<br />
During World War II, the Phoenix Islands became strategically important (Borden 1961). If<br />
Japan had extended its conquests to the Ellice and Phoenix Islands, this would have cut off<br />
U.S. convoys and air links to New Zealand and Australia. Grattan (1963a) reported that there<br />
were coast watchers on the Phoenix group during World War II. The Phoenix Islands were<br />
not occupied by Japan (Knudson 1965).<br />
The Native Government Ordinance of 1941 introduced a revised constitution (Colonial<br />
Office 1951). Due to World War II and the need to translate this constitution into the local<br />
vernacular, it was not operative until 1948. Native governments on three of the Phoenix<br />
Islands were functioning under this revised constitution.<br />
Daniel (1943) noted that all eight of the Phoenix Islands were British-controlled, despite the<br />
1939 United States and Great Britain agreement placing Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury<br />
under joint administration for 50 years (see also Bordon 1961; Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974;<br />
Clune 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
Cooper (1944a) noted that the Americans solved the British transport problem in the Phoenix<br />
Islands. The British District Officer could now routinely visit recently settled Phoenix<br />
Islands by military PBY seaplanes. This would normally require several days of ship travel.<br />
In addition, the U.S. military dropped 1.8 tonnes (2 tons) of foodstuff on an island, thus<br />
averting near famine of the 70 inhabitants.<br />
Luke (1945b) suggested that after phosphate had been removed from Ocean Island (Banaba),<br />
inhabitants might be persuaded to relocated to the Phoenix Islands or elsewhere.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
In 1940, there were 2 Europeans and 2 natives on Abariringa (Canton) (Gallagher 1940).<br />
In March 1940, six U.S. Navy patrol bombers made the 2,679 km (1,665 mile) flight from<br />
Honolulu to Abariringa (Canton) (Leff 1940; Navy Catalinas according to Wright 1951).<br />
This was the first equator crossing by American warplanes.<br />
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In April 1940, Pan American Airways and the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association began<br />
the Abariringa (Canton) plant quarantine station (Van Zwaluwenburg 1943). Planes north or<br />
southbound were inspected and sprayed to kill insects. Insects killed were collected.<br />
In July 1940, the first commercial Pam American Airway clipper landed at Abariringa<br />
(Canton) enroute to New Zealand (Leff 1940). Official commercial air service began on July<br />
12, 1940 (Anon. 1940c).<br />
In October 1940, the American colonists on Abariringa (Canton) were withdrawn since there<br />
were Pan American Airways staff on island (Bryan 1974).<br />
In November 1940, the Department of Interior transferred administration of Abariringa<br />
(Canton) from the U.S. Government to Pan American Airways (Anon 1941a). The Pam<br />
American Airways station manager was appointed as the Department of Interior’s<br />
representative (Bryan 1974; McIntire 1960).<br />
With the outbreak of World War II, Pam American’s service was discontinued (McIntire<br />
1960). The U.S. armed forces then occupied Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Musick Light stood atop a white cylindrical stone tower 8.5 m (28 ft) above sea level<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940) on the southern side of the lagoon entrance (Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969). There was also an aeronautical light atop a steel tower 15.5 m (51 ft) high that<br />
was located about 4.0 km (2.5 miles) southward of Musick Light (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940).<br />
In 1940, the U.S. Congress placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. District<br />
Court of Hawaii (Skaggs 1994; see also McIntire 1960; 1948 according to Office of<br />
Territories 1963).<br />
In 1940, the 4,000 ton freighter Admiral Day was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon.<br />
1940d; September 1940 according to Oates 2003). Several attempts were made to get the<br />
ship off the reef. After several days and several attempts, rescuers gave up. A Rabaul Naval<br />
Court found that the cause of the wreck was carelessness and negligent navigation (Anon.<br />
1940d). However, in Sydney (Australia), it was reported that the decision was only<br />
preliminary and that the captain had answered the charges of carelessness and negligent<br />
navigation. The remaining wreck slipped into deep water (Oates 2003). Oil-soaked timber<br />
washed up on the reef for several weeks after.<br />
During World War II, Abariringa (Canton) became a hub of central Pacific air movement<br />
(Bryan 1974). Detailed accounts of development of Abariringa (Canton) into a military base<br />
were provided in Oates (2003).<br />
In addition to the seaplane landing area, a landing strip (Topham Field) was built on the<br />
northside of the island (Wright 1951). Topham Field was named after J.H. Topham of the<br />
333 Fighter Sqaudron who was killed on Abariringa (Canton) on November 13, 1942 (Oates<br />
2003). Topham Field had two runways were constructed on the northwest corner of the<br />
island (McIntire 1960). One was north-south and the other was east-west. These runways<br />
met near the outer edge of the corner.<br />
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A separate fighter plane landing strip was built on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974; see also<br />
Stack 1982; on the north rim of Abariringa (Canton) according to McIntire 1960). The<br />
fighter plane landing strip was 1.83 km (6,000 ft) (Garnett 1983a). Revetments were built to<br />
protect the fighter aircraft (McIntire 1960).<br />
A road was also built around the island (Bryan 1974). Concrete pillboxes and other<br />
fortifications were built around Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). These<br />
still dot the landscape.<br />
In March 1941, Navy PBYs visited Abariringa (Canton) and completed assessments of the<br />
island and Pan American Airways’ operations (Oates 2003). Later that month additional<br />
Navy PBY visits were completed.<br />
In November 1941, a Catalina PBY flying boat made a record non-stop flight from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) to Sydney, Australia, a distance of 5,310 km (3,300 miles) (Anon.<br />
1941b). This and other PBYs were purchased by Australia to minimize raiders in the South<br />
Pacific.<br />
In 1942 (McIntire 1960), the President Taylor was wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) when she<br />
sought shelter in the lagoon after a warning that Japanese submarines were near (Clune<br />
1951). According to Walker (1955), the Taylor was surprised by Japanese submarines and in<br />
the attempt to bring her to safe water, she was run aground (two Japanese submarines<br />
according to Degener and Degener 1959). The President Taylor was 159 m (522 ft) and<br />
weighed 9,525 gross tonnes (10,500 gross tons) (McIntire 1960). According to Johnson<br />
(1950), the President Taylor grounded while trying to avoid a reported Japanese submarine as<br />
her escort destroyer moved off to drop depth charge patterns. According to Degener and<br />
Gillaspy (1955), the President Taylor was caught in the channel current while trying to<br />
disembark troops as close to shore as possible due to enemy submarine danger. According to<br />
Murphy et al (1954), the officers of the President Taylor thought that they were being chased<br />
by a submarine. A detailed account of the incident was also provided in Oates (2003).<br />
During the war, there was a parade of visitors to Abariringa (Canton) including Noel Coward<br />
(playwright), Rod Laver (tennis star) and Bobby Riggs (tennis star) (Oates 2003).<br />
In 1942, Abariringa (Canton) was shelled three times by the Japanese (Knudson 1965; see<br />
also Wright 1951; Oates 2003).<br />
In probably late 1942, U.S. fighter aircraft began making regular reconnaissance flights from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). They occasionally would drop tobacco, cloth, soap,<br />
candy, and chewing gum to villages on the various other Phoenix Islands.<br />
In late 1942, a Japanese submarine shelled the President Taylor (Degener and Gillaspy 1955;<br />
April 1942 according to Oates 2003).<br />
In late 1942, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker (the most decorated American aviator in World<br />
War I) was enroute to Abariringa (Canton) from Hawaii, when his B-17 aircraft went down<br />
(Oates 2003; see also Wright 1951). He was eventually rescued and his story made headlines<br />
in the U.S. (a detailed account of this flight was provided by Oates 2003). His story of the<br />
ordeal was published in Life Magazine, including his account of eating sea gulls (Wright<br />
1951). There were no seagulls within 1,000 miles of Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951).<br />
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In 1943, Japanese aircraft bombed Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960). Damage was slight<br />
on all four occasions (Degener and Gillaspy 1955; see also McIntire 1960). The island<br />
periodically experienced harrassment attacks (Oates 2003).<br />
In 1943, an artificial channel was blasted and dredged (76.2 m wide and 8.8 m deep)<br />
(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969, see also Bryan 1974; Oates 2003). The dredging<br />
operations created Spam Island (Oates 2003). The channel could then accommodate vessels<br />
not exceeding 128 m (420 ft) in length which could then tie up to the 117 m (385 ft) wharf<br />
(Degener and Gillaspy 1955).<br />
During World War II, the U.S. dollar was widely used in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands,<br />
despite the 1937 Currency Ordinance that made notes from Australian and United Kingdom<br />
the legal tender (Colonial Office 1951). After the war, Abariringa (Canton) was the only<br />
place where the U.S. dollar was allowed as it was a staging point for trans-Pacific air flights<br />
and where the bulk of the business was in dollars.<br />
Cooper (1944b) noted that water was the most precious commodity on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that<br />
they could be small naval bases with good airstrips and seaplane bases.<br />
During World War II, more than 30,000 soldiers came to Abariringa (Canton) according to<br />
Witherspoon (1957; see also Murphy et al 1954). At times there were over 1,100 troops<br />
based on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
After the fall of Tarawa in 1943, the importance of Abariringa (Canton) declined as military<br />
resources were shifted to Kwajalein and westward (Wright 1951).<br />
In 1944, a chain of LORAN (Long Range Navigation Stations) was established in the<br />
Phoenix Islands including Abariringa (Canton) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Oates 2003).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there was a beacon about 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft) high on<br />
the eastern curve of Birnie. Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that others had reported that the<br />
beacon was 9.1 m (30 ft) high. The beacon was constructed from coral sandstone.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 1940, the U.S. Congress placed Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury under the U.S. District<br />
Court of Hawaii (Skaggs 1994; see also McIntire 1960; 1948 according to Office of<br />
Territories 1963).<br />
The Hydrographic Office (1940) reported wrecks of two vessels along the southeast corner of<br />
Enderbury. No details were provided of these ship wrecks.<br />
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Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Enderbury was that it could be a useful lookout<br />
station, but supplies would have to come in by air. Hobbs (1945) noted that Enderbury was a<br />
natural airplane base. There was a small settlement on the southwest corner of Enderbury<br />
that was manned by Americans.<br />
One of the most conspicuous objects on Enderbury was the 6.1 m (20 ft) high heap of guano<br />
on the western side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969). In addition, there were buildings of the settlement at the southwest corner that<br />
were occupied by American citizens (Hydrographic Office 1940). These buildings included a<br />
house, shed, weather and instrument house, a 9.1 m (30 ft) high radio mast, and a flagpole.<br />
A white cylindrical light tower 9.8 m (32 ft) above sea level was being constructed on<br />
Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that the<br />
beacon was 6.1 m high and was located near the landing place on the western side of the<br />
island.<br />
During World War II no use was made of Enderbury (Garnett 1983a).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
There was a dilapidated coral slab beacon 2.4 m (8 ft) high on the southeastern side of the<br />
island (Hydrographic Office 1940). On the southwest side of the island, there was a coral<br />
slab beacon 2.7 m (9 ft) high next to a 13.4 m (44 ft) flagpole.<br />
By the end of 1940, there were 302 settlers on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965; see also<br />
Gallagher 1940). World War II ended additional transfer of people. Employment<br />
opportunities developed for Manra (Sydney) residents. Many were employed on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) during the war and after the war with the commercial airlines. Despite the absence<br />
of the Officer-in-Charge, work continued on Manra (Sydney) (Gallagher 1940).<br />
In 1940, infant mortality in the Phoenix Islands reached 50 percent (Gallagher 1940). This<br />
was attributed to incorrect care of infants by their mothers. An education program was<br />
initiated in the form of women’s committees. Since its inception, no infant has been lost on<br />
Manra (Sydney).<br />
In late 1940, the wireless broke on Manra (Sydney) and communication was lost for a time<br />
(Gallagher 1941).<br />
In 1941, the last boatload of settlers to Manra (Sydney) arrived (Knudson 1977).<br />
In 1941, G.B. Gallagher who assisted H.E. Maude in the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme<br />
passed away during a return trip from Fiji to the Phoenix Islands (Knudson 1965). According<br />
to Luke (1945b), Gallagher died on Manra (Sydney).<br />
In probably late 1942, U.S. fighter aircraft began making regular reconnaissance flights from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). They occasionally would drop tobacco, cloth, soap,<br />
candy, and chewing gum to villages on the various other Phoenix Islands.<br />
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In 1943, men from Manra (Sydney) contracted to work on Abariringa (Canton) either for the<br />
military or Pan American Airlines (Knudson 1965). Also in 1943, American engineers<br />
assessed the possibility of blasting a channel to the lagoon. This was not done because of<br />
concerns that resultant wave action might inundate the village and plantation. Instead, the<br />
passage through the reef was cleared to allow for safer landing from anchored ships.<br />
During the later years of the war, a large four-engine aircraft from Abariringa (Canton)<br />
crashed on Manra (Sydney) (Knudson 1965). The four-engine aircraft was not a B-24, but<br />
rather a twin engine C-47A that crashed in November 1943 on Manra (King et al 2001; see<br />
also Kepler 2000). There were no survivors (Knudson 1965). The next day, a ship from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) came and important equipment and documents were recovered. The<br />
plane was the chief source of aluminum for ornaments. Eventually, there was no trace of the<br />
aircraft.<br />
In 1945, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Orona (Hull) were reported to have<br />
been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (The Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
There were no inhabitants on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
There were about 80 inhabitants on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Their village is on the south side of the western break in the land ridge.<br />
In 1940, there was 1 European and 69 natives on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Gallagher 1940).<br />
Work continued on planting coconut trees. Construction was begun on the government<br />
station. Work also commenced on clearing rocks and roots to level the ground.<br />
In late 1940, low lying areas of Nikumaroro (Gardner) were flooded from high tides and<br />
almost continuous north-westerly gales (Gallagher 1941). This caused considerable damage<br />
to structures. The original site for the settlement was deemed unsuitable because the ground<br />
became water-logged. About 40 houses were taken down and moved to a more appropriate<br />
site. A new 18.0 m (59 ft) flag pole was constructed adjacent to the church.<br />
In 1940, colonist found a partial human skeleton, a woman’s shoe, a man’s shoe, and a<br />
sextant box on Nikumaroro (King et al 2001; see also Beheim 2004; Burns et al 1998). There<br />
was speculation that these belonged to Amelia Earhart. In addition, there were anecdotal<br />
accounts of an airplane wreckage on the fringing reef and lagoon shore. The colonial<br />
administrator, G. Gallagher, communicated this information to the Western High<br />
Commission (Burns et al 1998). He was told to keep the matter “strictly secret.”<br />
King et al (2001) reported that the bones were put in a box and sent to Fiji, but were cast<br />
overboard during the trip. Beheim (2004) noted that artifacts, including bones were<br />
examined by the Central Medical School in Suva, Fiji (see also Burns et al 1998). However,<br />
results were not conclusive. Burns et al (1998) reported that notes of examination in Fiji<br />
were re-examined and it appeared that the bones belonged to a European female.<br />
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In probably late 1942, U.S. fighter aircraft began making regular reconnaissance flights from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). They occasionally would drop tobacco, cloth, soap,<br />
candy, and chewing gum to villages on the various other Phoenix Islands.<br />
During World War II, the Americans set up a radio station on Nikumaroro (Anon. 1952). A<br />
survey was completed in 1943, prior to construction of the navigation station (Laxton 1951).<br />
Good relations were reported between the Americans and the islanders (Anon. 1952).<br />
According to King et al (2001), the U.S. Coast Guard Loran station on the southeast tip of<br />
Nikumaroro was built in 1944 (see also Oates 2003). It was manned by 20 to 30 Coast<br />
Guardsmen. After the war, the radio station was closed (Anon. 1952), then dismantled (King<br />
et al 2001), and the Americans left (Anon. 1952).<br />
In 1945, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Orona (Hull) were reported to have<br />
been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
There was a coral slab beacon 5.2 m (17 ft high) on the western extremity of the island<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940). The proposed British Pacific Airways airport was marked out.<br />
In 1940, there were 2 Europeans and 370 natives on Orona (Hull) (Gallagher 1940). New<br />
dwelling houses, a native court house, a new road, and the hospital were constructed by late<br />
1940.<br />
In late 1940, low lying areas of Orona (Hull) were flooded from high tides and almost<br />
continuous north-westerly gales (Gallagher 1941). This caused damage to local housing.<br />
In probably late 1942, U.S. fighter aircraft began making regular reconnaissance flights from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). They occasionally would drop tobacco, cloth, soap,<br />
candy, and chewing gum to villages on the various other Phoenix Islands.<br />
Hobbs (1945) noted that the military value of Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) was that<br />
they could be small naval bases with good airstrips and seaplane bases.<br />
In 1945, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Orona (Hull) were reported to have<br />
been evacuated due to a prolonged drought (The Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
The island was uninhabited (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
F. POST-WORLD WAR II TO INDEPENDENCE (1946 TO 1979)<br />
In 1947-1948, the population of the Phoenix Islands was 903 indigenous and 230 foreign<br />
(Bryan 1951). The Phoenix Islands settlement had a budget of £16,800 (Colonial Office<br />
1951). According to Laxton (1951), the Phoenix Islands settlements had happy, thriving<br />
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communities. They had schools, hospitals, wireless communication, electd local<br />
governments, and co-operative societies (Maude 1953b). The scheme was considered a<br />
success (Maude 1953b).<br />
By the end of 1947, there were more than 1,000 colonists in the Phoenix Islands (Maude<br />
1953b; 984 in the Phoenix Islands, not including the Americans on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
according to Pusinelli 1948; see also Robson 1956).<br />
By 1952, the Phoenix [Settlement] Scheme was officially declared a failure (Schultz and<br />
Tenten 1979). The primary reason for the project’s failure was the poor water quality or lack<br />
of freshwater on the Phoenix Islands.<br />
There were 1,200 people living in the Phoenix Islands according to Halstead and Bunker<br />
(1954).<br />
By 1955, there were more than 1,300 Catholics in the Phoenix Islands (Garrett 1997). Two<br />
of the Phoenix Islands were under the Roman Catholic diocese that also covered Nauru,<br />
Tuvalu, and the Gilbert islands (Bunge and Cooke 1984). The specific Phoenix Islands<br />
covered were not identified.<br />
Eggs of the grey-backed tern which breed in the thousands in the Phoenix Islands were eaten<br />
during times of food shortage (Child 1960).<br />
After 1963, the Phoenix Islands experienced severe droughts and had been evacuated (Cowell<br />
1966). The droughts forced the colonial government to abandon the Phoenix Islands<br />
Settlement Scheme (Knudson 1977; see also Teiwaki 1988; Bunge and Cooke 1984; repeated<br />
droughts according to Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1993).<br />
For two of the three Phoenix Islands with settlers, abandonment was more for administrative<br />
and financial reasons than because of the viability of otherwise of the settlements themselves<br />
(MacDonald 1982).<br />
In 1963, Grattan (1963a) reported that no one lived in the Phoenix group. By 1964, all the<br />
settlers in the Phoenix Islands had left (Levy 1996).<br />
In March 1965, the U.S. reaffirmed its claim to all eight of the Phoenix Islands (Maude<br />
1968).<br />
From 1968 to 1978, the British Government lease four of the Phoenix Islands to the U.S.<br />
(Teiwaki 1988). The rent was $10,000 annually.<br />
In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship was signed between the United States and the Government<br />
of Kiribati (Trease 1993). This Treaty was approved by the U.S. Senate on June 21, 1982. In<br />
the Treaty, the U.S. acknowledged Kiribati sovereignty over the Phoenix Islands in return the<br />
Government of Kiribati agreed to consult with the U.S. Government should it wish to allow<br />
third party access to the islands for military purposes (Abariringa (Canton) only according to<br />
Ogashiwa 1991).<br />
The Treaty also gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations<br />
with the Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull)<br />
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(Trease 1993). The U.S. retained the right of joint utilization of facilities it had constructed<br />
on Abariringa (Canton) (Skaggs 1994). In addition, there were special provisions within the<br />
Treaty for the mutual development of the marine resources in the Line and Phoenix Islands<br />
(Teiwaki 1988).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
From 1945 to 1946, Abariringa (Canton) was de-militarized (Oates 2003). In 1946, the<br />
aviation facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were transferred from the U.S. War Department to<br />
the Department of Commerce (McIntire 1960). In 1946, the last seaplane landed on<br />
Abiriringa (Kanton) (Oates 2003).<br />
Between 1945 and 1958, the Abariringa (Kanton) was used for trans-Pacific flights by Qantas<br />
and Pan Am (Douglas and Douglas 1994). About 50 commercial flights were serviced there<br />
(Stack 1982). A detailed account of this transformation seasoned with personal stories was<br />
provided in Oates (2003).<br />
In 1946, the Federal Aviation Agency’s island manager represented the Department of<br />
Interior with the designation “United States Resident Administrator, Canton and Enderbury<br />
Islands” (Office of Territories 1963, McIntire 1960; this was done in 1948 according to<br />
Wright 1951). The FAA island manager also served the Justice Department as U.S. Deputy<br />
Marshall, the Treasury Department as disbursing agent, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey<br />
as tide water observer.<br />
In 1947, the last U.S. military personnel left Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951).<br />
In 1947, there were 230 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951).<br />
Maude (1953a) reported 81 people on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Robson 1956). Pusinelli<br />
(1948) reported that there were about 150 Americans and 81 British subjects on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). Of the British subjects, 74 were male and 7 were female.<br />
In 1948, the President Taylor that wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1942 was gutted by fire<br />
(McIntire 1960; Degener and Degener 1969; 1949 according to Johnson 1950). There was<br />
speculation that the fire stared with an explosion of an illicit whiskey still (Degener and<br />
Gillaspy 1955).<br />
In 1948, jurisdiction of the district court of Hawaii was extended to Canton and Enderbury<br />
Islands by an act of Congress (Office of Territories 1963).<br />
In 1948, Pan American Airways restarted their commercial services through Abariringa<br />
(Canton) at a cost of USD 2.8 million (Garnett 1983a). The runway was resurfaced, road and<br />
buildings were built.<br />
In 1949, 134 Gilbertese were employed on Abariringa (Canton) (Knudson 1965). The<br />
European population (including Americans) was 180 people.<br />
In 1949, the population on Abariringa (Canton) was 327 (McIntire 1960; for population<br />
nationality breakdown see Degener and Gillaspy 1955). Degener and Gillaspy (1955)<br />
provided a breakdown on the employment of residents of Abariringa (Canton) in 1949.<br />
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Degener and Degener (1959) reported that W. Cooney and Taylor Salvors, Inc. purchased the<br />
rights to the President Taylor [that wrecked on Abariringa (Canton) in 1942] for $5,200.<br />
Johnson (1950) provided a personal account of the salvage operations on the President<br />
Taylor wreck using the Caronia, a 272 tonnes (300 ton) pleasure yatch (see also Anon. 1954;<br />
Oates 2003). Two primary concerns of the operation were fresh food and freshwater. A<br />
distiller had to be purchased and it required continual maintenance.<br />
In 1950, modern housing units were constructed on the north side of the island near the<br />
runway for the Federal Aviation Agency (McIntire 1960; see also Oates 2003). Three<br />
airlines were using Abariringa (Canton), Pan American World Airways, Qantas Empire<br />
Airways, and Canadian Pacific Airlines. According to Garnett (1983a), British Overseas<br />
Airlines also used the facility.<br />
In 1950, the main air strip was extended and resurfaced by the Federal Aviation Authority<br />
(FAA) (McIntire 1960; see also Wright 1951). The main air strip was 2,316 m (7,600 ft) long<br />
and 45.7 m (150 ft) wide. It was asphalt over a coral base with a 68,040 kg (150,000 pound)<br />
capacity. The overruns at both ends were 122 m (400 ft) on the west, and 457 m (1,500 ft) on<br />
the east end. The runway could be extended another 914 m (3,000 ft) beyond the east end<br />
overrun.<br />
In 1951, the only commercial air service for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony was at<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Colonial Office 1951). In addition to commercial air service, the U.S.<br />
military and the RNZAF had flights through Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1951, the population of Abariringa (Canton) was almost 300 people (Bunker 1951; 253<br />
according to Clune 1951).<br />
In 1951, a weekly newspaper began to be published on Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951).<br />
It was titled, Canton Coral Capers.<br />
In the 1950s there was a small fish exporting enterprise on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
For the first half of 1952, Abariringa (Canton) did not have any outbreaks of communicable<br />
diseases (Pacific Area Communicable Disease Information Service 1952).<br />
In 1952, the first intercontinental jet made its maden voyage from London to South Africa<br />
(Oates 2003). This was the beginning of the end for fuel stops such as Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1954, 762 planes landed on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960).<br />
Pan American World Airways (1954) produced a 3 page brochure for visiting airline<br />
passengers. The brochure provided a brief historic background and information of<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In August 1954, the Canton Outrigger Club was formed to promote knowledge and use of<br />
Gilbertese sailing outrigger canoes (Canton Outrigger Club 1954). The club developed a<br />
constitution. In addition to providing basic sailing and safety guidance, the Canton Outrigger<br />
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Club (1954) provided a summary and diagram of different types of Gilbertese sailing canoes<br />
(te wa).<br />
In 1955, there were about 300 to 400 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1955a).<br />
Half were British, and half were Americans. Walker (1955) reported the population of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) as 280.<br />
Walker (1955) reported observing a rust-encrusted part of the original Canton wreck still on<br />
the beach.<br />
In 1955, there were three oil companies operating on Abriringa (Canton) (Degener and<br />
Gillapsy 1955). There were also three fishing companies operating. One of the fishing<br />
companies exported 8,157 kg (17,984 pounds) of fish to Hawaii in July 1950.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there were four carriers operating through<br />
Abariringa (Canton) including: Pan American World Airways, British Commonwealth<br />
Pacific Airlines, Canadian Pacific Airlines, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Civil Aeronautics<br />
Administration. There were 14.67 flights per week carrying 220 passengers, or 762.67 flights<br />
per year carrying 11,440 passengers.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that the U.S. Civil Aeronautics Administration had 9<br />
ships visit Abariringa (Canton) per year. There were 4 oil company ships and 3 Gilbert and<br />
Ellice Islands ships that also visited Abariringa (Canton) annually (16 vessels per year).<br />
Melamid (1955) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was one of only a few places in the world<br />
where the U.S. dollar could be exchanged 1:1 with the British pound. Transactions, however,<br />
were limited to personal requirements.<br />
There were some attempts to clean up abandoned infrastructure left by the U.S. military after<br />
World War II (Walker 1955; see also McIntire 1960). However, much work still remains to<br />
clean up the island.<br />
After 1955, the Pam American Airways hotel was abandoned (McIntire 1960). By 1958, it<br />
was in shambles (Degener and Degener 1959; see also McIntire 1960).<br />
There was a weather station on Abariringa (Canton) that was manned by 7 men (Degener and<br />
Gillaspy 1955; see also McIntire 1960). In addition, there was a post office in the airport<br />
terminal building (McIntire 1960). The British post office was located on the south side of<br />
the boat channel in the British area with a branch at the airport terminal.<br />
Robson (1956) reported a population of 320, of which 115 were natives. In addition to the<br />
airport, there were two fishing companies operating from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1956, the Caronia that was salvaging the President Taylor caught fire in the lagoon<br />
(Degener and Degener 1959; see also Oates 2003). In 1957, the Coast Guard towed the<br />
wreck of the Caronia out to sea and sank her. Abariringa (Canton) residents mourned the<br />
loss of the Caronia as a fishing platform (Oates 2003).<br />
The population of Abariringa (Canton) was about 300 (Witherspoon 1957). In 1957, the<br />
population of Abariringa (Canton) was 341 (McIntire 1960).<br />
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High sea swells occurred several times in the past (Environmental Data Services 1966). In<br />
January 1958, swells were 4.6 to 6.1 m (15 to 20 ft) high lasted for several days and damaged<br />
the seawall protecting the runway.<br />
In Abariringa (Canton) as well as other remote air field locations operated by Pan American<br />
Airways, there was a motto that was followed call Clipper glory (Oates 2003). Basically,<br />
even after working longer, harder, and smarter than expected, the worker would do the same<br />
tomorrow. There was no second or third shift to relieve workers. Also, there was no city or<br />
other services to support passengers or planes. Workers stayed on duty until the work was<br />
done. This motto extended beyond the airlines to the entire island community.<br />
Since 1958, Pan American and Qantas began using jets to on their flights from Hawaii to<br />
Australia and New Zealand (McIntire 1960). These flights by-passed Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Pan American Airways sold its Abariringa (Canton) installation to Qantas (Oates 2003, no<br />
date provided, but this appeared to have occurred in the late 1950’s).<br />
By 1958, most of the above water portions of the 1942 President Taylor wreck had been<br />
salvaged (Degener and Degener 1959; see also McIntire 1960).<br />
In 1959, the population was 330 (McIntire 1960). In that year, 595 planes landed on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960).<br />
Abariringa (Canton) support for trans-Pacific air flights was already losing its importance due<br />
to developing long-distant flights (Luke 1962).<br />
In September 1959, commercial air flights through Abariringa (Canton) stopped (Stack<br />
1982). Long range jets by-passed Abariringa (Canton). After that, the airstrip on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) was maintained as an emergency landing field until the 1960s (Levy 1996). It was<br />
abandoned after that.<br />
In October 1959, Abariringa was selected by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space<br />
Administration (NASA) as a station for the worldwide Mercury tracking network (Stack<br />
1982).<br />
In 1960, in addition to the regular population, there were 75 members of the Mobile<br />
Construction Battalion Ten on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; see also Oates 2003).<br />
They were involved in construction of the NASA facility there. Construction began in April<br />
1960 and was completed by November 1, 1960. Abariringa (Canton) was designated Station<br />
11 of 26 stations worldwide (Oates 2003).<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that vessels more than 128 m (420 ft) in length with drafts more<br />
than 7.0 m (23 ft) should not enter the Abariringa (Canton) lagoon entrance, except in an<br />
emergency. The lagoon turning basin was unsafe for vessels greater than 61 m (200 ft)<br />
(Degener and Gillapsy 1955). The wharf can be used by vessels of 4,536 gross tonnes (5,000<br />
gross tons) can tie up (according to Degener and Gillapsy 1955). There was anchorage on the<br />
reef side south of the lagoon entrance for vessels that drew less than 7.3 m (24 ft). For larger<br />
ships, there was no good anchorage on the outer shelf.<br />
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Freshwater was supplied by six Cleaver-Brooks units (McIntire 1960). Each unit produced<br />
757 lt (200 gallons) of freshwater per hour.<br />
Pratt (1961) presented an illustration of the hand stamp used to stamp mail originating from<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1961, there was an agreement between the Governments of the United Kingdom and the<br />
United States regarding the establishment and operation of a space vehicle tracking and<br />
communication station on Abariringa (Canton) (U.S. Department of State 1961; 1959<br />
according to Stack 1982). This was in connection with the U.S. manned earth satellite<br />
program (Project Mercury according to Douglas and Douglas 1994). The missile tracking<br />
station was being constructed in the summer of 1960 by NASA (McIntire 1960).<br />
In 1962, there were about 400 people living on Abariringa (Canton) (Office of Territories<br />
1963).<br />
The Chance Vought Company set up a monitoring station on Abariringa (Canton) to monitor<br />
the nuclear blast from Christmas Island (Oates 2003, probably in about 1962).<br />
The U.S. Federal Aviation Agency maintained facilities in Abariringa (Canton) (Office of<br />
Territories 1963). They maintained the airport, communication links, electrical power plant,<br />
water production, and sanitary facilities. A private oil company maintained the fuel facilities.<br />
The U.S. Weather Bureau provided meteorological services. The U.S. Department of Interior<br />
provided two school teachers who organized classes for kindergarten to 8 th grade. There<br />
were more than 30 students on Abariringa (Canton). A three-bed hospital was also<br />
maintained by the U.S. Department of Interior.<br />
A U.S. Coast Guard vessel visited Abariringa (Canton) annually to service navigational<br />
buoys (Office of Territories 1963). Shipping was irregular and much was done by charter<br />
vessel.<br />
Radiogram service was provided by a British station (Office of Territories 1963).<br />
In 1963, there were 101 people in Millers Camp and 104 at the District Station, for a total<br />
population of 205 on Abariringa (Canton) (McArthur and McCaig 1963)<br />
The satellite tracking station was established on Abariringa (Canton) in 1965 (Levy 1996).<br />
In June 1965, the FAA (formerly the CAA) ceased operations on Abariringa (Canton) (Oates<br />
2003). The facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were turned over to NASA. NASA operated<br />
the air navigation aids on Abariringa (Canton) until November 1965 (Oates 2003).<br />
By 1966, the dredged channel north of Spam Island had shrunk from 76.2 m to 61.0 m wide<br />
(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). On the western side of the turning basin (north of the<br />
channel, there is a wooden faced jetty 109.7 m long with a depth (in 1957) of 9.1 m<br />
(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1966, the island population was about 500 (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973).<br />
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There were two settlements on Abariringa (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The northern<br />
settlement was the United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA)<br />
Stellite Tracking station and meteorological station. There were about 60 U.S. personnel at<br />
this station. The Gilbertese settlement of about 100 people was on the southern side.<br />
The hotel and other installations had fallen into disrepair (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
The District Commissioner of the Phoenix Islands District still maintained a house and<br />
residency on the shore of the lagoon inside the opening. There was a small boat pier at this<br />
site.<br />
Abariringa (Canton) became a port of entry for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
(Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1967, the aviation facilities on Abariringa (Kanton) were closed (Douglas and Douglas<br />
1994; see also Bryan 1974).<br />
In 1967, the NASA satellite tracking station on Abariringa (Canton) was closed (Levy 1996;<br />
see also Garnett 1983a; 1968 according to Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004). Control<br />
of the facility passed to the U.S. Air Force. The unused facility was being taken care of by an<br />
i-Kiribati family. The U.S. turned over these facilities to the Government of Kiribati (Levy<br />
1996) [year of turnover not specified]. According to Stack (1982), the Government of<br />
American Samoa was authorized to salvage whatever it wanted from the deactivated site.<br />
Then Abariringa (Canton) was abandoned.<br />
Near the northwestern end of Abariringa (Canton), there was an aircraft light tower that was<br />
12.2 m in height (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). There was a beacon 3.4 m high on a<br />
wood structure on the western side of the boat channel (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1968, Topham Field, Abarirnga (Canton) was relegated to emergency airport status (Oates<br />
2003). The FAA and the Government of Amerian Samoa were the caretakers. Equipment<br />
was removed and transported to Western Samoa. The post office was removed and the<br />
Brfitish District Officer was transferred. There were no activities and no work to sustain the<br />
economy.<br />
In 1968, there were no residents on Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (Zwart and Groenewegen 1968).<br />
In the fall of 1968, the U.S. Air Force dispatched a small security force (of American<br />
Samoans) to remain on location. This security force stayed until September 1970 (Oastes<br />
2003).<br />
In 1969, the Canton Operating Location was set up by the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile<br />
Test Center (SMTC) (Stack 1982; see also Oates 2003; 1970 according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
The initial function was to test the accuracy of Minuteman missiles fired from Vandenbeg Air<br />
Force Base (AFB) in California. It later became part of the world wide Space Track network.<br />
Tall radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury as<br />
part of the missile tracking system (Stack 1982).<br />
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In 1969, Abariringa (Canton) was reinhabited by 200 U.S. Air Force personnel as part of the<br />
U.S. missile testing system (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973) for tracking anti-ballistic<br />
missiles (Balazs 1975).<br />
Since 1970, the U.S. Department of Defense had authority on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) to conduct missile launch tracking research (Balazs 1975).<br />
In the 1970’s, temporary facilities for USAF SAMTEC were set up on Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Orona, and Enderbury (King et al 2001; see also Oates 2003). Stack (1982) noted that these<br />
were very expensive operations. It only took 30 or 40 people to operate the facility, but it<br />
took hundreds more to service the facility. There was a reason why no one lived on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). Water had to be distilled from seawater, and all food and materials had<br />
to be either flown or shipped in.<br />
In October 1970, Abariringa (Kanton) was officially uninhabited (Douglas and Douglas<br />
1994).<br />
During the 1970’s, the population of Abariringa (Canton) varied between 200 and 350 people<br />
(Stack 1982). Most of these were contractors to the U.S. Air Force.<br />
In 1971, operational readiness tests were conducted on the various facilities in the Phoenix<br />
Islands, including Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003). The facilities used heliocopters to<br />
transport staff and equipment between the islands.<br />
In 1972, NOAA shut down the upper-air and sea-level stations at Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(TOGA Panel 1996). This closed down occurred right at the beginning of the 1972-1973 El<br />
Niño event and ended the 20 years time series data set. TOGA Panel (1996) reported that the<br />
U.S. entered into a bilateral agreement with New Zealand for the maintenance of the upperair<br />
station at Abariringa (Canton) which was subsequently closed.<br />
From 1972 to 1979, a radio station, WXLE, operated on Abariringa (Canton) 24 hours a day,<br />
7 days a week (Ricquish 1982). This was part of the American Forces Radio and Television<br />
Service (AFRTS). Programs were solely for the entertainment of the 300 or so personnel on<br />
Abariringa (Canton), but reception was periodically as far as New Zealand.<br />
In 1973, a major scientific survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon (Smith<br />
and Henderson 1976 and 1978) by University of Hawaii staff (Paulay 2000). The specific<br />
objective of the survey was to determine the impacts of human influences had on the atoll<br />
through World War II and post-war occupation.<br />
An ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra<br />
(Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The purpose of this<br />
survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess the status of<br />
terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise adverse<br />
ecological effects of SAMTEC operations. The conclusion was that the USAF had<br />
substantial success in minimizing the impact of the SAMTEC operations in the Phoenix<br />
Islands.<br />
The history of postal cancellation stamps used in the Phoenix Islands was reviewed (Kyle<br />
1974). Only Abariringa (Canton) really ever had postal service (mail stamp cancellation).<br />
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There were examples of stamp cancellation from Enderbury. The other Phoenix Islands<br />
never had postal services.<br />
In 1976, the USAF SAMTEC program in Abariringa (Canton) was deactivated (King et al<br />
2001; Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004; deactivation began in 1974 according to Stack<br />
1982; deactivated in 1979 according to Garnett 1983b). Most bulky noncombustibles were<br />
piled in an area adjacent to the landfill on Abariringa (Canton) (King et al 2001). Stack<br />
(1982) noted that giant USAF C-5 transport aircrafts were used to transport out important<br />
equipment and staff. Stack (1982) noted that most of the equipment was abandoned as the<br />
costs for continued operation as part of the Space Track network were too high. Once again,<br />
the Govenrment of American Samoa was permited to salvage what they wanted.<br />
A small number of i-Kiribati were based at the facility on Abariringa (Canton) to maintain<br />
remaining facilities and to ensure that American Samoa did not occupy it (Garnett 1983b).<br />
Garnett (1983b) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was also claimed by American Samoa.<br />
In 1977, there was a major collecting trip by the Steinhart Aquarium of San Francisco and the<br />
Waikiki Aquarium to collect small shark specimens (Oates 2003).<br />
In 1978, there was no one living on Abariringa, but it was projected that this island could<br />
support 100 people (Kiribati 1983). A project for development of Abariringa was identified<br />
with a cost of AUD 1 million (Kiribati 1983). However, specific details of this project were<br />
not provided.<br />
In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship signed between the United States and the Government of<br />
Kiribati gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations with the<br />
Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (Trease 1993).<br />
Government of Kiribati agreed to consult with the U.S. Government should it wish to allow<br />
third party access to the islands for military purposes. This was only for Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Ogashiwa 1991). The Treaty was made after the U.S. decided to withdraw its military<br />
installations on Abariringa (Canton) after 40 years of occupation (Ogashiwa 1991).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 1947, no one lived on Birnie (Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 1956).<br />
A stone beacon 4.9 m (16 ft) high was located on the eastern extremity of the island<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
There were no inhabitants on Birnie (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Since 1970, the U.S. Department of Defense had authority on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) to conduct missile launch tracking research (Balazs 1975).<br />
According to King (1973), the USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra<br />
(Sydney) from the U.K. Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001).<br />
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In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The<br />
purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess<br />
the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise<br />
adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations.<br />
Birnie was claimed by both the U.K. and the U.S. (King 1973).<br />
In 1975, Birnie’s bird protection status (from the 1938 Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony<br />
Wild Birds Protection Ordinance) was confirmed in the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 1946, the Federal Aviation Agency’s island manager represented the Department of<br />
Interior with the designation “United States Resident Administrator, Canton and Enderbury<br />
Islands” (Office of Territories 1963; McIntire 1960; this was done in 1948 according to<br />
Wright 1951).<br />
The FAA island manager also served the Justice Department as U.S. Deputy Marshall, the<br />
Treasury Department as disbursing agent, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey as tide water<br />
observer<br />
In 1947, no one lived on Enderbury (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson<br />
1956).<br />
In 1948, jurisdiction of the district court of Hawaii was extended to Canton and Enderbury<br />
Islands by an act of Congress (Office of Territories 1963).<br />
In 1962, Enderbury was uninhabited (Office of Territories 1963).<br />
The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported a wreck on the fringing reef on the southeastern<br />
side of the island.<br />
Enderbury was uninhabited (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1969, as part of the Canton Operating Location that was set up by the USAF SMTC, tall<br />
radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury (Stack<br />
1982; see also King 1973). Holmes and Narver constructed a 61 m (200 ft) radio antenna at<br />
one end of Enderbury, two 12.2 m (40 ft) sighting towers at the other end of the island, a<br />
road, and an air conditioned trailer (Bryan 1974; King 1973; see also Stack 1982). Supplies<br />
were brought in by helicopter from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Two or three employees were on Enderbury most of the time (King 1973). This facility was<br />
serviced daily by helicopter from Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983a).<br />
By 1970, all signs of former habitation were no longer visible on Enderbury, except for the<br />
lighthouse and one frame house (Bryan 1974; see also King 1973).<br />
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In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The<br />
purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess<br />
the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise<br />
adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations.<br />
The history of postal cancellation stamps used in the Phoenix Islands was reviewed (Kyle<br />
1974). There were examples of stamp cancellation from Enderbury. The other Phoenix<br />
Islands never had postal services.<br />
In July 1979, the U.S. Air Force SAMTEC facility on Enderbury was closed down (Garnett<br />
1983a). It was operational from 1970 to 1979 (Garnett 1983b).<br />
In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship signed between the United States and the Government of<br />
Kiribati gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations with the<br />
Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (Trease 1993).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1947, there were 294 people living on Manra (Sydney) (Freeman 1951; Maude 1953a;<br />
Robson 1956; 294 or 300 according to Garnett 1983a). Of these 123 were males and 171<br />
were females (Pusinelli 1948). Manra (Sydney) had its own villages, schools, hospital,<br />
churches, and co-operative society (Garnett 1983a).<br />
By 1948, there were 299 persons on Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1951).<br />
In 1949, the colonists were moved from Manra (Sydney) to Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Clune<br />
1951).<br />
Manra (Sydney) was the only island that did not have a cooperative since all inhabitants had<br />
been removed (Cooper 1963). The coconut plantation was operated by the Phoenix Islands<br />
Co-operative Society. The copra collection ship visited the Phoenix Islands once every four<br />
months.<br />
There was a mysterious mortality amongst infants on Manra (Sydney) (Clune 1951 and<br />
Halstead 1950). Research indicated that fish from one side of the island were poisonous, but<br />
did not adversely affect adults. However, it was fatal to infants.<br />
In the early 1950s, there was a series of droughts on Manra (Sydney) that resulted in the<br />
elders of Manra (Sydney) to request that the colony be transferred elsewhere (Knudson 1965<br />
and 1977). However, not all of the settlers of Manra (Sydney) wished to move (Knudson<br />
1965). These were primarily Catholic converts. According to Luke (1962), the reason for the<br />
move was because the soil on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for coconut trees, the lagoon was<br />
too salty for fish, and many of the fish around Manra (Sydney) were poisonous.<br />
A number of families on Manra (Sydney) had to be moved to Nikumaroro (Robson 1956).<br />
The importance of Portulaca in the diets of settlers of the Phoenix Islands was reported by<br />
Turbott (1954). It was an important source of vitamin C and a major part of the diet.<br />
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However, it was considered too strong for the sick and infants. Turbott (1954) provided<br />
preparation instructions for Portulaca that were used on Manra and Orona.<br />
After, a severe drought struck and between 1955 and 1958, the Manra colony was moved to<br />
Gizo in the Solomon Islands (Garnett 1997; see also Knudson 1965; between 1958 and 1964<br />
according to the Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1955, the first group of settlers from Manra (Sydney) landed in Gizo, Solomon Islands<br />
(Anon. 1955b; see also Chapman 1961; Knudson 1965 and 1977). According to Douglas and<br />
Douglas (1994), the entire population was transferred to Gizo, Solomon Islands in 1958 (369<br />
people according to Knudson 1977). Hilder (1959) reported on the transport of the last 220<br />
Nikumaroro (Sydney) residents that were moved to the Solomon Islands. The charter of the<br />
M.V. Tulagi that transported residents to the Solomons cost about £5,000 (Hilder 1959).<br />
Until 1961, Manra (Sydney) was occupied by copra cutters who were then evacuated due to a<br />
prolonged drought (King 1973). In 1961, Manra was abandoned due to a severe drought<br />
according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
After the departure of the last settlers, Manra (Sydney) was handed over to the co-operative<br />
treading societies on Orona (Hull) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) for use as plantations for added<br />
income and mutual benefit (Knudson 1965)<br />
In 1964, it was reported that there were two passages through the reef that had been improved<br />
by blasting (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
The USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra (Sydney) from the U.K. (King<br />
1973). Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, Nikumaroro,<br />
McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001).<br />
In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The<br />
purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess<br />
the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise<br />
adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations.<br />
Manra (Sydney) was claimed by both the U.K. and U.S. (King 1973).<br />
In 1978, there was no one living on Manra, but it was estimated that this island could support<br />
300 people (Kiribati 1983).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
In 1947, no one lived on McKean (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948; Robson<br />
1956).<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported no inhabitants on McKean.<br />
In 1975, Wildlife Sanctuary status was confirmed for McKean under the Wildlife<br />
Conservation Ordinance of 1975 (Garnett 1983a).<br />
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NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
After the departure of the Americans, the islanders became discontent (Anon. 1952). Most<br />
wanted to return to the Gilbert Islands. After discussions and meeting with P.B. Laxton<br />
settlers agreed to stay (Laxton 1951).<br />
In 1947, there were 79 people living on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Freeman 1951; Maude<br />
1953a; Pusinelli 1948; Robson 1956).<br />
By 1948, there were 84 persons on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1951).<br />
In 1949, Manra (Sydney) colonists were moved to Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Clune 1951). A<br />
number of families on Manra (Sydney) had to be moved to Nikumaroro due to the difficult<br />
living conditions there (Robson 1956). There were a total of about 125 people living on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 1955, there was a complete LORAN radio station with several diesel generators and other<br />
equipment that had been left on Nikumaroro (Gardner) since World War II (Anon. 1955c).<br />
The building was no longer weather-proof and this equipment was deteriorating.<br />
In the 1960s, the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme visited Nikumaroro (Gardner)<br />
several times (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1963, there were 112 people in Ritiati, 118 in Noriti, for a total of 230 people on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) (McArthur and McCaig 1963).<br />
When the Phoenix Islands were hit with another drought in 1963, relief measures were<br />
needed (MacDonald 1982). In 1963, 210 settlers of Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated<br />
because of a drought (King 1973; see also Garnett 1983a). Settlers on Orona (Hull) and<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated to the Solomon Islands, even though by January 1964<br />
the islands had clearly recovered from the drought (MacDonald 1982). The primary factor<br />
for the relocation was the cost and inconvenience of administration. All settlers were taken to<br />
Wagina Island in the Solomon Islands (Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
The settlement on Nikumaroro lasted until 1964 (Gilbert Islands 1978).<br />
In 1967, the island was uninhabited (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). Flying boats had<br />
landed in the lagoon successfully.<br />
In 1968, there were no residents on Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (Zwart and Groenewegen 1968).<br />
By 1969, the wreck of the Norwich City was reported to be breaking up (Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969).<br />
According to King (1973), the USAF leased Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Manra<br />
(Sydney) from the U.K. Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, McKean, and Birnie (King et al 2001).<br />
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In 1973 and 1975, a joint Smithsonian Institute/Royal Society expedition visited Nikumaroro<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1974, the Line Islands Expedition visited Nikumaroro (Gardner) briefly (Garnett 1983a).<br />
On the southeast end of Nikumaroro there had been some kind of activity (King et al 2001).<br />
This appeared to be related to the USAF space and missile center there during the 1970s.<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) was claimed by both the U.S. and U.K. (King 1973).<br />
In 1978, there was no one living on Nikumaroro, but it was estimated that this island could<br />
support 250 people (Kiribati 1983).<br />
In 1978, the Gilbert Islands (1978) conducted a survey of Nikumaroro after 14 years of<br />
abandonment (see also Garnett 1983b). Natural resources such as fish, coconut, and coconut<br />
crabs were abundant. However, it was noted that these resources could be depleted by large<br />
influxes of people. Resettlement was not recommended (Garnett 1983b).<br />
Preliminary plans were included in Gilbert Islands (1978) regarding possible resettlement of<br />
Nikumaroro. It was estimated that the island would support 25 families initially. This might<br />
be expanded to 100 families later. The plans included cost estimates.<br />
After 1978, small groups of copra cutters and fishermen have been landed on Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) for a few months at a time to collect and dry copra and to catch and salt fish<br />
(Garnett 1983a).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1947, there were 530 people living on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Maude<br />
1953a; Robson 1956). Of these 241 were males and 289 were females (Pusinelli 1948). The<br />
community included a village, schools, hospital, churches, and co-operative society (Garnett<br />
1983a).<br />
By 1948, there were 558 persons on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1951).<br />
The population of Orona (Hull) was 575 people (Robson 1956).<br />
The importance of Portulaca in the diets of settlers of the Phoenix Islands was reported by<br />
Turbott (1954). It was an important source of vitamin C and a major part of the diet.<br />
However, it was considered too strong for the sick and infants. Turbott (1954) provided<br />
preparation instructions for Portulaca that were used on Manra and Orona.<br />
In 1963, there were 286 people in Arariki, and 297 in Kukutin, for a total of 583 people on<br />
Orona (Hull) (McArthur and McCaig 1963).<br />
In 1963, when the Phoenix Islands were hit with another drought, relief measures were<br />
needed (MacDonald 1982). In 1963, there was an advance party from the Phoenix Islands<br />
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[probably Orona] to Wagina, Solomon Islands (Cochrane 1970). The advance party prepared<br />
houses and land. In early 1964, the main party from the Phoenix Islands arrived in Wagina.<br />
In 1963, 590 Gilbertese were evacuated from Orona (Hull) (King 1973). They were<br />
evacuated to Wagina, Solomon Islands (Douglas and Douglas 1994). The island was<br />
evacuated in 1965 due to lack of water (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; severe drought<br />
according to Garnett 1983a).<br />
Settlers on Orona (Hull) and Nikumaroro (Gardner) were evacuated to the Solomon Islands,<br />
even though by January 1964 the islands had clearly recovered from the drought (MacDonald<br />
1982). The primary factor for the relocation was the cost and inconvenience of<br />
administration.<br />
According to Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004), the real reason for abandonment of the<br />
resettlement scheme on Orona was not the drought, but rather homesickness, isolation, and<br />
lack of communication. Wells were salted so that officials would send settlers back to the<br />
Gilbert Islands.<br />
In 1968, the flagstaff was reported missing and the markings for anchorages and the boat<br />
passage were gone (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In 1968, there were no residents on Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (Zwart and Groenewegen 1968).<br />
In 1969, as part of the Canton Operating Location that was set up by the USAF SMTC, tall<br />
radar towers were constructed on Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury (Stack<br />
1982; temporary facilities set up in the 1970s according to King et al 2001; see also King<br />
1973; Oates 2003).<br />
Since 1970, the U.S. Department of Defense had authority on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) to conduct missile launch tracking research (Balazs 1975).<br />
In 1970, a 61 m (200 ft) antenna was constructed on Orona (Hull) by the USAF (King 1973;<br />
see also Stack 1982). The antenna was checked periodically by heliocopter from Abariringa<br />
(Canton). About 5 ha were cleared around the U.S. Air Force SAMTEC site on Orona<br />
(Hull) (Garnett 1983a). The facility was serviced daily by heliocopter from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (see also Garnett 1983a).<br />
From 1970 to 1979, there was a small American team on Orona (Hull) to man a satellite and<br />
missile tracking station (Garnett 1983a).<br />
Orona (Hull) was claimed by the U.K. and the U.S. (King 1973).<br />
In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The<br />
purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess<br />
the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise<br />
adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations.<br />
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In 1978, there was no one living on Orona, but it was estimated that this island could support<br />
400 people (Kiribati 1983).<br />
In 1979, the USAF facility on Orona was closed (Garnett 1983b).<br />
In 1979, the Treaty of Friendship signed between the United States and the Government of<br />
Kiribati gave the U.S. Government the right to construct facilities, after consultations with the<br />
Government of Kiribati on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (Trease 1993).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1947, no one lived on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1951; Freeman 1951; Pusinelli 1948).<br />
There were no inhabitants on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
In May and June 1973, an ecological survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Fosberg et al 1973). The<br />
purpose of this survey was to report on the ecological impacts of SAMTEC operations, assess<br />
the status of terrestrial ecology of islands visited, and to make recommendations to minimise<br />
adverse ecological effects of SAMTEC operations.<br />
G. POST INDEPENDENCE (1979 TO PRESENT)<br />
In 1979, the 370 km (200 mile) exclusive economic zone around the Phoenix and Line<br />
Islands was declared by Kiribati (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
The eight Phoenix Islands lacked permanent populations (Bunge and Cooke 1984).<br />
The 1979 Treaty of Friendship was to be reviewed after 5 years (Teiwaki 1988). Teiwaki<br />
(1988) noted that the treaty provided no tangible benefits for Kiribati and that Kiribati was<br />
denied the sovereignty of developing the Phoenix and Line Islands by the treaty.<br />
Tuvalu requested the use of some of the uninhabited Phoenix Islands (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
However, this request was not acted upon.<br />
Another attempt would be made to settle the Phoenix Islands as three of the eight islands had<br />
potential (Keith-Reid 1996).<br />
In 1996, the Government of Kiribati offered a Kiribati passport for sale to investors<br />
(primarily Chinese) (Crocombe 2001). The charge was USD 15,000 and the first year USD<br />
2 million was earned. However, investors were charged USD 30,000 and surplus funds went<br />
to the minister. The passport entitled the bearer to invest and live in the uninhabited Phoenix<br />
Islands (Crocombe 2001). By 1999, none had taken up residence.<br />
Surveys for manganese nodules had been completed in the Phoenix Islands in the 1980’s by<br />
the Germans and Japanese (Glasby 2002). Global attempts to exploit these resources failed<br />
due to a collapse of world metal prices, onerous provisions in the U.N. Convention on the<br />
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and overoptimistic assumptions regarding the viability of nodule<br />
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mining. Continued efforts to harvest these resources require heavy subsidy by the host<br />
governments.<br />
The international community should encourage the Phoenix Islands Project to promote and<br />
cooperate with the Central Pacific World Heritage Project (UNESCO World Heritage Centre<br />
2004).<br />
In 2006, Kiribati designated the Phoenix Islands marine protected area that was to be funded<br />
by an endowment fund (Anon 2006). The chronology of events to make the Phoenix Islands<br />
a protected area was presented.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
In mid-1979, the USAF withdrew even its token caretaker force leaving the island<br />
uninhabited again (Stack 1982). According to Garnett (1983a), a handful of i-Kiribati<br />
remained on the island as caretakers.<br />
The Americans left Abariringa (Canton) after 1979, the year of Kiribati’s independence<br />
(Bataua 1989). Most of the good equipment there was shifted to Tarawa. There was also a<br />
work force on Abariringa (Canton) to repair and maintain the remaining buildings and<br />
machinery. When Kiribati became independent in 1979, the U.S. relinquished all claims to<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) and Enderbury (Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
In 1979, the U.S. disposed of their interests in the Phoenix Islands through the Treaty with<br />
the Government of Kiribati (Skaggs 1994), but retained the right of joint utilization of<br />
facilities it had constructed on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Onorio (1984) reported that the shore facilities on Abariringa (Canton) were better than those<br />
in the Line group. However, they were deteriorating and needed to be used.<br />
In 1985 there were 24 people living on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank<br />
(2002).<br />
In 1988, a household survey was conducted on Abariringa (Canton) (Yeeting 1988). All 5<br />
households were surveyed (total population 18). The average number of people per<br />
household was low because government employees there left household members (children<br />
and working adults) in Tarawa where the schooling and work opportunities were better. This<br />
survey focused on marine and fisheries issues.<br />
In 1990, there were 45 people living on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank<br />
2002, Statistics Office 1991). These were all i-Kiribati. Nine worked for the Government of<br />
Kiribati (Statistics Office 1991). In that year (1990), the Government of Kiribati installed<br />
firefighting equipment and refueling capacity at the airstrip on Abariringa (Canton) (Levy<br />
1996). This was in order to provide emergency landing facilities between Tarawa and<br />
Christmas Island.<br />
In 1993, Abariringa (Kanton) was the only Phoenix Island with inhabitants (Neemia and<br />
Thaman 1993).<br />
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According to Douglas and Douglas (1994), there were 45 people on Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
In 1992, it was reported that there were 45 government workers and their families lived on<br />
Canton (Republic of Kiribati 1992). The 1995 annual need for freshwater (1995) was<br />
estimated at 2000 m 3 and 3000 m 3 by 2000. There were 8 rain water tanks, and 7 open and 7<br />
protected wells. There was one health center on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) had a small population of civil servants (Integrated Marine Management<br />
Ltd. 1993).<br />
In 1995, there were 83 people there (Asian Development Bank 2002).<br />
In 1995, the survey team for the Phoenix Islands made numerous recommendations for<br />
development of the Phoenix Islands, specifically Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra,<br />
and Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). These included the re-settlement of<br />
Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. Overseas funding was suggested<br />
as a mechanism for funding these projects.<br />
In 1997, the Te Kakai scheme was proposed for Manra, Orona, Nikumaroro, and Abariringa<br />
(Tunaari) to utilize idle resources there (Tauati 1997). The basic plan included four<br />
activities: (1) copra production, (2) seaweed planting and harvesting, (3) sea cucumber<br />
collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided ($95,048) was a 12 month<br />
budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies.<br />
In 2000, there were 61 people on Abariringa (Kanton) (Asian Development Bank 2002).<br />
In the 2000 census, Statistics Office (2002b) reported that of the 61 people on Abariringa<br />
(Kanton), 29 were male, and 32 were female. Detailed demographic information on these<br />
residents was provided in Statistics Office (2002b).<br />
There was a NOAA meteorological station on Abariringa (Kanton) (Kaufmann 2000).<br />
Kaufmann (2000) reported about 40 people on Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Servicing Abariringa (Katon) and Orona were a financial problem as the volume of cargo was<br />
too small to meet shipping costs (Timeon 2001).<br />
In 2001, there was a notice in the Travel Notes of Angling Destinations, Incorporated (Anon.<br />
2001) soliciting anglers interested in a special fishing trip to Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Oxfam Community Aid Abroad (2002) noted that Nauru and Kiribati had not signed the 1951<br />
Convention on the Status of Refugees. The Australian Government approached the<br />
Government of Kiribati regarding the possibility of setting up new refugee detention camps<br />
(Maley et al 2002; see also Oxfam Community Aid Abroad 2002). Refugee camps had<br />
already been set up in Papua New Guinea in exchange for AUD 10 million of economic<br />
assistance. A camp had also been set up in Nauru.<br />
In October 2001, a team of 3 Australians and 2 i-Kiribati officials travelled to Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) to investigate the abandoned U.S. military base as a possible detention camp<br />
