adb ta 4878 - kir: population policy program kiritimati island - Asian ...

Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report 

Project Number: 39641 

October 2009 

Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population 

Development Program on Kiritimati Island 

(Financed by the Japan Special Fund) 

Prepared by ANU Enterprise Pty Ltd 

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and 

ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents.

Final Report for the 

Integrated Land and Population Development Program 

on Kiritimati Island (Population Policy): TA 4878-KIR 

submission by ANU Enterprise Pty Ltd

Final Report, October 28th, 2009 

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ADB TA 4878 - KIR: 

INTEGRATED LAND AND POPULATION 

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ON KIRITIMATI ISLAND: 

POPULATION COMPONENT 

Prepared by: 

ANU Enterprise Pty Ltd 

FINAL REPORT, 28 October 2009 

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ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population Development 

Program on Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 1


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The Republic of Kiribati has reached a critical point in its development. Uneven 

population distribution is exerting extreme pressure on the South Tarawa 

infrastructure, reducing living standards and hampering efforts to generate sustainable 

economic growth in the face of challenges from global climate change and economic 

instability. The changes impact the whole country, including the remote Line Islands 

where the nation’s largest island, Kiritimati, is located. Yet Kiribati still has 

development potential and some valuable assets, including political stability, thinly 

populated outer islands with potential for productivity increase and under-utilised 

human resources. 

Although managed by a special Government agency, the Ministry of Line and 

Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID), Kiritimati Island currently has little control 

over its own destiny. In recent years the development of outer island growth centres, 

especially Kiritimati Island, has been viewed primarily as a resettlement safely valve 

to relieve the impact of sustained population increase in South Tarawa. 1 

The stream of 

people to Kiritimati has not been accompanied by commensurate investment in 

infrastructure and economic development and many of the concerns of South Tarawa 

are now replicated on Kiritimati. 

While focussing on Kiritimati island, the objective of this TA was to: 

• support strategies to increase the value of human resources ( including 

improved health, education, living conditions, and increased employment 

opportunities); and 

• support strategies to slow the population growth rate, which will lead to 

economic growth, social progress, and raised living standards. 

The required outcomes were 

• an established comprehensive population policy for Kiribati; 

• an integrated strategy to tackle squatters; 

• improved public health. 

The findings of this TA (both Population and Land Components) are that current 

resettlement practices on Kiritimati Island are unsustainable and leading to suboptimum 

use of resources. Moreover, although Kiritimati is the nominal focus of the 

Population and Land Components of this TA, both Population and Land Components 

concluded that settlement and utilisation of Kiritimati are largely determined by 

national-level factors. Concerns on Kiritimati therefore cannot be viewed in isolation 

but must be addressed by policies made in South Tarawa. 

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ADB TA 4878 - KIR: POPULATION COMPONENT 

The main achievement of this TA has been to re-energise national interest in 

population issues and to progress population and development planning to the point 

where Kiribati is ready to implement a new population initiative. 

The Population Component of this TA focussed on developing and winning support 

for an integrated, whole-of-nation approach to population and development. As a 

1 For example, the 2004 National Development Strategy and the 2008 Kiribati Development Plan. 

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Population and Development Policy had already been prepared in 2004, the key 

document developed during the TA is the Kiribati Population and Development 

Implementation Strategy (see Annex 2.c). This document has been developed in 

consultation with stakeholders and encompasses improvements in health and 

infrastructure as well as human resources development. 

The Strategy includes 

• coordinating, developing and utilising human resources to improve living 

standards on Kiritimati Island and throughout Kiribati; 

• improving infrastructure on Kiritimati and all other outer islands to promote 

sustainable settlement and economic activity and discourage migration to 

South Tarawa; and 

• community education to raise awareness of population and development 

linkages. 

Because it is nationwide, the strategy addresses both the immediate concerns of 

Kiritimati Island and their causes as well as population and development concerns in 

Tarawa and all outer islands. 

Following acceptance and widespread support for the draft Kiribati Population and 

Development Implementation Strategy ADB extended the current TA from 18 May 

2009 until the 30 September 2009. Delays in approval reduced the duration of the 

community engagement activities of the extension to 5 weeks instead of 5 months as 

proposed. (Variation No.2 is dated 28 July and Variation No.3 is dated 25 August 

2009) This prevented implementation of a number of proposed activities but did allow 

for the National Facilitator to support the process of endorsement of the draft 

Strategy. The draft Strategy was endorsed by the Government of Kiribati in August 

2009 and renamed the Population Policy Implementation Strategy. 

The TA extension also allowed the National Facilitator to continue lobbying for the 

establishment of the post of and approval of the post of Population and Development 

Coordinator to oversee implementation of the Strategy. This post is likely to 

commence in January 2010, provided that donor support can be obtained. These steps 

have provided the Exit Strategy for this TA. 

This Final Report reviews the background, objectives, findings and outcomes of the 

TA, and presents a set of recommendations. The annexes comprise details of TA 

activities and key documents, including the final Population Policy Implementation 

Strategy (formerly the draft Kiribati Population and Development Implementation 

Strategy). This Final Report differs from the Preliminary Final Report (submitted in 

May 2009) in that it has been revised to include the Exit Strategy activities conducted 

during the TA extension, up to 30 th September 2009. It also includes a report on work 

done by the National Facilitator during the extension. All documents attached to the 

Preliminary Final Report of May 2009 have been re-submitted, plus a new Annex 

Five, which is the National Facilitator’s report. 

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CONTENTS 

List of Acronyms 5 

1. Summary of TA activities and outcomes 6 

2. Background 7 

3. Key findings of the 2005 census and other recent 

population-related data (Summary) 9 

4. Rationale for strengthening links between population 

and development planning (Summary) 11 

5. Settlement issues and squatters on Kiritimati Island (Summary) 12 

6. Health services and health needs on Kiritimati Island (Summary) 15 

7 Key Recommendations: Strategies to address population and 

development issues on Kiritimati Island 17 

8. TA Exit strategy 18 

9. Evaluation of TA against Scope of Services and TOR 19 

Annexes Section One: Administrative 

a) List of TA personnel 

b) List of Activities 

c) List of Informants 

SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS 

Annexes Section Two: Population and Development: Background and strategies 

2.a: Recent Trends in Population and Living Conditions in Kiribati 

(McMurray) 

2.b: Population and Development Planning in Kiribati (McMurray) 

2.c: The Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy (McMurray) 

2.d: Training Materials: Population and Development Handbook (McMurray) 

2.e: Training Materials: Population Brochure (McMurray) 

Annexes Section Three. Squatters and resettlement: Background and strategies 

3.a: Report on Squatters on Kiritimati Island (Jones) 

3.b: Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island 

(Jones) 

3.c: Social and Poverty Analysis (Jones) 

3.d: Framework for Managing Voluntary Resettlement from South Tarawa to 

Kiritimati Island (Jones) 

Annexes Section Four. Health Services: Background and strategies 

4: Report on Health Services on Kiritimati Island (Naylor) 

Annex Section Five: Report on TA Extension 

5: Report on work done by the National Facilitator during TA Extension. 

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LIST of ACRONYMS 

ANUE Australian National University Enterprise 

AusAID Australian Agency for International Development 

ADB Asian Development Bank 

CASL Committee for the Allocation of State Lands 

CMR Child Mortality Rate 

EU European Union 

FBO Faith-Based Organisation 

FGD Focus Group Discussion 

GDP Gross Domestic Product 

HIES Household Income and Expenditure Survey 

HIV/AIDS Human Immuno-deficiency Virus/Auto-Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

IATA International Air Transport Association 

IMR Infant Mortality Rate 

KANGO Kiribati Association of Non-Governmental Organisations 

KCC Kiribati Catholic Church 

KDP Kiribati Development Plan 

KPC Kiribati Protestant Church 

KWASP Kiritimati Water and Sanitation Project 

KLLPB Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board 

KNCC Kiribati National Council of Churches 

KNDP Kiribati National Development Plan 

KPA Key Policy Area 

LPID Line and Phoenix Island Development 

MDG Millennium Development Goals 

MELAD Ministry of Lands and Agricultural Development 

MEYS Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport 

MFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development 

MHMS Ministry of Health and Medical Services 

MISA Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs 

MLPID Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development 

MOPS Ministry Operation Plans 

NCD Non-Communicable Disease 

NDS National Development Strategy 

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation 

NSO National Statistical Office 

PDC Population and Development Coordinator 

PIMF Pacific Islands Medical Fund 

PTF Population Task Force 

RERF Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund 

SAPHE Sanitation, Public Health and Environment (Project) 

SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community 

STI Sexually Transmitted Infection 

TFR Total Fertility Rate 

TSKL Telecom Services Kiribati Limited 

TA Technical Assistance 

TOR(s) Terms of Reference 

U5MR Under-Five Mortality Rate 

UNDP United Nations Development Program 

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund 

WHO World Health Organization 

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1. SUMMARY OF TA OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES 

The strategic objective of the Population Policy Component of this TA as set out in 

the original project document was to stabilize population growth in order to ensure a 

balance between population and resources and lead to improved living standards and 

wellbeing for the local population. It was to address both sides of the balance 

between population and resources, i.e. 

A) support strategies to increase the value of human resources ( including 

improved health, education, living conditions, and increased 

employment opportunities) 

B) support strategies to slow the population growth rate, which will lead to 

economic growth, social progress, and raised living standards. 

The required TA outcomes, which were all achieved, were as follows: 

I) an established comprehensive population policy for Kiribati; 

TA outcome: It was pointed out in the Inception Report that the Kiribati 

Population Policy already exists and was endorsed by Cabinet in August 

2004. Outcome I) is therefore the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation 

Strategy (see Annexe 2.c), which includes population information updates 

based on the 2005 Census. 

II) an integrated strategy to tackle squatters; 

TA Outcome: It was also pointed out in the Inception Report that within the 

limited timeframe and resources of this TA, Outcomes II) and III) were 

possible only for Kiritimati Island 

The conclusion of the Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist was that 

until the infrastructure on Kiritimati has been substantially improved there 

should be no further settlement on the island. A plan to manage voluntary 

resettlement has therefore not been developed. An analysis of squatting is 

annexed (see Annex 3.b) 

III) improved public health. 

TA Outcome: An economic analysis of the health facility on Kiritimati Island 

with costs of for upgrading health facilities and service delivery on Kiritimati 

to serve populations of various sizes is annexed (see Annex 4). 

The body of this report describes the TA background and activities and provides 

summaries of findings and outcomes. Full reports on each of the three sectors are 

annexed. 

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2. BACKGROUND 

The 2005 census showed that the population of Kiribati has increased at an average 

annual rate of 1.8% since 1947. In this period the total population of 31,513 in 1947 

has increased almost threefold to reach 92,533 in 2005. This increase has not been 

even across the 23 inhabited islands (atolls), however. While most have doubled in 

size, and a few have trebled, the 2005 population of South Tarawa was 25 times as 

large as in 1947. In the decade 1995-2005 the populations of most outer islands 

declined or fluctuated. The population growth rate of South Tarawa’s population 

slowed from 5.2% per annum for 1995-2000 to an average of 1.9% for 2000-2005, but 

this still amounts to a net increase of about 720 people per year. 

People move to South Tarawa to obtain eduction and employment, but schools are 

becoming overcrowded and there are insufficient opportunities for wage employment 

to meet the demand. Even in this crowded urban environment, many families depend 

to a considerable extent on subsistence activities for their basic needs. 

Kiritimati Island (Christmas Island) was quite lightly populated until the 1970s. It had 

1,265 people in 1979 when the British Government agreed that it would become part 

of the newly independent nation of Kiribati. Since then its growth rate has gradually 

accelerated. By 2005 its population numbered 5,115, with an average annual growth 

rate of 7.9% between 2000 and 2005. The only other outer islands to show significant 

population increase in the 2000-2005 inter-censal period were North Tabituea, North 

Tarawa and Tabuearan. 2 

Almost 50% of the Kiribati population is now concentrated in a few small areas, and 

this is having a negative impact on living standards. The 2005 census counted 12,509 

people lived in Betio, an islet of only 1.75 square kilometres. Settlement densities are 

also becoming high in several villages elsewhere in South Tarawa, including Bairiki 

(2,766 in 2005), Bikenibeu (6,170 in 2005), and Teaoraereke (3,939 in 2005), and in 

the Kiritimati Island the villages of Tabwakea (1,881 in 2005) and London (1,829 in 

2005). 

While populations of these magnitudes and densities might not pose a problem in 

some environments, Kiribati housing standards are generally low and most residents 

in South Tarawa as well as the outer islands and Kiritimati Island, lack safe water and 

sanitation. Contamination of water sources normally regarded as 'safe' has prompted 

Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MHMS) to recommend that all water be 

boiled before drinking. Overcrowding and lack of safe water and sanitation are 

impacting health. Kiribati has high rates of infectious diseases, including respiratory 

infections, diarrhoeal diseases, skin diseases, and hepatitis A and B. Crowding at the 

household level facilitates transmission of these infectious diseases, as well as 

tuberculosis. Additional housing is needed to accommodate the continuing inflow of 

people, but vacant land is becoming scarce. Lack of subsistence opportunities in these 

crowded environments has prompted a switch to low cost imported foods that tend to 

be low in fibre but high in sugar and fat. This contributes to a growing incidence of 

2 The 2005 Census found that Makin also had increased substantially since 2000, but this appears to be 

due to a temporary influx of people for political reasons rather than a spontaneous population 

movement. 

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non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including obesity, diabetes, cardio-vascular 

diseases and cancer. 

Despite the poor living conditions, the densely settled areas continue to act as 

population magnets. The promise of wage employment attracts people from outer 

islands, even though there are nowhere near enough opportunities to meet the 

demand. The 2005 census found just over one in seven I-Kiribati 3 had a cash income. 

At least two thirds of all wage jobs in Kiribati are in the public sector, and 61% of all 

cash earners live in South Tarawa. 4 

Traditional patterns of obligation dictate that 

those who are able to earn a wage must provide for the cash needs of non-workers in 

their extended families. This is especially burdensome in South Tarawa, where most 

people depend largely on store-bought food. 

The 'National Development Strategy 2004-2007: Enhancing Growth and Ensuring 

Equitable Distribution' recommended that a key development strategy should be to 

“Design and implement a comprehensive population policy to achieve stability of total 

population by 2020-2025.” In 2004 a draft Kiribati Population Policy was prepared as 

part of ADB TA 3786. Preparation of this policy included extensive consultations 

with Government, NGOs, FBOs (faith-based organizations) and the community. In 

August 2004, Cabinet endorsed the Population Policy, which has the goal of limiting 

population increase to 120,000 people by 2025. The main goal of policy is: 

To contribute to social and economic progress and a rising standard of living 

for the people of Kiribati, and to facilitate adaptation to climate change by 

limiting population growth to 120,000 in 2025. 

The second part of ADB TA 3786 was devoted to working with the Population and 

Development Coordination Committee to prepare a draft 'Kiribati 20-year Population 

and Development Strategy' and 'First Implementation Plan and Budget for the period 

January 2005-December 2007'. The three main strategies for achieving the goals of 

the Population Policy were: 

• Population awareness and parenting education to achieve replacement fertility 

by 2025 (i.e. 2.1 children per woman); 

• Facilitate permanent emigration to other countries; 

• Develop alternative growth centres within Kiribati. 

The budget proposed for of the First Implementation Plan was substantial, and when it 

was submitted to the National Budget Committee funds could not be found to support 

implementation. Thus, although acceptance of the Population Policy is still 

acknowledged in Government documents, and although the policy is still a live 

document and its objectives are still relevant to the current population and 

development situation, it has not been implemented per se. 

The Outer Island Growth Centres Project and the family planning program of MHMS 

each address part of the Policy's scope and activities. In the absence of a coordinated, 

comprehensive and holistic strategy to manage population at the national level, 

however, their achievements will be limited. A national approach to population 

planning is urgently needed, to counteract the common perception that Kiritimati 

3 I-Kiribati = the people of Kiribati. 

4 National Statistics Office, Ministry of Finance, 2007: 60-64. 

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Island is the answer to overcrowding in the Gilbert Group and to create incentives for 

a smaller family size. 

The nominal focus of the present TA, ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Population Policy 

Program Kiritimati Island (Population Component) is resettlement to Kiritimati 

Island, which is one of the three priorities of the 2004 Population Policy and 

Implementation Plan. The TA has enabled a comprehensive review of infrastructure, 

land allocation and resettlement on Kiritimati Island. This includes assessments of 

land management, settlement and squatting on Kiritimati and of the adequacy and 

capacity of existing health facilities on Kiritimati, and the costs of expanding them to 

provide adequate services for larger numbers. 

It is recognised in the TA document and the TOR that population issues on Kiritimati 

Island are largely determined by policies and issues originating in South Tarawa. This 

TA has therefore provided an opportunity to make an important contribution to 

economic development in Kiribati as a whole as well as to addressing problems on 

Kiritimati Island. It has revived interest in the Kiribati Population Policy that was 

endorsed by Government in 2004, and enabled the development of the Kiribati 

Population Policy Implementation Strategy to coordinate and support existing 

population and human resource development activities. This will help build a better 

foundation for development and provide motivation for a smaller family size across 

the whole nation. 

This TA therefore takes a two-pronged approach to addressing population and 

development issues in Kiritimati. On the one hand it advocates specific strategies for 

Kiritimati, including deferring further resettlement until there is adequate 

infrastructure in place and improving health services. This includes implementing on 

Kiritimati Island the six key activities to promote human resources development and 

improved living standards as set out in the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation 

Strategy. On the other hand, implementation of the same six key activities in the rest 

of Kiribati will reduce the need for resettlement to Kiritimati Island and buy time for 

its sustainable development. 

3. KEY FINDINGS OF THE 2005 CENSUS AND OTHER RECENT 

POPULATION RELATED DATA (SUMMARY) 

This section summarises a discussion paper prepared by the Demographer of 

the TA Team: RECENT TRENDS IN POPULATION AND LIVING 

CONDITIONS IN KIRIBATI (See Annex 2.a) 

The 2005 census confirmed that the population of Kiribati had continued to increase 

at an average of 1.8% per annum; the same average rate as from 1947 to 2000. The 

increase was almost entirely due to natural increase (excess of births over deaths) as 

the return of Kiribati citizens previously employed by the Nauru Phosphate 

Corporation was offset by emigration of around 100 persons per year to New Zealand. 

South Tarawa's average annual growth rate over the five years 2000-2005 was much 

slower than in 1995-2000 (1.9% compared with 5.2%) while that of Kiritimati 

accelerated sharply to become the highest in Kiribati (averaging 7.9% in 2000-2005, 

compared with 1.2% in 1995-2000). Even so, South Tarawa still had the larger 

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absolute increase in numbers between 2000 and 2005 (3,594, compared with 1,684 for 

Kiritimati). 

By 2005 44% of the total population of Kiribati lived in South Tarawa. Of the outer 

islands, Kiritimati had the largest population, amounting to 5.9% of the national total. 

Accelerating growth rates were also evident in North Tarawa, North Tabituea and 

Tabuearan, although they remained smaller numerically than Kiritimati. Populations 

in most of the remaining outer islands were almost stable or contracted. This pattern 

has resulted in further increases in density in the already crowded areas of South 

Tarawa (Betio, Bairiki, Bikenibeu) and Kiritimati (London, Tabwakea), with the 

consequent issues of health and living standards described in Section One above. 

The analytical report on the 2005 census concluded that fertility had declined sharply 

in the intercensal period 2000-2005, estimating the TFR for 2004-2005 as 3.6, which 

is substantially less than the estimated TFRs of 4.5 in 1995 and 4.3 in 2000. 5 

MHMS 

birth registration data for 2000 - 2007, however, indicates that the number of 

registered births for 2005, 2006 and 2007 either exceeds or is in line with earlier 

trends. It is therefore too soon to say there is accelerating fertility decline in Kiribati. 

A concern is that the age structure of Kiritimati Island is younger than that of Betio, 

suggesting higher fertility and potential for faster population growth. Resettlement to 

Kiritimati Island is seen as a way of reducing population pressure in the densely 

settled areas of South Tarawa. In the absence of economic incentives to restrict family 

size at resettlement destinations, however, resettlement could actually slow the overall 

rate of fertility decline in Kiribati. 

The 2005 census analysis also found an increase in the infant mortality rate (IMR) 

compared with the 2000 census, from 43 to 52 per 1000 live births. Although again it 

is too soon to determine whether this trend has been sustained, increases in the IMR 

are always a concern because it is widely recognised as a sensitive indicator of living 

conditions. The census data also show high mortality of children aged one to five 

years (17.5 per 1000 live births) and low life expectancy at birth (58.9 years for men 

and 63.1 years for women) compared with most neighbouring Pacific countries. 6 

These rates are consistent with data on access to water and sanitation. According to 

the 2000 census, most of the population is relying on water sources that are readily 

contaminated in the Kiribati environment, while more than half the population still 

use the lagoon, beach or bush in lieu of safe sanitation. 7 

The percentages could be 

even higher on Kiritimati Island where there is no provision for water or sanitation in 

much of the settled area. This suggests negligible improvement in the situation 

described in Section One above, and continuing hazardous health conditions as 

regards infectious disease, especially in more densely settled areas. 

At the same time, population increase and intensification of settlement in already 

crowded areas is reducing opportunities for subsistence and increasing reliance on 

store-bought food that tends to be low in fibre and high in sugar, fat and calories. 

5 SPC and Republic of Kiribati, Analysis of the 2005 Census: 15 

6 See Statistics and Demography Section and MDG data on SPC website: http://www.spc.int. 

7 National Statistics Office, MFED, 2007: 100. 

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This, along with relatively widespread smoking, hazardous drinking patterns and 

more sedentary lifestyles, is increasing the risk of early-onset non-communicable 

diseases. 

The population projections in the 2005 census report are consistent with those made 

during the development of the Kiribati Population Policy in 2004. All projections 

suggest that, regardless of which scenario comes to pass, Kiribati can expect to have 

at least 20,000 additional people by 2025, and unless opportunities for permanent 

emigration increase substantially, the figure is likely to be higher. Only the lowest 

projection based on the 2005 census data does not exceed the Population Policy 

objective of no more than 120,000 by 2025, and it is acknowledged in the Census 

Report that this is the least likely scenario. 

Population growth of this magnitude will place extreme pressure on existing facilities 

and further increase the demand for employment and sustainable livelihoods. Given 

that living standards on Kiritimati Island are already compromised by inadequate 

infrastructure, it is clear that resettlement to Kiritimati can no longer be viewed as an 

easy solution to population pressure elsewhere in Kiribati. Any resettlement must be 

preceded by construction of adequate water, sanitation, housing and other services, 

and accompanied by economic opportunities to ensure sustainable communities. The 

experience of resettlement in Kiritimati to date indicates that without this 

infrastructure, resettlement may simply export the problems of South Tarawa to a new 

location. 