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(Oxfam Community Aid Abroad 2002). After the visit, Australia rejected Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) for logistical reasons (Maley et al 2002; Oxfam Community Aid Aboard 2002).<br />
Abariringa was proposed as a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager<br />
2002).<br />
During a 2002 expedition to the Phoenix Islands, a trimaran yacht was observed on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) with an American and his Fijian partner (Neilson 2002). They had lived<br />
there for 6 months and had erected a shack and constructed a water catchment. They did not<br />
have any permit to be there.<br />
Stone (2004) reported 35 people living on Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
1992, Birnie was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Birnie, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
(Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
When Kiribati became independent in 1979, the U.S. relinquished all claims to Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) and Enderbury (Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
Garnett (1983a) noted that since Kiribati independence in 1979, no use had been made of<br />
Enderbury.<br />
1992, Enderbury was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Enderbury, were uninhabited except Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
Most recently, Enderbury had become part of the U.S. anti-ballistic missile program (Douglas<br />
and Douglas 1994).<br />
In 1995, the survey team for the Phoenix Islands made numerous recommendations for<br />
development of the Phoenix Islands, specifically Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra,<br />
and Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). These included the re-settlement of<br />
Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. Overseas funding was suggested<br />
as a mechanism for funding these projects.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
1992, Manra was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
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In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Manra, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
(Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
In 1995, the survey team for the Phoenix Islands made numerous recommendations for<br />
development of the Phoenix Islands, specifically Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra,<br />
and Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). These included the re-settlement of<br />
Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. Overseas funding was suggested<br />
as a mechanism for funding these projects.<br />
In 1997, the Te Kakai scheme was proposed for Manra, Orona, Nikumaroro, and Abariringa<br />
(Tunaari) to utilize idle resources there (Tauati 1997). The basic plan included four<br />
activities: (1) copra production, (2) seaweed planting and harvesting, (3) sea cucumber<br />
collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided (AUD 95,048) was a 12 month<br />
budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies. Manra was proposed as<br />
a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002).<br />
In 2002, the fore part of a plane (3.5 m) was found on the west interior of Manra (Bukaeireiti<br />
and Rabaua 2002). In addition, evidence of an old wooden vessel (oxidized iron, thin copper<br />
strips, and non-carbonaceous rocks=ballast) was found on the northwest side of the island.<br />
The exact location of the shipwreck could not be determined.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
There were no intact buildings or other structures on McKean (Garnett 1983a).<br />
In 1992 McKean was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including McKean, were uninhabited except Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
Preconstruction environmental surveys were carried out on Manra, Nikumaroro, McKean,<br />
and Birnie (King et al 2001). This was for the U.S. Air Force’s Space and Missile Test<br />
Center (SAMTEC) program in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
In 2001, a fish trawler wrecked on McKean (Kerr and Wragg 2006). International Maritime<br />
Organization (2004) reported that the vessel was the Korean fishing vessel, Chance No. 301,<br />
that grounded on McKean Islands. It was a total loss, but no lives were lost, and there were<br />
no injuries. Weather was not a factor in the accident. This vessel has been suspected in<br />
introducing the Asian rat to McKean (Pierce et al 2006).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 1980, it was proposed that a resettlement project be developed to include Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (Brechtefeld 1980). Investigations indicated that resettlement was possible, despite<br />
British Government denial of aid for this project. The proposal included a loan program for<br />
participants and initial government support for the settlers.<br />
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In 1991, two more shoes were found on Nikumaroro (King et al 2001). One matched a shoe<br />
that Amelia Earhart worn (see also Burns et al 1998), the other was a man’s shoe.<br />
1992, Nikumaroro was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Nikumaroro, were uninhabited except Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
In 1995, the survey team for the Phoenix Islands made numerous recommendations for<br />
development of the Phoenix Islands, specifically Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra,<br />
and Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995). These included the re-settlement of<br />
Abariringa (Tunaari), Enderbury, Manra, and Nikumaroro. With a total land area of 414<br />
hectares, 50 to 100 families could be settled on Nikumaroro (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Overseas funding was suggested as a mechanism for funding these projects.<br />
In 1997, the Te Kakai scheme was proposed for Manra, Orona, Nikumaroro, and Abariringa<br />
(Tunaari) to utilize idle resources there (Tauati 1997). The basic plan included four<br />
activities: (1) copra production, (2) seaweed planting and harvesting, (3) sea cucumber<br />
collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided (AUD 95,048) was a 12 month<br />
budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies.<br />
The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) had generated<br />
anthropological data consistent with the theory that Amelia Earhart landed and died on<br />
Nikumaroro (Burns et al 1998). Four surveys and excavations had been completed by<br />
TIGHAR.<br />
There were a few wrecked fishing boats on McKean (King et al 2001).<br />
Nikumaroro was proposed as a substitute site for the Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager<br />
2002).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1992 Orona was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Orona, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
(Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
There was a radar station on Orona that was built by the U.S. (Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
In 1997, the Te Kakai scheme was proposed for Manra, Orona, Nikumaroro, and Abariringa<br />
(Tunaari) to utilize idle resources there (Tauati 1997). The basic plan included four<br />
activities: (1) copra production, (2) seaweed planting and harvesting, (3) sea cucumber<br />
collection and (4) shark fin production. The budget provided (AUD 95,048) was a 12 month<br />
budget for expenses, not including staff costs and medical supplies.<br />
In mid-2001, as preliminary work for development of the Kakai Scheme Project, marine<br />
surveys were conducted on Orona (Tioti et al 2001). The purpose of the marine survey was<br />
to develop a baseline of information so that impacts from new settlers could be measured.<br />
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In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Islands<br />
Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002). The main activities of the scheme included:<br />
(1) cutting copra, (2) shark fins, (3) sea cucumbers, (4) seaweed, and (5) replanting coconut<br />
trees and cleaning. The initial budget was AUD 397,750.36. Sixty workers were recruited<br />
and sent to Orona with a one year contract (Tehumu 2004).<br />
In 2001, 68 copra workers and their families were moved to Orona as part of the Kakai<br />
Scheme (Mangubhai 2002). In 2001, 200 villagers were settled on Orona (Obura and Stone<br />
2003; see also Timeon 2001). One of their primary activities was to catch sharks for the<br />
sharkfin market. Copra production was limited due to breakdown of the tractor, rats, and<br />
limited coconuts (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Shark finning was initially successful with<br />
the use of longline. However, the boat and engine broken and could not be repaired. Sea<br />
cucumbers were not abundant. Only wae ura and tabanebane were found in harvestable<br />
amounts.<br />
In 2001, seaweed was transplanted in 2001 from Fanning, but this failed as the vessel stayed<br />
too long on Christmas Island (PIKS Project Manager 2002). A second attempt in 2002 from<br />
Fanning was successful. Coconut planting was planned for the second year of this project.<br />
In 2002, a survey was conducted and wae ura was found on the ocean side (PIKS Project<br />
Manager 2002).<br />
Servicing Abariringa (Katon) and Orona were a financial problem as the volume of cargo was<br />
too small to meet shipping costs (Timeon 2001). This was a major problem for the Phoenix<br />
Islands Kakai Scheme on Orona. Monthly trips were planned, but KSSL schedules resulted<br />
in only period visits.<br />
In June 2001, an emergency trip was made to Orona using the Fisheries Division’s Nei<br />
Tebenebene to deliver needed supplies to Orona (Timeon 2001). This was a fishing vessel,<br />
not a cargo vessel. It left Betio overloaded. Rough seas (5 m waves) and strong winds (15<br />
knots) resulted in excessive fuel consumption forcing a trip to Abariringa (Kanton) to pick up<br />
additional fuel for the return trip.<br />
After a year of operations, difficulties developed as scheduled shipping hardly visited Orona<br />
(PIKS Project Manager 2002). Shipping companies wanted diversion or charter fees for<br />
deviating from their Tarawa to Christmas Island route. Scheduled stops were not enforced by<br />
the government. Charter and deviation fees were a major expense of this project.<br />
Major construction under the Kakai Scheme included: office plus toilets, maneaba, well,<br />
copra shed, house for support staff and workers (PIKS Project Manager 2002). In addition, a<br />
new road was also completed.<br />
In 2004, the Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme (PIKS) was officially closed by a Cabinet<br />
resolution (Minute No.: 18/03) (Tehumu 2004). This was after substantial expenses were<br />
incurred. Workers’ contracts were extended until the date of departure from Orona.<br />
Repatriation costs were met by the Office of Te Beretitenti and the Ministry of Line and<br />
Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID).<br />
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One of the primary factors in the failure of the PIKS was the location of Orona (Tehumu<br />
2004). Transportation costs were too high for the volume of cargo. In addition, copra<br />
production was much lower than expected. This impacted revenue and resulted in the need<br />
for further government subsidies. There some speculation that some workers returned with<br />
tons of dried fish and buckets of te were (sea cucumbers).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were three separate helicopter landing<br />
pads on the northwestern rim of Orona. These were constructed of perforated steel sheets.<br />
About 5 ha around these featured had been bulldozed (see also Garnett 1983a).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
1992, Rawaki was uninhabited (Republic of Kiribati 1992).<br />
In 1993, all Phoenix Islands, including Rawaki, were uninhabited except Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
(Neemia and Thaman 1993).<br />
H. REFERENCES CITED<br />
Abbott, T.C. 1966. Barren Enderbury Island: focus for biological survey. Pacific Bird<br />
Observer 3: 1-4.<br />
Allen, P.S. 1918. Stewart's hand book of the Pacific. Sydeny: McCarron, Stewart & Co.,<br />
Ltd.<br />
Anderson, A. 2002. Faunal collapse, landscape change and settlement history in remote<br />
Oceania. World Archaeology 33(3): 375-390.<br />
Anon. 1821a. Capt. Allen of New-Bedford. Boston Commercial Gazette, Boston. June 18,<br />
1821 (see Ward 1967b, p. 27).<br />
Anon. 1821b. Captain Allen, of the ship Maro. Independent Chronicle and Boston Patriot,<br />
Boston. June 9, 1821 (see Ward 1967b, p. 26).<br />
Anon. 1821c. The ship Maro. New Bedford Mercury, New Bedford. June 8, 1821 (see<br />
Ward 1967b, p. 24-25).<br />
Anon. 1826. New islands. Nantucket Inquirer, Nantucket. November 25, 1826 (see Ward<br />
1967a, p. 269-271).<br />
Anon. 1828. New Islands. Boston Courier, Boston. May 7, 1828 (see Ward 1967a, p. 346-<br />
347).<br />
Anon. 1835. Mr. Samuel Joy. New Bedford Mercury, New Bedford. March 20, 1835 (see<br />
Ward 1967b, p. 539-540).<br />
Anon. 1850. Brig Agate from McKean's Island. The Daily Herald, Newburyport. January<br />
25, 1850 (see Ward 1967a, p 80).<br />
93
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Anon. 1853a. Marine matters. Commonwealth, Boston. April 25, 1853 (see Ward 1967g,<br />
p. 27).<br />
Anon. 1853b. New Island. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford. December 14, 1853 (see<br />
Ward 1967d, p. 525-526).<br />
Anon. 1854a. Loss of ship Canton. The Daily Evening Standard, New Bedford. Novmber 1,<br />
1854 (see Ward 1967a, p. 67-68).<br />
Anon. 1854b. Loss of ship Canton. Boston Morning Post, Boston. November 2, 1854 (see<br />
Ward 1967a, p. 69-70).<br />
Anon. 1854c. Ship Canton. Newburyport Herald, Newburyport. November 30, 1854 (see<br />
Ward 1967a, p. 71 ).<br />
Anon. 1855a. Adventures of a whaling crew. Boston Daily Journal, Boston. April 20, 1855<br />
(see Ward 1967a, p. 76-78).<br />
Anon. 1855b. Wreck of the ship Canton, Wing, N. Bedford. The Friends, Honolulu. June<br />
15, 1855 (see Ward 1967a, p. 79).<br />
Anon. 1855c. Wreck of a New Bedford whale ship. Boston Daily Atlas, Boston. January<br />
27, 1855 (see Ward 1967a, p. 73).<br />
Anon. 1855d. Wreck of a whale ship-perilous adventures of the crew. The Friends,<br />
Honolulu. March 1, 1855 (see Ward 1967a, p. 74-75).<br />
Anon. 1855e. Wreck of a whaleship. Salem Daily Journa, Salem. January 27, 1855 (see<br />
Ward 1967a, p. 72).<br />
Anon. 1856. The new guano islands. Boston Daily Journal, Boston. April 8, 1856 (see<br />
Ward 1967b, p 258-259).<br />
Anon. 1859a. $10 per ton to load guano at McKean's Island. Daily Evening Standard, New<br />
Bedford. May 27, 1859 (see Ward 1967c, p. 89).<br />
Anon. 1859b. A lucky man. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford. May 31, 1859 (see Ward<br />
1967b, p. 81).<br />
Anon. 1859c. Guano charter. The Alta California, San Francisco. May 5, 1859 (see Ward<br />
1967c, p. 88).<br />
Anon. 1859d. The guano trade of the Pacific. The Friends, Honolulu. July 15, 1859. July<br />
15, 1859 (see Ward 1967b, p. 395-396)<br />
Anon. 1859e. The new guano islands. Daily Evening Traveller, Boston. April 20, 1859<br />
(see Ward 1966, p. 205-206).<br />
94
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Anon. 1859f. Brig Agate from McKean's Island. The Friends, Honolulu. July 1859 (see<br />
Ward 1967c, p. 90).<br />
Anon. 1859g. Form the Sandwich Islands. Daily Evening Traveller, Boston. September 26,<br />
1859 (see Ward 1967c, p. 301-303).<br />
Anon. 1860a. A new guano island in the Pacific. Boston Daily Courier, Boston. January<br />
24, 1860 (see Ward 1967b, p. 344-345).<br />
Anon. 1860b. A new island. Boston Journal, Boston. October 31, 1860 (see Ward 1967a, p<br />
81).<br />
Anon. 1860c. A newly discovered island. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford. November 6,<br />
1860 (see Ward 1967b, p. 346).<br />
Anon. 1860d. Foreign ports. Boston Daily Journal, Boston. January 28, 1860 (see Ward<br />
1967c, p. 91-92).<br />
Anon. 1860e. General news item. Atlas and Daily Bee, Boston. February 14, 1860 (see<br />
Ward 1967c, p. 97).<br />
Anon. 1860f. Guano. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford. February 10, 1860 (see Ward<br />
1967c, p. 93).<br />
Anon. 1860g. Howland's Island. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford, January 14, 1860 (see<br />
Ward 1967b, p. 266-267).<br />
Anon. 1860h. The Phoenix Guano Islands. Daily Evening Standard, New Bedford.<br />
February 13, 1860 (see Ward 1967c, p. 94-96).<br />
Anon. 1861a. Brig Agate Lawton, 31 days from McKean's Island. The Friends, Honolulu.<br />
March 1, 1861 (see Ward 1967a, p. 272).<br />
Anon. 1861b. Importation of guano under the provisions of the Guano Act of August 18,<br />
1856. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, New York. June 1861 (see Ward 1967e, p. 504-506).<br />
Anon. 1861c. Ship Osborn Howes (of Boston). Salem Gazette, Salem. Augsut 9, 1861 (see<br />
Ward 1967c, p. 98).<br />
Anon. 1866. Harbor of Aspia Island, Upolu, Navigators' Island. Whalemen's shipping list,<br />
New Bedford. May 15, 1866 (see Ward 1967f, p. 397-399).<br />
Anon. 1867a. An old wreck discovered. Boston Daily Advertiser, Boston. June 7, 1867<br />
(see Ward 1967f, p. 498-499).<br />
Anon. 1867b. Barque Golden Sunset. Boston Daily Journal, Boston. March 15, 1867 (see<br />
Ward 1967d, p. 529).<br />
Anon. 1867c. Barque Golden Sunset. The Daily Herald, Newburyport. March 18, 1867<br />
(see Ward 1967d, p. 530).<br />
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Anon. 1868a. Loss at the guano islands in the Pacific. Boston Daily Advertiser, Boston.<br />
February 22, 1868 (see Ward 1967b, p. 318-319).<br />
Anon. 1868b. Loss of three Boston ships in the Pacific Ocean, their crews all saved. The<br />
Boston Herald, Boston. February 4, 1868 (see Ward 1967b, p. 313-314).<br />
Anon. 1868c. Loss of three Boston Ships. Newburyport Daily Herald, Newburyport.<br />
February 5, 1868 (see Ward 1967b, p. 316-317).<br />
Anon. 1868d. Report of Schooner San Diego. The Friends, Honolulu. February 1, 1868<br />
(see Ward 1967b, p. 309-311).<br />
Anon. 1870. Notes about islands in the Pacific. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser,<br />
Honolulu. April 16, 1870 (see Ward 1967a, p 82-83).<br />
Anon. 1871. Sailing directions for Phoenix Island. The Friends, Honolulu. August 1, 1871<br />
(see Ward 1967d, p. 531-532).<br />
Anon. 1936. In Phoenix group. N.Z. party will observe total eclipse in 1937. Pacific<br />
Islands Monthly 6(11): 67. June 17, 1936.<br />
Anon. 1937a. A.S. "Makoa" stuck uncharted reef at Hull Island. Pacific Islands Monthly<br />
8(1): 54. August 25, 1938.<br />
Anon. 1937b. Phoenix group: now included in Gilbert and Ellice Colony. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 7(10): 64. May 26, 1937.<br />
Anon. 1937c. Solar eclipse in central Pacific. Pacific Islands Monthly 7(11): 75, June 23,<br />
1937.<br />
Anon. 1937d. U.S.A. claim to Canton Is. Incident in aviation rivalry. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 7(12): 10, July 23, 1937.<br />
Anon. 1937e. “Makoa" wrecked, total loss on Hull Island. Pacific Islands Monthly 7(12):<br />
10, July 23, 1937.<br />
Anon. 1937f. B.P Extended to Phoenix Group. Pacific Islands Monthly 7(12): 33, July 23,<br />
1937.<br />
Anon. 1937g. American monument on Canton Island. Paradise of the Pacific 49(10): 14.<br />
October 1937.<br />
Anon. 1937h. British occupation of Canton Island. Pacific Islands Monthly 8(3): 55.<br />
October 22, 1937.<br />
Anon. 1937i. "Hullo, Canton." Phoenix base in touch with Union liners by radio-telephone.<br />
Pacific Islands Monthly 8(5): 53. December 21, 1937.<br />
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Anon. 1938a. United States claims small Pacific islands (Canton Island). China Weekly<br />
Rev. (Shanghai) 84: 56. March 12, 1938.<br />
Anon. 1938b. American expansion in Pacific alarms Japanese. China Weekly Rev.<br />
(Shanghai) 84(7): 187. April 16, 1938.<br />
Anon. 1938c. Pacific specks: Canton Island and Enderbury Island. Newsweek 11: 13.<br />
(March 21, 1938).<br />
Anon. 1938d. Canton and Enderbury Islands. Geographic Review 28(2): 328.<br />
Anon. 1938e. Friendly rival claims for Canton Island. British official party now in<br />
possession there. Pacific Islands Monthly 8(8): 9-10. March 24, 1938.<br />
Anon. 1938f. Friendly relations: British and Americans on Canton Island. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 8(11): 23. June 22, 1038.<br />
Anon. 1938g. Canton Island officially inspected. Pacific Islands Monthly 8(7): 28.<br />
December 21, 1937.<br />
Anon. 1938h. Americans on Canton Island. Pacific Islands Monthly 8(8): 4. March 24,<br />
1938.<br />
Anon. 1938i. Coverted Phoenix Islands. Burns Philip sell lease to government. Pacific<br />
Islands Monthly 9(5): 50. December 15, 1938.<br />
Anon. 1939a. New settlers of Phoenix Islands. Pacific Islands Monthly 9(10): 12. May 16,<br />
1939.<br />
Anon. 1939b. Monument to international co-operation: Canton Island, a practical<br />
experiment in British-American collaboration in the Pacific. Christian Science Monitor<br />
December 23, 1939: 13.<br />
Anon. 1939c. Oasis in central Pacific. American achievement on Canton Is. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 10(5): 10. December 15, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939d. Phoneix Islands. New imperial outpost in the Pacific. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 9(6): 7. January 16, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939e. Canton Is. Preparation as station on south Pacific air service. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 9(7): 19. February 15, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939f. Another condominium. Britain and U.S.A. in Phoenix Islands. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 9(9): 7. April 17, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939g. How Canton Island was named. Pacific Islands Monthly 9(7): 41. February<br />
15, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939h. Americans visit Canton Island. Pacific Islands Monthly 9(10): 47. May 16,<br />
1939.<br />
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Anon. 1939i. Rapid preparation of seaplane base at Canton Island. Pacific Islands Monthly<br />
9(12): 5-6. July 15, 1939.<br />
Anon. 1939j. Christmas and Hull Islands. Paradise of the Pacific 51(6): 8. June 1939.<br />
Anon. 1940a. A transfer of population: from Gilbert to Phoenix Islands. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 10(9): 20. April 16, 1940.<br />
Anon. 1940b. Death of central Pacific pioneer. Pacific Islands Monthly 11(2): 47.<br />
September 1940.<br />
Anon. 1940c. How Canton Island got its name: epic open-boat voyage that rivalled Bligh's.<br />
Pacific Islands Monthly 11(2): 29-30. September 1940.<br />
Anon. 1940d. How Carpenter ship was lost; extraordinary circumstances. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 11(5): 54. December 1940.<br />
Anon. 1940e. New colonists in Phoenix group. Pacific Islands Monthly 11(3): 25. October<br />
1940.<br />
Anon. 1941a. Canton Island now under P.A.A. administration. Pacific Islands Monthly<br />
11(7): 13. February 1941.<br />
Anon. 1941b. Canton Island to Sydney. Record non-sop flight of 3,300 miles. Pacific<br />
Islands Monthly 12(4): 7. November 15, 1941.<br />
Anon. 1952. The colonists of Gardner Island. Pacific Islands Monthly 22(11): 41. June<br />
1952.<br />
Anon. 1954. Salvage at Canton. Pacific Islands Monthly 24(6): 106-107. January 1954.<br />
Anon. 1955a. Canton Island: how barren atoll became big airways station. Pacific Islands<br />
Monthly 26(5): 123, 125. December 1955.<br />
Anon. 1955b. Valuable radio equipment rusts on Gardner Island. Pacific Islands Monthly<br />
25(6): 123. January 1955.<br />
Anon. 1955c. First Gilbertese settlers in the Solomons. Pacific Islands Monthly 26(4): 106.<br />
November 1955.<br />
Anon. 2001. Kanton Island on the edge. Angling Destinations Incorporated. Travelnotes, p.<br />
6.<br />
Anon. 2006. Kiribati designates large MPA, to be funded by endowment. SPC Fisheries<br />
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Arundel, J.T. 1885. The Phoenix group and other islands. Typed copy. 10 pp.<br />
98
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Asian Development Bank. 2002. Kiribati monetization in an atoll society, managing<br />
economic and social change. In consultation with the Government of Kiribati and with<br />
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Baarslag, K. 1940. Islands of adventure. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc. 338 pp.<br />
Balazs, G.H. 1975. Marine turtles in the Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 184.<br />
Bataua, B. 1979. Developers eye remote Line, Phoenix atolls. Island Business, May 1989,<br />
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Beheim, E. 2004. Searching for Amelia. Naval Aviation News. September-October 2004.<br />
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diary of Eric R. Bevington, concerning Nimumaroro and other surveyed islands in the<br />
Phoenix Group. C/O the Resident Commissioner, Ocean Island, West Pacific.<br />
Bigelow, H.W. 1939. Some notes on Sydney Island.<br />
Black, R.B. 1938. Thirteenth cruise to American equatorial islands. Paradise of the Pacific<br />
50(9): 5, 27.<br />
Black, R.B. 1939. Fourteenth cruise to American equatorial islands. Paradise of the Pacific<br />
51(1): 15.<br />
Boggs, S.W. 1938. American contributions to geographical knowledge of the central<br />
Pacific. Geographic Review 28(2): 177-192.<br />
Borden, C.A. 1961. South sea islands. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith Company. 256 pp.<br />
Brechtefeld, D. 1980. Resettlement in the Line and Phoenix Groups.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1934. Archaeology of the Phoenix Islands. 15 typed pages.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1937. Phoenix guano islands - eclipse mecca. Paradise of the Pacific 49(4):<br />
27, 31.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1939. Natural history of the Phoenix Islands. B.P. Bishop Museum Special<br />
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Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1941. American Polynesia: coral islands of the central Pacific. Honolulu:<br />
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Child, P. 1960. Birds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Atoll Research Bulletin No.<br />
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Cooper, H. 1944a. Phoenix Islands transport: Americans solve a British problem. Pacific<br />
Islands Monthly 14(6): 17. January 1944.<br />
Cooper, H. 1944b. Pacific cross-roads; lonely Canton Island serves a wartime purpose.<br />
Pacific Islands Monthly 15(3): 12-13. October 1944.<br />
Cooper, H.R.R.L. 1963. Copra marketing in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. South Pacific<br />
Bulletin 13(1): 63-68.<br />
Cowell, T.R. 1966. Pacific compendium; statistical and general information on the Pacific<br />
islands associated with the South Pacific Commission. Suva: South Pacific Office.<br />
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American whaleships. Zoologica, N.Y. 19(1): 1-50.<br />
Tracey, J.I. 1979. Mineral resources of the U.S. Pacific Islands and Trust Territory of the<br />
Pacific Islands, 1979. (cited unseen from Burnett and Lee 1980).<br />
Tracy, J.I. Jr., R.A. Gulbrandsen, and B.D. Hackman. 1972. Investigation of phosphate<br />
resources on Enderbury Island, Phoenix Islands, April-May 1971. U.S. Geological Survey.<br />
Trease, H.V. 1993. From colony to independence. <strong>Chapter</strong> 1 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll<br />
Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of<br />
Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP.<br />
TOGA Panel. 1996. Learning to predict climate variations associated with El Niño and the<br />
Southern Oscillation. National Academy Press.<br />
Tudor, J. 1968. Pacific Islands year book and who's who. Tenth Edition. Sydney: Pacific<br />
Publications.<br />
Turbott, I.G. 1954. Portulaca, a specialty in the diet of the Gilbertese in the Phoenix Islands,<br />
central Pacific. Journal of the Polynesian Society 63(1): 77-86.<br />
UN Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization. 1979. Issues on<br />
Kiribati (Gilbert Islands). Decolonization. No. 15.<br />
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2004. Central Pacific World Heritage Project, National<br />
Workshop, 5-11 October 2004, Kiritimati Island, Republic of Kiribati. UNESCO,<br />
MELAND, Coral Reef Alliance.<br />
U.S. Department of State. 1961. Tracking station on Canton Island; agreement between<br />
United States of America and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,<br />
effected by exchnage of notes signed, London, April 6, 1961. Treaties and Other<br />
International Acts. Vol. 12, Part 1. U.S. Printing Office. Series 4718. pp 313-320.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1941. Canton Island. Hawaiian Planters Record 45: 15-24.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1943. The insects of Canton Island. Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 11: 300-312.<br />
Waesche, H.H. 1938. An equatorial cruise. Volcano Letter 461: 1-5.<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Walker, H. 1955. Air age brings life to Canton Island. National Geographic Magazine 57:<br />
117-132.<br />
Ward, J.M. 1948. British policy in the South Pacific. Sydney: Australasian Publishing Co.,<br />
Pty. Ltd.<br />
Ward, R.G. 1966. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history,<br />
geography, and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the<br />
Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc.<br />
Volume 1.<br />
Ward, R.G. 1967a. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history,<br />
geography, and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the<br />
Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc.<br />
Volume 2.<br />
_____. 1967b. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 3.<br />
_____. 1967c. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 4.<br />
_____. 1967d. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 5.<br />
_____ . 1967e. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 6.<br />
_____. 1967f. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 7.<br />
_____. 1967g. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history, geography,<br />
and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken<br />
from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc. Volume 8.<br />
Warner, H.H. 1939. University in the South Pacific. Paradise of the Pacific 51(12): 74-75.<br />
December 1939.<br />
Wiens, H.J. 1962. Atoll environment and ecology. New Haven and London: Yale Univ.<br />
Press.<br />
Wilkes, C. 1845a. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years<br />
1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume III.<br />
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Wilkes, C. 1845b. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years<br />
1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume V.<br />
Williams, J. 1937. Hawaii is pivot of American-Pacific defence plan; explanation of<br />
enormous fortification expenditure in north east Pacific. Pacific Islands Monthly 8(4): 49-52.<br />
November 25, 1937.<br />
Williams, J. 1938. Please join us in a cold beer! Pacific Islands Monthly 8(9): 5. April 22,<br />
1938.<br />
Winslow, P. 1853. Discoveries in the Pacific. The Daily Mercury, New Bedford. March<br />
10, 1853 (see Ward 1967f, p. 506-509).<br />
Witherspoon, P.B. 1957. Canton Island. Pacific Discovery 10(6): 14-21.<br />
Wright, T. 1951. Canton coral capers. Trade Winds, CAA, Ninth Region, Honolulu, July<br />
1951, pp. 15-23.<br />
Yeeting, B.M. 1988. Canton Atoll preliminary marine resource survey. Ministry of Natural<br />
Resources Development, Fisheries Division.<br />
Zwart, F.H.A.G., and K. Groenewegen. 1968. A report on the restuls of the census of the<br />
population 1968. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. South Pacific Commission.<br />
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3. TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES<br />
A. FRESHWATER<br />
CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
Foreign Office (1920) noted that few of the Phoenix Islands had any water supply. Brackish<br />
water pools were found. Neilson (2002) reported that there was no free standing bodies of<br />
freshwater on any of the Phoenix Islands (see also Obura and Stone 2003). All inland bodies<br />
of water were saline.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Maude (1937) reported digging several wells around Abariringa (Canton). In addition, there<br />
were a few wells already present on Abariringa (Canton). All the wells dug by Maude’s 1937<br />
party had good and average quality water and similar in quality that found in the Gilbert<br />
Islands.<br />
There is no freshwater on the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bunker 1951).<br />
There are a few old wells on the northeast rim near an old guano collection area.<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that rainfall on Abariringa (Canton) was insufficient to build up a<br />
good Ghyben-Herzberg lens (freshwater lens). Any lens that developed was not a dependable<br />
source of freshwater.<br />
Environmental Data Service (1966) reported that some rainwater can be collected, but most<br />
drinking water must be distilled from sea water.<br />
Guinther (1978) reported on the terrestrial surface and subsurface water on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). All sites surveyed were to some degree saline.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing freshwater on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
ponds were saline. There was a freshwater lens, but periods of drought result in the water<br />
from the lens becoming almost undrinkable.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that in Bikentabakea, the water table was shallow,<br />
only 30 cm deep. But at Teieta, Tebaronga and Umari villages, the depth of the well was<br />
more than 1 m. Well water at Uamari and Tebaronga was good. Well water at Bikentabakea<br />
had high salinity, but less that that at Terieta.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the freshwater lens on Abariringa (Kanton) was less than 2 m<br />
below the surface (see also Obura and Stone 2003). It was brackish and showed signs of<br />
contamination.<br />
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Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water<br />
sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table<br />
III-3.1).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Table III-3.1. Salinity and water chemistry of various water sources on<br />
Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona.<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no fresh water on Birnie.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that no test wells were dug on Birnie since there were little prospects<br />
for finding freshwater and the island was so small that it was unsuitable for settlement.<br />
Garnett (1983) indicated that there was no evidence of a freshwater lens on Birnie.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
According to Hydrographic Office (1916), there was no fresh water on Enderbury. There<br />
was no standing surface freshwater on Enderbury (Garnett 1983).<br />
There was a small water hole just north of the southern coconut grove (Bryan 1934). The<br />
water was brackish, but no worse than that natives use for drinking in other Pacific islands.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that seven wells were dug. All wells yielded salty water. Maude<br />
(1937) noted that even the brackish water drunk by Gilbertese may not be found on<br />
Enderbury.<br />
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Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that the water from the water pool on the southern<br />
end of Enderbury was salty.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water<br />
sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table<br />
III-3.1).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Arundel (1885) reported an old water hole on the west side of the lagoon on Manra (Sydney)<br />
with excellent fresh water (see also Wiens 1962).<br />
Hydrographic Office (1916) reported that there was no freshwater on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that on the southeast side was a low area with a slightly brackish pond.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the existing well had excellent freshwater. An additional well<br />
was dug in the southwest of the island, but the water from it was not drinkable. Additional<br />
wells were dug. Wells on the west and northwest parts of the island had freshwater. Those<br />
elsewhere had brackishwater.<br />
There are several wells that provide brackish water (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing surface freshwater on Manra (Sydney).<br />
There was a freshwater lens at the western and north-western end of the island, but these fail<br />
and wells go brackish after prolonged drought conditions.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that wells were 2 to 3 m deep on Manra. Water from<br />
the old well and the two newly dug wells were fresh and drinkable.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water<br />
sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table<br />
III-3.1).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on McKean.<br />
Throssell and Specht (1989) reported that there was no surface freshwater on McKean.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there was no evidence of a freshwater lens on McKean.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that no freshwater could be found on Nikumaroro (Gardner) by the<br />
U.S. Exploring Expedition. But the presence of rats may suggest the presence of freshwater.<br />
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Maude (1937) reported that 8 wells were dug. Only 2 wells had water of fair quality, and 1<br />
well had water fresher than many wells in the Gilbert Islands. These wells were dug at the<br />
end of the dry season.<br />
There were a few wells on the island, but they were brackish (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
In 1978, the abandoned cistern on Nikumaroro was examined (Gilbert Islands 1978). Water<br />
tests were positive for coliform at cistern 1. Cistern 2 required maintenance and had no<br />
water. Various test wells were dug and an old existing well was examined. All had water<br />
with salinity over 560 ppm. Specifications for existing cisterns and wells examined were<br />
provided in Gilbert Islands (1978).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there was no standing surface freshwater on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
The several small ponds were all brackish. There was a freshwater lens which was best<br />
developed on the western side of the island.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) noted that the water lens was shallow in some areas and more<br />
than 2 m in other areas. Three wells were dug. The three new wells and one old well were<br />
tested. All had drinkable water.<br />
Neilson (2002) did not test the freshwater lens on Nikumaroro, but suggested that it was<br />
sizable based on the profuse vegetation that was enveloping the old colony buildings (see also<br />
Obura and Stone 2003). However, the possibility of this freshwater lens to support a human<br />
population during dry seasons was very small.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Maude (1937) reported that freshwater was on the west side of Orona (Hull) where the island<br />
is widest. Three wells there had drinkable water, but the water from these wells was not as<br />
good as water in the Gilbert or Ellice Islands. Two other wells had water only suitable for<br />
washing.<br />
Bryan (1939) reported that there was good freshwater available from shallow wells on the<br />
west side of Orona (Hull).<br />
There are several brackish water wells on the island (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there was no standing surface freshwater on Orona (Hull). There<br />
was a freshwater lens occurred on the western side where the land was thickest. The 1963<br />
severe drought caused this lens to become very saline.<br />
In 1995, two wells were dug at Moantewa, one was dug at Teniko, and one at Teoti<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995). Well depth was 0.3 to over 2 m. Well water was drinkable.<br />
Timeon (2001) reported that the water on Orona was quite good. Six wells were observed<br />
during the 2001 visit.<br />
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Neilson (2002) noted that the freshwater lens on Orona was more than 4 m below the surface<br />
(see also Obura and Stone 2003). The water was of high quality and showed no indications<br />
of salinization or contamination. It appeared sufficient to support the current population<br />
there.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water<br />
sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table<br />
III-3.1).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there was no freshwater on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Maude (1937) reported that six wells were dug on Rawaki (Phoenix). All were deeper than<br />
12 feet. Water was only reached in two of the six wells. The water found was too salty for<br />
drinking (see also Garnett 1983).<br />
In 1937, no freshwater was found on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Maude 1952).<br />
Anon. (1940b) reported that there was a large freshwater lake at the center of Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) (see also Baarslag 1940 and Clune 1951).<br />
Anon. (1953) noted that six wells were dug, but only salty water was obtained.<br />
Robson (1956) reported that there were freshwater pools in the center of Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there was no standing or surface freshwater on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
There did not appear to be a freshwater lens on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) presented water quality data on various terrestrial water<br />
sources on Enderbury, Abariringa (Kanton), Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, and Orona (see Table<br />
III-3.1).<br />
B. VEGETATION AND FUNGI<br />
A chronology of the few botanical investigations of the Phoenix Islands was provided in<br />
Fosberg et al (n.d.). This included details on where plant species collected were sent for<br />
further study.<br />
The severe drought in 1890 to 1894 killed the coconut trees in most of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except those on Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965).<br />
Degener and Fosberg (1952) reported that specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from both<br />
Christmas and the Phoenix Islands deserved at least varietal status. Sesuvium portulacastrum<br />
var. griseum was proposed.<br />
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Maude (1952) estimated that there were 20 to 30 species of plants in the Phoenix Islands (see<br />
also Knudsen 1965). The main species were ren, Tournefortia argentea, mao, Scaevola<br />
frutescens, non, Morinda citrifolia, buka, Pisonia grandis, and kanawa, Cordia subcordata.<br />
According to Maude (1952), the main grass was Lepturus repens, and thickets were of koura<br />
bush, Sida fallax. The lagoon shore and salt flats were covered with pigweed (boi), Sesuvium<br />
portulacastrum. Maude (1952) noted that each of the Phoenix Islands was different and had<br />
a different mix of these plants.<br />
Fosberg (1953) reported that the one of the most potent factors influencing vegetation in the<br />
Phoenix Islands was the extreme fluctuation in rainfall from year to year. More than a year<br />
can elapse with no rain at all.<br />
Turbott (1954) reported that Portulaca (te boi) grew profusely on Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro. In the Gilbert Islands, it was considered an emergency food item, but it became<br />
a stable for settlers in the Phoenix Islands. According to Turbott, Maude referred to it as<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum. New Zealand botanists identified it as Portulaca lutea. Chemical<br />
analysis of a sample from Abariringa (Canton) provided in Table III-3.2 below.<br />
Table III-3.2. Chemical composition of Portulaca lutea<br />
(source: Turbott 1954).<br />
Fresh (percent) Dried (percent)<br />
Water 86.5 16.1<br />
Protein (N x 6.25) 1.03 5.2<br />
Ash 1.9 11.0<br />
Fat (ether-soluble extract) 0.2 1.0<br />
Crude Fiber 1.2 9.2<br />
Ascorbic Acid (mg/1009) 10.9 3.3<br />
Portulaca, therefore was an important source of vitamin C for settlers of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Turbott 1954).<br />
Van Balgooy (1960, Table 4) lumped the Phoenix Islands with the Line Islands and Tokelau<br />
and comparied the number of Phenerogam genera in that group with those of the Marshall,<br />
Gilbert and Ellice Islands (combined). The first group (including the Phoenix Islands) had a<br />
lower number of genera than the second group.<br />
In 1973 and 1975, vascular plant collections were completed in all eight of the Phoenix<br />
Islands (Fosberg et al n.d.). Both collections were made under the auspices of the U.S. Air<br />
Force SAMTEC program. Fosberg et al (n.d.) provided a detailed narrative of plant species,<br />
location of collected specimens, their habitats and specific locations on the Phoenix Islands.<br />
This overview included both native and exotix plant species. Detailed information in Fosberg<br />
et al (n.d.) was subsequently absorbed, summarized, and up-dated in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994).<br />
Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of terrestrial biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with<br />
the Line and Northern Cook Islands. These islands were classified as low islands. Biomes<br />
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that were present included: semi-deciduous forests, mangrove forests, scrub, bog, grassland,<br />
freshwater marsh, and permanent lake.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) reviewed the flora of the Phoenix Islands and noted that there<br />
were 87 species in 36 families. However, only 28 species (32 percent) were considered<br />
native. An additional 60 species were recorded in the literature, but many of these species<br />
have not survived.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) noted that large numbers of plant species were introduced<br />
during the colonization scheme and the military and aviation periods. Most exotic species<br />
could not exist without the assistance of man. Weeds have been brought in accidentally and<br />
have persisted, including Cenchrus echinatus, Eleusine indica, Portulaca oleracea,<br />
Euphorbia hirta, E. hypericifolia, Pluchea carolinensis, P. indica, Tridax procumbens,<br />
and Vernonia cinerea.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3.<br />
Dalzell et al (1996) noted that mangroves were absent from the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) reported that there were 15 more or less definable<br />
natural vegetation types or communities in the Phoenix Islands. These included the<br />
following:<br />
1) Pisonia grandis forest - Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull);<br />
2) Cordia subcordata ( te ango)forest and tall scrub – Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury.<br />
3) Scaevola taccada (te mao )scrub – Manra (Sydney), Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Orona (Hull), Abariringa (Canton).<br />
4) Tournefortia argentea (te ren ) scrub – Enderbury, Abariringa (Canton).<br />
5) Morinda citrifolia tall scrub – Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), Orona<br />
(Hull).<br />
6) Pemphis acidula (te ngea) scrub – Orona (Hull).<br />
7) Suriana maritima scrub – Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull).<br />
8) Sida fallax(te kaura) scrub and dwarf scrub – All Phoenix Islands.<br />
9) Triumfetta procumbens (te kiaou) mat – Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury.<br />
10) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum mat – All Phoenix Islands.<br />
11) Tribulus cistoides mat – No Phoenix Island named.<br />
12) Lepturus repens and Lepturus pilgerianus meadows – All Phoenix Islands.<br />
13) Fimbristylis cymosa(te uteute ni mwane) turf – Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra<br />
(Sydney), Orona (Hull).<br />
14) Digitaria pacifica bunchgrass cover – No Phoenix Island named.<br />
7
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Table III-3.3. Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney) (Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Acanthaceae Pseuderanthemum carruthersii X x<br />
var. atropurpureum*<br />
Aizoacae Sesuvium portulacastrum var. X x<br />
portulacastrum*<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum var. X x x x X x x x<br />
griseum<br />
Tetragonia tetragonioides* X<br />
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera bettzickiana* X<br />
Amaranthus dubius* X<br />
Amaranthus viridis* X<br />
Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolius* X<br />
Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus* X<br />
Nerium oleander* X<br />
Ochrosia sp.* X<br />
Plumeria rubra* X<br />
Plmueria obtuse* X<br />
Araceae Anthurium sp.* X<br />
Philodendrom sp.* X<br />
Cyrtosperma chamissonis* X<br />
Alocasia macrorrhiza* X<br />
Dieffenbachia seguine* X<br />
Syngonium angustatum* X<br />
Araliaceae Polyscias guilfoylei* X<br />
Arecaceae Cocos nucifer* X X X x x x x<br />
(Palmae)<br />
Phoenix dactylifera* X<br />
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantean* X
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Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix)<br />
Orona<br />
(Hull)<br />
Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney) (Gardner)<br />
Conyza Canadensis* X<br />
Asteraceae<br />
(Compositae)<br />
Gaillardia picta* X<br />
Tagetes sp.* X<br />
Emilia sonchifolia* X<br />
Borrichia arborescens* X<br />
Pluchea carolinensis* X<br />
Pluchea indica* X<br />
Pluchea x fosbergii X<br />
Tridax procumbens* X x<br />
Vernonia cinera* X X<br />
Zinnia elegans* X<br />
Boraginaceae Cordia sebestena* X<br />
Cordia subcordata X x x x x x<br />
Heliotropium procumbens* X x<br />
Tournefortia argentea X x x x x<br />
Cannaceae Canna hybrid* X<br />
Caricaceae Caria papaya* X x x<br />
Caryophyllaceae Spergularia marina* X<br />
Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia* X<br />
Casuarina glauca* X<br />
Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus* X<br />
Terminalia catappa* X<br />
Terminalia muelleri* X<br />
Terminalia samoensis x<br />
Commenlinaceae Rhoeo spathacea* X<br />
Setcreasia purpurea* X
10<br />
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Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix)<br />
Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull)<br />
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas* X<br />
Ipomoea macrantha X X X X X<br />
Ipomoea pes-caprae spp.<br />
X X<br />
Brasiliensis<br />
Ipomoea quamoclit* X<br />
Merremia tuberosa* X<br />
Crassulaceae Kalanchoe pinnata* X<br />
Cruciferae Lepidium bidenatum var. o-<br />
X<br />
waihiense*<br />
Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo* X<br />
Citrullus lanatus var. caffer* X<br />
Cucumis dipsaceus* X<br />
Cucumis melo* X X<br />
Cucumis sativa* X<br />
Cyperaceae Cyperus javanicus X X<br />
Cyperus polystachyos* X<br />
Cyperus rotundus* X<br />
Fimbristylis cymosa X X X X<br />
Scirpus subulaus X<br />
Euphorbiaceae Acalypha wilkesiana* X<br />
Euphorbia cyathophora* X X X X<br />
Euphorbia hypericifolia* X X<br />
Euphobia hirta* X X X X<br />
Euphorbia prostrata* X X X<br />
Euphorbia pulcherrima* X<br />
Pedilanthus tithymaloides* X X<br />
Phyllanthus amarus* X X X
11<br />
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Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix)<br />
Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull)<br />
Goodeniaceae Scaevola taccada X X X X<br />
Guttiferae Calophyllum inophyllum* X X<br />
(Clusiaceae)<br />
Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis X X<br />
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica X<br />
Leguminosae Desmanthus virgatus* X<br />
(Minosaceae)<br />
Intsia bijuga*2<br />
Leucaena leucocephala* X<br />
Prosopis pallida* X<br />
Liliaceae Aloe sp.* X<br />
(including Yucca sp.* X<br />
Agavaceae and Cordyline fruticosa* X<br />
Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum* X X X X<br />
Lythraceae Pemphis acidula X X X X X X<br />
Malvaceae Gossypium brasiliense* X<br />
Gossypium tomentosum* X<br />
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* X<br />
Hibiscus hybrid* (pink) X<br />
Hibiscus hybrid* (red) X<br />
Hibiscus tiliaceus* X X<br />
Sida acuta* X<br />
Sida fallax X X X X X X X X<br />
Thespesia populnea* X X<br />
Moraceae Artocarpus altilis* X X<br />
Ficus microcarpa* X X<br />
Musaceae Musa nana* X
12<br />
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Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Musa sapientum* X<br />
Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia albiflora X X X X X X X X<br />
Boerhavia tetrandra X X X X<br />
Bougainvillea glabra* X<br />
Mirabilis jalapa* X<br />
Pisonia grandis X X X X X<br />
Pandanaceae Pandanus tectorius* X X X X<br />
Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida* X<br />
Poaceae Cenchrus echinatus* X X X X X<br />
(Gramineae)<br />
Chloris inflata* X X<br />
Cynodon dactylon* X X<br />
Digitaria ciliaris* X X<br />
Digitaria ciliaris ssp.<br />
X<br />
chrysoblephara*<br />
Digitaria henryi* X<br />
Digitaria pacifica* X X X X X<br />
Digitaria setigera* X<br />
Eleusine indica* X X X<br />
Eragrostis amabilis* X X X X<br />
Eragrostis pectinacea* X<br />
Eragrostis whitneyi X X X X<br />
Lepturus pilgerianus X X X X X X<br />
Lepturus repens var. cinereus X X<br />
Lepturus repens var. repens X X<br />
Lepturus repens var.<br />
X X<br />
septentrionalis
13<br />
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Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Lepturus repens var repens appr. X<br />
var. subulatus<br />
Lepturus repens var. subulatus X X X X X X<br />
Panicum distachyon* X<br />
Panicum miliaceum* X<br />
Pennisetum ciliare* X<br />
Setaria verticillata* X<br />
Tricholaena rosea* X<br />
Polygonaceae Coccolaba uvifera* X X X<br />
Portulacacae Portulaca cyanosperma* X X<br />
Portlaca lutea X X X X X X X X<br />
Protulaca oleracea* X X X X X<br />
Potamogetonaceae Ruppia maritime var. pacifica X<br />
Rubiaceae Casasia clusiiflia*2<br />
Guettarda speciosa X X X X<br />
Morinda citrifolia X X X X<br />
Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens* X<br />
Solarnum lycopersicum* X<br />
Solarnum melongena var.<br />
X<br />
esculenta*<br />
Petunia hybrida* X<br />
Nicotiana glauca* X<br />
Physalis anglata* X X X<br />
Surianaceae Suriana maritime X X<br />
Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla* X<br />
Tilaceae Triumfetta procumbens X X X X X X X<br />
Urticaceae Laportea ruderalis X X X
14<br />
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Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix)<br />
Table III-3.3 (continued). Plant species in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Fosberg and Stoddart 1994)<br />
Plant species Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull)<br />
Pilea microphylla* X<br />
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum inerme* X X X<br />
Lantana camara var. aculeata* X X<br />
Premna serratifolia* X<br />
Stachytarpheta indica* X<br />
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis* X<br />
Vitex trifolia* X<br />
Zygophyllaceae Tribulus cistoides X X X X X X<br />
*note: exotic species
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Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) also discussed various mixed plant species<br />
communities in the Phoenix Islands including small tree/shrub communities, and herbaceous<br />
plant species communities. Cryptogamic formations in which various species of blue-green<br />
algae (Cyanobacteria) penetrate exposed coral limestone result in dark grey or blackish color.<br />
Hypersaline pools, ponds, and lagoons were also home to a gelatinous mixture of blue-green<br />
algae.<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that there were no mangroves in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 below).<br />
Table III-3.4. Number of plant species and plant habitats<br />
present on each Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Neilson 2002; see also Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Island No. of Species Habitats present*<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) 18 F, S, H, M<br />
Nikumaroro 13 F, S, H, M<br />
Orona 13 F, S, H, M<br />
Enderbury 11 S, H<br />
Manra 7 S, H<br />
Birnie 5 H<br />
Rawaki 4 H<br />
*F = Forest, S = Shrub, H = Herbaceous, M = Modified.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted that the prostrate vine, Ipomoea macrantha was present in the Phoenix<br />
Islands. I. pes-carprae was not present, but was now dominant over I. macrantha in the<br />
Gilbert Islands.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys in the Phoneix Islands. Summary results are<br />
provided in Table III-3.5 below.<br />
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Table III-3.5. List of plant species recorded on Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro in April to May 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Lister (1891) reported that there were 10 species of plants on Abariringa (Canton). Except<br />
for some thickets of Tournefortia argentea, Abariringa (Canton) was treeless.<br />
In 1915, Captain Allen of the Samoa Shipping and Trading Co., Ltd, planted hundreds of<br />
coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Anon. 1940c). When he returned in 1919, all but 5 or<br />
6 coconut trees had died.<br />
In 1924, there were 8 sad looking coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1937; 10<br />
according to Murphy et al 1954). McIntire (1960) noted that only 2 of these early plantings<br />
survived and they became landmarks for ships in the area.<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that the most significant plants were Morinda cirtrifolia and Cordia<br />
subcordata.<br />
In 1937, the H.M.S. Wellington brought 1,000 coconuts to Abariringa (Canton) for planting<br />
(Hellweg 1937). According to McIntire (1960), 3,000 coconuts were brought for planting<br />
during the solar eclipse expedition in 1937. These sprouting coconuts were examined by<br />
Gilbertese that accompanied Maude (1937). Apparently, these coconuts were not planted<br />
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corrected (only partially buried) and the Gilbertese thought that they would not survive. Only<br />
a few survived (McIntire 1960).<br />
Anon. (1937) described Abariringa (Canton) as having only grass and shrubs with a few<br />
clumps of tree heliotropes, noni trees, and 8 to 10 coconut palms. Ellis (1937) reported that<br />
there was only 1 coconut tree on Abariringa (Canton) left from the earlier efforts of the<br />
company (presumably the John Arundel Company).<br />
Maude (1937) noted that the vegetation on Abariringa (Canton) was similar to that of the<br />
Gilberts. The few coconut trees on Abariringa (Canton) were examined and showed no sign<br />
of wasting. This suggested that trees had not been subjected to drought conditions.<br />
Maude (1937) noted that heat radiation from Abariringa (Canton) split rain clouds and<br />
resulted in higher rain fall in adjacent waters than on the atoll. This might be minimized with<br />
additional plant ground cover.<br />
In 1937 and later, banana and other plans were planted on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan<br />
1940b). The survival of these plants was yet to be seen.<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and that the surface was covered with bunch grass and low crawling plants such as<br />
Sesuvium and Boerhaavia. A clump of kou was also observed.<br />
Between March and July 1938, the Department of Interior sponsored a vegetative survey of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Degener and Gillaspy 1955). Results were documented in Hatheway<br />
(1955).<br />
Bryan (1939) reported the presence of a few patches of Cordia, Tournefortia, and Morinda<br />
trees, and Scaevola, Pemphis, and Sida schrubs on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 1939, the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter, Roger B. Taney, brought the following species of<br />
plants (or their seeds) to Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974): hau, Casuarina equisetifolia,<br />
milo trees, Plumeria acutifolia, Geiger trees (Cordia subestena), crown flower (Calotropis<br />
gigantea), Messerschmidia argentea, Pulchea indica, Prosopis (spineless Kiawe), Kentucky<br />
wonder beans, watermelons, and tomatoes. In addition 15 tons of soil was delivered.<br />
Fosberg (1939) noted that the grass, Digitaria pacifica, had been collected and identified<br />
from both Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull). Initially, the specimen from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) had been misidentified as D. stenotaphrodes.<br />
University of Hawaii’s Agricultural Extension Service sent down a greenhouse to Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and tomatoes, papayas, lettuce, beets, carrots, and cucumbers were being grown<br />
(Warner 1939). Plants were disease free and grown using pot-culture.<br />
Bryan (1940b) reviewed the meager vegetation of Abariringa (Canton). Plants noted on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) included the following:<br />
1) bunchgrass, Lepturus repens,<br />
2) purslane, Portulaca lutea,<br />
3) trailing herb, Boerhaavia tetrandra,<br />
4) ilima shrub, Sida fallax,<br />
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5) prostrate herb, Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
6) bunchgrass, Digitaria pacifica,<br />
7) grass, Eragrostis whitneyi var. typica,<br />
8) seaside purslane, Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
9) wiry shrub, Suriana maritima,<br />
10) parasitic laurel-dodder, Cassytha filiformis,<br />
11) morning glory, Ipomoea grandiflora and<br />
12) morning glory, I. pes-caprae,<br />
13) goodenia shrub, Scaevola frutescens,<br />
14) tree heliotrope, Messerchmidia argentea,<br />
15) kou tree, Cordia subcordata, and<br />
16) non, Morinda citrifolia.<br />
Bryan (1940b) listed 17 native species including the coconut (see also Murphy et al 1954).<br />
However, the list provided by Murphy et al (1954) for Bryan (1940b) was not exactly the<br />
same as that provided in Bryan (1940b).<br />
In 1940, the Taney brought several hundred plants and trees to Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan<br />
1974). In 1941, 658 plants wee provided to Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Bryan (1941) reported 10 grown coconut trees, in addition to Scaevola shrubs, Suriana<br />
shrubs, and small clumps of heliotrope and kou trees (see also Bryan 1942).<br />
Abariringa (Canton) almost bare of vegetation except for a few scattered palm trees, kou<br />
brush, and bunch grass (Hydrographic Office 1940). There was one lone palm tree on the<br />
northwest point and one large kou brush on the southwest point.<br />
Between December 1940 and February 1941, strong westerly winds on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(up to 55 knots) brought drift seeds to Abariringa (Canton) (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942).<br />
Seeds were from the following plants:<br />
1) Myrstica sp.,<br />
2) Entada scandens,<br />
3) Inocarpus edulis,<br />
4) Mucuna spp.,<br />
5) Caesalpinia crista,<br />
6) Canarium sp.,<br />
7) Barringonia speciosa,<br />
8) Terminalia catappa,<br />
9) Crebera odollam,<br />
10) Unidentified spp.<br />
11) Cocos nucifera,<br />
12) Aleurites moluccana,<br />
13) Pandanus sp.<br />
Native flora of Abariringa (Canton) was identified by E.L. Caum and reported by Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg (1941). They were as follows:<br />
1) Digitaria pacifica,<br />
2) Eragrostis whitneyi var. typical,<br />
3) Lepturus repens,<br />
4) Cocos nucifera,<br />
5) Boerhaavia diffusa,<br />
6) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
7) Portulaca lutea,<br />
8) Cassytha filiformis,<br />
9) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
10) Suriana maritima,<br />
11) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
12) Sida fallax,<br />
13) Ipomoea pes-caprae,<br />
14) Ipomoca grandiflora,<br />
15) Cordia subcordata,<br />
16) Tournefortia argentea,<br />
17) Morinda citrifolia, and<br />
18) Scaevola frustescens.<br />
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Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) noted that coconut trees might not be considered native as all<br />
coconut trees that were present were planted. The most conspicuous vegetation included<br />
Cordia (kou), Tournefortia (tree heliotrope), and Scaevola bushes.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported that soil was imported from Hawaii and caused the<br />
introduction of weeds such as Emilia sonchifollia, three species of Euphorbia, Leucaena<br />
glauca, nutgrass and amaranth. A few grasses including Bermuda grass have also been<br />
introduced with imported soils.<br />
Daniel (1943) noted that Abariringa (Canton) was covered with stunted vegetation. In the<br />
southern end a few coconut palms grew.<br />
Williams (1945) noted that the large noctuid moth, Achaea janata, was reared from Cordia<br />
subcordata on Abariringa (Canton) by Langford and Van Zwalunwenburg.<br />
Between 1946 and 1950, the Civil Aviation Authority brought in several hundred coconut<br />
spouts for planting on Abariringa (Canton) (Wright 1951).<br />
In 1950 to 1951, there was a program to introduce plants to Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire<br />
1960). Many of the introduced plants did not survive. However, some did, and now grow in<br />
many places on the island (particularly on the western part). According to Degener and<br />
Gillaspy (1955), between 1950 and 1951 Otto Degener introduced 129 species of plants to<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (see also Fosberg and Stoddart 1994; Fosberg et al n.d.). Of the 129<br />
species, only 14 persisted until 1973 and only two, Coccolaba uvifera and Conocarpus<br />
erecta, were able to spread out (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994; see also Fosberg et al n.d.).<br />
Plant surveys were conducted in 1949 and 1950 (Luomala 1951). Dr. Luomala, University<br />
of Hawaii, completed field studies and wrote a report on the plants of Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(according to Anon. 1952; see Luomala 1951). Fifty eight species of flowering plants and<br />
one seaweed were included in Luomala’s report. Luomala (1951) reported 18 species of<br />
plants that were native to Arbariringa (Canton) according to Knudsen (1965). These included<br />
the following species:<br />
1) Digitaria pacifica,<br />
2) Eragrostis whitneyi,<br />
3) Lepturus repens,<br />
4) Cocos nucifera,<br />
5) Boerhaavia diffusa,<br />
6) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
7) Portulaca lutea,<br />
8) Cassytha filiformis,<br />
9) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
10) Suriana maritima,<br />
11) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
12) Sida fallax,<br />
13) Ipomoea pes-caprae,<br />
14) Ipomoca grandiflora (I. tuba),<br />
15) Cordia subcordata,<br />
16) Tournefortia argentea,<br />
17) Morinda citrifolia, and<br />
18) Scaevola frustescens.<br />
Halstead (1950) noted that there was a small grove of coconut trees on the south side of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) that were struggling to survive.<br />
In 1950 and 1951, floral and vegetative surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Hatheway 1955). Native flora consisted of 14 species of vascular plants. In addition, about<br />
150 plant species had been introduced. Native vascular flora was primarily confined to parts<br />
of Abariringa (Canton) that have not been subject to grading or other anthropogenic<br />
influences (Hatheway 1955).<br />
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Luomala (1951) identified the following plants on Abariringa (Canton):<br />
1) Pandanus sp.<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus<br />
3) Chloris inflata<br />
4) Cynodon dactylon<br />
5) Digitaria pacifica<br />
6) Eleusine indica<br />
7) Eragrostis whitneyi<br />
8) Lepturus repens<br />
9) Setaria verticillata<br />
10) Cyperus rotundus<br />
11) Fimbristylis cymosa var.<br />
microcephala<br />
12) Cocos nucifera<br />
13) Anthurium sp.<br />
14) Philodendron sp.<br />
15) Liliaceae Unidentified sp.<br />
16) Musa sp.<br />
17) Crinum asiaticum<br />
18) Casuarina equisetifolia<br />
19) Casuarina glauca<br />
20) Coccoloba uvifera<br />
21) Amarantus sp.<br />
22) Boerhavia diffusa<br />
23) Sesuvium portulacastrum<br />
24) Portulaca oleracea<br />
25) Portulaca lutea<br />
26) Cassytha filiformis<br />
27) Leucaena glauca<br />
28) Tribulus cistoides<br />
29) Suriana maritima<br />
30) Euphorbia heterophylla<br />
31) Euphorbia hypericifolia<br />
32) Euphorbia prostrata<br />
33) Euphorbia hirta<br />
34) Triumfetta procumbens<br />
35) Hibiscus tiliaceum<br />
36) Sida fallax<br />
37) Thespesia populnea<br />
38) Calophyllum inophyllum<br />
39) Tamarix aphylla<br />
40) Carica papaya<br />
41) Terminalia melanocarpa<br />
42) Terminalia littoralis<br />
43) Terminalia catappa<br />
44) Terminalia samoensis<br />
45) Polyscias guilfoylei<br />
46) Plumeria rubra<br />
47) Nerium oleander<br />
48) Calotropis gigantea<br />
49) Ipomoea tuba<br />
50) Ipomoea pes-caprae<br />
51) Cordia sebestena<br />
52) Cordia subcordata<br />
53) Messerschmidia argentea<br />
54) Guettarda speciosa<br />
55) Morinda citrifolia<br />
56) Citrullus vulgaris<br />
57) Cucumis sativus<br />
58) Scaevola frutescens<br />
59) Pluchea odorata<br />
60) Emilia sonchifolia<br />
Degener and Fosberg (1952) studied specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from Christmas<br />
and Abariringa (Canton), and Enderbury, and concluded that they deserved at least varietal<br />
status. Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum was proposed.<br />
Maude (1953) reported that sporatic attempts to grow coconut trees have all failed on<br />
Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) due to the lack of rainfall. Only about one in one<br />
hundred coconut trees reached maturity.<br />
Fosberg (1953) observed that Abariringa (Canton) had growth of Sida fallax up to 2 m during<br />
wet periods. In 1949, it had the appearance of a desert. Severe dry periods can result in high<br />
concentrations of guano that have severely damaged or killed trees on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Fosberg (1953) noted that on highly saline flats on Abariringa (Canton) the vegetation was<br />
scattered mats of Sesuvium portulacastrum.<br />
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Murphy et al (1954) reported that Loumala (1951) recorded an additional 40 species of plants<br />
on Abariringa (Canton). Most were introduced, and many no longer occurred. According to<br />
Murphy et al (1954), the most conspicuous native plant species included:<br />
1) Cordia subcordata,,<br />
2) Messerschmidea argentea,<br />
3) Scaevola frutescens,<br />
4) Sida fallax,<br />
5) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
6) Boerhaavia diffusa,<br />
7) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
8) Portulaca lutea, and<br />
9) Lepturus repens<br />
Pan American World Airways (1954) reported that the few coconut trees visible on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) were recent plantings, not the coconut trees planted in 1915 by Captain<br />
Allen and the Samoan Shipping & Trading Co.<br />
Johnson (1954) reported a dozen coconut palms on Abariringa (Canton). The original palms<br />
planted by Captain Allen and his sons (no date specified) all died out.<br />
Hatheway (1955) estimated plant community areas on Abariringa (Canton). Percent<br />
coverage is presented in Table III-3.6 below. Hatheway (1955) provided descriptions of each<br />
plant community listed in Table III-3.6 below.<br />
Table III-3.6. Plant communities on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(source: Hatheway 1955)<br />
A serious enemy of Cordia was the caterpillar of the moth Achaea janata which defoliated<br />
two entire groves of Cordia (Hatheway 1955).<br />
Hatheway (1955) reported that most native forest and scrub was dying or dead. Hatheway<br />
(1955) speculated that this might be related the enormous numbers of birds that nest on native<br />
forests.<br />
Anon. (1955) reported that Otto Degener and Edwin Gillaspy were tasked with introducing a<br />
variety of plants to Abariringa (Canton) by the American Civil Aeronautics Administration.<br />
The justification for these plant introductions was to hold the shifting sand to minimize sand<br />
erosion, encourage afforestation, and reduce the almost unendurable glare. Success of the<br />
plant introductions would be dependent on the swarms of hermit crabs.<br />
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The reason for introducing plants to cover the bear soil on Abariringa (Canton) were two fold<br />
(Degener and Gillaspy 1955). First vegetative cover would stablize the soil and keep it from<br />
blowing away and damaging equipment. The second reason is to minimize health risks of<br />
dust and glare off the sand to people stationed there.<br />
Degener and Gillapsy (1955) provide a detailed discussion about plant species and plant<br />
communities on Abariringa (Canton). Species of plants noted and discussed were as follows:<br />
1) Pandanus tectorius<br />
36) Chamaesyce hypericifolia<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus<br />
37) Chamaesyce prostrate<br />
3) Chloris inflata<br />
38) Chamaesyce hirta<br />
4) Cynodon dactylon<br />
39) Phyllanthus niruri<br />
5) Digitaria pacifica<br />
40) Poinsettia cyathophora<br />
6) Digitaria timorensis<br />
41) Triumfetta procumbens<br />
7) Eleusine indica<br />
42) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis<br />
8) Eragrostis amabilis<br />
43) Hibiscus tiliaceum<br />
9) Eragrostis whitneyi<br />
44) Pariti tiliaceum<br />
10) Eragrostis pectinacea<br />
45) Sida carpinifolia<br />
11) Lepturus pilgerianus<br />
46) Sida fallax<br />
12) Lepturus repens<br />
47) Thespesia populnea<br />
13) Panicum miliaceum<br />
48) Calophyllum inophyllum<br />
14) Setaria verticillata<br />
49) Tamarix aphylla<br />
15) Cyperus rotundus<br />
50) Passifloa foetida<br />
16) Fimbristylis diphylla<br />
51) Carica papaya<br />
17) Fimbristylis pycnocephala 52) Terminalia samoensis<br />
18) Cocos nucifera<br />
53) Terminalia catappa<br />
19) Anthurium sp.<br />
54) Polyscias guilfoylei<br />
20) Philodendron sp.<br />
55) Plumeria rubra<br />
21) Crinum asiaticum<br />
56) Ochrosia sp.<br />
22) Musa nana<br />
57) Calotropis gigantea<br />
23) Casuarina equisetifolia 58) Calonyction sp.<br />
24) Casuarina glauca<br />
59) Ipomoea pes-caprae<br />
25) Coccoloba uvifera<br />
60) Cordia sebestena<br />
26) Amarantus dubius<br />
61) Cordia subcordata<br />
27) Boerhavia tetrandra<br />
62) Messerschmidia argentea<br />
28) Sesuvium portulacastrum var. 63) Lycopersicum esculentum<br />
griseum<br />
64) Nicotiana glauca<br />
29) Portulaca cleracea<br />
65) Physalis angulata<br />
30) Portulaca lutea<br />
66) Morinda citrifolia<br />
31) Cassytha filiformis<br />
67) Cucumis melo<br />
32) Leucaena glauca<br />
68) Scaevola frutescens<br />
33) Tribulus cistoides<br />
69) Pluchea indica<br />
34) Suriana maritima<br />
70) Emilia sonchifolia<br />
35) Acalypha wilkesiana<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) also provided a list of over 125 plant species that had been<br />
introduced to Abariringa (Canton) in 1950.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) also reported on aquatic plants from Abariringa (Canton). The<br />
blue-green algae species included: Microcoleus paludosus, Porphyrosiphon sp., and<br />
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Scytonema hofmanni. These were all dormant during dry seasons, but created algal masses<br />
after periods of rain. There was also an unidentified blue-green algae that was pink.<br />
Walker (1955) reported that Abariringa (Canton) residents had recently planted a thousand<br />
coconut trees. Walker (1955) reported observing several introduced plant species on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). These included: poinsettia, mimosa, castor bean, Mediteranean olive<br />
trees, tobacco plant, papaya, sea grapes, spider lilies, and morning glories.<br />
Hatheway (1955) noted that Abariringa (Canton) rainfall was 19 inches annually and that<br />
there were 14 species of plants there (see also Wiens 1962). Compared with other islands,<br />
both rainfall and number of plant species were low. The more rainfall, the more species of<br />
plants were found (Wiens 1962).<br />
Most of the plant species introduced to Abariringa (Canton) in 1950 did not survive (Degener<br />
and Degener 1959). Apparently gardens around the housing area and the terminal building<br />
had been sprayed with weed killer, not insecticide as intended.<br />
In 1958, only one coconut tree was large enough to bear fruit (McIntire 1960). Many coconut<br />
trees were infested with scale. There were 2 small date palm trees, Phoenix dactylifera, that<br />
were being grown in a garden (Degener and Degener 1959; McIntire 1960).<br />
Degener and Degener (1959) noted and provided descriptions of the establishment of the<br />
following species:<br />
1) Pandanus tectorius<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus<br />
3) Chloris inflata<br />
4) Cynodon dactylon<br />
5) Digitaria henryi<br />
6) Digitaria pacifica<br />
7) Digitaria sanguinalis<br />
8) Digitaria timorensis<br />
9) Eragrostis amabilis<br />
10) Eragrostis whitneyi<br />
11) Lepturus pilgerianus<br />
12) Lepturus repens<br />
13) Panicum distachyum<br />
14) Panicum miliaceum<br />
15) Pennisetum setosum<br />
16) Setaria verticillata<br />
17) Tricholaena rosea<br />
18) Cyperus javanicus<br />
19) Cyperus polystachyos<br />
20) Cyperus rotundus<br />
21) Fimbristylis dichotoma<br />
22) Fimbristylis pycnocephala<br />
23) Cocos nucifera<br />
24) Phoenix dactylifera<br />
25) Rhoeo spathacca<br />
26) Setcreasea purpurea<br />
27) Sansevieria cylindrica<br />
24<br />
64) Calotropis gigantea var. wilderi<br />
65) Ipomoea batatas<br />
66) Ipomoea tuba<br />
67) Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp.<br />
brasiliensis<br />
68) Cordia sebestena<br />
69) Cordia subcordata<br />
70) Stachytarpheta jamaicensis<br />
71) Capsicum frutescens<br />
72) Lycopersicum esculentum var.<br />
commune<br />
73) Lycopersicum esculentum subsp.<br />
Galena<br />
74) Nicotiana glauca<br />
75) Petunia hybrida<br />
76) Physalis angulata<br />
77) Solanum melongena var. esculentum<br />
78) Casasia clusiifolia<br />
79) Morinda citrifolia<br />
80) Citrullus vulgaris<br />
81) Cucumis dipsaceus<br />
82) Cucumis melo<br />
83) Scaevola sericea<br />
84) Gaillardia picta<br />
85) Pluchea indica<br />
86) Tagetes sp.<br />
87) Conyza canadensis
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28) Crinum asiaticum<br />
29) Furcraea foetida<br />
30) Musa nana<br />
31) Casuarina equisetifolia<br />
32) Casuarina glauca<br />
33) Coccoloba uvifera<br />
34) Amarantus dubius<br />
35) Sesuvium portulacastrum var.<br />
griseum<br />
36) Sesuvium portulacastrum var.<br />
portulacastrum<br />
37) Portulaca cyanosperma<br />
38) Spergularia marina<br />
39) Cassytha filiformis<br />
40) Lepidium o-waihiense<br />
41) Bryophyllum pinnatum<br />
42) Leguminosae<br />
43) Desmanthus virgatus<br />
44) Leucaena glauca<br />
45) Prosopis chilensis<br />
46) Acalypha wilkesiana<br />
47) Phyllanthus niruri<br />
48) Poinsettia cyathophora<br />
49) Schinus terebinthifolius<br />
50) Gossypium brasiliense<br />
51) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis<br />
52) Pariti tiliaceum<br />
53) Sida fallax<br />
54) Thespesia populnea<br />
55) Calophyllum inophyllum<br />
56) Tamarix aphylla<br />
57) Passifloa foetida<br />
58) Carica papaya<br />
59) Conocarpus erecta<br />
60) Terminalia catappa<br />
61) Polyscias guilfoylei<br />
62) Plumeria rubra<br />
63) Calotropis gigantea<br />
88) Microcoleus chthonoplastes<br />
89) Entophysalis deusta<br />
90) Anacystis aeruginosa<br />
91) Anacystis dimidiate<br />
92) Anacystis montana<br />
93) Johannesbaptistia pellucida<br />
94) Entophysalis deusta<br />
95) Hydrocoleum comoides<br />
96) Hydrocoleum confluens<br />
97) Hydrocoleum glutinosum<br />
98) Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum<br />
99) Lyngbya aestuarii<br />
100) Lyngbya confervoides<br />
101) Lyngbya infixa<br />
102) Lyngbya majuscula<br />
103) Lyngbya semiplena<br />
104) Microcoleus acutissima<br />
105) Microcoleus chthonoplastes<br />
106) Microcoleus paludosus<br />
107) Microcoleus tenerrimus<br />
108) Phormidium gardneranum<br />
109) Phormidium papyraceum<br />
110) Porphyrosiphon fuscus<br />
111) Schizothrix creswellii<br />
112) Schizothrix heufleri<br />
113) Schizothrix lamyi<br />
114) Schizothrix longiarticulata<br />
115) Schizothrix taylorii<br />
116) Spirulina subsalsa<br />
117) Spirulina tenerrima<br />
118) Sumploca hydnoides<br />
119) Nodularia sphaerocarpa<br />
120) Nostoc calciocola<br />
121) Plectonema nostocorum<br />
122) Plectonema terebrans<br />
123) Scytonema hofmanni<br />
124) Calothrix crustaceae<br />
Degener and Degener (1959) noted that lichens, mosses and ferns have not been found on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that many parts of Abariringa (Canton) had a hardpan found at various<br />
depths. Plant taproots were not able to penetrate this layer.<br />
McIntire (1960) divided natural vegetation into three major groups: (1) communities<br />
dominated by trees, Cordia subcordata, and Messeerschmidia argentea; (2) communities<br />
dominated by shrubs Scaevola and Suriana-Sesuvium, and (3) the Portulaca herbaceous<br />
community. McIntire (1960) provided detail discussions on each of these three native plant<br />
communities on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
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McIntire (1960) provided a vegetation map of Abariringa (Canton) (see also Hatheway<br />
1955). It is presented in Figure III-3.1 below. In addition, McIntire (1960) documented<br />
vegetative cover area on Abariringa (Canton). This is presented in Table III-3.7 below.<br />
Figure III-3.1. Vegetation map of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
(source: McIntire 1960, see also Hatheway 1955).<br />
Table III-3.7. Comparison of land area and vegetation cover on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
(source: McIntire 1960).<br />
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McIntire (1960) noted that more recent coconut tree plantings were completed by British and<br />
American settlements. These trees were 6.1 to 7.6 m (20 to 25 ft) tall, but required some care<br />
to survive. In addition, there were several small flowering plants that had been introduced.<br />
These could not survive without human assistance. The seagrape, Coccoloba uvifera, had<br />
also been introducted perhaps 11 years prior (McIntire 1960).<br />
There were also some accidental introductions to Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960).<br />
Many weeds, including the sandbur, Cenchrus echinatus, have been introduced.<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that the blue-green algae, Microcoleus paludosus, as well as<br />
Porphyrosiphon sp., and Scytonema hofmannii were sand binders. These were dormant<br />
during dry season.<br />
Borden (1961) reported that Abariringa (Canton) was treeless.<br />
Degener (1961) reported introducing the white-fruied Scaevola from Oahu to Abariringa<br />
(Canton). When the seeds germinated, Degener (1961) compared the resultant plants with<br />
native specimens of Scaevola. The Hawaiian plant was named S. sericea var. faurier, but<br />
Degener (1961) deferred naming the variety from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Office of Territories (1963) noted that 500 coconut palms had recently been planted on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Cooperrider and Galang (1965) identified a sterile hybrid of Pluchea indica x P. odorata<br />
(Compositae-Inulease) after examining a variety of specimens including one from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) that was collected in 1958 that was originally identified as P. indica.<br />
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Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported coconut palms in places. Inside of the raised<br />
beach, there was coarse grass and low scrub.<br />
Fosberg et al (n.d.) noted several weeds that had been brought to Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
that had persisted. These included: Cenchrus echinatus, Eleusine indica, Portulaca oleracea,<br />
Euphorbia hirta, E. glomerifera, Pluchea carolinensis, P. indica, Tridax procumbens, and<br />
Vernonia cinera.<br />
During dry years on Abariringa (Canton), plants dried up (Bryan 1974). During wet years,<br />
with ten to fourteen times as much rainfall, luxurious vegetation grew.<br />
Bryan (1974) presented a list of native plant species for Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury<br />
(see Table III-3.8 below).<br />
Table III-3.8. Plants not believed to have been recently introduced<br />
to Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury by man<br />
(source: Bryan 1974)<br />
scientific name common name islands<br />
Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Digitaria pacifica Crabgrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Eragrostis whitney native lovegrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Lepturus repens wiry bunchgrass Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Frimbristylis cymosa button sedge Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Boerhaavia diffusa Boerhaavia creeper Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum sea purslane Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Portulaca lutea yellow portulaca Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Portulaca oleraceae common purslane Enderbury<br />
Sida fallax Ilima Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Ipomoea brasiliensis beach morning glory Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Ipomoea alba white moonflower Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Cordia subcordata Kou Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Messerschmidia argentea tree heliotrope Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury<br />
Scaevola taccada v. sericea Naupaka, beach<br />
scaevola<br />
Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Guinther (1978) reported that Chlrophyll a concentrations in lagoonal ponds, potholes, and<br />
water filled burrows ranged from 1 to over 3,000 µg/lt.<br />
Garnett (1983) provided a narrative description of plants species and their locations on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). Garnett (1983) noted that several introduced plant species will most<br />
likely persist including:<br />
Trees and large shrubs Small shrubs and herbs<br />
1) Cocos nucifera<br />
2) Casuarina glauca<br />
3) Casuarina equisetifolia<br />
4) Coccoloba uvifera<br />
5) Cordia sebestena<br />
6) Lantana camara<br />
1) Cyperus rotundus<br />
2) Eragrostis tenella<br />
3) Euphorbia glomerifera<br />
4) Euphorbia hirta<br />
5) Euphorbia prostrata<br />
6) Phyllanthus amarus<br />
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7) Leucaena leucocephalus<br />
8) Morinda citrifolia<br />
9) Pandanus tectorius<br />
10) Tamarix aphylla<br />
11) Polyscias guilfoylei<br />
12) Terminalia muelleria<br />
7) Portulaca oleracea<br />
8) Stachytarpheta jamaicensis<br />
Garnett (1983) estimated vegetative cover on Abariringa (Canton) based on major plant<br />
species. These estimates were as follows:<br />
Vegetation type Area (ha)<br />
Cordia forest 3.4<br />
Messerschmidia forest 12.1<br />
Scaevola scrub 71.2<br />
Suriana-Sesuvium 99.1<br />
Portulaca community 230.5<br />
Bare 269.9<br />
Disturbed 468.9<br />
Total 1,155.2<br />
Endemic vegetation on Nikumaroro, Orona and Abariringa (Kanton) were the last remaining<br />
large stands found in the Phoenix Islands (<strong>SPREP</strong> 1992).<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 1995, only a few coconut trees were observed on Abariringa (Tunaari) except at<br />
Tebaronga and Umari (Government of Kiribati 1995). Terieta and Bikentabakea trees<br />
looked unhealthy. This was attributed to the hard pan in the area.<br />
In 1995, 75 percent of Abariringa (Tunaari) was coverd with the saltbush, Cordia subcordata,<br />
and Tournefortia argentea (Government of Kiribati 1995). Only a few pandanus were found<br />
at Tebaronga. There were also three breadfruit trees, two of which had fruit. At Umari, there<br />
were healthy pine (Christmas) trees. At Tebaronga, there were hibiscus plants and te biku.<br />
Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998) reported that coconut plantations were attempted on<br />
almost all islands in the central Pacific. They failed on the driest ones such as Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents were raising<br />
breadfruit, babai, banana, pawpaw, kumala, and other vegetables.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted that most pest plants in the Phoenix Islands were on Abariringa<br />
(Kanton). The invasive plant, lantana, Lantana camara, extended over a large portion of the<br />
village and former military base.<br />
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BIRNIE<br />
Bryan (1934) referred to the vegetation on Birnie as low shrubs and herbs.<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that Birnie was treeless. Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on<br />
Birnie was similar to that found on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 1939, it was decided that coconut trees would be planted on Birnie to support colonies on<br />
Orona, Manra, and Nikumaroro (Garnett 1983). In May 1939, about one-third of Birnie was<br />
planted with coconut trees (see also Pusinelli 1948).<br />
The northern half of Birnie was flat and covered with low herbs such as Portulaca,<br />
Boerhaavia, and bunch grass (Bryan 1941 and 1942). According to Bryan (1941 and 1942),<br />
the small shallow lagoon was covered by a mat of green plats, probably Sesuvium.<br />
In 1952, 600 coconut trees were said to have been planted on Birnie by Maude but have<br />
vanished if indeed they ever grew (Fosberg and Stoddart 1994).<br />
Birnie was reported to have shrubby growth (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported six species of plants on Birnie: Leptus repens, Cocos nucifera,<br />
Boerhavia sp., Sesuvium portulacastrum, Portulaca lutea, and Sida fallax.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that vegetation on Birnie was dominated by prostrate herbaceous<br />
vegetation. There was one small dense clump of Cordia subcordata that provided nesting for<br />
a number of Sula sula. It was the only tall vegetation on the island.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Hydrographic Office (1916) reported two small mangrove thickets and scattered patches of<br />
grass on Enderbury.<br />
In 1924, there were about 60 sad looking coconut trees on Enderbury (Bryan 1937; 22, 12<br />
and 26 trees (from north to south) according to Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974). Ellis (1937)<br />
reported that coconuts had been planted on Enderbury, but they did not flourish. Waesche<br />
(1938) reported observing several small coconut palms around one of the muddy areas.<br />
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Bryan (1934) reported that on the north point (in 1924), there were 22 coconut palms. There<br />
were 12 small coconut palms east of a hill. Bryan (1934) noted that these were not present at<br />
the time of Wilkes visit in 1840, nor were they mentioned by Captain Schorf in 1874. Bryan<br />
(1934) noted that there were several Tournefortia and Cordia trees on the west and south side<br />
of the island. The shallow lagoon was covered with Sesuvium.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on Enderbury was similar to that found on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). There were buka, ngea, or mao trees. In addition, there was a large<br />
patch of Tournefortia argentea trees. Kanawa trees surrounded an artifical mound of guano.<br />
The tops of the kanawa trees were dead. There were three groups of coconut trees that did<br />
not appear to be in good condition.<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Enderbury<br />
and reported a large patch of Tournafortia on the north end of the island. On the south end of<br />
the island were several patches of kou. Portulaca grew on the edge of the lagoon. Coconut<br />
palms were in a half-dead condition grew on the west bank. Wild morning glory vines were<br />
also observed.<br />
Bryan (1939) reported the presence of a few patches of Cordia, Tournefortia, and Morinda<br />
trees, and Scaevola, Pemphis, and Sida schrubs on Enderbury.<br />
The most conspicuous vegetation on Enderbury was several palms at the north end<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). A major part of<br />
Enderbury appears to be a low-lying plain that resembles a grassy meadow at the center of<br />
the island (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) reported that the small shallow pond was covered with a mat<br />
of Sesuvium. It also covered the surrounding basin.<br />
Bryan (1941, 1942, and 1974) noted that much of the surface of Enderbury was covered by<br />
herbs, bunchgrass, Sida, and morning-glory vines. Kou trees and heliptropes were also<br />
present on Enderbury.<br />
Degener and Fosberg (1952) studied specimens of Sesuvium portulacastrum from Christmas<br />
and Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and concluded that they deserved at least varietal status.<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum var. griseum was proposed.<br />
Maude (1953) reported that sporatic attempts to grow coconut trees have all failed on<br />
Enderbury and Abariringa (Canton) due to the lack of rainfall. Only about one in one<br />
hundred coconut trees reached maturity.<br />
Robson (1956) reported that there were a few clumps of Tournefortia or heliotrope trees, a<br />
few stunted kou thickets, one or two noni trees, and a few sad-looking coconut trees on<br />
Enderbury.<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 14 species of plants. No list the species<br />
was provided.<br />
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There were two clumps of mangroves, a few coconut trees, and scattered patches of grass on<br />
Enderbury (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) listed exotic plant species on Enderbury. These included:<br />
1) Sand bur, Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
2) Common purslane, Portulaca oleracea,<br />
3) Groose-grass, Eleusine indica, and<br />
4) Sedge, Fimbristrylis cymosa.<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) recommended elimination of these introduced species, especially while<br />
introductions were still restricted in area.<br />
Bryan (1974) presented a list of native plant species for Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury<br />
(see Table III-3.8 above).<br />
In 1975, there were several coconut seedlings remaining near the U.S. Air Force temporary<br />
installation on the northwest corner of Enderbury (Garnett 1983). However, all coconut trees<br />
reported by Bryan (1942) had died out (Garnett 1983).<br />
Garnett (1983) provided a list of plant species on Enderbury. Twenty three species were<br />
listed including:<br />
1) Ruppia maritima,<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
3) Digitaria pacifica,<br />
4) Eragrostis whitneyi,<br />
5) Lepturus pilgerianus,<br />
6) Lepturus repens,<br />
7) Fimbristylis cymosa,<br />
8) Cocos nucifera,<br />
9) Laportea ruderalis,<br />
10) Boerhavia albiflora,<br />
11) Pisonia grandis,<br />
12) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
13) Portulaca lutea,<br />
14) Portulaca oleracea,<br />
15) Cassytha filiformis,<br />
16) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
17) Euphorbia hirata,<br />
18) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
19) Sida fallax,<br />
20) Ipomoea macrantha,<br />
21) Cordia subcordata,<br />
22) Messerschmidia argentea,<br />
23) Scaevola taccada.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 1995, there were only two coconut trees on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Both were healthy and bore fruits. Sixty coconuts were planted adjacent to these trees. An<br />
addition 40 to 60 coconuts were planted on the north end of Enderbury.<br />
In 1995, several other species of plants were observed on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati<br />
1995). These included: Pisonia grandis (te buka), Tournefortia argentea (te ren), Scaevola<br />
taccada (te mao), te mtea, te booi, te wao and Sida fallax (te kaura).<br />
In January 2000, Cordia subcordata thickets were dense (Kepler 2000).<br />
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Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that mangroves were an invasive plant on Enderbury and<br />
recommended its removal.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1886, Arundel was granted a license for coconut planting (Garnett 1983). Bush was cut<br />
and burned and the entire island was planted in coconuts. J.T. Arundel & Co. planted<br />
coconut trees on Manra (Douglas and Douglas 1994; presumably in the late 1800’s).<br />
The severe drought in 1890 to 1894 killed the coconut trees in most of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except those on Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965).<br />
In 1905 Lever Bros. established a coconut plantation on Manra (Sydney) (MacGregor n.d.).<br />
A coconut plantation was reported for Manra (Allen 1918).<br />
The eastern side of the island was thick with arboreal vegetation (Bryan 1934). The western<br />
side had been cleared and planted in coconut trees.<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that the two species of rat on Manra (Sydney) greatly reduced coconut<br />
yields.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that some of the coconut trees on Manra (Sydney) showed signs of<br />
wasting. Others had yields greater than that found in the Gilbert group.<br />
Ellis (1946) reported that coconut trees were planted on Manra (Sydney).<br />
As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, banana, pandanus, Ficus trees (te<br />
bero), papaya, babai, and taro were introduced to Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965 and 1977).<br />
By 1940, most of these introductions had perished (Knudsen 1965 and 1977).<br />
There is a large coconut grove on the west side of Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; and Bryan 1941 and 1942). A smaller<br />
coconut grove was on the eastern side of the island (Hydrographic Office 1940; southeastern<br />
side according to Bryan 1941 and 1942). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that these had been<br />
planted starting in 1905.<br />
Turbott (1954) noted that on Manra, normal Gilbertese diet plants that were introduced such<br />
as pandanus, babai, and breadfruit died or produced no fruit. Coconut trees did grow, but<br />
were not healthy. It was speculated that this was related to the salinity of the ground water.<br />
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Although it did not survive the initial introduction, pandanus was re-introducted to Manra<br />
(Sydney) in 1950 (Knudsen 1965 and 1977). This second introduction was successful<br />
(Knudsen 1977).<br />
The remainder of the island was covered in bush and shrubs that are 4.6 to 9.1 m (15 to 30 ft)<br />
high (see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969). The forest was composed of Tournefortia,<br />
Pisonia, Morinda, Cordia, Guettarda, and Scaevola. Portulaca, an edible plant grew wild on<br />
the Manra (Sydney). It became a main dietary item of early settlers (Knudsen 1977).<br />
Heavy rains after drought periods raised the level of the lake at the center of Manra (Sydney)<br />
and killed many of the new coconut trees that had been planted with the salt water (Knudsen<br />
1977). According to Luke (1962), one of the reasons for having to resettle inhabitants of<br />
Manra (Sydney) was because the soil on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for coconut trees.<br />
In 1973, there was a dead zone of vegetation immediately boarding the lagoon (Garnett<br />
1983). This zone was between 20 to 300 m wide. All plants within the zone were dead. In<br />
1975, some small plants were observed indicating a recovery. Garnett (1983) speculated that<br />
flooding of the hypersaline lagoon caused the dead zone.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the coconut trees planted in the 1880s still dominated the<br />
western end of the island.<br />
Garnett (1983) noted the following species of plants on Manra (Sydney):<br />
1) Pandanus tectorius<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
3) Eragrostis tenella,<br />
4) Eragrostis whitneyi,<br />
5) Lepturus pilgerianus,<br />
6) Lepturus repens,<br />
7) Cyperus javanicus,<br />
8) Fimbristylis cymosa,<br />
9) Cocos nucifera,<br />
10) Crinum asiaticum<br />
11) Boerhavia albiflora,<br />
12) Pisonia grandis,<br />
13) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
14) Portulaca lutea,<br />
15) Portulaca oleracea,<br />
16) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
17) Euphorbia cyanthophora,<br />
18) Euphorbia glomerifera,<br />
19) Euphorbia hirata,<br />
20) Euphorbia prostrate,<br />
21) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
22) Sida fallax,<br />
23) Cucurbita pepo,<br />
24) Ipomoea macrantha,<br />
25) Cordia subcordata,<br />
26) Messerschmidia argentea,<br />
27) Clerodendrum inerme,<br />
28) Guettarda speciosa,<br />
29) Morinda citrifolia,<br />
30) Scaevola taccada,<br />
31) Vernonia cinerea.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 1995, there were coconut trees on Manra, some were healthy, others were not<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995). At Temauri on the west side of Manra, coconut trees were<br />
senile, crowded and appeared unhealthy.<br />
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In 1995, two varieties of pandanus trees were observed, te iritawatawa and antinakarewe.<br />
Banana trees were also observed. These had been planted by workers from Temarui and<br />
Tebaiti.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that McKean had no trees (see also Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942; Ellis 1937), but has some bushes on it. There was very little vegetation<br />
except around the shallow lagoon where patches of bunch grass grow (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported low herbs such as Portulaca, Sesuvium and Lepturus<br />
bunchgrass.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on McKean was similar to that found on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) and Birnie. Six species of plants were observed [but not identified in Maude<br />
1937].<br />
In 1939, the decision was made to plant coconut trees on McKean to support the other<br />
settlements in the Phoenix Islands (Garnett 1983). It was planned that 3,000 coconut trees<br />
were to be planted. The outbreak of World War II prevented the scheme from going forward.<br />
Baker (1968) reported that the fungi, Penicillium rotundum Rapper & Fennell, was found in<br />
the coastal sand of McKean.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there were no trees on McKean. The following plant species<br />
were reported on McKean.<br />
1) Digitaria pacifica<br />
2) Lepturus pilgerianus<br />
3) Boerhavia albiflora<br />
4) Sesuvium portulacastrum<br />
5) Portulaca lutea<br />
6) Tribulus cistoides<br />
7) Sida falla<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
Timeon (2001) noted that the healthy growing shrubs and grasses indicated that larger<br />
vegetation such as coconut trees may well thrive on McKean.<br />
Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported Pisonia grandis, Sida fallax, pigweed, pig vine,<br />
puncture vines, and seaside purslane on McKean.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
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In 1840, Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition noted that Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) was devoid of low shrubbery (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
In the 1880’s coconut trees were planted on Nikumaroro by the John T. Arundel and Co.<br />
(Bryan 1941 and 1942; see also Laxton 1951; Morrell 1960; 1892 according to Douglas and<br />
Douglas 1994). These were planted in the northwest end of the island (Tudor 1968). The<br />
droughts of the 1890’s killed these coconut trees (Douglas and Douglas 1994).<br />
Ellis (1937) reported visiting Nikumaroro (Gardner) prior to the planting of coconut trees. At<br />
that time, there were only 7 or 8 coconut trees on the island. According to Ellis (1937),<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) was planted with coconuts by John T. Arundel Co. Ellis (1937)<br />
reported that the coconut trees were doing well. Maude (1937), noted that coconut trees<br />
planted by Arundel and Company did not do well was either because of the coconut crabs, a<br />
severe drought, or that they were planted in poor soil.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was covered by enormous buka trees,<br />
Pisonia grandis, that were up to 18.3 m (60 ft) high. On the south of the atoll, there were<br />
groves of kanawa trees, Cordia subcordata, that could be used for canoe building. The kaura<br />
shrub, Sida fallex, normally grew to a few feet high, but on Nikumaroro (Gardner) it grew to<br />
more than 2.1 m (7 ft). Coconut trees showed no signs of drought.<br />
Most of the rim was covered by low scrub forest (Bryan 1941 and 1942). This included buka<br />
(Pisonia) and kanava or kou (Cordia) and scattered heliotrope trees (Tournefortia).<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) had puka, pandanus, and about 200 coconut trees (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940). There were several varieties of low shrubs and bunch grass. There were some<br />
trees that are 27.4 m (90 ft) high.<br />
Anon. (1940b) reported that there were several large coconut plantations on Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) (see also Ellis 1946). There were two clumps of coconut trees, one on each side of<br />
the western lagoon entranced (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Thousands of coconut trees have been<br />
planted but were ruined by the Polynesian rat (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Daniel (1943) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) was more fertile than other Phoenix<br />
Islands. This resulted in abundant coconut palms.<br />
Laxton (1951) reported that in addition to the coconut palms, very large buka trees, Pisonia<br />
grandis. Some of these trees were 24.4 to 27.4 m (80 to 90 ft) high.<br />
In 1974, there was an agricultural inspection tour of Nikumaroro by M.E.H. Vickers (Gilbert<br />
Islands 1978). The rainfall was low, so vegetation was in poor condition.<br />
In 1978, the Gilbert Islands (1978) conducted surveys of Nikumaroro. A map was made of<br />
the vegetation on Nikumaroro (see Figure III-3.2 below).<br />
Figure III-3.2. Vegetation map of Nikumaroro<br />
(source: Gilbert Islands 1978).<br />
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In 1978, about 77.7 ha (192 acres) had coconut trees with thick undergrowth of Pisonia<br />
grandis, Scaevola sericea, Morinda citrifolia, and Sida fallax (Gilbert Islands 1978). About<br />
283 ha (700 acres) were undeveloped and another 53 ha (131 acres) was non-arable. Coconut<br />
production was estimated at 26 tonnes (29 tons) annually. If the undeveloped land was<br />
planted, total coconut production might reach 122 tonnes (134 tons) annually.<br />
Vegetation found on Nikumaroro included: Pisonia grandis, Scaevola sericea, Morinda<br />
citrifolia, Sida fallax, Guottarda speciosa, Portulaca sp. and Pandanus toctorious sol.<br />
(Gilbert Islands 1978).<br />
Garnett (1983) listed plant species on Nikumaroro. They included:<br />
1) Pandanus tectoriu,<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
3) Digitaria pacifica,<br />
4) Digitaria cetigera,<br />
5) Eleusine indica,<br />
6) Eragrostis tenella,<br />
7) Lepturus repens,<br />
8) Fimbristylis cymosa,<br />
9) Cocos nucifera,<br />
10) Cyrtosperma chamissonis,<br />
11) Crinum asiaticum<br />
12) Laportea ruderalis,<br />
19) Portulaca oleracea,<br />
20) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
21) Euphorbia cyanthophora,<br />
22) Euphorbia glomerifera,<br />
23) Euphorbia hirata,<br />
24) Pedilanthus tithymaloides<br />
25) Phyllanthus amarus<br />
26) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
27) Sida fallax,<br />
28) Carica papaya,<br />
29) Terminalia samoensis,<br />
30) Ipomoea macrantha,<br />
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13) Coccolaba uvifera,<br />
14) Boerhavia albiflora,<br />
15) Boerhavia tetrandra<br />
16) Pisonia grandis,<br />
17) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
18) Portulaca lutea,<br />
31) Cordia subcordata,<br />
32) Messerschmidia argentea,<br />
33) Guettarda speciosa,<br />
34) Morinda citrifolia,<br />
35) Scaevola taccada.<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 1995, the coconut trees at Maroro and Etanterawa on Nikumaroro were in excellent<br />
condition (Government of Kiribati 1995). Pisonia grandis (te buka), saltbush (te mao), and<br />
the creeping plant (ruku), and pandanus were present on Nikumaroro. The survey team<br />
introduced other pandanus varieties such as te iritawatawa and te aintinakarewe, as well as<br />
breadfruit, te bukiraro, and banana.<br />
Endemic vegetation on Nikumaroro, Orona and Abariringa (Kanton) were the last remaining<br />
large stands found in the Phoenix Islands (<strong>SPREP</strong> 1992).<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1887, Ellis landed on Orona (Hull) with his brother, 3 Niueans, and 20,000 coconuts for<br />
planting (Ellis 1937; see also Anon. 1949e). At the time of his arrival on Orona (Hull), there<br />
were already about 150 coconut trees in full bearing. Ellis reported consuming wild<br />
portulacca that was abundant on Orona (Hull) (Ellis 1937).<br />
Ellis planted coconut trees on Orona (Hull) as a youth while working for John T. Arundel<br />
Company (Ellis 1946; see also Anon. 1940c; Morrell 1960; Pompey 1972). Albert and James<br />
Ellis planted 20,000 coconuts that they brought with them (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Ellis 1937).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that several thousand had been planted in the late 1880’s<br />
(see also Tudor 1968).<br />
The severe drought in 1890 to 1894 killed the coconut trees in most of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except those on Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965).<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that the coconut trees that he planted in the late 1880’s grew to maturity,<br />
but they did suffer through the occasional several droughts.<br />
The severe drought in 1890 to 1894 killed the coconut trees in most of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
except those on Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) (Knudsen 1965).<br />
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Maude (1937) reported that the vegetation on Orona (Hull) was similar to that found on<br />
Manra (Sydney). The non, Morinda citrifolia, was conspicuous all over the western side of<br />
the island. This was the main food of the wild pigs. Coconut trees were thriving.<br />
Fosberg (1939) noted that the grass, Digitaria pacifica, had been collected and identified<br />
from both Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull). The Orona (Hull) specimen was reported<br />
to have been introduced from Funafuti (Ellice Islands) by Mr. Shafer.<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Orona (Hull) reported<br />
it covered with Tournafortia. Coconut trees grew on the southwestern end.<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that the west end of Orona (Hull) had been cleared and planted with<br />
coconut trees. Planting began in about 1902.<br />
In 1939, the forest on the northeast side of Orona (Hull) was nearly dead (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
There were planted coconut trees on the western end of Orona (Hull) (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940; see also Hydrographer of the Navy 1969; Bryan 1941 and 1942). Most of the island is<br />
covered with brush 3 to 3.7 m (10 to 12 ft) high. There are also several stands of Pisonia<br />
grande. These are up to 15.2 m (50 ft) high (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
The eastern most point was bare of trees (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) listed exotic plant species on Orona (Hull). These included:<br />
1) Sand bur, Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
2) Dwarf heliotrope, Heliotropium ovatum,<br />
3) Prostrate spurge, Euphorbia prostrata,<br />
4) Finger-grass, Chloris barbata.<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) recommended elimination of these introduced species, especially while<br />
introductions were still restricted in area.<br />
Garnett (1983) noted several plant species on Orona. These included:<br />
1) Pandanus tectoriu,<br />
2) Cenchrus echinatus,<br />
3) Chloris inflata,<br />
4) Digitaria ciliaris,<br />
5) Digitaria pacifica,<br />
6) Eleusine indica,<br />
7) Eragrostis tenella,<br />
8) Eragrostis whitneyi,<br />
9) Lepturus pilgerianus,<br />
10) Lepturus repens,<br />
11) Fimbristylis cymosa,<br />
12) Cocos nucifera,<br />
13) Crinum asiaticum<br />
14) Artocarpus altilis,<br />
15) Laportea ruderalis,<br />
16) Coccolaba uvifera,<br />
27) Euphorbia glomerifera,<br />
28) Euphorbia hirata,<br />
29) Euphorbia prostrata,<br />
30) Phyllanthus amarus<br />
31) Triumfetta procumbens,<br />
32) Hibiscus tiliaceus,<br />
33) Hibiscus X sp.<br />
34) Sida fallax,<br />
35) Calophyllum inophyllum,<br />
36) Carica papaya,<br />
37) Cucumis melo,<br />
38) Pemphis acidula,<br />
39) Ipomoea macrantha,<br />
40) Impomea pes-caprae,<br />
41) Cordia subcordata,<br />
42) Heliotropium procumbans,<br />
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17) Boerhavia albiflora,<br />
18) Boerhavia tetrandra,<br />
19) Mirabilis jalapa,<br />
20) Pisonia grandis,<br />
21) Sesuvium portulacastrum,<br />
22) Portulaca lutea,<br />
23) Portulaca oleracea,<br />
24) Tribulus cistoides,<br />
25) Suriana maritima,<br />
26) Euphorbia cyanthophora,<br />
43) Messerschmidia argentea,<br />
44) Clerodendrum inerme,<br />
45) Lantana camara,<br />
46) Physalis angulata,<br />
47) Pseudoanthemum carrunthersii,<br />
48) Guettarda speciosa,<br />
49) Morinda citrifolia,<br />
50) Scaevola taccada,<br />
51) Tridax procumbens,<br />
52) Vernonia cinerea.<br />
Endemic vegetation on Nikumaroro, Orona and Abariringa (Kanton) were the last remaining<br />
large stands found in the Phoenix Islands (<strong>SPREP</strong> 1992).<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 1995, there were healthy looking coconut trees on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Pandanus trees, including the te iritawatawa and antinakarewe varieties were also present.<br />
Guettarda speciosa (te uri), and Morinda citrifolia (te noni) were also present. The survey<br />
team planted banana, and breadfruit (te bukiraro).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the eastern point of Orona was dominated by te non, Morinda<br />
citrifolia, te nii, and te kaina.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the invasive plant lantana, Lantana camara, had been<br />
recorded on Orona by Garnett (1983), but was not found in 2006.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) conducted plant surveys on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Orona. Summary results are provided in Table III-3.5 above.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Lister (1891) reported only four types of plants on Rawaki (Phoenix), the scrub, Sida fallax, a<br />
coarse grass, and two species of trailing plants. No species identification was provided for<br />
the grass and trailing plants.<br />
Hydrographic Office (1916) reported no trees on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 1924, there were no trees and the ground was covered with herbs (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
There was no vegetation on the east side where broken coral had been thrown up by waves,<br />
and on the north end of the lagoon which was covered in sand.<br />
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Low vegetation (grass and herbs) seemed none the worse because of the rabbits (Bryan<br />
1934).<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) was treeless.<br />
Maude (1937) observed te boi (purslane) near the lagoon, te wao, te kaura, kiao, and two<br />
species of grass (not identified). No trees, shrubs, or coconut trees were observed.<br />
In 1939, the decision was made to plant 3,500 coconut trees on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Garnett<br />
1983). Planting was stopped with the outbreak of World War II.<br />
Anon. (1940b) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) had extensive growths of coconuts.<br />
The bunchgrass Lepturus dominated the northwest point and west side (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942). Boerhaavia and Portulaca dominated the south and soutwest. Sesuvium bounded the<br />
west side of the lagoon. Sida (ilima) and Triumfetta (beach runner) were on the east side.<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) was treeless (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969). In the middle of the island sand was sparsely covered with grass.<br />
Factors other than food presumably held the rabbit population down to a level where rabbits<br />
did not seriously affect the vegetation (Watson 1961).<br />
Garnett (1983) listed plant species for Rawaki (Phoenix), including:<br />
1) Lepturus pilgerianus<br />
2) Boerhavia<br />
3) Sesuvium portulacastrum<br />
4) Portulaca lutea<br />
5) Triumfetta procumbens<br />
6) Sida fallax<br />
Fosberg and Stoddart (1994) provided a detail discussion of each species recorded for the<br />
Phoenix Islands. A summary of plant species reported and discussed in Fosberg and Stoddart<br />
(1994) is provided in Table III-3.3 above.<br />
In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Island<br />
Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002). The main activities of the scheme included:<br />
(1) cutting copra, (2) shark fins, (3) sea cucumbers, (4) seaweed, and (5) replanting coconut<br />
trees and cleaning. Copra production was limited due to breakdown of the tractor, rats, and<br />
limited coconuts. Coconut planting was planned for the second year of this project.<br />
In 2002, pigweed, Boerhaavia, bunch grass and Sesuvium were observed on Rarawki<br />
(Phoenix) (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the preferred food of rabbits on Rawaki was Portulaca lutea.<br />
This was evident by the low percentage cover of P. lutea on Rawaki.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted the number of plant species present on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki, and the plant habitats present for each island (see<br />
Table III-3.4 above).<br />
C. INSECTS<br />
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Friederichs (1935) reported that E.H. Bryan, Jr. found several embiids on the Phoenix Islands<br />
that were closely related to Oligotoma insularis. Friederichs (1935) noted that O. insularis<br />
appeared identical to O. latreillei.<br />
Bryan (1939) reported that insects were few in number of species, but abundant in individuals<br />
on the Phoenix Islands. They included roaches, silverfish, leafhoppers, plant bug small<br />
bettles, small moths, ants, and flies. No mosquitoes were noted, but ground spiders were<br />
abundant. The specific islands that these occurred on were not provided.<br />
Extensive searches for the tick, Ixodes amersoni, were completed on other Phoenix Islands<br />
(besides Enderbury and Rawaki), but the tick was not found (Amerson 1968). Amerson<br />
(1968) noted that the tick may occur in such small numbers that it has been overlooked.<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that there were no butterflies, dragonflies, grasshoppers or mosquitoes.<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
From 1936 to December 7, 1941, an entomologist employed by the Hawaiian Sugar Planter’s<br />
Association was stationed at Abariringa (Canton) to inspect, spray, and intercept all insects<br />
going to Hawaii on planes (Permberton 1953; see also Van Zwaluwenburg 1941). According<br />
to Van Zwaluwenburg (1943), the plant quarantine station was started in April 1940 (Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg 1943; see also Anon. 1940a; Anon. 1940d, Bryan 1941, 1942, and 1974).<br />
All flights from Abariringa (Canton) to Hawaii were inspected for live and dead insects.<br />
(Pemberton 1944). Each flight (to or from Hawaii) was sprayed with pyrethrum extract<br />
shortly before landing and prior to departure. Insects collected were sent to the entomologist<br />
at the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Experiment Station for identification. Abariringa (Canton)<br />
became an insect filter for Hawaii (see also Murphy et al 1954). Sea planes to Abariringa<br />
(Canton) originated in New Zealand and New Caledonia (Anon. 1940d).<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and observed greenish-black bird flies.<br />
Gardner (1938) reported no flies or mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Pemberton (1944) provided a summary of mosquito species collected on inbound and<br />
outbound Hawaii flights, but this is not broken down by island of transit. A total of 1,839<br />
live insects were removed from the 301 planes that transited Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Permberton 1953). During World War II, the insect quarantine was marginalized due to the<br />
war effort.<br />
Browne (1940) collected the following insects on Abariringa (Canton):<br />
1) Harmonia areuata (Coleoptera)<br />
2) Cutilia soror (Orthoptera)<br />
4) Olfersia spinigera (Diptera)<br />
5) Aphis gossypii (Homoptera)<br />
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3) Musca domestica (Diptera) 6) Mealybug (Homoptera).<br />
According to Van Zwaluwenburg (1941), insect species that were undesirable in Hawaii that<br />
were present on Abariringa (Canton) included: the noctuid moth, Prodenia litura, an<br />
unidentified cicadellid leafhopper, the arctiid moth, Utetheisa pulchelloides, and the nocturid<br />
caterpillar, Achaea janata.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) noted that there were no insect parasites on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In addition, there were no mosquitoes, no fleas. Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported three<br />
flea infested dogs that were brought to Abariringa (Canton), but none had any fleas when<br />
examined. There were no harbor fleas on rats.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1942) noted that the butterfly, Hypolimnas bolina, was observed on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) from time to time in 1940, but never more than one at a time. By 1941,<br />
it was established in one area of the island, just south of the main channel.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1942) reported that the monarch butterfly, Danaida archippus, had<br />
arrived at least once in the last 1.5 years, but had not yet become established on Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
The globe skimmer dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, was not on Abariringa (Canton) in 1940,<br />
but was abundant in 1941 (Van Zwaluwenburg 1942). The reddish dragonfly, Diplocodes<br />
bipunctata, was also not present in 1940, but present in 1941.<br />
Follett (1943) also noted that there were mosquitos on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Kelsey (1943) identified a new species of termite based on specimens from Abariringa<br />
(Canton). The termite was found in a driftwood log on the beach by J.A. Buddle. The new<br />
species was named Calotermes curvithorax n. sp.<br />
Oman (1943) described a new species of leafhopper, Homoptera Cicadellidae, Nesaloha<br />
cantonis from Abariringa (Canton). The holotype was collected on Boerhaavia diffusa<br />
foliage in 1940. Zimmerman (1948) reported that this species had a wide distribution in the<br />
Pacific. According to Zimmerman (1948) it was originally described as Thamnotettix<br />
argentata.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1943) identified three groups of insects on Abariringa (Canton):<br />
permanently established, termporarily established, and recent immigrants. Eighty one insect<br />
species were identified on Abariringa (Canton), see Table III-3.9 below.<br />
Table III-3.9. List of insect species found on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(source: Van Zwaluwenburg 1943).<br />
Order Family Species<br />
Thysanura Lepismidae Undetermined species<br />
Collembola Entomobryidae Undetermined species<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Cutilia soror<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Periplaneta americana<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Pycnoscelus surinamensis<br />
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Orthoptera Blattidae Supella supellectilium<br />
Orthoptera Gryllidae Gryllodes sigillatus<br />
Orthoptera Locustidae Conocephalus saltator<br />
Demaptera Labiduridae Anisolabis eteronoma<br />
Embioptera Oligotomidae Oligotoma saundersii<br />
Odonata Libellulidae Diplacodes bipunctata<br />
Odonata Libellulidae Pantala flavescens<br />
Corrodentia Atropidae Undetermined species<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Cydnidae Geotomus pygmaeus<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Reduviidae Reduviolus capsiformis<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Miridae Undetermined species<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Halobatidae Halobates micans<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Aphididae Aphis gossypii<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Asterolecanium pustulans<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Chrysomphalus aonidum<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Coccus hesperidum<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Hemichionaspis minor<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Pseudococcus longispinus<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Ripersia palmarum<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Saissetia hemispherica<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Coccidae Undermined species<br />
Hemiptera-Heteroptera Cicadellidae Nesaloha cantonis<br />
Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys muscens<br />
Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys sp.<br />
Coleoptera Histeridae Carcinops quatuordecimstriata<br />
Coleoptera Nitidulidae Carpophilus hemipterus<br />
Coleoptera Coccinellidae Harmonia arcuata<br />
Coleoptera Dermestidae Dermestes cadaverinus<br />
Coleoptera Corynetidae Necrobia rufipes<br />
Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Alphitobius laevigatus<br />
Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Tribolium ferrungineum<br />
Coleoptera Anthicidae Anthicus oceanicus<br />
Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Pleurophorus parvulus<br />
Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Saprosites pygmaeus<br />
Coleoptera Calandridae Calandra oryzae<br />
Lepidoptera Danaidae Danaida plexippus<br />
Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnas bolina<br />
Lepidoptera Arctiidae Utetheisa pulchelloides<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Achaea janata<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Amyna octo<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Heliothis armigera<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Laphygma exempta<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Prodenia litura<br />
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Undetermined species<br />
Lepidoptera Pyralidae Hymenia recurvalis<br />
Lepidoptera Tineidae Petrochroa dimorpha<br />
Diptera Mycetophilidae Undetermined species<br />
Diptera Sciaridae Undetermine species<br />
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Diptera Chironomidae Undetermined species<br />
Diptera Dolichopodidae Chrysosoma sp.<br />
Diptera Dolichopodidae Hydrophorus sp.<br />
Diptera Syrphidae Ischiodon scutellaris<br />
Diptera Calliphoridae Lucilia sericata<br />
Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga dux<br />
Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica<br />
Diptera Anthomyiidae Atherigona excisa var. trilineata<br />
Diptera Ortalidae Euxestra sp<br />
Diptera Ortalidae Scholastes bimaculatus<br />
Diptera Ephydridae Hecamede persimilis<br />
Diptera Ephydridae Scatella sp.<br />
Diptera Chloropidae Prohippelates palidus<br />
Diptera Chloropidae Siphunculina signata<br />
Diptera Milichiidae Desmometopa m-nigrum<br />
Diptera Milichiidae Milichiella lacteipennis<br />
Diptera Tethinidae Tethina insularius<br />
Diptera Agromyzidae Undetermined species<br />
Diptera Hippoboscidae Olfersia spinifera<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina bourbonica<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina longicornis<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Tapinoma melanocephalum<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Teramorium guieense<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium simillimiun<br />
Hymenoptera Scelionidae Telenomus nawai<br />
Hymenoptera Eulophidae Euplectrus platyhypenae<br />
Hymenoptera Eulophidae Notanisomorphomyia prob. externa<br />
Hymenoptera Evaniidae Evania appendigaster<br />
Usinger (1944) noted that other Heteroptera had been reported from Abariringa (Canton)<br />
including: Geotomus pygmaeus, Nabis capsiformis, and Halobates micans. One specimen of<br />
the bean mirid, Pycnoderes quadrimaculatus, was identified from Abariringa (Canton), but it<br />
was suggested that this came in a collecting bottle from Hawaii. Usinger (1944) noted that<br />
Trigonotylus brevipes had also been collected on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Usinger (1944) described a new species of Heteroptera, Cyrtorhinus zwaluwenburgi, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Williams (1945) noted that the large noctuid moth, Achaea janata, was reared from Cordia<br />
subcordata on Abariringa (Canton) by Langford and Van Zwalunwenburg.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1947) reported a new species of termite, Calotermes curvithorax, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton). The specimen was collected from driftwood in 1937. Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg (1947) noted that no termites were found on Abariringa (Canton) in 1940 or<br />
in 1941.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1948) reported a vespid wasp, Pachodynerus nasidens (Latreille) from<br />
Abariringa (Canton). Van Zwaluwenburg (1952a) reported that the type material of<br />
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Calotermes curvithorax from Abariringa (Canton) was re-examined and found to be<br />
synonymous with Kalotermes immigrans. Van Zwaluwenburg (1952b) reported that the<br />
tenebrionid beetle, Gonocephalum adpressiformes, had been identified from Abariringa<br />
(Canton). Pemberton (1952) reported on occurrence of the grasshopper, Aiolopus tamulus,<br />
from Abariringa (Canton). The specimen was collected by N.L.H. Krauss in 1950.<br />
Frick (1952) reported studying two specimens of Ophiomyia sp. from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
These appeared to be distinct. Frick (1952) declined to describe them here.<br />
Hardy (1952) reported that in 1950, Ishiodon scutellaris was collected on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). Hardy (1952) indicated that this should be corrected to I. penicillatus.<br />
Frick (1953) proposed a new species of Agromyzidae (Diptera), Ophiomyia scaevolae, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton). The holotype was collected on Abariringa (Canton) from a leaf of<br />
Scaevola frustescens (naupaka).<br />
A serious enemy of Cordia was the caterpillar of the moth Achaea janata which defoliated<br />
two entire groves of Cordia (Hatheway 1955).<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1955) reported 93 species of insects (excluding one species of Isoptera)<br />
and 15 related species on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Wiens 1962; see Table III-3.3).<br />
Degener and Gillespy (1955) noted that the number of native insect species on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) was small due to the isolation of the island and limited flora.<br />
Van Zwalunwenburg (1955) up-dated his 1943 list of insects that occurred on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). These are also included in Table III-3.10 below.<br />
Table III-3.10. Revised list of insect species on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(source: Van Zwaluwenburg (1955)<br />
Order Family Species<br />
Thysanura Lepismidae Undetermined species<br />
Collembola Entomobryidae Undetermined species<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Cutilia soror<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Periplaneta americana<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Pycnoscelus surinamensis<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Supella supellectilium<br />
Orthoptera Blattidae Blattia sp.<br />
Orthoptera Gryllidae Gryllodes sigillatus<br />
Orthoptera Tettingoniidae Aiolopus tamulus<br />
Isoptera Kalotermitidae Kalotermes immigrans<br />
Embioptera Oligotomidae Oligotoma saundersii<br />
Demaptera Labiduridae Anisolabis eteronoma<br />
Odonata Libellulidae Diplacodes bipunctata<br />
Odonata Libellulidae Pantala flavescens<br />
Corrodentia Liposcelidae Undetermined sp.<br />
Corrodentia Periopsocidae Ectopscocus perkinsi<br />
Homoptera Cicadellidae Orosius argentatus<br />
Homoptera Aphididae Aphis gossypii<br />
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Homoptera Coccidae Asterolecanium pustulans<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Chrysomphalus aonidum<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Coccus hesperidum<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Pinnaspis strachani<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Pseudococcus palmarum<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Pseudococcus adonidum<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Saissetia hemispherica<br />
Homoptera Coccidae Undermined species<br />
Heteroptera Cydnidae Geotomus pygmaeus<br />
Heteroptera Pentatomidae Oechalia prob. consocialis<br />
Heteroptera Nabidae Nabis capsiformis<br />
Heteroptera Miridae Camylomma near hawaiiensis<br />
Heteroptera Miridae Trigonotylus brevipes<br />
Heteroptera Miridae Cyrtorhinus zwalunwenburgi<br />
Heteroptera Gerridae Halobates micans<br />
Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys muscens<br />
Coleoptera Carabidae Tachys sp.<br />
Coleoptera Histeridae Carcinops quatuordecimstriata<br />
Coleoptera Corynetidae Necrobia rufipes<br />
Coleoptera Elateridae Conoderus pallipes<br />
Coleoptera Dermestidae Dermestes cadaverinus<br />
Coleoptera Nitidulidae Carpophilus hemipterus<br />
Coleoptera Coccinellidae Harmonia arcuata<br />
Coleoptera Anthicidae Anthicus oceanicus<br />
Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Gonocephalum adpressiforme<br />
Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Pleurophorus parvulus<br />
Coleoptera Scarabaeidae Saprosites pygmaeus<br />
Coleoptera Anthribidae Araecerus vielillardi<br />
Coleoptera Curculionidae Calandra oryzae<br />
Coleoptera Curculionidae Dryotribus mimeticus<br />
Lepidoptera Tineidae Petrochroa dimorpha<br />
Lepidoptera Hyposmocomidae Aphthonetus sp.<br />
Lepidoptera Pyralidae Hymenia recurvalis<br />
Lepidoptera Arctiidae Utetheisa pulchelloides<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Achaea janata<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Amyna octo<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Heliothis armigera<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Laphygma exempta<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Prodenia litura<br />
Lepidoptera Phalaenidae Undetermined species<br />
Lepidoptera Danaidae Danaida plexippus<br />
Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnas bolina<br />
Diptera Mycetophilidae Undetermined species<br />
Diptera Tendipedidae Undertermined species<br />
Diptera Sciaridae Undetermine species<br />
Diptera Dolichopodidae Chrysosoma sp.<br />
Diptera Dolichopodidae Hydrophorus sp.<br />
Diptera Syrphidae Ischiodon penicillatus<br />
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Diptera Lonchaeidae Lamprolonchaea aurea<br />
Diptera Otilidae Pseudeuxestra prima<br />
Diptera Otilidae Scholastes bimaculatus<br />
Diptera Tethinidae Tethina insularius<br />
Diptera Ephydridae Hecamede persimilis<br />
Diptera Ephydridae Paralimna lineata<br />
Diptera Ephydridae Scatella sp.<br />
Diptera Agromyzidae Ophiomyia scaevolae<br />
Diptera Milichiidae Desmometopa m-nigrum<br />
Diptera Milichiidae Milichiella lacteipennis<br />
Diptera Chloropidae Cadrema pallida<br />
Diptera Chloropidae Siphunculina signata<br />
Diptera Muscidae Atherigona excisa trilineata<br />
Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica<br />
Diptera Calliphoridae Phaenicia sericata<br />
Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga dux<br />
Hymenoptera Evaniidae Evania appendigaster<br />
Hymenoptera Eulophidae Pnigalio sp.<br />
Hymenoptera Scelionidae Telenomus nawai<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium guineense<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetramorium simillimum<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Tapinoma melanocephalum<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Camponotus variegatus hawaiiensis<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina longicornis<br />
Hymenoptera Formicidae Paratrechina bourbonica hawaiiensis<br />
Hymenoptera Sphecidae Sceliphron caementarium<br />
Hymenoptera Vespidae Pachodynerus nasidens<br />
Hymenoptera Megachilidae Undetermined species<br />
Degener and Gillespy (1955) noted that the establishment of harmful insects on Abaririrnga<br />
(Canton) made it a dangerous stepping stone for the introduction of these insects to other<br />
regions. There were few native species of insects. However, some were being unknowingly<br />
introduced with plant introductions.<br />
Linnavuori (1956) reported the presence of the Cicadellidae, Nesophrosyne argentatus, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney). Kulzer (1957) noted that the<br />
Tenebrionidae Coleoptera, Gonocephalum adpressiforme was found on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1957) reported that the distribution of, Propsephus tongaensis<br />
(Coleoptera, Elateridae), included the Phoenix Islands.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that the moth, Achaea janata, fed on Cordia subcordata trees on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). In some cases the entire tree has been defloliated. It was speculated<br />
that the moth limited the spread of these trees.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted the presence of the grasshopper, Aiolopus tamulus, and the cockroach,<br />
Pycnoscelus surinamensis. Several harmful insects have also been introduced. These<br />
included the scale insect that weakens coconut palms. The crater scale, which killed all<br />
introduced Plumeria rubra trees.<br />
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McIntire (1960) noted that there were no mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton). But there was<br />
a parasitic hippoboscid louse fly on some birds. If there was standing water, damselflies<br />
became numerous.<br />
Gressitt and Yamamoto (1963) reported that there were four ways that insects get to oceanic<br />
islands: (1) air currents; (2) rafts or logs; (3) feet or feathers of birds; and (4) man. Voluntary<br />
flight may be the mechanism for two species of dragonflies to become established on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). In addition, it may also be the mechanism used by the butterfly<br />
Hypolimnas bolina to become re-established there.<br />
Shiroma (1965) confirmed the absence of mosquitoes on Abariringa (Canton). Shiroma<br />
(1965) noted that 40 species of insects had been collected on Abariringa (Canton). No<br />
species list was provided.<br />
Beardsley (1965) reported that the notorious Rutherglen bug of Australia, Nysius vinitor<br />
Bergroth, had become established on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Shiroma (1966) reported in 1965 there was an insect survey of Abariringa (Canton). During<br />
that survey 42 species of insects were collected. Eleven new insect were recorded. They<br />
included:<br />
1) Icerya purchasi (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae),<br />
2) Pseudococcus vastator (Homoptera: Pesudococcidae);<br />
3) Orius persequens (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae);<br />
4) Chrysodeixis chalcites (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae);<br />
5) Perigea dolorosa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae);<br />
6) Drosophila busckii (Diptera: Drosophilidae);<br />
7) Notogramma cimiciforme (Diptera: Otitidae);<br />
8) Hostis guamensis (Diptera: Ephydridae);<br />
9) Placopsidella cynecephala (Diptera: Ephydridae);<br />
10) Chrysoma megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae); and<br />
11) Chrysopa ramburi (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae);<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.11).<br />
Table III-3.11. Distibution and hosts of Ornithoros capensis Neumann (*)<br />
and Ornithodoros capensis group (+) in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Amerson 1968)<br />
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Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia pusilla, O. aenescens, and O.<br />
spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
The food plant needed by the monarch butterfly simultaneously was established on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Carlquist 1981). The presence of the monarch butterfly on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) showed a surprizing range of long-distace dispersal (Carlquist 1981).<br />
About 100 species of insects have been collected on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1974; see<br />
also Garnett 1983).<br />
Edwards and Thornton (2001) noted that the dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, had great powers<br />
of over sea dispersal and had reached oceanic islands such as Abariringa (Canton) that were<br />
at least 1,000 km from the nearest land.<br />
Oates (2003) noted that monarch butterflies were observed on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
One resident on Abariringa (Canton) raised bees (Oates 2003). Annual production of honey<br />
was about 125 gallons.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 below). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
Table III-3.12. Ant species in the Phoenix Islands, May to June 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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Species key: Carnud = Cardiocondyla nuda, Mondes = Monomorium destructor, Monflo = Monomorium<br />
floricole, Parlon = Paratrechina longicornis; Parvag = Paratrechina vaga; Phemeg = Pheidole megacephala,<br />
Tapmel = Tapinoma melanocephalum; Tetsim = Tetramorium simillimum.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Birnie.<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Birnie (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Birnie collected<br />
from Phaeton rubricauda. Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia<br />
pusilla, O. aenescens, and O. spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona<br />
(Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there was one species of mite and two species of parasitic flies from<br />
Birnie. The two species of Diptera included: Olfersia aenescens, and Ornithoica pusilla.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Perkins (1931) described a new species of coloptera, Proterhinus phoenix, based on<br />
specimens from Enderbury in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Enderbury.<br />
Browne (1940) collected the following insects on Enderbury:<br />
1) Dermestes cadaverinus (Coleoptera)<br />
2) Aphis gossypii (Homoptera).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that a tiny beetle was found on Enderbury. It was hiding<br />
among the roots of herbs and bunch grass. It was a relative of the bark beetle in Hawaii,<br />
Samoa, and Fiji.<br />
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Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to at least 30 species of insects. However,<br />
no list of species was provided.<br />
Amerson (1968) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was known from Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
and Enderbury Islands. I. amersoni had been found on a red-footed booby, Sula sula on<br />
Enderbury in 1966.<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Enderbury (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Garnett (1983) listed the following species of insects on Enderbury:<br />
1) Pycnoscelus surinamensis<br />
2) Symploca capitata<br />
3) Periplaneta americana<br />
4) Lepolepis sp.<br />
5) Aphis gossypii<br />
6) Orosius argentatus<br />
7) Nephrosyne argentatus<br />
8) Reduviolus capsiformis<br />
9) Saemundsonnia hexagona<br />
10) Saemundsonia albemarlensis<br />
11) Eidmaniella albescens<br />
12) Iectinopygus gracilornis<br />
13) Quadracepts birostris<br />
14) Actornithophilus piceus<br />
15) Araecerus fasciculatus<br />
16) Harmonia acuta<br />
17) Rhyncogonus fosbergi<br />
18) Dermestes ater<br />
19) Dermestes cadaverinus<br />
20) Protorhinus phoenix<br />
21) Cosmopterigidae sp.<br />
22) Heliothis sp. (prob. armigeri)<br />
23) Spodoptera sp (prob. exempta)<br />
24) Olethreutidae sp<br />
25) Pterophoridae sp.<br />
26) Pyralidae sp.<br />
27) Amydria sp.<br />
28) Phaenica sericata<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Arundel (1885) noted that there were originally no mosquitoes on Manra (Sydney).<br />
However, after a visit from a vessel from Tahiti, mosquitoes (see also Bryan 1941 and 1942;<br />
in 1884 according to Garnett 1983) and hornets were observed.<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Manra (Sydney), there were large<br />
moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies.<br />
There are several species of insects on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). But<br />
there were no mosquitos.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported blue and white butterfly, several kinds of moths, dragonflies,<br />
ants, flies, leafhoppers, bugs, beetles, wasps, and spiders (see also Garnett 1983).<br />
Linnavuori (1956) reported the presence of the Cicadellidae, Nesophrosyne argentatus, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
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Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Manra (Sydney) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on McKean.<br />
Some species of insects were noted for McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940), but none were<br />
identified. Flies and mosquitoes were absent. Small insects were common (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in McKean (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia spinifera, from McKean collected<br />
from Fregata minor.<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia pusilla, O. aenescens, and O.<br />
spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported at least 15 species of insects on McKean, however, these have yet to<br />
be identified. Garnett (1983) noted the two species of Diptera on McKean included Olfersia<br />
spinifera, and Ornithoica pusilla.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that there were Asian rats on McKean. An external parasitic tick<br />
was found on a juvenile Asian rat.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Nikumaroro (Gardner), there were<br />
large moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies.<br />
Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that there were no mosquitoes on Nikumaroro. However,<br />