This points to the need to reaffirm the objectives of the 2004 Kiribati Population 

Policy and adopt a new Population Policy Implementation Strategy. This should be 

done as soon as possible, to minimise the negative impacts of population growth and 

manage population at the national level in a way that optimises potential for economic 

growth. 

4. RATIONALE FOR STRENGTHENING LINKAGES BETWEEN 

POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT (SUMMARY) 

This is extracted from a paper prepared by the Demographer and Team Leader: 

‘POPULATION PLANNING ISSUES AND STRATEGIES: KIRITIMATI 

ISLAND AND KIRIBATI’ (See Annex 2.b for complete version of this paper) 

The traditional view of population planning in Kiribati, as elsewhere in the Pacific, is 

that it is primarily about limiting numbers. Since population numbers are driven by 

fertility, most Pacific population plans to date have targeted fertility reduction, and 

population planning has tended to become synonymous with family planning. This 

has made it an unpopular concept in some quarters, and population planning is still 

viewed by many as 'coercive', 'an invasion of rights' or as merely 'women's business'. 

The achievements of population plans have therefore tended to be limited and/or 

short-lived. 

Kiribati has long recognised that population size is a critical determinant of 

development and has approved and adopted numerous strategies to address it. Even so 

the rate of fertility decline has been slow and, sustained population increase continues 

to undermine economic growth. 

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The 2008-2011 Kiribati Development Plan places 'Monitor and control population 

growth' under the Key Development Area of Health. The three strategies to achieve 

this outcome are: 

Promote family planning; 

Increase public awareness of the effects of a rising population; 

Address population congestion and overcrowding. 

Because population planning has not been linked with increasing employment 

opportunities and improving living standards, however, the benefits of a smaller 

family size are not obvious to the community. This is likely to limit the success of the 

population planning component of the development plan. What is needed is a shift in 

population policy focus towards human resources development and the improvement 

of living standards. Such an approach links population and development objectives by 

simultaneously enhancing national productivity, increasing the appeal of a smaller 

family size and strengthening population outcomes. 

The mechanism is that increases in labour force participation encourage aspirations to 

higher living standards. New opportunities to participate in wage employment, 

especially for women, increase the opportunity cost of childbearing, and this in turn 

encourages a smaller family size. This pattern of fertility change is based on the 

model of industrialising Europe, where fertility decline was driven by economic 

growth, increased opportunity and rising aspirations, without promotion of family 

planning. 

The proposed Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy (see Annex 3.a) 

proposes such an approach, emphasising human resources development and 

promotion of income earning opportunities. Although not at the centre of the Strategy, 

informed parenting, population awareness and improved access to confidential health 

services are included to provide essential support to help families choose and achieve 

their desired size. 

5. SETTLEMENT AND SQUATTER ISSUES ON KIRITIMATI ISLAND 

(SUMMARY) 

This is a summary of the findings of a paper prepared by the Resettlement and Social 

Protection Specialist of the TA Team: ‘SETTLEMENT AND SQUATTER 

ISSUES ON KIRITIMATI ISLAND’ See Annex 3.a) 

Kiritimati is 3000 kilometres from Tarawa, and did not become part of Kiribati until 

after Independence in 1979. It is therefore unique among the islands and atolls of 

Kiribati, in that land is owned by the State, not traditionally owned, and permanent 

settlement is relatively recent. Kiritimati Island had only a few hundred people until it 

became an Allied Command base during World War II, then a British base for nuclear 

testing in the late 1950s. At Independence in 1979 Kiribati had an estimated 

population of 1,265, and its total land area of 388 km 2 was to become 53% of the total 

land area of present day Kiribati. 

The American and British left Kiritimati with a comparatively good infrastructure of 

sealed roads, runways and permanent buildings. There are several clusters of 

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settlement on the north-western corridor, but most of Kiritimati Island is an 

undeveloped expanse of coral and salt flats covered in scrub and coarse grasses. Apart 

from a few ageing coconut plantations, its main resources are fish and seabirds. Until 

quite recently Kiritimati could only be reached from Tarawa by sea or a costly flight 

via Honolulu. In 2006 Air Pacific provided a more affordable weekly connection with 

Nadi but this was discontinued towards the end of 2008. At the time of writing the 

only air access was via an expensive weekly charter flight from Honolulu. 

As Kiritimati was State land, Government originally restricted movement via a permit 

system. In the mid 1990s this ruling was successfully challenged and declared un- 

Constitutional, and since then there has been a steadily increasing flow of settlers, 

most from South Tarawa. Resettlement to Kiritimati is now seen as a way of reducing 

population pressure in crowded settlements elsewhere in Kiribati, and is an objective 

of the 2004 Kiribati Population Policy, the 2004-2007 NDS and the 2008-2011 

KNDP. 

As stated in the preceding section, the 2005 census count for Kiritimati was 5,115 

compared with 3,431 in 2000. Its inter-censal average annual growth rate of 7.9% was 

the highest in Kiribati. This rapid population growth was not accompanied by a 

commensurate expansion in basic services and infrastructure and issues of inadequate 

water and sanitation, crowding and low quality housing are emerging in the main 

settled areas. Aside from a few wage earners in Government and services, most of the 

population is at least partially dependent on subsistence, fishing and copra cutting, 

although harvestable fish stocks are being depleted and there has been insufficient 

replanting to replace ageing coconut trees. Assessments of fresh water lenses on 

Kiritimati suggest a maximum carrying capacity of from 15,000 to no more than 

22,000 persons, with considerable investment required before these water resources 

can be accessed. Actual limits to settlement are also determined by capacity to 

develop and maintain a reliable sanitation system for a coral environment, along with 

other necessary infrastructure and opportunities for sustainable livelihoods. 

While most of the land is still owned by the State, some has been alienated by means 

of three other land tenure systems. In the 1980s and 1990s some land was released as 

Unrestricted Freehold, but since 2000 only Restricted Freehold and 25-year Leases 

have been granted. 

Issues in Kiritimati Island Resettlement 

i. Oversight of resettlement is provided by MELAD, MLPID, KLLPB, Cabinet 

and a CASL (a screening committee to allocate land). Even so, there is no 

whole-of-island integrated plan for Kiritimati Island, and no mechanisms to 

translate national development objectives into sustainable settlement. Nor is 

any institution responsible for managing Kiritimati Island as a growth centre, 

part of which is promoting economic activity through business incentives and 

marketing opportunities. 

ii. Although all recent studies have concluded that Kiritimati Island should not be 

the only growth centre in Kiribati, there is no national growth centre strategy, 

nor coordination, management or encouragement to resettle other potential 

growth centres. 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

iii. Demand for plots in Kiritimati exceeds supply. This has been exacerbated by 

Government's inability to limit the free movement to Kiritimati of people who 

expect to receive land eventually. Government has released land only every 

four to five years, and the policy basis for some releases is questionable. There 

are also inequities in land tenure arrangements and inconsistencies in plot size. 

iv. Kiritimati is experiencing continued population increase with little opportunity 

for wage employment, income generation or sustainable subsistence. This 

exerts pressure on a nationally and globally recognised fragile ecosystem and 

limited natural resources. At present Kiritimati Island is 'mined' rather than 

'managed'. 

v. Because Kiritimati Island is largely State-owned, the local community tends to 

lack a sense of belonging or of being custodian to traditional lands. This, plus 

a tenure system based on leasehold, has fostered a culture of taking and 

depleting rather than husbanding and managing natural resources on 

Kiritimati. 

vi. Some settlers on Kiritimati who have become squatters in either villages or in 

the 'bush' are exploiting local resources without any regulation. Because they 

are regarded as illegal and fear eviction, they are especially likely to lack a 

sense of stewardship and take a short-term, exploitive rather than sustainable 

approach to utilisation of natural resources. This includes depleting stocks of 

rare fish species for the aquarium market, exceeding quotas for copra cutting 

and introducing environmentally destructive dogs, pigs and cats. 

vii. Most of the Kiritimati infrastructure for water, sanitation and electricity is 

decaying or has already failed and is insufficient for the current population. 

Even so, the 220 half-acre plots originally scheduled for release in Tabwakea 

in 2008 do not have water or electricity. Water will be drawn from wells that 

are extremely vulnerable to contamination from sewage, even though some are 

classed as ‘protected’. There has been no forward planning or budgeting for 

the infrastructure necessary for land development, and no general acceptance 

of the concept of providing infrastructure in advance of land releases. 

viii. The human resource capacity and cross-ministry coordination that should 

underpin a resettlement program is limited. Most people in key positions have 

no experience in growth centre planning and do not know how growth centres 

function or how they are created. 

In view of the above, it is recommended that there should be no more settlement in 

Kiritimati Island until these planning and development issues are resolved. Kiritimati 

is the world's largest atoll and a unique world fauna habitat that is threatened by 

increasing development pressures. It cannot accommodate continuous and rapid 

population increase without major environmental damage, and even though the 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

population is still well below the targets proposed in some official documents, 8 

inadequate planning and infrastructure is already contributing to erosion of its 

potential for sustainable settlement. Unchecked squatter growth in both village and 

bush areas only exacerbates these problems. 

It is recommended that a cautious approach be taken to future releases of land, and 

none should be released after the current committed Phase 1 and Phase 2 9 

without 

provision for safe water, sanitation and electricity. This should be the minimum 

requirement, while broader issues of managing in-migration and strengthening the 

planning capacity of MLPID also need to be addressed. The Outer Island Growth 

Centre Strategy implies well-planned, coordinated and integrated development, but so 

far this has not characterised Government's development of Kiritimati Island. 

Suspending resettlement means it is critical to launch the Kiribati Population Policy 

Implementation Strategy as soon as possible to provide other ways of relieving 

population pressure in South Tarawa. The population and development awarenessraising 

that has already taken place as part of this TA, has generated widespread 

interest and support in Government and the community, and ADB’s seed funding for 

a Population and Development Coordinator will pave the way for implementation to 

commence. Substitutes for resettlement to Kiritimati could include promotion of 

livelihood and employment opportunities to in outer islands and overseas in order to 

improve living standards in South Tarawa. 

MELAD asked for assistance in reviewing the current Phase 1 land allocation so the 

lessons learned may be applied in the design of the Phase 2 release for South Tarawa 

residents in 2008-2009. This assistance was provided as part of the TOR of this TA. 

6. HEALTH SERVICES AND HEALTH NEEDS ON KIRITIMATI 

ISLAND (SUMMARY) 

This is a summary of the findings of a paper prepared by the Health 

Economist of the TA Team. (See Annex 4) 

The Line Islands has high rates of diarrhoea, dysentery, pneumonia, other respiratory 

infections and conjunctivitis. Of concern also is the incidence of meningitis, STIs and 

emerging lifestyle diseases, such as hypertension and diabetes. Health services in the 

Line Islands consist of a small hospital on the main island, Kiritimati, 3 health centres 

and 5 dispensaries, with a total of 22 staff, including 3 doctors. Some factors affecting 

health in the Line Islands are not the primary responsibility of the Kiribati Ministry of 

Health and Medical Services (MHMS). These include water and sanitation 

infrastructure, transport and communications, housing availability, land tenure, 

internal migration rates and food availability. However there are some actions the 

Ministry can take to improve the situation. 

8 For example, the 2004 Kiribati Population Policy proposed that 25% of the total Kiribati population 

should be located in Kiritimati, i.e. implying 30,000-40,000 by 2025. This is now recognised as 

unrealistic and probably more than double the true size of sustainable settlement on Kiritimati. 

9 The Phase 1 land release comprised 220 plots for eligible applicants already living on Kiritimati. 

Phase 2 will comprise 231 plots for eligible applicants currently living in South Tarawa. 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

Recommendations to address health concerns on Kiritimati Island: 

1. MHMS should fill key vacant positions in the staff establishment. Some key 

positions to be filled have been identified in this report after discussions with a 

range of MHMS departments in Tarawa. The cost of filling these positions 

and providing the resources needed for the staff to undertake the extra effort to 

tackle the considerable health issues is estimated to be $A433,629 on top of an 

estimated current operational budget of $A737,269. 

2. When financial resources allow, the MHMS should add to the staff 

establishment some more key staff and supporting resources to tackle the 

health issues in more depth. It is estimated these new key positions and 

support resources will add $193,813 to the operational budget. 

3. To help ensure that the current and extra staffing and resources are utilised 

more effectively, the MHMS should create two management positions to 

manage the Line Islands health services as a more cohesive, flexible and 

integrated health service. 

4. The MHMS work with the Government of Kiribati should request external 

financial and logistics assistance to support a regular and reliable boat service 

which can be utilised by health staff and patients. 

5. Buildings should be imported to Kiritimati in staged modules by ship and that 

these modules progressively are added to make up the new building 

infrastructure of the expanded hospital and community health services centre. 

There is no time to wait the years normally required to build a conventional 

hospital and health centre from concrete blocks and concrete base. With some 

research, good quality portable buildings should be obtainable with only the 

linking walkways constructed on site. 

6. As hospital and health services buildings and support services are expensive it 

is recommended that the Government discuss the possible financing of a 

staged modular development with an external donor. 

7. In the longer term MHMS should pursue a target rate of budget growth for 

the Line Islands health services between the high rate (13.74% per annum) or 

a very high rate of 17.8% per annum, the latter being the most desirable, as it 

takes account of necessary budget increases to boost health status, but also 

keeps pace with forecast population growth. Even the very high rate will have 

only a slight effect on overall MHMS budget growth rates, as the Line Islands 

budget will continue to be only a small percentage of the overall budget. 

8. In the short term, the MHMS should boost the budget of the Line Islands 

modestly for 2010 (say 6-8%) then again for 2011 (say 10-12%) and review 

how well it is able to manage such budget growth. Much will depend on 

overall budget availability for the whole of the MHMS. If there are increases 

of around 5% or more for the overall health budget, then the MHMS could 

boost the Line Islands budget by 13-17% in 2012 and beyond. 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

9. Because of possible revenue limitations of the Government of Kiribati, the 

MHMS should discuss the possible assistance of an external donor 

(multilateral, bilateral or NGOs) to support the Line Islands operational 

components of the health services in hospital based, community and 

environmental health services. 

7. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS: A COORDINATED APPROACH 

TO ADDRESSING POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT CONCERNS 

ON KIRITIMATI ISLAND 

The above discussion and recommendations indicate that population and 

development concerns on Kiritimati Island can be classified into four groups: 

a) Inadequate basic infrastructure 

b) Inadequate health services 

c) Insufficient opportunities for employment and sustainable livelihoods 

d) A high rate of population growth, from both in-migration and natural 

increase 

As stated at the outset of this report, Kiritimati does not have exclusive control 

of its own destiny as its situation is profoundly impacted by events and 

decisions elsewhere in Kiribati. Most of its current concerns have arisen 

because it is being used as a safety valve for overcrowding in the Gilbert 

Group, but there has not been adequate development of infrastructure and 

opportunities on Kiritimati Island to accommodate additional population. 

Solutions for Kiritimati therefore will not be effective unless they address 

causes as well as manifestations of concerns. 

The key recommendation of this TA are that population and development 

concerns on Kiritimati Island should be tackled in two ways, with both 

Kiritimati-specific and national level strategies. 

The first two concerns, a) and b) above, should be addressed primarily with 

Kiritimati-specific strategies, as follows: 

a) Inadequate basic infrastructure 

Section 5 above and Annexes 3.a-3.d document the need for adequate water, 

sanitation and other services before additional blocks are released to settlers on 

Kiritimati Island. This TA recommends that basic infrastructure should be 

upgraded and further resettlement should be deferred until adequate 

infrastructure is in place. This has been recognised and accepted by both 

MELAD and MLPID, and the Government of Kiribati is currently formulating 

strategies to improve basic infrastructure on Kiritimati Island. 

b) Inadequate health services 

Section 6 above and Annex 4.a evaluate existing health services on Kiritimati 

Island and recommend upgrading to an acceptable level. This recommendation 

is fully costed, and includes suggestions for providing better services without 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

the high cost and inevitable delays associated with major construction projects. 

This appraisal has been forwarded to the MHMS. 

c) Insufficient opportunities for employment and sustainable livelihoods; 

d) A high rate of population growth, from both in-migration and natural 

increase 

Concerns c) and d) need to be addressed with national-level strategies that are 

also implemented on Kiritimati Island. There is evidence of a growing 

realisation in Government and the Kiribati community as a whole that 

Kiritimati Island does not offer virtually unlimited opportunities for 

subsistence, as once thought. Already there is evidence that subsistence 

opportunities are already barely sufficient for the existing population and more 

sustainable land management practices are needed. For example, the Kiribati 

MDG report (2007, p46) describes how existing practices are contributing to 

environmental degradation and loss of habitat on Kiritimati Island. 

It is therefore timely to promote the development of alternative livelihood 

opportunities on Kiritimati. In order to be sustainable and achieve the desired 

outcome, however, this needs to occur in a national development context. For 

example, employment opportunities in business cannot develop without 

markets. 

The Population Policy Implementation Strategy (formerly the Kiribati 

Population Policy Implementation Strategy, as set out in Annexe 2.c) was 

prepared as part of this TA to address these issues. It sets out the agenda for 

addressing population and development concerns on Kiritimati Island and for 

the Kiribati nation as a whole. In August 2009 the Implementation Strategy 

was endorsed by the Government of Kiribati. Kiribati now has a 

comprehensive and widely supported strategy to address population and 

development on Kiritimati Island and in Kiribati as a whole. This Strategy 

encompasses implementation in Kiritimati as well as the rest of Kiribati and 

includes promotion of human resources development and employment 

opportunities. It has received enthusiastic support from Government and 

community groups and formal Government endorsement. 

The human resources development focus of the Population Policy 

Implementation Strategy will help to retain population in the outer islands. In 

addition, by helping to reduce population pressure in South Tarawa, it will 

also helping to limit migration flows to Kiritimati. The Strategy’s promotion 

of improved living conditions and informed parenting will at the same time 

encourage a smaller family size in Kiritimati as well as Kiribati as a whole. 

8. TA EXIT STRATEGY 

The activities of the Team Leader and National Facilitator during the TA 

extension period formed the Exit Strategy for this TA. Delays in approval 

resulted in a shorter extension than proposed in the Preliminary Final Report 

(submitted to ADB in May 2009), so it was not possible for the National 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

Facilitator to undertake all the activities proposed. However, it was sufficient 

for her to achieve the key TA objective of ensuring final acceptance and 

government endorsement of the Population Policy Implementation Strategy 

(formerly the Kiribati Population and Development Implementation Strategy). 

The National Facilitator’s report is attached as Annex 5. It describes the 

process of approval by Cabinet and strong stakeholder support for the 

Strategy. It emphasises ‘the sense of urgency for its implementation; the time 

to act collectively is now’. The report points out that already some key 

stakeholder representatives have changed since the consultations undertaken 

for this TA, and there is a danger that further delays in implementation could 

cause serious loss of momentum and necessitate further rounds of 

consultations and approvals. It is envisaged that assistance will be sought from 

other donors, but there is still an important opportunity for ADB, ‘as the 

original partner and co-architect of the strategy to take the lead and 

demonstrate commitment by providing additional resources to support the 

implementation of the strategy’. 

9. EVALUATION OF TA AGAINST SCOPE OF SERVICES AND TOR 

The TA has made good progress against its scope of services, in all three focal 

areas – population, land and health – and has prepared the ground for 

substantial progress in the long term. 

A point-by-point evaluation is presented in the following matrix. 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

Activity specified Outputs required Indicator of fulfilment of 

requirements 

I. Population 

1) Analyse 2005 

census results 

2) Prepare Population 

Implementation 

Strategy 

3) Raise community 

awareness of 

population and 

development issues 

a) Background paper on 

population trends and 

living conditions 

b) Background paper on 

population planning HRD 

Population Policy 

Implementation Strategy 

Training materials, 

workshops, media releases. 

a) Paper prepared 

b) Paper prepared 

Draft Population 

Implementation Strategy 

prepared and accepted by 

Government and stakeholders 

a) Training materials prepared 

and tested. 

b) Workshops held in South 

Tarawa 

c) Media reports on population 

issues 

____________________________________________________________________ 

ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population Development Program on Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 

20 

Status 

a) Completed and submitted to ADB 

b) Completed and submitted to ADB 

Completed. Strong positive feedback from 

community consultations. Acceptance and 

approval by Heads of Catholic and Protestant 

Churches. Document revised after consultations 

and endorsed by Cabinet. 

a) Training materials drafted (see Annexe 2.a). 

Because of b) below, it was not appropriate or 

feasible to test training materials before 

endorsement of Implementation Strategy by 

Cabinet and appointment of PDC. 

b) As Government wanted community 

consultation on draft Implementation Strategy, 

workshops conducted in South Tarawa and 

Kiritimati focussed on informing community 

about proposed Strategy rather than on 

population and development training per se. 

c) When appointed, the PDC will arrange media 

coverage in conjunction with Population 

Launch.


_____________________________________________________________________ 

Activity Outputs Indicator of fulfilment of 

requirements 

II Voluntary 

Resettlement 

1) Undertake a rapid 

review of voluntary 

resettlement from South 

Tarawa to Kiritimati 

Island. 

2) Conduct participatory 

workshops to review 

resettlement from South 


Island. 

3) Preparation of a 

strategic plan to manage 

voluntary resettlement to 

Kiritimati Island 

a) Background paper on 

voluntary resettlement 

from South Tarawa to 

Kiritimati Island. 

a) Workshop with CASL in 


b) Workshop with MELAD 

in South Tarawa 

a) A Strategic Plan to 

manage resettlement to 


____________________________________________________________________ 


21 


a) Paper prepared a) Completed (Annex 2.b) 

a) Workshop conducted 

b) Workshop conducted 

a) Strategic Plan prepared 

and accepted by stakeholders 

a) Workshop conducted 

b) Workshop conducted. 

a) A Strategic Plan has been prepared and 

accepted by MELAD. The Plan 

recommends that further resettlement to 

Kiritimati should be deferred until the 

basic infrastructure is raised to an 

adequate standard for both the present 

population and any new settlers. It also 

recommends observing the limits to 

resettlement imposed by the availability of 

water and opportunity for sustainable 

livelihoods. See Annex 2.b.


_____________________________________________________________________ 

Activity Outputs Indicators Status 

III Health on Kiritimati Island 

1) Recommendations on size of 

health facility required on 

Kiritimati Island to accommodate 

given population scenarios. 

a) Report on health facilities on 


a) Report prepared and accepted 

by stakeholders 

a) Report prepared (Annexe 2.c) 

and forwarded to Secretary of 

Health for comment. 