flies concentrated at the expedition camp site.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
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Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Orona (Hull).<br />
Bryan (1939) reported that on wooded islands, such as Orona (Hull), there were large moths,<br />
butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragonflies. Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported 50<br />
different species of insects on Orona (Hull). However, insect life was less abundant than on<br />
wetter Manra (Sydney).<br />
Linnavuori (1956) reported the presence of the Cicadellidae, Nesophrosyne argentatus, from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
Usinger and Herring (1957) reported that the marine water striders were the only insect<br />
toinhabit the open ocean. In examining a new species of marine water striders, Hermatobates<br />
sp. from Coconut Island, Oahu, they noted that specimens from this obscure genus had also<br />
been collected on Orona (Hull).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Orona (Hull) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Orona (Hull)<br />
collected from Anous stolidus.<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia pusilla, O. aenescens, and O.<br />
spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there were 16 species of insects on Orona (Hull). These included<br />
the following:<br />
1) Phisis sp.<br />
2) Blattella germanica<br />
3) Lobopterella dimidiatipes<br />
4) Ectopsocus spilotus<br />
5) Orosius argentatus<br />
6) Hernatobates hawaiiensis<br />
7) Harmonia arcuata<br />
8) Trogoderma anthrenoides<br />
No mosquitos were found on Orona (PIKS Project Manager 2002).<br />
9) Utethesia pulchelloides<br />
10) Heliothis sp. (prob. armigera)<br />
11) Chrysosoma complicatum<br />
12) Hecamede persinilis<br />
13) Lamprolonchaea metatarsata<br />
14) Milichiella lactipennis<br />
15) Olfersia aenescens<br />
16) Ornithoica pusilla<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Lister (1891) reported that the lagoon on Rawaki (Phoenix) was swarming with mosquito<br />
larvae.<br />
Maude (1937) reported no mosquitos on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
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Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that insects were abundant, but of few species. These<br />
included flies, moths, leafhoppers, green bugs and spiders.<br />
Kohls (1966) described a new species of tick, Ixodes amersoni n. sp, from a fairy tern, Gygis<br />
alba, at Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1965 (see also Amerson 1968). Additional tick specimens were<br />
collected from white terns on Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1966 (Amerson 1968).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia aenescens, from Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) collected from the following birds: Puffinus nativitatis, Pterodroma alba, Phaeton<br />
rubricauda, and Anous stolidus.<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia spinifera, from Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
collected from Fregata minor.<br />
Maa (1968) reported the Hippoboscidae (Diptera), Olfersia pusilla, O. aenescens, and O.<br />
spinifera from Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, McKean, Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported several insects on Rawaki (Phoenix):<br />
1) Nephrosyne argentatus<br />
2) Halipeuris bulweri<br />
3) Halipeuris heraldicus<br />
4) Halipeuris mirabilis<br />
5) Halipeuris spadix<br />
6) Trabeculus hexakon<br />
7) Naubates harrisoni<br />
8) Saemundsonia albemarlensis<br />
9) Saemundsonia sydneri<br />
10) Saemundsonia sp.<br />
11) Colpocephalum angulaticeps<br />
12) Frogatiella aurifasciata<br />
13) Iectinopygus gracilornis<br />
14) Iectinopygus sp.<br />
15) Quadraceps birostris<br />
16) Quadraceps separatus<br />
17) Quadraceps sp.<br />
18) Actornithophilus incisus<br />
19) Austromenopon atrofulvum<br />
20) Austromenopon sp.<br />
21) Protorhinus phoenix<br />
22) Olfersia spinifera<br />
23) Olfersia aenescens<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the occurance of ants on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.12 above). None of<br />
these species were considered invasive.<br />
D. OTHER INVERTEBRATES<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Hermit crabs were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1934, 1941, and 1942; Donaggho<br />
1953). Ellis (1937) noted that occasionally thousands would congregate into a few square<br />
yards.<br />
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Gardner (1938) provided an account of hermit crabs during the 1937 solar eclipse expedition.<br />
Hermit crabs were attracted to soap and food stuff. In addition, they took shelter on the shade<br />
side of tents.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1943) identified 15 related invertebrate species (other than insects) on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). These are listed in Table III-3.13 below. Van Zwalunwenburg (1955)<br />
up-dated his 1943 list of arthropods (other than insects) that occurred on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
These are also included in Table III-3.13 below. Latrodectus mactans was added to the list<br />
and Filistata bakeris was deleted from it.<br />
Table III-3.13. List of 15 invertebrate species (other than insects)<br />
found on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
(source: Van Zwaluwenburg (1943 and 1955).<br />
Class Order 1943 Species 1955 species<br />
Crustacea Isopoda Metaponorthrus pruinosus X<br />
Crustacea Isopoda Undetermined species X<br />
Crustacea Amphipoda Undetermined species X<br />
Arachnida Scorpionoidea Isometrus maculatus X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Undetermined species X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Scytodes sp. X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Gamasomorpha minima X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Undetermined species X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Latrodectus mactans<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Neoscona sp. X<br />
Arachnida Aranaeida Filistata bakeris<br />
Arachnida Acarina Laelaps sp. X<br />
Arachnida Acarina Listrophorides sp. X<br />
Arachnida Acarina Undetermined species X<br />
Arachnida Ixoidea Ornithodoros sp. X<br />
Myriapoda Chilopoda Mescistocepahlus prob. maxillaris X<br />
Chamberlin (1953) reported that chilopod (centipede), Honuaphilus alohanus, had been<br />
reported from various Pacific islands including Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Success of the proposed plant introductions to Abariringa (Canton) would be dependent on<br />
the swarms of hermit crabs (Anon 1955). McIntire (1960) noted that on Abariringa<br />
(Canton), crabs feed largely on the seedlings of plants. This made it difficult for many plants<br />
to reproduce.<br />
Murphy et al (1954) noted the enorous numbers of hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
reported that they periodically destroy whole populations newly hatched chicks of greyheaded<br />
tern colonies.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) which lived<br />
away from the bird rookeries had a vegetarian diet (see also Wiens 1962).<br />
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Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that wolf spiders were abundant on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
The spider, Latrodectus geometricus, was common in abandoned shacks and bushes.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that hermit crabs were attracted to Cordia and Messerschmidia tree<br />
groves on Abariringa (Canton) during the warmer parts of the day. It did not apprear that the<br />
hermit crabs damaged the trees. The most numerous crabs on Abariringa (Canton) were the<br />
small pale hermit crab, Coenobita perlatus (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955).<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that there were a few native spiders on Abariringa (Canton). The wolf<br />
spider, which did not weave a web, was everywhere. The spiker, Latrodectus geometricus, a<br />
relative of the black widow, was found in abandoned shacks and in bushes. No bites were<br />
known from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
The scorpion, Isometrus maculatus, in the Buthidae family was found on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Wiens 1962).<br />
The hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, and land crabs were the most conspicuous invertebrates<br />
on Abariringa (Canton) (Garnett 1983).<br />
On Abariringa (Canton), Cardisoma carnifex [the land crab] dispersed the fruit of Pandanus<br />
tectorius as much as 25 m. (Lee 1985). The distance was much less on Christmas Island,<br />
and could be related to the densities of land crabs there compared with Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(O'Dowd and Lake 1991).<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that hermit crabs (te makauro) were observed on<br />
Abariringa (Tunaari), specially at Terieta, Bikentabwakea, and Umari. Land crabs (te mania)<br />
were also observed, but were not as abundant as hermit crabs.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that on the southeastern edge of Abariringa (Kanton), at a large<br />
colony of Sterna lunata (perhaps 1,000 birds), almost half of the eggs were either empty,<br />
damaged or being eaten by hermit crabs.<br />
Oates (2003) noted that hermit crabs, Coenobita perlatus, kept the beaches clear of dead fish<br />
and animals. However, this was not enough food, so hermit crabs often had to eat plants and<br />
seeds. This kept the vegetation low.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
Table III-3.14. Crab species recorded for the Phoenix Islands, April to May 2006<br />
(P=present but not recorded in transect; U=unknow/incomplete survey).<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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BIRNIE<br />
Hermit crabs were found on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1940). They were more numerous<br />
than the rats (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002).<br />
According to Garnett (1983), there was one species of Arachnida on Birnie, Ornithodoros<br />
capensis.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Hermit crabs were found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that thousands of hermit crabs now inhabit the abandoned guano<br />
worker houses.<br />
King (1973) noted that hermit crabs have been observed causing mortality in large sooty tern<br />
colonies (800,000 birds) and in frigatebird colonies.<br />
Bryan (1974) claimed that the principal damage done to the large colony of sooty terns and<br />
frigatebirds was caused by hermit crabs.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported two species of spiders (Arachnida) on Enderbury: Argasidae,<br />
Ornithodoros capensis, and Ixodidae, Ixodes amersoni.<br />
In 1995, land crabs were found on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
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In 2002, coconut crabs were observed breaking bird eggs with their pincers (Yoshinaga<br />
2002). According to Yoshinaga (2002), “small red coconut crabs were common in troicbird<br />
nests under shrubs and rock shelves.”<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Hermit crabs were found on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the hermit crab, Coenobita sp., on Manra (Sydney). Garnett (1983)<br />
also noted the presence of spiders on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported hermit and land crabs on Manra.<br />
Kepler (2000) reported that two medium-large coconut crabs were transported from Flint<br />
Island to Manra and released.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Several kinds of crabs were noted on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940). Bryan (1941 and<br />
1942) noted that hermit and other crabs were present on McKean.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, and land crab, Geograpsus<br />
grayii, on McKean.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the Arachinda, Ornithodoros capensis, on McKean.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Coconut crabs were so numerous that in the 1880’s Niue workers named the island, “motu<br />
oonga”, island of coconut crabs (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Ellis (1937) reported that there were<br />
extraordinary numbers of large coconut crabs on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (see also Wiens<br />
1962). Many were up to 3.6 kg (8 pounds). There were only 7 or 8 coconut trees on the<br />
island, so they must have fed on something else besides coconuts.<br />
During the 1937 survey of Nikumaroro (Gardner) in advance of resettlement, a landing party<br />
was sent ashore (Bevington 1990; see also Maude 1937). After the first night, when they<br />
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awoke they realized that the thick callous on their feet had been eaten by hungry hermit<br />
crabs. On the second night, natives collected and ate 30 coconut crabs. Most of the landing<br />
party became sick from the rich meal.<br />
There were crabs on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
According to Baarslag (1940), Nikumaroro (Gardiner) was overrun with coconut crabs,<br />
Birgus latro, that weigh up to 3.6 kg (8 pounds). There were also land and hermit crabs<br />
(Bryan 1941 and 1942). Maude (1952) reported that Nikumaroro (Gardner) had some of the<br />
largest coconut crabs in the Pacific.<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that the coconut crab, Birgus latro, were still present in large numbers.<br />
In addition there were land crabs, probably Cardisoma carnifex, and land hermit crabs,<br />
Coenobita sp. on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 1995, coconut crabs were observed at Maroro and Etanterawa on Nikumaroro<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995). Coconut trees were crowded at Niku, so it was assumed that<br />
coconut crabs were also there. Land and hermit crabs were also found in large numbers.<br />
In January 2000, coconut crabs were extremely sparse (Kepler 2000). Only 3 were observed<br />
after many hours of searching. Land crabs, Cardisoma carnifex, occupied coconut crab<br />
burrows. Kepler (2000) noted that during the 1999 expedition to Nikumaroro to find<br />
evidence of Amelia Earhart there, the Fijian crew ate every coconut crab in sight. Kepler<br />
(2000) advised the organizers of the Earhart expedition that they should not harvest coconut<br />
crabs.<br />
King et al (2001) reported coconut crabs on Nikumaroro. Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002)<br />
noted that coconut crabs were abundant on Nikumaroro.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Hermit crabs were present on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported<br />
that land and hermit crabs were found on Orona (Hull).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there were land and hermit crabs on Orona (Hull) (see also Bryan<br />
1942).<br />
In 1995, land and hermit crabs were noted on Orona (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Coconut crabs were also observed.<br />
In January 2000, signs of coconut crabs were identified (1 pile of shredded fibers) (Kepler<br />
2000). However, no coconut crabs were observed. Kepler (2000) noted that land crabs,<br />
Cardisoma carnifex were abundant.<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Lister (1891) reported that a large scarlet hermit crab was abundant and had attacked bird<br />
specimens that had been collected.<br />
Hermit crabs were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted the presence of the hermit crab, Coenobita perlata, on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix).<br />
According to Garnett (1983), there were two species of Arachnida on Rawaki (Phoenix):<br />
Ornithodoros capensis, and Ixodes amersoni.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the species diversity of various terrestrial crab species on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see<br />
Table III-3.14 above). Crabs species included the hermit crab, Coenobita spp., land crab,<br />
Cardisoma spp., and coconut crab, Birgus latra.<br />
E. AMPHIBIANS<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON)<br />
There were no amphibians on Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960; Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955).<br />
F. REPTILES<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Bryan (1974) noted that the two species of lizards that were common on Pacific Islands<br />
included the snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii poecilopleura, and the morning gecko,<br />
Lepidodactylus lugubris.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 below).<br />
Table III-3.15. Lizard species recorded on the Phoenix Islands, April to May 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Lizards were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1934; Bryan<br />
1941; Bryan 1942). One species of lizard was observed by Bunker (1951).<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported an adhesive-toed gecko and skink on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (see also Wiens 1962).<br />
Murphy et al (1954) reported the skink, Ablepharus boutoni peocilopleurus, was extremely<br />
numerous in April 1949. It appeared that skink density was 0.8 per m 2 (1 per square yard).<br />
The skink was the principal diet of golden plover. However, by 1952 and 1954, skinks were<br />
not numerous.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that there was a species of gecko and skink on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Plovers often catch them for food.<br />
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Garnett (1983) reported that there were 4 species of lizards on Abariringa (Canton). These<br />
included the following:<br />
1) Mourning gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris,<br />
2) House gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus,<br />
3) Stump-toed gecko, Gehyra mutilata,<br />
4) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton.<br />
Levy (1996) reported tiny insect-eating lizards on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
No species of reptiles were reported from Birnie (Garnett 1983). There were no lizards there.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Enderbury<br />
and reported seeing lizards and skink.<br />
Lizards were found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 2 species of reptiles. The species name<br />
was not provided.<br />
In 1973, Clapp (1975) observed gray-backed terns, Sterns lunata, on Enderbury, swoop down<br />
and catch a snake-eyed skink, Crypotblepharus boutoni. Captured skinks were consumed in<br />
flight by the terns. This appeared to be the first documentation of skink consumption by<br />
gray-backed terns and might be related to the abundance of skink on Enderbury.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported two species of lizards on Enderbury. These included: the mouring<br />
gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris, and snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii.<br />
Radtkey et al (1995) investigated the origin and spread of an asexual species of gecko in the<br />
central Pacific. They identified a new species of gecko, Lepidodactylus sp. nov. that ranged<br />
from the Marshall Islands to French Polynesia. Specimens examined included one from<br />
Enderbury.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
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Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported the presence of lizards on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that there were two species of reptiles on Manra (Sydney), the<br />
Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica, and snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus boutonii.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
A few lizards were noted on McKean (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported one species of lizard on McKean, the morning gecko, Lepidodactylus<br />
lugubris.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Garnett (1983) reported five species of lizards from Nikumaroro (Gardner). These included:<br />
1) Mourning gecko, Lepidodactylus lugubris,<br />
2) House gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus,<br />
3) Stump-toed gecko, Gehyra mutilata,<br />
4) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton,<br />
5) Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica,<br />
6) Azure-tailed skink, Emoia cyanura.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Lizards were present on Orona (Hull) (Bryan 1934). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that<br />
three species of lizards were found there. No species list was provided.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported four species of lizards from Orona (Hull). They included:<br />
1) Stump-toed gecko, Gehyra mutilata,<br />
2) Snake-eyed skink, Ablepharus bouton,<br />
3) Polynesian gecko, Gehyra oceanica,<br />
4) Azure-tailed skink, Emoia cyanura.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
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RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Lizards were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were no lizards on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that no lizards had been reported on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) recorded reptiles observed in Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.15 above).<br />
G. BIRDS<br />
Bryan (1940a, 1941, and 1942) reported that the bird life had been described by J.J. Lister<br />
(see Lister 1891). Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa<br />
(Canton), Birnie, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.16 below). No birds were noted for Enderbury or Orona (Hull).<br />
Table III-3.16. Bird species identified on various Phoenix Islands*<br />
(source: Lister 1891).<br />
species Abariringa Birnie Manra McKean Nikumaroro Rawaki<br />
(Canton) (Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Phoenix)<br />
Charadrius fulvus X X X<br />
Strepsilas interpres X X X<br />
Numenius tahitiensis X X X<br />
Totanus incanus X X<br />
Sterna bergii X<br />
Sterna panaya X<br />
Sterna fuliginosa X X<br />
Sterna lunata X X X<br />
Sterna melanauchen X<br />
Anous stolidus X X X X<br />
Anous caeruleus X X X X X<br />
Gygis candida X X X X X<br />
Frgata minor X<br />
Fregata aquila X<br />
Phaeton rubricauda X X X X<br />
Phaeton aetheus X<br />
Sula leucogaster X X X X X<br />
Sula cyyanops X X X X X<br />
Sula piscatrix X X X X X<br />
Puffinus assimilis X<br />
Puffinus dichrous X<br />
Puffinus<br />
chlororhynchus<br />
X<br />
Puffinus nativitatis X X<br />
Estrelata X X<br />
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parvirostris<br />
Fregetta albigularis X<br />
Dafla modesta X<br />
*no birds were noted for Enderbury and Orona (Hull) by Lister (1891).<br />
Maude (1952) reported that there were millions of seabirds in the Phoenix Islands including,<br />
frigatebirds, boobies or gannets, the red-tailed tropicbirds, and white and sooty terns.<br />
Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported on tuna school observations in relationship with bird<br />
schools in the Pacific Islands (including the Phoenix Islands).<br />
Child (1960) reported that Lister observed a few frigatebird nests with two eggs in it in the<br />
Phoenix Islands. Most only had one egg. Child (1960) noted that no breeding colonies were<br />
observed in the Gilbert or Elice Islands. Frigatebirds must fly several hundred miles to rearch<br />
their breeding colonies in the Phoenix Islands. According to Child (1960), Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and other Phoenix Islands were known breeding places for the greater frigate-bird<br />
(Pacific frigate-bird), Fregata minor palmerstoni.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the eggs of the grey-backed tern, which bred in the thousands in<br />
the Phoenix group, were eaten in times of food shortage.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana sumatrana, was<br />
uncommon in the Phoenix Islands. The sooty tern (wideawake tern), Sterna fuscata<br />
oahuensis, was very common in the Phoenix Islands. Locals on Christmas Island reported<br />
that sooty terns that nest there migrated to the Phoenix group after breeding on Christmas<br />
Island.<br />
Child (1960) reported immense breeding colonies of grey-backed terns (bridled or spectacled<br />
tern), Sterna lunata, in the Phoneix Islands. Child (1960) reported nesting colonies of brown<br />
booby (common booby), Sula leucogaster plotus, on Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix<br />
Islands. Child (1960) reported that small colonies of the red-footed booby, Sula sula<br />
(rubripes?) had been observed on most of the Phoenix Islands. The white-throated stormpetrel,<br />
Nesofregetta albigularis, bred in the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). The species had a<br />
very wide feeding range of nearly 1,609 km (1,000 miles). The Pacific golden plover,<br />
Pluvialis dominica fulva, occurred in the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960).<br />
The Pacific godwit (eastern bar-tailed godwit), Limosa lapponica baueri, had not been<br />
reported for the Phoenix Islands (Child 1960). However, Child (1960) speculated that a few<br />
stragglers may touch the Phoenix Islands periodically.<br />
The long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo, Urodynamis taitensis, was rare in the Manra (Sydney),<br />
Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960). There was a belief in the Phoenix<br />
Islands that if the cuckoo’s cry was heard above a house, one of the occupants would be<br />
strikened with severe stomach pains.<br />
The shoveller (duck), Spatula clypeata, was observed on Abariringa (Canton) and other<br />
Phoenix Islands (Child 1960).<br />
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Ashmole (1963) noted that Phoenix and Line Islands sooty terns, Sterna fuscata, had a very<br />
different molt program than sooty terns elsewhere. Birds from the Line and Phoenix Islands<br />
have two breeding periods each year. With a six month breeding cycle, some individuals<br />
underwent a complete molt, but others only replaced some of its primaries and secondaries<br />
from one breeding cycle to the next.<br />
From 1963 to 1965, as part of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme of the<br />
smithsonian Institution, periodic biological surveys of the Phoenix and Line Islands were<br />
conducted (Clapp and Sibley 1967). These surveys included bird surveys.<br />
Clapp (1968) noted that there were discrete differences in the fall migrations of the sharptailed<br />
sandpiper, E. acuminata, and the pectoral sandpiper, E. melantos to the Phoenix<br />
Islands. E. melantos was observed in September and E. acuminata observed in November.<br />
Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, bred on many islands<br />
of the Phoenix Islands. They estimated a population of 70,000 breeding birds in the Phoenix<br />
Islands (including Howland) (see Table III-3.17 below). Almost all leave the Phoenix<br />
Islands during the non-breeding period (December to April).<br />
Table III-3.17. Breeding status and populations of lesser frigatebirds<br />
(source: Sibley and Clapp 1967)<br />
Breeding<br />
Island Location Present status Nest site Population Population<br />
In 1963 and 1964, 13,027 nestlings and 146 adult lesser frigatebirds were banded on<br />
Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). Band<br />
recovery data indicated that 74 percent of young lesser frigatebirds were caught over 2,000<br />
miles from their birth island. Thirty one percent were caught 6,437 to 8,047 km (4,000 to<br />
5,000 miles) away. Figure III-3.3 illustrates the probable dispersal path of lesser frigatebirds<br />
from the Phoenix Islands. Adult lesser frigatebirds may not disperse as widely and do the<br />
young.<br />
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Figure III-3.3. Dispersal of lesser frigatebirds from the Central Pacific<br />
Including the Phoenix Islands and prevailing wind patterns<br />
(source: Sibley and Clapp 1967)<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 below).<br />
Table III-3.18. List of new records of bird species in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: Clapp and Sibley 1967).<br />
Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Rawaki<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Phoenix)<br />
Spatula clypeata X<br />
Erolia acuminata X X X X X X X<br />
Limosa lapponica X X<br />
Crocethia alba X X X X X<br />
Amerson (1968) noted that five species of birds breed only in the Line and Phoenix Islands.<br />
They included: Puffinus lherminieri, Pterodroma alba, Nesofregetta albigularis, Fregata<br />
ariel, and Thal asseus bergii. Birds that only breed in the Phoenix Islands were not<br />
identified.<br />
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Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Sibley and McFarlane (1968) reviewed records of gulls from the Phoenix Islands. They<br />
noted that no gulls were collected by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (POBSP).<br />
In 1963, gulls were seen once in the Phoenix Islands. However, this sighting was apparently<br />
from Baker Island, not one of the eight islands identified here as part of the Phoenix group. It<br />
was still a puzzle why gulls had not colonized tropical islands such as the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) reported that a small number of birds were being killed by collision with<br />
radar masts on the Phoenix Islands. Forsberg et al (1973) did not specify which islands these<br />
radar masts were located. It was recommended that these birds be collected and dried, then<br />
periodically turned over to scientists. Any bird band information should also be recorded.<br />
Bryan (1974) presented a table of birds common on the equatorial Pacific Islands. However,<br />
resident and migratory birds for the Phoenix Islands in general, or for each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands were not identified.<br />
Harrington (1977) reported that adult red-footed boobies from south-central Pacific islands<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands) include small number of white morph birds, and the more<br />
easily identified darker morphs. Those from Hawaii and Johnston were white morphs. The<br />
immatures from the south and north were not readily separable. Banding studies indicate that<br />
there is little mixing of red-footed boobies between the south and north Pacific.<br />
Mayr (1978) reported that the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, the black-naped tern, Sterna<br />
sumatrana, the sooty tern, Sterna fuscata, the bridled tern, Sterna lunata, the crested tern,<br />
Thalasseus bergii, blue-gray fairy ternlet, Procelsterna cerulea, ranged throughout the<br />
tropical Pacific, including the Phoenix Islands. The white-throated storm petrel, Nesofregetta<br />
albigularis, the Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, and the red-tailed tropic-bird,<br />
Phaethon rubricauda, bred in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Schreiber and Schreiber (1988) noted that the pattern of sexual dimorphism for the great<br />
frigatebird, Fregata minor, found in the Phoenix Islands was similar to that found elsewhere.<br />
They noted that mass of birds from Phoenix Islands was the most dimorphic (1.37) of all<br />
islands, but was similar to that found on Christmas Island (1.28).<br />
Alder (1992) the Phoenix Islands were very endemic species-poor (relating to bird species).<br />
Low islands, such as the Pheonix Islands, Tokelau, Line Islands, Wake, etc. only had between<br />
one to four total endemic bird species.<br />
Neemia and Thaman (1993) reported that the bird population numbered in the millions<br />
consisting of less than a dozen families. Rare visitors included the reed warbler,<br />
Acrocephalus aequinoctialis, and the red-tailed tropic bird, Phaethon rubricanda.<br />
Marks and Redmond (1994) reported that bristle-thighed curlew under take a >6,000 km nonstop<br />
flights from Alaska to the central Pacific (including the Phoenix Islands). One model<br />
they applied indicated that curlew could make the 7,160 km flight from Alaska to the Phoenix<br />
Islands. They speculate that curlew seek out tailwinds that facilitate long-distance, non-stop<br />
flights.<br />
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Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 below).<br />
Table III-3.19. Birds Observed on Various Phoenix Islands in 1995<br />
(source: Government of Kiribati 1995)<br />
common name local name Abariringa Enderbury Manra Nikumaroro Orona<br />
great frigatebird eitei bubura x x x x x<br />
lesser frigatebird eitei uarereke x x x x<br />
masked booby mouakena x x x x<br />
red-footed booby kootaa x x x x<br />
brown booby<br />
korobwaro ke<br />
kibui x x x x<br />
red-tailed tropicbird taake x x x<br />
brown noddy Io ke kunei x x<br />
black noddy mangkiri x x x x x<br />
gray-backed tern tarangongo x x x<br />
white tern<br />
matawa ke<br />
kiakia x x x x x<br />
sooty tern taraariki x x<br />
golden plover<br />
bristle-thighed<br />
te kun x x x x x<br />
curlew kewe x x x x<br />
wandering tattler kitibwa x x<br />
Sanderling kiriri x x x x<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 below).<br />
Table III-3.20. Birds observed in the Phoenix Islands in January 2000<br />
(source: Kepler 2000).<br />
Abariringa<br />
(Canton)<br />
Enderbury Manra* Nikumaroro Orona<br />
Sooty tern 1,000+ 50+<br />
Grey-back tern 4,000+<br />
Sooty tern & grey-back<br />
15,000tern<br />
20,000<br />
Great frigatebird 4 6+ 50-100 300-350<br />
Lesser frigatebird 8 5<br />
Lesser & great frigatebirds 5,000<br />
Brown noddy 1,000+ 150 1,200+ 1,000-1,500 900-<br />
1,200<br />
Black noddy 60 1,000+ 1,000-<br />
1,500<br />
Masked booby 60 120-150 6<br />
Red-footed booby 48 4 300-500 300-400<br />
Wedge-tailed shearwater 500+ 24<br />
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Brown booby 30 12 100-120<br />
White tern 20 4 40+ 1,000 1,200-<br />
1,500<br />
Audobon’s shearwater 3<br />
Ruddy turnstone 60-80 30<br />
Golden plover 8 25 8 10<br />
Bristle-thighed curlew 1<br />
Wandering tattler 12 4 5<br />
White-tailed tropicbird 2<br />
Laysan albatross 1<br />
*counts for specific areas of the island, see Kepler (2000) for exact locations.<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Neilson (2002) noted that a bird species may be at different stages of the breeding cycle<br />
depending on which island it was on. During the June/July 2002 expedition, Sterna lunata on<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) and Rawaki were incubating eggs, while on Orona, nests contained large<br />
eggs.<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21.<br />
Table III-3.21. Birds observed in the Phoenix Islands in 2002<br />
(source: Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002).<br />
species<br />
Abariringa Birnie Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Canton)*<br />
(Phoenix)<br />
Great frigatebird 2 260 1 105<br />
Lesser frigatebird 3,500<br />
Grey back tern 10 115<br />
White tern 2 26 20 50 110 100 100<br />
Sooty tern 5 1,100 100,000+ 750,100<br />
Brown booby 125 30 105 37<br />
Masked booby 1 1,509 22 305 50 2080<br />
Red footed booby 1257 50 21 11<br />
Brown noddy 3,101 2 60 2,023 111 1500 1,000<br />
Black noddy 3 22 1 201<br />
Blue grey noddy 100<br />
Red-tailed<br />
tropicbrid<br />
3 9 1<br />
Golden plover 1<br />
Bristle thigh curlew 1 1 1 30<br />
Christmas<br />
shearwater<br />
60<br />
Audubon<br />
shearwater<br />
1<br />
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Wedge-tailed<br />
shearwater<br />
White throated<br />
storm petrel<br />
*count from islet adjacent to lagoon to sea passage, not entire atoll.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 below).<br />
Table III-3.22. The presence of bird species on the different Phoenix Islands*<br />
(source: Neilson 2002).<br />
*A=Nikumaroro (Nikumoro), B=Manra, C=Rawaki, D=Abariringa (Kanton), E=Enderbury, F=Birnie,<br />
G=Orona.<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef herons, or blue-gray<br />
noddies were observed. Bird species observed and their population estimates are provided in<br />
Table III-3.23 below.<br />
Table III-3.23. 2002 observed bird species and their population estimates<br />
(source: Obura and Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002).<br />
20<br />
1<br />
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Yoshinaga (2002) reported that bird numbers appeared to be noticeably lower in 2002 than in<br />
2000. This may have been due to natural variation, or seasonal variations. Both the 2000 and<br />
2002 surveys were conducted in the month of June. Yoshinaga (2002) speculated that<br />
perhaps the crew of foreign fishing vessels had poached eggs. But this probably would not<br />
account for a significant decline in bird populations.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 below).<br />
Table III-3.24. Inventory and breeding status of seabirds on the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Rawaki (Phoenix), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
(B=breeding; b=possibly breeding; v=visitor or migrant).<br />
(source: Di Piazza and Pearthree 2004).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 below).<br />
Table III-3.25. Relationship between seabird diversity from offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys, O=Orona, K= Abariringa (Kanton), N = Nikumaroro, B= Birnie, M= McKean,<br />
E = Enderbury, R= Rawaki.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 below).<br />
Table III-3.26. Preliminary estimates of number of seabird pairs in<br />
the Phoenix Islands, April-May 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
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Note: all figures represent estimated total pairs except where “i” indicates “individuals” Red indicates<br />
threatened species, green = important populations, yellow = numbers greatly declined since 1960s.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) summarized significant seabird population changes in the Phoenix Islands<br />
since the 1960s (see Table III-3.27 below).<br />
Table III-3.27. Summary of significant seabird population changes in<br />
the Phoenix Islands since the 1960s.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 below).<br />
Table III-3.28. Shore and land birds on the Phoenix Islands,<br />
April to May 2006 (total number observed).<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
Pierce et al (2006) examined the likely impacts of different pests on seabird colonies in the<br />
Phoenix Islands. Likely impacts are provided in Table III-3.29 below.<br />
Table III-3.29. Likely impacts of different pests on seabirds in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) reported that two species of birds in the Phoenix Islands were listed in the<br />
2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (see www.iucnredlist.org).<br />
1) The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba - endanged.<br />
2) White-throated storm-petrel, Nesofregetta albigularis - vulnerable.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
In 1861, as part of guano investigations, J.D. Hague provided notes on the sea birds of<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954; Hague 1862).<br />
Lister was part of the surveying voyage of the H.M.S. Egeria (Murphy et al 1954). Lister<br />
(1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra<br />
(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above).<br />
Eighteen species of birds were identified from Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954).<br />
In 1924, the Whitney South Sea Expedition completed a bird collection on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (Murphy et al 1954). E.H. Bryan, Jr. was on this expedition and reported findings<br />
in a series of articles in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s.<br />
In 1937, several pairs of brown-winged tern, Sterna anaethetus anaethetus, were observed on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) by Bunddle (Child 1960). There were no signs of nesting.<br />
In 1937, G.A. Buddle, a New Zealand ornithologist, was part of the eclipse expedition to<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Murphy et al 1954; Buddle 1938). Buddle (1939) reported that the<br />
birds of Abariringa (Canton) had been studied in 1889 and in 1937 (Buddle 1938 during the<br />
eclipse expedition; see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). There were few changes between 1889<br />
and 1937 (Buddle 1938 and 1939). Twenty species of birds were recorded in 1937 (Buddle<br />
1938). These included:<br />
1) Puffinus pacificus chlororhyncus<br />
2) Puffinus nativitatis<br />
11) Thalasseus hergii cristatus<br />
12) Sterna fuscata oahuensis<br />
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3) Puffinus lherminieri dichrous<br />
4) Pterodroma alba<br />
5) Phaeton rubricauda<br />
6) Sula dactylatra personata<br />
7) Sula leucogaster plotus<br />
8) Sula sula rubripes<br />
9) Fregeta magnificens magnificens<br />
10) Fregeta minor palmerstoni<br />
13) Sterna lunata<br />
14) Sterna anaethetus anaethetus<br />
15) Sterna sumatrana sumatrana<br />
16) Gygis alba candida<br />
17) Anous stolidus pileatus<br />
18) Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi<br />
19) Numenius tahitiensis<br />
20) Pulvialis dominica fulva<br />
The wideawake terns that were reported breeding in large number in 1889 have completely<br />
disappeared (Buddle 1938). In addition, the turnstones and sandpipers noted in 1889 were<br />
also not observed. A new visitor, Frigeta magnificens, was observed in 1937 (Buddle 1938).<br />
Buddle (1938) provided a narrative for each species of bird observed.<br />
Buddle (1938) provided a map of Abariringa (Canton) indicating the areas occupied by each<br />
species of bird (see Figure III-3.4 below).<br />
Figure III-3.4. Map of Abariringa (Canton) indicated areas occupied<br />
by different bird species.<br />
(source: Buddle 1938).<br />
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Buddle (1938) probably saw lesser frigatebirds on Abariringa (Canton) (according to Sibley<br />
and Clapp 1967).<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and reported that bird life was considerably more scarce than at Howland. White<br />
terns and bo’son birds were the only bird in abundance. Fifty bo’sun birds were banned.<br />
Noddies, Christmas Island shearwater, red-footed boobies, frigatebirds, and Phoenix petrels<br />
were also observed.<br />
Gardner (1938) speculated that rats on Abariringa (Canton) lived on bird eggs which resulted<br />
in bird populations on Abariringa (Canton) being less than on Enderbury.<br />
Bryan (1940a) reported that the largest bird species was the great frigage of man-o-war bird,<br />
Fregata minor palmerstoni. It outnumbered all other birds on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
According to Bryan (1940a), Bundle (1938) reported seeing the magnificent frigate bird,<br />
Fregata magnificans, flying with the greater frigate, but was not reported to nest on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
The next largest birds and also abundant (Bryan 1940a) were the three species of boobies, the<br />
blue-faced booby, Sula dactylatra personata, the red-footed booby, Sula sula rubripes, and<br />
the brown booby, Sula leucogastra plotus.<br />
The red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, was also fairly abundant<br />
(Bryan 1940a). There were four species of shearwaters and petrels that have been observed<br />
on Abriringa (Canton) (Bryan 1940a). These included the wedge-tailed shearwater, Puffinus<br />
pacificus chlororhynchus, the Christmas Islands shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, the dusky<br />
shearwater, Puffinus ilherminieri dicrous, and the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba.<br />
Also, eight species of terns have been reported from Abariringa (Canton) (Bryan 1940a).<br />
These colonies come and go. The wideawake or sooty tern, Sterna fuscata oahuensis,<br />
spectacled or bridled tern, Sterna lunata, and brown noddy, Anous stolidus pileatus, were<br />
abundant. The white tern, Gygis alba, and the blue-gray noddy, Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi<br />
were common, but not numerous. The crested tern, Thalasseus bergii cristatus, brownwinged<br />
tern, Sterna anaethetus, and black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana, were observed<br />
within flocks of other more abundant species.<br />
Other species were migratory (Bryan 1940a). This included the Pacific golden plover,<br />
Pluvialis dominicus fulvus, the turnstone, Arenaria interpres, the wandering tattler,<br />
Heteroscelus incanus, and the bristle-thighed curlew, Numenius tahitensis.<br />
Mathews (1942) proposed a new subspecies of birds from Abariringa (Canton), Pterodroma<br />
alba cantonia subsp. nov. He noted that this subspecies bred in June or July on Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
During World War II, most birds left Abariringa (Canton) due to the test firing of canons and<br />
massive construction on the island (Oates 2003). After the military left in 1946, birds slowly<br />
moved back to Abariringa (Canton). In 1943, the dredging of the channel was completed and<br />
Spam island was created. Spam island became a natural bird sanctuary. Bird populations<br />
flourished there after the war.<br />
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Porter (1950) observed colonies of frigate birds, Frigata minor palmerstoni, red-footed<br />
boobies, Sula sula rubripes, blue-faced boobies, Sula dacctylatra personata, at one quarter<br />
mile intervals along the 30 miles of roads on Abariringa (Canton). In addition, plover, sooty<br />
terns, red-tailed tropic birds, Phaethon rubricauda, and fairy terns were observed in large<br />
numbers.<br />
Bunker (1951) noted frigate birds, three species of booby, golden plovers, bosun’s birds, and<br />
several species of terns.<br />
Bailey (1952) reported collecting specimens of sea brids on Abariringa (Canton). These<br />
included: man-o’-war-birds, red-footed and blue-faced boobies, grey backed and white terns,<br />
and red-tailed tropicbirds.<br />
Murphy et al (1954) noted the enorous numbers of hermit crabs on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
reported that they periodically destroy whole populations newly hatched chicks of greyheaded<br />
tern colonies.<br />
Murphy et al (1954) noted abundant numbers of Polynesian rats, Mus exulans. Prior to<br />
World War II, it was thought that these rats may have been responsible for the reduced<br />
avaifauna of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Murphy et al (1954) combined information from a variety of sources regarding Abariringa<br />
(Canton) avifauna and summarized them by species. The following bird species were<br />
summarized and discussed by Murphy et al (1954).<br />
1) Puffinus pacificus chlororhynchus,<br />
2) Puffinus lherminieri dichrous,<br />
3) Puffinus nativitatis,<br />
4) Pterodroma alba,<br />
5) Phaethon lepturus,<br />
6) Phaethon rubricauda<br />
melanorhynchos,<br />
7) Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
8) Sula leucogaster plotus,<br />
9) Sula sula subspecies,<br />
10) Fregata minor palmerstoni,<br />
11) Fregata ariel,<br />
12) Anas platyrhynchos,<br />
13) Spatula clypeata,<br />
14) Pluvialis dominicus fulvus,<br />
15) Arenaria interpres interpres,<br />
16) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
17) Heteroscelus incanus,<br />
18) Pisobia acuminata,<br />
19) Crocethia alba,<br />
20) Sterna fuscata oahuensis,<br />
21) Sterna lunata,<br />
22) Sterna anaethetus anaethetus,<br />
23) Sterna sumatrana sumatrana,<br />
24) Thalasseus bergii cristatus,<br />
25) Anous stolidus pileatus,<br />
26) Anous minutus melanogenys,<br />
27) Gygis alba candida,<br />
28) Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi<br />
Walker (1955) noted that parakeets were popular pets on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Witherspoon (1957) reported turnstones, golden plovers, gray-backed terns, sooty terns, black<br />
noddies, brown noodies, man-o-war birds, brown boobies, blue-faced boobies, red-footed<br />
boobies, white fairy terns, red-tailed tropic birds, Phoenix Islands petrel, and wedge-tailed<br />
shearwaters on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that Scaevola scrub on the southeastern part of Abariringa (Canton)<br />
was an important nesting area for enormous numbers of sea birds, including frigatebirds,<br />
Fregata minor palmerstoni, and red-footed boobies, Sula sula rubripes. McIntire (1960)<br />
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noted that as many as 45 birds nest in a single bush. Hatheway (1955) suggested that the<br />
limiting factor for bird nesting was the limited amount of Scaevola scrub for nesting sites.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that frigatebirds often made their nests in Suriana bushes. McIntire<br />
(1960) reported that about 8 miles of Abariringa (Canton) were rookeries. Most of these<br />
rookeries were formed by frigatebirds, Fregate minor palmerstoni, or red-footed boobies,<br />
Sula sula rubripes. Other species nesting on Abariringa (Canton) included: ref-tailed tropic<br />
birds, Phaeton rubricauda, which nested under Sida fallax bushes or under coral rock ledges.<br />
In addition, there were two or three species of petrels and shearwaters, sooty tern, graybacked<br />
tern, noddy, small noody, white tern, and gray terns.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that chickens were kept by Abariringa (Canton) residents. There was a<br />
parasitic hippoboscid louse fly on some birds.<br />
Child (1960) reported a large colony of grey-backed tern, Sterna lunata, on the southeastern<br />
end of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet),<br />
Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra<br />
(Sydney), and Birnie.<br />
Child (1960) reported nesting colonies of brown booby (common booby), Sula leucogaster<br />
plotus, on Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix Islands.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
Child (1960) reported that in Abariringa (Canton), frigatebirds most commonly attacked<br />
boobies for food.<br />
According to Child (1960), Abariringa (Canton) and other Phoenix Islands were known<br />
breeding places for the greater frigate-bird (Pacific frigate-bird), Fregata minor palmerstoni.<br />
The lesser frigate-bird, Fregata ariel ariel, was observed on Abariringa (Canton), but did not<br />
breed there according to Buddle (Child 1960).<br />
The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
The Christmas Island shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, bred on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (Child 1960).<br />
The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, had breeding colonies on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) and possibly Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
The shoveller (duck), Spatula clypeata, was observed on Abariringa (Canton) and other<br />
Phoenix Islands (Child 1960).<br />
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Fry (1966) reported that Standford University operated a two-masted schooner, Te Vega, that<br />
conducted surveys in September 1965 to Samoa, Tonga, Tokealau, and Abariringa (Canton)<br />
in the Phoenix Islands. No details of the birds observed on Abariringa (Canton) were<br />
provided.<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that specimens of the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, had<br />
been collected from Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Three or four procellariids were breeding on Abariringa (Canton) in small numbers (King<br />
1973). Red-footed boobies and great frigatebirds formerly nested on Abariringa (Canton) in<br />
the thousands, but with the clearing of the shrubs, they no longer.<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) noted the disappearance over the last 25 years of the vast breeding<br />
populations of freigate birds and red-footed boobies from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
The bird populations on Abariringa (Canton) had been greatly reduced by the feral cats, dogs,<br />
and the Polynesian rat on island as well as the fact that 40 percent of the land area had been<br />
covered by man-made structures (Bryan 1974).<br />
The difficulties in differentiating the Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, from the Tahiti petrel,<br />
P. rostrata, on Abariringa (Canton) were noted by Julian (1979). Both were identical, but the<br />
Phoenix petrel can have a variable amount of white on its throat area. The petrel observed<br />
had a dark throat area and was assumed to be a Phoenix petrel.<br />
The spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia, was also observed by Julian (1979) on Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that about a quarter of Abariringa (Canton) was greatly disturbed and<br />
the once extensive seabird colonies have been much disturbed by human activities. Several<br />
formerly abundant breeding species no longer nested there. Garnett (1983) provided<br />
summaries of bird species present on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Governnment of Kiribati (1995) noted that birds concentrated on Spam Island on Abariringa.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above).<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above).<br />
In 2000, more than 20,000 brown noddies were observed returning to the land (Stone et al<br />
2001). A small undetermined number of spectacled or sooty terns and white fairy terns were<br />
also observed.<br />
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In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents of Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) raised local chickens and ducks.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that on the southeastern edge of Abariringa (Kanton), there was a<br />
large colony of Sterna lunata (perhaps 1,000 birds). Upon closer inspection, almost half of<br />
the eggs were either empty, damaged or being eaten by hermit crabs.<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed.<br />
Yoshinaga (2002) reported that egg poaching was a significant activity on Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) from residents and passing boats. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that visiting naturalist<br />
reported that only 20 percent of tern eggs he examined were viable.<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Oates (2003) provided general summary information of key bird species on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) including the frigate, fairy white tern, and the Pacific golden plover.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 1863, the brown-winged tern, Sterna anaethetus anaethetus, was reported from McKean<br />
by Finsch and Hartlaub 1867; see also Child 1960).<br />
Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra<br />
(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above).<br />
Maude (1937) noted that there were far fewer birds on Birnie than on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
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Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet),<br />
Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra<br />
(Sydney), and Birnie.<br />
Anon. (1966) reported that blue-faced boobies that were banded on Birnie were retrieved on<br />
Nikunau in the Gilbert Islands, and on Yap, in the Western Caroline Islands (see Figure III-<br />
3.5).<br />
Figure III-3.5. Tag and recapture of blue-faced boobies from<br />
Birnie (source: Anon. 1966).<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
Clapp (1968) reported the sharp-tailed sandpiper, E. acuminata, and the sanderling,<br />
Crocethia alba, from Bernie.<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Birnie (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
King (1973) noted that bird populations were not large on Birnie. But this was due to the<br />
small size of the island. It was of high value for bird conservation as it was almost in an<br />
undisturbed state.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that six species of seabirds bred on Birnie. They included:<br />
1) Sula dactylatra,<br />
2) Sula leucogaster,<br />
4) Anous stolidus,<br />
5) Procelsterna carulea, and<br />
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3) Phaethon rubricauda, 6) Gygis alba.<br />
Non-breeding visitors and migrants noted by Garnett (1983) included:<br />
1) Puffinus pacificus,<br />
2) Puffinus lherminieri,<br />
3) Puffinus nativitatis,<br />
4) Sula sula,<br />
5) Fregata minor,<br />
6) Fregata ariel,<br />
7) Anous minutus,<br />
8) Sterna fuscata,<br />
9) Erolia acuminate, and<br />
10) Crocethia alba.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that the entire island<br />
was surveyed in 2002.<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Lister (1891) reported that there were fewer birds on Endenbury than on Rawaki (Sydney).<br />
No lists of bird species observed were provided.<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Enderbury<br />
and reported numerous bridled tern boobies, and frigate birds. Grey-backed terns nested on<br />
the Portulaca mats at the edge of the lagoon. Large frigate bird colonies were also observed.<br />
Bo’son birds, sooty terns, and white terns were banned. Red-footed boobies and whitecapped<br />
noddies were in the kou. Phoenix petrels, dusky shearwater, curlews, and fairy terns<br />
were also observed. One grey noddy was observed. In 1938, some bird banding had been<br />
done (Abbott 1966).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that birds on Enderbury were abundant and included sooty terns<br />
and other species.<br />
Cooke (1945) reported that a frigate bird, Fregata magnificens, banned on Enderbury Island<br />
on 2 May 1939 was caught on Tongareva Island (=Penrhyn Island, Cook Islands) on 28<br />
February 1941.<br />
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Murphy et al (1954) reported that there were no Polynesian rats on Enderbury. This may<br />
have contributed to the abundant avifauna there.<br />
In the 1960’s the Smithsonian Institution set up camp on Enderbury to tag birds. Lesser<br />
frigatebirds that were banned in Enderbury were found in the Philippines (Anon. 1965).<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to 13 species of birds and a vacation spot<br />
for 10 other species of birds. She did not list the species.<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that as part of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, over 600<br />
birds banned on Enderbury have been recaptured elsewhere. In addition, almost 400 birds<br />
banded on other islands have been recaptured on Enderbury. Based on these banding returns<br />
it is now known that the lesser frigatebird flies regularly to the Western Pacific, and<br />
commonly travels over 4,828 km (3,000 miles).<br />
Abbott (1966) noted that the red-tailed tropicbird, blue-faced booby, red-footed bobby, great<br />
frigatebird, lesser frigatebird, and gray-backed tern commonly nest on Enderbury and have<br />
annual breeding cycles. The sooty tern on Enderbury has a six-month breeding cycle.<br />
In 1963 and 1964, 13,027 nestlings and 146 adult lesser frigatebirds were banded on<br />
Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). A summary<br />
of band recover is presented in Figure III-3.3 above.<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
Clapp (1968) reported three pintails, Anas acuta, were observed on Enderbury. In addition, a<br />
sandpiper, probably the spotted sandpiper, Tringa macularia, was observed on Enderbury.<br />
Clapp (1968) also reported the sharp-tailed sandpiper, E. acuminata, the pectoral sandpiper,<br />
E. melanotos, and the sanderling, Crocethia alba, from Enderbury.<br />
Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that specimens of the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, had<br />
been collected from Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Amerson (1968) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was found on a red-footed booby,<br />
Sula sula on Enderbury in 1966. Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros<br />
capensis and the O. capensis group in Enderbury (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
In 1973, Clapp (1975) observed gray-backed terns, Sterns lunata, on Enderbury, swoop down<br />
and catch a snake-eyed skink, Crypotblepharus boutoni. Captured skinks were consumed in<br />
flight by the terns. This appeared to be the first documentation of skink consumption by<br />
gray-backed terns and might be related to the abundance of skink on Enderbury.<br />
On Enderbury, a colony of 10,000 gray-backed terns lived near the 61 m (200 ft) antenna that<br />
was erected in 1970 by Holmes and Narver (King 1973). Seabirds colonies were not<br />
impacted by the antenna or other support facilities.<br />
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King (1973) noted that on Enderbury, hermit crabs have been observed causing mortality in<br />
large sooty tern colonies (800,000 birds) and in frigatebird colonies.<br />
Bryan (1974) reported that birds use to be abundant on Enderbury. However, their numbers<br />
have been reduced due to the presence of the Polynesian rat and feral cats. Bryan (1974)<br />
claimed that the principal damage done to the large colony of sooty terns and frigatebirds was<br />
caused by hermit crabs.<br />
On Enderbury, Woodward (1976) reported that a previously banned red-footed booby, Sula<br />
sula, was brooding a nestling great frigatebird, Fregata minor. Later the same booby was<br />
found protecting another frigatebird nestling. Woodward (1976) speculated that a booby egg<br />
may have been accidently introduced into a frigatebird nest. The resultant booby was<br />
imprinted to a frigatebird. Both have similar diets and feed their young in a similar manner.<br />
Garnett (1983) provided a list of bird species and population size estimates for Enderbury.<br />
This was based on the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme’s visits in the 1960s (see<br />
Table III-3.30 below).<br />
Table III-3.30. List of breeding species of birds and population estimates for<br />
Enderbury based on the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme in the 1960s<br />
(source: Garnett 1983).<br />
Breeding species Population size<br />
1) Sula dactylatra<br />
2) Sula leucogaster<br />
3) Sula sula<br />
4) Fregata minor<br />
5) Fregata ariel<br />
6) Phaethon rubricauda<br />
7) Sterna fuscata<br />
8) Sterna lunata<br />
9) Anous stolidus<br />
10) Anous minutus<br />
11) Gygis alba<br />
2,000<br />
300<br />
2,000<br />
8,000<br />
15,000<br />
1,000<br />
400,000<br />
10,00<br />
500<br />
4,000<br />
20<br />
Garnett (1983) provided a list of migrant and visiting bird species for Enderbury based on<br />
results of the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme in the 1960s. Migrant and visitng<br />
bird species included the following:Puffinus pacificus,<br />
1) Puffinus lherminieri,<br />
2) Puffinus nativitatis,<br />
3) Nesofregetta albigularis<br />
4) Procelsterna cerulea,<br />
5) Pluvialis dominica,<br />
6) Arenaria interpres,<br />
7) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
8) Tringa hypoleucos/macularia<br />
9) Erolia acuminata,<br />
10) Calidris melanotos,<br />
11) Crocethia alba,<br />
12) Anas acuta.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). About 500 lesser frigate birds<br />
were observed on Enderbury, but not on other islands in the Phoenix Islands. In addition,<br />
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about the same number of sandering (te kiriri), and masked booby (te mouakena) were<br />
observed. About 200 red-tailed tropic birds were also observed.<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above).<br />
In 2000, in one area of Enderbury, 10,000 to 15,000 great and lesser frigatebirds and more<br />
than 30,000 spectacled or sooty terns were observed (Stone et al 2001). Other bird species<br />
observed included: masked and brown boobies, red-tailed ropicbirds, Phaethon rubricauda,<br />
brown noddies, white fairy terns and others.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that Enderbury had the highest species diversity of birds in the<br />
Phoenix Islands. The remnants of the old guano extraction facilities on the south provided<br />
shelter for various nesting bird species such as Phoenton rubicauda and Gygis alba.<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified seabird colony locations on Enderbury (see Figure III-3.6<br />
below).<br />
Figure III-3.6. Seabird colony locations on Enderbury in 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Tristram (1886) reported that J.V. Arundel of Manra (Sydney) sent him three duck<br />
specimens. Tristram named the duck, Daflia modesta.<br />
Lister (1891) did not visit Manra (Sydney), but spent three days making soundings around the<br />
island. Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16<br />
above).<br />
Hydrographic Office (1916) reported wild ducks were found in the lagoon of Manra<br />
(Sydney).<br />
Bryan (1934) report that no land birds or wild ducks were observed on Manra (Sydney).<br />
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As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, chickens were introduced to Manra<br />
(Sydney) (Knudsen 1965). When Manra (Sydney) was evacuated in the 1950’s, all the<br />
chickens were killed and eaten.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that bird life was similar to other islands, but not as abundant.<br />
Ducks used to be seen on the ponds, but both the ducks and the ponds were gone.<br />
Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet),<br />
Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra<br />
(Sydney), and Birnie.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
The long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo, Urodynamis taitensis, was rare in the Manra (Sydney),<br />
Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Manra (Sydney) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
Wild duck were reported in the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Bird populations were low on Manra (Sydney) (King 1973). A pre-breeding swirl of 4,000<br />
sooty terns was observed.<br />
Clapp (1973) reported that an arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea, in breeding plumage was<br />
observed on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that bird nesting populations on Manra (Sydney) were low due to the<br />
Polynesian and black rats, feral cats, dogs, and pigs there.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the following species of birds for Manra (Sydney):<br />
1) Phaethon lepturus,<br />
2) Phaethon rubricauda,<br />
3) Sula dactylatra,<br />
4) Sula leucogaster,<br />
5) Fregata ariel,<br />
6) Fregata minor,<br />
7) Sterna fuscata,<br />
8) Anous stolidus<br />
9) Anous minutus,<br />
10) Gygis alba<br />
11) Pluvialis dominica,<br />
12) Arenaria interpres,<br />
13) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
14) Heteroscelus incanus,<br />
15) Erolia acuminata,<br />
16) Crocethia alba.<br />
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Garnett (1983) noted that only Phaeton lepturus, Phaeton rubricauda, and Sterna fuscata<br />
may be breeding on Manra (Sydney). The rest of the birds listed were visitors, vagrants, or<br />
migrants.<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Eleven species of birds were<br />
reported from Manra. The masked booby (te mouakena), white tern (te matawa) did not<br />
breed on Manra.<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above).<br />
In 2000, no sea birds were noted for Manra (Stone et al 2001).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed.<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Hartlaub and Finsch (1872) reported that nestlings of Puffinus dichrous from Pelews (now<br />
known as Belau) were precisely similar to those found in M’Kean.<br />
Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra<br />
(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above).<br />
Maude (1937) reported that McKean was probably the favorite breeding place of the frigate<br />
bird.<br />
In 1937, Bevington (1990) observed mutton-birds, gannet, frigate birds, and white terns on<br />
McKean.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that bird life was abundant and that terns predominated.<br />
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Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet),<br />
Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra<br />
(Sydney), and Birnie.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
Anon. (1965) reported that lesser frigatebirds banned in McKean were found in the<br />
Philippines, Lord Howe Island, Nauru, New Guinea, Fiji, Cook Islands, French Polynesia,<br />
Solomon Islands, New Ireland, and at sea south of Japan.<br />
In 1963 and 1964, 13,027 nestlings and 146 adult lesser frigatebirds were banded on<br />
Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). A summary<br />
of band recover is presented in Figure III-3.3 above.<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 below).<br />
Clapp (1968) reported a dead sooty shearwater, Puffinus griseus, from McKean. In addition,<br />
a reef heron, Demigretta sacra, was observed on McKean. Clapp (1968) also reported the<br />
pectoral sandpiper, E. melanotos, the bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica baueri, and the<br />
sanderling, Crocethia alba, from McKean.<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in McKean (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
King (1973) reported that there were no introduced predators of birds to McKean. There was<br />
a colony of 1,000 white-throated storm petrels, Nesofregatta albigularis, and 85,000 lesser<br />
frigatebirds. Other species also had large colonies.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported seabirds that nested on McKean including:<br />
1) Puffinus pacificus,<br />
2) Puffinus nativitatis,<br />
3) Puffinus lherminieri,<br />
4) Bulweria bulwerii,<br />
5) Nesofregetta albrigularis,<br />
6) Phaethon rubricauda,<br />
7) Sula dactylatra,<br />
8) Sula leucogaster,<br />
9) Sula sula,<br />
10) Fregata minor,<br />
11) Fregata ariel,<br />
12) Sterna fuscata,<br />
13) Sterna lunata,<br />
14) Anous stolidus,<br />
15) Anous minutus,<br />
16) Procelsterna carulea, and<br />
17) Gygis alba.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the following non-breeding visitors and migrants to McKean<br />
included:<br />
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1) Puffinus griseus,<br />
2) Demiegretta sacra,<br />
3) Pluvialis dominica,<br />
4) Arenaria interpres<br />
5) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
6) Heteroscelus incanus,<br />
7) Erolia acuminata,<br />
8) Calidris melanotos,<br />
9) Crocethia alba,<br />
10) Limosa lapponica.<br />
Timeon (2001) reported te koota, te mouakena, and frigatebirds were nesting on McKean.<br />
Commonnoddy and white terns were also plentiful.<br />
Stone et al (2001) reported large aggregations of birds nesting on McKean in 2000. Almost<br />
the entire island was surveyed. Observed bird species included: 2,000 to 4,000 spectacled or<br />
sooty terns, 2,000 to 3,000 white fairy terns, 5,000 to 10,000 brown boobies, 10,000 to<br />
20,000 great frigatebirds, 1,000 to 2,000 brown noddies, and 5,000 to 10,000 masked<br />
boobies. Also present were red-footed boobies, Sula sula. Other unidentified shorebirds<br />
were also observed.<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Pierce (2006) reported that with the introduction of the Asian rat, Rattus tanezumi, to<br />
McKean, there was a 40 percent decline in seabird species diversity. Breeding success has<br />
been generally unsuccessfully.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra<br />
(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above).<br />
The natives domesticate booby birds and avoid the fishy flavor of flesh and eggs by tethering<br />
the birds (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Wiens 1962). The natives train frigate birds to<br />
fish for them, much like the Chinese use cormorants to catch small fish (Hydrographic Office<br />
1940).<br />
Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
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The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, had breeding colonies on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) and possibly Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
The long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo, Urodynamis taitensis, was rare in the Manra (Sydney),<br />
Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
In 1963, when settlers were evacuated from Nikumaroro (Gardner) due to a drought, they left<br />
behind their chickens (King 1973).<br />
Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
King (1973) reported low numbers of tree-nesting seabirds on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that wild poultry were on Nikumaroro. The species of wild<br />
poultry was not identified.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the following seabirds on Nikumaroro (Gardner):<br />
1) Phaethon rubricauda,<br />
2) Phaethon lepturus,<br />
3) Sula sula,<br />
4) Sula dactylatra,<br />
5) Sula leucogaster,<br />
6) Fregata minor,<br />
7) Fregata ariel,<br />
8) Sterna fuscata,<br />
9) Anous stolidus<br />
10) Anous minutus,<br />
11) Gygis alba,<br />
12) Pluvialis dominica,<br />
13) Arenaria interpres,<br />
14) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
15) Heteroscelus incanus,<br />
16) Erolia acuminata,<br />
17) Crocethia alba.<br />
Garnett (1983) also noted that feral chickens had been observed on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Five species of birds were<br />
observed on Nikumaroro. The bird population was not large. The red-tailed tropicbird (te<br />
taake) was the most abundant. The white tern (te matawa) was observed breeding in trees at<br />
the old village site. Frigate birds, and the black noody (te mangkiri) were also observed.<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above).<br />
Stone et al (2001) reported that no large aggregations of birds were observed on Nikumaroro<br />
in 2000. Observed bird species included: 200 to 300 mostly sub-adult brown boobies, Sula<br />