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22


_____________________________________________________________________ 

ANNEXES SECTION ONE: ADMINISTRATIVE 

a) LIST OF TA PERSONNEL 

Dr Christine McMurray Team Leader and Demographer 

Dr Paul Jones Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist 

Mrs Makurita Baaro National Facilitator 

Mr Ross Naylor Health Economist 

b) LIST OF TA ACTIVITIES 

South Tarawa and Kiritimati Island, 24 June to 16 July 2008, and follow-up desk work. 

i) The Demographer/Team Leader and the Resettlement and Social Protection 

Specialist travelled to South Tarawa for introductory briefing meetings with 

stakeholders. All meetings were arranged and facilitated by the Workshop 

Facilitator. 

ii) The Demographer/Team Leader and the Resettlement and Social Protection 

Specialist travelled to Kiritimati Island to assess population and development 

patterns and issues. Stakeholders were briefed and their opinions and assessments 

sought. 

iii) Squatter survey in Kiritimati. A questionnaire was designed by the Demographer 

/Team Leader and Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist. An officer from 

Lands Division, MLPID, conducted questionnaire-based interviews at 25 of the 

estimated 53 squatter households on Kiritimati. Half the households surveyed were 

in villages and half in the bush. The data collected was typed into a computer file by 

the Demographer, and the analysis forms the basis of papers on squatters and social 

and poverty analysis prepared by the Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist 

(Annexes 2.b and 3.f). 

iv) The Demographer/Team Leader returned to South Tarawa for a meeting with 

President Anote Tong, arranged and facilitated by the National Facilitator. She 

briefed him on TA findings so far, and obtained his approval to prepare a whole-ofnation 

population policy implementation strategy based on human resources 

development and capacity building. 

v) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared discussion papers on population trends 

and living conditions and population and development planning (Annexes 2.a and 

2.b). 

vi) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist began preparing an analysis of 

settlement and resettlement plans and policies for Kiritimati Island (Annex 3.a). 

____________________________________________________________________ 

ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population Development Program on 

Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 1


_____________________________________________________________________ 

vii) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist began preparing a social and 

poverty analysis for Kiritimati Island (Annex 3.c) 

viii) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared a paper on holistic population planning 

and the requirements of an effective implementation strategy (Annex 3.d) 

ix) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist held a workshop for CASL 

members to evaluate the screening and selection criteria and processes for allocating 

leases on Kiritimati Island. 

x) The Demographer/Team Leader and the Resettlement and Social Protection 

Specialist met with Mr Edy Brotoisworo of ADB, Manila, to discuss preliminary 

findings and recommendations to be made in the Inception Report. 

xi) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared the Inception Report. 

xii) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared the draft Kiribati Population Policy 

Implementation Plan. The National Facilitator sought comments and suggestions 

from the Cabinet Secretary and The Secretaries (Heads of Government Ministries) 

Meeting on the document and received their approval to present the document at 

community consultations. 

xiii) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist returned to Kiritimati Island to 

complete the analysis of squatters including options and strategies for managing 

resettlement (Annexes 3.b and 3.d). Options will be discussed with stakeholders on 

Kiritimati Island before presentation to decision makers in South Tarawa. 

xiv) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist returned to South Tarawa to 

discuss with MELAD and other relevant parties his findings. This included those in 

regard to the Phase 1 of the land release on Kiritimati Island and the rationale for 

suspending resettlement until all major development issues are resolved in 


xv) The Demographer/Team Leader returned to South Tarawa. With the assistance of 

the National Facilitator she made presentations and obtained feedback on the draft 

of the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Plan. Participants at these 

consultations included representatives of various NGOs and the community, women 

and youth groups and senior church leaders. 

xvi) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared and obtained stakeholder comments on a 

population education brochure as an example of simple teaching materials that can 

be used to support the Implementation Plan 

February – March 2009 

xvii) The Resettlement and Social Protection Specialist returned to Kiritimati Island for 

the Lands Component of this TA so was delegated to carry out consultations as in 

xv) above in Kiritimati Island. 

____________________________________________________________________ 




_____________________________________________________________________ 

xviii) The Demographer/Team Leader revised the Kiribati Population Implementation 

Strategy in light of stakeholder comments. 

xix) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared a proposal to ADB to provide seed 

funding for a local Population and Development Coordinator to launch the 

Implementation Strategy from the Office of the President in South Tarawa. 

xx) The Demographer/Team Leader returned to South Tarawa to present the revised 

Implementation Strategy to the Cabinet Secretary. He approved both documents and 

agreed to present the Implementation Strategy to Heads of Government for final 

endorsement. He welcomed the seed funding proposal and agreed to provide the 

necessary support if the proposal is approved by ADB. 

xxi) The Health Economist accompanied the Demographer/Team Leader to South 

Tarawa where she briefed him on health services on Kiritimati Island and 

introduced him to health officials. 

xxii) The Health Economist utilised Ministry of Health data to prepare an assessment of 

health expenditure, health services and health needs on Kiritimati Island to serve the 

existing population and projected populations of various sizes (Annex 4.a) 

xxiii) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared a handbook for use as resource material 

by the Population and Development Coordinator and Kiribati stakeholders. This 

handbook explains the key population concepts and population and development 

linkages that provide the rationale for the Implementation Strategy. It is designed to 

be used by the Population and Development Coordinator and stakeholders to guide 

population activities and identify population and development linkages (Annex 2.d). 

xxiv) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared the preliminary final report. 

TA Extension May - September 2009 

xxv) The Demographer/Team Leader visited Tarawa to explain to Government of 

Kiribati the situation with regard to the TA extension and plan activities that the 

National Facilitator should prioritise in the remaining time available. 

xxvi) The National Facilitator met with President and Secretary to the Cabinet and 

assisted with preparation of a Cabinet paper on the population strategy. 

xxvii) The National Facilitator briefed departmental secretaries on the Strategy and 

provided necessary support to the process of its endorsement by Cabinet. 

xxviii) The National Facilitator briefed community stakeholders including NGOs, faith 

based organizations, teachers and the Kiribati Family Health Association on the 

Strategy and plans for its implementation. 

xxix) The National Facilitator met with Heads of diplomatic missions in Kiribati to 

discuss funding for population strategy implementation. 

xxx) The Demographer/Team Leader prepared this Final Report on the TA. 

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_____________________________________________________________________ 

c) LIST OF INFORMANTS 

Government: 

His Excellency President Anote Tong, President of Kiribati 

Minister Tawita Temoku, (Minister, Line and Phoenix Islands Islands Development) 

Mr Taam Biribo, Secretary to the Cabinet, and Chief Secretary. 

Heads of Ministries: 

Mr Riteti Maninraka, Secretary of Health (until October 2008) 

Mrs Reina Timau, Secretary of Health (from October 2008) 

Mr Rikiaua Takeke Secretary, MISA 

Mr Tebwe Ietaake, Secretary, MELAD; 

Ms Teea Tira, Secretary MFED, 

Mr Enota Ingintau, Secretary, Office of the President. 

Ms Teekoa Ietaake. Secretary MEYS (Education, Youth and Sport) 

Mrs Teramweai Itinraoi, Secretary, Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development 

Mr Taakei Taoaba, Secretary, Labour and Human Resources Development 

Other Government Officials 

Mr Tebutonga, Deputy Director, MELAD 

Mr Timi Kaiekieki, Director of Planning, MFED 

Mr Atanraoi Baiteke, Council Member, KNCC 

Mr Tiriata, Secretary, Lands Division, MLPID 

Mr Taarin, Officer, Lands Division, MLPID 

Dr Teatau Tii, Deputy Director of Public Health 

Dr Teatao Tira, Public Health 

Mr Ioelu Tatapu, Health Statistician 

Ms Moati Nubono, Health Statistics 

Beia Tiim, Environmental Health 

Marutaake Karawaiti, Health Promotion 

Ata Itibita, O/C Radiology Services 

Tamoa Maata, Biomedical Engineering 

Tekoaua Tamarea, Physiotherapy Department 

Atateka Tion, Physiotherapy Department 

Berenateta Taburimai, Physiotherapy Department 

Taukeriri Tibiriano, Physiotherapy Department 

Dr Teraira Bangao, Acting Director of Hospital Services 

Dr Turia Tekaai, Paediatrics Department 

Dr Eldo, Paediatrics Department 

Ioana Taakau, Pharmacy 

Tonganibeia Koakoa, Senior Assistant Secretary 

Dr Baranika Toromon, Obstetrician 

SNO Baurina Kaburoro, Ante-natal Clinic 

Sr Rote Tong, Principal Nursing Officer 

Tebuka Toatu, Director of Laboratory Services 

Tabuaka Nauan, Senior Dental Officer 

Dr Airam Metai, Public Health Consultant 

____________________________________________________________________ 




_____________________________________________________________________ 

Dr John Tekanene, retired doctor, Kiritimati Island 

Representatives of Faith-based Organizations, NGOs and community 

Bishop Paul Mea, Head of Kiribati Catholic Church (KCC) 

Dr Toom Toakai, Moderator (Head) of Kiribati Protestant Church (KPC) 

Mr Tebebeku Teia, Secretary, KNCC, 

Ms Roko Timeon, Executive Director, KANGO (Kiribati Association for Non-Government 

Organisations) 

Ms Araba, Project Officer, KANGO (Kiribati Association for Non-Government 

Organisations) 

Members of KANGO (association of NGOs) and AMAK (Main Kiribati women’s 

Organisation) 

Representatives of International Organisations 

Ms Anne Quinane, Australian High Commissioner (until May, 2009) 

Dr Kathryn Loon, WHO Office. 

____________________________________________________________________ 



Annex 2.a: McMURRAY – Trends in Population and Living Conditions 

RECENT TRENDS IN POPULATION AND LIVING 

CONDITIONS IN KIRIBATI. 

Dr Chris McMurray, 

Team Leader and Demographer, 

ADB TA 4878 - Kir: 

Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population Development 

Program on Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 



1


CONTENTS Page 

1. Population trends in Kiribati 3 

2. Population distribution 4 

3. Is the Kiribati birth rate decline accelerating? 6 

4. Did living standards in Kiribati improve between 2000 and 2005? 10 

4.1 Infant mortality 11 

4.2 Child Mortality Rate and Under Five Mortality Rate 12 

4.3 Life expectancy 12 

4.4 Access to safe water and sanitation 15 

5. Prospects for further population growth 18 

6. Concluding remarks 18 

TABLES 

Table One: Comparison of MHMS birth registrations and census estimates 8 

FIGURES 

Figure One: Total Kiribati population 1 

in census years 1947-2005 3 

Figure Two: Population increase since 1947, by island. 4 

Figure Three: Population Growth 1947-2005, Gilbert Group 4 

Figure Four: Population Growth 1947-2005, Line and Phoenix Islands 5 

Figure Five: Actual and expected MHMS birth registrations, 2000-2007 7 

Figure Six: Population distribution by age group, Kiritimati and Betio, 2005. 9 

Figure Seven: Infant mortality rates, Kiribati 1973-2005 11 

Figure Eight: Occasional and Regular Smokers, Kiribati, 2005 (per cent) 14 

Figure Nine: Occasional and Regular Alcohol drinkers, Kiribati, 2005 (per cent) 14 

Figure Ten Access to improved water sources, Kiribati 1990 and 2000 15 

Figure Eleven: Source of drinking water, all Kiribati households, 2005 16 

Figure Twelve: Type of toilet used, all Kiribati households, 2005 17 

1 

Totals for present Kiribati only, and excludes atolls that became part of Tuvalu. 



2


In June 2004 the Demographer for the present TA prepared a discussion paper on the 

population situation in Kiribati. The Kiribati Population Policy 2004 was 

subsequently drafted, and endorsed by Parliament in August 2004, but funding was 

never found for the first phase of the 20-Year Population Policy Implementation Plan. 

Although the 2004 Population Policy is referred to in various recent official 

documents, including the 2008-2011 Kiribati Development Plan and the Kiribati 

MDG report, and the goals set out in the Policy are still widely discussed and 

supported in Government and civil society, there has been no coordinated strategy to 

achieve these goals. Meanwhile the population of Kiribati has continued to increase 

steadily at an average of 1.8% each year since 1947. 

This discussion paper updates the population situation in Kiribati in light of recent 

data, including the 2005 census, and discusses the impact of recent population trends 

on living conditions. 

1. Population trends in Kiribati 

100000 

90000 

80000 

70000 

60000 

50000 

40000 

30000 

20000 

10000 

0 

Figure One: Total Kiribati population 2 

in census years 1947-2005 

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 

Data from 2005 Kiribati Population Census, Volume I, Table A, p.12. 

Between 1947 and 2000 the average annual rate of population increase in Kiribati was 

1.8 per cent. 3 Figure One plots the total populations in each census year. It can be 

seen that population growth has been steady and at a fairly constant rate, especially 

since Independence in 1979. The latest census showed an increase from 84,494 in 

2000 to 93,553 in 2005, which also averages 1.8% per year. 4 

This was almost entirely 

due to natural increase (excess of births over deaths) as the return of Kiribati citizens 

previously employed by the Nauru Phosphate Corporation was offset by emigration of 

2 

Totals for present Kiribati only, and excludes atolls that became part of Tuvalu. 

3 

See Republic of Kiribati, Report on the 2000 Census of Population, 2002: 6 and consultant's 

calculations in 2004 discussion paper. 

4 

SPC and Republic of Kiribati, Kiribati 2005 Census Report, Volume II: Analytical Report: ix. 



3


around 100 persons per year to New Zealand. 5 

Although the population growth rate has remained constant, the base population has 

become steadily larger. Whereas an average growth rate of 1.8% between 1995 and 

2000 amounted to an increase of 6,836 people, the same growth rate between 2000 

and 2005 meant 8,039 people. If it were to continue, the five years between 2000 and 

2010 would see the addition of close to 10,000 people. 

Moreover, as the population grows, most of the additional numbers each year are 

infants who need to be supported by their families. In their early years infants and 

young children make heavy demands on maternal health services. When they reach 

age six years they need primary school places, and at about 13 years of age they need 

secondary school places. This is why the MEYS needs to build around 40 new 

classrooms each year just to keep pace with population increase. 6 

2. Population distribution 

As emphasised in the 2004 discussion paper, the Kiribati population is unevenly 

distributed, so the impact of population increase differs between islands. 

45000 

40000 

35000 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 

Figure Two: Population increase since 1947, by island. 

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 

Data from 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Basic Tables, Table A, p. 12. 

Since South Tarawa has a much larger population than any other island, it dominates 

Figure One, and conceals rapid growth rates in Kiritimati and elsewhere. Figures 

Three and Four therefore show the same data separately for the Gilberts and for the 

Line and Phoenix Islands. 

5 SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 33. 

6 Personal communication, Mrs Ietaake, Secretary, MEYS, 23 June, 2008. On average 43 new 

classrooms each accommodating 35 children would have been needed each year between 2000 and 

2005. This would be the minimum to cater for the annual increase at age 6 years after allowing for 

mortality. because some schools on outer islands have only a few children in each class, even more 

classrooms are actually needed to keep pace with population growth. 



South Tarawa 

Other Islands 

4

45000 

40000 

35000 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 


Figure Three: Population Growth 1947-2005, Gilbert Group 

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 


Figure One shows that whereas most islands only doubled or trebled in size between 

1947 and 2005, by 2005 South Tarawa had almost 25 times as many people as in 

1947, accounting for 44% of the entire population of Kiribati. 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

Figure Four: Population Growth 1947-2005, Line and Phoenix Islands 

0 

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 




South Tarawa 

Figure Three shows that, although slower than that of South Tarawa, the population 

growth rate of North Tarawa increased between 2000 and 2005. By 2005 North 

Tarawa's population slightly exceeded that of Abaiang, which decreased slightly 

between 2000 and 2005. 

Abaiang/Nth Tarawa 

Other Gilberts 

Kiritimati 

Tabuaeran 

Teeraina 

Kanton 

Figure Four shows that the population of Kiritimati in 2005 was almost 50% larger 

than in 2000, and nearly 100 times as large as in 1947. The 2005 census showed that 

it had reached 5.9% of the population of Kiribati as a whole, surpassed in size only by 

5


much larger South Tarawa. There was also substantial population growth in 

Tabuaeran between 2000 and 2005, although by 2005 it was still only half the size of 

the Kiritimati population. The populations of the two other inhabited Line and 

Phoenix Islands, Teeraina and Kanton, remained almost constant. 

The population growth rate of Kiritimati for 2000-2005 was 7.9%, which was much 

higher than for South Tarawa in the same period (1.9%). Even so, South Tarawa still 

has a much larger population and larger absolute increase each year than anywhere 

else in Kiribati. 

Uneven population distribution across the various islands that make up Kiribati brings 

two major contrasting problems. On the one hand slow growth or depopulation of on 

outer islands raises the per capita cost of providing services, creates a stagnant climate 

for small enterprise and other initiatives, and may even result in insufficient numbers 

to sustain communities. On the other hand, continued inflows of population to 

densely settled areas in South Tarawa and Kiritimati further increases densities in 

already crowded areas, strain local infrastructures and create local pressure on 

employment opportunities and living conditions. 

There is no particular number of people per square kilometre that signifies population 

density is too high or too low. Nonetheless, in Kiribati, where there limited 

opportunities to grow or catch food in urban areas, few wage employment 

opportunities and large families dependent on a single wage earner, densities of 

several thousand per square kilometre are almost always associated with low living 

standards. This is exacerbated by inadequate water, sanitation and other basic 

services, which is typical of all the densely population areas of South Tarawa and 


3. Is the Kiribati birth rate decline accelerating? 

As stated in the 2000 census report, the Kiribati birth rate has been declining steadily 

since the 1970s. The estimated Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 7 

derived from the 1990 

census was 4.7; the 1995 census yielded a rate of 4.5 and the 2000 census 4.3. The 

TFR derived from the 2005 census for the years 2004-2005 was much lower, at 3.5. 

Does this mean the birth rate is now declining rapidly? 

According to the 2005 census analytical report, there appeared to be a dramatic 

reduction in the birth rate a few years prior to the census. On the basis of the number 

of children of each age counted, there appears to have been fewer births in 2003 than 

in any year previously, equivalent to an average TFR of only 3.2 births per woman. 

The census report found that the birth rate increased the following year, but was still 

low, at 3.5 for 2004-2005. Although these fluctuating rates promise fewer births in the 

future, it is too soon to say that the Kiribati birth rate is now declining rapidly. 

7 

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children women would have in their lifetime 

if this rate applied throughout their reproductive years. 



6


Figure Five: Actual and expected MHMS birth registrations, 2000-2007 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

1611 

1988 1961 

Actual Expected Linear (Expected) 

1803 

1864 

2281 

2603 

2072 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Source: Based on number of births registered by MHMS. 

Figure Five shows the number of births recorded by MHMS for the years 2000 to 

2007. The dark bars show the actual number of births recorded, while the white bars 

and the trend line show the expected number of birth registrations. 8 

The smaller number of births in 2003 and 2004 referred to in the census analytical 

report is reflected in the MHMS data plotted in Figure Five. It can also be seen, 

however, that there were considerably more births registered than would be expected 

in 2005 and 2006. The 2007 figure appears to be almost exactly what would be 

expected if the TFR remained at the average rate prior to 2003. This figure was not 

final at the time of writing, however, so could even increase by a small amount. 

It is also instructive to compare MHMS and census data. MHMS figures include only 

births attended by a nurse, either during the delivery or when the baby was first taken 

to a clinic, whereas census numbers are based on the number of children of each age 

counted. Since the 1980s, the percentage of births attended by a nurse has increased 

from around 70% to around 90% while traditional birth attendants assist at the 

remaining 10% (Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 31). 

8 The expected number of births is estimated from the average number of births for the three years 

2000-2002, (which were all relatively low birth rate years, according to the 2005 census analytical 

report, Figure 12, page 16), plus an allowance for population increase of 1.8% per annum. 



7


Table One: Comparison of MHMS birth registrations and census estimates 

MHMS Census 

2000 1611 2472 

2001 1988 2216 

2002 1961 2126 

2003 1803 2005 

2004 1864 2167 

2005 2281 2403 

Total 2000-2005 11508 13389 

2006 2606 

2007 2070 

Source: MHMS database and 2005 Kiribati Census Volume I: Basic Information and 

Tables, Table 5, p.33. 

Table One compares the MHMS birth registrations with the number of children of 

each age reported in the census. That is, births of children aged less than one year in 

the census are deemed to have been reported in 2005, children aged 1-2 years in 2004, 

and so on. The figures for each year are not exactly comparable because the MHMS 

uses a calendar year while census ages are calculated backwards from census day, 

which was 7th November 2005. Even so, the difference between the MHMS and 

census data in Table One is consistent with the pattern of assistance at delivery noted 

above. Given that some children would not have survived until the census, while net 

international migration is negligible, MHMS clearly recorded at least 1,880 fewer 

births than must have occurred during the six years 2000-2005. 9 

This suggests that, depending on the extent of under-reporting of births by MHMS, 

the totals for 2006 and 2007 could be considerably higher than shown in Table One 

and TFRs in those years could even be as high as TFRs prior to 2000. 

The number of surviving children from births occurring in 2006 and 2007 will not be 

known until the results of the 2010 census become available. Until then it can be said 

with confidence that there have been some fluctuations in the total number of births in 

recent years, but there is as yet no concrete evidence of accelerated fertility decline. 

A worrying feature of the 2005 census data is that comparison of age structure by 

island suggests that fertility on Kiritimati Island could be higher than in South 

Tarawa. 10 

Figure Six compares the percentages of the population in the major age 

groups in Kiritimati and Betio. 

9 Given the census estimate that 51 out of every 1000 live born children dies during their first year, and 

18 in every 1000 dies between age one and five years, the extent of under reporting in MHMS is 

probably much higher than suggested by Table One. The real difference between MHMS registered 

births and actual births for 2000-2005 is probably well over 2000 and could even be close to 3,000. 

10 The 2005 analytical report does not include separate estimates of the TFR for each island, and the 

detailed data required for calculation was not available during this TA. Moreover, since fertility 

fluctuations from year to year can be marked when numbers are small, in this instance comparison of 

age structure is probably a better indication of trends. 



8


Figure Six: Population distribution by age group, Kiritimati and Betio, 2005. 

Per cent 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

0.0 

5.3 

4.8 

10.2 

8.4 

Kiritimati Betio 

23.6 

20.3 

6.0 



5.6 

45.1 

50.7 

0-1 2-5 6-14 15-17 18-49 50-69 70+ 

Age Group (yrs) 

Data from 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Basic Tables, Table 3, pp 24, 3.1 

It can be seen that compared with Betio, Kiritimati had higher percentages in the 

preschool age groups (0-1 and 2-5 years), and in the primary/junior high school age 

group (6-14 years). The percentage in the secondary school age groups (15-17 years) 

was also slightly higher than in Betio. On the other hand, the percentage of people of 

working age was substantially lower on Kiritimati Island compared with Betio. 

Kiritimati also had a relatively young age structure and fewer in the working age 

groups when compared with all South Tarawa, all other outer Islands and all of 

Kiribati, although the differences were a little less than the comparison with Betio. 

Some of the very high growth rate for Kiritimati Island compared with the rest of 

Kiribati (see Figures Three and Four) thus appears to be due to higher fertility. 

Because many women from outer islands give birth at the hospital in South Tarawa, it 

is difficult to link birth registration data to particular islands. However, MHMS data 

shows that the percentage of all Kiribati births registered on Kiritimati Island (where 

remoteness makes it less likely that women would deliver elsewhere) in the years 

2004-2007 was consistently higher than the percentage of the total population counted 

on Kiritimati Island in 2005. Given that MHMS typically registers only around 90% 

of all births, this also suggests that the total fertility rate for Kiritimati could be above 

the national average. 

Higher fertility on Kiritimati Island than in densely settled Betio is consistent with the 

worldwide pattern that fewer wage employment opportunities, greater reliance on 

subsistence and a more relaxed lifestyle is almost always associated with higher 

fertility. An alternative explanation for the younger age structure on Kiritimati could 

be that people who already have large families are more likely to move to Kiritimati. 

8.1 

8.6 

1.6 

1.7 

9


Even if this is the correct explanation, rather than higher fertility per se, it still 

suggests that Kiritimati Island is attractive to larger families (presumably because 

food is easier to obtain), and therefore prone to higher fertility rates. 

Whatever the cause, the younger age structure on Kiritimati has important 

implications for the Kiribati population growth rate. First, it signifies that Kiritimati is 

likely to have relatively higher fertility in the future because it will have more 

potential parents. Second, although resettlement to Kiritimati Island is seen as a way 

of relieving population pressure in South Tarawa, it may also be helping to delay 

overall fertility decline. If resettlement strategies are to reduce population pressure 

without slowing the rate of fertility decline, they need to ensure that resettlement 

destinations provide opportunities for wage employment and the associated economic 

incentives that promote smaller families in urban areas. 11 

4. Did living standards in Kiribati improve between 2000 and 2005? 

There are numerous internationally recognised indicators of living standards, 

including economic indicators derived from national accounts and household income 

and expenditure data. A recent ADB review 12 

points to several causes for concern as 

regards the national economy, including that a negative trade balance is increasing 

reliance on transfers from overseas and withdrawals from reserves (RERF). The ADB 

review also questions the apparent growth in wage employment reported in the 2005 

census. The 40% increase as compared with 2000 is inconsistent with GDP figures 

and could be due to measurement inconsistencies compared with previous censuses. 

Although not focussed at the household level, this ADB review clearly indicates 

potential declines in living standards. 

The 2006 Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) highlighted 

discrepancies between income and expenditure at the household level, concluding 

that, on average Kiribati households spent $112 more each year than they earn. The 

survey found substantial differences by region, with positive values for Central ($184) 

and Southern Gilberts ($90) and negative for South Tarawa (-$225), Northern Gilberts 

(-$173) and Line and Phoenix Islands (-$25). 13 These finding must be treated with 

caution as it is well known that HIES respondents tend to understate their incomes, 

and for this reason it is usual to analyse patterns of income source in HIES data, but 

avoid direct comparisons of income and expenditure. 14 

The HIES results alone are 

therefore insufficient evidence of declining living standards. 

Some of the most important and meaningful indicators of living standards can be 

found in census data. They include several key indicators used to calculate the UNDP 

Human Development Index 15 

and measure progress in Millennium Development 

Goals. Data from many countries have shown that infant and child mortality rates, life 

expectancy and access to water and sanitation are more robust and sensitive indicators 

11 

For a fuller discussion of this point refer to the discussion paper on population planning and human 

resources development to be presented with the Interim Report on this TA. 

12 

Kiribati: Managing Development Risks (forthcoming) 

13 

Statistics Office, Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 23. 

14 

See, for example, Solomon Islands HIES, 2004/2005 and Tuvalu HIES, 2006. 

15 

See UNDP website http://www.undp.org for downloadable electronic versions of the Human 

Development Reports. 



10


of living standards at the community level as compared with economic indicators. 

This is acknowledged in the Kiribati Millennium Development Goals report, which 

cites Maslow's 1943 Hierarchy of Needs: 'In order to enjoy living to the full, one must 

first satisfy his basic needs (food, water, house, toilets) before he/she can proceed to 

the next higher level of needs.' 16 

The census and the HIES both collected data on patterns of food production and 

consumption, but unless exact quantities are known, only general conclusions about 

nutritional adequacy can be drawn from these data. Similarly, it is difficult to analyse 

housing adequacy from secondary data. In the Kiribati environment design is a more 

important determinant of adequacy than construction materials, and this cannot be 

assessed without inspection. The following analysis of trends in living standards is 

therefore confined to trends in mortality and health, water and sanitation, as reported 

in the census and other key data sources. 

4.1 Infant mortality 

Kiribati has experienced a substantial decline in the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 17 

since the 1970s, when it was close to 90 per 1000 live births. The census finding that 

the IMR increased in the period 2000-2005 is therefore startling. 

Figure Seven plots trends in IMR since 1973-78, clearly showing the recent increase. 

As in most countries, male infants were slightly more likely to die than female infants 

in most years. The 2000-2005 IMR by gender was 53 per 1000 live born males 

compared with 51 per 1000 for females. 

Figure Seven: Infant mortality rates, Kiribati 1973-2005 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

87 

82 

65 

1973-78 1978-85 1985-90 1990-95 1995-00 2000-05 

16 

Quotation from Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 50. 

17 

IMR= number of deaths before exact age one year per thousand live births. 



67 

43 

Data from Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 25. 

Although it is not yet known whether this trend has continued, it should be taken as an 

important early warning sign of deteriorating living standards. Problems during 

52 

11


delivery are unlikely to account for the increase in IMR because, as noted above, only 

an estimated 10% of births are not attended by a health professional. Rather, it points 

to a decline in family capacity to care for newborn infants and a decline in the quality 

of support services available to them. 

Infant mortality is widely recognised as a highly sensitive indicator of living 

standards. For example, the recent decline in living standards in Nauru was reflected 

in a dramatic increase in the IMR, from 13 in the 1991-1992 to 44 by around 2003. 18 

As in Nauru, the increase in IMR in Kiribati probably reflects a high prevalence of 

water borne diseases, declining nutritional standards that increase infant vulnerability 

to infection, and inadequate maternal and child health care programs (Republic of 

Kiribati, 2007: 25). 

4.2 Child Mortality Rate and Under Five Mortality Rate 

The Child Mortality Rate (CMR) is the number of deaths in the four years between 

ages one and five years per 1000 live births. It is usually expected to be around half to 

one third the IMR, because obviously infants are more vulnerable than young children 

and face considerable risks in the first year of life. The 2005 census data yielded a 

CMR for all Kiribati of 17.5 deaths per 1000 live births, 18 for males and 17 for 

females. Although the Kiribati CMR is consistent with the Kiribati IMR, it too is high 

compared with some neighbouring Pacific countries. 

CMR estimates are not available from the 2000 census, and there is some 

inconsistency between the figures in the 2005 census analysis and the MDG report. 19 

No attempt is therefore made to separate out the CMR from the Under Five Mortality 

Rate (U5MR, i.e. IMR plus CMR) shown in that report to establish a trend. What can 

be said, however, is that the U5MR also suggests declining living standards and is one 

of the highest in the Pacific Region. 

4.3 Life expectancy 

Life expectancy is the average number of years an individual of any given age can 

expect to live. Analysis of the 2005 census data produced an average life expectancy 

at birth of 58.9 years for Kiribati males and 63.1 for Kiribati females, which is low 

compared with most other Pacific countries. Female life expectancy two or three 

years longer than male life expectancy is normal, however, because male infants are 

more vulnerable, while at subsequent ages males tend to be exposed to more risk 

compared with females. 

One reason for comparatively short life expectancy in Kiribati is high IMR and CMR, 

but it is not the only reason. Life expectancy at age 25 is still only 40 for males and 44 

for females, 20 

indicating that many of those who survive the high-risk years of infancy 

and early childhood still do not enjoy a long life. The main factors contributing to 

relatively high adult mortality are the continuing prevalence of infectious disease, and 

18 

UNICEF, 2005 A Situation Analysis of Children, Youth and Women in Nauru: 13. 

19 

This report uses only the Under Five Mortality Rate (U5MR), which is the IMR plus the CMR. The 

figure quoted for 2004, however, is 67 (Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 24), which is less than the census 

estimate of 69.5. 

20 

SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2006: 23. 



12


the emergence of early-onset, lifestyle-related diseases. 

The infectious diseases of particular concern to adults in Kiribati are diarrhoeal 

diseases, hepatitis B, tuberculosis (TB) and acute respiratory infections, while 

HIV/AIDS is an emerging concern. As discussed further below, diarrhoeal diseases 

and hepatitis B reflect poor standards of water and sanitation, while tuberculoses is 

recognised as an indicator of poverty because transmission is facilitated by 

overcrowding and poor ventilation at the household level. 21 

Although almost entirely 

preventable by vaccination and healthy lifestyles, and very uncommon in most 

developed countries, tuberculosis remains an on-going concern in Kiribati. 

Most lifestyle-related, or early-onset, non-communicable diseases (NCDs), are caused 

by diets that are high in fat and sugar, alcohol, smoking and/or insufficient exercise. 

NCDs include obesity, diabetes, cancers, cardio-vascular diseases (e.g. heart attack, 

stroke) and cirrhosis of the liver. They are becoming more common in all Pacific 

countries as traditional diets are replaced or supplemented with high calorie imported 

foods and frying instead of grilling or baking. Although many Kiribati families still 

practice subsistence to some extent, there is increasing consumption of high calorie 

foods and soft drinks, even on outlying islands. At the same time lifestyles are 

becoming more sedentary. For example, people ride in buses, cars or on motorbikes 

instead of walking, use outboard motors instead of rowing or paddling, and purchase 

food instead of collecting or growing it. 

Figure Eight shows that almost half of all men and almost 60% of men aged 20-24 

described themselves as regular smokers in the census, and 27% of all women and 

22% of women aged 20-24. Smaller percentages said they were occasional smokers, 

but since 'sometimes' and 'regular' were not defined in terms of the number of 

cigarettes smoked each day or week, perceptions are likely to be highly variable. 

Given the universal tendency for people to under-report smoking and alcohol 

consumption, these figures represent a major health concern. 

The comparable figures for alcohol consumption are shown in Figure Nine. It can be 

seen that, according to the census, alcohol consumption is much less common among 

women than men. This is probably because female drinking tends to be stigmatised, 

which is probably because the typical pattern of drinking in the Pacific is binge 

drinking to excess. Although the census figures appear relatively low, it can be 

assumed that there is substantial under-reporting, while most of those who do drink 

alcohol do so in a way that is high risk and likely to be harmful to health. 

21 

Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 38. 



13


Figure Eight: Occasional and Regular Smokers, Kiribati, 2005 (per cent) 

100.0 

90.0 

80.0 

70.0 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

0.0 

48.9 

31.6 

3.9 5.0 5.3 

All Male 

Male 15-19 

Sometimes Regular 

Male 20-24 

58.3 

All Female 

8.1 

2.3 2.0 2.5 



27.0 

Female 15-19 

Female 20-24 

Data from 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Basic Tables, Table 13, p. 42. 

Figure Nine: Occasional and Regular Alcohol drinkers, Kiribati, 2005 (per cent) 

100.0 

90.0 

80.0 

70.0 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

0.0 

27.7 

All Male 

9.2 

25.8 

Male 15-19 

6.9 

41.8 

Male 20-24 

Sometimes Regular 

13.8 

All Female 

22.4 

2.5 3.0 4.0 

0.9 0.9 1.2 

Female 15-19 

Female 20-24 

Data from 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Basic Tables, Table 13, p. 43. 

Although NCDs are to a very large extent preventable, they are rapidly becoming a 

serious concern and shortening lives in Kiribati, as elsewhere in the Pacific. Smoking 

and excessive drinking are risk factors for cardio-vascular disease as well as direct 

14


causes of lung cancer and cirrhosis. Obesity is also classified as a disease in itself, as 

well as a risk factor for other NCDs. The census did not collect data on obesity, but 

any observer can see that it has become common in Kiribati, especially in urban areas 

and especially among women. 

4.4 Access to safe water and sanitation 

Access to safe water is a basic human need. Some of the most common infectious 

diseases are water borne. Among the most important are most forms of diarrhoeal 

disease, including typhoid and cholera. Diarrhoeal diseases always enter the body 

through the mouth, usually in drinking water that has been contaminated by a sick 

person, or in food washed in that water. Contaminated water can thus produce 

sickness and death in both children and adults, and is a leading cause of high infant 

and child mortality. Although not water borne, hepatitis B is transmitted in most body 

fluids, so poor hygiene contributes to the risk of infection. 

There have been a number of substantial donor-funded projects to improve water and 

sanitation in various parts of Kiribati, 22 but still large percentages of the population 

remain without one or both. Figure Ten shows the percentages of households 

classified as having access to improved water sources in 1990 and 2000. 23 

Although 

there was an increase in both rural and urban areas, both were still well short of 100%. 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Figure Ten Access to improved water sources, Kiribati 1990 and 2000 

1990 2000 

Rural Urban 

Source: Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 48 

22 

For example, ADB's Sanitation, Public Health and Environment (SAPHE) Project and AusAID's 

Kiribati Water and Sanitation Project (KWASP). 

23 




15

100.0 

90.0 

80.0 

70.0 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

0.0 


Figure Eleven: Source of drinking water, all Kiribati households, 2005 

24.9 

30.7 

69.7 

24 


25 




21.4 

Rain (Tank) Pipe Open Well Closed Well Shop 

(bottled) 

Source: 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Table H36, p 100 

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100 because of multiple responses 

Figure Eleven shows that in Kiribati as a whole, 70 per cent of all households obtain 

their drinking water from open wells and only 31% from piped water. The pattern by 

island is interesting. Whereas 67% of households in South Tarawa and 84% of 

households in Kiritimati used piped water, 79% of rural households used open wells. 

This does not mean, however, that households in South Tarawa and Kiritimati were 

necessarily better protected. The number of responses exceeded the number of 

households surveyed by 86% in South Tarawa and 55% in Kiritimati, indicating that 

some households use more than one source for drinking. This means they may drink 

both contaminated and uncontaminated water. 

It is also important to consider exactly what constitutes safe water. The MDG 

definition of safe water is 'piped water, public tap, bore or pump, protected well, 

protected spring or rainwater'. 24 Any of these sources can become contaminated, 

however, sometimes by an action as simple as using a contaminated container to dip 

and carry the water. Although improved water sources may be less likely to be 

contaminated than other sources, they cannot be relied on unless safeguards are in 

place to ensure they remain pure. Unsurprisingly, even in South Tarawa, where access 

to piped water is highest, test results show that most water sources are contaminated 

and MHMS wisely advises that all drinking water should be boiled before use. 25 

1.9 

16


Figure Twelve: Type of toilet used, all Kiribati households, 2005 

100.0 

90.0 

80.0 

70.0 

60.0 

50.0 

40.0 

30.0 

20.0 

10.0 

0.0 

14.9 

Public 

Flush 

15.7 

Private 

Flush 

33.2 

26 




4.3 

50.4 

26.7 

29.8 

Latrine Atollette Beach Bush Sea 

Source: 2005 Kiribati Census, Volume I, Table H36, p 100 

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100 because of multiple responses 

Figure Twelve shows the type of toilet used by Kiribati households. It can be seen that 

more than 50% of households use the beach and another 30% use the sea. Only 30% 

had access to a flush toilet and another 4% to a composting toilet (Atollette). There 

were substantial numbers of multiple responses on most islands, indicating that many 

households were using both a modern and traditional toilet facility. 

There is a close association between safe water and sanitation. Wells that may yield 

pure water under normal conditions can be contaminated by sewage that seeps from 

pit latrines or broken sewer pipes. Covering wells may prevent them being clogged by 

refuse, but is no protection from contamination that occurs underground. Lagoons that 

may be safe for swimming, fishing and bathing can become contaminated if they are 

used as toilets. Although flush toilets are usually classed as the optimum form of 

sanitation, they require a constant supply of water to operate properly, and can 

become a major source of contamination if they malfunction, are not kept clean, or if 

adjacent hand-washing facilities are not available. The MDG report cites the 2005 

SAPHE project finding that 30% of sanitation systems in South Tarawa are ‘not 

functioning well’. 26 

As this obviously excludes the beach, sea and bush, it represents 

substantially reduced access to adequate sanitation. 

The risk of health problems arising from inadequate water and sanitation has 

increased in Kiribati as higher population densities leave insufficient water for proper 

hygiene at the household level and intensify the challenge of waste disposal. It is well 

known that high levels of water borne disease are being experienced in the more 

densely settled parts of Kiribati. So far, lack of development of water and sanitation 

has tended to produce less infectious disease in the outer islands where there are 

17


relatively few people and enough land for wells and pit toilets to be widely separated. 

It is a major concern, however, in densely settled areas such as Betio, Bairiki and 

Bikenibeu in South Tarawa and Tabwakea and London in Kiritimati Island. 

5. Prospects for further population growth 

The 2005 Census Analytical Report includes a series of nine population projections 

based on various assumptions about trends in fertility, mortality and migration. 

Estimates of total population size in 2025 ranged from a low of 119,000 (assuming 

permanent emigration of 200 people per year and a sharp decline in fertility) to 

140,000 (if there is negligible permanent emigration and fertility continues to decline 

at the same pace as from 1990 to 2000). The medium scenario (based on emigration 

of 100 persons a year 27 

and fertility decline at a rate extrapolated from the dip in 

fertility in 2003) yields a population of 130,000 in 2025. 

These projections are consistent with those made during the development of the 

Kiribati Population Policy in 2004. Those projections estimated a population of 

120,000 in 2025 if permanent emigration reached 500 persons per year, and 136,000 

in 2025 if there were no emigration and slow fertility decline. 

Whichever figure is used, it is clear that Kiribati is likely to have at least 20,000 

additional people by 2025, and probably substantially more. Most of the annual 

increment will be infants who can be expected to make substantial demands on health, 

education and other basic facilities for at least 16 years after their birth. 

6. Concluding remarks 

As stated at the outset, the objective of this paper is to consider the impact of recent 

population trends on living conditions in Kiribati. It is clear from the above evidence 

that the total population is continuing to grow at a steady rate, and can be expected to 

reach at least 120,000 by 2025 and very probably more. Aside from problems arising 

from uneven distribution, which include depopulation of rural areas as well as 

overcrowding in several locations, there is evidence of a real deterioration in living 

standards and health as measured by the key indicators infant mortality and access to 

water and sanitation. These concerns point to the urgency of implementing strategies 

that increase human capacity and promote smaller families in order to contain 

population growth and prevent further erosion of living standards. 

27 New Zealand currently accepts 75 permanent residents persons per year under the 'Pacific Access 

Scheme' (http://www.immigration.govt.nz) while small numbers have moved to Fiji in recent years. 

The 2004 Population Policy includes the objective of identifying permanent destinations for 500 

persons per year. 



18

Annex 2.b: McMURRAY – Population and development planning 

DISCUSSION PAPER: 

POPULATION PLANNING ISSUES AND 

STRATEGIES: KIRITIMATI ISLAND AND 

KIRIBATI 

Dr Chris McMurray, 

Team Leader and Demographer, 

ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Republic of Kiribati: Integrated Land and Population 

Development Program on Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 

_________________________________________________________________ 



1


CONTENTS 

1. Introduction 4 

2. Previous initiatives to manage population 5 

3. Recent initiatives and potential for further fertility decline 6 

4. Strategies to stabilise the population 9 

5. Population momentum 9 

6. How much can the Kiribati population be expected to increase before it 

stabilises? 10 

7. Special issues for population planning in Kiribati 11 

8. What causes the very low fertility in the most developed countries? 12 

9. Why hasn’t Kiribati fertility declined to replacement level already? 14 

10. Why have previous population policies had only limited success? 14 

11. Suggested priorities for a revised implementation strategy for the 

2004 Kiribati Population Policy 15 

12. Suggested content of the Population Policy Implementation Strategy 16 

12.1 Strengthen Human Resources Development 16 

12.2 Facilitate overseas migration and employment opportunities 17 

12.3 Facilitate local employment and income generation 18 

12.4 Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities to promote 

resettlement and retain population in other outer islands 18 

12.5 Increase information and advocacy for population awareness and 

informed parenting 18 

12.6 Strengthen health services and ensure accessible and confidential 

health services for all ages. 19 

13. Summary of the proposed population strategy and concluding 

remarks 19 

FIGURES 

Figure One: Kiribati population pyramid 1990 7 

Figure Two: Kiribati population pyramid 2005 8 

_________________________________________________________________ 



2






CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against 

Women 

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child 


FGD Focus Group Discussion 

GDP Gross Domestic Product 

IMR Infant Mortality Rate 


KCC Kiribati Catholic Church 



KNCC Kiribati National Council of Churches 

KNDP Kiribati National Development Plan 




MEYS Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport 




ML&HRD Ministry of Labour and Human Resources Development 


NGO Non-Government Organisation 





TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training 


UNDP United Nations Development Program 


_________________________________________________________________ 



3

1. Introduction 


The population of Kiribati has been increasing steadily for more than 60 years. 

Between 1947 and 2005 the average growth rate was 1.8% per annum. Generally the 

number of immigrants has been more or less equal to the number of emigrants, so the 

main factor driving population growth is natural increase, i.e. the difference between 

the birth rate and the death rate. According to the age data in the 2005 census, the 

annual number of births averaged 2,230 between 2000 and 2005. 1 

In the same period 

there was an average of 850 deaths per annum, so natural increase was probably 

around 1,400 people per year. 