leucogaster; 50-70 great frigatebirds, Fregata minor; 40-50 sooty, Sterna fuscata or<br />
spectacled, Sterna lunata, terns; 20 masked boobies, Sula dactylatra, 20-30 brown noddies,<br />
Anous stolidus, and several white fairy-terns, Gygis microrhyncha.<br />
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Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported that only the<br />
southwestern portion of Nikumaroro was surveyed (south of the lagoon channel).<br />
In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Lister (1891) did not provide any list of bird species for Orona (Hull).<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that the eggs of the wide-awakes (tern) were eaten. They did not have a<br />
fishy taste. In addition, young birds eaten just prior to being able to fly were also excellent.<br />
Ellis (1937) commented that young bos’n birds, just prior to being able to fly were also a<br />
good meal.<br />
Ellis (1937) noted that there were two varieties of gannets, two kinds of boobies, wide-awake<br />
terns, noddies, white tern, bos’n or tropic birds, and frigate-birds.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were 17 species of sea and migratory birds on Orona<br />
(Hull). No species list was provided.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that ducks and chickens were raised domestically on Orona<br />
(Hull).<br />
The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
The long-tailed New Zealand cuckoo, Urodynamis taitensis, was rare in the Manra (Sydney),<br />
Orona (Hull), and Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
Clapp (1968) reported that the whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus variegates, was observed on<br />
themud-flats near the lagoon on Orona (Hull).<br />
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Clapp (1968) reported the pectoral sandpiper, E. melanotos, the bar-tailed godwit, Limosa<br />
lapponica baueri, the sanderling, Crocethia alba, and the New Zealand cuckoo, Eudynamis<br />
taitensis, from Orona (Hull).<br />
Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that specimens of the lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel, had<br />
been collected from Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Orona (Hull) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
King (1973) reported that the sooty tern population was 3 million birds. Other tree dwelling<br />
species were not abundant.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that species of seabirds were known to breed on Orona (Hull). They<br />
included: Phaeton lepturus, Phaethon rubricauda, Sula sula, Fregata minor, Sterna fuscata,<br />
Anous stolidus, Anous minutus, and Gygis alba.<br />
Other bird species were migrants or visitors to Orona (Hull) (Garnett 1983). These included:<br />
1) Pterodrona alba,<br />
2) Puffinus pacificus,<br />
3) Sula dactylatra,<br />
4) Sua leucogaster,<br />
5) Fregata ariel<br />
6) Procelsterna cerulea,<br />
7) Pluvialis dominica,<br />
8) Arenaria interpres<br />
9) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
10) Numenius phaeopus,<br />
11) Calidris melanotos,<br />
12) Limosa lapponica,<br />
13) Croethia aba,<br />
14) Eudynamis taitensis<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported on bird observations on Abariringa, Enderbury,<br />
Manra, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-3.19 above). Many species of birds were<br />
observed on Orona. Only the white tern bred on the island. Young of the frigate bird and the<br />
red-footed booby (te koota) were not found. Breeding sooty tern (te tarariki), grey-backed<br />
tern (tarangongo), brown booby (korobwaro), and the ref-footed booby (te mouakena) were<br />
also not observed.<br />
Kepler (2000) reported on bird counts on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and<br />
Nikumaroro (see Table III-3.20 above).<br />
In 2000, in one area of Orona, tens of thousands of sooty terns were observed nesting (Stone<br />
et al 2001). In addition, frigate birds, white fairy terns, brown noddies, borwn boobies and<br />
masked boobies were observed.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed. Yoshinaga (2002) reported observing numerous<br />
tiny dead chicks on Orona. There were many broken eggshells on the lagoon shores.<br />
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In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported on the sooty tern colonies on Orona in 2006. Colonies are<br />
identified in Figure III-3.7.<br />
Figure III-3.7. Sooty tern colonies on Orona in 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Lister (1891) reported that birds were most abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix) compared to the<br />
other Phoenix Islands. Specimens of the frigatebird, Fregata minor, were collected and<br />
observations on various aspects of their biology were reported. Since no unfledged young<br />
birds were observed, this suggested that the colony had begun nesting about the same time.<br />
Lister (1891) noted the presences various bird species on Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Manra<br />
(Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.16 above).<br />
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Sibley and Clapp (1967) reported that earlier records of great frigatebirds on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix) by Lister (1891) were actually descriptions of lesser frigatebirds.<br />
Maude (1937) noted that the bird populations on Rawaki (Phoenix) were the highest of all the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that sea birds were very abundant. These included sotty, gray,<br />
and white terns, frigates that nested in the Sesuvium, four species of shearwaters, petrels,<br />
boobies, and migratory plover and curlews.<br />
Luke (1945) reported that bird populations were in the millions.<br />
Anon. (1953) reported that rabbits shared burrows with petrels and shearwaters (see also<br />
Bryan 1941).<br />
Child (1960) reported the blue-grey noddy (Bennett’s noddy; blue-grey fairy ternlet),<br />
Procelsterna cerulea nebouxi, on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra<br />
(Sydney), and Birnie.<br />
Child (1960) reported that the blue-fced booby (masked gannet), Sula dactylatra personata,<br />
were present in small numbers on Abariringa (Canton), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney).<br />
The only nesting place for the lesser frigate-bird, Fregata ariel ariel, was on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix Island) according to Child (1960).<br />
The red-tailed tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchos, had breeding colonies on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, Manra (Sydney),<br />
Abariringa (Canton) (Child 1960).<br />
The Christmas Island shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis, bred on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (Child 1960).<br />
The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, had breeding colonies on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) and possibly Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Child 1960).<br />
The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, had breeding colonies on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) (Child 1960).<br />
Anon. (1965) reported that lesser frigatebirds banned in Rawaki (Phoenix) were found in<br />
Japan, Gilbert Islands, Taiwan, New Guinea, and Western Samoa.<br />
In 1963 and 1964, 13,027 nestlings and 146 adult lesser frigatebirds were banded on<br />
Howland, McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Enderbury (Sibley and Clapp 1967). A summary<br />
of band recover is presented in Figure III-3.3 above.<br />
Kohls (1966) reported that the tick, Ixodes amersoni, was described from a white tern, Gygis<br />
alba) at Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1965 (see also Amerson 1968). Additional tick specimens were<br />
collected from white terns on Rawaki (Phoenix) in 1966 (Amerson 1968).<br />
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Clapp and Sibley (1967) reported new records of bird species for Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), and Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(see Table III-3.18 above).<br />
Clapp (1968) reported the sharp-tailed sandpipers, Erolia acuminata, the pectoral sandpipers,<br />
E. melanotos, and the sanderling, Crocethia alba, were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Amerson (1968) lists the bird hosts for the tick, Ornithoros capensis and the O. capensis<br />
group in Rawaki (Phoenix) (see Table III-3.11 above).<br />
King (1973) reported that the guano miners’ house left on Rawaki (Phoenix) was providing<br />
nesting sites for white terns and black noddies. Rawaki (Phoenix) had five species of<br />
breeding procellariiforms, a blue-grey noddy population of about 10,000 birds, and a<br />
population of about 45,000 lesser frigatebirds.<br />
According to King (1973), birds were periodically harvested by the crews of copra boats that<br />
serviced the Line Islands.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported species of seabirds from Rawaki (Phoenix Islands). They included:<br />
1) Bulweria bulweria,<br />
2) Pterodroma alba,<br />
3) Puffinus pacificus,<br />
4) Puffinus nativitatis,<br />
5) Puffinus lherminieri,<br />
6) Nesofregetta albrigularis,<br />
7) Phaethon rubricauda,<br />
8) Sula dactylatra,<br />
9) Sula leucogaster,<br />
10) Sula sula,<br />
11) Fregata minor,<br />
12) Fregata ariel,<br />
13) Sterna fuscata,<br />
14) Sterna lunata,<br />
15) Anous stolidus,<br />
16) Anous minutus,<br />
17) Procelsterna cerulea,<br />
18) Gygis alba,<br />
19) Pluvialis dominicus,<br />
20) Numenius tahitiensis,<br />
21) Erolia acuminata,<br />
22) Crocethia alba,<br />
23) Heteroscelus incanus,<br />
24) Calidris melanotos,<br />
25) Arenaria interpres.<br />
In 2000, tens of thousands of primarily great frigatebirds were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix)<br />
(Stone et al 2001). Other species observed included brown and masked boobies, red-foted<br />
boobies, lesser frigatebirds, white fairy terns, blue-grey noddies, Procelsterna cerulean,<br />
unidentified petrels, and whimbrels, Numenius phaeopus.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported the presences of various bird species on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona and Rawaki (see Table III-3.22 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that Rawaki had the largest aggregations of birds in the Phoenix<br />
Islands. Yoshinaga (2002) concurred with this statement. The rabbit population on Rawaki<br />
did not appear to effect the bird population (Neilson 2002). Details on nesting colonies<br />
observed were provided by Yoshinaga (2002).<br />
In 2002, bird surveys were conducted on all Phoenix Islands, except McKean (Obura and<br />
Stone 2003; Yoshinaga 2002; see Table III-3.23 above). No petrels, shearwaters, Pacific reef<br />
herons, or blue-gray noddies were observed.<br />
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In 2002, birds were identified and counted in Abariringa, Birnie, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002). Results of these counts are<br />
provided in Table III-3.21 above.<br />
Stone (2004) reported counting 150,000 spectacled and sooty terns and more than 50,000<br />
lesser frigatebirds on Rawaki. No Phoenix petrels were observed.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) provided a list of bird species observed on Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Orona, and Abariringa (Canton) (see Table III-3.24 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted that Rawaki had the highest diversity of seabirds with 18 species. It<br />
was the only island that still had a breeding population of blue noddies and the Endangered<br />
Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba, and the vulnerable white-throated storm petrel,<br />
Nesofregetta albigularis. Phoenix petrel and shearwater colonies on Rawaii were identified<br />
in Figure III-3.8 below<br />
Figure III-3.8. Phoenix petrel pairs and shearwater colonies on Rawaki 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006)<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted that the very high density of rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, was<br />
negatively impacting seabirds on Rawaki. Rabbits competed for burrows and shaded<br />
shelters. In addition, they trampled eggs and nestlings. Rabbits also consumed palatable<br />
species of vegetation, reducing nest site availability and burrow stability.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) compared the number of bird species found during offshore and terrestrial<br />
surveys for all the Phoenix Islands, except Manra (see Table III-3.25 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) completed preliminary estimates of the number of seabird pairs on all of<br />
the Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.26 above).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) provided population estimates of shore and land birds in all eight of the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-3.28 above).<br />
H. MAMMALS<br />
Maude (1937) noted that there was a small rat on all of the Phoenix Islands. This was similar<br />
to that found in the Gilbert Islands. To control rat populations, the time honoured<br />
expenditure of a penny a rat tail was proposed. Maude (1937) noted that the use of rat poison<br />
bait resulted in the increase in rat populations throughout the islands.<br />
Carter et al (1945) reported that the common rat, Rattus sp., and the house mouse, Mus sp.,<br />
were found on the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Bryan (1974) noted that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was present on many equatorial<br />
islands [such as the Phoenix Islands]. These rats can be so small that they are mistakenly<br />
identified as mice.<br />
Anderson (2002) noted that no pre-historic faunal extinctions have been recorded yet for the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 below).<br />
Table III-3.31. <strong>Intro</strong>duced mammals to the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Neilson 2002).<br />
Species Common<br />
name<br />
Kiribati<br />
name<br />
Nikumaroro Rawaki Abariringa Enderbury Orona<br />
(Kanton)<br />
Sus scrofa Pig Te beeki X<br />
Canis lupus Dog Te kamea X<br />
Felis catus Cat Te<br />
katamwa<br />
X X<br />
Oryctolagus<br />
cuniculus<br />
Rabbit Te rabiti X<br />
Rattus exulans Polynesian<br />
rat<br />
Te kimoa X X X X<br />
Rattus rattus Asian<br />
black rat<br />
Te kimoa X X<br />
Mus musculus mouse Te kimoa<br />
ae uarereke<br />
X<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 below).<br />
Table III-3.32. Invasive mammal species in the Phoenix Islands previously<br />
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recorded and recorded in 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 below).<br />
Table III-3.33. Population estimates of mammal species in the Phoenix Islands, 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) suggested the use of aerial application of rat bait on the larger Phoenix<br />
Islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Maude (1937) reported rats on Abariringa (Canton). These rats did not appear to more<br />
numerous than on any of the Gilbert Islands.<br />
Gardner (1938) provided an account of the rats encountered during the 1937 solar eclipse<br />
expedition. Rats were small and unbelievably tame and had no hestitation to take food from<br />
a washpan held by hand. Gardner (1938) noted that rats were probably more common than<br />
hermit crabs. A shotgun was brought on that expedition to kill rats, but with little impact. In<br />
addition, rat poison was mixed and presented to rats. Hundreds of rats should have died, but<br />
this did not seem to dent the rat population. Gardner (1938) speculated that rats on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) lived on bird eggs which resulted in bird populations on Abariringa<br />
(Canton) being less than on Enderbury.<br />
Rats were found on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan 1934). Bryan<br />
(1941 and 1942) specified that Polynesian rats were found on Abariringa (Canton). Van<br />
Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported that where there was ground cover, the ground-nesting<br />
Polynesian rat was present in astonishing numbers. This rat fed on vegatable food including<br />
tree bark, and fruits and flowers of Scaevola.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg (1941) reported three flea infested dogs that were brought to Abariringa<br />
(Canton), but none had any fleas when examined. There were no harbor fleas on rats.<br />
In 1946, feral canines (dogs) were first observed on Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003). These<br />
were probably left by the U.S. Army’s Canine Corps (1942 to 1943). They were observed<br />
swimming the lagoon from north to south.<br />
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Bunker (1951) observed wild house cats that were abundant and roamed the island at night.<br />
Murphy et al (1954) noted abundant numbers of Polynesian rats, Mus exulans. Prior to<br />
World War II, it was thought that these rats may have been responsible for the reduced<br />
avaifauna of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted the presence of dogs and cats on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Some cats had escaped from domestication.<br />
Walker (1955) observed dogs, cats, and pet rabbits on Abariringa (Canton). There was also a<br />
pet monkey on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that the only native mammal was the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans.<br />
The rat was not numerous and was primarily found on the eastern end of Abariringa<br />
(Canton).<br />
McIntire (1960) noted that dogs and cats had been introduced to Abariringa (Canton). Dogs<br />
were of all breeds and mixtures. None have run wild. Some cats have escaped and have<br />
taken a slight toll on nesting birds.<br />
Bryan (1974) noted that there were feral cats, dogs, and the Polynesian rat on Abariringa<br />
(Canton). This greatly reduced the bird populations there.<br />
Fosberg et al (1973) noted that there were dogs and cats on Abariringa (Canton). These<br />
animals were a threat to ground nesting birds. They should be sterilized or eliminated. No<br />
pet should be abandoned when the owner leaves.<br />
Abariringa (Canton) had feral cats, dogs, and Polynesian rats (King 1973).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the Polynesian rat and feral cats and dogs on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported that the ship rat (kimoa) was present and caused<br />
much damage.<br />
In the 2000 census, the Statistics Office (2002) reported that the 61 residents raised local<br />
pigs, and kept dogs and cats.<br />
In 2002, about 30 Polynesian rats, Rattus exulans, on the islet (Spam Islet?) adjacent to the<br />
lagoon entrance passage (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua 2002).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that residents of Abariringa (Kanton) had introduced cats to control<br />
the rats, but that bird populations were now vulnerable to the cats.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that pigs that been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above).<br />
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In Abariringa (Canton), the most destructive of the introduced species was the dog (Oates<br />
2003). Abandoned dogs led to the decline in shore birds and sea turtle populations.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
The Polynesian rat was found on Birnie (Hydrographic Office 1940). King (1973) reported<br />
the Polynesian rat probably came from a ship wreck. At times, it was abundant on the island.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was the only mammal species<br />
on Birnie.<br />
Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported that rats were abundant on Birnie.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
Pierce (2006) reported that the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, was on Birnie.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 1840, rats were observed on Enderbury (Wilkes 1845).<br />
There was a horse and mule on Enderbury during the 1880’s (Bryan 1941 and 1942). These<br />
were left by American guano diggers (Ellis 1937).<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1953) visited Enderbury and<br />
observed a dead rat. It was collected.<br />
The Polynesian rat was found on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940). According to<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942), the rat populaton was very large.<br />
Luke (1945) reported that there were cats on Enderbury.<br />
Murphy et al (1954) reported that there were no Polynesian rats on Enderbury. This may<br />
have contributed to the abundant avifauna there.<br />
Abbott (1966) reported that Enderbury was home to the Polynesian rat and the common<br />
house cat. These were introduced by man, but both were now extinct.<br />
Abbott (1966) noted that Enderbury has had dogs and a mule at one point in time.<br />
King (1973) reported that there were still a few feral cats on Enderbury. These were<br />
probably left by colonists. King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be<br />
removed from Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury.<br />
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Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was common on Enderbury.<br />
In addition, there were unknown numbers of feral cats.<br />
Bryan (1974) reported that there were feral cats and Polynesian rats on Enderbury. These<br />
were impacting the bird populations there.<br />
In 1995, the Polynesian rat was found on Enderbury (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In 2002, Enderbury had a sizeable population of rats (Obura and Stone 2003). Rats populated<br />
all parts of the island (Yoshinaga 2002).<br />
Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the house cat, Felis catus, had disappeared on Enderbury.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted the presence of the Pacific rat on Enderbury. Rat baiting trials were<br />
undertaken on both Enderbury and McKean using a non-toxic rat bait made by Aminal<br />
Control Products, Ltd., Wanganui, New Zealand. Results indicated that bait needs to be set<br />
in crab-proof stations.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Arundel (1885) reported the presence of a rat that was no very much larger than a large<br />
mouse. Arundel reported seeing hundreds of rats gather together at night and had frequently<br />
caught 100 per night in traps.<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that there were two species of rat on Manra (Sydney). One was the<br />
small native one and the other was a large species. Both were abundant. Ellis (1937)<br />
speculates that the larger rats are descendants which escaped from a wrecked vessel. These<br />
rats greatly reduced coconut yields.<br />
Maude (1937) reported wild pigs on Manra (Sydney). They lived on the fruit of the non tree,<br />
Morinda citrifolia.<br />
As part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, pigs were introduced to Manra<br />
(Sydney) (Knudsen 1965; see also King et al 2001). Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that<br />
domestic pigs ran wild on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted the presence of rats on Manra (Sydney).<br />
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Hilder (1959) noted that when Manra (Sydney) residents left for the Solomon Islands, they<br />
left their dogs behind. They had eaten all their pigs, and brought their cats with them to the<br />
Solomon Islands (see also Knudsen 1965).<br />
King (1973) reported that there were Polynesian and black rats on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Cats and dogs had also been left on Manra (Sydney) during the evacuation (King 1973).<br />
Most of the cats had been killed by Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program (POBSP)<br />
between 1964 and 1968. However, it was not certain if all the cats have been killed. One<br />
dog was observed in 1968.<br />
King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be removed from Orona (Hull),<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, and the black rat, Rattus<br />
rattus, were on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Garnett (1983) also noted that feral cats, dogs, and pigs had been recorded on Manra<br />
(Sydney). However, the dog may have died out since only one was observed in 1968 by<br />
Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Programme staff. Garnett (1983) noted that feral pigs were<br />
formally abundant, but pigs have not been reported in recent years.<br />
In 1995, the Polynesian rat was found on Manra (Government of Kiribati (1995). However,<br />
no damage was reported to the coconut trees.<br />
In January 2000, cat tracks were observed on Manra (Kepler 2000).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) reported that there were large populations of rats, Rattus<br />
exulans, and R. rattus, as well as feral cats on Manra.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Maude (1937) reported small brown rats on McKean.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, was the only mammal known<br />
from McKean.<br />
Throssell and Specht (1989) reported that McKean was inhabited by “fearless” rats.<br />
In about 2001, the Korean vessel F/V Chance 301 grounded on McKean (Pierce et al 2006).<br />
It was presumed that this vessel introduced the Asian rat to McKean. However, Pierce et al<br />
(2006) suspect that the introduction of the Asian rat to McKean occurred earlier than 2001.<br />
This was based on bird survey results (Bukaireiti and Rabaua 2002) that were similar to<br />
results in Pierce et al (2006).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that there were Asian rats on McKean. An external parasitic tick<br />
was found on a juvenile Asian rat. Pierce et al (2006) speculated that the introduction of<br />
Asian rats to McKean probably resulted in the extinction of the Pacific rat population there.<br />
Rat baiting trials were undertaken on both Enderbury and McKean using a non-toxic rat bait<br />
made by Aminal Control Products, Ltd., Wanganui, New Zealand (Pierce et al 2006).<br />
Results indicated that bait needs to be set in crab-proof stations.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 1840, Commander Wilkes of the U.S. Exploring Expedition noted that a large rat was<br />
observed on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Bryan 1941 and 1942). Bryan (1934) reported that<br />
Wilkes found rats on Nikumaroro (Gardner) in 1840.<br />
Maude (1937) reported rats on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
The Polynesian rat was found on Nikumaroro (Gardner) (Hydrographic Office 1940; Bryan<br />
1941 and 1942; King 1973).<br />
Luke (1945) reported that seven rabbits had been taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner). All reach Nikumaroro (Gardner) safely and were released.<br />
In 1963, when settlers were evacuated from Nikumaroro (Gardner), they left behind their cats<br />
and dogs (King 1973). The Gilbertese colonists that had been relocated to the Solomon<br />
Islands had to leave their dogs behind (Anon. 1964). In May 1964, poison bait was laid out.<br />
On the return voyage, no live dogs were observed.<br />
King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when present) be removed from Orona (Hull),<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and Enderbury.<br />
Gilbert Islands (1978) reported that there were rats and cats on Nikumaroro in 1978. The rat,<br />
Rattus exulens, population was low probably due to the presence of cats. Warfarin rat blocks<br />
were placed on Ritiati covering 30 acres.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, as well as feral cats and dogs on<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Government of Kiribati (1995) reported Polynesian rats on Nikumaroro. However, no<br />
damaging effects to the coconuts were observed.<br />
In January 2000, no cats were observed on Nikumaroro, but due to the low bird populations,<br />
the presence of cats was suspected (Kepler 2000).<br />
King et al (2001) noted that large rats and a single dead cat were observed on Nikumaroro.<br />
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Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the rats on Nikumaroro were abundant and healthy (see also<br />
Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the house cat, Felis catus, appeared to have disappeared from<br />
Nikumaroro.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the dog, Canis familiaris, had disappeared from Nikumaroro.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) noted the presence of the Pacific rat on Nikumaroro.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
The 1838 to 1842 U.S. Exploring Expedition collected various specimens of rat, including the<br />
wandering rat, Mus exulans Peale from Orona (Hull) (Bartlett (1940). Poole and Schantz<br />
(1942) reported on the type specimens in the U.S. National Museum included measurements<br />
of Mus exulans from Orona (Hulls) collected by the U.S. Exploring Expedition.<br />
In 1887, Ellis landed on Orona (Hull) with his brother, 3 Niueans, 20,000 coconuts and a dog<br />
(Ellis 1937). Ellis (1937) reported an immense number of rats. The rat was smaller in size<br />
than the common rat.<br />
Bryan (1934) reported rats on Orona (Hull). Bryan (1941) noted that Polynesian rats were<br />
found on Orona (Hull).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that cats, dogs, and pigs were raised domestically on Orona<br />
(Hull).<br />
When Orona (Hull) was evacuated in 1961, dogs and cats were left behind (King 1973). The<br />
Gilbertese colonists that had been relocated to the Solomon Islands had to leave their dogs<br />
behind (Anon. 1964). These dogs took refuge in equal numbers in the Roman Catholic and<br />
LMS missions. In May 1964, poison bait was laid out. On the return voyage, no live dogs<br />
were observed.<br />
King (1973) reported that a few cats and dogs were still present on Orona (Hull). Their<br />
reproductive state was not known. King (1973) recommended that dogs and cats (when<br />
present) be removed from Orona (Hull), Nikumaroro (Gardner), Manra (Sydney), and<br />
Enderbury.<br />
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Garnett (1983) noted that the only mammals on Orona (Hull) were the Polynesian rat, Rattus<br />
exulans, cats, dogs and pigs. The status of the cats, dogs, and pigs were not known in 1963.<br />
Rats were found on Orona (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Government of Kiribati (1995)<br />
noted that the Polynesian rat on Orona had no damaging effects.<br />
In 2002, two female cats were taken from Kiritimati to the Phoenix Islands (Bukaireiti and<br />
Rabaua (2002). However, enroute, they were thrown overboard. There were concerns about<br />
establishing a cat population on Orona.<br />
Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) observed that rats were abundant on Orona. Neilson (2002)<br />
reported that residents of Orona had introduced cats to control the rats, but that bird<br />
populations were now vulnerable to the cats.<br />
Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that pigs that been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
However, all pigs sent to Orona had disappeared. They had either died, escaped or had been<br />
eaten.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, had disappeared from Orona.<br />
This population may have been dramatically reduced or eliminated following a Warfarin R<br />
toxin application to control rats there (Tiare Etei personal communication in Pierce et al<br />
2006). No further details were available on this application.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that there was a small population of cats, Felis catus, on Orona.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that the dog, Canis familiaris, and pig, Sus scrofa, had vanished<br />
from Orona.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In the late 1860’s an American guano company was working on Rawaki (Phoenix) at about<br />
the time rabbits were liberated there (Watson 1961; see also Bryan 1942). Lister (1891)<br />
reported that the rabbits had been left by guano workers. Ellis (1946) noted that rabbits were<br />
left by Americans when they worked the phosphate-guano deposits there in the late 1800’s<br />
(see also Baarslag 1940; Ellis 1937). Maude (1937) reported that the Phoenix Guano<br />
Company left the rabbits on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Lister (1891) reported rabbits were fairly plentiful (see also Watson 1961).<br />
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In 1901, rabbits had been left on Rawaki (Phoenix) by a guano hunting expedition<br />
(Bevington 1990).<br />
In 1924, rabbits were abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Bryan 1934; see also Bryan 1939).<br />
According to Ellis (1937), Rawaki (Phoenix) was overrun with rabbits. Low vegetation<br />
(grass and herbs) seemed none the worse because of them (see also Bryan 1942; Watson<br />
1961).<br />
Bryan (1934) reported that the presence of rats may suggest the presence of freshwater on<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 1937, crew of the the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter, Roger B. Taney, collected two pair of<br />
rabbits from Rawaki (Phoenix) to be released on Howland (Bryan 1974). Maude (1937)<br />
reported that rabbits were still on Rawaki (Phoenix) in considerable numbers. About 25 were<br />
captured and taken on-board the H.M.C.S. Nimanoa. In 1937, 25 rabbits were taken from<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) to the Gilbert Islands (Maude 1952; see also Watson 1961). The<br />
introduction was not successful as the rabbits were all killed by dogs.<br />
Rabbits and rats were on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Thirty two of these rabbits were taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to Beru in the southern Gilbert<br />
Islands (Anon. 1941). The rationale was that rabbits would supply an alternative source of<br />
protein. Rabbits fed on coconuts. In 1941, only two or three rabbits remained on Beru.<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) was waterless, so the rabbits had to obtain sufficient water from vegetation<br />
(Anon. 1941).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that there were no rats on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Rabbits came in many colors or hues (Anon. 1941). Bryan (1941 and 1942) noted that<br />
rabbits were white, yellow, and brown. Rabbits share their burrows with seabirds (Anon.<br />
1941). Anon. (1953) indicated that burrows were shared with petrels and shearwaters (see<br />
also Maude 1952).<br />
Luke (1945) reported that seven rabbits had been taken from Rawaki (Phoenix) to<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Wiens (1962) reported that Luke (1945) noted some feral cats on Rawaki (Phoenix) that kept<br />
rabbit populations down. However, this seems to be in error. Luke (1945) noted feral cats on<br />
Enderbury, not Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Maude (1952) noted that rabbits were poor-looking and had been left by a visiting ship.<br />
Anon. (1953) noted that rabbits were in poor condition (see also Maude 1952). When chased,<br />
they ran for about 91 m (100 yards) before stopping, making capture very easy. The locals<br />
called them “pussies” and refused to eat them. Twenty five were taken to the Gilbert Islands,<br />
but all were killed by dogs prior to reproducing.<br />
The rabbits were in poor condition (Watson 1961). After they ran for about 91 m (100<br />
yards), they squatted awaiting capture.<br />
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Conditions in the Phoenix Islands (Rawaki) were only just within the level of tolerance for<br />
rabbits (Watson 1961). Factors other than food presumably held the population down to a<br />
level where rabbits did not seriously affect the vegetation.<br />
Tudor (1968) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) was overrun with rabbits.<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) noted that the island was overrun with rabbits (see also<br />
Clune 1951).<br />
King (1973) reported that Rawaki (Phoenix) had European rabbits with a population of<br />
between 100 and 1,000. According to King (1973), these rabbits were periodically harvested<br />
by the crews of copra boats that serviced the Line Islands. King (1973) recommended that<br />
the removal of rabbits from Rawaki (Phoenix) was of great importance.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that the European rabbit, Oryctolagus cunculus, was quite abundant<br />
on Rawaki (Phoenix) numbering from 100 to 1,000. They had white, yellow, and brown<br />
collars. Rabbits were the only mammals on Rawaki (Phoenix). Rabbits were the only<br />
mammal on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Bevington (1990) noted that rabbits obtained water from the dew in the early morning.<br />
Anon. (1953) noted that six wells were dug, but only salty water was obtained. Rabbits<br />
apparently never drink water since all water was salty. Bevington (1990) reported that<br />
rabbits shared burrows with mutton-birds.<br />
In 2000, only a few rabbits were observed on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Yoshinaga 2002).<br />
In 2002, the population of rabbits was estimated to be about 100 (Bukaeireiti and Rabaua<br />
2002). One male and one female rabbit were taken to Kiritimati.<br />
Neilson (2002) listed mammals that had been introduced to Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (see Table III-3.31 above).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that Rawaki had a very large population of rabbits (see also Obura<br />
and Stone 2003). The preferred food was Portulaca lutea. The rabbits appeared to have a<br />
noticeable effect on the vegetation on Rawaki, but did not appear to have any effect on the<br />
bird population there.<br />
Yoshinaga (2002) reported that rabbits were abundant on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Rawaki (Phoenix) was the only rat and cat-free<br />
island in the archipelago and had the richest and densest bird breeding populations.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified mammals observed on Birnie, Enderbury, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki and compared them with previously recorded species (see<br />
Table III-3.32 above).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) estimated the populationof mammal species on Birnie, Enderbury,<br />
McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (see Table III-3.33 above).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) noted that the very high density of rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, was<br />
negatively impacting seabirds on Rawaki. Rabbits competed for burrows and shaded<br />
shelters. In addition, they trampled eggs and nestlings. Rabbits also consumed palatable<br />
species of vegetation, reducing nest site availability and burrow stability. Pierce et al (2006)<br />
noted that there was some evidence of inbreeding effects on the rabbits of Rawaki.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that Rawaki had no rats.<br />
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Perkins, R.C.L. 1931. Description of a new Hawaiian coloptera. Proceedings of the<br />
Hawaiian Entomology Society 7: 509-515.<br />
PIKS Project Manager. 2002. Final report for Phoenix Island Kakai scheme. Ministry of<br />
Home Affairs and Rural Development.<br />
Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix<br />
Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report<br />
prepared for: Conservation International, Samoa and Pacific Islands Initiative, Auckland<br />
University, Auckland.<br />
Pompey, S.L. 1972. History of Hull Island in the Phoenix Islands. Kingsbury, California, 2<br />
pp.<br />
Poole, A.J. and V.S. Schantz. 1942. Catalog of the type specimens of mammals in the<br />
United States National Museum. Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum 178: 1-705.<br />
Porter, H.P. 1950. Bird colonies of Canton Island. Elepaio 11: 1.<br />
Pusinelli, F.N.M. 1948. A report on the results of the census of poulation, 1947. Gilbert and<br />
Ellice Island Colony. Suva: Government Press. 103 pp.<br />
Radtkey, R.R., S.C. Donnellan, R.N. Fisher, C.Moritz, K.A. Hanley, T.J. Case. 1995. When<br />
species collide: the origin and spread of an asexual species of gecko. Proceedings Royal<br />
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Robson, R.W. 1956. Pacific Islands year book 1956. Sydney: Public Publication Pty, Ltd.<br />
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Schreiber, E.A., and R.W. Schreiber. 1988. Great frigatebird size dimorphism on two central<br />
Pacific atolls. Condor 90: 90-99.<br />
Shiroma, E.S. 1965. Notes (on atoll insects). Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomology<br />
Society 19: 16-17, 29-30.<br />
Shiroma, E.S. 1966. Canton Island insects; new records. Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 19(2): 137-138.<br />
Sibley, F.C., and R.B. Clapp. 1967. The distribution of central Pacific lesser frigatebirds<br />
Fegata ariel. Ibis 109: 328-337.<br />
Sibley, F.C, and R.W. McFarlane. 1968. Gulls in the central Pacific. Pacific Science 22(3):<br />
314-321.<br />
<strong>SPREP</strong>. 1992. Kiribati: country report for UNCED. South Pacific Regional Environment<br />
Programme, Apia, Western Samoa. 143 pp. [cited unseen from Mangubhai 2002.]<br />
Statistics Office. 2002. Report on the 2000 census of population. Ministry of Finance,<br />
Bairiki, Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati.<br />
Stone, G. 2004. Phoenix Islands: a coral reef wilderness revealed. National Geographic<br />
Magazine 2005(2): 48-64.<br />
Stone, G., D. Obura, S. Bailey, A. Yoshinaga, C. Holloway, R. Barrel, and S. Mangubhai.<br />
2001. Marine biological surveys of the Phoenix Islands, Summary of expedition conducted<br />
from June 24 - July 15, 2000. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Throssell, B., and J. Specht. 1989. Stone structures on McKean Island, Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. Australian Archaeology 29: 17-21, Dec. 1, 1989.<br />
Timeon, M. 2001. Phoenix Islands Kakai scheme. Report on voyage of MV Tebenebene to<br />
deliver emergency supplies to Orona Island. Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural<br />
Development.<br />
Tristram, H.B. 1886. On an apparently new species of duck (Dafila) from the central<br />
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Tudor, J. 1968. Pacific Islands year book and who's who. Tenth Edition. Sydney: Pacific<br />
Publications.<br />
Turbott, I.G. 1954. Portulaca, a specialty in the diet of the Gilbertese in the Phoenix Islands,<br />
central Pacific. Journal of the Polynesian Society 63(1): 77-86.<br />
Usinger, R.L. 1944. Heteroptera of Canton Island. Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 12: 147-148.<br />
Usinger, R.L. and J.L. Herring. 1957. Notes on marine water striders of the Hawaiian<br />
Islands (Hemiptera: Gerridae). Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomology Society 16: 281-<br />
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Van Balgooy, M.M.J. 1960. Preliminary plant-geographical analysis of he Pacific as based<br />
on the distribution of phanerogram genera. Blumea 10(2): 385-430.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1941. Canton Island. Hawaiian Planters Record 45: 15-24.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1942. Notes on the temporary establishment of insect and plant<br />
species on Canton Island. Hawaiian Planters Record 46: 49-52.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1943. The insects of Canton Island. Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 11: 300-312.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1947. A termite on Canton Island. Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 13: 207.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1948. Pachodynerus nasidens (Latreille). Proceedings of the<br />
Hawaiian Entomology Society 13: 202.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1952a. Calotermes from Canton Island. Proceedings of the<br />
Hawaiian Entomology Society 14: 351.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1952b. Gonocephalum adpressiformes Kaszab. Proceedings of<br />
the Hawaiian Entomology Society 14: 351-352.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1955. The insects and certain other arthropods of Canton Island.<br />
Atoll Research Bulletin 42: 1-11.<br />
Van Zwaluwenburg, R.H. 1957. Coleoptera: Elateridae. Insects of Micronesia 16(1): 1-66.<br />
Waesche, H.H. 1938. An equatorial cruise. Volcano Letter 461: 1-5.<br />
Walker, H. 1955. Air age brings life to Canton Island. National Geographic Magazine 57:<br />
117-132.<br />
Warner, H.H. 1939. University in the South Pacific. Paradise of the Pacific 51(12): 74-75.<br />
December 1939.<br />
Watson, J.S. 1961. Feral rabbit populations on Pacific islands. Pacific Science 15(4): 591-<br />
593.<br />
Wiens, H.J. 1962. Atoll environment and ecology. New Haven and London: Yale Univ.<br />
Press.<br />
Wilkes, C. 1845. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838,<br />
1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume III.<br />
Williams, F.X. 1945. Achaea janata (Linn.). Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomology<br />
Society 12: 233.<br />
Witherspoon, P.B. 1957. Canton Island. Pacific Discovery 10(6): 14-21.<br />
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Woodward, P.W. 1976. Red-footed booby helper at great frigatebird nests. Condor 78(2):<br />
264-265.<br />
Wright, T. 1951. Canton coral capers. Trade Winds, CAA, Ninth Region, Honolulu, July<br />
1951, pp. 15-23.<br />
Yoshinaga, A. 2002. Birds. New England Aquarium's "Primal Ocean/Phoenix Islands 2002<br />
Project.<br />
Zimmmerman, E.C. 1948. Orosius argentatus (Evans). Proceedings of the Hawaiian<br />
Entomology Society 13: 221.<br />
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4. MARINE RESOURCES<br />
A. MARINE FLORA<br />
CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of marine biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with the<br />
Line and Northern Cook Islands. Marine biomes that were present included: algal bed,<br />
animals in sediments, algal reef, windward atoll reef, leeward atoll reef, lagoon reef, rocky<br />
coast, beach, saline lagoon, open lagoon, brackish lagoon, offshore terrace, offshore slope,<br />
abyssal plain, seamount, and inshore circulation cell.<br />
Bleakley (1995) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, there were no mangroves or seagrasses.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified. These are presented in Table III-4.1 below. Previous lists of algae were<br />
available and would bring the species list to 107, but South et al (2001) noted that there may<br />
be doubtful identification of algae in them.<br />
Table III-4.1. List of algae species for the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: South et al 2001)<br />
Species Abariringa Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Kanton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Blennothrix lyngbyacea X<br />
Lyngbya confervoides X x<br />
Lyngbya majuscule x X<br />
Lyngbya semiplena X X<br />
Lyngbya sp. x<br />
Oscillatoria sp. X<br />
Schizothrix sp. X x<br />
Chroodactylon ornatum X<br />
Galaxaura filamentosa X x<br />
Gelidiella acerosa X<br />
Asparagopsis taxiformis X<br />
Peyssonnelia conchicola X<br />
Hydrolithon sp. X<br />
Jania micrarthrodia X x<br />
Lithothamnion proliferum X<br />
Hypnea pannosa x X<br />
Gelidiopsis intricata x X<br />
Aglaothamnion cordatum X<br />
Anotrichium tenue X<br />
Antithamnionella elegans X<br />
Ceramium affine X<br />
Ceramium flaccidum x X<br />
Ceramium sp. aff. C.<br />
marshallense<br />
X<br />
Corallophila huysmansii x x<br />
Species Abariringa Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Kanton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
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Crouania minutissima X x<br />
Griffithsia heteromorpha x X<br />
Ptilothamnion ?cladophorae x<br />
Dasya pilosa X<br />
Heterosiphonia crispella var<br />
laxa<br />
x X X<br />
Hypoglossum<br />
caloglossoides<br />
X<br />
Hypoglossum sp. X<br />
Chondria minutula X<br />
Chondria repens x X<br />
Herposiphonia dendroidea X<br />
Lophocladia trichoclados X<br />
Polysiphonia spp. x X<br />
Dictyopteris repens x X X<br />
Dictyota friabilis X<br />
Dictyota sp. X<br />
Lobophora variegata X<br />
Turbinaria ornata X<br />
Cladophora boodleoides X<br />
Species Abariringa Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Kanton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Cladophoropsis carolinensis X<br />
Dictyosphaeria cavernosa x x X<br />
Dictyosphaeria versluysii X<br />
Valonia fastigiata X<br />
Bryopsis pennata X<br />
Bryopsis pennata var.<br />
secunda<br />
X<br />
Caulerpa cupressoides var<br />
flabellata<br />
X X<br />
Caulerpa cupressoides var<br />
lycopodium<br />
x X<br />
Caulerpa peltata X<br />
Caulerpa serrulata x X<br />
Caulerpella ambigua X<br />
Halimeda bikinensis X<br />
Halimeda copiosa X<br />
Halimeda cuneata X x x<br />
Halimeda gracilis x X<br />
Halimeda incrassata X<br />
Halimeda opuntia X<br />
Halimeda taenicola X<br />
Species Abariringa Enderbury Manra McKean Nikumaroro Orona Rawaki<br />
(Kanton)<br />
(Sydney)<br />
(Gardner) (Hull) (Phoenix)<br />
Chlorodesmis fastigiata X<br />
Pseudochlorodesmis<br />
furcellata<br />
X<br />
Rhipidosiphon javensis X<br />
Rhipilia diaphana X<br />
Rhipilia geppii x X X<br />
Rhipilia orientalis x X x<br />
Neomeris annulata x X<br />
Acetabularia parvula x<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
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Bunker (1951) reported observing very little marine plant life. Most of the reef area was<br />
covered with microscopic algae. In the shallow bay areas, there was thick growth of<br />
filamentous green algae.<br />
Luomala (1951) identified one species of brown seaweed (Fucaceae) from Abariringa<br />
(Canton), Turbinaria ornata.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported on the various species of marine algae present on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
1) Ulvaceae - Enteromorpha sp., Ulva lactuca?<br />
2) Cladophoraceae - Cladophora sp., Cladophoroposis menbranacea<br />
3) Caulerpaceae - Caulerpa crassifolia, Caulerpa peltata, Calerpa serrulata<br />
4) Valoniaceae – Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, Valonia sp.<br />
5) Fucaceae - Turbinaria ornata<br />
6) Gelidiaceae – Gelidium sp.<br />
7) Gigartinaceae – Ahnfeltia concinna<br />
8) Sphaerococcaceae - Gracilaria lichenoides?, Hypnea spinella<br />
9) Rhodomelaceae - Chondria sp., Herposiphonia tenella<br />
10) Ceramiaceae - Centroceras clavulatum, Ceramium sp.<br />
11) Grateloupiaceae - Halymenia sp.<br />
12) Corallinaceae - Jania capillacea, Lithothamion sp.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that the diatoms, Navicula sp. was collected on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Green, brown, and red marine algae from Abariringa (Canton) were examined by Dawson<br />
(1959). The following species were examined and discussed in detail. According to Dawson<br />
(1959), the discussion on Polysiphonia was provided by Dr. G.J. Hollenberg.<br />
1) Enteromorpha clathrata<br />
2) Enteromorpha sp.<br />
3) Enteromorpha kylinii<br />
4) Ulvella lens<br />
5) Cladophora fascicularis<br />
6) Cladophora flexuosa<br />
7) Dictyosphaeria cavernosa<br />
8) Boodlea composita<br />
9) Cladophoropsis gracillimum<br />
10) Cladophoropsis sundanensis<br />
11) Ederbesia attenuate<br />
12) Caulerpa raceniosa var. peltata<br />
13) Caulerpa racemosa var.<br />
turbinata<br />
14) Caulerpa serrulata<br />
15) Caulerpa urvilleana<br />
16) Bryopsis pennata<br />
17) Codium ovale<br />
18) Codium geppii<br />
19) Halimeda fragilis<br />
20) Halimeda micronesica<br />
27) Pocockiella papenfussii<br />
28) Pocockiella variegata<br />
29) Turbinaria ornata<br />
30) Turbinaria trialata<br />
31) Gelidium pusillum<br />
32) Pterocladia sp.<br />
33) Gelidiella rigidiuscula<br />
34) Gelidiopsis intricata<br />
35) Jacia capillacea<br />
36) Jania micrarthrodia<br />
37) Jania tenella<br />
38) Hypnea esperi<br />
39) Gracilaria sp.<br />
40) Lomentaria sp.<br />
41) Ceramium clarionensis<br />
42) Ceramium equisetoides<br />
43) Ceramium gracillimum var.<br />
byssoideum<br />
44) Ceramium vagabunde<br />
45) Ceramium sp.<br />
46) Grirfithsia sp.<br />
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21) Halimeda opuntia<br />
22) Ectocarpus indicus<br />
23) Sphacelaria furcigera<br />
24) Sphacelaria sp.<br />
25) Dictyota friabilis<br />
26) Dictyopteris repens<br />
47) Herposiphonia secunda<br />
48) Heterosiphonia wurdemannii<br />
49) Polysiphonia ferulacea<br />
50) Polysiphonia flaccidissima<br />
51) Polysiphonia mollis<br />
52) Laurencia nana<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that there were many types of aquatic plants around Abariringa<br />
(Canton). These included foraminifera, coralline algae, and others.<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and<br />
varieties including Polysiphonia sparsa comb. nov. This was based in part to a specimen that<br />
was found on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Seaweed was not found around Abariringa (Tunaari) (Government of Kiribati 1995). The<br />
survey team brought seedlings and a test farm was established at Tebaronga.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Hollenberg (1968b) described a new species of epiphytic algae, Herposiponia dendroidea, in<br />
part based on specimens from Nikumaroro (Gardner), Birnie, and Enderbury.<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and<br />
varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to a<br />
specimen that was found on Halimeda sp. from Birnie.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Hollenberg (1968b) described a new species of epiphytic algae, Herposiponia dendroidea, in<br />
part based on specimens from Nikumaroro (Gardner), Birnie, and Enderbury.<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and<br />
varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to a<br />
specimen that was found on Halimeda sp. from Enderbury.<br />
In 2000, both leeward and windward slopes of Enderbury were dominated by coral rubble<br />
(Stone et al 2001). Coralline algae and Halimeda covered the rubble and rock surfaces.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
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MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 2000, the leeward sites of Manra had 20 to 30 percent coral coverage, followed by a<br />
mixture of fleshy algae, rubble, and sand (Stone et al 2001). On the windward side, there<br />
were large expanses of partially living coral rubble with coralline and turf algae growing on<br />
rubble.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Hollenberg (1968a) reported the marine algae, Centrocera apiculatum, on other algae from<br />
McKean.<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and<br />
varieties including Polysiphonia poko var. poko var nov. This was based in part to specimens<br />
that were found on Halimeda sp. from McKean. Polysiphonia scopulorum var. scopulorum<br />
comb. nov. was also proposed. This was based in part to a specimen that was found on<br />
Halimeda sp. from McKean. Polysiphonia sparsa comb. nov. was also proposed. This was<br />
based in part to a specimen from McKean.<br />
In 2000, algae (turf and fleshy algae), rubble, and coralline algae were abundant around<br />
McKean (Stone et al 2001).<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Hollenberg (1968a) reported the marine algae, Centrocera apiculatum, on Halimeda from<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Hollenberg (1968b) described a new species of epiphytic algae, Herposiponia dendroidea, in<br />
part based on specimens from Nikumaroro (Gardner), Birnie, and Enderbury.<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphoni, species and varieties<br />
including Polysiphonia poko var. longii var nov. This was based in part to a specimen that<br />
was found with matted algae on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 1995, a survey team noted that seaweed might grow well on Nikumaroro (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995).<br />
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In 2000, the coralline algae, Halimeda, and rubble were second most dominant substrate type<br />
behind corals (Stone et al 2001). Coralline algae dominated in shallower waters. Halimeda<br />
and rubble dominated deeper unconsolidated slopes.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Two test seaweed farms were established one at a site opposite Moantewa and the other at the<br />
north end of this village (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In 2000, at algae corner on Orona, a filamentous whispy brown algae, Halimeda and other<br />
algae covering all surfaces (Stone et al 2001). This suggested high nutrient levels in that<br />
area. Small tufts of brown algae dominated the habitat at the entrance to the lagoon.<br />
South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
Tioti et al (2001) conducted algal surveys on Orona to assess ciguatera there. Halimeda sp.<br />
and filamentous algae were collected for subsequent analysis.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the first attempt at seaweed culture on Orona in 2000 failed<br />
because of overgrazing by turtles and insufficient seedstock (see also Timeon 2001). This<br />
was part of the Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme.<br />
The second attempt at seaweed culture had just begun with the arrival of new seed stock 8<br />
days prior to the arrival of the Phoenix Islands Expedition team (Neilson 2002). Six separate<br />
plots of seaweed had been distributed around Orona. Neilson (2002) presented 5 day results<br />
of seaweed growth trials on Orona. The trial sites were all inside of the lagoon.<br />
Obura (in press) noted that the western point of Orona was unique for the Phoenix Islands as<br />
it was dominated by turf and fleshy algae (both brown algae and Halimeda) with < 5 percent<br />
coral cover. The algae were present even before recent human settlement in 2001.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Hollenberg (1968c) proposed several new tetrasporic algae, Polysiphonia, species and<br />
varieties including Polysiphonia anomala. This was based in part to a specimen that was<br />
found on Halimeda sp. from Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 2000, coralline algae was the next dominant benthic cover (behind coral) in shallow water<br />
around Rawaki (Phoenix) (Stone et al 2001). Rubble was the dominant cover in deeper<br />
water.<br />
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South et al (2001) reported on marine algae collected from Abariringa (Kanton), Enderbury,<br />
Manra (Sydney), McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Hull), and Rawaki (Phoenix) in<br />
2000 by the New England Aquarium Expedition (see also Stone et al 2001). A total of 69<br />
taxa were identified (see Table III-4.1 above).<br />
B. CORALS & OTHER COELENTERATA<br />
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs<br />
(Darwin 1962). Various reefs were examined, including Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Nikumaroro (Gardner). Abariringa (Mary) could not be identified based on the<br />
information available at that time.<br />
During the 1973 environmental survey of Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon, 82 species of<br />
coral were identified (Oates 2003).<br />
Karlson and Cornell (1998) examined coral species richness of various regions in the world.<br />
For the Phoenix Islands, a regional richness rating of 78 was determined. This was relatively<br />
low in comparison with high diversity areas of the Indo-Pacific and the Indian Ocean<br />
(Southeast Asia), but higher than Hawaii, the Caribbean, and Central American.<br />
Lovell et al (2000) reported on the status of coral reefs in Kiribati including the Phoenix<br />
Islands. A summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow Reef were provided (see Table<br />
III-4.2 below).<br />
Table III-4.2. Descriptive information on the coral reefs of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Lovell et al 2000).<br />
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Phoenix Islands coral reefs had moderate coral coverage (20 to 40 percent) (Stone et al 2001).<br />
It was evident that wave energy broke coral on the north, south, and east sides of each island.<br />
Overall, coral reefs were in near pristine condition, with little to no evidence of<br />
anthropogenic influences. During the 2000 expedition reported by Stone et al (2001), 99<br />
species of corals were identified (see Table III-4.3 below).<br />
Table III-4.3. List of coral species identified in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Stone et al 2001).<br />
Acroporidae<br />
Pavona minuta<br />
Fungia fungites<br />
Acropora eacuminata Pavona varians<br />
Fungia repanda<br />
Acropora bushyensis Caryophilliidae<br />
Fungia scutaria Fungia sp.<br />
Acropora clathrata<br />
Plerogyra sinuosa<br />
Halomitra pileus<br />
Acropora cytherea<br />
Dendrophylliidae<br />
Herpolitha limax<br />
Acropora digitera<br />
Tubastrea coccinea Lithophyton edwardsi<br />
Acropora divaricata Tubastrea micrantha Podabacia motuporensis<br />
Acropora hemprichi Turbinaria mesenterina Sandalolitha robusta<br />
Acropora hyacinthus Turbinaria reniformis Merulinidae<br />
Acropora lovelli<br />
Faviidae<br />
Hydnophora microconos<br />
Acropora lutkeni<br />
Barabattoia amicorum Hydnophora rigida<br />
Acropora nasuta<br />
Cyphastrea chalcidicum Milleporidae<br />
Acropora robusta<br />
Echinopora gemmacea Millepora platyphylla<br />
Acropora sp.<br />
Echinopora hirsutissima Millepora tenella<br />
Acropora valida<br />
Favia favus<br />
Mussidae<br />
Astreopora myriophthalma Favia lizardensis<br />
Lobophyllia hemprichii<br />
Montipora aequituberculata Favia pallida<br />
Pectiniidae<br />
Montipora efflor/nodosa Favia rotumana<br />
Echinophyllia aspera<br />
Montipora foveolata Favia sp.1<br />
Echinophyllia taylorae<br />
Montipora hoffmeisteri Favia stelligera<br />
Oxypora lacera<br />
Montipora incrassata Favites abdita<br />
Pocilloporidae<br />
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Montipora monasteriata<br />
Montipora sp.1<br />
Montipora spumosa<br />
Montipora tuberculosa<br />
Montipora zsmooth<br />
Agariciidae<br />
Gardineroseris planulata<br />
Leptoseris hawaiiensis<br />
Leptoseris incrustans<br />
Pachyseris speciosa<br />
Pavona cactus<br />
Pavona clavus<br />
Pavona danai<br />
Pavona decussata<br />
Pavona explanulata<br />
Pavona maldivensis<br />
Favites halicora<br />
Favites pentagona<br />
Favites russeli<br />
Favites sp.1<br />
Goniastrea edwardsi<br />
Goniastrea retiformis<br />
Leptastrea purpurea<br />
Leptastrea transversa<br />
Leptoria phrygia<br />
Montastrea annuligera<br />
Montastrea curta<br />
Montastrea valenncienesi<br />
Platygyra daedalea<br />
Platygyra sinensis<br />
Plesiastrea versipora<br />
Fungiidae<br />
Fungia danai<br />
Pocillopora damicornis<br />
Pocillopora eydouxi<br />
Pocillopora meandrina<br />
Pocillopora verrucosa<br />
Poritidae<br />
Porites annae<br />
Porites compressa<br />
Porites lutea<br />
Porites rus<br />
Porites sp.1<br />
Porites sp.2<br />
Siderastreidae<br />
Coscinaraea columna<br />
Psammocora contigua<br />
Psammocora haimeana<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Visual assessment methods were<br />
used to define the overall reef structure and habitats. Video transects were completed.<br />
General findings were as follows. Benthic communities differ between leeward and<br />
windward sides, with higher coral cover on the leeward slopes. Lagoon communities were<br />
highly differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa<br />
the most developed. Minor coral bleaching primarily in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton)<br />
and Orona.<br />
According to Mangubhai (2002), an additional 15 to 20 species of coral were identified for<br />
the Phoenix Islands during the 2002 expedition. Reefs were free of coral bleaching, disease<br />
or predation from crown of thorns starfish.<br />
Salvat (2002) reported that the coral reefs of the Phoenix Islands were some of the most<br />
difficult to access, also making them virtually pristine. A short overview of results of the<br />
2000 and 2002 New England Aquarium expeditions was provided in Salvat (2002). Salvat<br />
(2002) reported that there was no monitoring of coral reefs in Kiribati (this included the<br />
Phoenix Islands).<br />
In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot over the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral<br />
Reef Foundation 2004). It was speculated that this caused the mass bleaching of corals most<br />
notably in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
No data analysis or summary was provided in this report. Raw field data were presented in<br />
the web site.<br />
Extensive and recent coral bleaching was reported for the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 2005).<br />
This was unusual as coral bleaching had not previously been reported from Kiribati.<br />
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In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 below.<br />
Table III-4.4. Estimated reef dimensions for islands in the Phoenix group.<br />
(source: Obura in press).<br />
Island Maximum Lagoon<br />
Island area<br />
length (km) (km 2 Reef Reef Ratio Outer<br />
Perimeter Width wind: Reef<br />
) @ 20 m (m) lee area<br />
(km)<br />
reefs (km 2 )<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) 17.46 56 51.02 166 3.4 10.38<br />
Orona 9.90 22 30.83 159 1.9 5.91<br />
Enderbury 4.59 16.34 201 1.7 3.78<br />
Nikumaroro 6.99 6 21.57 151 3.7 3.64<br />
Manra 4.20 15.20 161 2.3 2.97<br />
Birnie 1.03 8.12 280 3.5 2.64<br />
McKean 1.07 6.25 177 2.2 1.27<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) 1.12 3.07 219 3.9 0.74<br />
Table III-4.5. Reef area (km 2 ) by major zones for each of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Obura in press).<br />
Island Windward Leeward Lagoon Total %<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) 8.45 1.93 1.42 11.80 34.8<br />
Orona 4.29 1.62 1.12 7.03 20.7<br />
Enderbury 2.59 1.19 3.78 11.2<br />
Nikumaroro 2.59 1.04 0.06 3.69 10.9<br />
Manra 2.16 0.81 2.97 8.7<br />
Birnie 2.49 0.16 2.64 7.8<br />
McKean 0.84 0.43 1.27 3.7<br />
Rawaki 0.58 0.17 0.74 2.2<br />
Overall 23.98 7.35 2.60 33.93<br />
Table III-4.6. Area of outer reef slopes in the four main zones: surge zone, reef<br />
platform, reef edge and deep slope for islands of the Phoenix Islands.<br />
(source: Obura in press).<br />
Island Windward slopes (km 2 ) Leeward slopes (km 2 ) Total<br />
Total surge platform edge slope Total surge platform edge slope<br />
Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) 8.45 1.30 5.18 0.79 1.18 1.93 0.27 1.08 0.23 0.35 10.38<br />
Orona 4.29 0.66 2.63 0.40 0.60 1.62 0.22 0.87 0.21 0.32 5.91<br />
Enderbury 2.59 0.42 1.66 0.20 0.31 1.19 0.18 0.71 0.12 0.18 3.78<br />
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Nikumaroro 2.59 0.35 1.40 0.34 0.51 1.04 0.16 0.65 0.09 0.14 3.64<br />
Manra 2.16 0.32 1.30 0.21 0.32 0.81 0.12 0.47 0.09 0.14 2.97<br />
Birnie 2.49 0.43 1.74 0.13 0.19 0.16 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.05 2.64<br />
McKean 0.84 0.12 0.50 0.09 0.13 0.43 0.07 0.27 0.04 0.06 1.27<br />
Rawaki 0.58 0.09 0.36 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.03 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.74<br />
Total 23.98 3.69 14.77 2.21 3.31 7.35 1.05 4.20 0.84 1.26 31.33<br />
% 15.4 61.6 9.2 13.8 14.3 57.1 11.4 17.1<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported 82 species of coral in Abariringa’s (Canton)<br />
lagoon from 38 genera. Coral distribution in the leeward ocean reef and lagoon were<br />
controlled by physical conditions. Coral cover and number of coral species decreased with<br />
increased distance from the lagoon entrance.<br />
Jokiel and Maragos (1978) divided Abariringa (Canton) into various coral habitats including:<br />
leeward ocean reef zone, pass zone, altered zone, line reef zone in the lagoon, and back<br />
lagoon zone. Coral species list, precent coverage and frequency of occurance were provided<br />
for each zone surveyed. Overall, 29 percent of sites (7 sites) had live coral coverage of 0 to<br />
25 percent and 71 percent of sites had live coral coverage of 25 to 50 percent (see also Lovell<br />
et al 2000). Cluster analysis was completed to compare species similarities between sites<br />
and zones. Species number and percent coral coverage increased towards the lagoon passage.<br />
Based on coral survey results, Jokiel and Maragos (1978) estimated the coral coverage of<br />
Abariringa (Canton). Results are provided in Table III-4.7 below.<br />
Table III-4.7. Estimated coral coverage of Abariringa (Canton) Atoll.<br />
(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978).<br />
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Total area covered by dominate coral species were also estimated for each zone surveyed<br />
(Jokiel and Maragos 1978). Results are provided in Table III-4.8 below.<br />
Table III-4.8. Estimated area of dominate coral species for key zones on<br />
Abariringa (Canton).<br />
(source: Jokiel and Maragos 1978)<br />
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Henderson et al (1978) reported that the dredging of reef structures in Abariringa’s<br />
(Canton’s) lagoon has had a lasting impact on circulation and water quality of the inner<br />
lagoon. With the removal of line reef structures, the water current was altered from a strong<br />
current to a relatively sluggish tidal flow.<br />
Maragos and Jokiel (1978) noted that during the recent Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull)<br />
surveys, 82 species of coral including 5 ahermatypes and 77 hermatypes were identified.<br />
These included the following (see Table III-4.9 below);<br />
Table III-4.9. Species list of corals collected from Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(source: Maragos and Jokiel 1978).<br />
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*M after the species name indicates that the species was also collected at McKean by Dana (1975).<br />
+Hydrozoan corals<br />
Ahermatypes<br />
Bleakley (1995) reported that Abariringa (Kanton) had a maximum of 30 hermatypic coral<br />
genera.<br />
Luke (1998) reported on the Coelenterata benthic invertebrate collection of the Scripps<br />
Institute of Oceanography. One Antipatharia specimen was noted from Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
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In 2000, 73 species of coral were identified on Abariringa (Stone et al 2001). Threats to coral<br />
were minimal. Coral cover varied considerably around Abariringa depending on the site<br />
visited (Stone et al 2001). In some sites, coral cover was more than 50 percent.<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Lagoon communities were highly<br />
differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa the<br />
most developed (Obura and Stone 2003). Minor coral bleaching was observed primarily in<br />
the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot over the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral<br />
Reef Foundation 2004). It was speculated that this caused the mass bleaching of corals most<br />
notably in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 2005, less than 5 percent of the coral reef on Abariringa (Kanton) was bleached (Planetary<br />
Coral Reef Foundation 2004).<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2006) reported that the bleaching event took place in<br />
November and December 2004. Bleaching in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was 100 percent.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
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Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, coral cover was low at 20 to 25 percent (Stone et al 2001). Forty seven species of<br />
coral were observed on Enderbury. Little stress to corals was observed.<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs<br />
(Darwin 1962). Various reefs were examined, including Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, forty three species of coral were identified in Manra (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
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MCKEAN<br />
Dana (1975) collected coral species on McKean (see also Maragos and Jokiel 1978).<br />
Maragos and Jokiel (1978) noted that there was lower diversity of coral on McKean. This<br />
was probably due to the geographic isolation and limitations in amount and diversity of<br />
habitat. Sampling effort by Dana (1975) was about half that for Abariringa (Canton) (see<br />
Maragos and Jokiel 1978). This may have also contributed to the low numbers of coral<br />
species found on McKean.<br />
Dana (1979) examined the species number relationship in McKean reef building coral. A<br />
comparison was made of complex depth gradient and wave exposure gradients. A total of 49<br />
species in 21 genera of hermatypic scleractinian and 2 species of hermatypic hydrozoans<br />
were identified. The greatest numbers of species were on shallow terraces. Species numbers<br />
were reduced as the reef slope increased at about 18 m depth. Heterogeneity of coral<br />
assemblages was observed along both depth and exposure gradients. Wave and surge action<br />
was suggested as the principal organizing factor.<br />
Dana (1975) observed the following coral species on McKean outside of gradient survey<br />
areas.<br />
1) Pocillopora eydouxi 8) Leptoseris mycetoseroides<br />
2) Acropra cymbicyathus 9) Fungia (Pleuractis) scutaria Lamarck<br />
3) A. hyacinthus<br />
10) F. (Verrillofungia) concinna<br />
4) A. sp. cf. A. abrotanoides 11) Favites abdita<br />
5) Pavona minuta<br />
12) Lobophyllia costata<br />
6) P. clavus<br />
13) Turbinaria irregularis<br />
7) P. (Polyastra) sp.<br />
14) Millepora murrayi<br />
Dana (1979) reported the following species of coral for McKean as part of the gradient study.<br />
1) Pocillopora setchelli<br />
2) P. verrucosa<br />
3) P. elegans<br />
4) P. damicornis<br />
5) Acropora variablis<br />
6) A. humilis<br />
7) Montipora verrilli<br />
8) M. sp. cf.<br />