Obvious disparities in population size and growth rates between South Tarawa and 

other atolls and the relative emptiness of Kiritimati Island has focussed attention on 

population relocation to alleviate population pressure. In 2004 resettlement to 

Kiritimati Island was one of three strategies recommended by an ADB TA to develop 

a population policy and implementation strategy. 2 Since then NZAID has sponsored a 

strategic plan for the economic and community and development of Kiritimati Island 

2008-2012, 3 ADB’s Outer Islands Growth Centres Project has focused on 

resettlement to Kiritimati 4 and the potential for resettlement to Kiritimati was 

evaluated in the MISA, NZAID and AUSAID’s Kiribati Urban Renewal Program 

Scoping Study and the ensuing Kiribati Sustainable Towns Program Plan. 5 

Kiritimati Island is potentially attractive to new settlers because they are free to utilise 

the extensive state-owned lands for subsistence. Relocating populations to new areas 

needs to be carefully managed, however, and requires substantial investment in water, 

sanitation, electricity and other urban facilities to ensure resettled families have 

adequate living standards. Moreover, while relocation may alleviate population 

pressure in densely settled areas, if it is not accompanied by slower overall population 

growth the newly settled areas could eventually become as densely populated as 

South Tarawa. 6 

What is needed is implementation of a population strategy that 

addresses population planning and management in both Kiritimati Island and Kiribati 

as a whole. 

1 

Kiribati Ministry of Finance, 2005, Kiribati Census Volume I: Basic Information and Tables, Table 5, 

p.33. Estimates based on census data are likely to be more complete than those derived from 

hospital data, but as they exclude infant and child deaths occurring before the census date they 

still underestimate total births. 

2 

ADB TA 3786 KIR: Strengthening Development Strategies and Supporting Poverty Reduction. The 

other two strategies were population education to promote replacement fertility and promotion 

of emigration, ideally to 500 permanent settlers each year. 

3 

NZAID, 2007, ‘Strategic plan for the economic and community and development of Kiritimati Island 

2008-2012’ Unpublished consultants’ report. 

4 

ADB TA 38138, 2004, ‘Technical Assistance to the Republic of Kiribati for preparing the Outer 

Islands Growth Centers Project’ and ADB ADB TA 38138 2005, ‘Kiribati, Preparing the 

Outer Islands Growth Centers Project’, Unpublished consultants’ reports. 

5 

MISA, NZAID and AusAID, 2007 Kiribati Urban Renewal Program Scoping Study, Unpublished 

consultants’ report. 

6 

Further discussion and recommendations for management of Kiritimati settlement is presented in the 

discussion paper ‘A Review of Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati 

Island’ attached as Annex Three of the Interim Report for the present TA 4878. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



4


The Kiribati Population Policy was endorsed by the Government of Kiribati in August 

2004. It addresses population and development concerns as part of the National 

Development Strategy and the Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. The goal of the 

Population Policy is: 

To contribute to social and economic progress and a rising standard of living 

for the people of Kiribati, and to facilitate adaptation to climate change by 

limiting population growth to 120,000 in 2025. 

The objective of the Population Policy is ‘A coordinated, vigorous, 20-year, multiministry 

strategy that sustains the momentum of population and development 

activities and achieves: 

• Community acceptance of a family size norm of 2-3 children by 2015 

• Replacement fertility by 2025 (average of 2.1 children per woman) 

• No unmet need for family planning after 2010 

• No unplanned pregnancies by 2015’ 

The 2004 Population Policy also includes two strategies to alleviate population 

pressure in South Tarawa: 

• Promotion of alternative growth centres, including Kiritimati Island 

• Promotion and facilitation of emigration 

As of mid 2008 there had been no coordination population-related activities to support 

the Population Policy. The 2005 census and recent birth registrations indicate that 

population is continuing to increase steadily at around 1.8% per year. At the same 

time Kiribati is confronting new challenges posed by climate change and the world 

economic situation. Capacity to manage and adapt to these challenges is impaired not 

only by population increase but also by uneven population distribution. It is therefore 

essential that immediate action is taken to improve the balance between population 

and resources and reduce the population growth rate. 

Strategies to reduce population pressure and limit population growth have been on the 

Kiribati national development agenda for more than three decades. This paper begins 

with a review of previous strategies and then suggests priorities for a renewed strategy 

to plan and manage population on Kiritimati Island and in Kiribati as a whole. 

2. Previous initiatives to manage population 

The first major population-related activity in Kiribati was the nation-wide family 

planning campaign between 1967 and the early 1970s, prior to the attainment of 

Independence. This campaign resulted in a substantial reduction in the number of 

births that can still be seen in the population age structure, as will be discussed further 

in the next section of this paper. 

Although this type of population policy was clearly very successful in Kiribati, in the 

mid 1970s international agencies worldwide moved away from vigorous campaigning 

in favour of a more integrated approach. Less promotion led to a decline in 

contraceptive use in Kiribati, although family planning was still available as part of 

_________________________________________________________________ 



5


public health service delivery and donor-supported services also were provided by 

some NGOs. 

In 1982 a new Health and Family Planning Programme was launched by the then 

Ministry of Health and Family Planning. Its aim was to promote and strengthen 

family planning services as part of public health, ad provide more information on 

family planning. The specific objectives included reducing the population growth rate 

to 1.6 per cent by 1986 and reducing the total fertility rate (TFR) 4.2 by 1986. 7 

These targets were not achieved and in 1989 new targets were set. These were a 

population growth rate of 1.4 per cent and a TFR of 4.2, initially by 1991, and 

subsequently by 1995. 8 

Although these exact targets were not achieved, the rates in 

the period 1990-1995 declined to 1.8 per cent per annum and 4.5 children per women, 

as compared with 2.1 per cent and 4.9 in 1980-1985. 

Subsequent population and health activities included family planning services, but 

without pursuing specific targets. The 1996 Kiribati National Seminar on Population 

and Development for Parliamentarians and Higher Dignitaries re-asserted national 

concern about population issues, with renewed emphasis on the cross cutting nature of 

population, and population-development interactions. 9 

Seminar participants produced a list of policy recommendations to improve living 

standards and accelerate fertility decline, including promotion of ‘Education for All’, 

human development and promotion of traditional skills, improves sanitation and 

garbage collection and education in family planning and population and development. 

The 1996 seminar did not lead to formulation and endorsement of a specific 

population and development plan, however, and no systematic strategy was developed 

to address population concerns. Some recommendations were implemented by 

relevant ministries, and family planning services and sexual and reproductive health 

information continued to be an important part of MHMS activities. 

3. Recent initiatives and potential for further fertility decline. 

This long history of population initiatives shows that the objective of lower fertility is 

already a familiar concept in Kiribati. The impact of the 1967-70 campaign is clearly 

evident in the population pyramids in Figures One and Two. 

In the pyramid for 1990 (Figure One) the shorter bars for ages 15-19 reflect the 

smaller number of births in the period 1970-1975 due to the family planning 

campaign. Similarly, the pyramid for 2005 (Figure Two) shows the same group of 

people aged 30-34, and again the bars for that age group are shorter than for the age 

groups on either side. 

7 Republic of Kiribati, 1996. National Seminar on Population and Development for Parliamentarians 

and Higher Dignitaries. South Tarawa: Ministry of Health and Family Planning. p. 39. 


and Higher Dignitaries. South Tarawa: Ministry of Health and Family Planning. p. 40. 


and Higher Dignitaries. South Tarawa: Ministry of Health and Family Planning. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



6


The 2005 pyramid also shows smaller number aged 0-4 years than 5-9 years. This 

indicates a new decline in fertility, although, as noted elsewhere, 10 

fertility appears to 

have risen again since then, so it is too early to say whether this new decline will 

definitely be sustained in the long term. What can be said, however, is that Kiribati 

people respond to campaigns to reduce fertility, that some people are having fewer 

children than was the norm even a few years ago and there appears to be potential to 

achieve further reductions in fertility in the future. 

70-74 

60-64 

50-54 

40-44 

30-34 

20-24 

10-14 

0-4 

-8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 

Figure One: Kiribati population pyramid 1990 

10 

See Annex 2.a McMurray ‘Recent trends in population and living conditions in Kiribati’ . 

_________________________________________________________________ 



7


70-74 

60-64 

50-54 

40-44 

30-34 

20-24 

10-14 

0-4 

-8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 

Figure Two: Kiribati population pyramid 2005. 

The 2004 National Development Strategy (NDS) refocussed attention on population 

increase. Issue 2 of the Key Policy Area 1: Economic Growth was ' Growth of 

population restricts income per head.' 11 

As part of the NDS, a comprehensive 

population policy to achieve stability of the total population by 2020-2025 was 

developed and presented to Cabinet in 2004. The main objective of this policy is to 

reduce the TFR to replacement level (i.e. an average of 2.1 children per woman) by 

2025, with a view to eventually achieving a stable population. It also incorporated a 

strategy to relieve population pressure in South Tarawa by promoting growth poles in 

several outer islands. 

This policy was approved by Cabinet, but insufficient funding was available to launch 

the accompanying implementation plan. 12 Even so, 'Monitor and control population 

growth' is as an objective of the 2008-2011 Kiribati Development Plan (KDP) 13 and 

local awareness of the economic impact of continuing population growth remains 

high. The Executive Summary of the 2007 Government of Kiribati/ADB review states 

'No single more effective way of improving future income and welfare per head is 

available to Kiribati than a well-planned, sustained campaign to reduce the likely 

future size of the population.' 14 

Population management is also mentioned in the 

MHMS Strategic Plan (2008-2011). The six population-related activities, all to be 

undertaken by Department of Public Health with UNFPA funding, are: 

11 

Republic of Kiribati, National Development Strategy, 2003: 13. 

12 

Republic of Kiribati, Kiribati Development Plan: 2008-2011: 4. 

13 


14 

ADB, 2008. ‘Kiribati: Managing Development Risk: A report in ADB’s Pacific Islands Economic 

Reports series’, Draft manuscript, p 3. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



8


1) Sensitise religious groups to the need for family planning; 

2) Train all staff in family planning; 

3) Train staff in advanced family planning methods; 

4) Establish mobile team and home visits to manage advanced family planning 

methods in Outer Islands; 

5) Ensure all clinics have continuous supplies of family planning 

commodities; 

6) Maintain accurate records of family planning activities (MHMS, 2008: 10). 

Kiribati is therefore committed to improving the balance between population and 

resources by stabilising population growth. What is needed to achieve this is an 

affordable Population Policy Implementation Strategy that slows population growth 

and makes for more even population distribution while managing resettlement to 

ensure it is sustainable. This strategy should include achievable goals and targets and 

comprise activities that are both acceptable to the community and doable. The next 

few sections of this paper examine factors commonly associated with fertility decline 

and discuss how they might apply in Kiribati. 

4. Strategies to stabilise the population 

As mentioned above, the central long-term objective of the 2004 Kiribati Population 

Policy is to stabilise the population. A stable population is one that neither increases 

nor decreases (i.e. a growth rate of 0.0%). A TFR of 2.1 is normally considered to be 

‘replacement fertility’. That is, it allows for each person alive to be ‘replaced’ by only 

one other person, with a small allowance for early deaths. 

The two main ways of achieving population stability are to reduce fertility to 

replacement levels or to offset population growth by increasing emigration. A stable 

population can be achieved with higher fertility if there is sufficient emigration to 

offset the excess births. This can be seen in a few Polynesian countries such as 

Tokelau and Tonga, where fertility is above replacement level, but high emigration 

levels have kept the population growth rate close to zero. 

Emigration levels are determined not only by national policies but also by the 

availability of migration destinations, however. Most Pacific Rim countries regulate 

immigration closely, and Kiribati does not have the same favoured access to 

immigration destinations that are available to some Polynesian countries. Although it 

may be possible to increase the emigration from Kiribati to a few hundred each year, 

it is very unlikely that emigration would ever be sufficient to offset the current excess 

of 1,400 or more births. The most realistic alternative for Kiribati is likely to be a 

combination of lower fertility and increased emigration. A two-pronged approach that 

includes both fertility and emigration targets is therefore a key feature of the 2004 

Population Policy and should be emphasised in the Implementation Strategy. 

5. Population momentum 

Population momentum is a key concept in population planning. It is very important to 

understand that the attainment of replacement fertility does not necessarily mean the 

immediate cessation of population growth. Because of its young age structure the 

_________________________________________________________________ 



9


Kiribati population has built-in ‘population momentum’. This means that even after 

replacement fertility has been attained, population numbers could continue to increase 

for a further 30 or 40 years. 

The 2005 census showed that half the total population of Kiribati was aged less than 

21 years. In 2005 there were almost 37,000 people in the main child bearing ages of 

20-49 years. By 2025, however, when the children born in 2005 start to have children 

of their own, there will be around 65,000 people in the main child bearing ages. Even 

if these new parents have smaller families than their own parents and only ‘replace’ 

themselves, around twice as many babies could be born in 2025 as in 2008, simply 

because there are more potential parents. ‘Population momentum’ will cause the 

Kiribati population to increase until the number of people in the main childbearing 

ages stabilises. 

Once the population stabilises, any further decrease in fertility or increase in 

emigration could cause negative population growth, i.e. declining population 

numbers. This is happening in some of the very low fertility countries of Europe such 

as France and Germany. Australia, which also has below replacement fertility, is 

preventing population decrease by maintaining steady levels of immigration to offset 

its deficit in births. 


stabilises? 

The medium population projections made in 2004 and the target population set in the 

2004 Population Policy is 120,000 by 2025. 15 This is 30% more people than in 2005. 

The medium population projection based on the 2005 census data suggests the total 

population of Kiribati is likely to reach 130,000 by 2025, which is a 40% increase 

compared with 2005. Both of these projections assume substantial declines in the 

birth rate and substantial increases in permanent emigration, which in fact have not 

yet occurred. If there is no change in current fertility and emigration rates and the 

population continues to increase at an average of 1.8% per year, the population could 

exceed 140,000 by 2025. 16 

If replacement fertility could be reached by 2025 and an average of 200 permanent 

emigrants left the country each year, the total population size in 2025 could be as few 

as 120,000 per year. This is still 30% more people than in 2005. 

Under any of these scenarios the population would continue to increase after 2025 

because of population momentum. The maximum population size at the point when it 

stops increasing will depend on how quickly fertility declines and the scale of net 

emigration. If fertility declines quickly, the maximum population size could be as low 

as 135,000, and could be reached in 2050. On the other hand, if the current fertility 

rate declines only slowly the maximum could be as high as 250,000 and not achieved 

until 2090. If there were no reduction in current fertility and no increase in emigration 

15 

Although the 2004 projections assumed higher levels of migration than the 2005 census projections, 

they also assumed higher fertility and slower fertility decline, so it is reasonable to compare 

the projected population totals derived from the two sets of projections. 

16 

SPC and Republic of Kiribati, Kiribati 2005 Census Analysis, 2007: 71 

_________________________________________________________________ 



10


rates population increase would continue indefinitely and a stable population would 

never be achieved. 

Every year that implementation of the 2004 Population Policy is delayed it becomes 

more likely that the projected population numbers for 2025 will be exceeded. Delay 

also means a larger maximum population size when stability is eventually achieved. It 

is therefore critically important that implementation of the 2004 Population Policy 

commences as soon as possible. 

7. Special issues for population planning in Kiribati 

Kiribati is not only challenged by continuing population increase, but also by uneven 

population distribution. On the one hand some atolls are very thinly populated, while 

some 44% of the total population is crammed into South Tarawa. This local-level 

imbalance between population and resources has come about largely because of 

migration from outer islands. South Tarawa acts like a population magnet because 

most wage employment opportunities and the best social services are located there, 

while generally it is the only part of Kiribati that offers the many, diverse activities of 

urban life. 

Dense settlements in Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu strain capacity to provide adequate 

water, sanitation, waste disposal, transport, communications and housing. The 2005 

census showed that average household size in South Tarawa was 7.5 persons. 17 

Although 67% of households in South Tarawa had access to piped water, around 30% 

relied on open or closed wells, and 50% used the ocean or bush for sanitation. 18 

Moreover, although wage employment is one of the main attractions of South Tarawa, 

there are not enough jobs to meet the demand. It is especially difficult for school 

leavers and those without previous work experience to find wage employment. 

Substantial numbers of urban households have no choice but to practice a semisubsistence 

lifestyle because their cash incomes are insufficient, yet land is in short 

supply and fish stocks are becoming depleted. 

An alternative strategy to alleviate population pressure in South Tarawa is to 

encourage people to remain on their home on islands. This can be difficult when 

better services, economic opportunities and market forces tend to attract people to the 

established economic area of South Tarawa. Encouraging people to remain on outer 

islands means upgrading services and creating employment and income generating 

opportunities there. The per capita cost of providing services for small population 

clusters is relatively high, however, while from a businesses perspective small 

markets, poor communications and high transport costs make outer islands less 

attractive than South Tarawa. Decentralisation thus involves reversing established 

economic trends and population flows, which is difficult and costly. 

Another issue for Kiribati population planning is that most of the working age 

population is engaged in subsistence or semi-subsistence work. Many of those who 

want to participate in the cash sector do not have appropriate skills or experience for 

17 

SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2007, Kiribati 2005 Census Analysis: 56. 

18 

SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2007, Kiribati 2005 Census Analysis: Maps 2 and 3, pp 55-56. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



11


wage work, or the management skills necessary to establish and run a small business. 

This applies to both younger and older age groups. Despite the recent establishment of 

Junior Secondary Schools to improve educational standards and initiatives to develop 

technical and vocational education (TVET), many young people leave school without 

well-developed skills in either academic or vocational subjects. 

One factor hampering human resources development is a widespread perception in the 

Kiribati community that white collar work is superior to all other types of work and 

vocational education as only for those who can’t achieve good results in white collaroriented 

education. This tends to discourage students who have an aptitude for 

vocational learning. Those in vocational streams tend to be poorly motivated rather 

than eager to acquire valuable and marketable skills. Many drop out of both academic 

and vocational streams because they are demoralised, or drift through school and 

leave without the skills to be competitive in the labour market. In the absence of 

alternatives they may fall back on subsistence, semi-subsistence or unskilled 

labouring jobs, simply because they have not had sufficient opportunity to realise 

their employment potential. Lack of satisfying employment opportunities may even 

encourage girls to become mothers at a young age because motherhood appears to be 

their only pathway to recognition and status in the community. 

8. What causes the very low fertility in the most developed countries? 

A consistent pattern throughout the world, as well as the rest of the Pacific, is that the 

average fertility (i.e. average number of children borne by women) of rural and 

subsistence workers is higher than that of urban and wage workers. Paradoxically, 

even though wage employment initially may make large families more affordable, in 

the long-term it promotes lower fertility. 

One of the best explanations for this pattern is the ‘theory of wealth flows’, which 

argues that the spread of mass education, increasing employment opportunities and 

urbanization increase the cost of raising children. 19 

In a subsistence society the cost of 

having an additional child tends to be negligible. Children don't need to stay in school 

for long or spend time studying after school, and from an early age they can help their 

family by caring for younger siblings, doing chores, feeding animals, gathering food. 

Moreover, having a large family improves the chances that some will survive to take 

care of their parents when they become old. This means the main ‘flow of wealth’ is 

from children to parents, so more children means more wealth. 

When people live in urban environments and have paid employment, there are fewer 

opportunities for children to contribute to the household economy because most food 

is purchased. Work is no longer the same simple subsistence tasks for everyone but 

becomes a diversity of occupations, some paid more and some more pleasant to do 

than others. The best jobs tend to require professional or trade skills, so as aspirations 

increase, parents want their children to acquire the educations and skills to obtain the 

best jobs. This means children need to spend more time at school, and that means 

school fees, more and better clothing, books, sporting equipment and the other costs 

19 

Caldwell, J.C., 1980. ‘Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline’. Population 

and Development Review, Vol 6, No. 2, pp 225-255. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



12


of education. Because they have less time and opportunity to contribute labour to the 

household, children are more dependent than productive. Most parents in developed, 

high-aspiration societies provide all their children’s needs for 16-18 years. If children 

progress to higher education they may depend on their parents for 25 years or more 

before they start to earn an independent income. Although in the long run they will 

probably earn much more than less well-educated children, for many years the main 

flow of wealth is from parents to children. Raising successful children thus becomes 

very expensive, which produces the motivation to have smaller families. 

A crucial condition for the process described above to occur is that there must be 

plenty of opportunity to realise increasing aspirations, and realising them must be 

incompatible with a large family size. That is, there must be appropriate wage 

employment available for children in whom parents have invested a great deal, along 

with opportunities to acquire consumer goods and more comfortable lifestyles. If 

employment opportunities are limited, aspirations will be frustrated. Students who 

study with little hope of wage employment when they leave school are likely to 

become discouraged, perform poorly or drop out. Parents are likely to be discouraged 

from investing in upper secondary, post secondary and tertiary education that may not 

be utilised. Limited opportunities to earn wages also sustain subsistent or semisubsistent 

lifestyles that are more compatible with a larger family size. 

Factors consistently linked with fertility decline are education and employment 

opportunities for women. In most of the world the average number of children borne 

by women with secondary or higher education is lower than for women with primary 

or no education. There are various explanations for this pattern, including the health 

benefits - for both mothers and children - of smaller, well-spaced families, and the 

greater ability of educated women to achieve their preferred family size. Another 

important explanation is that educated women have more opportunity to participate in 

employment, so having fewer children makes it easier for them to do so. 

Changing wealth flows and status of women in the world’s most developed countries 

means that it is now normal for families to comprise only one or two children. Much 

money is spent on the education of these children and preparing them for 

employment. Some of the lowest fertility rates in the world can be found in Catholic 

countries such as Ireland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Poland and South Korea, even though 

Catholic families are normally associated with high fertility. The influences of 

strongly growing economies, ample opportunities for wage employment and 

increasing aspirations are stronger than traditional religious values. 

It is remarkable that most developed countries have never had a population policy. 

Their declining population growth rates are not due to any deliberate policies or 

strategies. What has happened is that the tremendous opportunity generated by 

economic growth, diversity of employment and the capacity to acquire consumer 

goods has increased family aspirations. This in turn has created the motivation to have 

fewer children so that aspirations can be realised. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



13


9. Why hasn’t Kiribati fertility already declined to replacement level? 

Most Kiribati children now attend high school, there has been an increase in paid 

employment and almost half of the population now live in urban areas. So why isn’t 

Kiribati fertility already close to replacement level? 

The main explanations seem to be that the Kiribati economy has not developed the 

wide diversity of occupations and economic opportunity found in the most developed 

countries, and the education system may not be providing the skills for diverse 

employment. Put simply, greater participation in education has not been paralleled by 

an increase in opportunities to benefit from education. The Kiribati education system 

focuses mainly on developing literacy and numeracy – the skills for formal, whitecollar 

employment – but there are not enough white-collar jobs for all who seek them. 

Nor are there sufficient opportunities in small business, trades and other occupations 

to absorb those who do not find white-collar employment. This contributes to student 

lack of interest in education, poor performances and high drop-out rates. Another 

problem is that where opportunities are available, potential workers may not have 

sufficient skills needed to fill them. Skill shortages identified in a recent analysis of 

the Kiribati labour market include electrical technicians and electricians, plumbers, 

building finishing skills, hospitality professionals and mechanics. 20 

Around half the population live in South Tarawa and Kiritimati, both classed as 

urban, but many people in these centres do not have wage work and still depend 

largely on subsistence activities. Although having secondary education and living in 

an ‘urban’ environment may have generated higher aspirations, until there are 

opportunities that are more accessible to small families, few couples will be motivated 

to limit family size. The main driver of the fertility decline that has occurred in 

Kiribati so far is hardship and crowding rather than increasing aspirations. This means 

there is still an underlying preference for families of four or more children, and the 

reversal in wealth flows that is so critical to fertility decline has not occurred. 