9) M. aequi-tuberculata<br />
10) M. granulata<br />
11) M. informis<br />
12) M. socialis<br />
13) M. venosa<br />
14) Pavona varians<br />
15) P. clivosa<br />
16) Psammocora nierstraszi<br />
17) Halomitra phillippinensis<br />
18) Parahalomi trarobusta<br />
19) Porites lobata<br />
20) P. solida<br />
21) P. lutea<br />
22) P. australiensis<br />
23) P. fragosa<br />
24) P. superfusa<br />
25) P. lichen<br />
26) P. (Synaraea) hawaiiensis<br />
27) Favia stelligera<br />
28) F. pallida<br />
29) Favites pentagona<br />
30) Plesiastrea versipora<br />
31) Platygyra daedalea<br />
32) Hydnophora rigida<br />
33) H . microconos<br />
34) Leptastrea purpurea<br />
35) L. transversa<br />
36) Cyphastrea microphthalrna<br />
37) Echinopra lamellosa<br />
38) Millepraplaty phylla<br />
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Luke (1998) reported on the Coelenterata benthic invertebrate collection of the Scripps<br />
Institute of Oceanography. Most specimens were from McKean and included the following<br />
species:<br />
1) Millepora murrayi<br />
2) Hydnophora microconos<br />
3) Hydnophora rigida<br />
4) Pocillopora damicornis<br />
5) Pocillopora elegans<br />
6) Pocillopora eydouxi<br />
7) Pocillopora setchelli<br />
8) Pocillopora verrucosa<br />
9) Seriatopora cf. angulata<br />
10) Acropora sp.<br />
11) Acropora abrotanoides<br />
12) Acropora cymbicyanthus<br />
13) Acropora humilis<br />
14) Acropora variabilus<br />
15) Montipora aequi-tuberculata<br />
16) Montipora venosa<br />
17) Montipora verrilli<br />
18) Porites cf australiensis<br />
19) Porites fragosa<br />
20) Porites hawaiiensis<br />
21) Porites lichen<br />
22) Porites lobata<br />
23) Porites lutea<br />
24) Porites solida<br />
25) Porites superfusa<br />
26) Psammocora nierstraszi<br />
27) Leptoseris mycetoseroides<br />
28) Pavona cf. clivosa<br />
29) Pavona clavus<br />
30) Fungia scutaria<br />
31) Parahalomitra robusta<br />
32) Echinophyllia aspera<br />
33) Lobophyllia costata<br />
34) Cyphastrea microphthalma<br />
35) Favites pentagona<br />
36) Leptastrea purpurea<br />
37) Platygyra daedalea<br />
38) Turbinaria irregularis<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, only 1 site was surveyed for coral species (Stone et al 2001). Nineteen species of<br />
coral were identified at this site. Only one partially beached Fungia was recorded indicating<br />
minimal coral stress.<br />
In 2000, coral cover averaged 20 percent around McKean (Stone et al 2001). Carpeting soft<br />
corals (Sinularia and Lobophytum) covered 10 percent of the bottom.<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported that McKean had surprisingly low levels of live coral. It<br />
appeared to have had a significant coral die off more than 2 years ago. This could have been<br />
related to a 2001 wreck of a fish trawler, or the coral bleaching event in 2002.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that McKean had especially low coral levels on the lee side outer<br />
reef slope site (less than 10 percent).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
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on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs<br />
(Darwin 1962). Various reefs were examined, including Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, the leeward site of Nikumaroro had 25 to 40 percent coral cover (Stone et al 2001).<br />
The leeward sites surveyed in 2000 (Stone et al 2001) had 25 to 40 percent coral cover, and<br />
in some places coral cover exceeded 75 percent. Coral cover on the windward site platform<br />
was 70 percent with coral cover decreasing to 30 percent on the reef slope. Sixty one species<br />
of coral were observed on Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). Threats to corals including<br />
bleaching and starfish predation were noted.<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Lagoon communities were highly<br />
differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa the<br />
most developed (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Stone (2004) reported 92 species of coral on Nikumaroro with coral coverage as high as 75<br />
percent. Coral was the dominant substrate, followed by Halimeda and coralline algae.<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) conducted dive surveys on Manra<br />
(Sydney), Rawaki (Enderbury), Abaririgna (Kanton), McKean, and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
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Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, 49 species of coral were identified at Orona (Stone et al 2001). Threats to coral<br />
included algae overgrowth of coral colonies.<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean. Lagoon communities were highly<br />
differentiated between Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, and Nikumaroro, with Abariringa the<br />
most developed (Obura and Stone 2003). Minor coral bleaching was observed primarily in<br />
the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
The algae corner on Orona, reported in 2000 (Stone et al 2001) was again surveyed in 2002<br />
(Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot over the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral<br />
Reef Foundation 2004). It was speculated that this caused the mass bleaching of corals most<br />
notably in the lagoons of Abariringa (Kanton) and Orona.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his work on the structure and distribution of coral reefs<br />
(Darwin 1962). Various reefs were examined, including Manra (Sydney), Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
and Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
In 2000, coral cover exceeded 60 percent in some areas of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Stone et al<br />
2001). Branching corals were not dominant. Thirty eight species of coral were identified in<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix). Few threats to coral were observed.<br />
In 2000, if sandy benthic areas were omitted, Rawaki (Phoenix) had the highest coral cover<br />
compared with other Phoenix Islands (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, coral reef surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
All of the Phoenix Islands were surveyed except McKean.<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra,<br />
Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed<br />
on the lee sides of these islands. Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported no evidence of the recent<br />
coral bleaching events and they did not observe any significant coral diseases.<br />
Obura (in press) examined the coral reef structure and zonation of each of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. For detailed descriptions of coral reefs of each Phoenix Islands, see Tables III-4.4 to<br />
III-4.6 above.<br />
CARONDELET REEF<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
WINSLOW REEF<br />
Lovell et al (2000) provided a summary of reef types in Abriringa (Kanton), Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki, Carondelet Reef, and Winslow<br />
Reef were provided (see Table III-4.2 above).<br />
C. SPONGES<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
A sponge similar to that found on Abariringa (Canton) was observed on Orona (Hull)<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
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In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
MANRA<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
NIKUMARORO<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
A sponge similar to that found on Abariringa (Canton) was observed on Orona (Hull)<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
RAWAKI<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Sponges were scarce.<br />
D. ECHINODERMS<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, stout-spined sea urchins were so numerous<br />
that it was difficult to walk amongst them during low tide. Ellis (1937) noted that the red<br />
spined sea urchin was also seen in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes). Four crown-of-thorns were observed during the 2002 surveys, three from<br />
Nikumaroro (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
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A new species of brittle star, Ophiocoma anaglyptica, was described from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (Ely 1944). It was collected in 1941 from the near shore beneath loose coral blocks.<br />
McIntire (1960) noted the presence of Linckia multifora and L. diplax on Abariringa’s<br />
(Canton) reef (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955).<br />
Sea urchins were everywhere on the reef (McIntire 1960).<br />
In 2000, no sea cucumbers were observed on Abariringa (Stone et al 2001). In addition, one<br />
crown of thorns star fish, Acanthaster planci, was observed.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
In 2004, one crown of thorns starfish was observed on the fringing reef of Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (Planetary Coral Reef Foundation 2004).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 2000, three species of sea cucumbers were observed at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001). The<br />
seastar, Linkia spp. was also observed there.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
MANRA<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
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No sea crown of thorns starfish were observed during the 2000 survey of McKean (Stone et<br />
al 2001).<br />
Two sea cucumbers, Holthuria leucospilota, were observed in the 2000 survey of McKean<br />
(Stone et al 2001).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
No sea cucumbers or crown of thorns starfish were observed during the 2000 survey of<br />
Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
Four crown-of-thorns were observed during the 2002 surveys, three from Nikumaroro (Obura<br />
and Stone 2003).<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported observing one crown of thorns starfish on Nikumaroro at<br />
“Amelia’s lost causeway”.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 2000, no sea cucumbers were observed during dive surveys on Orona (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In addition, no crown of thorns starfish were observed.<br />
In 2001, few beche-de-mer were present during dive surveys (Tioti et al 2001). The only<br />
species observed was the lolly fish, Holothuria atra, and surf redfish, Actinopyga mauritiana.<br />
Dive tows and searches to more than 100 ft were not successful in finding additional bechede-mer<br />
resources.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) report high densities of sea cucumbers, Holothuria atra and H.<br />
edulis in Orona’s lagoon.<br />
RAWAKI<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Echinoderms were low in species richness<br />
(for all classes).<br />
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E. ANNELIDS<br />
ABARIRNGA (CANTON)<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that the polychaete, Eurythoe pacifica, was found in the lagoon at<br />
Abariringa Canton) (see also Degener and Gillaspy 1955).<br />
F. MOLLUSCS<br />
Foin (1976) identified 31 cypraeid (cowrie) biogeographic provinces around the world. For<br />
region 27, the western limit was Samoa and the Phoenix Islands. Foin (1976) compared these<br />
biogeographic regions to plate tectonics and concluded that the effects of plate tectonics<br />
appeared to be a major influence on the biogeography of the Cyrpaeidae.<br />
Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) noted that Tridacna maxima had been reported<br />
from the Phoenix Islands. However, they did not specify which of the Phoenix Islands it had<br />
been reported from.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Mollusks were strongly represented by<br />
bivalves and gastropods. No cepalopods were observed in 2002, but they were observed on<br />
night dives in 2000 (Stone et al 2001).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Bunker (1951) reported that much of the beach was littered with Tridacna sp. shells.<br />
Byran (1955) published a list of shells that were collected on Abariringa (Canton) in 1951 by<br />
Otto Degener.<br />
McIntire (1960) reported that three species of shipworms, Teredo samoaensis, T. gregoryi,<br />
and T. bensoni, had been recorded for Abariringa (Canton) (see also Degener and Gillaspy<br />
1955).<br />
During the Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon survey in 1973, 90 species of molluscs were<br />
recorded (Oates 2003).<br />
Bryan (1974) presented a table listing the bivalves found on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury. This was modified and presented below (see Table III-4.10 below).<br />
Table III-4.10. List of Bivalvia found on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury<br />
(source: Bryan 1974).<br />
Scientific name Common name Family Island<br />
BIVALVIA<br />
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Arca sp.* 1 Ark shell Arcidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Pedalion perna* 1 Purse shell Isogononidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Pinctada<br />
Pearl oyster Pteriidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
margaritifera* 1<br />
Modiolus auriculatus Mussel Mytilidae Abariringa (Canton)?<br />
Periglypta reticulate* 1 Venus shell Veneridae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Asaphis deflorata* 1 GASTROPODA*<br />
Rayed cockle Asaphidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
2<br />
Trochus intextus Top shell Trochidae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Turbo argyrostomus Turban shell Turbinidae Enderbury<br />
Turbo intercostalis* 1 Turban shell Turbinidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Astralium confragosum Turban shell Turbinidae Enderbury<br />
Nerita plicata* 1 Sea snail Neritidae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Littorina coccinea* 1 Periwinkle Littorinidae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Planaxis sucatus* 1 Grooved shell Plaxidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cerithium breve* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cerithium echinatum* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cerithium tuberosa* 1 Horn shell Cerithiidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cypraea moneta* 1 Money cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cypraea depressa Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury<br />
Cypraea poraria Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury<br />
Cypraea<br />
caputserpentis* 1<br />
Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Cypraea Isabella Cowry Cypraeidae Enderbury<br />
Cypraea intermedia* 1 Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Epona mariae* 1 Cowry Cypraeidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Cymatium<br />
Triton shell Cymatiidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
nicobaricum* 1<br />
Maculotriton pusillus* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Drupa ricinus* 3 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Drupa morum Dye shell Thaididae Enderbury<br />
Morula granulata* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Morula uva Dye shell Thaididae Enderbury<br />
Morula nodus* 1 Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Purprua<br />
Dye shell Thaididae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
hippocastaneum* 1<br />
Quoyula madreporarum Coralliophilidae Enderbury<br />
Engina lineata* 1 Whelk Buccinulidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Engina mendicaria* 1 Whelk Buccinulidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Latirus prismaticus* 1 Spindle shell Fasciolariidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Mitra litterata Miter shell Mitridae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Vasum ceramicum* 1 Vase shell Vasidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Vasum armatuom Vase shell Vasidae Enderbury<br />
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Conus sponsalis* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Conus erbaeus* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury<br />
Conus lividus* 1 Cone shell Conidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
Conus catus Cone shell Conidae Enderbury<br />
PULMONATES<br />
Melamphus sp. * 1 Ear snail Elobiidae Abariringa (Canton)<br />
*notes:<br />
1. Also identified in Bryan (1955).<br />
2. Bryan (1955) also listed Mitra kitterara and Mitra cucumerina, Mitridae, the miter shell as a<br />
gastropod found on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
3. Byran (1974) listed Drupa ricinus.<br />
In the 1970’s, Dr. Reed Fautin visited Abariringa (Canton) as part of a U.S. Army medical<br />
team to control a gastro-intestinal disease outbreak there (Dunn and Dunn 2005). While<br />
there, he made a cowry collection. The following 16 cowry species were identified: Cypraea<br />
isabella, C. teres, C. irrorata, C. fimbriata, C. poraria, C. helvola, C. caputserpentis, C.<br />
carneola, C. depressa, C. scurra, C. tigris, C. mauritiana, C. nucleus, C. bistrinotata, C.<br />
globulus, and C. moneta.<br />
Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported that 90 species of micro-mollusks were<br />
recorded from Abariringa (Canton). These were collected from the reef slope, outer lagoon,<br />
and inner lagoon (see also Kay 1978).<br />
Kay (1978) analyzed sediment samples three habitats of Abariringa (Canton) for micromollusks<br />
(including primarily bivalves and gastropods). Habitats included: seaward outer<br />
reef, clear water lagoon, and inner turbid lagoon. The first two habitats had low standing<br />
stocks of micro-mollusks, but high species diversity primarily of micro-herbivores. The inner<br />
lagoon had high standing stocks, but low species diversity of suspension feeders. Micromollusks<br />
were less than 10 mm in greatst diameter. Ninety species of mollusks were<br />
recorded from samples. However, no complete species list was provided in Kay (1978).<br />
Standing crops averaged 9.9 shells per cm 3 .<br />
Kay (1978) summarized micro-mollusks by trophic structure (see Table III-4.11 below).<br />
Table III-4.11. Trophic structure of micro-mollusks in sediment samples from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) in percent present for each habitat.<br />
(source: Kay 1978)<br />
*see Kay (1978) for species included within each trophic structure.<br />
+ signifies less than 1% of assemblages.<br />
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Yeeting (1988) reported the presence of giant clam, Tridacna maxima, on the southern side of<br />
Abariringa (Canton). Yeeting (1988) recommended that a survey be conducted to determine<br />
the presence of T. gigas.<br />
Sims et al (1990) noted that Abariringa (Canton) may have potential for pearl oyster culture.<br />
Fisheries Department should conduct a stock assessment for pearl oysters.<br />
Visual censuses of reef fish were conducted in the lagoon between Tirieta and Uamari<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995). Clams were found between Bikentabwakea and Umari at a<br />
density of 15 to 20 clams per m 2 . Pearl oysters were not found. They had been heavily<br />
exploited by local divers. The oyster, te bwere, occurred in abundance.<br />
In 2000, Tridacna sp. was observed at three of the four sites surveyed on Abariringa (Stone et<br />
al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Bryan (1974) presented a table listing the bivalves found on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury. This was modified and presented below (see Table III-4.10 above).<br />
In 1995, clams were found at a density of 5 to 7 clams per m 2 (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Sea cucumbers were at 1 to 2 per m 2 .<br />
In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed in moderate numbers at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Fish and mollusks were abundant in the lagoon until it became too salty (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
In 1995, pearl oyster surveys were planned, but cancelled due to the aggressive sharks<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
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Dunn and Dunn (2005) reported that Nielsen published an account of cowries for McKean in<br />
1969. However, no citiation was provided. According to Dunn and Dunn (2005) Nielsen<br />
reported 14 cowry species for McKean including: Cypraea isabella, C. poraria, C. helvola,<br />
C. caputserpentis, C. carneola, C. depressa, C. scurra, C. mauritiana, C. nucleus, C. globules<br />
C. moneta, C. talpa, C. schilderorum, and C. vitellus. Eleven of these species were the same<br />
as found on Abariringa (Canton).<br />
In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed during surveys on McKean (Stone et al 2001).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Nine giant clams were observed during the 2000 survey of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 1995, clams were observed near the village of Niku facing Maroro (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995). Clam density was 2 to 3 clams/m 2 .<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1995, clams were surveyed at Moantewa lagoon (Government of Kiribati 1995). Density<br />
was 20 to 25 clams per m 2 . Even at the shoreline, clam density was 5 to 7 clams/m 2 .<br />
Surveys for pearl oysters were completed (Government of Kiribati 1995). Only one young<br />
black lip pearl oyster was found.<br />
In 2000, Tridacna sp were observed at Orona (Stone et al 2001). Within the lagoon,<br />
Tridacna was abundant.<br />
In 2001, no Tridacna gigas were found on the reef (Tioti et al 2001). Tioti et al (2001)<br />
reported that there were high concentrations of Tridacna maxima in Orona’s lagoon.<br />
Tioti et al (2001) reported that no pearl oysters were found during dive surveys on Orona in<br />
2001.<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) report high densities of Tridacna spp, in Orona’s lagoon, as high as<br />
10-15 clams/m 2 . They noted that giant clams were being harvested by the residents of Orona.<br />
Stocks were healthy, but could be depleted with over harvest.<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported high densities of Actinopyga sp. on the windward side of<br />
Orona.<br />
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Obura (in press) reported dense patches of Tridacna (dominated by T. squamosa) clams in<br />
Orona’s lagoon. Clam densities in patches were over 50 clams per m 2 .<br />
RAWAKI<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
G. ARTHROPODS<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
As part of the 1938 Line Islands Expedition, Donaggho (1952 and 1953) visited Abariringa<br />
(Canton) and reported large stone crabs which had dug large holes in the sand in a pool<br />
adjacent to the lagoon.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported the following arthropods from Abariringa (Canton):<br />
1) Limnoriidae isopod - Limnoria multipunctata<br />
2) Palemonidae shrimp - Anchistus miersi<br />
3) Stenopodidae shrimp - Gonodactylus sp.<br />
4) Pontoniidae shrimp - Conchodytes meleagrinae<br />
5) Coenobitidae land hermit crab - Coenobita perlatus<br />
6) Paguidae hermit crab - Calcinus elegans, Calcinus elegans var., Calcinus<br />
herbstii, Clibinarius corallinus<br />
7) Porcellanidae crab – Pachycheles pisoides<br />
8) Inachidae – Micippa patypes<br />
9) Portunidae crab – Thalmita picta<br />
10) Xanthidae – Actaea sp., Carpilodes bellus, Chlorodopsis scabricula,<br />
Chlorodposis areojata, Eriphia scabricula, Eriphia laevimana, Leptodius<br />
sanguinesus, Phymodius ungulatus, Polydectus cupulifer<br />
11) Grapsidae – Geograpsus grayi, Metopograpsus messor, Pachygrapsus<br />
minutus, Percnon planissimum<br />
12) Ocypodidae – Ocypode ceratopthalma<br />
13) Lepadidae - Lepas anatifera<br />
14) Scalpellidae – Lithotrya pacifica<br />
Banner and Banner (1964) reported the following species of Alpheid shrimps from<br />
Abariringa (Canton) based on a 1954 collection of that island. Species noted included:<br />
1) Automate gardineri<br />
19) Alpheus macrochirus<br />
2) Athanas indicus<br />
20) Alpheus obesomanus<br />
3) Athanas rhothionastes 21) Alpheus malleodigitus<br />
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4) Athanas djiboutensis<br />
5) Athanas dorsalis<br />
6) Salmoneus sibogae<br />
7) Alpheopsis equalis<br />
8) Alpheopsis diabolus<br />
9) Synalpheus paraneomeris<br />
10) Synalpheus charon<br />
11) Synalpheus streptodactylus<br />
12) Synalpheus tumidomanus<br />
13) Synalpheus coutierei<br />
14) Synalpheus heroni<br />
15) Alpheus collumianus inermis<br />
16) Alpheus lottini<br />
17) Alpheus gracilis<br />
18) Alpheus clippertoni<br />
22) Alpheus ovaliceps<br />
23) Alpheus bucephalus<br />
24) Alpheus bradypus,<br />
25) Alpheus brevipes<br />
26) Alpheus ehlersii<br />
27) Alpheus diadema<br />
28) Alpheus paracrinitus<br />
29) Alpheus gracilipes,<br />
30) Alpheus leviusculus<br />
31) Alpheus crassimanus<br />
32) Alpheus pacificus<br />
33) Alpheus strenuus<br />
34) Alpheus funafutensis<br />
35) Alpheus parvirostris<br />
36) Thunor microscaphis<br />
Ng (1998) described a new species of deepwater porter crab, Lamoha histrix (Homolidae)<br />
from Abariringa (Kanton, Canton). The specimen was caught in a trap baited with mullet set<br />
for 24 hours in 305 to 366 m of water.<br />
During 2000 surveys, only 1 lobster was observed (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
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In 2000, no lobsters were observed during surveys of McKean (Stone et al 2001).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
No lobsters were observed during the 2000 survey of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 2000, no lobsters were observed during dive surveys at Orona (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 2002, surveys of selected invertebrate diversity and abundance were conducted in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). Abariringa, Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. Small shrimp and crabs were numerous.<br />
H. FISHES<br />
Fowler (1940) reported on the fishes obtained by the Wilkes Expedition, 1838 to 1842 that<br />
visited the Phoenix Islands. Fishes collected included: Oxyporhamphus argenteus,<br />
Exocoetidae, from the stomach of a gannet, Sula sp. in the Phoenix Islands; Chaetodon<br />
auriga, Chaetodontidae, from Orona (Hull); Teuthis achilles, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull),<br />
Teuthis triostegus, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull); Anampses caeruleo-punctatus, Labridae,<br />
from Orona (Hull).<br />
Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the<br />
Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton),<br />
McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull). According to Grovhoug and Henderson (1978),<br />
Schultz (1943) identified 208 species of fish from 45 families for the Phoenix Islands.<br />
However, the Schultz (1943) study did not provide quantitative distributional data on fish<br />
species (Grovhoug and Henderson 1978).<br />
Schultz and Woods (1948) reported that for the subspecies of surgeonfish (Acanthuridae),<br />
Acanthurus triostegus triostegus, one-third of the specimens from the Phoenix Islands had an<br />
extra spot, or bar, or an elongated spot. About one-third also had one more pectoral fin ray<br />
than the average A. triostegus specimen from elsewhere.<br />
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Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net,<br />
and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative,<br />
information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative.<br />
Briggs (1964) noted that the cirrhitid, Chirrhitichthys corallicola TeeVan, needed to be<br />
synonymized with C. oxycephalus (Bleeker) that ranged from the eastern Pacific to the Red<br />
Sea, including the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Stone et al (2001) reported on the 2000 New England Aquarium expedition to the Phoenix<br />
Islands. Thirty seven additional species of fish were identified in the Phoenix Islands (see<br />
Table III-4.12 below).<br />
Table III-4.12. New Fish Species for the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Stone et al 2001)<br />
Family Genus/Species Common Name<br />
Moringuidae (Spaghetti Eels) Moringua ferruginea Rusty spaghetti eel<br />
Muraenidae (Moray Eels) Gymnothorax chilospilus<br />
Gymnothorax buroensis<br />
Uropterygius supraforatus<br />
Congridae (Conger and Garden<br />
Eels)<br />
Cyclothonidae Cyclothone pallida<br />
Cyclothone alba<br />
(none)<br />
Buro moray<br />
(none)<br />
Conger cinereus cinereus Moustache conger<br />
(none)<br />
(none)<br />
Ophidiidae (Cusk Eels) Brotula multibarbata Reef cusk eel<br />
Bythitidae (Livebearing<br />
Brotulids)<br />
Dinematichthys iluocoeteoides Yellow pygmy brotula<br />
Antennariidae (Frogfishes) Antennarius nummifer Spotfin frogfish<br />
Exocoetidae (Flying fishes Cheilopogon suttoni Sutton’s flyingfish<br />
Scorpaenidae (Scorpionfishes) Scorpaenodes guamensis Guam scorpionfish<br />
Scorpaenodes hirsutus Hairy scorpionfish<br />
Taenianotus triacanthus Leaf fish<br />
Pterois antennata<br />
Spotfin lionfish<br />
Serranidae (Fairy Basslets and<br />
Groupers)<br />
Suttonia lineata (none)<br />
Grammistidae Pseudogramma polyacanthum (none)<br />
Pseudochromidae (Dottybacks) Pseudoplesiops revellei Revelle’s basslet<br />
Cirrhitidae (Hawkfishes) Cirrhitops hubbardi<br />
(none)<br />
Paracirrhites nisus<br />
(none)<br />
Paracirrhites xanthus (none)<br />
Apogonidae (Cardinalfishes) Gymnapogon urospilotus Lachner’s cardinalfish<br />
Pomacanthidae (Angelfishes) Centropyge flavicauda White-tail angelfish<br />
Centropyge flavissima Lemonpeel angelfish<br />
Pomacentridae (Damselfishes) Chrysiptera leucopoma Surge damselfish<br />
Plectroglyphidodon<br />
johnstonianus<br />
Johnston damselfish<br />
Tripterygiidae (Tripletails) Enneapterygius tatuilae (none)<br />
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Enneapterygius nigricauda (none)<br />
Gobiidae (Gobies) Amblygobius phalaena<br />
Callogobius plumatus<br />
Callogobius sclateri<br />
Paragobiodon modestus<br />
Acanthuridae (Surgeon and<br />
Unicornfishes<br />
Priolepis nocturna<br />
Acanthurus nigricans<br />
Acanthurus nigrofuscus<br />
Zebrasoma scopas<br />
Zebrasoma veliferum<br />
34<br />
Brown-barred goby<br />
Feather goby<br />
Pacific flap-headed goby<br />
Warthead goby<br />
(none)<br />
White cheek surgeonfish<br />
Brown surgeonfish<br />
Brown tang<br />
Sailfin tang<br />
Holloway (2002) noted that region’s first six-gill and sleeper sharks were recorded at 914 m<br />
(3,000 ft) depth in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia. It was noted that Kuhlia<br />
petiti was only known from the Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands. Specimens<br />
examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury.<br />
Bernardi et al (2002) examined color patterns of the damsel fish, Dascyllus auripinnis, from<br />
the Phoenix Islands. Relationships with other species of Dascyllus were examined based on<br />
mitochondrial DNA results.<br />
Bernardi et al (2003) noted that the three-spot damselfish from the Phoenix Islands, Dascyllus<br />
auripinnis, did not group in monophyletic clade, but rather intermixed with D. trimaculatus.<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed. During these surveys,<br />
an additional 217 new species were identified for the Phoenix Islands. That brings the total<br />
number of fish species recorded for the Phoenix Islands to 518 comprising 192 species<br />
identified in Schultz (1943), 100 species reported in the 2000 expedition (Stone et al 2001), 9<br />
species recorded from various generic revisions, and 217 in the 2002 survey.<br />
As part of the 2002 fish dive surveys, fish abundance was estimated (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Fish densities averaged 0.522 fish per m 2 . No apparent pattern was seen regarding fish<br />
abundance according to site exposure or island. Overall, fish populations were healthy and<br />
representative of coral reef communities.<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported that tissue samples were taken of key species.<br />
Indicator species had similar abundance in 2002 (Obura and Stone 2003) as in 2000 (Stone et<br />
al 2001). The exceptions were dogtooth tuna and sharks, both of which declined significantly<br />
in abundance. Dogtooth went from being present in 75% of large fish sampled (in 2000, see<br />
Stone et al 2001) to zero in 2002 (Obura and Stone 2003). Reef shark density was similar<br />
between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Birnie. On Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona, shark density had dropped significantly and were<br />
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In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed on the lee sides of<br />
these islands. A comparison of fish abundance based on a 30 minute swim of indicator<br />
species aggregated is provided in Figure III-4.1 below. A comparison of abundance of all<br />
shark species combined and Napoleon wrasse are provided in Figures III-4.2 and III-4.3<br />
below.<br />
Figure III-4.1. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands indicator fish abundance<br />
(all species, + SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006).<br />
Table III-4.2. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands abundance of all shark<br />
species combined (+ SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006).<br />
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Table III-4.3. Comparison of Tokelau and Phoenix Islands abundance of Napoleon<br />
wrasse (+ SE), 30 minute swim (source: Kerr and Wragg 2006).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported conducting marine fish surveys opportunistically during their<br />
terrestrial surveys. Results were similar to the New England 2000 and 2002 expeditions (see<br />
Stone et al 2001, and Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
The Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was infested with shark, moray eel, and ray (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940).<br />
In 1939, Schultz (1949) observed a very large brown eel, Enchelynassa canina, 2.1 m (7 ft) in<br />
length in Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the<br />
Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton),<br />
McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull).<br />
Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net,<br />
and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative,<br />
information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative.<br />
During the 1973 Abariringa (Canton) atoll lagoon survey, 264 species of fish were identified<br />
(Oates 2003).<br />
Smith and Henderson (1976 and 1978) reported 264 species of fish from 50 families on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). The number of fish and number of fish species in the lagoon decreased<br />
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with increased distance from the lagoon opening. The richest fish populations were on the<br />
reef slope outside the lagoon.<br />
In 1977, a female whale shark, Rhincodon typus, entered the lagoon on Abariringa (Nolan<br />
and Taylor 1978). It was about 8.1 m (26.5 ft) long (half grown). The shark was tagged.<br />
Attempts to chase it out of the lagoon were unsuccessful. It stayed in the lagoon at least 14<br />
months.<br />
Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) reported on the 1973 inshore fish surveys of Abariringa<br />
(Canton). In deeper waters, SCUBA divers completed fish counts using a weighted 30 m<br />
transect line. In shallow water, snorklers swam a pre-determined distance to survey fish. The<br />
cumulative fish species checklist was increased to 264 species from 50 families (including<br />
the 146 fish species observed during these surveys, see Table III-4.13). Fish abundance (for<br />
quantity of fish and fish species) was highest immediately outside and in the lagoon passage.<br />
Within the lagoon, fish abundance decreased with increased distance from the lagoon<br />
passage.<br />
Table III-4.13. List of fish species observed during the 1973 surveys.<br />
(source: Grovhoug and Henderson 1978)<br />
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Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) also compared the number of fish species present with the<br />
distance from Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon passage. Results are provided in Figure III-4.4<br />
below.<br />
Figure III-4.4. Number of fish species compared with distance from<br />
Abariringa’s (Canton’s) lagoon entrance.<br />
(source: Grovhoug and Henderson 1978)<br />
Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) also provided distributional information on key fish species<br />
including:<br />
1) Threadfin butterflyfish, Chaetodon auriga,<br />
2) Damselfish, Pomacentrus nigricans,<br />
3) Surgeonfish, Acanthurus xanthopterus,<br />
4) Honeycomb grouper, Epinephelus merra,<br />
5) Parrotfish, Scarus sordidus,<br />
6) Fivelined cardinalfish, Cheilodipterus quinquetineata,<br />
7) Bicolor chromis, Chromis margaritifer,<br />
8) Lemonpeel angelfish, Centropyge falvissimus,<br />
9) Surgeon fish, Zebrasoma scopas,<br />
10) Black grouper, Cephalopholus argus,<br />
11) Beaked wrasse, Gomphosus varius,<br />
12) White-tailed damselfish, Dascyllus aruanus,<br />
13) Rainbow wrasse, Thalassoma amblycephalus,<br />
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14) Blue damselfish, Pomacentrus coelesris,<br />
15) Racoon butterflyfish, Chaetodon lunuta,<br />
16) Triggerfish, Rhinecanthus aculeatus,<br />
17) Big-eye sea bream, Monotaxis grandoculis,<br />
18) Balck-tailed snapper, Lutjanus fulvus,<br />
19) Soft puffer, Arothron hispidus,<br />
20) Convict tang, Acanthurus triostegus.<br />
Finally, Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) provided detailed survey results (species lists,<br />
number of fish observed, average fish size, habitat, and other parameters) for transects<br />
completed.<br />
In 2000, manta rays were observed in lagoon channel mouth (Stone et al 2001).<br />
Randall and Randall (2001b) described a new damselfish (Pomacentridae), Dascyllus<br />
auripinnis, based on specimens from 18 specimens from the Line Islands, 1 specimen from<br />
the Abariringa (Canton) in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia including specimens from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury. Kuhlia petiti was only known from the<br />
Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands.<br />
Randall and McCosker (2002) described a new species of sandperch, Parapercis lata, from<br />
the Line and Phoenix Islands. Twelve specimens were from the Line Islands and one was<br />
collected in 1968 in Abariringa (Canton) the Phoenix Islands.<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Between 2000 and 2003, shark density had dropped significantly and were absent in many<br />
sites in Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Randall et al (2003) described a new soldierfish, Myripristis earlei, from the Marquesas and<br />
Phoenix Islands including specimens Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, and Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably the result of downcurrent<br />
dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas.<br />
In 2004, fish populations were extremely diverse and high on Abariringa (Kanton) (Planetary<br />
Coral Reef Foundation 2004). The exception was the shark population which declined due to<br />
shark finning efforts in 2001.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) encountered schools of manta rays (up to 20) at the<br />
mouth of the lagoon pass on Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
In 2005, parrotfish were observed spawning at Abariringa (Kanton) (Stone 2004).<br />
BIRNIE<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Reef shark density was similar between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Birnie (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
Fish were abundant on Enderbury (Hydrographic Office 1940; see also Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy 1969).<br />
Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the<br />
Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton),<br />
McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull).<br />
Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net,<br />
and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative,<br />
information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative.<br />
Randall (1956) reported that Acanthurus rackliffei was known from three specimens from<br />
Orona (Hull). A. glaucopareius and A. achilles from Orona (Hull) and Enderbury appeared<br />
to have similar stomach contents. Randall (1956) suggested that A. rackliffei may be a hybrid<br />
between A. glaucopareius and A. achilles.<br />
Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia. It was noted that Kuhlia<br />
petiti was only known from the Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands. Specimens<br />
examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury.<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Reef shark density was similar between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Birnie (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Randall et al (2003) described a new soldierfish, Myripristis earlei, from the Marquesas and<br />
Phoenix Islands. Specimens examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
and Rawaki (Phoenix). It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably<br />
the result of downcurrent dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas.<br />
Landaeta et al (2005) noted that the Creediidae genus, Crystallodytes included two species,<br />
one of these species had two subspecies. One of the subspecies, Crystallodytes cookie<br />
enderburyensis, was originally described from Enderbury.<br />
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In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Manra (Sydney) had one large lagoon that was not connected to the sea (Arundel 1890; see<br />
also Wiens 1962). There were no fish as the salinity was too high.<br />
Fish and mollusks were abundant in the lagoon until it became too salty (Bryan 1941 and<br />
1942).<br />
Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net,<br />
and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative,<br />
information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative.<br />
According to Luke (1962), one of the reasons for having to resettle inhabitants of Manra<br />
(Sydney) was because the lagoon on Manra (Sydney) was too salty for fish.<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Between 2000 and 2003, shark density had dropped significantly and were absent in many<br />
sites in Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the<br />
Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton),<br />
McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull).<br />
Timeon (2001) reported that there were no fish in McKean’s lagoon.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 2000, one manta ray was observed (Stone et al 2001).<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Reef shark density was similar between 2000 and 2003 in Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and<br />
Birnie (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
In 2004, the Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) noted several encounters with manta<br />
rays while conducting dive surveys on Nikumaroro.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1887, Ellis observed and consumed large fat ava in the lagoon of Orona (Hull) (Ellis<br />
1937). The shore was about 91.4 m (100 yards) from the lagoon. Ellis (1937) speculated that<br />
fish must have gotten into the lagoon through an overflow of the lagoon.<br />
Fowler (1940) reported on the fishes obtained by the Wilkes Expedition, 1838 to 1842 that<br />
visited the Phoenix Islands. Fishes collected included: Oxyporhamphus argenteus,<br />
Exocoetidae, from the stomach of a gannet, Sula sp. in the Phoenix Islands; Chaetodon<br />
auriga, Chaetodontidae, from Orona (Hull); Teuthis achilles, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull),<br />
Teuthis triostegus, Teuthididae, from Orona (Hull); Anampses caeruleo-punctatus, Labridae,<br />
from Orona (Hull).<br />
Schultz (1943) documented fish species collected during the 1939 survey expedition of the<br />
Phoenix Islands by the U.S.S. Bushnell. Fish collections were done at Abariringa (Canton),<br />
McKean, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull).<br />
Hubbs (1944) reviewed the blennioid fishes of the genus Brotula including specimens of B.<br />
mulleri that were collection on Orona (Hull) by Leonard P. Schultz in 1939. Counts and<br />
measurements of the Orona (Hull) specimen were presented in Hubbs (1944).<br />
Halstead and Bunker (1954) collected fish species from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull) and Manra (Sydney) by hook and line, beach seind, spear, throw net, dip net,<br />
and rotenone poisoning. Grovhoug and Henderson (1978) noted that although informative,<br />
information collected by Halstead and Bunker (1954) on fish species was not quantitative.<br />
Randall (1956) reported that Acanthurus rackliffei was known from three specimens from<br />
Orona (Hull). Specimens of A. glaucopareius and A. achilles from Orona (Hull) and<br />
Enderbury appeared to have similar stomach contents. In addition, no distinct breeding<br />
season could be ascertained based on gonad samples from these two Acanthurus species.<br />
Randall (1956) suggested that A. rackliffei may be a hybrid between A. glaucopareius and A.<br />
achilles.<br />
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Tioti et al (2001) reported on fish transect surveys that were completed on Orona in 2001.<br />
Four sites were surveyed on the windward side. Dominant fish groups included snapper<br />
(19.3 percent), angel and butterfly fish (14.01 percent), groupers (12.48 percent), and parrot<br />
fish (6.8 percent). These percents were based on number of fish observed. Other fishes such<br />
as basslets, gobies, sharks, rays and damsels accounted for more than 37.96 percent. Mean<br />
density of key fish groups was estimated and presented in Figure III-4.5 below.<br />
Figure III-4.5. Mean density of key fish groups on Orona in 2001<br />
(source: Tioti et al 2001).<br />
Tioti et al (2001) concluded that there was an abundance of finfish on Orona. The hump head<br />
wrasse, Chelenius undulates, was the most encountered wrasse along with the common parrot<br />
fish, Scarus sp. Raw data collected by Tioti et al (2001) were presented as an attachment to<br />
the report.<br />
Randall and Randall (2001a) reviewed the Kuhliidae genus Kuhlia. It was noted that Kuhlia<br />
petiti was only known from the Phoenix Islands and the Marquesas Islands. Specimens<br />
examined included fish from Abariringa (Canton), Orona (Hull), and Enderbury.<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Between 2000 and 2003, shark density had dropped significantly and were absent in many<br />
sites in Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that Orona appeared to have been recently impacted by fishing.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) suggested that fish resources in Orona be monitored recovery of the<br />
stocks.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
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RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 2002, fish dive surveys were conducted in the Phoenix Islands (Obura and Stone 2003). In<br />
addition, and ROV and Dropcam were used to record species of fish. Abariringa, Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki were surveyed.<br />
Between 2000 and 2003, shark density had dropped significantly and were absent in many<br />
sites in Rawaki (Phoenix), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Randall et al (2003) described a new soldierfish, Myripristis earlei, from the Marquesas and<br />
Phoenix Islands. Specimens examined include fish from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
and Rawaki (Phoenix). It was speculated that the Phoenix Islands population was probably<br />
the result of downcurrent dispersal of larvae from the Marquesas.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro.<br />
I. TURTLES<br />
Turtle were found in fair numbers in the Phoenix Islands (Foreign Office 1920).<br />
Dahl (1980) presented a matrix of marine biomes. The Phoenix Islands were lumped with the<br />
Line and Northern Cook Islands. Sea turtle nesting was identified as one marine biome in<br />
this group of islands.<br />
Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) reported that the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys<br />
imbricate, and green turtle, Chelonia mydas, had been reported from most of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. They did not elaborate on which Phoenix Islands these turtles were found.<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Turtle mating was observed on<br />
three occasions. Results of these turtle surveys are presented in Table III-4.14 below.<br />
Table III-4.14. Number of turtles observed on dives and number of nests<br />
observed in 2002. (source: Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
island Turtles observed Nests observed<br />
green hawksbill old new<br />
Birnie 5 2 3<br />
Enderbury 7 160<br />
Abariringa (Kanton) 28 30 5<br />
Manra 10 1 2<br />
Nikumaroro 7 2 41 18<br />
Orona 6 1 8<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) 3 1 6<br />
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Total 66 5 233 34<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 below.<br />
Table III-4.15. Turtle sightings on SCUBA dives and at sea<br />
(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006).<br />
Island Quantity Type Latitude Longitude<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 below.<br />
Table III-4.16. Sightings of marine turtle nests in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006).<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17).<br />
Table III-4.17. Turtle nests observed on the Phoenix Islands in April to May 2006.<br />
(source: Pierce et al 2006).<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Bryan (1934) reported observing turtles on Abariringa (Canton). Bryan (1941 and 1942)<br />
mentioned that turtles come up to sandy beaches to lay eggs.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that the reef beaches of Abariringa (Canton) were covered with turtle<br />
tracks. During that visit, 4 large turtles were caught.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy 1955) noted that occasionally on Abariringa (Canton), a turtle comes<br />
on the beach to lay her eggs (see also McIntire 1960).<br />
In 1973, a preliminary turtle survey was completed on Abariringa (Canton) (Balazs 1975).<br />
Principal nesting sites were along four areas of the beach (see Figure III-4.6).<br />
Figure III-4.6. Marine Turtle Nesting Areas on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(source: Balazs 1975).<br />
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At nesting site 1, 16 fresh turtle tracks were identified (Balazs 1975). In addition, two green<br />
turtles, Chelonia, were observed. At site 2, more than 100 nesting pits were identified. Most<br />
appeared less than 2 to 3 months old. At site 3, more than 30 recent pits were identified. At<br />
site 4, more than 40 pits were identified.<br />
Personnel on Abariringa (Canton) also kept turtle pets (Balazs 1975). Many had photographs<br />
of turtles they had observed on the island. These were all identified as Chelonia. There were<br />
two reports of turtles with distinct ridges on their carapace. This would suggest that other<br />
marine turtles were also present on Abariringa. Turtles were common throughout the year<br />
inside and outside of the lagoon. Nesting was observed throughout the year, but more<br />
common during October and November at sites 2 and 3. Balazs (1975) estimated that there<br />
may be a fairly large numbers of green turtles that nest on Abariringa (Canton) (see also Hirth<br />
1993).<br />
Dahl (1980) reported that sea turtle nesting was common on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury. Dahl (1980) recommended that Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury turtle<br />
breeding areas be protected.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles nest on Abariringa (Canton) in unknown numbers.<br />
Zug and Balazs (1985) examined skeletochronological techniques to determine age<br />
estimations of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Humeri from 10 Hawaiian green turtle that<br />
died in the last 9 years, and 1 green turtle from Abariringa (Canton) in the Phoenix Islands<br />
were examined. The specimen from Abariringa (Canton) was estimated to be 15 years in age<br />
based on skeletochronological techniques. Based on results, it appeared that the Abariringa<br />
(Canton) turtle grew much faster and had an earlier maturity than green turtles from Hawaii.<br />
Hirth (1993) recommended that the status of green turtle nesting on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
needed to be examined.<br />
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Yeeting (1988) reported a lot of breeding pits on the ocean side beach close to the brid<br />
sanctuary site on the southern part of Abariringa (Canton). Turtles were observed in the<br />
shallow waters on the western reef site.<br />
In 2000, 34 green turtles and 1 hawkbill turtle were observed while diving (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
In 2004, Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) observed mating turtles twice while diving<br />
at Abariringa (Kanton). In addition a great number of turtles, mostly green turtles were<br />
observed.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that people on Abariringa (Kanton) recently consumed turtles.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Balazs (1975) did not visit Birnie, but reported that tracks had been observed there. Garnett<br />
(1983) reported that green turtles were known to nest on Birnie according to Balazs (1975).<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
The large sea turtle [presumably the green turtle] was found on Enderbury (Hydrographic<br />
Office 1940).<br />
The Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that turtle were plentiful.<br />
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Bryan (1974) noted that Enderbury was called the most important green turtle breeding island<br />
in the south central Pacific (see also King 1973).<br />
Balazs (1975) did not visit Enderbury, but reported that there was heavy nesting along the<br />
eastern and western coasts during October and November. Nesting also probably occurred<br />
throughout the year.<br />
Dahl (1980) reported that sea turtle nesting was common on Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury. Dahl (1980) recommended that Abariringa (Canton) and Enderbury turtle<br />
breeding areas be protected.<br />
Garnett (1983) noted that Enderbury was considered by the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey<br />
Programme (in the 1960s) to be the most important nesting rookery for green turtles,<br />
Chelonia mydas, in the Phoenix Islands and perhaps the entire central Pacific Ocean (see also<br />
King 1973).<br />
In January 2000, two turtle tracks were observed near the southwest end of Enderbury<br />
(Kepler 2000).<br />
In 2000, all Enderbury beaches were surveyed. There was no evidence of turtle nesting<br />
(Stone et al 2001). During dive surveys around Enderbury, 5 green turtles were observed.<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
Di Piazza and Pearthree (2004) noted that Enderbury was still one of the most important<br />
green turtle, Chelonia mydas, nesting sites in the central Pacific.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that turtle nest counts on Enderbury indicated that it was an<br />
important island for green turtle, Chelonia mydas, breeding.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Turtles were occasionally obtainable on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1916).<br />
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Turtles were found on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). Hydrographer of the<br />
Navy (1969) noted that turtles were in the lagoon.<br />
Balazs (1975) did not visit Manra (Sydney), but reported that tracks had been observed on the<br />
northwestern coast of Manra (Sydney). These turtle populations were probably heavily<br />
exploited during the recent settlement of this island.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, were known to breed on Manra<br />
(Sydney).<br />
In January 2000, several old turtle nests were observed under pandanus trees, south of the<br />
landing on the beach on Manra (Kepler 2000).<br />
In 2000, all beaches on Manra were surveyed for turtle nests (Stone et al 2001). Thirty one<br />
green turtle nests were found. During dive surveys, 17 green turtles were observed.<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Balazs (1975) reported that there was no information available on turtles on McKean.<br />
Dana (1975) reported that on the western side of McKean there was a high sandy beach used<br />
by green turtles, Chelonia mydas, for nesting.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that there were no records of green turtles nesting on McKean.<br />
In 2000, all of McKean’s beaches were surveyed for turtles (Stone et al 2001). Two recent<br />
green turtle tracks and nests were identified in the southern beach. During dive surveys of<br />
McKean, two green turtle, and one hawksbill turtle were observed.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Turtle were plentiful (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Balazs (1975) did not visit Nikumaroro (Sydney), but reported that tracks were observed on<br />
the southern coast of Nikumaroro (Gardner). These turtle populations were probably heavily<br />
exploited during the recent settlement of this island.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, breed on Nikumaroro (Gardner).<br />
However, there were no estimates of their numbers.<br />
In January 2000, 22 green turtle tracks were observed (Kepler 2000). More than 25 nests<br />
were found under coconut and pandanus trees. Some were recent, others were older.<br />
In 2000, 15 to 20 fresh green sea turtle tracks were identified on the southwestern beach of<br />
Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001). Other beaches were not surveyed.<br />
In 2000, during 11 dives around Nikumaroro, one hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imricata<br />
bissa, and 12 green turtles, Chelonia mydas agassizi, were observed (Stone et al 2001).<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
In 2004, Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering plenty of turtles.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 1840, the U.S.S. Vincennes discovered Orona (Hull) with 1 sick Frenchman and 11<br />
Tahitians on the island (Bryan 1941 and 1942; Hobbs 1945; Dickson 1939; Douglas and<br />
Douglas 1994). They had been left there 5 months earlier to catch turtles (4 months<br />
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according to Dickson 1939). The following year when the Peacock and Flying-Fish visited<br />
Orona (Hull), the Tahitians that were catching turtles had left (Wilkes 1845b).<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that turtles used to be caught frequently on Orona (Hull).<br />
Turtle were abundant (Hydrographer of the Navy 1969).<br />
Balazs (1975) did not visit Orona (Hull), but reported nesting on the western and southern<br />
coast throughout the year. These turtle populations were probably heavily exploited during<br />
the recent settlement of this island.<br />
Garnett (1983) reported that green turtles, Chelonia mydas, were known to breed on Orona<br />
(Hull). At one time green turtles were numerous. There was no recent information on the<br />
size of the breeding population.<br />
In 1995, a male and female turtle were caught in a channel from the lagoon to the sea<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
In January 2000, no turtle tracks or nests were observed on Orona (Kepler 2000).<br />
In 2000, a small portion of the beach on Orona was surveyed (Stone et al 2001). Twelve<br />
probable green turtle nests were identified. During dive surveys, 13 green turtles were<br />
observed.<br />
Tioti et al (2001) reported the location of turtle nesting areas on Orona (Figure III-4.7 below).<br />
However there was no discussion in this report regarding how the turtle nesting beaches were<br />
determined.<br />
Figure III-4.7. Turtle nesting beaches on Orona<br />
(source: Tioti et al 2001).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that the first attempt at seaweed culture on Orona in 2000 failed<br />
because of overgrazing by turtles (see also Timeon 2001).<br />
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In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Bryan (1941 and 1942) reported that turtles probably nested on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
Balazs (1975) reported that there was no information available on turtles on Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix).<br />
Garnett (1983) reported small numbers of nesting green turtles on Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
In 2000, all Rawaki beaches were surveyed for marine turtles (Stone et al 2001). Five green<br />
turtle nest sites were found. During three dive surveys, three green turtles were observed.<br />
In 2002, turtle surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton), Birnie, Enderbury, Manra,<br />
Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki (Obura and Stone 2003). Results of these turtle surveys are<br />
presented in Table III-4.14 above.<br />
Stone (2004) reported finding 5 green turtle nesting sites on Rawaki.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported their 2006 observations of marine turtles on Birnie,<br />
Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. Results are provided in Table<br />
III-4.15 above.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) also conducted shoreline surveys for old (>1 year old) and new (< 1<br />
year old) turtle nests and turtle tracks on Birnie, Enderbury, Manra, McKean, Nikumaroro,<br />
Orona, and Rawaki. Results of these surveys are provided in Figure III-4.16 above.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that no evidence of recent (1 to 2 months) turtle nesting on<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Nikumaroro, Orona, and Rawaki. However, several old nests<br />
were observed (see Table III-4.17 above).<br />
J. MARINE MAMMALS<br />
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There are several marine mammals that transit or live within the waters of the central Pacific<br />
Ocean, the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (<strong>SPREP</strong>) area (Reeves et al<br />
1999). The <strong>SPREP</strong> area included the Phoenix Islands. Marine mammals that transit or live<br />
within these waters include:<br />
1) Bryde’s whale, Balaenoptera edeni;<br />
2) Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus;<br />
3) Pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps;<br />
4) Dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus;<br />
5) Short-finned pilot whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus;<br />
6) Killer whale, Orcinus orca;<br />
7) False killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens;<br />
8) Melon-headed whale, Peponocephala electra;<br />
9) Pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata;<br />
10) Risso’s dolphin, Grampus griseus;<br />
11) Bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus;<br />
12) Striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba;<br />
13) Pan-tropical spotted dolphin, Stenella attenuata;<br />
14) Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostri;<br />
15) Fraser’s dolphin, Lagenodelphis hosei;<br />
16) Rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredanensis;<br />
17) Southern bottlenose whale, Hyperoodon planifrons;<br />
18) Cuvier’s beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris; and<br />
19) Other beaked whales, Mesoplodon spp.<br />
Whales were once abundant in the central Pacific. Lever (1964) noted that in the late 1700’<br />
and early 1800’s, the East India Company limited British whaling activities in the Pacific.<br />
This allowed the American whaling fleet to flourish in the Pacific. By 1846, there were at<br />
least 730 vessels in this trade (735 vessels in 1846 according to Townsend 1935).<br />
Townsend (1935) summarized whale takes based on American whaleship logbooks for the<br />
period 1800 to 1870 (see Figure III-4.8 below; see also Boggs 1938). If landing sites relate to<br />
areas of high density, then whale stocks were probably also distributed along the equator.<br />
Figure III-4.8. Sperm whales* taken by American whaleships primarily from<br />
1800 to 1870 based on logbooks: A – April to September; B – October to March<br />
(source: Townsend 1935).<br />
A – April to September<br />
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B – October to March<br />
*Each circle represented the ship’s location on the day that one or more whales were caught.<br />
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In Chart C and D from Townsend (1935), no northern or southern right whales or bowhead or<br />
humpback whale were taken in the central Pacific (around the equator including the Phoenix<br />
Islands) by American whale ships primarily between 1800 to1870.<br />
Lever (1964) noted one of the most intensively whaling areas was the equatorial belt that was<br />
known as the “On the Line” whaling grounds. Whalers operated there throughout the year.<br />
The Phoenix Islands were within the “On the Line” whaling ground noted by Lever (1964),<br />
and were at the center of whale landings based on logbook data summarized by Townsend<br />
(see Figure III-4.8 above).<br />
Areas of maximum whale captures for key whale species were mapped by Lever (1964; see<br />
Figure III-4.9 below). Based on Figure III-4.9, the central Pacific (including the Phoenix<br />
Islands) appeared to have the highest rate of capture for sperm whales.<br />
Figure III-4.9. Areas of Maximum Whale Captures<br />
(source: Lever 1964)<br />
Weilgart and Whitehead (1977) recorded the codas (pattern of clicks) of female and<br />
immature sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus, from various locations, included the<br />
Phoenix Islands (recorded in 1992). They noted that short codas prevailed off of Christmas<br />
Island and the Phoenix Islands. These short codas were completely absent in the Caribbean.<br />
These codas were probably acquired through vocal learning.<br />
Stone et al (2001) noted that during the 2000 New England Aquarium expedition to the<br />
Phoenix Islands, few cetaceans were seen (see Table III-4.18 below). Odontocetes were the<br />
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most common sub-order observed and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) the most<br />
common species. No large whales were observed during the voyage to and from or at the<br />
Phoenix Islands.<br />
Table III-4.18. 2000 Marine mammal sightings around the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Stone et al 2001).<br />
Date Position Species # Comment<br />
In 2002, there were two sightings of 15 and 30 dolphins (Obura and Stone 2003). These were<br />
probably Stenella spp. No other marine mammals were observed during either the transit<br />
from and to Fiji and between the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their<br />
expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 below). They reported observing<br />
spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, and the bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncates. No<br />
whales were sighted during their entire voyage.<br />
Table III-4.19. 2006 marine mammal sightings<br />
(source: Kerr and Wragg 2006)<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) reported that no whales were observed during the entire 2006 trip (from 14<br />
April to 10 May 2006) that included 80 hours of pelagic seabird transects.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON)<br />
The bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops spp., was observed near Nikumaroro, Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
and Orona. Tissue samples were taken of bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncates, from<br />
Nikumaroro and Abariringa (Kanton) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering pods of bottlenose dolphin at<br />
Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Stone (2004) reported that tissue samples were taken from a resident population of bottlenose<br />
dolphins from Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their<br />
expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 above).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
In 2000, no marine mammals were observed at Enderbury (Stone et al 2001).<br />
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Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their<br />
expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 above).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around Manra (Stone et al 2001).<br />
MCKEAN<br />
In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around McKean (Stone et al 2001).<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
In 2000, a mixed group of bottlenose and spinner dolphins were observed 1.6 km (1 mile)<br />
east of Nikumaroro (Stone et al 2001).<br />
The bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops spp., was observed near Nikumaroro, Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
and Orona. Tissue samples were taken of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncates, from<br />
Nikumaroro and Abariringa (Kanton) (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) reported encountering pods of bottlenose dolphin at<br />
Nikumaroro. In addition, a pod of false killer whales were observed attacking and killing a<br />
marlin at Nikumaroro.<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their<br />
expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 above).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 2000, no marine mammals were observed around Orona (Stone et al 2001).<br />
The bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops spp., was observed near Nikumaroro, Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
and Orona (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Kerr and Wragg (2006) reported documenting marine mammal sighting during their<br />
expedition to the Phoenix Islands in 2006. Sightings were at Abariringa (Kanton),<br />
Enderbury, Nikumaroro, and Orona (see Table III-4.19 above).<br />
K. OTHER MARINE BIOTA<br />
PARASITIC FUNGI<br />
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Steele (1965 and 1967) collected coastal sand samples from McKean, Nikumaroro (Gardner),<br />
Enderbury, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie. A total of 13 samples were taken from the<br />
Phoenix Islands. Phoenix Islands samples averaged 80 isolates per gm. Saprophytic and<br />
facultative parasitic fungi were identified from samples (for species list see Steele 1965 and<br />
1967). The numbers of isolates from the Phoenix Islands was lower than that found in<br />
Hawaiian sand samples. The Nikumaroro (Gardner) samples had higher numbers of isolated<br />
compared with other Phoenix Islands. This was attributed to previous habitation of this<br />
island.<br />
PLANTON<br />
In 2002, deepwater plankton were collected using a vertical tow net (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
Sampling was conducted at Nikumaroro (2 sets), Manra, Abariringa (Kanton), and<br />
Enderbury. Depth of sampling was 500 to 1,000 m.<br />
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Dickson, D. 1939. Hull Island. Paradise of the Pacific 51(10): 13-14.<br />
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Fowler, H.W. 1940. The fishes obtained by the Wilkes expedition, 1838-1842. Proceedings<br />
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Islands. Part 1. Description. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and<br />
Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 318 pp.<br />
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Conservation. Revised 1977.<br />
Government of Kiribati. 1995. Ana ribooti te tiim n tutuo ibukin, te aono n Rawaki (Report<br />
of the Survey Team, Phoenix Islands).<br />
Grovhoug, J.S. and R.S. Henderson. 1978. Distribution of inshore fishes at Canton Atoll.<br />
Atoll Research Bulletin 221: 99-158.<br />
Halstead, B.W., and N.C. Bunker. 1954. A survey of the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. Copeia 1954(1): 1-11.<br />
Henderson, R.S., P.L. Jokiel, S.V. Smith, and J.G. Grovhoug. 1978. Canton atoll lagoon<br />
physiography and general oceanographic observations. Atoll Research Bulletin 221: 5-14<br />
Hirth, H.F. 1993. <strong>Chapter</strong> 10. Marine Turtles. Pages 329-370 in: A.Wright & L. Hill (eds.).<br />
Nearshore marine resources of the South Pacific. Information for fisheries development and<br />
management. Singapore National Printers.<br />
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Hobbs, W.H. 1945. The fortress islands of the Pacific. Ann Arbor: J.W. Edwards. 186 pp.<br />
Hollenberg, G.J. 1968a. Phycological Notes III. New records of marine algae from the<br />
central tropical Pacific Ocean. Brittonia 20(1): 74-82.<br />
Hollenberg, G.J. 1968b. An account of the species of red algae Herposiphonia occuring in<br />
the central and western tropical Pacific Ocean. Pacific Science 22(4): 536-559.<br />
Hollenberg, G.J. 1968c. An account of the species of Polysiphonia of the central and<br />
western tropical Pacific Ocean. I. Oligosiphonia. Pacific Science 22(1): 56-98.<br />
Holloway, C. 2002. Sharks on prozac, coral on steriods, Phoenix Rising. Skin Diver.<br />
August 2002. Pages 54- 57; 62-63.<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy. 1969. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, The central group comprising<br />
New Caledonia and Iles Loyalty; the New Hebrides Group and Santa Cruz Islands; the Fiji<br />
Islands; and the Tonga, Samoa, Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Phoenix, and Tokelau Islands. N.P.<br />
No. 61. Ninth Edition 1969.<br />