10. Why have previous population policies had only limited success? 

The traditional view of population planning in the Pacific is that it is primarily about 

numbers. Since population numbers are driven by fertility, and most Pacific 

population plans target fertility reduction, population planning has tended to become 

synonymous with family planning. Not surprisingly, this has made it an unpopular 

concept in some quarters. In fact, any policy or strategy that includes the objective of 

fertility reduction is sure to be viewed by at least a few people as 'coercive', 'an 

invasion of rights' or as merely 'women's business'. 

Kiribati has long recognised that population size is a critical determinant of 

development and has approved and adopted strategies to address it. Even so, sustained 

population increase continues to undermine economic growth. This is almost certainly 

because population planning in Kiribati has focussed on family planning, population 

redistribution and emigration, and has given less attention to creating the conditions 

20 

Voigt-Graf, C. and Tionatan, T. 2007, Labour market analysis, Kiribati. AusAID unpublished 


_________________________________________________________________ 



14


that motivate couples to have smaller families. Because population planning has not 

been linked with increasing employment opportunities and improving living 

standards, the benefits of a smaller family size have not been obvious to the 

community. Inevitably this has limited the success of population planning. 

The 2008-2011 Kiribati Development Plan places 'Monitor and control population 

growth' under the Key Development Area of Health. The three strategies to achieve 

this outcome are: 




What is needed is a broad interpretation of these planning strategies that focuses on 

human resources development and improving living standards as well as population 

awareness and family planning. This can be directly linked with the 2004 Population 

Policy objectives and the revised Population Policy Implementation Strategy being 

developed as part of the present TA. 21 

Adopting a broader approach means that the 

main motivation for a smaller family size will come from increasing aspirations, 

increased opportunity for wage employment and enhanced national productivity. This 

is much more likely to produce a smaller population size, as well as to bring sustained 

economic and social benefits for all. 

UN and donor initiatives since 2000 have placed more emphasise on development 

goals and human rights than on population numbers per se. Basic goals and rights set 

out in the MDGs, CRC and CEDAW 22 

for example, include the elimination of 

poverty; universal access to health, education, safe water and sanitation; and the right 

to decent work and a sustainable livelihood. Balancing population and resources is 

part of ensuring that everyone can realise development goals and enjoy their rights. 

Population is not a 'constant' or in any sense a uniform commodity. People vary 

enormously in their attributes, such as age, gender, health status, education, skills 

development, purchasing power and experience. Enhancing skills for employment and 

expanding employment opportunities will add value to human resources, increase 

capacity and expand economic growth. 

11. Suggested priorities for a revised implementation strategy for the 2004 

Kiribati Population Policy 

The Population Policy Implementation Strategy for Kiribati needs to be 

comprehensive, clever and simple. The lessons learned about fertility decline 

elsewhere in the World suggest that the focus should be on human resources 

development to improve the balance between population and resources. This approach 

is most likely to: 

• achieve a stable population as soon as possible; 

21 See Annex Two of the Interim Report for this TA 4878. 

22 MDGs = Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000), CRC = Convention on the Rights 

of the Child (United Nations, 1989), and CEDAW = Convention on the Elimination of all 

Forms of Discrimination Against Women (United Nations, 1995). 

_________________________________________________________________ 



15


• facilitate economic growth; 

• enable everyone in Kiribati to enjoy universal development goals and rights; 

and 

• alleviate current population pressure; 

Focusing on human resources development to realise human potential rather than 

simply promoting family planning should achieve all these objectives in a manner 

that is more acceptable to the community. At the same time, increased community 

awareness of population and development linkages will help to guide actions to 

obtain maximum benefit at the family level. This can be achieved by energetic 

promotion and campaigning to ensure high levels of population awareness in the 

community and ensure that population is prioritised on the national agenda. Another 

important feature of an effective strategy is that it should be cross cutting, with 

Ministries, NGOs, FBOs and communities working together to maximise 

opportunity and outcome. Coordination of population-related activities will add 

value and ensure they achieve the desired population outcomes. 

A key characteristic of a human resources development-centred implementation plan 

is that it has inbuilt incentives for a smaller family size. This is because smaller 

families are advantageous when there is increased participation in formal wage 

employment. Although population targets should be included, these targets can be 

adjusted in response to achievements in the supply of services and opportunity. 

12. Suggested content of the Population Policy Implementation Strategy 

It is suggested that the Population Policy Implementation Strategy should include five 

key components: 

12.1 Strengthen Human Resources Development 

This would be the most important component and the spearhead of the population 

strategy. It means upgrading the skills of Kiribati workers by building on existing 

initiatives such as the MTC, the KANI nurses training programme and the Cuban 

medical doctor training program. It could include providing more access to vocational 

training at secondary level, strengthening post-secondary vocational training, and 

negotiating training opportunities and apprenticeships for Kiribati workers in 

Australia and New Zealand, as well as providing on-the-job training for workers in 

Kiribati. Other strategies need to be developed to prepare Kiribati workers to take 

advantage of future opportunities in the international labour market. Kiribati workers 

have already demonstrated an ability to do this in Nauru, American Samoa and in the 

maritime industry. Further development of skills to enable Kiribati workers to take 

advantage of other opportunities is needed. 

While there are relatively few job opportunities many lack marketable skills. It is 

estimated that between one quarter and half of the 2,000 new entrants to the labour 

force each year do not have skills to obtain employment or qualifications to gain 

access to a TVET program. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



16


Skills development is also needed to facilitate employment growth and income 

generation in Kiribati. Skilled workers who resettle in outer islands growth centres are 

more likely to find or create work opportunities and contribute to a healthy climate for 

the establishment of new enterprises and income generating activities. 

12.2 Facilitate overseas migration and employment opportunities 

Expansion of overseas migration and employment has the potential to make a very 

substantial contribution to the Kiribati economy. In the past few decades phosphate 

workers in Nauru, fish cannery workers in American Samoa and seafarers employed 

on overseas shipping lines have made important contributions to household income in 

Kiribati. The 2005 census found that 14% of all households in Kiribati received 

remittances from seafarers, and 20% of households in South Tarawa. 23 

Negotiating 

other opportunities and ensuring that the labour force is equipped with the skills to 

take advantage of them could make a very substantial contribution to economic 

development 

Since 2007 New Zealand has accepted 75 permanent migrants from Kiribati each year 

under the Pacific Access Scheme. The new Australian Labour Government is 

considering allowing some Kiribati workers into Australia on short-term employment 

visas. To take advantage of these and other possible emerging opportunities, Kiribati 

workers need to show that they are appropriately skilled and responsible workers. 

Negotiation of employment opportunities should be the priority, but consideration 

should also be given to seeking more opportunities for overseas resettlement of 

families. For example, something similar to New Zealand's quota of 40 families a year 

could perhaps be negotiated with Australia and other countries. Great care needs to be 

taken, however, to ensure that this does not result in a 'brain drain' from Kiribati, 

which would be the case if the recipient countries set criteria that can be met by only 

the most qualified white collar workers. 

An essential part of developing and deploying overseas workers is pre-departure 

social and cultural preparation. Mastering the language of the country in which they 

plan to work is the first step. It is also essential that potential workers understand and 

are prepared to comply with work ethics and expectations of employers in these 

countries. Preparation for work overseas should include cultural briefings and advice 

on risks and difficulties that could be encountered while working overseas, such as 

exploitation, prejudice, unaccustomed freedom from social regulation and health 

risks, and strategies to manage them. There must also be monitoring of work 

conditions of overseas contract workers and a source of counselling and support if 

they experience difficulties. Strategies such as employing a social worker and offering 

telephone counselling in countries with substantial numbers of Kiribati contract 

workers need to be considered. The pre-departure preparation and support services 

that overseas countries provide to volunteers and diplomatic personnel working in 

Kiribati could serve as models for the development of services for Kiribati workers. 

23 

Calculated from National Statistics Office, 2005 Census of Population Volume 1, Table H38, p.101. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



17


12.3 Facilitate local employment and income generation: 

Increase participation in the cash economy to improve living standards and food 

security and create incentives for a smaller family size. As well as (1) and (2) above, 

conduct awareness-raising to improve the status of blue collar work and provide 

business advisory services, micro-credit and management assistance to encourage and 

assist the development of small business. 

12.4 Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities to promote 

resettlement and retain population in other outer islands 

Improvement of water, sanitation, waste disposal, health facilities and schools are 

already priorities of the Kiribati Development Plan 2008-2011, as well as part of 

Kiribati's commitment to achieving MDGs. Satisfactory levels of basic services must 

be achieved at existing settlements, while rates of resettlement must also be 

determined by the availability of basic services at proposed destinations. Resettlement 

without adequate basic infrastructure risks transferring the problems of South Tarawa 

to other areas, and there is also evidence of this in Kiritimati in unregulated squatter 

settlements. Resettlement without basic infrastructure is also likely to sustain higher 

population growth rates because people in disadvantaged circumstances tend to have 

lower aspirations and higher fertility. 

A crucial part of sustaining resettlement is ensuring a healthy climate for small 

business and employment opportunities at proposed growth centres. The example of 

North Tabituea shows that people do not move for improved facilities alone. Despite 

the construction of a substantial new hospital, North Tabituea has so far attracted few 

settlers other than those employed in the hospital. Substantial resettlement is unlikely 

to occur until there is sufficient local demand for goods and services to attract and 

provide opportunities for additional settlers. 

12.5 Increase information and advocacy for population awareness and informed 

parenting 

Education is essential to support the above strategies by raising community awareness 

of national population issues and the benefits of smaller, better-educated families. In 

the past family planning promotion in Kiribati and elsewhere in the Pacific has tended 

to emphasise minimum and maximum ages for child bearing and family spacing as a 

way of achieving smaller families (e.g. the slogan 'Too young, too old, too many, too 

close'). 

In fact there is a much simpler and more flexible approach that is capable of achieving 

much better population outcomes. It is: Every child should be wanted, planned for 

and deliberately conceived by both parents, and both parents should be prepared to 

care for that child and provide all its needs - including food, clothing, shelter, health 

and education - until it is equipped for and able to obtain decent, sustainable 

employment in its chosen field. This is acceptable to almost everyone, as well as 

consistent with CRC, CEDAW and other treaties and commitments on human rights. 

It also feeds into a concept of ‘affordable family size’. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



18


If everyone of reproductive age strictly followed this recommendation and thought in 

terms of ‘affordable family size’ there would be no unplanned teenage pregnancies, 

parents would have only as many children as they could afford to raise and every 

child would be properly supported until it reached working age. This recommendation 

is appropriate regardless of whether the parents’ and child's ambition is subsistence, 

wage employment, or life outside the labour force. Moreover, it does not compromise 

the basic human right of parents to choose how many children they will have. 

The informed parenting component of the strategy will therefore promote this 

objective by reminding all people of reproductive age of their on-going 

responsibilities to the children they bear, which may span 20 or more years. It means 

providing the necessary information and other support so that all parents can properly 

perform their duty to help their children realise their human potential. Informed 

parenting is compatible with existing programs on prevention of STIs and promotion 

of safe sex. 

12.6 Strengthen health services and ensure accessible and confidential health 

services for all ages. 

On-going strengthening of health services to ensure the universal human right of all 

citizens to good health. Ensure that health services on each island are adequate for the 

population size. Ensure easy access to confidential, non-discriminatory medical 

services for males and females of all ages in all parts throughout Kiribati. This 

includes ensuring that contraception is readily available to everyone of reproductive 

age. While a population strategy based on realising human potential is completely 

different from a family planning program, it must be recognised that contraception is 

likely to be the main method used to many couples to prevent unplanned births, so 

ready access is essential. Any factors such as discrimination, lack of confidentiality 

and unavailability of supplies could compromise the effectiveness of the whole 

population strategy. 

This component is compatible with previous and current strategies of the MHMS and 

NGOs to strengthen health service delivery as well as to prevent STIs, including 

HIV/AIDS, and reduce teenage and unplanned pregnancies. 

13. Summary of the proposed population strategy and concluding remarks 

The first point to be noted is that most of the five proposed components are not new, 

and are already being implemented in Kiribati to a greater or lesser extent. What is 

new is grouping these particular components together so that the population 

implementation strategy is driven by economic factors rather than by health and 

family planning objectives. 

The key reason for doing this is that this particular combination of components 

emulates the factors that resulted in fertility decline in Europe and other developed 

countries. These very major declines generally occurred without any promotion of 

population or family planning objectives whatsoever. The objective was not to slow 

population growth rates but human betterment. When people were able to acquire 

these skills and were provided with opportunities to apply their skills in gainful wage 

_________________________________________________________________ 



19


employment, they automatically chose to limit their family size so that they could 

achieve their aspirations. 

In a modern developed economy the realisation of human potential is facilitated by a 

smaller family size. Focussing on developing skills and opportunities to utilise the 

skills acquired, achieving development goals and rights, and informing the 

community about the rationale for and means to achieve a smaller family size is a 

cross-sectoral approach. Costs will be shared between Ministries, NGOs and FBOs. 

The Implementation Strategy can be used to enlist donor support to achieve this 

crucially important development outcome. It will almost certainly prove much more 

effective than a traditional population strategy focussed almost entirely on achieving 

population targets and promoting family planning. 

_________________________________________________________________ 



20

Annex 2.c: McMURRAY - Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy, 2009 

REVISED DRAFT INCORPORATING 

STAKEHOLDER COMMENTS 

THE KIRIBATI POPULATION POLICY 

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY 

This draft was prepared by Dr Chris McMurray as part of 



Email contact for discussion and comment: 

Christine.McMurray@anu.edu.au 




EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

In 2004 the Kiribati Population Policy was prepared as part of the National Development 

Strategy and the Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Its goal: 

To contribute to social and economic progress and a rising standard of living for the 

people of Kiribati, and to facilitate adaptation to climate change by limiting 

population growth to 120,000 in 2025. 

The 2004 Implementation Strategy was too costly and could not be funded. There is 

therefore currently no coordinated strategy to tackle population issues. 

A draft Implementation Strategy has been proposed as part of ADB Technical Assistance. It 

involves a comprehensive, community-owned approach to population planning. It focuses 

on human resources development to increase employment, improve living standards and 

food security, reduce population pressure and encourage a smaller family size. This strategy 

is definitely NOT a family planning program…it is about improving the balance between 

population and resources. 

The Proposed Population Policy Implementation Strategy 

Many population-related activities are being carried out now, by Government, NGOs and 

FBOs, but there is no overall coordination. The proposed Implementation Strategy 

coordinates these activities and involves the participation of Government, NGOs, FBOs, 

donors and communities in SIX key areas: 

1) Strengthen human resources development: Upgrading the skills of present and future 

workers, both male and female, to increase their contribution to economic 

development and match skills to employment opportunities. 

2) Facilitate overseas employment opportunities and permanent emigration. Negotiate 

overseas permanent migration and short-term employment opportunities, improve 

standards of basic education, literacy and language skills and increase opportunities 

for Technical and Vocational Training 

3) Facilitate local employment and income generation: Increase participation in the cash 

economy to improve living standards and food security and create incentives for a 

smaller family size. As well as (1) and (2) above, conduct awareness-raising to 

improve the status of blue collar work and provide business advisory services, microcredit 

and management assistance to encourage and assist the development of small 

business. 

4) Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities to promote resettlement 

and retain population in other outer islands. This will promote more even 

settlement patterns and reduce pressure on South Tarawa. It will include improving 

water, sanitation, waste disposal, health facilities and schools and promoting 

employment opportunities in growth centres, the outer islands and South Tarawa. It 




includes a special focus on developing infrastructure and economic opportunities on 


5) Increase information and advocacy for population awareness and informed 

parenting. Raise community awareness of national population issues, parental 

responsibilities and the economic benefits of smaller, better-educated families. The 

core message will be: 'Every birth should be wanted by both parents. Parents are 

jointly responsible for providing food, clothing, shelter, protection, healthcare, 

education and informed parenting until their children obtain decent, sustainable and 

independent livelihoods'. 

6) Strengthen health services and ensure accessible and confidential health services for 

all ages. On-going strengthening of health services to ensure the universal human 

right of all citizens to good health. Ensure that health services on each island are 

adequate for the population size. Ensure easy access to confidential, nondiscriminatory 

medical services for males and females of all ages in all parts 

throughout Kiribati. 

A special focus will be ensuring that all the above strategies are implemented on Kiritimati 

Island. As crown land with no long history of settlement, Kiritimati lacks established 

structures and practices to absorb settlers. It therefore requires special efforts and careful 

management to ensure sustainable development. 

THE ACE TOOLKIT will add value to existing population-related activities: 

Advocacy: 

Coordination: 

Education: 

ADVOCACY - vigorously promote population awareness and population-related activities 

in the community. Advocacy is the promotion and driving force that ensures the 

benefits of education are utilised. 

COORDINATION of population-related activities maximises the impact of population 

related activities and ensures that gaps are addressed. 

EDUCATION includes all methods of transferring population-related information and 

awareness, in primary and secondary schools, in government, at community 

meetings and in the media, and supporting human resource development and adult 

education in informed parenting. 

Guiding Principles for the Implementation Strategy 

• Access of all I-Kiribati to education, health and the means to a decent, sustainable 

livelihood are basic human rights. 

• Every citizen has the right to make an independent choice about his or her desired 

family size and that right will always be respected and preserved. 

• All population-related activities will target men, and women and youth equally. 




• Population educators will be of the appropriate age and gender to optimise 

communication with target groupsIncentives to promote smaller family size will be 

preferred to disincentives. 

• Although the strategy will encourage an ideal family size norm of 2-3 children there 

will never be any discrimination against larger families. 




CONTENTS 

Executive Summary 2 

List of Acronyms 6 

1. Background and overview 7 

2. Implementation Strategy Rationale 7 

3. The Implementation Strategy 8 

4. Implementation Strategy Mechanisms 8 

5. The Implementation Strategy ACE toolkit 10 

6. Six Focal Areas of the Implementation Strategy 11 

6.1 Strengthen Human Resources Development 12 

6.2 Facilitate overseas employment opportunities and permanent emigration 13 

6.3 Facilitate local employment and income generation 13 

6.4 Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities for managed resettlement 

to outer island growth centres and retention of population in other outer islands 14 

6.5 Increase and expand information and advocacy for population awareness and 

informed parenting 15 

6.6 Strengthen health services and ensure easy access and confidential health services 

for all ages 16 

7. Importance of a special focus on Kiritimati 16 

8. Time Frame 17 

9. Monitoring and Evaluation 17 

10. Guiding Principles 17 

ANNEXES 

Annex One: Draft TOR for the Population and Development Coordinator 19 

Annex Two: Draft TOR for the Population Task Force 21 

Annex Three: Rationale for the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy 22 

Annex Four: The Six Key Areas of the Kiribati Population Implementation Strategy 34 





ACE Advocacy, Communication, Education 


APTC Australia-Pacific Technical College 



CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against 

Women 

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child 

DCC Development Coordination Committee 


FTC Fisheries Training Centre 


KANI Kiribati-Australia Nursing Initiative 


KIT Kiribati Institute of Technology 


MCTTD Ministry of Communication, Transport and Tourism Development 



ME Ministry of Education 

MFAI Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration 




ML&HRD Ministry of Labour and Human Resources Development 


MTC Marine Training College 


NGO Non-Governmental Organisation 


PDC Population and Development Coordinator 

PTF Population Task Force 

RERF Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund 





TVET Technical and Vocational Education 


UNICEF United Nations Childrens' Fund 




The KIRIBATI POPULATION POLICY IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY 

1. Background and overview 

The Kiribati Population Policy was endorsed by the Government of Kiribati in August 2004. 

It addresses population and development concerns as part of the National Development 

Strategy and the Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. The goal of the Population Policy is: 

To contribute to social and economic progress and a rising standard of living for the 

people of Kiribati, and to facilitate adaptation to climate change by limiting 

population growth to 120,000 in 2025. 

The objective of the Population Policy is: 

A coordinated, vigorous, 20-year, multi-ministry, whole-of-nation strategy that 

sustains the momentum of population and development activities and achieves: 

• Community acceptance of a family size norm of 2-3 children by 2015 

• Replacement fertility by 2025 (average of 2.1 children per woman) 

• No unmet need for family planning after 2010 

• No unplanned pregnancies by 2015 

The 2004 Population Policy also includes two strategies to alleviate population pressure in 

South Tarawa: 

• Promotion of alternative growth centres 

• Promotion and facilitation of emigration 

Since then there has been no whole of Government, national coordination of populationrelated 

activities to support the Population Policy. The 2005 Kiribati Census and recent birth 

registrations indicate that population is continuing to increase steadily at around 1.8 per cent 

per annum. At the same time Kiribati is confronting new challenges posed by climate 

change and the world economic situation. Capacity to manage and adapt to these challenges 

is impaired by sustained population growth and uneven population distribution. It is 

therefore essential that immediate action is taken to improve the balance between population 

and resources and reduce the population growth rate. 

This Implementation Strategy is designed to realise the objectives of the Population Policy. 

Unlike most previous population-related activities in Kiribati, it is not about promoting use 

of modern contraception. Instead it takes a holistic approach to population planning. This 

encompasses human resources development to facilitate employment, improve living 

standards and food security, alleviate population pressure and create incentives for a smaller 

family size. 

2. Implementation Strategy Rationale 

The resources of every country comprise not only land, sea, minerals and other natural 

resources, but also the skills, educated and employability of the population. Development of 




human resources has as much potential to increase wealth as development of natural 

resources. To date Kiribati's human resources have been relatively underdeveloped. While 

there is little potential to increase Kiribati’s endowment of natural resources, there is huge 

potential to increase national and individual wealth by developing human resources. 

While retaining the 2025 population target of 120,000 and the four fertility-related targets of 

the Population Policy, this Strategy recognises that population change is a long-term process 

that depends on the level of motivation at the family and community level. The focus is 

therefore on maximising the development and utilisation of human resources. This in turn 

will motivate population change as people become more aware of the linkages between 

family size, the balance between population and resources and individual and national 

prosperity. 

3. The Implementation Strategy 

The core of the Implementation Strategy is coordination and expansion of existing 

population-related activities to create synergy and increase effectiveness. Many development 

projects and activities that are already being carried out in Kiribati by Government, NGOs 

and FBOs potentially impact population. These include multiple projects in health, 

education, human resources development and infrastructure funded by the core Government 

budget, donors and the community. 

What is needed is for these activities to be coordinated, energised, resourced and enhanced 

to create synergy and a much greater impact on population and development outcomes. 

Advocacy and education to raise awareness and understanding of how these multiple 

projects and programs impact population and living standards will increase engagement and 

commitment and improve development project outcomes. Advocacy and education will also 

generate attitudinal change and motivate and empower the people to prepare and adapt for 

the future. Slower population growth will come about as a consequence of enhanced 

awareness and motivation, and the demonstrated benefits of smaller families as the standard 

of human resources development and employment opportunities increase. 

A key aspect of coordination in this Implementation Strategy is strengthening links between 

Government, NGOs, FBOs, donors and communities, and coordinating their activities. In 

particular, NGOs, FBOs and community groups will take the lead in providing essential 

community-level advocacy, awareness-raising and skills for income generation that will 

vastly enhance both development project outcomes and community capacity to benefit from 

them. 

4. Implementation Strategy Mechanisms 

Start-up costs for the Implementation Strategy are very low because it builds on existing 

activities and does not involve any new policy directions. New areas for investment will 

emerge as it gathers impetus, but in the initial stages it will involve primarily the 

coordination and enhancement of existing and planned activities. 

Initially the Implementation Strategy will require one full-time appointment, the Population 

and Development Coordinator (PDC). The PDC will be a person of exceptional energy, 




initiative and commitment, with outstanding communication and analytical skills and a 

thorough understanding of the linkages between population and development. 

The PDC will coordinate, energise and raise the community profile of population-related 

activities. This will include raising awareness of population and development linkages, 

focussing efforts on measurable outcomes and coordinating activities to generate synergy 

and enhance their impact. The PDC will identify gaps and missing linkages, and advocate 

supplementary activities to facilitate synergy and enhance outcomes. For example, a project 

may be achieving limited outcomes because a particular type of training or awarenessraising 

might not be reaching groups who most need it; or because there are no opportunities 

to utilise the skills acquired. Similarly, the performance of overseas contract workers might 

be limited by lack of adequate preparation and skills development before departure and/or 

on-going support. 

The appointment of the PDC will be made in the Office of the President to facilitate crossministry 

and Government/NGO/ FBO/donor coordination. The PDC will require office 

support, computing facilities and a small activities budget for local consultations, workshops, 

publicity and transport. Additional appointments may be needed in the future as increased 

population-awareness and more population-related activities generate impetus and increase 

the workload of the PDC. Draft Selection Criteria and Terms of Reference for the PDC are 

attached as Annex One. 

A Task Force comprising 15 - 20 representatives from Government, NGOs, FBOs and the 

community will serve as an advisory committee to oversee progress in implementation. Each 

member of the Task Force will serve as a focal point for the sector they represent, thus 

providing one of several channels for community feedback. The Task Force will meet at 

least twice a year to review reports presented by the PDC, share community feedback, table 

recommendations and assist with problem solving and target setting. Draft Terms of 

Reference for the Task Force are attached as Annex Two. 

An annual Plan of Action will be developed by the PDC, no later than August each year. 

The Plan of Action will be reviewed and amended by the Task Force and then the 

Secretaries' Committee before submission by Cabinet in time for the Budget Committee 

meetings in November. In addition, project proposals that have been reviewed by the Task 

Force and agreed to by any ministries or other agencies concerned can be submitted to 

donors in accordance with any timetables they may have. 

The process of identifying and prioritising areas of need and funding activities will be ongoing. 

Population targets and objectives will be reviewed by the PDC and the Task Force 

and revised whenever new data come to hand. 




5. The Implementation Strategy ACE toolkit 

The Implementation Strategy uses three key tactics to add value and enhance the outcomes 

of a wide range of population-related activities and projects: 

Advocacy: 

Coordination: 

Education: 

This toolkit is referred to as the ACE Strategy. The PDC will use the ACE Strategy to raise 

awareness of population issues in government and the community, coordinate population 

related activities and facilitate a holistic approach to population planning. 

ADVOCACY involves vigorously promoting population awareness and population-related 

activities throughout the community. Advocacy is closely linked to education. It can 

be thought of as the promotion and driving force that ensures the benefits of 

education are utilised. 

• Advocacy involves ensuring much publicity and media attention to populationrelated 

activities so that everyone understands and discusses how they relate to 

living standards in Kiribati. Improving the population/resources balance needs to 

become an issue at the top of the whole-of-nation agenda. 

• Presentations in schools, community and FBO meetings will explain the importance 

of improving the balance between population and resources. This will help to 

make the balance between population and resources and ways to improve it an 

everyday topic of conversation throughout Kiribati. 

• Advocacy also includes providing mechanisms for sharing ideas and facilitating 

initiatives so that communities are not only well-informed but also actively 

engaged in the process of improving the balance between population and 

resources. 

• Everyone in the community, regardless of age, needs to feel that population issues 

concern them, and their own thoughts and ideas about population and 

development are important. 

COORDINATION of population-related activities is essential to maximise the impact of 

population related activities. 

• Coordination can create synergy between activities to add value to outputs. It will 

ensure that population-related activities undertaken in one government 

department or by an NGO or a community will complement those of other 

departments, NGOs and communities. 

• Gaps and missing linkages that are limiting outcomes need to be identified. Some 

simple examples are: 

o young people who receive training in job-skills need opportunities to 

use them in productive employment; 

o individuals who see opportunities to start a small business need finance, 

management advice and/or assistance, and perhaps also adult education 

to improve their literacy and numeracy skills; 




o couples who are motivated to have a smaller family size need 

community approval, acceptable methods and medical support to 

control their fertility; 

o families resettled to outer islands need proper facilities and income 

opportunities so they can enjoy a healthy and sustainable lifestyle. 

• The main activities in coordination are facilitating a free flow of knowledge, 

pointing out where opportunities exist, engaging stakeholders, sharing ideas and 

lessons from past experience and highlighting examples of best practice. 

EDUCATION in the ACE toolkit refers to all methods of transferring population-related 

information and awareness, in primary and secondary schools, in government, at community 

meetings and in the media. It includes facilitating and supporting human resource 

development and also adult education in informed parenting. 

• Relevant and high quality schooling and skills training is needed to equip the 

workforce with marketable skills. This brings both individual and community 

level benefits. It is part of ensuring that Kiribati is prepared to take advantage of 

emerging overseas employment opportunities. 

• Another component of education is ensuring widespread community understanding 

of the way many different factors interact to affect the population/ resources 

balance, e.g. health, education, opportunity and employment. This type of 

education will be carried out by NGOs and FBOs at community meetings, as 

well as in schools. It includes raising awareness that even simple community 

activities such as helping school leavers find informal employment and income 

generation activities can bring far-reaching population benefits. Supporting this 

type of education with advocacy is crucial. 

• The third component of ACE education is informed parenting. This means raising 

awareness of parental responsibilities in a modern, cash-based society. Potential 

parents need to understand children’s rights, especially that 'Every child should 

be wanted, planned for and deliberately conceived by both parents. Both parents 

should plan to meet all that child’s needs for food, clothing, shelter, health, 

education and good parenting until it obtains a sustainable livelihood.’ 

Informed parenting should include support services to provide advice and 

counselling when parents need it. 

6. Six Focal Areas of the Implementation Strategy 

The PDC will use the ACE Strategy to coordinate, advocate and facilitate implementation of 

six key focal areas of population-related activities. The activities, responsible partners, role 

of the PDC and the performance measures for each focal area are set out in this section. 

Section 8 discusses sources of data for monitoring and evaluating activities. 

Annex Three provides details of the rationale for choosing these six focal areas. Annex Four 

analyses the current situation in regard to the six focal areas and provides additional details 

on how the Strategy will contribute to the goals of the 2004 Kiribati Population Policy. 




6.1 Strengthen Human Resources Development 

Promoting human resources development is the spearhead of the Implementation Strategy. 

Upgrading the skills of present and future workers, both male and female, will increase 

capacity to contribute to economic development in Kiribati and as well as developing skills 

to match opportunities for overseas employment. Increased marketable skills in the 

workforce will increase employability and capacity to establish businesses and generate 

income through self-employment. The resulting increase in wage employment and 

engagement with the cash sector will raise living standards and improve food security, and 

this in turn will provide incentives for a smaller family size. 

Opportunities and mechanisms for human resources development will continue to be 

provided by Government and donor activities. The Implementation Strategy will ensure they 

are enhanced by advocacy and awareness-raising to promote optimal utilisation and add 

value to outcomes. 

Main responsible partners: ML&HRD, ME 

Key Activities: 

a) Improve attendance and educational standards at all levels of education for 

both male and female students; 

b) promote technical and vocational education (TVET) in secondary schools; 

c) provide free choice, equal opportunity and equal quality in academic and 

TVET streams in secondary schools; 

d) strengthen and expand the Kiribati Institute of Technology (KIT); 

e) develop partnerships with employers and apprenticeship schemes in Kiribati 

and overseas; 

f) negotiate additional special training schemes, such as the Kiribati-Australia 

Nursing Initiative (KANI) and the medical training provided by Cuba; 

g) develop post-secondary non-formal education (NFE) to improve literacy and 

develop skills for employment and business management in the wider 

community. 

h) increase training and development of skills in the hospitality industry and 

tourism to facilitate growth in Kiribati and well as skills for short-term 

employment overseas 

i) provide more training in appropriate methods of agriculture and land and 

marine crop cultivation in atoll environments; encourage and support the 

development of various forms of cropping for home use and marketing. 

Role of PDC: Use the ACE toolkit to support and facilitate coordination of human resource 

development initiatives. Support will include encouraging and supporting NGOs and 

FBOs to conduct informed parenting activities and raise community awareness of 

linkages between human resource development, living standards and ideal family 

size; use the media to raise awareness of these linkages; vigorously promote the 

improvement of standards in education and human resources development. 

Performance measures: Increased educational standards of school leavers; increased number 

of school leavers finding paid work; higher participation of both males and females 




in the cash sector, including wage work, self-employment, businesses (small and 

large); more overseas employment; improved living standards. 

6.2 Facilitate overseas employment opportunities and permanent emigration 

This is a key strategy to facilitate utilisation of human resources. Negotiation of overseas 

permanent migration and short-term employment opportunities is conducted at senior 

government level and managed by the Ministry of Labour and Human Resources 

(ML&HRD). Improved standards of basic education, literacy and language skills and more 

opportunities for TVET are essential to meet these requirements. Potential migrants and 

overseas workers need reliable and up-to-date labour market information, pre-departure 

information and support services at destinations. 

Main responsible partners: ML&HRD, MFAI, MFED 


a) Negotiate additional opportunities for overseas employment contracts for 

Kiribati workers, including seafarers and other types of contract labour in 

Pacific Rim countries, and emigration quotas for permanent settlement 

overseas. 

b) Proactively negotiate additional overseas employment opportunities with all 

countries that have diplomatic relations with Kiribati. 

c) Lobby vigorously to remind donors that providing overseas-employment 

opportunities is one of the most effective forms of development assistance. 

d) Ensure that Kiribati citizens working overseas have access to confidential and 

culturally appropriate counselling and affordable health services. 

d) Ensure that all Kiribati citizens intending to work overseas receive 

comprehensive information and pre-departure briefing and know where they 

can obtain confidential and culturally appropriate counselling and affordable 

health services at their destination. 

Role of PDC: Use the ACE toolkit to promote the acquisition of marketable skills by 

potential workers. Identify gaps and advocate for the development of support 

services to prepare and support overseas workers. 

Performance measures: Negotiation of agreements with overseas countries; increased 

emigration and overseas employment opportunities; numbers accepted for 

emigration; numbers obtaining labour contracts for overseas employment; increased 

remittances. 

6.3 Facilitate local employment and income generation 

Increased participation in the cash economy is essential to improve living standards, 

improve food security and create incentives for a smaller family size. Improved basic 

education and literacy skills are essential to facilitate local employment and income 

generation. Expansion of TVET opportunities and improved standards are needed to develop 

a skilled workforce. Community consultations and awareness-raising are needed to improve 

the status of blue collar work in the community. 




Micro-credit organizations, business advisory services and management assistance are 

essential to facilitate and support small business. Assistance with market development and 

regular transport for goods is also needed, especially to facilitate small business 

development on outer islands, including food production enterprises and tourism. 

Government needs to provide incentives and a healthy climate for development of private 

businesses and other forms of local enterprise, both large and small, and ensure that state 

enterprises do not have a negative impact on or discourage local business initiatives. 

Main responsible partners: ML&HRD, ME, MFED, MISA, MCTTD 


a) Improve basic education and TVET opportunities and standards; 

b) Increase incentives for small business and enhanced business environment; 

business management and support services 

Role of PDC: Use the ACE toolkit to promote the attainment of marketable skills by 

potential workers; identify gaps and advocate for the establishment of support 

services for small business; work with NGOs and FBOs to promote positive 

community attitudes to 'blue collar' work and informed parenting to encourage and 

support youth electing to train and work in TVET and non-formal areas. 

Performance measures: Improving standards in basic education; improving standard of 

TVET; increased small business activity; increased wage employment in semiskilled 

and skilled sectors; reduced reliance on expatriate tradesman and technicians; 

increase in informal cash-earning activity. 

6.4 Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities for managed resettlement 

to outer island growth centres and retention of population in other outer islands 

Resettlement to new growth centres and improvement of facilities and opportunities in outer 

islands will reduce pressure on South Tarawa. Retaining population in outer islands will also 

reduce pressure on South Tarawa, and is more cost effective than resettlement to growth 

centres. Improvement of water, sanitation, waste disposal, health facilities and schools in 

growth centres, outer islands and South Tarawa is already a priority of the Kiribati 

Development Plan 2008-2011, as well as part of Kiribati's commitment to achieving 

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Facilitation of local employment opportunities 

(see C above) will also help to retain population in outer islands and improve living 

standards and food security on all outer islands including growth centres. 

This strategy includes a special focus on developing Kiritimati Island, which does not have a 

long history of settlement and economic activity 

Main responsible partners: MELAD, MISA, MLPID, MHMS, ME, MCTTD 


a) Provide and or/upgrade water supply, sanitation, waste disposal and 

electricity in all outer islands, Kiritimati and South Tarawa; 




b) Improve communications; provide access to adequately resourced schools 

and health facilities in the outer islands; 

c) Improve outer island school capacity to develop marketable skills e.g. 

visiting specialist teachers in TVET subjects. 

d) Ensure that all settlements in both rural and urban areas meet basic standards 

of sanitation and health and provide their residents with an acceptable living 

environment. 

e) Combat the perception that squatter settlements and slum conditions are the 

‘norm’ and acceptable for migrants from other islands. 

Role of PDC: Use the ACE toolkit to promote decentralisation and improved services on all 

outer islands, work with NGOs and FBOs to raise awareness of linkages between 

population, living conditions and development; promote small business and 

employment generation at growth centres and on all outer islands. 

Performance measures: Universal access to water, sanitation and electricity; improved waste 

disposal, improved quality of outer island schools and health facilities; reduced 

migration from outer islands to South Tarawa; higher school retention rates on outer 

islands; increased business activity and income generation on outer islands and outer 

island growth centres, including Kiritimati Island. 

6.5 Increase and expand information and advocacy for population awareness and 

informed parenting 

Information and advocacy is needed to raise community awareness of national population 

issues, development/ population/ resources linkages, parental responsibilities and the 

economic benefits of smaller, better-educated families. The core message will be: 'Every 

child should be wanted by both parents. Both parents should plan to meet all that child’s 

needs for food, clothing, shelter, health, education, protection and good parenting until it 

obtains a sustainable livelihood.’ Awareness-raising will target current and future parents as 

well as anyone else who has care of children and contributes to their education, including 

teachers and grandparents. 

Main responsible partners: NGOs, FBOs, MHMS, MISA, ME 


a) Community workshops and media messages to increase awareness of 

linkages between population and living standards. Workshops will include 

men and women equally, parents and future parents and other members of the 

community especially anyone who has care of children. 

b) Increased community recognition of parental responsibilities to prepare 

young people for a sustainable future; promotion of the advantages of a 

smaller family size. 

Role of PDC: Use the ACE toolkit to promote and support informed parenting initiatives by 

NGOs, FBOs, schools and communities, including arranging for training-of-trainers 

to provide community workshops; vigorously promote population awareness and 

informed parenting via the media. 




Performance measures: Reduction in unplanned pregnancy; smaller average family size; 

more inter-active parenting and parental engagement in child development, including 

encouraging children to read and study at home, monitoring and encouraging 

children’s progress in school and providing guidance. 

6.6 Strengthen health services and ensure easy access and confidential health services 

for all ages 

On-going strengthening of health services is needed to ensure the universal human right of 

all citizens to good health. This will include providing appropriate and sufficient wellsupplied 

health services for the number of people on each island. It will also ensure that 

males and females of all ages in all parts of the country have easy access to confidential, 

non-discriminatory medical services and are able to obtain advice and/or treatment for any 

health condition or health need. 

Main responsible partners: MHMS, NGOs, FBOs, ME 


a) Ensure health services are adequate for population numbers in each area 

or island. 

b) Ensure that health services are confidential and non-discriminatory for 

males and females of all ages 

c) Ensure that males and females of all ages are able to obtain confidential 

advice and/or treatment for any health conditions and/ or health 

needs. 

Role of PDC: Use the ACT toolkit to facilitate coordination of government, NGO, FBO and 

donor health activities and promote confidential, non-discriminatory health services 

for everyone. 

Performance measures Improved and expanded health services, increased sensitisation of 

health service providers to the need for confidential, non-discriminatory health 

services, greater willingness of adolescents to utilise health services, improved 

community confidence in adequacy and performance of health services. 

7. Importance of a special focus on Kiritimati 

Implementation activities should include a special focus on Kiritimati Island. As crown land 

with no long history of settlement, Kiritimati lacks established structures and practices to 

absorb settlers. On the one hand this can help to promote enterprise and initiative, but there 

is evidence that it is also contributing to mismanagement of resources and poor living 

conditions on Kiritimati. 

While Kiritimati could potentially absorb more settlers, and generate income from various 

forms of land use and tourism, very careful management is needed to ensure balance and 

optimum benefits from each of these sectors. Special efforts are needed to ensure that all 




aspects of the Implementation Strategy are applied in Kiritimati. This should include 

prioritising investment in the provision of adequate basic infrastructure and the development 

of whole-island management strategies. 

8. Time Frame 

The Implementation Strategy is not time bound but an on-going strategy that will continue 

until the Kiribati population growth rate stabilises and a culture of optimum human 

resources development is established. It is likely to span at least two decades. The specific, 

time-bound targets included in the Population Policy will be reviewed whenever new 

information becomes available. 

Variation of population targets and expansion of implementation activities will be decided 

by the Development Coordination Committee (DCC) and Cabinet on the basis of 

information provided by the PDC and the Task Force. 

9. Monitoring and Evaluation 

Effective monitoring, evaluation, feedback and response are the keys to success in any 

project. They are especially important for maintaining direction of the Kiribati Population 

Policy Implementation Strategy, which is long-term. 

Effective monitoring requires base line data against which progress can be measured. 

Potential sources of monitoring data for the Implementation Strategy include the five-yearly 

Kiribati Census, the recent Kiribati Demographic and Health Survey, the Secretariat of the 

Pacific Community’s PRISM and MDG databases (which are maintained in conjunction 

with the Statistics Office, MFED) and statistics kept by MFED and other Ministries. 

One of the first tasks of the PDC will be to coordinate and oversee a data gathering exercise. 

It will include preparing an inventory of all projects and activities that impact population in 

any way, assembling existing population data and analysing linkages and identifying gaps 

that need to be addressed, including gaps in data. The Statistics Office, MFED, should play a 

leading role in assembling these data, along with statistical sections in other ministries. The 

PDC will prepare a report to the DCC on data availability, additional data and gaps in 

linkages within six months of commencement of Implementation. 

10. Guiding Principles 

The Implementation Strategy and all population-related activities of Government, NGOs, 

FBOs, donors and communities will be guided by the following principles: 

• Access of all I-Kiribati to education, health and the means to a decent, sustainable 

livelihood are basic human rights and part of the MDGs. 

• Every Kiribati citizen has the right to make an independent choice about his or her 

desired family size and that right will always be respected and preserved. 

• Access to health information and advice or treatment for any health concern or 

condition is a basic human right for males and females of all ages. 




• All population-related activities will target men, and women and youth equally. This 

includes population and development education, human resources development, 

guidance in responsible parenting and family planning service delivery. 

• Population information will be communicated to groups by people of their own age 

and gender whenever possible e.g. Younger adults to communicate with youth, 

mature age men to communicate with men, mature mothers to communicate with 

women. 

• Incentives to promote smaller family size will be preferred to disincentives, e.g. paid 

maternity leave only for up to two children rather than penalties for larger families. 

• There will be no discrimination against families that do not comply with the 2-3 

children family size norms, e.g. school fees and educational opportunities must be 

the same for all children. 



ANNEX ONE: 


Interim TOR for Population and Development Coordinator (PDC) (Working 

Document). 

The appointment of the PDC will be made in the Office of the President to facilitate crossministry 

and Government/NGO/ FBO/donor coordination. 

Qualifications and personal characteristics 

• A university degree, preferably in population studies or other population-related subject 

• A demonstrated high-level understanding of population-development linkages 

• An in-depth understanding of Kiribati society and culture 

• Exceptional energy, initiative, commitment and enthusiasm 

• Ability to work without supervision 

• Creativity and ability to recognise and respond to opportunities 

• Ability to relate confidently and in a friendly manner to community groups of ages and 

backgrounds throughout Government and the community 

• Ability to make confident and effective presentations to the media and to meetings 

• High level written and oral communication skills 

• Ability to analyse information, prepare reports and make recommendations 

• Basic computing skills 

Duties 

• Coordinate and energise population activities by facilitating flows of information 

between stakeholders and providing advice and suggestions 

• Advocate on all population-related matters in the community via the media and 

promotional material 

• Identify gaps and missing linkages, and advocate supplementary activities to facilitate 

synergy and enhance outcomes; 

• Use the ACE toolkit (Advocacy, Coordination and Education) to support the six focal 

areas as set out in Part Six of the Population Implementation Strategy 

• Provide community education on population matters via community consultations 

• Assist NGOs with training-of-trainers for population awareness and informed parenting 

by explaining population issues and advising on teaching materials 

• Facilitate improved and expanded human resources development and employment 

generation by providing advice and coordination 

• Prepare reports for Government on progress of the Implementation Strategy and other 

matters as required 

• Brief donors on population activities 

• Seek out opportunities to facilitate implementation of the Kiribati Population Policy, raise 

the profile of population activities and formulate new recommendations as needed 

• Serve as Secretary to the Population Task Force 

• Develop a Plan of Action for submission to the Population Task Force. 