Hydrographic Office. 1916. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, Eastern Group. Secretary of the<br />
Navy. Washington, Government Printing Office.<br />
Hyrdographic Office. 1940. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. II. (Eastern<br />
groups). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 166 pp.<br />
Hubb, C.L. 1944. Species of circumtropical fish genus Brotula. Copeia 1944(3): 162-178.<br />
Integrated Marine Management Ltd. 1993. Kiribati marine resources sector study. Prepared<br />
for the Government of Kiribati.<br />
Jokiel, P. and J. Maragos. 1978. Reef corals of Canton Atoll: II. Local distribution. Atoll<br />
Research Bulletin 221: 71-97.<br />
Karlson, R.H., and H.V. Cornell. 1998. Scale-dependent variation in local vs. regional<br />
effects on coral species richness. Ecological Monographs 68(2): 259-274.<br />
Kay, E.A. 1978. Molluscan distribution patterns at Canton Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin<br />
221: 159-170.<br />
Kepler, A.K.K. 2000. Report: Millenium sunrise, Line and Phoenix Islands Expedition,<br />
December 15, 1999 - January 28, 2000.<br />
Kerr, V., and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix Islands conservation survey 2006 marine survey<br />
report.<br />
King, W.B. 1973. Conservation status of birds of central Pacific atolls. Wilson Bulletin 85:<br />
89-103.<br />
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Landaeta, M.F., G. Herrera, L.R. Castro. 2005. Larvae of Crystallodytes pauciradiatus<br />
(Perciformes: Creediidae) from Easter Island, South Pacific. Journal of Fish Biology 66:<br />
276-285.<br />
Lever, R.J.A. 1964. Whales and whaling in the western Pacific. South Pacific Bulletin,<br />
April 1964. pp. 33-36.<br />
Lovell, E.R., T. Kirata, and T. Tekinaiti. 2000. National coral reef status report Kiribati.<br />
Report prepared by the International Ocean Institute, South Pacific and Kiribiati Fisheries<br />
Division for the International Coral Reef Initiative and the South Pacific Regional<br />
Environmnet Program. 35 pp.<br />
Luke, H. 1962. Islands of the South Pacific. London: George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd.<br />
Luke, S.R. 1998. Catalog of the benthic invertebrate collections of the Scripps Institute of<br />
Oceanography. Coelenterata. SIO Ref Series. No. 98-02.<br />
Luomala, K. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. B.P. Bishop Musuem<br />
Occasional Paper 20(11): 157-174.<br />
Mangubhai, S. 2002. Viable long-term options for isolated atolls of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Maragos, J., and P. Jokiel. 1978. Reef corals of Canton Atoll: I. Zoogeography. Atoll<br />
Research Bulletin 221: 55-69.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1937. Report on the colonization of the Phoenix Islands by the surplus<br />
population of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Govt Press,<br />
Suva.<br />
McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of<br />
California. 42 pp.<br />
Neilson, P. 2002. Phoenix Island Expedition Report June 5th - July 10, 2002. Ministry of<br />
Environment & Social Development, Environment & Conservation Division.<br />
Ng, P.K.L. 1998. Lamoha hystrix, a new species of deep-water porter crab (Crustacea:<br />
Decapoda: Brachyura: Homolidae) from the central Pacific. Proceedings of the Biological<br />
Society of Washington 111(4): 893-898.<br />
Nolan, R.S. and L.R. Taylor. 1978. Mini, the friendly whale shark. Sea Frontiers 24(3):<br />
169-176.<br />
Oates, C. 2003. Canton Island aerial crossroads of the South Pacific. McLean: Paladwr<br />
Press.<br />
Obura, D. in press. Coral reef structure and zonation of the Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research<br />
Bulletin.<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Obura, D., and G.S. Stone (eds). 2003. Summary of marine and terrestrial assessment<br />
conducted in the Republic of Kiribati, June 5-July 10, 2002. New England Aquarium,<br />
Conservation International, Cordio, Primal Ocean Project Tech. Rpt: NEAq-03-02.<br />
Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix<br />
Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report<br />
prepared for: Conservation International, Samoa and Pacific Islands Initiative, Auckland<br />
University, Auckland.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2004. Health of the Phoenix Islands reefs.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/Canton/reefreport.html.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2006. Comparison of Vitareef Results.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/vitacomp.html<br />
Pompey, S.L. 1970. American whalers in the Phoenix Islands 1854-1871. Clovis,<br />
California. 5 pp.<br />
Randall, J.E. 1956. Acanthurus rackliffei, a possible hybrid surgeon fish (A. achilles x A.<br />
glaucopareius) from the Phoenix islands. Copea 1956(1): 21-25.<br />
Randall, J.E., G.R. Allen, and D.R Robertson. 2003. Myripristis earlei, a new soldierfish<br />
(Beryciformes: Holocentridae) from the Marquesas and Phoenix Islands. Zoological Studies<br />
42(3): 405-410.<br />
Randall, J.E. and J.E. McCosker. 2002. Parapercis lata, a new species of sandperch<br />
(Perciformes: Pinguipedidae) from the central Pacific. Proceedings of the California<br />
Academy of Sciences 53(8): 87-93.<br />
Randall, J.E., and H. Randall. 2001a. Review of the fishes of the genus Kuhlia (perciformes:<br />
Kuhliidae) of the central Pacific. Pacific Science 55(3): 227-256.<br />
Randall, J.E., and H.A. Randall. 2001b. Dascyllus auripinnis, a new pomacentrid fish from<br />
atolls of the central Pacific Ocean. Zoological Studies 40(1): 61-67.<br />
Reeves, R.R., S. Leatherwood, G.S. Stone and L.G. Eldredge. 1999. Marine mammals in the<br />
area served by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (<strong>SPREP</strong>). South Pacific<br />
Regional Environment Programme (<strong>SPREP</strong>).<br />
Salvat, B. 2002. Status of southeast and central Pacific coral reefs "Polynesia mana<br />
node:Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Niue, Tokelau, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna.<br />
Pages 203-215 in: Status of coral reefs of the world 2002.<br />
Schultz, L.P. 1943. Fishes of the Phoenix and Samoan islands collected in 1939 during the<br />
expedition of the U.S.S. Bushnell. Smithsonian Institution. U.S. National Museum Bulletin<br />
180, 316 pp.<br />
Schultz, L.P. 1949. At grips with a giant moray eel. Natural History 58(1): 42-43.<br />
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Schultz, L.P. and L.P. Woods. 1948. Acanturua triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies<br />
of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on related forms. Journal of the Washington<br />
Academy of Science 38(7): 248-251.<br />
Sims, N.A., G.L. Preston, B.M. Yeeting, and R. Alfred. 1990. Pearl oysters in Christmas<br />
Island, Kiribati and the potential for development of a pearl culture industry. South Pacific<br />
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 752/83.<br />
Smith, S.V. and R.S. Henderson. 1976. Environmental survey of Canton atoll lagoon, 1973.<br />
Naval Undersea Research and Development Center, San Diego. NUC TP 395.<br />
Smith, S.V. and R.S. Henderson. 1978. Phoenix Islands Report 1: An environmental survey<br />
of Canton atoll lagoon, 1973. Atoll Research Bulletin 221: 1-183.<br />
South, G.R., P.A. Skelton, and A. Yoshinaga. 2001. Subtidal benthic marine algae of the<br />
Phoenix Islands, Republic of Kiribati, central Pacific. Botanica Marina 44(6): 559-570.<br />
Steele, C. 1965. Fungus populations in marine waters and coastal sands of the Hawaiian,<br />
Line and Phoenix Islands. University of Hawaii, M.S. Thesis. No. 477.<br />
Steele, C. 1967. Fungus populations in marine waters and coastal sands of the Hawaiian,<br />
Line and Phoenix Islands. Pacific Science 21(3): 317-331.<br />
Stone, G. 2004. Phoenix Islands: a coral reef wilderness revealed. National Geographic<br />
Magazine 2005(2): 48-64.<br />
Stone, G., D. Obura, S. Bailey, A. Yoshinaga, C. Holloway, R. Barrel, and S. Mangubhai.<br />
2001. Marine biological surveys of the Phoenix Islands, Summary of expedition conducted<br />
from June 24 - July 15, 2000. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Tiffin, D.L. 1981. Cruise report Kiribati Phoenix Islands Manganese nodule survey cruise<br />
KI-81(3) 7-17 May 1981. UNDP, ESCAP Cruise Report No. 58 of PE/KI.2<br />
Timeon, M. 2001. Phoenix Islands Kakai scheme. Report on voyage of MV Tebenebene to<br />
deliver emergency supplies to Orona Island. Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural<br />
Development.<br />
Tioti, B., T. Beiateuea, B. Neneia, N. Ueantabo, and T. Onorio. 2001 A preliminary<br />
marine resources and ciguatera survey of Orona (Hull) in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Townsend, C.H. 1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records of<br />
American whaleships. Zoologica, N.Y. 19(1): 1-50.<br />
Weilgart, L., and H. Whitehead. 1977. Group-specific dialects and geographical variation in<br />
coda repertoire in South Pacific sperm whales. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 40(5):<br />
277-285.<br />
Wiens, H.J. 1962. Atoll environment and ecology. New Haven and London: Yale Univ.<br />
Press.<br />
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Wilkes, C. 1845b. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years<br />
1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: Lea & Blenchard. Volume V.<br />
Yeeting, B.M. 1988. Canton Atoll preliminary marine resource survey. Ministry of Natural<br />
Resources Development, Fisheries Division.<br />
Zug, G.R., and G.H. 1985. Skeletochronological age estimates for Hawaiian green turtles.<br />
Marine Turtle Newsletter 33: 9-10.<br />
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5. FISHERIES RESOURCES<br />
CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
A. OFFSHORE FISHERIES RESOURCES (TUNA)<br />
In the late 1940’s, J. Francis was hired by the Hawaiian Tuna packers Ltd., to conduct<br />
baitfish studies around the Phoenix Islands to determine the feasibility of setting up a tuna<br />
industry there (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
Shimada (1951) reported that additional skipjack spawning grounds were near the Phoenix<br />
Islands. This was based on results of the 1950 Pacific Ocean Fishery Investigations (POFI)<br />
survey. Juvenile skipjack (25 and 38 mm TL) were collected while the research vessel was<br />
drifting near the Phoenix Islands. In addition, juvenile skipjack (20, 22, and 35 mm TL) were<br />
caught while night fishing off the west end of Orona (Hull).<br />
June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 below).<br />
Table III-5.1. Common tuna-bait fishes that are found in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Source: June and Reintjes 1953).<br />
Species Common name Abariringa Birnie Enderbury Orona<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Hull)<br />
Albula vulpes bonefish X<br />
Chanos chanos milkfish X<br />
Spratelloides delicatulus small round<br />
herring<br />
X<br />
Allanetta ovalaua Fijian silversides X X<br />
Neomyxus chaptalli, False mullet X X X<br />
Mugil vaigiensis Black-fin mullet X X<br />
Mugil longimanus Blue-tailed mullet X<br />
Crenimugil crenilabis Thick-lip mullet X X<br />
Scomberoides sanctipetri<br />
Leatherjacket X<br />
Decapterus pinnulatus Mackerel scad X X<br />
Kuhlia sandvicensis Mountain bass X X X<br />
Mulloidichthys<br />
auriflamma<br />
Golden goatfish X X<br />
Mulloidichthys<br />
samoensis<br />
Samoan goatfish X X<br />
June and Reintjes (1953) noted that there were no reports on the successful introduction of<br />
the sailfin molly, Mollienesia latipinna to the Phoenix Islands.<br />
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Reintjes and King (1953) conducted research in the Line and Phoenix Islands on yellowfin<br />
tuna. Of 1,097 stomachs examined, 996 were not empty and contained a total of 189,000<br />
prey items representing 99 taxa.<br />
Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported on tuna school observations in relationship with bird<br />
schools in the Pacific Islands. Results from the Phoenix Islands are provided in Table III-5.2<br />
below.<br />
Table III-5.2. Summary of Phoenix Islands observations<br />
on fish schools and bird flocks.<br />
(source; Murphy and Ikehara 1955).<br />
March<br />
to May<br />
June to<br />
August<br />
September<br />
to November<br />
December<br />
to<br />
February<br />
2<br />
Totals and<br />
unweighted<br />
average<br />
Days fishing & scouting - 3 0 3 6<br />
Days running 3 4 2 14 23<br />
Yellowfin schools 0 8 3 3 14<br />
Yellowfin schools per day 0.0 1.1 1.5 0.2 0.7<br />
Skipjack schools 0 6 2 1 9<br />
Skipjack schools per day 0.0 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.5<br />
Unidentified schools 2 5 2 5 14<br />
Unidentified schools per day 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.7<br />
Total fish schools 2 19 7 9 37<br />
Total fish schools per day 0.7 2.7 3.5 0.5 1.9<br />
Bird flocks 6 26 1 13 46<br />
Bird flocks per day 2.0 3.7 0.5 0.8 1.8<br />
Murphy and Ikehara (1955) reported that in the Phoenix Islands, yellowfin dominated near<br />
land and skipjack dominated the semi-oceanic zone. They also conducted troll test fishing<br />
around the Phoenix Islands. Detailed results were included in Murphy and Ikehara (1955).<br />
Van Pel (1956) conducted longline fishing trials in American Samoa for the South Pacific<br />
Commission. During these trials, 4 days were spent in the Phoenix Islands area (00 0 S,<br />
170 0 W). Catch rates within the Phoenix Islands were 1.83 yellowfin tuna and 0.97 albacore<br />
tuna per 100 hooks.<br />
Ishiyama and Okada (1957) examined post-larval skipjack, Katsuwonus pelamis, from the<br />
Phoenix Islands. The characteristics of these young (measuring between 5 to 8 mm) were<br />
similar to skipjack post-larvae from the Philippines and elsewhere.<br />
Between 1978 to 1979, the SPC’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme conducted<br />
one trip to the Phoenix Islands using the F/V Hatsutori Maru No. 3 (Chapman 2003).<br />
In 1979, 183 kg of milkfish from the milkfish farm in Tarawa were taken to the Phoenix<br />
Islands and used for tuna bait (Kleiber and Kearney 1983). About 150 kg bait survived the<br />
trip and was used to catch .7 tonnes (0.8 tons) of skipjack (87%) and yellowfin tuna. CPUE<br />
was 0.8 tonnes/day (0.9 tons/day). This low CPUE was not due to a lack of tuna, but because
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tuna responded poorly to bait. The sighting of tuna schools was reported at 1.5 schools/hour<br />
for the Phoenix Islands. This was generally higher than that reported by Waldron (1964) for<br />
the Pacific Ocean Fisheries Investigation (POFI) cruises.<br />
Kleiber and Kearney (1983) presented a map indicating the origin of skipjack tags that were<br />
recovered in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.1 below). It<br />
appeared that most tags originated towards the southwest of the Phoenix Islands in Fiji,<br />
Tuvalu, and Western Samoa. Similar information was provided in Kearney (1983) that<br />
aggregated tag returns for the entire Pacific Islands region.<br />
Figure III-5.1. Results of skipjack tuna tag returns to and from<br />
The Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ<br />
(source: Kleiber and Kearney 1983).<br />
Skipjack tuna tag recoveries where the fish was recovered more than 200 nmi from point of<br />
tagging were documented in Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme (1993). These results<br />
are provided below in Figure III-5.2 for skipjack, Figure III-5.3 for yellowfin, and Figure III-<br />
5.4 for bigeye. Skipjack from the western Pacific were finding their way to the EEZ around<br />
the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Figure III-5.2. Skipjack tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from<br />
tagging site (as of 31 July 1991).<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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Figure III-5.3. Yellowfin tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from<br />
tagging site (as of 31 July 1991).<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Figure III-5.4. Bigeye tuna tag recovery more than 200 nmi from<br />
tagging site (as of 31 July 1991).<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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Bailey and Itano (1992) reported that one yellowfin tuna and five skipjack tuna tagged in<br />
Tuvalu waters were recaptured in the Phoenix Islands. They also reported that one bigeye<br />
tuna tagged in the Phoenix Islands was recovered within the Tuvaluan EEZ.<br />
Itano (1992a) reported that during the Te Tautai trip, yellowfin and bigeye tuna on the<br />
northwest corner of the Phoenix Islands EEZ responded well to milkfish chum. During that<br />
trip, 137 yellowfin tuna, 80 skipjack, and 482 bigeye tuna were tagged (total of 699 tuna<br />
tagged). A total of 106 yellowfih, 41 skipjack and 353 bigeye were double tagged within the<br />
Phoenix Islands EEZ. Itano (1992a) noted that the hardy nature and low mortality of milkfish<br />
allowed successful tagging in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Itano (1992b) noted that during the SPC tuna tagging project using the Te Tautai, large<br />
schools of surface-feeding tuna were found around the Phoenix Island portion of the Kiribati<br />
EEZ.<br />
Itano and Williams (1992) summarized yellowfin tuna tagging data and related information<br />
collected by the skipjack survey and assessment programme. The 1977 and 1978 cruises<br />
went through the Phoenix Islands EEZ. Yellowfin tuna were tagged within the Phoenix<br />
Islands EEZ. Data on Phoenix Islands EEZ caught fish were lumped into the Kiribati EEZ<br />
fish data and were not presented separated in this report.<br />
Kaltongga (1998) summarized the Secretariat of the Pacific Community’s tuna tagging<br />
results from 1989 to 1992. Skipjack tuna tagged in Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands,<br />
Wallis and Futuna, Palau, Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia were<br />
recovered in the Phoenix Islands. Skipjack and yellowfin tuna tagged in the Gilbert Islands<br />
and Papua New Guinea were recovered in the Phoenix Islands. Bigeye tuna tagged in the<br />
Gilbert Islands, and Australia were recovered in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
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Sibert and Hampton (2002) analyzed tuna tag results and concluded that skipjack and<br />
yellowfin were not really highly migratory, but rather were limited to ranges of about 740 to<br />
926 km (400 to 500 nmi). Therefore regional management may not be as appropriate as subregional<br />
arrangements. Results also suggested that each island country could also implement<br />
domestic management policies that would complement sub-regional arrangements. The<br />
perspective that all tuna within an EEZ should be captured as they are only passing through<br />
may not be as valid as initially thought.<br />
No specific studies were identified regarding the status of tuna stocks in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
However, in 2003, SPC completed a review of the status of tuna stocks in the Pacific (see<br />
Langley et al 2003). Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level, the skipjack tuna<br />
stocks were not overfished due to the high level of recruitment and modest level of<br />
exploitation relative to the stock’s biological potential. The current regional level of harvest<br />
of 1.2 M tonne was sustainable. Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level,<br />
yellowfin tuna stocks were not overfished and not in an overfished state. However, yellowfin<br />
tuna were near full exploitation. Any future increase in landings may move yellowfin tuna to<br />
the overfished state. Langley et al (2003) reported that at the regional level, bigeye tuna were<br />
not overfished, but were approaching overfishing. The current level of landings might not be<br />
sustainable over the long term unless high recruitment was maintained.<br />
Langley et al (2003) reported that during El Niño events, there was a spatial shift in purse<br />
seine skipjack tuna catches in the central western Pacific to the east.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
A baitfish survey was conducted in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon in 1949 (see June 1950). The<br />
black-fin mullet and thick-lip mullet were the most abundant bait fishes in the lagoon. Small<br />
round herring, mountain bass, and goatfish were also present along the fringe of the lagoon.<br />
In 1950, there were four baitfish trials on Abariringa (Canton) (June and Reintjes 1953).<br />
Results of these bait trials indicated the bait species present were only fair tuna bait. Also,<br />
the abundance of bait varied during the year. Bait was sufficient to supplement tuna fishing<br />
operations, but the area was not a large-scale baiting ground.<br />
Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) were of any importance as potential bait grounds<br />
(June and Reintjes 1953). June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). Only<br />
Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a potential as a baiting ground as<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon. Due to the coral<br />
reefs in the lagoon, it was difficult to navigate limiting the effectiveness of baitfishing<br />
operations.<br />
As part of the South Pacific Commission’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme in<br />
Kiribati waters, trial fishing was conducted west of McKean, Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). A total of 183<br />
skipjack and 12 yellowfin tuna were tagged off of Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Kleiber and. Kearney (1983) reported that 182 skipjack and 16 yellowfin had been tagged off<br />
of Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
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Itano (1992a) reported that Abariringa (Canton) lagoon had been surveyed for tuna bait, but<br />
no baitfish species were found. Strong currents limited the use of the bouke-ami lift net.<br />
Itano (1992b) reported that the lagoon at Abariringa (Canton) proved unsuitable for baiting.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above).<br />
ENDERBURY<br />
June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above).<br />
As part of the South Pacific Commission’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme in<br />
Kiribati waters, trial fishing was conducted west of McKean, Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). One skipjack tuna was<br />
tagged off of Enderbury.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
As part of the South Pacific Commission’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme in<br />
Kiribati waters, trial fishing was conducted west of McKean, Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). A total of 184<br />
skipjack tuna and 4 yellowfin tuna were tagged west of McKean.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a baiting ground as Nikumaroro<br />
(Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon (June and Reintjes 1953).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
During 1950 to 1951, four visits were made to Orona (Hull) (June and Reintjes 1953).<br />
Several species of mullet were observed in varying amounts. Amounts were inadequate to<br />
attempt seining. It was doubtful that sufficient bait was present to make seining feasible.<br />
Only Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) were of any importance as potential bait grounds<br />
(June and Reintjes 1953). June and Reintjes (1953) document common tuna-bait fishes from<br />
Abariringa (Canton), Birnie, Enderbury, and Orona (Hull) (see Table III-5.1 above). Only<br />
Abariringa (Canton) and Orona (Hull) had potential as a potential as a baiting ground as<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) had an extremely dangerous passage into the lagoon.<br />
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RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
As part of the South Pacific Commission’s Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme in<br />
Kiribati waters, trial fishing was conducted west of McKean, Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury, and east of Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hallier and Kearney 1980). No fish were tagged<br />
off of Rawaki (Phoenix).<br />
B. OFFSHORE FISHERIES (TUNA)<br />
In 1979, the 200 mile exclusive economic zone around the Phoenix and Line Islands was<br />
declared (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
In 1987, the U.S.A. and certain Pacific Island states entered into a Multilateral Treaty on<br />
Fisheries (Crocombe 2001). Kiribati was one of the Pacific Island states that approved the<br />
treaty. The Treaty allowed tuna purse seine vessels from the U.S. to fish in Kiribati waters<br />
(including the Kiribati EEZ around the Phoenix Islands).<br />
TBAP (1993) provided annual summaries for boat days for longline, pole-and-line and purse<br />
seine vessels in the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.5 below).<br />
Figure III-5.5. Annual boat days by longline (LL), pole-and-line (PL)<br />
and purse seine (PS) vessels in the Kiribati EEZ, 1978 to 1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
TBAP (1993) provided annual summaries for bigeye, yellowfin, and skipjack by gear type for<br />
foreing vessels in the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.6 below).<br />
Figure III-5.6. Annual landings of bigeye (BET), yellowfin (YFT), and<br />
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skipjack (SJT) by longline (LL), pole-and-line (PL) and<br />
purse seine (PS) vessels in the Kiribati EEZ, 1978 to 1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
TBAP (1993) diagrammed the distribution of pole-and-line skipjack and yellowfin tuna<br />
catches in Kiribati (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.7<br />
below).<br />
TBAP (1993) also diagrammed the distribution of longline yellowfin and bigeye catches in<br />
the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 1990 (see Figure III-5.8<br />
below).<br />
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Figure III-5.7. Distribution of pole-and-line catches in<br />
the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
A. Skipjack - Largest circle is about 1,600<br />
metric tonnes.<br />
B. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 200<br />
metric tonnes<br />
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Figure III-5.8. Distribution of longline yellowfin and bigeye catches in the<br />
Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
A. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 210<br />
metric tonnes.<br />
B. Bigeye - Largest circle is about 110<br />
metric tonnes<br />
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Annual Japanese longline CPUE for both yellowfin and bigeye in the Phoenix Islands portion<br />
of the Kiribati EEZ were diagrammed for 1962 to 1990 (TBAP 1993, see Figures III-5.9 and<br />
III-5.10 below).<br />
Figure III-5.9. Annual Japanese longline yelllowfin tuna CPUE (number per 100<br />
hooks), in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962 to 1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Figure III-5.10. Annual Japanese longline bigeye tuna CPUE (number per 100 hooks),<br />
in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962 to 1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Distribution of 1985 to 1990 purse seine tuna catches with in the Kiribati EEZ (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) were presented by TBAP (1993), see Figure III-5.11 below.<br />
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Figure III-5.11. Distribution of purse seine catches in<br />
the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands), 1985 to 1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
A. Skipjack - Largest circle is about<br />
1,800 metric tonnes<br />
B. Yellowfin - Largest circle is about 1,800<br />
metric tonnes.<br />
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The length frequency of skipjack and yellowfin caught by U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix<br />
Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling was plotted by TBAP (1993), see<br />
Figures III-5.12 and III-5.13 below.<br />
Figure III-5.12. Raised length-frequency histogram of skipjack tuna caught by<br />
U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix Islands portion of<br />
the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Figure III-5.13. Raised length-frequency histogram of yellowfin tuna caught by<br />
U.S. purse seiners in the Phoenix Islands portion<br />
of the Kiribati EEZ based on port sampling.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Catch, effort, and CPUE for pole-and-line, purse seine, and longline vessels fishing in the<br />
Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1978 to 1990 were reported in TBAP<br />
(1993) (see Tables III-5.3 for pole-and-line, III-5.4 for purse seine, and III-5.5 for longline).<br />
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Table III-5.3. Catch, effort and CPUE for pole-and-line vessels<br />
fishing in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Table III-5.4. Catch, effort and CPUE for purse seine vessels fishing<br />
in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Table III-5.5. Catch, effort and CPUE for longline vessels fishing<br />
in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Seasonal catch, effort, and CPUE for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ (data<br />
for all months combined, for all vessel nationality) were compared by TBAP (1993), see<br />
Table III-5.6 below.<br />
Table III-5.6. Seasonal catch, effort, and CPUE for the Phoenix Islands portion of the<br />
Kiribati EEZ (data for all months combined, for all vessel nationality)<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Annual longline yellowfin and bigeye CPUE and effort for the Japanese and Korean vessels<br />
within the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 1990 were summarized in<br />
TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.7 and III-5.8 below.<br />
Table III-5.7. Japanese longline annual yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for<br />
the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
Table III-5.8. Korean longline annual yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for<br />
the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Monthly longline yellowfin and bigeye CPUE and effort for the Japanese and Korean vessels<br />
within the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 1990 were reported by<br />
TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.9 and III-5.10 below.<br />
Table III-5.9. Japanese longline monthly yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort<br />
for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Table III-5.10. Korean longline monthly yellowfin and bigeye tuna CPUE and effort for<br />
the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1978-1990.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Annual longline tuna and billfish CPUE and effort in the Phoenix Islands portion of the<br />
Kiribati EEZ from 1962 to 1980 for Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean vessels were presented<br />
in TBAP (1993), see Tables III-5.11, III-5.12, and III-5.13 below.<br />
Table III-5.11. Japanese longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE<br />
and effort for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1962-1980.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
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Table III-5.12. Taiwanese longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE<br />
and effort for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1967-1989.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
Table III-5.13. Korean longline annual tunas and billfish CPUE and effort<br />
for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ, 1975-1980.<br />
(source: Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993)<br />
The Phoenix Islands were popular fishing areas for the Japanese and South Korean longliners<br />
(Teiwaki 1988).<br />
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Integrated Marine Management Ltd. (1993) reported that purse seine activities of the U.S.<br />
fleet were equally spread between the Gilbert and Phoenix group, with little activity in the<br />
Line Islands area.<br />
For 1978 to 1990, tuna fishing effort in the Phoenix Islands generally followed the same<br />
seasonal trend as catch (Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). This suggested<br />
that effort was directed towards area of higher CPUE. Korean longlining concentrated in the<br />
Line and Phoenix Islands in the mid-1980s, but has spread throughout the Kiribati EEZ with<br />
the decline in the Japanese longlining activities.<br />
Lehodey et al (1997) examined the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in relationship to<br />
the western equatorial Pacific warm pool. During ENSO events this warm water pool shifts<br />
to the east and skipjack catches also shift to the east extending to the Phoenix Islands. This is<br />
illustrated in Figure III-5.14 below.<br />
Figure III-5.14. Distribution of skipjack tuna catches (tonnes) and mean sea surface<br />
temperatures (SST, in 0 C) in the Pacific Ocean: (a) first half of 1989<br />
(La Niña period), and (b) first half of 1992 (El Niño period).<br />
(source: Lehodey 1997).<br />
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Langley (2003) reported that about 20 percent of total purse seine landings within the Kiribati<br />
EEZ came from the Phoenix EEZ area. Most of this effort was by the U.S. purse seine fleet<br />
under the Multi-lateral Treaty.<br />
Langley (2003) noted that yellowfin accounted for a higher proportion of longline catch in<br />
the Phoenix and Gilbert EEZ areas than in the Line Islands where bigeye represented the<br />
highest proportion of longline catch. The Kiribati longline fishery began in the 1950’s. By<br />
the mid-1960’s the Korean longline fleet entered the fishery and concentrated effort in the<br />
Line and Phoenix EEZ area. Since the mid-1970’s, the Korean longline fleet has dominated<br />
this fishery. Korean longline fishing effort from the Phoenix EEZ area from about 1980 to<br />
2000 was about 20 percent of their total Kiribati EEZ effort.<br />
Korean longline yellowfin catch rates were slightly higher in the Phoenix EEZ area, than in<br />
the Line EEZ area (Langley 2003). Japanese longline yellowfin catch rates were higher in<br />
those areas compared with the Korean longline fleet.<br />
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Langley (2003) noted that albacore was also taken by the longline fleet in the Phoenix and<br />
Line EEZ areas. Langley (2003) suggested that higher albacore landings were possible in the<br />
southern Phoenix and Line EEZ areas. However, in recent years, albacore has become a<br />
minor component of longline catches in the Phoenix and Line EEZ areas. For the Phoenix<br />
EEZ area, albacore catch rates were highest in June to August.<br />
Most of the pole-and-line catch and effort in Kiribati was in the Gilbert EEZ area, but in<br />
some years, significant catches were obtained from the Phoenix EEZ area (Langley 2003).<br />
In the Phoenix EEZ area, annual purse seine skipjack tuna catches were negatively correlated<br />
with ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) conditions (Langley 2003). Low catches were<br />
related to strong positive SOI (La Niña), while high purse seine catches were related to El<br />
Niño conditions. The Phoenix and Line EEZ areas represent the eastern extremity of the<br />
distribution of skipjack, therefore the availability of this species was more sensitive to SOI<br />
conditions.<br />
The CUPE for bigeye was comparable between the three EEZ areas of Kiribati (including the<br />
Phoenix EEZ area) (Langley 2003).<br />
Langley (2003) presented a summary of purse activities and catches within the Phoenix<br />
Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1982 to 2001 (see Table III-5.14 below).<br />
Table III-5.14. Number of purse-seine vessles, fishing effort (sets), and catch (t x 1000)<br />
of skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye for the Phoenix Islands<br />
portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1982 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
Year Vessels sets skipjack yellowfin Bigeye<br />
1982 - 53 0.6 0.3 0.0<br />
1983 - 532 8.8 5.9 0.0<br />
1984 - 2 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
1985 3 17 0.1 0.0 0.0<br />
1986 7 211 2.2 0.1 0.0<br />
1987 9 101 1.7 1.0 0.0<br />
1988 7 0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
1989 9 0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
1990 35 617 8.7 9.9 0.0<br />
1991 42 884 20.8 0.3 0.0<br />
1992 46 1,447 35.9 5.3 0.0<br />
1993 33 596 9.2 0.4 0.0<br />
1994 59 2,645 42.0 14.7 0.0<br />
1995 16 6 0.2 0.0 0.0<br />
1996 26 172 4.8 0.7 0.2<br />
1997 100 1,178 18.0 10.3 0.2<br />
1998 47 922 27.0 2.2 0.1<br />
1999 42 545 22.4 3.9 0.7<br />
2000 39 707 16.1 5.2 0.2<br />
2001 - 422 10.2 2.3 0.2<br />
*- data not available.<br />
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The distribution of purse-seine sets within the Kiribati EEZ from 1992 to 2001 was compared<br />
for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.15<br />
below. Purse-seine sets were also compared graphically for the Kiribati EEZ (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.16 below).<br />
Figure III-5.15. Distribution of purse-seine sets in the Kiribati EEZs (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) from 1992 to 2001, by degree of latitude and longitude.<br />
Circle size is proportional to the maximum number of sets (maximum =1104).<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
165E<br />
Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Islands<br />
Islands<br />
Islands<br />
Phoenix Phoenix Phoenix Islands<br />
Islands<br />
Islands<br />
Line Line Line Line Islands<br />
Islands<br />
Islands Islands<br />
170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W<br />
Figure III-5.16. Annual number of purse-seine sets in the Kiribati EEZ (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) from 1985 to 2001<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
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Number of sets<br />
9000<br />
8000<br />
7000<br />
6000<br />
5000<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
0<br />
Line<br />
Phoenix<br />
Gilbert<br />
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992<br />
Year<br />
1994 1996 1998 2000<br />
Longline fishing effort and catch for 1952 to 2001 was compared within the Kiribati EEZ<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands) by Langley (2003); see Figure III-5.17 below.<br />
Figure III-5.17. Longline fishing effort (number of hooks) and catch for 5 degrees of<br />
latitude and longitude for 1952 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
*note: The size of the pie chart is proportional to the magnitude of fishing effort in the 5-degree square. The<br />
red portion of the pie chart represents the proportion of the effort and catch allocated to within the EEZ.<br />
Langley (2003) presented a summary of yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore tuna catch and effort<br />
in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EZZ for 1952 to 2001 (see Table III-5.15<br />
below).<br />
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Table III-5.15. Summary of yellowfin, bigeye, and albacore tuna catch (t) and effort<br />
(millions of hooks) from the longline fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the<br />
Kiribati EEZ from 1952 to 2001 for 5 degrees of latitude and longitude.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
Year Hooks Yellowfin bigeye albacore<br />
1952 0.00 0 0 0<br />
1953 0.09 49 16 7<br />
1954 0.27 284 19 24<br />
1955 1.55 1,296 143 246<br />
1956 0.38 251 35 56<br />
1957 1.23 716 203 277<br />
1958 1.51 1,115 326 174<br />
1959 1.73 1,264 324 250<br />
1961 3.88 2,278 501 988<br />
1962 2.90 1,674 403 770<br />
1963 4.85 2,069 834 732<br />
1964 2.52 1,140 362 648<br />
1965 2.93 1,156 451 721<br />
1966 4.76 1,385 502 1,061<br />
1967 3.18 755 409 1,220<br />
1968 4.51 1,315 414 1,642<br />
1969 5.46 1,266 447 1,586<br />
1970 5.42 605 264 1,452<br />
1971 2.85 641 187 936<br />
1972 4.49 1,151 325 1,081<br />
1973 3.97 476 235 877<br />
1974 5.45 224 91 528<br />
1975 1.57 276 262 205<br />
1976 6.36 2,232 1,562 299<br />
1977 10.36 3,808 2,174 683<br />
1978 4.59 1,640 1,082 814<br />
1979 7.37 2,340 1,310 495<br />
1980 14.68 5,475 2,021 1,108<br />
1981 8.28 1,781 950 690<br />
1982 6.63 2,103 1,231 532<br />
1983 8.88 3,829 1,428 422<br />
1984 6.38 2,097 1,187 253<br />
1985 11.74 3,993 2,145 353<br />
1986 2.92 1,066 521 351<br />
1987 5.67 1,232 997 426<br />
1988 9.21 2,013 1,259 533<br />
1989 8.53 1,179 1,326 60<br />
1990 6.01 1,221 1,062 176<br />
1991 4.37 1,039 768 287<br />
1992 6.84 1,975 1,585 343<br />
1993 4.84 1,273 1,064 100<br />
1994 5.95 1,246 1,808 260<br />
1995 7.26 737 1,114 391<br />
1996 4.81 1,488 624 217<br />
1997 4.72 957 1,230 138<br />
1998 9.85 1,360 2,168 625<br />
1999 4.27 671 578 105<br />
2000 6.70 1,683 1,004 156<br />
2001 3.26 553 641 239<br />
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Annual distribution of longline fishing effort by nation for the Phoenix Islands portion of the<br />
Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001 was compared graphically by Langley (2003), see Figure III-<br />
5.18 below<br />
Figure III-5.18. Annual distribution of longline fishing effort (million of hooks set) by<br />
nation for the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
Annual catches of main tuna species by longliner in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix<br />
Islands) for 1952 to 2001 were compared graphically by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.19.<br />
Figure III-5.19. Annual catches of main tuna species by the longline fishery by species<br />
for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1952 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
Longline catches for 1996 to 2001 in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) were<br />
plotted on a map by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.20.<br />
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Figure III-5.20. Longline catches for the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands)<br />
from 1996 to 2001, grey circles represent cumulative level of longline<br />
catches from these areas.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
A summary table of the number of vessels, fishing days, and catch of skipjack and yellowfin<br />
by the pole-and-line fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to<br />
2001 was presented by Langley (2003), see Table III-5.16 below.<br />
Table III-5.16. Summary of number of vessels, fishing days, and catch (tonnes) of<br />
skipjack and yellowfin by the pole-and-line fishery in<br />
the Phoenix Islands from 1978 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
Year Vessels Days Skipjack Yellowfin<br />
1972 - 11 98 0<br />
1973 - 0 0 0<br />
1974 - 0 0 0<br />
1975 - 9 16 0<br />
1976 - 291 2,492 7<br />
1977 - 32 120 0<br />
1978 0 652 6,991 56<br />
1979 28 96 430 1<br />
1980 65 473 5,108 2<br />
1981 42 385 2,896 4<br />
1982 41 472 3,174 153<br />
1983 7 35 161 33<br />
1984 6 29 133 0<br />
1985 19 139 1,018 24<br />
1986 45 847 14,809 13<br />
1987 33 311 2,515 77<br />
1988 10 99 723 27<br />
27
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
1989 4 9 34 1<br />
1990 8 50 283 1<br />
1991 14 44 819 0<br />
1992 2 10 12 0<br />
1993 21 201 2,541 10<br />
1994 1 6 8 0<br />
1995 20 275 4,291 17<br />
1996 8 44 358 8<br />
1997 3 20 132 5<br />
1998 0 0 0 0<br />
1999 - 5 38 1<br />
2000 - 0 0 0<br />
2001 - 0 0 0<br />
Langley (2003) summarized annual fishing effort for the pole-and-line fishery in the Kiribati<br />
EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) for 1972 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.21 below).<br />
Figure III-5.21. Annual level of fishing effort (days fished) by the pole-and-line fishery<br />
in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) from 1972 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
Number of days<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
Line<br />
Phoenix<br />
Gilbert<br />
1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987<br />
Year<br />
1990 1993 1996 1999<br />
Langley (2003) summarized pole-and-line fishing effort in the Kiribati EEZ (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) for 1980 to 1989 and 1990 to 1999 (see Figure III-5.22).<br />
Figure III-5.22. Location of pole-and-line fishing effort (days fished) in Kiribati’s EEZ<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands) for 1980-1989 (top graph), and 1990 to 1999 (bottom<br />
graph), circles size is proportional to the number of days fished (maximum = 857).<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
28
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
1980-1989<br />
1990-1999<br />
Monthly purse seine catch and the Southern Oscillation Index were compared for the Phoenix<br />
Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1990 to 2001 by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.23<br />
below.<br />
Figure III-5.23. Comparison between monthly catch and the SOI for the purse-seine<br />
fishery in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ from 1990 to 2001,<br />
only catch from free-school and log sets included.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
29
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Catch (t)<br />
12000<br />
10000<br />
8000<br />
6000<br />
4000<br />
2000<br />
0<br />
Catch<br />
SOI<br />
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Langley (2003) compared the monthly CPUE trend for bigeye and yellowfin for each island<br />
group within the Kiribati EEZ including the Phoenix Islands (see Figure III-5.24 below).<br />
Date<br />
Figure III-5.24. Monthly trends in CPUE (kg per 100 hooks) of bigeye (BET, top) and<br />
yellowfin (YFT, bottom) for each of Kiribati’s EEZ areas and the SOI,<br />
the three month moving average presented here.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
-5<br />
-10<br />
-15<br />
-20<br />
-25<br />
-30<br />
SOI Index<br />
30
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
BET CPUE<br />
YFT CPUE<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />
0 20 40 60 80<br />
Gilbert<br />
Phoenix<br />
Line<br />
SOI<br />
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000<br />
1995 1996 1997 1998<br />
Date<br />
1999 2000<br />
The distribution of all purse seine sets for 1996 to 2001 for the Kiribati EEZ including the<br />
Phoenix Islands were presented by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.25 below.<br />
Figure III-5.25. Distribution of all purse-seine sets by year and set type for 1996 to<br />
2001, the area of the pie chart is proportional to the total number of sets in degree of<br />
latitude and longitude (maximum size for all figures is 330 sets).<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
1996 1998<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
-20 -10 0 10<br />
SOI<br />
-20 -10 0 10<br />
SOI<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
31
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
1997 1999<br />
2000 2001<br />
The annual distribution of all purse seine sets by the U.S. Multi-lateral Treaty fleet for 1999<br />
to 2001 in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands) was presented by Langley (2003),<br />
see Figure III-5.26 below.<br />
Figure III-5.26. Annual distribution of all purse-seine sets by the USMT fleet by set<br />
type for 1999 to 2001, area of the pie chart is proportional to the total number of sets in<br />
degree of latitude and longitude (maximum is 189 sets).<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
1999<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
2000<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
32
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
2001<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
The annual distribution of skipjack and yellowfin catch by Federated States of Micronesia<br />
Arrangement purse seine vessels in the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1999<br />
to 2001 was presented by Langley (2003), see Table III-5.17.<br />
Table III-5.17. Annual distribution of total skipjack and yellowfin catch (t x 1000) by<br />
the different purse seine fleets in the Phoenix portion<br />
of the Kiribati EEZ for 1999 to 2001<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
Phoenix EEZ Area Skipjack catch Yellowfin catch<br />
1999 2000 2001 1999 2000 2001<br />
FSM Arrangement purse seiners<br />
Percent of total catches 0.0% 0.8% 1.5% 0.0% 1.1% 1.8%<br />
Total catch 28.2 30.7 77.0 10.9 11.3 17.2<br />
US registered purse-seiners<br />
Percent of total catch 14.3% 15.8% 9.3% 13.1% 25.1% 8.5%<br />
Total catch 145.2 94.3 72.6 37.4 27.8 20.5<br />
Korean purse-seiners<br />
Percent of total catch 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.5%<br />
Total catch 107.9 121.8 132.4 31.3 26.0 38.5<br />
Taiwanese purse-seiners<br />
Percent of total catch 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7%<br />
Total catch 164.9 188.6 177.9 45.2 37.6 44.6<br />
Purse seine catches of skipjack and yellowfin in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix<br />
Islands) for 1996 to 2001 were presented by Langley (2003), see Figure III-5.27 below.<br />
189<br />
94.5<br />
18.9<br />
unassociated<br />
log_debris<br />
drif ting_FAD<br />
anchored_FAD<br />
other<br />
33
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Figure III-5.27. Spatial distribution of the purse-seine catch (tonnes) of skipjack (SKJ)<br />
and yellowfin (YFT) by year in the Kiribati EEZ<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands) for 1996–2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
155E<br />
155E<br />
155E<br />
1996<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
1997<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
1998<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
SKJ_MT<br />
YFT_M T<br />
15,000<br />
7,500<br />
1,500<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
34
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
155E<br />
155E<br />
155E<br />
1999<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
2000<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
2001<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
SKJ_MT<br />
YFT_MT<br />
15,000<br />
7,500<br />
1,500<br />
160E 165E 170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
Langley (2003) presented a summary of longline catch and effort for the Phoenix Islands<br />
portion of the Kiribati EEZ for 1978 to 2001 (see Table III-5.18 below).<br />
35
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Table III-5.18. Summary of catch (t) and effort (number of vessels, number of sets, and<br />
number of hooks set in millions) for Phoenix Islands EEZ area<br />
longline fishery from 1978 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
Year Effort Catch (t)<br />
Vessels Sets Hooks Bigeye Yellowfin Albacore Billfish Shark Other<br />
1978 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />
1979 2 17 0.04 6 10 0 0 0 1<br />
1980 15 207 0.46 114 155 0 0 0 32<br />
1981 6 102 0.21 68 90 1 28 2 4<br />
1982 18 420 0.91 287 477 26 63 10 36<br />
1983 22 417 0.98 195 599 12 43 0 3<br />
1984 29 731 1.81 408 575 42 84 6 18<br />
1985 42 1,216 3.40 650 1,044 43 91 11 37<br />
1986 17 145 0.43 55 70 14 10 0 5<br />
1987 27 529 1.50 305 315 23 63 4 10<br />
1988 45 976 2.78 353 471 73 67 8 16<br />
1989 63 1,123 3.02 436 354 21 75 7 12<br />
1990 58 836 2.21 319 451 33 59 6 19<br />
1991 48 677 1.66 324 450 44 50 5 28<br />
1992 67 1,250 3.05 662 635 79 143 8 19<br />
1993 60 1,314 3.16 665 779 39 165 5 15<br />
1994 66 1,939 4.65 1,422 995 168 148 3 11<br />
1995 96 2,525 5.98 1,077 620 343 178 5 16<br />
1996 61 1,290 3.12 413 877 117 73 3 2<br />
1997 54 1,338 3.52 744 741 189 133 4 3<br />
1998 82 1,509 4.08 836 552 162 193 4 0<br />
1999 79 1,225 3.35 481 519 49 102 7 2<br />
2000 56 1,077 2.88 401 535 36 86 3 1<br />
2001 13 92 0.25 40 47 23 11 0 0<br />
Langley (2003) presented annual distribution of longline fishing effort for the Kiribati EEZ<br />
for 1996 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.28).<br />
36
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Figure III-5.28. Annual distribution of longline fishing effort (number of hook set) by<br />
nation by degree of latitude and longitude for 1996 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E<br />
175E 180<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W<br />
150W<br />
- 1996 -<br />
- 1997 -<br />
- 1998 -<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
37
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
170E 175E 180 175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E<br />
175E 180<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W<br />
150W<br />
- 1999 -<br />
- 2000 -<br />
- 2001 -<br />
Langley (2003) illustrated the annual distribution of longline catches by species for the<br />
Kiribati EEZ for 1996 to 2001 (see Figure III-5.29 below).<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
38
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Figure III-5.29. Annual distribution of longline catch by species by degree of latitude<br />
and longitude for 1996 to 2001.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E<br />
175E 180<br />
175W 170W 165W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
160W 155W 150W<br />
1996<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W<br />
1997<br />
1998<br />
Catch (t)<br />
500<br />
250<br />
50<br />
Albacore<br />
Bigeye<br />
Yellowfin<br />
Shark<br />
Billfish<br />
Other<br />
150W<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
39
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
10S 5S 0 5N<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E 175E 180<br />
170E<br />
175E 180<br />
175W 170W 165W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
160W 155W 150W<br />
1999<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W 150W<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
175W 170W 165W 160W 155W<br />
2000<br />
- 2001 -<br />
Catch (t)<br />
500<br />
250<br />
50<br />
Albacore<br />
Bigeye<br />
Yellowfin<br />
Shark<br />
Billfish<br />
Other<br />
Langley (2003) examined the skipjack catches for 1972 to 1999 for the region (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) using the skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis (see Figure III-5.30 below).<br />
150W<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
5N<br />
0<br />
5S<br />
10S<br />
40
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Figure III-5.30. Distribution of total skipjack catches 1972 to 1999 in relation to the sixregion<br />
spatial stratification (including the Phoenix Islands) used in the<br />
skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis.<br />
(source: Langley 2003).<br />
0 10N 20N 30N 40N<br />
20S 10S<br />
Skipjack tuna catch (mt)<br />
120E 1972-1999130E<br />
140E<br />
1,000,000<br />
500,000<br />
100,000<br />
Pole-and-line<br />
Purse seine<br />
Other<br />
1<br />
120E<br />
130E 140E<br />
150E 160E 170E<br />
2<br />
5<br />
180 170W 160W 150W<br />
150E 160E 170E 180 170W 160W<br />
Langley (2003) examined the yellowfin catches for 1991 to 2000 for the region (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands) using the skipjack MULTIFAN-CL analysis (see Figure III-5.30 below).<br />
Figure III-5.31. Distribution of yellowfin tuna catch, 1991−2000, heavy lines indicate<br />
the spatial stratification used in the yellowfin MULTIFAN-CL model.<br />
(source: Langley 2003)<br />
10S 0 10N 20N 30N<br />
20S<br />
30S<br />
3<br />
4<br />
6<br />
150W<br />
120E 130E 140E 150E 160E 170E 180 170W<br />
1<br />
160W<br />
Yellowfin tuna<br />
Catch (t) 1991-2000<br />
250,000<br />
125,000<br />
25,000<br />
Longline<br />
Purse seine<br />
Other<br />
120E 130E 140E 150E<br />
2 3<br />
4<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
160E 170E 180<br />
PHOENIX<br />
ISLANDS<br />
5<br />
170W 160W<br />
30N<br />
20N<br />
10N<br />
0<br />
10S<br />
20S<br />
30S<br />
40N<br />
30N<br />
20N<br />
10N<br />
0<br />
10S<br />
20S<br />
41
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Lawson (2005) presented Korean longline catches for 2003 that included the Phoenix Islands<br />
portion of the Kiribati EEZ (see Figure III-5.32 below).<br />
Figure III-5.32. Korean Longliner Catches in 2003<br />
including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ<br />
(source: Lawson 2005)<br />
Tumoa (2006) summarized 2004 and 2005 longline effort data for the Kiribati EEZ<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands portion). These are presented in Figures III-5.33 below.<br />
Figure III-5.33. Annual longline effort for 2004 and 2005 for Japan,<br />
Korea, and China Taipei in the Kiribati EEZ (including the Phoenix Islands).<br />
(source: Tumoa 2006).<br />
2004 2005<br />
42
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Lawson (2005) illustrated the purse seine catches for 2004 in the region (including the<br />
Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ) for purse seiners from Federated States of<br />
Micronesia (see Figure III-5.34), New Zealand (see Figure III-5.35), and the U.S. (see Figure<br />
III-5.36).<br />
Figure III-5.34. Federated States of Micronesia purse-seine catch in 2004 for the region<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ).<br />
(source: Lawson 2005).<br />
43
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Figure III-5.35. New Zealand purse-seine catches in 2004 for the region<br />
(including the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ).<br />
(source: Lawson 2005).<br />
Figure III-5.36. U.S. purse-seine catches in 2004 (including<br />
the Phoenix Islands portion of the Kiribati EEZ).<br />
(source: Lawson 2005).<br />
44
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Tumoa (2006) presented annual purse seine effort summaries for 2004 and 2005 for purse<br />
seiners from Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) Arrangement, Korea, Taiwan, U.S.<br />
Treaty, and Vanuatu (see Figure III-5.37 below).<br />
Figure III-5.37. Annual purse seine effort for 2004 and 2005 for FSM Arrangement,<br />
Korea, Taiwan, U.S. Treaty, and Vanuatu in the<br />
Kiribati EEZ (and Phoenix Islands EEZ)<br />
(source: Tumoa 2006).<br />
2004 2005<br />
45
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Tumoa (2006) reported that for 2002 to 2004, no fish were unloaded in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
However, for 2005, 6,305 tonnes of fish were unloaded in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Teiwaki (1988) noted that there had been discussions between the Government of Kiribati<br />
and the U.S. purse seine fleet regarding the use of Abariringa (Kanton) as a base in the<br />
Central Pacific.<br />
C. INSHORE FISHERIES RESOURCES<br />
In 1937, trochus was introduced from Palau to the Phoenix Islands (Bour et al 1982; Gillett<br />
1993 and 2002; Gillett 1986). Gillett (1986) and Gillett (1993 and 2002) noted that<br />
Government of Kiribati official had no information regarding the status of this introduction<br />
(Onorio, personal communication to Gillett, see Gillett 1986 and Gillett 1993 and 2002).<br />
Eldredge (1994) noted that the map arrow illustrated in Bour et al (1982) regarding trochus<br />
introductions pointed to the Phoenix Islands.<br />
In the Fisheries Division Annual Report for 1984, the Phoenix Islands were not covered<br />
because few people lived there (Onorio 1984).<br />
ADB (1998) reported that maximum sustainable yields from deep slope bottomfish for<br />
Kiribati was 70 to 200 tonnes per year. No separate estimates were available for the Phoenix<br />
Islands.<br />
In 2006, Kerr and Wragg (2006) conducted large indicator fish abundance; abundance of key<br />
fish families, and coral health rapid assessment surveys on Manra, Rawaki, Enderbury,<br />
Birnie, McKean, Orona, and Nikumaroro. All surveys were completed on the lee sides of<br />
these islands.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
Maude (1937) reported that fish were more abundant on Abariringa (Canton) than on<br />
elsewhere in the Colony.<br />
Fish were plentiful in the lagoon on Abariringa (Canton) (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
However, some may be poisonous such as the red snapper and rock cod.<br />
In 1951, a field survey was completed on the poisonous fishes of Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Bunker 1951). Thirty one stations were sampled around the island. Ninety species of fish<br />
were collected with total weight of 159 kg (350 pounds). Information on fish poisoning was<br />
also collected from inhabitants. The incidence of fish poisoning was low, but there were a<br />
few species that were avoided by natives. The detailed trip organization was provided in<br />
Halstead (1950).<br />
Halstead and Bunker (1954) reported that fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton),<br />
Enderbury, Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were<br />
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tested. Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species<br />
may be poisonous at one site, but not in another.<br />
A list of fish found to be toxic from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and<br />
Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 below.<br />
Table III-5.19. List of fish in the Phoenix Islands found to be toxic<br />
(source: Halstead and Bunker 1954).<br />
Species Abariringa Enderbury Orona Manra<br />
(Canton)<br />
(Hull) (Sydney)<br />
Abudefduf septemfasciatus X<br />
Abudefduf sordidus X<br />
Acanthurs fulginosus X<br />
Acanthurus lineatus X<br />
Arothron hispidus X<br />
Arothron meleagris X<br />
Arothron nigropunctatus X<br />
Bothus mancus X<br />
Caranx lugubris X<br />
Caranx melampygus X<br />
Caranx sexfasciatus X<br />
Chaetodon ephippium X<br />
Chaetodon unimaculatus X<br />
Epibulus insidiator X<br />
Lethrinus miniatus X<br />
Lethrinus nebulosus X<br />
Lethrinus ornatus X<br />
Lethrinus semicinclus X<br />
Lethrinus variegatus X<br />
Lutjanus bohar X X<br />
Lutjanus vaigiensis X<br />
Mullloidichthys samoensis X<br />
Pseudobalistes flavomarginatus X<br />
Psuedoscarus sp. X<br />
Rhinecanthus aculeatus X<br />
Scarid X<br />
Scarus dussumieri X<br />
Scarus jonesi X<br />
Scarus sp. X<br />
Scarus sordidus X<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) noted that edible fish species in Hawaii may be poisonous in<br />
Abariringa (Canton), especially from the lagoon.<br />
In 1982, the Fisheries Division conducted a two day visit to Abariringa (Canton) (Onorio<br />
1984). Based on this visit, it was concluded that the fish and crustacean resources were<br />
similar to those in the Line group.<br />
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According to Yeeting (1988), Fisheries Division conducted surveys on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
in 1983. A report written by Onorio was referenced in Yeeting (1988), but no citiation was<br />
provided.<br />
Yeeting (1988) noted that shark, lobsters, deepbottom fish, and tuna were not exploited on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) and could probably be harvested commercially.<br />
In 1988, exploratory gillnet, reef gleaning (walking the reef at night with a flashlight), rod<br />
and hand lining fishing was undertaken on Abariringa (Canton) (Yeeting 1988). Gillnet<br />
average catches were 7.41 kg/man/hour for the lagoon and 10.85 kg/man/hour for the reef.<br />
Mullet and snapper were the main species landed during gillnet trials. Reef gleaning average<br />
catch was 4.15 kg/man/hour. Redtail snapper was the major catch for reef gleaning. Rod and<br />
line fishing catch rate was 6.03 kg/man/hour. The major catch was the longnosed emperor.<br />
Handline catch rate was 8 kg/man/hour. A 12 kg marbled grouper was caught with handline.<br />
In 1994, an initial assessment of mature bonefish, Albula neoguinaica, on Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) was completed (Kamatie and Awira 1994). Bonefish inhabited the entire lagoon<br />
and the ocean side of the island. Male bonefish maturity occurred at 32 cm and female<br />
bonefish maturity occurred at 42 cm (TL, FL, or SL not specified). In assessment catches,<br />
83% were males and 17% were females. Bonefish stocks were estimated at over 1 million<br />
fish or about 757 tonnes (835 tons). Kamatie and Awira (1994) also provided various<br />
suggestions on management of these stocks.<br />
In 1995, red snapper, Lutjanus gibbus, populations for Abariringa (Tunaari) were estimated at<br />
between 4,097 and 16,384 fish (Government of Kiribati 1995).<br />
Trial gillnet fishing with a 8.9 cm (3.5 inch) mesh 50 m long resulted in a CPUE of 0.850<br />
kg/hour (Government of Kiribati 1995). Gillnet sets were at Bikentabwakea and Tirieta and<br />
the ocean side of Tebaronga.<br />
Trial rod fishing in the lagoon resulted in a CPUE of 10.5 kg/hour per person (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995). Main fishes caught included: Caranx melampygus (rereba), Caranx ignobilis<br />
(urua), Albula neoguinaica (ikari), Lutjanus gibbus (ikanibong), sting ray (te baiku), and<br />
Lethrinus sp. (te rou).<br />
Trial rod fishing on the ocean side resulted in a CPUE of 39.7 kg/hour per person<br />
(Government of Kiribati 1995). Main fishes caught included: Caranx ignobilis (urua),<br />
Sphyreana barracuda (baninua), and Thunnus albacares (ingimea).<br />
Dive surveys were conducted on Abariringa (Kanton) (Stone 2004). Far fewer sharks were<br />
observed than in previous years. This was attributed to a shark fishing vessel that had<br />
operated in the Phoenix Islands in 2002.<br />
BIRNIE<br />
Fish were plentiful and as far as known, were not poisonous (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
Bukaeireiti and Rabaua (2002) reported that the land-locked lagoon had milkfish.<br />
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ENDERBURY<br />
Maude (1937) noted that fish were plentiful on Enderbury.<br />
In 1951, field studies were completed to examine fish poisoning in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Halstead and Bunker 1954). Fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were tested.<br />
Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species may be<br />
poisonous at one site, but not in another.<br />
A list of fish found to be toxic from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and<br />
Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 above.<br />
Regarding trochus introductions to the Phoenix Islands (see Gillett 1986, Gillett 1993 and<br />
2002), Gillett (1993 and 2002) noted that this may have been a mix up of Enderbury in the<br />
Phoenix Islands with Enderby in Pulawat, Truk. According to Eldredge (1994), the arrow<br />
pointing to the Phoenix Islands (specificially Enderbury) in Bour et al (1982) that indicated<br />
trochus introductions there was not in Bour (1990).<br />
All common fish species were edible (Hydrographic Office 1940).<br />
In 1995, trial rod fishing resulted in a CPUE of 10.6 kg/hour per person (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995). Fish caught included: Caranx melampygus (rereba), Caranx ignobilis (urua),<br />
and Lutjanus bohar (ingo).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
Ellis (1937) reported that the fish on Manra (Sydney) were poisonous.<br />
Maude (1937) reported that there were no fish in Manra’s (Sydney’s) lagoon. Many fish<br />
species from the reef were said to be poisonous.<br />
There were many species of fish on Manra (Sydney) (Hydrographic Office 1940). Most were<br />
not poisonous.<br />
Fish from Manra (Sydney) had the reputation of being poisonous (Bryan 1941 and 1942).<br />
Clune (1951) reported fish from one side of Manra (Sydney) were poisonous. They were<br />
fatal to infants, but did not adversely affect adults.<br />
Gilbertese on Manra (Sydney) used Morinda citrifolia (noni) to treat fish poisoning (Groves<br />
1951; see also Wiens 1962).<br />
Turbott (1954) reported that there were no fish in Manra’s lagoon as it was too salty. In<br />
addition, reef fish were for the most part poisonous except at places furthest from the settled<br />
areas.<br />
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In 1951, field studies were completed to examine fish poisoning in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Halstead and Bunker 1954). Fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were tested.<br />
Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species may be<br />
poisonous at one site, but not in another.<br />
A list of fish found to be toxic from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and<br />
Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 above.<br />
Knudsen (1965) reported that a Manra (Sydney) informant identified 32 species of fish eaten<br />
in the Gilbert Islands. Of these 32 species, 31 were present on Manra (Sydney).<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy (1969) reported that some of the reef fish were poisonous.<br />
In 1995, test troll fishing resulted in a CPUE of 6.5 kg/hour per person (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995). Catch included Lutjanus bohar, barracuda, wahoo, and sharks. Test longline<br />
fishing resulted in an average CPUE of 13.5 kg/hour per person. Catch was mainly sharks<br />
and Lutjanus bohar. Test rod fishing was also completed and resulted in a CPUE of 9.3<br />
kg/hour per person.<br />
In 1995, chumming was done to attract fish on the reef (Government of Kiribati 1995). It<br />
was estimated that Lutjanus bohar density was 65 per m 3 from the chumming.<br />
MCKEAN<br />
Hydrographic Office (1940) noted that the best fishing in the Phoenix Islands was off of<br />
McKean (see also Bryan 1941 and 1942). During the U.S.S. Bushnell visit, yellowfin tuna,<br />
barracuda, wahoo, rainbow runner, red snapper and ulua (jacks) were caught. Sharks were<br />
found in large numbers.<br />
Dana (1979) reported a remarkable abundance of grey reef sharks, Carcharhinus<br />
amblyrhynchos, around McKean.<br />
Timeon (2001) noted that fish were abundant around McKean. Sharks, red snappers, dog<br />
toothed tuna, trevally, mullet were observed or easily caught. It was speculated that the<br />
island could support a commercial fishery.<br />
NIKUMARORO (GARDNER)<br />
Maude (1937) reported that fish were abundance in the lagoon and on the reef. Most fish<br />
species were known to the Gilbertese. Maude (1937) noted that as the island was settled, fish<br />
would naturally become scarce. In a natural lake on the southwest corner of the lagoon,<br />
baneawa, a species of pond mullet that was much esteemed, was abundant.<br />
Fish are plentiful in the lagoon and off the reef (Hydrographic Office 1940). Most varieties<br />
are edible.<br />
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In 1978, the Fisheries Division conducted a variety of surveys for economically important<br />
fish in Nikumaroro (Gilbert Islands 1978). These included surveys using beach seines, gill<br />
net, tangle net, trolling and hand lines. In addition, surveys for beche-de-mer and rock<br />
lobsters were conducted. During fishing trials, sharks were a nuisance both inside and<br />
outside of the lagoon. Reef and ocean fishes, sharks and lobsters were abundant. However,<br />
beche-de-mer were not seen in commercial quantities.<br />
The abundance of fisheries resources on Nikumaroro has been mentioned in past reports<br />
(Gilbert Islands 1978). However, there was a difference between artisanal and commercial<br />
abundance and viability. According to fisheries staff, Nikumaroro would probably be able to<br />
support a subsistence community of perhaps 100. However, development of commercial<br />
fisheries was another question. With only two lagoon entrances, these could be closed off<br />
with nets and lagoon fish resources could be depleted.<br />
Milkfish ponds were considered by Gilbert Islands (1978). However, labor requirements for<br />
pond construction limited this possibility. Surface water was tested from the five milkfish<br />
ponds on the island. Salinity was 2,500 ppm.<br />
In 1995, trial rod fishing was conducted on the lagoon and reef of Nikumaroro (Government<br />
of Kiribati 1995). The CPUE for both the lagoon and reef combined was 15.54 kg/hour per<br />
person. Bonefish were the common catch in the lagoon. Trial trolling was also completed.<br />
The trolling CPUE was 14.68 kg/hour per person. Trolling catch included: rainbow runner<br />
(te kama), black trevelly, yellowfin, te tawatawa, and wahoo.<br />
In 1995, two trial gillnet sets were completed on Nikumaroro, one inside the lagoon, the other<br />
on the reef flat (Government of Kiribati 1995). CPUE was 1.524 kg/m 2 per hour. Catch was<br />
primarily adult milkfish, mullet and shark.<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
Maude (1937) reported that fish were abundance in Orona’s (Hull’s) lagoon and reef. Some<br />
fish species were said to be poisonous.<br />
Fish and lobsters were plentiful (Hydrographic Office 1940). Lagoon fish may be poisonous.<br />
During 1950 to 1951, four visits were made to Orona (Hull) (June and Reintjes 1953).<br />
Several species of mullet were observed in varying amounts. Amounts were inadequate to<br />
attempt seining. It was doubtful that sufficient bait was present to make seining feasible.<br />
In 1951, field studies were completed to examine fish poisoning in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Halstead and Bunker 1954). Fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were tested.<br />
Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species may be<br />
poisonous at one site, but not in another.<br />
A list of fish found to be toxic from Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury, Orona (Hull), and<br />
Manra (Sydney) (Halstead and Bunker 1954) is provided in Table III-5.19 above.<br />
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In 1995, two trial gillnet sets were made in the lagoon at Moantewa on Orona (Government<br />
of Kiribati 1995). Catch was 1.84 kg/m 2 gillnet/hour. Milkfish dominated the catch. Shark,<br />
and mullet (te baiburoro) were also caught.<br />
In 1995, a visual census was completed opposite Moantewa on Orona (Government of<br />
Kiribati 1995). Parrot fish (inai), yellow snapper (baweina), flaming angel, and rouper were<br />
observed.<br />
1995 trial trolling was completed (Government of Kiribati (1995). CPUE was 26.4 kg/hour.<br />
Catch included: trevally, Lutjanus bohar, Napoleon fish, wahoo, yellowfin, and small<br />
skipjack.<br />
In January 2000, a small pond filled with milkfish was observed on Orona (Kepler 2000).<br />
The pond was close to the lagoon east of the village.<br />
In 2001, marine surveys were completed on Orona to assess ciguatera prior to resettlement<br />
under the Kakai Scheme Project (Tioti et al 2001). Four sites including a control site were<br />
surveyed (see Figure III-5.38). Algae were collected, rinsed and rinse water was examined<br />
for toxic dinoflagellates. The control site at the entrance to the lagoon had undetectable<br />
levels of toxic dinoflagellates. All other sites had toxic dinoflagellates.<br />
Figure III-5.38. Toxic dinoflagellate areas of Orona<br />
(source Tioti et al 2001).<br />
Tioti et al (2001) noted that toxic dinoflagellates can occur at wreck sites. In 1937, the<br />
Makoa wrecked on Orona. The wreck is adjacent to where toxic dinoflagellates were<br />
identified (see Figure III-5.38 above).<br />
Reef fish reported to be toxic on Orona included the following (Tioti et al 2001):<br />
Local name Common name<br />
Ikamatoa Longnose emperor<br />
Ingo Red bass<br />
Rou Emperor<br />
Koinawa Convict surgeon<br />
Nimanang Peacock hind<br />
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Riba Common bristle toothed tang<br />
Karon Humphead wrasse<br />
Rereba Trevally<br />
Mako Surgeon<br />
Rabono Eel<br />
Ikamawa Parrotfish<br />
Kuau Groupers<br />
Bwawe Redtail (blacktail) snappers<br />
Ikanibong Paddletail snapper<br />
Tioti et al (2001) noted that 43 cases of ciguatera had been reported on Orona between March<br />
and May 2001 by Kakai Scheme workers. Tioti et al (2001) considered this number was<br />
low.<br />
During initial implementation of the Kakai Scheme on Orona, 20 workers became sick with<br />
fish poisoning (PIKS Project Manager 2002). Fish from the ocean side were the cause. After<br />
that, fish from the lagoon side were caught and consumed.<br />
The PIKS Project Manager (2002) noted that consumption for living on Orona by Kakai<br />
Scheme workers would rapidly exhaust marine resources.<br />
Timeon (2001) reported that the sea cucumber resources on Orona were too small to support<br />
long term harvest.<br />
RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
Fish were plentiful on Rawaki (Phoenix) (Hydrographic Office 1940). As far as known,<br />
these were not poisonous.<br />
In 1951, field studies were completed to examine fish poisoning in the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Halstead and Bunker 1954). Fish collections were made on Abariringa (Canton), Enderbury,<br />
Orona (Hull), Rawaki (Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). A total of 93 species were tested.<br />
Toxicity was indicated for 27 species, or 29 percent. There was evidence that species may be<br />
poisonous at one site, but not in another.<br />
D. INSHORE FISHERIES<br />
Based on the 1939 exchange of notes between the U.S. and Britain, U.S. fishers believed that<br />
they had the same fishing rights as British nationals in the Line and Phoenix Islands (Teiwaki<br />
1988). As a result, the 1946 Fisheries Ordinance was amended in 1947 to accommodate U.S.<br />
interests.<br />
In 1949, there was an agreement between the U.S. and Britain that their representatives on<br />
Abariringa (Canton) would jointly administer fishing and related activities of the Phoenix and<br />
Line Islands (Teiwaki 1988). There was mistrust on both sides, and the result was inefficient<br />
administration of the fishery.<br />
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In 2001, the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development initiated the Phoenix Island<br />
Kakai Scheme (PIKS Project Manager 2002). The main activities of the scheme included:<br />
(1) cutting copra, (2) shark fins, (3) sea cucumbers, (4) seaweed, and (5) replanting coconut<br />
trees and cleaning. Shark finning was initially successful with the use of longline. However,<br />
the boat and engine broken and could not be repaired. Sea cucumbers were not abundant.<br />
Only wae ura and tabanebane were found in harvestable amounts. In 2002, a survey was<br />
conducted and wae ura was found on the ocean side. Seaweed was transplanted in 2001 from<br />
Fanning, but this failed as the vessel stayed too long on Christmas Island. A second attempt<br />
in 2002 from Fanning was successful.<br />
In 2001, a foreign-owned shark finning vessel visited most of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(Mangubhai 2002). Notable decreases in shark populations were observed in some of the<br />
Phoneix Islands after.<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported that Napoleon wrasse numbers declined from 2000 and<br />
2002 (see also Stone et al 2001). These declines occurred even though this species was not<br />
targeted by longliners.<br />
ABARIRINGA (CANTON, KANTON)<br />
In 1949, J. Francis of Honolulu set up Marine Products Inc. on Abariringa (Canton) (Teiwaki<br />
1988). The scheme used i-Kiribati fishermen to catch tuna, mullet and lobster and ship<br />
products using military transports to Hawaii. The originator of the concept of fish exports<br />
from Abariringa (Canton) was Jim Francis, a fisheries research from Hawaii (Murphy et al<br />
1954). He formed Marine Products Company that he later sold to Medeiros, Izami, and<br />
Chee. Oates (2003) reported that J. Francis’ fish exports from Abariringa (Canton) did not<br />
start until 1952. Within the first 6 months, about 20.4 tonnes (45,000 pounds) of fish,<br />
primarily mullet, were shipped to Hawaii.<br />
In 1950, T.H. Miller of Fiji set up the Phoenix Islands Fisheries on Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Teiwaki 1988). Miller also hired i-Kiribati fishermen to catch tuna, mullet, and lobster.<br />
Fresh fish were sent to Hawaii. Halstead (1950) noted that T.H. Miller owned the Phoenix<br />
Islands Fishing Company on Abariringa (Canton). Fish were shipped twice a week to<br />
Honolulu via airplane.<br />
Both Francis and Miller were able to use U.S. military transport and infrastructure to support<br />
their operations (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
Bailey (1952) reported that frozen fish were being exported from Abariringa (Canton) to<br />
Honolulu by air.<br />
In 1952, Joe Medeiros, a Portuguese fisher was exporting fish to Honolulu (Murphy et al<br />
(1954). Murphy et al (1954) noted that it was only because of the dependable plane<br />
transportation that commercial fishing was feasible on Abariringa (Canton). About 907 to<br />
1,361 kg (2,000 or 3,000 pounds) of fish were exported weekly to Honolulu by Medeiros.<br />
Fish were then sold at the Honolulu auction.<br />
Walker (1955) reported that about 9 tonnes (20,000 pounds) of chilled fish were ship by air to<br />
Hawaii each month. Pan American handled two shipments per week. Walker (1955) noted<br />
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that the time between catch in Abariringa (Canton) and consumption in Hawaii was usually<br />
less than 24 hours.<br />
Walker (1955) noted that the Gilbertese caught and shipped about 1.8 tonnes (two tons) of<br />
mullet per month from Abariringa (Canton) to Hawaii.<br />
Degener and Gillaspy (1955) reported that there were three fishing companies operating on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). In July 1950, one of the companies exported 8.1 tonnes (17,984<br />
pounds) of fish to Hawaii.<br />
In 1955, the two commercial fishing companies on Abariringa (Canton) closed (Teiwaki<br />
1988).<br />
Witherspoon (1957) noted that in 5 months, one commercial fishing operation had exported<br />
27.7 tonnes (61,000 pounds) of fish to Hawaii from Abariringa (Canton).<br />
Two commercial fishing companies were exporting fish to Hawaii by air from Abariringa<br />
(Canton) (McIntire 1960). These included the Phoenix Islands Fisheries (a British company),<br />
and Marine Products Inc. (an American company). Both companies operated in the Phoenix<br />
and Line Islands. About 9.1 tonnes (20,000 pounds) of fish were exported monthly to<br />
Honolulu (Walker 1955; see also McIntire 1960). Since the advent of jet travel across the<br />
Pacific, and loss of air flights to Abariringa (Canton), both were now closed (Robson 1959;<br />
see also McIntire 1960).<br />
In 1988, a household survey was conducted by the Division of Fisheries (Yeeting 1988). All<br />
5 households on Abariringa (Canton) were surveyed (representing 18 people). Survey results<br />
indicated that people on Abariringa (Canton) fish only for their subsistence needs. No<br />
commercial fishing activities were undertaken. Also, if catch was good, surplus was shared<br />
amongst the community. The fishing effort targeted the lagoon (2.6 trips/week) and reef (1.4<br />
trips/week) near the settlement. There was no ocean fishing as there were no boat engines.<br />
An average of 2.2 persons went on each fishing trip.<br />
Trip costs averaged AUD 3.00 per week for hook and line fishing (for replacement hooks),<br />
and AUD 2.88 per for net fishing (Yeeting 1988). There was one traditional canoe and one<br />
dinghy on the island. Both lacked engines and had to be paddled. The one insulated fish box<br />
was not commonly used for fish as there was no ice.<br />
Gillnets and hook and line were the most common fishing gear, although scoop nets were<br />
also used (Yeeting 1988). During the week of the survey, total landings were 364.4 kg, 61<br />
percent from the lagoon and 49% from the reef. Per caput consumption was estimated at 2.89<br />
kg per day. Common catches included Albulidae (bonefish) 32.1 percent, and Lethrinidae<br />
(emperors) 16.0 percent. Other fish caught included: Mugillidae (mullets), Carangidae<br />
(trevallies), Holocentridae (soldierfish), Serranidae (groupers), Lutjanidae (snappers),<br />
Crustaceans (crayfish), Kyphosidae (drummers), and Acanthuridae (surgeonfish). Most of<br />
the bonefish were caught using gillnets (77.9 percent).<br />
In 2001, a foreign fishing vessel was licensed to harvest sharkfins by longline around<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, Manra (Sydney), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Planetary Coral Reef<br />
Foundation 2004).<br />
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Obura and Stone (2003) reported that the American Samoa fishing vessel Maddee, obtained<br />
permission to harvest sharkfin in the Phoenix Islands. The Maddee visited Abariringa,<br />
Manra, Rawaki (Phoenix) and Orona. The ship caught between 30 and 100 sharks per day<br />
(Stone 2004). The ship also visited other islands in the Phoenix group. The vessel broke and<br />
returned to Samoa for repairs. 2002 shark populations in these islands were fished to nearzero<br />
levels (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
MANRA (SYDNEY)<br />
In 2001, a foreign fishing vessel was licensed to harvest sharkfins by longline around<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, Manra (Sydney), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Planetary Coral Reef<br />
Foundation 2004).<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported that the American Samoa fishing vessel Maddee, obtained<br />
permission to harvest sharkfin in the Phoenix Islands. The Maddee visited Abariringa,<br />
Manra, Rawaki (Phoenix) and Orona. The ship caught between 30 and 100 sharks per day<br />
(Stone 2004). The ship also visited other islands in the Phoenix group. The vessel broke and<br />
returned to Samoa for repairs. 2002 shark populations in these islands were fished to nearzero<br />
levels (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
ORONA (HULL)<br />
In 2001, a foreign fishing vessel was licensed to harvest sharkfins by longline around<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, Manra (Sydney), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Planetary Coral Reef<br />
Foundation 2004).<br />
Tioti et al (2001) reported that workers for the Kakai scheme on Orona were landing about 20<br />
to 35 sharks every fishing trip. In the May-June 2001 period, 142 sharks were landed with<br />
shark fin value of AUD 5,000. Sharks most often taken included: white tip, Carcharinus<br />
melanopterus, black tip, Triaenodeon obseus, and grey shark, C. amblyrhyncus.<br />
The Phoenix Islands Kakai Scheme (PIKS) included shark finning as a key activity (Timeon<br />
2001; see also Mangubhai 2002). Shark were caught, fins dried for sale, and the meat was<br />
distributed to residents for consumption or for making kabuibui (dried, salted shark meat).<br />
Neilson (2002) reported that during the Kakai Scheme, shark landings were dramatically<br />
reduced. Comparisons of shark observations during dives between 2000 and 2002 showed<br />
dramatic decrease in shark abundance (see also Mangubhai 2002). Neilson (2002) noted that<br />
the shark fishery may not be a sustainable resource.<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported that the American Samoa fishing vessel Maddee, obtained<br />
permission to harvest sharkfin in the Phoenix Islands. The Maddee visited Abariringa,<br />
Manra, Rawaki (Phoenix) and Orona. The ship caught between 30 and 100 sharks per day<br />
(Stone 2004). The ship also visited other islands in the Phoenix group. The vessel broke and<br />
returned to Samoa for repairs. 2002 shark populations in these islands were fished to nearzero<br />
levels (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
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RAWAKI (PHOENIX)<br />
In 2001, a foreign fishing vessel was licensed to harvest sharkfins by longline around<br />
Abariringa (Kanton), Orona, Manra (Sydney), and Rawaki (Phoenix) (Planetary Coral Reef<br />
Foundation 2004).<br />
Obura and Stone (2003) reported that the American Samoa fishing vessel Maddee, obtained<br />
permission to harvest sharkfin in the Phoenix Islands. The Maddee visited Abariringa,<br />
Manra, Rawaki (Phoenix) and Orona. The ship caught between 30 and 100 sharks per day<br />
(Stone 2004). The ship also visited other islands in the Phoenix group. The vessel broke and<br />
returned to Samoa for repairs. 2002 shark populations in these islands were fished to nearzero<br />
levels (Obura and Stone 2003).<br />
E. REFERENCES<br />
Allain, V., and B. Leroy. 2003. Ecosystem monitoring and analysis: stomach sampling<br />
overview of the GEF-SAP project 2000-2005 and stomach sampling strategy of the<br />
GEF_OFM Project 2005-2010. Paper presented at the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries<br />
Commission, Scientific Committee Second Regular Session. 7-18 August 2006. Manila,<br />
Philippines.<br />
Asian Development Bank. 1998. Kiribati: 1997 economic report. Asian Development Bank,<br />
Manila, Philippines. 239 pp. [cited unseen from Mangubhai 2002.]<br />
Bailey, A.M. 1952. Australian expedition. Denver Museum of Natural History Annual<br />
Report 1952. page 31.<br />
Bailey, K., and D.G. Itano. 1992. Regional tuna tagging project, Activity Report - Tuvalu 1.<br />
SPC Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme. Technical Report No. 21.<br />
Bour, W. 1990. The fishery resources of Pacific island countries. Part 3: trochus. FAO Fish.<br />
Tech. Pap. 272.3. 89 p. [French/English bilingual]. [cited unseen from Eldredge 1994].<br />
Bour, W., F. Gohin and P. Bouchet. 1982. Croissance et mortalité naturelle des trocas de<br />
Nouvelle-Calédonie. ORSTOM, Noumea, New Caledonia. [cited unseen from Gillett 1993<br />
and 2002, and Eldredge 1994].<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1941. American Polynesia: coral islands of the central Pacific. Honolulu:<br />
Tongg Publishing Co. 208 pp.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian chain. Honolulu: Tongg<br />
Publishing Co. 253 pp.<br />
Bukaireiti, U. and N. Rabaua. 2002. Report Phoenix Island Expedition, February 26-March<br />
15, 2002.<br />
Bunker, N.C. 1951. Report on the field survey of the poisonous fishes of Canton Island,<br />
Phoenix Group: for the period, 4 January to 6 April 1951. Office of Naval Research,<br />
Washington. Mimeographed 18 pp.<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Chapman, L. 2003. Field report no. 19 on development options and constraints including<br />
training needs and infrastructure requirements within the tuna fishing industry and support<br />
services on Tarawa and Christmas Island, Republic of Kiribati, 11 to 19 November 2002, and<br />
26 November to 5 December 2002. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New<br />
Caledonia.<br />
Clune, F. 1951. Hands across the Pacific: a voyage of discovery from Australia to the<br />
Hawaiian Islands and Canada, April to June 1950. Sydney, London: Angus and Robertson.<br />
304 pp.<br />
Crocombe, R. 2001. The South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific.<br />
Dana, T.F. 1979. Species-numbers relationships in an assemblage of reef-building corals:<br />
McKean Island, Phoenix Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 228: 1-43.<br />
Degener, O., and E. Gillaspy. 1955. Canton Island, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin<br />
41: 1-50.<br />
Eldredge, L.G. 1994. <strong>Intro</strong>ductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the<br />
Pacific Islands. Vol. 1. SPC Inshore Fisheries Research Project Technical Document No. 7,<br />
<strong>SPREP</strong> Report and Studies Series No. 78.<br />
Ellis, A.F. 1937. Adventuring in coral seas. Australia: Angus and Robertson, Ltd. 264 pp.<br />
Gilbert Islands. 1978. Report of the expedition to Nikumaroro. 34 pp.<br />
Gillett, B. 1993. Pacific islands trochus introductions. Trochus Information Bulletin, No. 2,<br />
September 1993, pp. 13 - 16.<br />
Gillett, R.D. 1986. A summary of the Tokelau trochus transplant project. SPC Fisheries<br />
Newsletter No. 38, July - September 1986. pp. 37-43.<br />
Gillett, B. 2002. Pacific islands trochus introductions 1927-1998. SPC Trochus Information<br />
Bulletin #9, November 2002, pp. 9-13.<br />
Government of Kiribati. 1995. Ana ribooti te tiim n tutuo ibukin, te aono n Rawaki (Report<br />
of the Survey Team, Phoenix Islands).<br />
Groves, K.E. 1951. Report of an expedition to Polynesia for the purpose of collecting fishes,<br />
epidemiological and ecological data relative to ichthyotoxism. Loma Linda, California. 24<br />
pp. (mimeographed). [cited unseen from Wiens 1962.]<br />
Hallier, J.-P. And R.E. Kearney. 1980. Second interim report of the activities of the<br />
skipjack survey and assessment program in the waters of Kiribati (22 November - 5<br />
December 1979). Skipjack Survey and Assessment Programme, Preliminary Country Report<br />
No. 20.<br />
Halstead, B.W. 1950. Results of a preliminary survey of poisonous fishes in the waters<br />
adjacent to Canton Island. Sponsored by the Office of Naval Research Contract No. NONR-<br />
58
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
<strong>Chapter</strong> III. Background, 5. Fisheries Resources<br />
Draft 1 March 2007<br />
2005(00); School of Tropical and Preventive Medicine, College of Medical Evangelists,<br />
Loma Linda, Calif. 18 pp.<br />
Halstead, B.W., and N.C. Bunker. 1954. A survey of the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix<br />
Islands. Copeia 1954(1): 1-11.<br />
Hydrographer of the Navy. 1969. Pacific Islands pilot. Vol. II, The central group comprising<br />
New Caledonia and Iles Loyalty; the New Hebrides Group and Santa Cruz Islands; the Fiji<br />
Islands; and the Tonga, Samoa, Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Phoenix, and Tokelau Islands. N.P.<br />
No. 61. Ninth Edition 1969.<br />
Hyrdographic Office. 1940. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. II. (Eastern<br />
groups). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 166 pp.<br />
Integrated Marine Management Ltd. 1993. Kiribati marine resources sector study. Prepared<br />
for the Government of Kiribati.<br />
Ishiyama, R., and K. Okada. 1957. Postlarval form of the skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis)<br />
from the Phoenix Islands. Journal of Shimonoseki College of Fisheries 7(1): 141-146.<br />
[Abstract in English, text in Japanese]<br />
Itano, D.G. 1992a. Regional tuna tagging project, Activity Report - Kiribati 2. SPC Tuna<br />
and Billfish Assessment Programme, RTTP Activity Report No. 18.<br />
Itano, D. 1992b. Two months successful tagging aboard Te Tautai. SPC Fisheries<br />
Newsletter No. 61, April - June 1992. pp. 17 - 20.<br />
Itano, D.G., and P.G. Williams. 1992. Analyses of yellowfin tagging data and related<br />
information collected by the skipjack survey and assessment programme. SPC Tuna and<br />
Billfish Assessment Programme. Technical Report No. 28.<br />
June, F.C. 1950. Preliminary fisheries surveys of the Hawaiian-Line Islands area. Part II -<br />
Notes on the tuna and bait resources of the Hawaiian, Leeward, and Line Islands. U.S. Fish<br />
and Wildlife Service, Com. Fish. Rev., 13(1): 1-22. [cited unseen from June and Reintjes<br />
1953].<br />
June, F.C., and J.W. Reintjes. 1953. Common tuna-bait fishes of the central Pacific. U.S.<br />
Fish and Wildlife Service Research Report 34. 54 pp.<br />
Kaltongga, B. 1998. Regional tuna tagging project data summary. SPC Oceanic Fisheries<br />
Programme, Technical Report No. 35.<br />
Kamatie, M. and R. Awira. 1994. The initial assessment survey conducted on Kanton Island<br />
in the Phoenix group to estimate the relative abundance of a mature bonefish (Albula<br />
neoguinaica) stock. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources<br />
Development.<br />
Kearney, R.E. 1983. Assessment of the skipjack and baitfish resources in the central and<br />
western tropical Pacific Ocean: a summary of the skipjack survey and assessment<br />
programme. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 752/83.<br />
59
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Kepler, A.K.K. 2000. Report: Millenium sunrise, Line and Phoenix Islands Expedition,<br />
December 15, 1999 - January 28, 2000.<br />
Kerr, V., and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix Islands conservation survey 2006 marine survey<br />
report.<br />
Kleiber, P. and R.E. Kearney. 1983. An assessment of the skipjack and baitfish resources of<br />
Kiribati. South Pacific Commission, New Caledonia. Skipjack Survey and Assessment<br />
Programme Final Country Report No. 5.<br />
Knudson, K.E. 1965. Titiana: a Gilbertese community in the Solomon Islands. Eugene:<br />
University of Oregon. 245 pp.<br />
Langley, A. 2003. Kiribati national tuna fishery status report no. 2. Oceanic Fisheries<br />
Programme, Secretariat of the Pacific Community.<br />
Langley, A., J. Hampton, P. Williams, and P. Lehodey. 2003. The western and central<br />
Pacific tuna fishery: 2003 overview and status of stocks. SPC Oceanic Fisheries Programme,<br />
Tuna Fisheries Assessment Report No. 6.<br />
Lawson, T.A. 2005. Tuna fishery yearbook 2004. Western and Central Pacific Fisheries<br />
Commission, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia.<br />
Lehodey, P., M. Bertignac, J. Hampton, A. Lewis, and J. Picaut. 1997. El Nino Southern<br />
Oscillation and tuna in the western Pacific. Nature 389: 715-719.<br />
Mangubhai, S. 2002. Viable long-term options for isolated atolls of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1937. Report on the colonization of the Phoenix Islands by the surplus<br />
population of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Govt Press,<br />
Suva.<br />
McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of<br />
California. 42 pp.<br />
Murphy, G.I., and I.I. Ikehara. 1955. A summary of sightings of fish schools and bird flocks<br />
and of trolling in the central Pacific. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special Scientific<br />
Report: Fisheries No. 154.<br />
Murphy, R.C., R.J. Niedrach, and A.M. Bailey. 1954. Canton Island. Denver Museum of<br />
Natural History 10: 1-78.<br />
Neilson, P. 2002. Phoenix Island Expedition Report June 5th - July 10, 2002. Ministry of<br />
Environment & Social Development, Environment & Conservation Division.<br />
Oates, C. 2003. Canton Island aerial crossroads of the South Pacific. McLean: Paladwr<br />
Press.<br />
60
PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Obura, D., and G.S. Stone (eds). 2003. Summary of marine and terrestrial assessment<br />
conducted in the Republic of Kiribati, June 5-July 10, 2002. New England Aquarium,<br />
Conservation International, Cordio, Primal Ocean Project Tech. Rpt: NEAq-03-02.<br />
Onorio, B. 1984. Fisheries Division annual report 1984. Fisheries Division, Ministry of<br />
Natural Resources Development.<br />
PIKS Project Manager. 2002. Final report for Phoenix Island Kakai scheme. Ministry of<br />
Home Affairs and Rural Development.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2004. Health of the Phoenix Islands reefs.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/Canton/reefreport.html.<br />
Reintjes, J.W. and J.E. King. 1953. Food of yellowfin tuna in the Central Pacific. U.S. Fish<br />
& Wildlife Service. Fisheries Bulletin V. 54. No 81: 91-110. [cited unseen from Allain and<br />
Leroy 2006].<br />
Robson, R.W. (ed.). 1959. Pacific Islands year book. 8 th edition. Sydney: Australasian<br />
Publishing Company. 479 pp. [cited unseen from McIntire 1960.]<br />
Shimada, B.M. 1951. Juvenile oceanic skipjack from the Phoenix Islands. U.S. Fish and<br />
Wildlife Service Fishery Bulletin 64.<br />
Sibert, J., and J. Hampton. 2002. Lifetime displacements of tropical tunas: how much ocean<br />
do you need to conserve "your" tuna? SCTB 15 Working Paper YFT-2, 15th Meeting of the<br />
Standing Committee on Tuna and Billfish, Honolulu, Hawaii, 22-27 July 2002.<br />
Stone, G. 2004. Phoenix Islands: a coral reef wilderness revealed. National Geographic<br />
Magazine 2005(2): 48-64.<br />
Stone, G., D. Obura, S. Bailey, A. Yoshinaga, C. Holloway, R. Barrel, and S. Mangubhai.<br />
2001. Marine biological surveys of the Phoenix Islands, Summary of expedition conducted<br />
from June 24 - July 15, 2000. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Teiwaki, R. 1988. Management of marine resources in Kiribati. University of the South<br />
Pacific, Suva Fiji. 239 pp.<br />
Timeon, M. 2001. Phoenix Islands Kakai scheme. Report on voyage of MV Tebenebene to<br />
deliver emergency supplies to Orona Island. Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural<br />
Development.<br />
Tioti, B., T. Beiateuea, B. Neneia, N. Ueantabo, and T. Onorio. 2001 A preliminary<br />
marine resources and ciguatera survey of Orona (Hull) in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Tumoa, R. 2006. National fishery report Kiribati - Part 1. Paper presented at the Western<br />
and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, Scientific Committee Second Regular Session. 7-<br />
18 August 2006. Manila, Philippines.<br />
Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme. 1993. Kiribati country report 1991. South<br />
Pacific Commission, Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme Country Report No. 4.<br />
61
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Turbott, I.G. 1954. Portulaca, a specialty in the diet of the Gilbertese in the Phoenix Islands,<br />
central Pacific. Journal of the Polynesian Society 63(1): 77-86.<br />
Van Pel, H. 1956. Possibilities for improving the fisheries of American Samoa. South<br />
Pacific Commission, Noumea.<br />
Waldron, K.D. 1964. Fish schools and bird flocks in the central Pacific Ocean, 1950-1061.<br />
United States Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report: Fisehries No. 464. [cited<br />
unseen from Kleiber and Kearney 1983].<br />
Walker, H. 1955. Air age brings life to Canton Island. National Geographic Magazine 57:<br />
117-132.<br />
Wiens, H.J. 1962. Atoll environment and ecology. New Haven and London: Yale Univ.<br />
Press.<br />
Witherspoon, P.B. 1957. Canton Island. Pacific Discovery 10(6): 14-21.<br />
Yeeting, B.M. 1988. Canton Atoll preliminary marine resource survey. Ministry of Natural<br />
Resources Development, Fisheries Division.<br />
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CHAPTER III.<br />
BACKGROUND<br />
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, REGULATIONS, AND AGREEMENTS<br />
A. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES<br />
NUCLEAR ISSUE<br />
Yellowfin tuna contaminated by radioactivity from the Bikini Atoll nuclear test of 1954 were<br />
identified (Suzuki et al 1978; Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993). Few of these<br />
radioactive fish were found in the Phoenix Islands area (see Figure III-6.1 below).<br />
Figure III-6.1. Distribution of yellowfin tuna contaminated<br />
by radioactivity from the Bikini Atoll nuclear test<br />
(Suzuki et al 1978; Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993).<br />
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In the 1950’s there was a suspension of tuna exports from the Pacific into Europe due to the<br />
discovery of radioactive elements in the tuna (Teiwaki 1988). There were nuclear tests in<br />
the Marshall Islands and Christmas Island during that period and there was concern about the<br />
spread of radiation through the Line and Phoenix Islands.<br />
There was concern within the Government of Kiribati regarding the potential use of the high<br />
seas between the Phoenix and Line Islands for nuclear dumping (Teiwaki 1988).<br />
OCEAN DUMPING<br />
An explosives dumping area was established southwestward of Abariringa (Canton)<br />
(Hydrographic Office 1956; see also McIntire 1960). Coordinates for the dumping area were<br />
3 0 09’S to 3 0 28’S, and 171 0 53’W and 172 0 13’W.<br />
TOXIC WASTES<br />
According to Greenpeace (n.d.) unused malathion was stored on Abariringa (Kanton). It was<br />
left by the U.S. military after World War II.<br />
Burns et al (2000) reported that there were additional quantities of pesticides stored on<br />
Abariringa (Canton). This included Sevin and Malathion that were stored in an open shed.<br />
Burns et al (2000) noted that an inventory of the chemical stocks on Abariringa (Kanton) (site<br />
KIR17) was not yet available.<br />
Neilson (2002) reported finding hazardous chemicals at the former Quarantine Station storge<br />
sheds on Abariringa (Kanton). Chemicals found are listed below in Table III-6.1. Some of<br />
these materials had leaked from their containers and had spilled onto the concrete floor. The<br />
remains of many dead animals were observed on the floor including rats, crabs and several<br />
different species of birds. I-Kiribati workers on Abariringa (Kanton) had attempted to<br />
catalog these materials, but became sick from the fumes.<br />
Table III-6.1. Summary of chemicals found in 2002 at the<br />
Quarantine Station, Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
(source: Neilson 2002)<br />
Chemical Quantity Condition<br />
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In addition to the drums of hazardous chemicals, asbestos strips were common at former<br />
military sites on Abariringa (Kanton) (Neilson 2002). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB’s)<br />
was found in transformers and probably also was present in switches and other electronic<br />
equipment. Finally, much of the old military infrastructure that was donated to the<br />
Government of Kiribati was deemed unsafe due to deterioration and vandalism.<br />
In 2006, there was a Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) cleanup mission to Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) (Pollution Control Unit 2006). POPs left by the Americans were found during a<br />
previous visit to Abariringa (Kanton) [date not provided]. Three sites had POPs: (1)<br />
chemical shed (pesticides); (2) tracking station (oil in transformer reservoirs possibly<br />
contaminated with PCBs; and (3) radio house (capacitors, unidentified materials, and PCB<br />
contamination). Grease and sump drums around the chemical shed were also cleaned up. A<br />
total of 24 drums were filled and removed by the Neptune Gale. Table III-6.2 below<br />
provided a summary of POPs removed from Abariringa (Kanton).<br />
Table III-6.2. Summary of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)<br />
removed from Abaririgna (Kanton) in 2006.<br />
(source: Pollution Control Unit 2006).<br />
Name Active ingredient Solid /<br />
Liquid<br />
Packaging Unit<br />
quantity<br />
Number<br />
units<br />
Diazinon AG 500 Diazinon Solid Drum 5 L Approx<br />
32<br />
Sevin Carbaryl,<br />
inaphthyl<br />
nethylcarbamate,<br />
80%wt<br />
Solid Bag 10 lbs Approx<br />
50<br />
3<br />
Packaging<br />
Condition<br />
Poor<br />
Good<br />
Malathion - Liquid Drum 20 L 10 Poor,<br />
leaked<br />
Bromacil - Solid Bag 50 lbs 6 Poor<br />
Rodenticide Calcium salt of 2pivalyl-1,<br />
3-<br />
Indandione<br />
0.3%wt<br />
Solid Tin 500 g 4 Good
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Rodent Cake Warfrin Solid Cardboard<br />
box<br />
2 kg 4 Good<br />
Trichloroethylene - Liquid Drum 2 L 2 V. Poor,<br />
empty<br />
Chemicals found and packaged were stored in a container on Tarawa for eventual shipment to<br />
Australia for plasma conversion neutralization (Pollution Control Unit 2006). If oil found is<br />
contaminated, it will also be shipped to Australia, if not, it can be used on Tarawa.<br />
VESSEL GROUNDINGS AND OIL SPILLS<br />
The Phoenix Islands have had numerous vessel groundings over the years. One of the earliest<br />
recorded groundings was the whaleship Canton on Abariringa (Canton) in 1854 (Bryan 1941<br />
and 1942).<br />
During the guano period (c1856 to c1887), the following vessel groundings were reported:<br />
1) 1884, Howard de Tropp, Abariringa (Canton) (Ellis 1937);<br />
2) 1866, Golden Sunset, Enderbury (Bryan 1941 and 1942);<br />
3) c1884, Lorenza, Manra (Sydney) (Bryan 1941 and 1942);<br />
4) 1867, Washington, McKean (Anon. 1868);<br />
More recent vessel groundings included:<br />
1) 1937, Makoa, Orona (Hull) (Robson 1956);<br />
2) 1940, Admiral Day, Abariringa (Canton) (Oates 2003);<br />
3) 1942, President Taylor, Abariringa (Canton) (McIntire 1960); and<br />
4) 2001, Chance No. 301, McKean (Internationa Maritime Organization 2004).<br />
These were vessel groundings that were reported. Undoubtedly, there have been other<br />
groundings that were not permanent, did not resulting in vessel loss, or were not reported.<br />
Newer motor driven ships of the 20 th century probably caused more oil pollution as most 19 th<br />
century sailing ships. Both types of ships would have caused coral damage during grounding<br />
and breakup.<br />
CORAL BLEACHING<br />
In July to September 2002, there was a hot-spot in the Phoenix Islands (Planetary Coral Reef<br />
Foundation 2004). Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2004) speculated that this was the<br />
cause of mass bleaching in 2002 that were most notable in the lagoons of Abariringa<br />
(Kanton) and Orona.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (2006) reported that the bleaching event took place in<br />
November and December 2004. Bleaching in Abariringa (Canton) lagoon was 100 percent.<br />
Extensive and recent coral bleaching was reported for the Phoenix Islands (Anon. 2005).<br />
This was unusual as coral bleaching had not previously been reported from Kiribati.<br />
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EXOTIC SPECIES<br />
Garnett (1983c) identified priority actions for exotic species in the Phoenix Islands:<br />
1) Eliminate feral cats on Enderbury;<br />
2) Eliminate feral animals (cats, dogs, pigs) on Orona (Hull);<br />
3) Eradicate feral cats and dogs on Abariringa (Canton); and<br />
4) Assess impact of rabbits on the ecosystem on Rawaki (Phoenix), eradicate as<br />
necessary.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) identified high priority actions for exotic species in the Phoenix Islands:<br />
1) Incorporate pest eradication plans into the conservation management plan<br />
including biosecurity measures to prevent reinvasion of mammals and<br />
invasive ants and plant pests.<br />
2) Eradicate the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, from Rawaki.<br />
3) Eradicate the Asian rat, Rattus tanezumi, from McKean.<br />
4) Eradicate the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, from Birnie.<br />
Pierce et al (2006) also identified second level priority actions for exotic species in the<br />
Phoenix islands:<br />
1) Eradicate the Pacific rat, Rattus exulans, from Enderbury.<br />
2) Completed follow-up surveys to confirm pest status on Orona, Nikumaroro,<br />
and Manra, and seabird diversity on Abariringa (Kanton) and Manra.<br />
3) Monitor seabird populations on above islands.<br />
4) Eradicate cats (and rodents if present) on Orona.<br />
Finally, Pierce et al (2006) suggested that after priority issues were completed, eradication<br />
plans could be developed for pests on Nikumaroro, Manra, and the small islets inside the<br />
entrance to Abariringa (Kanton) lagoon.<br />
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Pierce et al (2006) provided a detailed proposal on the feasibility on eradication of key exotic<br />
species in the Phoenix Islands. This initial proposal focussed on high priority actions as<br />
outlined above.<br />
ENDANGERED SPECIES<br />
Pierce et al (2006) reported that two species of birds in the Phoenix Islands were listed in the<br />
IUCN (2004) Red List of Threatened Species:<br />
1) The Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba - endanged.<br />
2) White-throated storm-petrel, Nesofregetta albigularis - vulnerable.<br />
Two sources of endangered species lists were examined. These included the IUCN Red List<br />
http://www.iucnredlist.org/ and CITES Appendices (see<br />
http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html).<br />
The IUCN Red Lists uses defined criteria to determine the status of a species. The decision<br />
tree used is listed below (see Figure III-6.2). In addition, prior rating criteria can be carried<br />
forward for rating species.<br />
Figure III-6.2. Decision tree and criteria rating used by IUCN Red List.<br />
(source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/)<br />
The IUCN Red List for Kiribati is presented in Table xx below. Many of the species<br />
presented in Table III-6.3 below are found in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Table III-6.3. IUCN Red List of Endangered Species for Kiribati.<br />
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Species<br />
(source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/)<br />
Common Name Status<br />
Eretmochelys imbricata HAWKSBILL TURTLE Critically endangered<br />
Birgus latro COCONUT CRAB Data deficient<br />
Feresa attenuata PYGMY KILLER WHALE Data deficient<br />
Lagenodelphis hosei FRASER'S DOLPHIN Data deficient<br />
Mesoplodon densirostris BLAINVILLE'S BEAKED WHALE Data deficient<br />
Mesoplodon ginkgodens GINKGO-TOOTHED BEAKED Data deficient<br />
WHALE<br />
Steno bredanensis ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN Data deficient<br />
Thunnus alalunga ALBACORE TUNA Data deficient<br />
Xiphias gladius SWORDFISH Data deficient<br />
Alopias vulpinus THRESHER SHARK Data deficient<br />
Echinorhinus brucus BRAMBLE SHARK Data deficient<br />
Chelonia mydas GREEN TURTLE Endangered<br />
Cheilinus undulatus GIANT WRASSE Endangered<br />
Pterodroma alba PHOENIX PETREL Endangered<br />
Prosobonia cancellata TUAMOTU SANDPIPER Endangered<br />
Vini kuhlii KUHL'S LORIKEET Endangered<br />
Pterodroma cookii COOK'S PETREL Endangered<br />
Acrocephalus<br />
BOKIKOKIKO Least Concern<br />
aequinoctialis<br />
Actitis hypoleucos COMMON SANDPIPER Least Concern<br />
Anas acuta NORTHERN PINTAIL Least Concern<br />
Anas clypeata NORTHERN SHOVELER Least Concern<br />
Anas platyrhynchos MALLARD Least Concern<br />
Anas strepera GADWALL Least Concern<br />
Anous minutus BLACK NODDY Least Concern<br />
Anous stolidus BROWN NODDY Least Concern<br />
Arenaria interpres RUDDY TURNSTONE Least Concern<br />
Branta canadensis CANADA GOOSE Least Concern<br />
Bulweria bulwerii BULWER'S PETREL Least Concern<br />
Calidris acuminata SHARP-TAILED SANDPIPER Least Concern<br />
Calidris alba SANDERLING Least Concern<br />
Calidris melanotos PECTORAL SANDPIPER Least Concern<br />
Ducula pacifica PACIFIC IMPERIAL-PIGEON Least Concern<br />
Eudynamys taitensis LONG-TAILED KOEL Least Concern<br />
Fregata ariel LESSER FRIGATEBIRD Least Concern<br />
Gygis alba COMMON WHITE-TERN Least Concern<br />
Gygis microrhyncha LITTLE WHITE-TERN Least Concern<br />
Heteroscelus incanus WANDERING TATTLER Least Concern<br />
Larus atricilla LAUGHING GULL Least Concern<br />
Larus delawarensis RING-BILLED GULL Least Concern<br />
Larus pipixcan FRANKLIN'S GULL Least Concern<br />
Limosa lapponica BAR-TAILED GODWIT Least Concern<br />
Numenius phaeopus WHIMBREL Least Concern<br />
Oceanites oceanicus WILSON'S STORM-PETREL Least Concern<br />
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Oceanodroma castro BAND-RUMPED STORM-<br />
PETREL<br />
Least Concern<br />
Oceanodroma leucorhoa LEACH'S STORM-PETREL Least Concern<br />
Pelagodroma marina WHITE-FACED STORM-PETREL Least Concern<br />
Phalaropus fulicarius GREY PHALAROPE Least Concern<br />
Pluvialis fulva PACIFIC GOLDEN-PLOVER Least Concern<br />
Procelsterna cerulea BLUE NODDY Least Concern<br />
Puffinus nativitatis CHRISTMAS ISLAND<br />
SHEARWATER<br />
Least Concern<br />
Stercorarius pomarinus POMARINE JAEGER Least Concern<br />
Sterna albifrons LITTLE TERN Least Concern<br />
Sterna bergii GREAT CRESTED-TERN Least Concern<br />
Sterna fuscata SOOTY TERN Least Concern<br />
Sterna lunata GREY-BACKED TERN Least Concern<br />
Sula dactylatra MASKED BOOBY Least Concern<br />
Sula leucogaster BROWN BOOBY Least Concern<br />
Hippopus hippopus BEAR PAW CLAM Lower risk, conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Stenella longirostris LONG-BEAKED DOLPHIN Lower risk, conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Tridacna maxima SMALL GIANT CLAM Lower risk, conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Tridacna squamosa FLUTED CLAM Lower risk, conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Carcharhinus falciformis SILKY SHARK Low risk, least concern<br />
Kogia sima DWARF SPERM WHALE Low risk, least concern<br />
Thunnus albacares YELLOWFIN TUNA Low risk, least concern<br />
Carcharhinus<br />
amblyrhynchos<br />
GRAY REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Carcharhinus<br />
melanopterus<br />
BLACKTIP REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Galeocerdo cuvier TIGER SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Isurus oxyrinchus SHORTFIN MAKO Low risk, near threatened<br />
Prionace glauca BLUE SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Pseudocarcharias<br />
kamoharai<br />
CROCODILE SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Sphyrna lewini SCALLOPED HAMMERHEAD Low risk, near threatened<br />
Triaenodon obesus WHITETIP REEF SHARK Low risk, near threatened<br />
Ducula oceanica MICRONESIAN IMPERIAL-<br />
PIGEON<br />
Near Threatened<br />
Epinephelus<br />
fuscoguttatus<br />
BROWN-MARBLED GROUPER Near Threatened<br />
Epinephelus<br />
polyphekadion<br />
CAMOUFLAGE GROUPER Near Threatened<br />
Thunnus obesus BIGEYE TUNA Vulnerable<br />
Rhincodon typus WHALE SHARK Vulnerable<br />
Nesofregetta fuliginosa POLYNESIAN STORM-PETREL Vulnerable<br />
Tridacna gigas GIANT CLAM Vulnerable<br />
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Epinephelus lanceolatus BRINDLE BASS Vulnerable<br />
Numenius tahitiensis BRISTLE-THIGHED CURLEW Vulnerable<br />
CITES has three different lists of Kiribati species (see<br />
http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html). Appendix I listed species that were most<br />
endangered. Appendix II listed species that were not necessarily now threatened with<br />
extinction but that may become so unless trade was closely controlled. Appendix III listed<br />
species at the request of a party that already regulates trade I the species and needed the<br />
cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation.<br />
CITES Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati are provided below (see Table III-6.4a to c<br />
below). Many of the species listed in these appendices are found in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Table III-6.4a. CITES Appendix I for Kiribati<br />
(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html)<br />
APPENDIX 1<br />
Aves (bird) Branta canadensis<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Eretmochelys imbricata<br />
Table III-6.4b. CITES Appendix II for Kiribati<br />
(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html)<br />
APPENDIX 2<br />
Mammalia (dolphin) Lagenodelphus hosei<br />
Aves (bird) Vini kuhlii<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Actinopterygii (bony fishes) Chelinus undulates<br />
Elasmobranchii (sharks and<br />
rays)<br />
Rhincodon typus<br />
Mollusc (shellfish) Hippopus hippopus Tridacna maxima<br />
Tridacna gigas<br />
Anthozoa (corals) Tubipora musica<br />
Helioproa corerulea<br />
Pocillopora damicornis<br />
Pocillopora elegans<br />
Pocillopora eydouxi<br />
Pocillopora meandrina<br />
Pocillopora molokensis<br />
Pocilloproa verrucosa<br />
Seriatopora hystrix<br />
Stylophora mordax<br />
Stylophora pistillata<br />
Acropora abrotanoides<br />
Acropora acuminata<br />
Acropora anthocercis<br />
Acropora cerealis<br />
Tridacna squamosa<br />
Gardineroseris planulata<br />
Leptoseris hawaiiensis<br />
Leptoseris incrustans<br />
Leptoseris mycetoseroides<br />
Leptoseris scabra<br />
Pachyseris speciosa<br />
Pavona cactus<br />
Pavona clavus<br />
Pavona divaricata<br />
Pavona explanulata<br />
Pavona gigantea<br />
Pavona maldivensis<br />
Pavona minuta<br />
Pavona varians<br />
Pavona venosa<br />
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Acropora clathrata<br />
Acropora cytherea<br />
Acropora digitifera<br />
Acropora divaricata<br />
Acropora echinata<br />
Acropora formosa<br />
Acropora gemmifera<br />
Acropora grandis<br />
Acropora horrida<br />
Acropora humilis<br />
Acropora hyacinthus<br />
Acropora intermedia<br />
Acropora latistella<br />
Acropora longicyathus<br />
Acropora lovelli<br />
Acropora lutkeni<br />
Acropora microphthalma<br />
Acropora nana<br />
Acropora nasuta<br />
Acropora palifera<br />
Acropora paniculata<br />
Acropora polystoma<br />
Acropora robusta<br />
Acropora secale<br />
Acropora selago<br />
Acropora spicifera<br />
Acropora striata<br />
Acropora subulata<br />
Acropora tenuis<br />
Acropora tortuosa<br />
Acropora valida<br />
Acropora vaughani<br />
Acropora verweyi<br />
Acropora yongei<br />
Astreopora gracilis<br />
Astreopora listeri<br />
Astreopora myriophthalma<br />
Astreopora ocellata<br />
Astreopora randalli<br />
Astreopora scabra<br />
Montipora aequituberculata<br />
Montipora efflorescens<br />
Montipora foveolata<br />
Montipora grisea<br />
Montipora hispida<br />
Montipora hoffmeisteri<br />
Montipora informis<br />
Montipora monasteriata<br />
Montipora peltiformis<br />
Montipora tuberculosa<br />
Fungia concinna<br />
Fungia costulata<br />
Fungia fralinae<br />
Fungia fungites<br />
Fungia granulosa<br />
Fungia horrida<br />
Fungia paumotensis<br />
Fungia repanda<br />
Fungia scruposa<br />
Fungia scutaria<br />
Halomitra pileus<br />
Herpolitha limax<br />
Podabacia crustacea<br />
Sandalolitha dentata<br />
Sandalolitha robusta<br />
Culicia stellata<br />
Echinophyllia aspera<br />
Echinophyllia echinata<br />
Mycedium elephantotus<br />
Oxypora lacera<br />
Acanthastrea echinata<br />
Lobophyllia corymbosa<br />
Lobophyllia costata<br />
Lobophyllia hemprichii<br />
Symphyllia radians<br />
Hydnophora exesa<br />
Hydnophora microconos<br />
Hydnophora rigida<br />
Merulina ampliata<br />
Cyphastrea microphthalma<br />
Cyphastrea serailia<br />
Echinopora horrida<br />
Echinopora lamellosa<br />
Favia favus<br />
Favia matthaii<br />
Favia pallida<br />
Favia rotumana<br />
Favia speciosa<br />
Favia stelligera<br />
Favites abdita<br />
Favites chinensis<br />
Favites flexuosa<br />
Favites halicora<br />
Favites pentagona<br />
Favites russelli<br />
Goniastrea aspera<br />
Goniastrea edwardsi<br />
Goniastrea favulus<br />
Goniastrea pectinata<br />
Goniastrea retiformis)<br />
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Montipora venosa<br />
Montipora verrilli<br />
Montipora verrucosa<br />
Alveopora verrilliana<br />
Goniopora stutchburyi<br />
Porites arnaudi<br />
Porites australiensis<br />
Porites cylindrica<br />
Porites lichen<br />
Porites lobata<br />
Porites lutea<br />
Porites pukoensis<br />
Porites rus<br />
Porites solida<br />
Porites vaughani<br />
Coscinastrea columna<br />
Coscinastrea monile<br />
Psammocora contigua<br />
Psammocora haimiana<br />
Psammocora nierstraszi<br />
Psammocora profundacella<br />
Psammocora stellata<br />
Psammocora verrilli<br />
Hydrozoa Millepora platyphylla<br />
Distichopora coccinea<br />
Distichopora nitida<br />
Leptastrea bewickensis<br />
Leptastrea pruinosa<br />
Leptastrea purpurea<br />
Leptastrea transversa<br />
Leptoria phrygia<br />
Montastraea curta<br />
Montastraea magnistellata<br />
Oulophyllia crispa<br />
Platygyra daedalea<br />
Platygyra lamellina<br />
Platygyra sinensis<br />
Plesiastrea versipora<br />
Plerogyra simplex<br />
Plerogyra sinuosa<br />
Javania insignis<br />
Tubastraea coccinea<br />
Tubastraea diaphana<br />
Tubastraea micranthus<br />
Turbinaria frondens<br />
Turbinaria irregularis<br />
Turbinaria mesenterina<br />
Turbinaria reniformis<br />
Turbinaria stellulata<br />
Distichopora violacea<br />
Stylaster bocki<br />
Stylaster sanguineus<br />
Table III-6.4c. CITES Appendix III for Kiribati<br />
(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html)<br />
CITES APPENDIX 3<br />
Aves (birds) Anas acuta<br />
Anas clypeata<br />
Reservations to or withdrawals from the CITES Appendices for Kiribati can be entered.<br />
These are noted below in Tables III-6.5 and III-6.6).<br />
Table III-6.5. CITES Reservations to Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati<br />
(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html)<br />
CITES Appendix 1 -Reservations<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Eretmochelys imbricate<br />
CITES Appendix 2 – Reservations<br />
Aves (birds) Vini kuhlii<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) Rhincodon typus<br />
Molluscs (shellfish) Hippopus hippopus<br />
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Tridacna gigas<br />
Tridacna maxima<br />
Tridacna squamosa<br />
CITES Appendix 3 – Reservations<br />
Aves (birds) Anas acuta<br />
Anas clypeata<br />
Table III-6.6. CITES Withdrawals to Appendices I, II, and III for Kiribati<br />
(source: http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html)<br />
CITES Appendix 1 – Withdrawals<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Eretmochelys imbricate<br />
CITES Appendix 2 – Withdrawals<br />
Aves (birds) Vini kuhlii<br />
Reptilia (turtle) Chelonia mydas<br />
Molluscs (shellfish) Tridacna gigas<br />
CITES Appendix 3 – Reservations<br />
Aves (birds) Anas acuta<br />
Anas clypeata<br />
BIOSECURITY<br />
Pierce et al (2006) provide guidelines for maintaining biosecurity once key exotic species<br />
were removed from the Phoenix Islands. These included:<br />
1) Ensure that all vessels visiting the Phoenix Islands were free of exotic species<br />
such as rodents, ants, plants and seeds.<br />
2) Clean and seal food and equipment containers, spray with insecticides.<br />
3) Check all personal gear and clothing for ants and seeds.<br />
4) Erect large print “NO LANDING” signs on all islands.<br />
5) Establish rat bait stations on all foreign fishing vessels in the area.<br />
6) Erect public education signs on Abariringa (Kanton) regarding the value of<br />
terrestrial resources and risks to them.<br />
7) Train inhabitants to conduct follow-up biosecurity issues.<br />
8) Initiate public and seafarer education programs on the value of the Phoenix<br />
Islands.<br />
9) Advocate rat removal and the beneficial impacts to the economy.<br />
10) Advocate the continued need to protect the Phoenix Islands against<br />
reintroduction of pest species.<br />
11) Develop non-landing alternatives for scientists and adventurers.<br />
B. NATIONAL REGULATIONS AND LAWS<br />
PHOENIX ISLANDS SPECIFIC LAWS AND REGULATIONS<br />
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Specific rules on inheritance were made regarding gifts for an adoption as a grandchild were<br />
specified for Nikumaroro and Orona (Anon. nd). “Gifts will revert to the donor’s family if<br />
the recipient dies issueless. But if the recipient has children the donor loses his reversionary<br />
right and it is immaterial if his issue are later issueless”.<br />
For Nikumaroro, “if an owner has several spouses the eldest son of the owner will receive the<br />
best land and it is immaterial whether he is by the first spouse, the second spouse, the third<br />
spouse or any other spouse, and thereafter the estate will be shared equally between the<br />
spouses” (Anon. nd).<br />
For Nikumaroro and Orona, “gifts to an adopted child will revert to the donor’s family if the<br />
recipient dies issueless. But if the recipient has children the donor loses his reversionary right<br />
and it is immaterial if his issues are later issueless” (Anon. nd).<br />
The Native Lands Ordinance 1956 declared that the Gilbert and Phoenix Islands Lands Code<br />
was code of law governing native land rights effective 1 March 1963 (Pulea and Farrier<br />
1993).<br />
COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCE CONSERVATION<br />
The Government of Kiribati has codified national legal instruments regarding coastal and<br />
marine resource conservation (Mangubhai 2002; Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development<br />
(1999; Garnett 1983c). These are listed in Table III-6.7 below.<br />
Table III-6.7. National legal instruments relating to<br />
marine resources and coastal resources in Kiribati<br />
Closed District Act *4 1990<br />
Environmental Act *1 1999<br />
Fisheries (Pacific Islands States’ Treaty with the U.S.) Act *2 1988<br />
Fisheries (Processing and Export) Regulations *1 1981<br />
Fisheries (Vessel Licenses) Regulation (No. 1) *1 1982<br />
Fisheries (Vessel Licenses) Regulations *1 1981<br />
Fisheries Act *1 1977<br />
Fisheries Amendment Act *1 1984<br />
Fisheries Conservation and Protection Regulations *1 1979<br />
Fisheries Ordinance *1 1977<br />
Fisheries Regulations *1 1981<br />
Foreshore and Land Reclamation Ordinance *1,2 1973<br />
Importation of Animals Ordinance *2 1964<br />
Land Planning Ordinance *2 1973<br />
Local Government Act *2 1984<br />
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Marine Zones (Declaration) Act *1,2 1983<br />
Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) *2 1975<br />
Native Lands Ordinance *2 1956<br />
Plant Ordinance *2 1975<br />
Prohibited Areas Ordinance *2 1957<br />
Prohibited Fishing Areas (Designation) Regulations *1 1978<br />
Quarantine Ordinance *2 1931<br />
Wildlife Conservation Ordinance (cap 100) *1,2,3 1975<br />
*source:<br />
1. Mangubhai (2002);<br />
2. Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development (1999);<br />
3. Garnett (1983c); and<br />
4. Pulea and Farrier (1993).<br />
Closed District Act - The Closed District Act 1990 was a re-enactment of a 1936 ordinance<br />
and followed the Constitutional (Laws Adaptation) Order 1980 (Pulea and Farrier 1993).<br />
Under this law, Abariringa (Canton), as well as Kiritimati, Tabuaeran, and Teraina were<br />
declared closed areas. Access was limited to permit holders. [Need to confirm with AG on<br />
the new Act, ie no more closed district – may be 1995]<br />
Environment Act - Environmental Act of 1999 has been redrafted and has passed first reading<br />
in Parliament (in late 2006). The second and final reading should be in early 2007.<br />
The Fisheries (Pacific Island States’ Treaty with the U.S.A.) Act - The Fisheries Act gave<br />
effect to the Treaty on Fisheries between the Governments of certain Pacific Island States and<br />
the Government of the United States (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). The<br />
Treaty allowed tuna purse seine vessels from the U.S. to fish in Kiribati waters (including the<br />
Kiribati EEZ around the Phoenix Islands).<br />
The Fisheries Ordinances of 1977, and amendments, and the Fisheries Act of 1984 – These<br />
regulations and laws relate to marine tenure and resource use (Ministry of Line and Phoenix<br />
Development 1999).<br />
The Fisheries Act provided the regulatory framework for the operation of the fishery in<br />
Kiribati (Sharp n.d.). However, the Fisheries Act provided no guidance on fisheries<br />
conservation or sustainable development. Other key points of the Fisheries Act included:<br />
1) Vessels over 7 m require a license;<br />
2) Foreign vessels must have a permit prior to entry into the fishery; and<br />
3) Fishing permits were issued annually with fees subject to negotiation.<br />
Vessels involved in transshipping must also be registered and licensed and must pay<br />
transshipment fees (Sharp n.d.).<br />
According to the Fisheries Act, the Minister has the power to make regulations on closed<br />
seasons, closed areas, size limits, gear limitations, and other measures as appropriate.<br />
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Various fisheries regulations have been promulgated to manage the fishery including<br />
regulations for processing and export of fishery products and for vessel licensing.<br />
Foreshore and Land Reclamation Ordinance - The Foreshore and Land Reclamation<br />
Ordinance included the general provision that the State owns the foreshore and the seabed<br />
(Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999). However, the public has the right of<br />
navigation, fishing and passing over the foreshore.<br />
Importation of Animals Ordinance – The Importation of Animals Ordinance regulated the<br />
importation of animals (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Land Planning Ordinance - The Land Planning Ordinance provided for control of<br />
development and use of land (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Local Government Act - The Local Government Act gave the local island councils wideranging<br />
functions, include regulation of local fisheries (Ministry of Line and Phoenix<br />
Development 1999).<br />
Marine Zone (Declaration) Act – The marine Zone (Declaration) Act related to the internal<br />
waters, archipelagic waters, territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and the<br />
contiguous zone of Kiribati (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Merchant Shipping (oil pollution ) Order - The Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) Order was<br />
the application of the U.K. Merchant Shipping (oil pollution) Act of 1971 (Ministry of Line<br />
and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Native Lands Ordinance of 1956 – The Native Lands Ordinance relates to land tenure<br />
(Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Plant Ordinance - The Plant Ordinance provided for the protection of endangered or<br />
culturally important plant species (Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development 1999).<br />
Prohibited Areas Ordinance 1957 – The Prohibited Areas Ordinance had a provision for<br />
setting aside areas for nature conservation purposes (Pulea and Farrier 1993). Under the<br />
1957 ordinance, Birnie, Abariringa (Canton, Kanton), Enderbury and Orona (Orana, Hull)<br />
were declared protected areas (L.N. 46/72).<br />
Quarantine Ordinance - The Quarantine Ordinance regulated importation of agricultural and<br />
other products that may harbour dangerous pathogens (Ministry of Line and Phoenix<br />
Development 1999).<br />
Wildlife Conservation Ordinance of 1975, amended in 1979 – The Wildlife Conservation<br />
Ordinance covered the conservation of wildlife (Anon. 1985). For a full text of the Wildlife<br />
Conservation Laws (<strong>Chapter</strong> 100) see Government of Kiribati (1977).<br />
LAND TENURE<br />
Local Ownership - Knudsen (1965) noted that anyone who came to the Phoenix Islands as<br />
part of the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme by H.E. Maude would have “to renounce<br />
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all claims in their home islands, and their lands there would be distributed among their kin”<br />
(Maude 1952 and 1968; see also Knudsen 1977). Knudsen (1977) reported that each new<br />
settler in the Phoenix Islands was to be allocated a plot of productive land.<br />
During the 1938 Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, each Manra (Sydney) settler received<br />
one block of land containing 25 coconut trees at the center of the coconut tree plantation, and<br />
one block of land at the fringes of the planted area (Knudsen 1965; Maude 1952 and 1968).<br />
An addition block of land was given to each settler at the center of the plantation in the<br />
village for his house. Each child was also given a block of unplanted land that, if not planted<br />
with coconuts within 5 years, would revert to the government. All titles were freehold. Lots<br />
were drawn to determine assignment of blocks. A two week grace period was provided so<br />
that settlers could exchange blocks if so desired. A land book was used to register land<br />
ownership.<br />
The demarcation of kainga land (30.5 m (100 ft) wide running in strips from the lagoon to the<br />
sea) and house plots on Nikumaroro were completed (Laxton 1951).<br />
According to Garnett (1983a), all of the Phoenix Islands were owned by the Government of<br />
Kiribati.<br />
International Ownership – In 1937, the Phoenix Islands were placed under the Gilbert and<br />
Ellice Islands Colony (Bryan 1941 and 1942). In 1938, the U.S. claimed sovereignty over the<br />
Phoenix Islands. In 1939, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to jointly administer the Phoenix<br />
Islands for 50 years. In 1979, the U.S. surrendered its sovereignty claims over the Phoenix<br />
Islands to the Government of Kiribati under the 1979 Treaty of Friendship (Trease 1993).<br />
Garnett (1983b) reported that American Samoa also claimed Abariringa (Canton). After the<br />
U.S. satellite and missile tracking station was closed in 1979, a small group of I-Kiribati were<br />
based on Abariringa (Canton) to ensure that the American Samoans did not occupy it.<br />
PROTECTED STATUS<br />
Birds - In the amended ordinance, all regularly occurring species of birds, their eggs, and<br />
nests are fully protected (see also Dahl 1980).<br />
Wildlife sanctuaries – Wildlife sanctuaries have been established in Rawaki (Phoenix),<br />
McKean, and Birnie (Anon. 1985; Government of Kiribati 1977; L.N. 24/77 according to<br />
Pulea and Farrier 1993). Garnett (1983a) listed the current protection status of islands in the<br />
Phoenix Islands (see Table III-6.8).<br />
Table III-6.8. Current Protection Status of the Phoenix Islands<br />
(source: Garnett 1983a).<br />
Island Protection Status<br />
Abariringa (Canton, Kanton) None.<br />
Birnie Wildlife Sanctuary<br />
Enderbury None<br />
Manra (Sydney) None<br />
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McKean Wildlife Sanctuary<br />
Nikumaroro (Gardner) None<br />
Orona (Hull) None<br />
Rawaki (Phoenix) Wildlife Sanctuary<br />
Designated conservation area on Orona – According to Tioti et al (2001), Ueantabo (personal<br />
communication) reported that a conservation area had been established in the lagoon on<br />
Orona about one-third the size of the island (see Figure III-6.3 below).<br />
Figure III-6.3. Designated conservation area on Orona.<br />
(source: Tioti et al 2001)<br />
Green turtles - Under the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance, green turtles, their eggs, and<br />
nests were protected in most of the Phoenix Islands, excluding Abariringa (Canton) and<br />
Enderbury (Anon. 1985; see also Dahl 1980; see also Government of Kiribati 1977).<br />
According to Pulea and Farrier (1993), the green turtle was fully protected in the following<br />
designated areas: Birnie, Nikumaroro (Gardner), Orona (Orana, Hull), McKean, Rawaki<br />
(Phoenix), and Manra (Sydney). Prohibited acts included: (1) hunting, killing or capturing,<br />
(2) possession of any part, (3) searching for, taking, or wilfully destroying or damaging eggs<br />
and nests, and (4) possession, acquiring, selling or giving eggs or nests. Pulea and Farrier<br />
(1993) note that green turtles were protected on certain Phoenix Islands, but were not<br />
protected at sea.<br />
Other turtle species - Other marine turtles were protected on land by Section 7 of the Wildlife<br />
Conservation Ordinance (Pulea and Farrier 1993). Hunting, capture, and killing other marine<br />
turtles while on land were prohibited without a permit. However, like the green turtle, they<br />
were not protected at sea.<br />
Subtidal conservation area - It was not known if there was a subtidal marine component for<br />
McKean, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Birnie Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Phoenix Islands (Bleakley<br />
1995). Pulea and Farrier (1993) noted that there appeared to be no reason why a wildlife<br />
sanctuary could not be declared over an area of the seabed.<br />
Marine mammals - Sharp (n.d.) noted that there was no protection for marine mammals under<br />
Kiribati law.<br />
C. I NTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL AGREEMENTS<br />
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The Government of Kiribati has made various commitments to international and regional,<br />
legal instruments regarding coastal and marine resource conservation (Mangubhai 2002).<br />
These international and regional agreements are listed in Table III-6.9 below.<br />
Table III-6.9. International and regional legal instruments relating to<br />
marine resources and coastal resources in Kiribati<br />
Legal Instrument Year<br />
International<br />
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of 1982<br />
Wastes and Other Matter (London Dumping Conservation) *1,2<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity *1 1992<br />
Convention on Climate Change *1 1993<br />
World Heritage Convention *1 2000<br />
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty *2<br />
International Maritime Organization Convention *2<br />
Maritime Pollution Convention (MARPOL) *2<br />
Regional<br />
Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia 1976<br />
Convention) *1<br />
South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency Convention *1 1979<br />
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and<br />
Environment of the South Pacific Region (<strong>SPREP</strong> Convention) *1,2<br />
1986<br />
South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Rarotonga Treaty) *1,2 1986<br />
Treaty on Fisheries between the Governments of Certain Pacific<br />
Island States and the Government of the United States of America *3<br />
1987<br />
Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the<br />
South Pacific (Tarawa Declaration) *1,2<br />
1992<br />
Cooperation in Fisheries Surveillance and Law Enforcement in the<br />
South Pacific Region (Niue Treaty) *1<br />
1993<br />
*source:<br />
1. Mangubhai (2002),<br />
2. Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development (1999).<br />
3. Crocombe (2001).<br />
Wetlands - Rawaki (Phoenix), McKean, and Birnie have been listed under the Ramsar<br />
Convention on Wetlands of International Significance (Anon. 1985).<br />
D. REFERENCES CITED<br />
Anon. nd. Gilbertese and Phoenix lands code.<br />
Anon. 1868. Loss of three Boston ships in the Pacific Ocean, their crews all saved. The<br />
Boston Herald, Boston. February 4, 1868 (see Ward 1967, p. 313-314).<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Anon. 1985. Kiribati. Pp. 115-124 in "Report of the Third Pacific National Parks and<br />
Reserves Conference, Apia, Western Samoa. Vol. III. Country reviews.<br />
Anon. 2005. Preliminary findings: a snapshot of the condition of coral reefs in Fiji Islands,<br />
French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Tonga and Vanuatu from 2002-2004. SPC<br />
Fisheries Newsletter No. 112, January - March 2005. pp. 3-5.<br />
Bleakley, C. (ed.). 1995. Marine region 14, South Pacific. Pages 13-53 in G. Kelleher, C.<br />
Bleakley, and S. Wells (eds.), A global representative system of marine protected areas.<br />
Volume IV. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank, The World<br />
Conservation Union (IUCN).<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1941. American Polynesia: coral islands of the central Pacific. Honolulu:<br />
Tongg Publishing Co. 208 pp.<br />
Bryan, E.H., Jr. 1942. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian chain. Honolulu: Tongg<br />
Publishing Co. 253 pp.<br />
Burns, T., B . Graham, A. Munro, and I. Wallis. 2000. Management of persistant organic<br />
pollutants in Pacific Island countries, waste and obsolete chemicals and chemical<br />
contaminated sites <strong>SPREP</strong>. 227 pp.<br />
Crocombe, R. 2001. The South Pacific. Suva: University of the South Pacific.<br />
Dahl, A.L. 1980. Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN<br />
Technical Paper 179, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.<br />
Ellis, A.F. 1937. Adventuring in coral seas. Australia: Angus and Robertson, Ltd. 264 pp.<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983a. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands. Part 1. Description. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and<br />
Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 318 pp.<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983b. A management plan for nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands. Part 2. Policy. Unpublished report prepared for the Ministry of Line and Phoenix<br />
Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati.<br />
Garnett, M.C. 1983c. Part 3. Recommendations. Unpublished report prepared for the<br />
Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands, Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. 125 pp.<br />
Government of Kiribati. 1977. Laws of the Gilbert Islands, <strong>Chapter</strong> 100. Wildlife<br />
Conservation. Revised 1977.<br />
Greenpeace. n.d. Overview profiles of persistent organic pollutants in the Pacific Islands.<br />
Appendix<br />
Hydrographic Office. 1956. Sailing directions for the Pacific islands. Vol. III. Washington,<br />
D.C.: Government Printing Office. H.O. Publication No. 166. 460 pp. [cited unseen from<br />
McIntire 1960.]<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
International Maritime Organization. 2004. Casualties of fishing vessels and fishermen.<br />
Very serious and serious casulaties for the year 2001. FSI.4/Circ. 4.<br />
IUCN. 2006. 2006 IUCN list of threatened species. www.iucnredlist.org.<br />
Knudson, K.E. 1965. Titiana: a Gilbertese community in the Solomon Islands. Eugene:<br />
University of Oregon. 245 pp.<br />
Knudson, K.E. 1977. Sydney Island, Titiana, and Kamaleai: Southern Gilbertese in the<br />
Phoenix and Solomon Islands. <strong>Chapter</strong> 8, pages 195-242 in Lieber, M.D. (ed). Exiles and<br />
migrants in Oceania. ASAO Monograph #5, Honolulu: Univeristy Press.<br />
Laxton, P.B. 1951. Nikumaroro. Journal of the Polynesian Society 60(2,3): 134-160.<br />
Mangubhai, S. 2002. Viable long-term options for isolated atolls of the Phoenix Islands,<br />
Republic of Kiribati. New England Aquarium, Boston, MA, USA.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1952. The colonization of the Phoenix Islands. Journal of the Polynesian<br />
Society 61(1952): 62-89.<br />
Maude, H.E. 1968. Of islands and men; studies in Pacific history. Melbourne: Oxford Univ.<br />
Press. 397 pp.<br />
McIntire, E.G. 1960. Canton Island, Phoenix Islands: A library brochure. University of<br />
California. 42 pp.<br />
Ministry of Line and Phoenix Development. 1999. Kiritimati Atoll conservation area project<br />
(KACAP). South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme, Project Preparation<br />
Document.<br />
Neilson, P. 2002. Phoenix Island Expedition Report June 5th - July 10, 2002. Ministry of<br />
Environment & Social Development, Environment & Conservation Division.<br />
Oates, C. 2003. Canton Island aerial crossroads of the South Pacific. McLean: Paladwr<br />
Press.<br />
Pierce, R.J., T. Etei, V. Kerr, E. Saul, A. Teatata, M. Thorsen, and G. Wragg. 2006. Phoenix<br />
Islands conservation survey and assessment of restoration feasibility: Kiribati. Report<br />
prepared for: Conservation International, Samoa and Pacific Islands Initiative, Auckland<br />
University, Auckland.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2004. Health of the Phoenix Islands reefs.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/Canton/reefreport.html.<br />
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation. 2006. Comparison of Vitareef Results.<br />
http://www.pcrf.org/science/vitacomp.html<br />
Pollution Control Unit. 2006. Report on Kanton chemical cleanup mission (19/5/06 -<br />
/05/06). Environment and Conservation Division.<br />
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PHOENIX ISLANDS PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN<br />
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Draft 1 March 2007<br />
Pulea, M., and D. Farrier. 1993. Environmental legislation review - Kiribati. Report for<br />
<strong>SPREP</strong> and Republic of Kiribati.<br />
Robson, R.W. 1956. Pacific Islands year book 1956. Sydney: Public Publication Pty, Ltd.<br />
Sharp, B.M.H. n.d. Fisheries of Kiribati. University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.<br />
Suzuki, Z., P.K. Tomlinson and M. Honma. 1978. Population structure of Pacific yellowfin<br />
tuna. Iner-Aerican Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin 17(5): 273-441. [cited unseen from<br />
Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme 1993.]<br />
Teiwaki, R. 1988. Management of marine resources in Kiribati. University of the South<br />
Pacific, Suva Fiji. 239 pp.<br />
Tioti, B., T. Beiateuea, B. Neneia, N. Ueantabo, and T. Onorio. 2001 A preliminary<br />
marine resources and ciguatera survey of Orona (Hull) in the Phoenix Islands.<br />
Trease, H.V. 1993. From colony to independence. <strong>Chapter</strong> 1 in Trease, H.V. (ed). Atoll<br />
Politics, the Republic of Kiribati, Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of<br />
Canterbury, and Institute of Pacific Studies, USP.<br />
Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme. 1993. Kiribati country report 1991. South<br />
Pacific Commission, Tuna and Billfish Assessment Programme Country Report No. 4.<br />
Ward, R.G. 1967. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870 : a history,<br />
geography, and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the<br />
Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc. Ridgewood: The Gregg Press, Inc.<br />
Volume 3.<br />
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