• Advise on the development of population related proposals and help ministries and 

community organizations, ensure they are coordinated, and prepare proposals for 

review by the Task Force prior to submission to potential donors 

• Prepare any other reports as required by the agency funding this post 




ANNEX TWO: 

Interim TOR for the Population Task Force (Working Document) 

• The Task Force will comprise 15 - 20 representatives from Government, NGOs, FBOs 

and the community 

• The Task Force will serve as an advisory committee to provide general oversight of 

progress in implementation and the work of the PDC 

• Each member of the Task Force will serve as a focal point for the sector they represent, 

thus providing one of several channels for community feedback. 

• The Task Force will meet at least twice a year to review reports presented by the PDC, 

share community feedback, table recommendations and assist with problem solving 

and target setting. 

• The Task Force will review and coordinate project proposals from ministries or other 

agencies for submission to donors 

• The process of identifying and prioritising areas of need and funding activities will be ongoing. 

Population targets and objectives will be reviewed by the PDC and the Task 

Force and revised whenever new data come to hand. 




ANNEX THREE: 

Rationale for the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy 

1. Population growth in Kiribati 

Managing population growth has been on the Kiribati national development agenda for at 

least three decades. Most recently: 

• Issue 2 of the 2004 National Development Strategy (NDS), Key Policy Area 1: 

Economic Growth was ' Growth of population restricts income per head.' 1 As part of 

the NDS, a comprehensive population policy to achieve stability of the total 

population by 2020-2025 was presented to Cabinet in 2004. This policy was 

approved but not properly implemented. 2 

• 'Monitor and control population growth' is an objective of the 2008-2011 Kiribati 

Development Plan (KDP). 

3 

• The Executive Summary of the 2008 Government of Kiribati/ADB review states 'No 

single more effective way of improving future income and welfare per head is 

available to Kiribati than a well-planned, sustained campaign to reduce the likely 

4 

future size of the population.' 

The 2005 census showed that, despite this recognition of the importance of managing 

population growth, the national population growth rate has averaged 1.8% per annum since 

1947. The population growth rate is the excess of births over deaths, plus the difference 

between immigration and emigration. In recent years the number of immigrants and 

emigrants has been roughly the same, so the main factor driving population growth is natural 

increase, i.e. the difference between the birth rate and the death rate. In recent years there 

have been, on average, around 2,650 births in Kiribati each year, and around 850 deaths. 

This means that the population is increasing by around 1,800 people per year, or an average 

of 1.8%. 

A stable population is one that neither increases nor decreases (i.e. a growth rate of 0.0%). 

Stable populations usually have ‘replacement fertility’. ‘Replacement fertility’ means that 

the number of births is equal to the number of deaths, that is, each person alive is ‘replaced’ 

by only one other person. Including an allowance for early deaths, this is normally 

considered to be an average family size of 2.1 children per women. That is, most families 

will comprise two children, while a few will be more or less than this norm. 

A stable population can be achieved with higher fertility if there is permanent emigration to 

offset the excess births. This pattern exists in a few Polynesian countries such as Tokelau 

and Tonga, where fertility is above replacement level, but emigration levels are also high. 

As of mid 2008, opportunities for permanent emigration of Kiribati citizens are quite limited. 

Although it may be possible to increase the emigration rate to a few hundred each year, it is 

very unlikely that emigration would ever exceed immigration by 1,800 per year – the 

1 

Republic of Kiribati, National Development Strategy, 2003: 13. 

2 


3 


4 

ADB, forthcoming. 




number required to completely offset the excess of births over deaths. This means that stable 

population in Kiribati is most likely to be achieved by a combination of near replacement 

fertility plus permanent emigration of a few hundred people each year. 

2. Population momentum 

It is very important to understand that even after replacement fertility is attained, population 

increase can continue for 30 or 40 years because of built-in ‘population momentum’. This is 

likely to happen in Kiribati because the population is relatively ‘young’, with half the 

Kiribati population aged less than 21 years in 2005. 

Population momentum exists when the number of potential parents in any population is still 

increasing over time. In 2005 there were almost 37,000 people in the main child bearing 

ages of 20-49 years. By 2025, when the children born in 2005 start to have children of their 

own, there will be around 65,000 people in the main child bearing ages. Even if these new 

parents have smaller families than their own parents and only enough children to replace 

themselves, around twice as many babies could be born in 2025 as in 2008 because of this 

increase in the number of potential parents. Thus even after fertility reaches replacement 

level, ‘population momentum’ will cause the population to increase until the number of 

people in the main childbearing ages stabilises. 

Once a population becomes stable, any further decrease in fertility or increase in emigration 

can cause negative population growth, i.e. declining population numbers. This is happening 

in some of the very low fertility countries of Europe such as France and Germany. Australia, 

which also has below replacement fertility, is preventing population decrease by maintaining 

steady levels of immigration to offset the deficit in births. 


stabilises? 

The medium population projections made in 2004 and the target population set in the 2004 

Population Policy is 120,000 by 2025. 5 

This is 30% more people than in 2005. The medium 

population projection based on the 2005 census data suggests the total population of Kiribati 

is likely to reach 130,000 by 2025, which is 40% more than in 2005. Both of these 

projections assume substantial declines in the birth rate and substantial increases in 

permanent emigration, which in fact have not yet occurred. If there is no change in current 

fertility and emigration rates and the population continues to increase at an average of 1.8% 

per year the population could be well over 140,000 by 2025. 

If replacement fertility could be reached by 2025 and an average of 200 permanent 

emigrants were to leave the country each year, the total population size in 2025 could be as 

few as 120,000 per year. This is still a 30% increase compared with 2005. 

Under any of these scenarios the population will continue to increase after 2025 because of 

population momentum. The maximum population size at the point when it stops increasing 

5 Although the 2004 projections assumed higher levels of migration than the 2005 census projections, 

they also assumed higher fertility and slower fertility decline, so it is reasonable to compare the 

projected population totals derived from the two sets of projections. 




will depend on how quickly fertility declines and the scale of net emigration. If fertility 

declines quickly the maximum population size could be as low as 135,000, and could be 

reached in 2050. On the other hand, if fertility declines only slowly the maximum could be 

or as high as 250,000 and not achieved until 2090. If there is no reduction in current fertility 

and no increase in emigration rates the population will continue to increase forever and 

never stabilise. 

, 

Every year that implementation of the 2004 Population Policy is delayed it becomes more 

likely that the projected population numbers for 2025 will be exceeded and the maximum 

population size when it stabilises will be larger. 

4. Special issues for Kiribati population planning 

Uneven population distribution 

A concern in Kiribati is not only the absolute number of people, but also uneven population 

distribution. On the one hand some atolls are very thinly populated, while 44% of the total 

population is crammed into South Tarawa. This local-level imbalance between population 

and resources has come about because most wage employment opportunities and the best 

social services are in South Tarawa, and generally it is the only place that offers the many, 

diverse activities of urban life. 

Dense settlements in Betio, Bairiki and Bikenibeu strain capacity to provide adequate water, 

sanitation, waste disposal, transport, communications and housing. The 2005 census showed 

that average household size in South Tarawa was 7.5 persons, a small decline from 8.1 in 

2000. 6 Although 67% of households in South Tarawa had access to piped water, around 

30% relied on open or closed wells, and 50% used the ocean or bush for sanitation. 7 

Insufficient employment opportunities 

Moreover, although wage employment is one of the main attractions of South Tarawa there 

are insufficient jobs to meet the demand. Substantial numbers of urban households have no 

choice but to practice a subsistence lifestyle because their cash incomes are insufficient, yet 

land is in short supply and fish stocks are becoming depleted. Crowding is thus having a 

major negative impact on food security. The 2005 census classifies all employment as either 

‘cash work’ or ‘village work’ and does not separate formal and informal employment. Cash 

work outside the public sector includes both formal employment and informal economic 

activity, such as small trade stores and selling produce. 

The census classified 13,133 workers as cash workers, and 21,582 as village workers. Sixtyone 

per cent of cash workers resided in South Tarawa (8,068). Fifty-three per cent of all 

cash work in Kiribati as a whole was in the public sector (of which 63% was in South 

Tarawa). 

Even though South Tarawa is classified as an urban area, 5,272 people residing there were 

classified as ‘village workers’. A further 1,632 were classified as unemployed (i.e.11% of 

the South Tarawa labour force). These figures exclude people who are not in the labour 

force (e.g. those caring for children, retired, disabled). Given that many ‘village workers’ in 

6 SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2007: 54. 

7 SPC and Republic of Kiribati, 2007: Maps 2 and 3, pages 56, 57. 




South Tarawa would prefer to do ‘cash work’ if they could find it, and probably also some 

of those reporting as not in the labour force, the real unemployment rate in South Tarawa is 

much higher than the 11% reported. 8 

Finding wage employment is especially difficult for school leavers and those without 

previous work experience. The 2005 census showed that in Kiribati as a whole, 4,376 of 

youth aged 15-19 were not at school, of whom 60% were employed in either cash or village 

work. Given that few out-of-school youth aged 15-19 have a reason not to be in the labour 

force, while many young people doing village work would prefer cash work, the real rate of 

youth unemployment probably exceeds 40%. 9 

Population relocation and resettlement 

The obvious disparity between South Tarawa and other atolls has focussed attention on 

population relocation to alleviate population pressure. The 2004 Population Strategy 

included voluntary settlement to Kiritimati Island as one of its three main components, and 

The Outer Islands Growth Centres Project focuses on resettlement to Kiritimati. 

Kiritimati is attractive to new settlers because they are able to utilise the extensive stateowned 

lands for subsistence. To date, however, utilisation has been largely hunting and 

gathering, and there has been little development of more sustainable and productive 

cultivation methods. Relocating populations to new areas needs to be carefully managed, 

requiring substantial investment in basic infrastructure, including water, sanitation and 

electricity, as well as creation of employment opportunities and introduction of sustainable 

food production methods to ensure resettled families have adequate living standards and 

food security. Moreover, while relocation may alleviate population pressure in densely 

settled areas, unless the population growth rate declines the newly settled areas will 

eventually become as densely populated as South Tarawa. 

Staying on the home island 

An alternative strategy to alleviate population pressure in South Tarawa is to encourage 

people to return to or remain on their home islands. This can be difficult when superior 

services, economic opportunities and market forces tend to attract people to the established 

economic area of South Tarawa. Encouraging people to remain on outer islands means 

upgrading services and creating employment and income generating opportunities, and this 

tends to involve higher per capita costs than in Tarawa. However, as there is already housing 

and some basic facilities in outer island communities it is generally less costly than 

relocation to new areas on Kiritimati Islands. 

A factor working against staying on home islands is that small markets, poor 

communications and high transport costs make outer islands less attractive than South 

Tarawa from a businesses perspective. Decentralisation thus involves reversing established 

economic trends and population flows, and developing and promoting income earning 

opportunities, which is a significant challenge. 

8 Calculated from NSO, 2007: 47-48. 

9 Calculated from NSO, 2007: 38. 




Shortage of skilled labour 

Another issue for Kiribati population planning is the generally low level of skills in the 

labour force. Many of the working age population have limited literacy and have only 

experienced subsistence or informal economic activity. Many of those who want to 

participate in the cash sector do not have appropriate skills or experience for wage work, or 

the management skills necessary to establish and run a small business. This applies to both 

younger and older age groups. Although the establishment of Junior Secondary Schools 

throughout Kiribati has substantially increased retention after primary grades, standards 

remain low. Technical and vocational education (TVET) remains underdeveloped and also 

tends to be of a low standard. As a consequence, many young people leave school without 

well-developed skills in either academic or vocational subjects. 

Is “a white collar” job always better? 

Human resources development in Kiribati tends to be hampered by a widespread perception 

in the community that white collar work is superior to all other types of work, and 

vocational education is only for those who can not make it in academic streams. This tends 

to discourage students who have an aptitude for vocational learning, and often students in 

vocational streams are poorly motivated rather than engaged and eager to acquire valuable 

and marketable skills. 

This perception, which originates from the colonial emphasis on bureaucracy, is 

incompatible with modern society. A key characteristic of the modern, well-developed 

economy is that there are many diverse occupations and many different kinds of work to be 

done. It is normal for many in the labour force to prefer to earn their living by working 

outside and/or with their hands rather than being confined to a desk. 

Much of the Kiribati prejudice against trades and manual work derives from a belief that 

white collar work is better paid than other work. But is that always true? Some of the 

wealthiest people in developed countries are people who have built successful businesses 

using their own skills. Many of the basic trade skills that are in short supply in Kiribati, such 

as plumbing, house-painting, paving and tiling, can command high incomes in a modern 

diversified economy. Wise parents accept that any wage employment is worthy of respect 

and children should be encouraged to prepare for the type of work that interests them most. 

A positive sign that perceptions are beginning to change in this direction is the growing 

support and encouragement of Kiribati parents for career training initiatives such as the 

Kiribati-Australia Nursing Initiative (KANI). 

Disinterested parents 

Lack of parental interest and support also limits educational performances. A common 

attitude is that teachers should take full responsibility for children’s education so many 

parents do not take an interest in their children’s school experiences or provide the support 

and encouragement necessary to produce good school performances. Often the reason why 

students fail or drop out of school is that they are demoralised, do not see the value of 

education or do not feel supported by their family. 10 

10 See UNICEF, 2005 ‘ The State of Pacific Youth’, pp 4-5 and 19-22 for an analysis of factors 

inhibiting school performance in Pacific countries. 




This causes many students to leave school without a sufficient standard of education to 

compete in the labour market. In the absence of alternatives, they have no choice but to fall 

back on subsistence, semi-subsistence or unskilled labouring jobs because they have not 

acquired more marketable skills. Lack of satisfying employment opportunities may even 

encourage girls to become mothers at a young age because motherhood appears to be their 

only pathway to recognition and status in the community. 

5. What has caused the very low fertility in the most developed countries? 

A consistent pattern throughout the world, as well as the rest of the Pacific, is that the 

average fertility (i.e. average number of children borne by women) of rural and subsistence 

workers is higher than that of urban and wage workers. Paradoxically, even though wage 

employment initially makes large families more affordable, in the long-term it promotes 

lower fertility. 

The ‘cost of children’ is low in subsistence societies 

One of the best explanations for this pattern is the ‘theory of wealth flows’, which argues 

that the spread of mass education, increasing employment opportunities and urbanization 

increase the cost of raising children. 11 

In a subsistence society the cost of having an 

additional child tends to be negligible. Children do not need to stay in school for long or 

spend time studying after school, and from an early age they can help their family by caring 

for younger siblings, doing chores, feeding animals, gathering food. Moreover, having a 

large family improves the chances that some will survive to take care of their parents when 

they become old. This means the main ‘flow of wealth’ is from children to parents, so more 

children tends to mean more wealth. 

Wage employment and higher aspirations increase the ‘cost of children’ 

When people live in urban environments and have paid employment, there are fewer 

opportunities for children to contribute to the household economy because most food is 

purchased. Work is no longer the same simple subsistence tasks for everyone but becomes a 

diversity of occupations, some paid more and some more pleasant to do than others. The 

best jobs tend to require high level professional or trade skills, so, as aspirations increase, 

parents want their children to acquire the high-level education and skills to obtain the best 

jobs. 

When children spend more time at school it means school fees, more and better clothing, 

books, sporting equipment and the other costs of education. Because they have less time and 

opportunity to contribute labour to the household, children are more dependent than 

productive. Most parents in developed, high-aspiration societies provide all their children’s 

needs for 16-18 years. If children progress to higher education they may depend on their 

parents for 25 years or more before they start to earn an independent income. Although in 

the long run they will probably earn much more than less well-educated children, for many 

years the main flow of wealth is from parents to children. Raising successful children thus 

becomes very expensive, which produces the motivation to have smaller families. 

Opportunity to realise aspirations is important 

11 Caldwell, J.C., 1980. ‘Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline’. Population 

and Development Review, Vol 6, No. 2, pp 225-255. 




A crucial condition for the process described above to occur is that there must be plenty of 

opportunity to realise increasing aspirations, and realising them must be incompatible with a 

large family size. That is, there must be appropriate wage employment available for children 

in whom parents have invested a great deal, along with opportunities to acquire consumer 

goods and more comfortable lifestyles. If employment opportunities are limited, aspirations 

will be frustrated. Students who study with little hope of wage employment when they leave 

school are likely to become discouraged, perform poorly or drop out. Parents are likely to be 

discouraged from investing in upper secondary, post secondary and tertiary education that 

may not be utilised. Limited opportunities to earn wages also sustain subsistent or semisubsistent 

lifestyles that are more compatible with a larger family size. 

Women’s education and employment also reduce fertility 

Increases in education levels and employment opportunities for women are consistently 

linked with fertility decline are. In most of the world the average number of children borne 

by women with secondary or higher education is lower than for women with primary or no 

education. There are various explanations for this pattern, including the health benefits - for 

both mothers and children - of smaller, well-spaced families, and the greater ability of 

educated women to achieve their preferred family size. Another important explanation is 

that educated women have more opportunity to participate in employment, so having fewer 

children makes it easier for them to do so. 

Changing wealth flows and status of women in the world’s most developed countries means 

that it is now normal for families to comprise only one or two children. Much money is 

spent on the education of these children and preparing them for employment. Some of the 

lowest fertility rates in the world can be found in Catholic countries such as Ireland, Italy, 

Spain, Portugal, Poland and South Korea, even though Catholic families are normally 

associated with high fertility. The influences of strongly growing economies, ample 

opportunities for wage employment and increasing aspirations are stronger than traditional 

religious values. 

It is remarkable that most developed countries have never had a population policy. Their 

declining population growth rates are not due to any deliberate policies or strategies. What 

has happened is that the tremendous opportunity generated by economic growth, diversity of 

employment and the capacity to acquire consumer goods has increased family aspirations. 

This in turn has created the motivation to have fewer children so that aspirations can be 

realised. 

6. Why has increasing wage employment had less impact on population growth in 

Kiribati? 

Most Kiribati children now attend high school, there has been an increase in paid 

employment and almost half of the population now live in urban areas. So why is Kiribati 

fertility still well above replacement level? 

More education but less increase in opportunity 

The main explanations seem to be that the Kiribati economy has not developed the wide 

diversity of occupations and economic opportunity found in the most developed countries, 

and the education system does not seem to be providing the skills for diverse employment. 




Put simply, greater participation in education has not been paralleled by an increase in 

opportunities to benefit from education. 

The Kiribati education system focuses mainly on developing literacy and numeracy – the 

skills for formal, white-collar employment – but there are not enough white-collar jobs for 

all who seek them. Nor are there sufficient opportunities in small business, trades and other 

occupations to absorb those who do not find white-collar employment. This contributes to 

lack of interest in education, poor performances and high drop-out rates among students. A 

consequence of this emphasis on white collar skills is that where opportunities are available, 

the pool of potential workers tends to lack the skills needed to fill vacancies. Skill shortages 

identified in a recent analysis of the Kiribati labour market include electrical technicians and 

electricians, plumbers, building finishing skills, hospitality professionals and mechanics. 12 

Aspirations hard to achieve so no motivation to limit family size 

Around half the population live in South Tarawa and Kiritimati. Although both places are 

classed as urban, many people in these centres do not have wage work and still depend 

largely on subsistence activities. Although having secondary education and living in an 

‘urban’ environment may have generated higher aspirations, small families are seen as 

benefiting from more opportunity, few couples will be motivated to limit family size. The 

main driver of the fertility decline that has occurred in Kiribati so far is hardship and 

crowding rather than increasing aspirations. This means there is still an underlying 

preference for families of four or more children, and the reversal in wealth flows that is so 

critical to fertility decline has not occurred. 

7. Why haven't past population policies had a major impact in Kiribati? 

The traditional view of population planning in the Pacific is that it is primarily about 

numbers. Since population numbers are driven by fertility, and most Pacific population 

plans target fertility reduction, population planning has tended to become synonymous with 

family planning. Not surprisingly, this has made it an unpopular concept in some quarters. In 

fact, any policy or strategy that includes the objective of fertility reduction is sure to be 

viewed by at least a few people as 'coercive', 'an invasion of rights' or as merely 'women's 

business'. 

Kiribati has long recognised that population growth needs to be regulated. The first major 

activity aimed at slowing the population growth rate was the nation-wide family planning 

campaign that took place prior to Independence, between 1967 and the early 1970s. When 

international agencies worldwide de-emphasised this style of campaign in favour of a more 

integrated approach, family planning subsequently became a part of the public health 

strategy. Donor-supported services were also provided by some NGOs. 

In 1982, a Health and Family Planning Programme was launched by the then Ministry of 

Health and Family Planning. It promoted and strengthened family planning services as part 

of public health, and provided more information on family planning. The specific objectives 

were: 

12 

Voigt-Graf, C. and Tionatan, T. 2007, Labour market analysis, Kiribati. AusAID unpublished 





• reduce the population growth rate from 2.1 per cent in 1981-85 to 1.6 per cent by 

1986 

• reduce the total fertility rate (TFR) 13 

to from 4.9 in 1981-85 to 4.2 by 1986. 

These targets were not achieved, and in 1989 were revised to 


1991 

• reduce the total fertility rate (TFR) to from 4.9 in 1981-85 to 4.2 by 1991 (Republic 

of Kiribati, 1996: 40). 

The same document states that the Health and Family Planning Programme targets at that 

time were 


1995 

• reduce the total fertility rate (TFR) to from 4.9 in 1981-85 to 4.2 by 1995 (Republic 

of Kiribati, 1996: 39). 

. 

Despite failure to achieve the precise targets set, these efforts achieved partial success, as the 

respective rates in the period 1990-1995 were a growth rate of 1.8 per cent per annum and a 

TFR of 4.5. And although fertility has continued to decline since then, the rate of decline 

continues to be very slow. 

Subsequent health plans have continued to offer family planning services, but without 

pursuing specific targets. Family planning services are available at Ministry of Health and 

Medical Services (MHMS) clinics and from the Kiribati Family Health Association (KIFA), 

with UNFPA funding free contraceptives. A UNFPA-funded Adolescent Reproductive 

Health Programme within MHMS provides free education and counselling and free 

contraceptives to young people in Betio and Bairiki, and conducts outreach activities in 

outer islands. A Health Education Section within The Ministry of Health and Medical 

Services prepares health promotion materials and conducts health, reproductive health and 

environmental health education throughout Kiribati. In addition, some NGOs and most 

churches provide various forms of family life education, including informed parenting and 

advice on the methods of contraception that their beliefs permit. 

When the focus is only on family planning fertility is slow to decline 

Despite these efforts and small successes, sustained population increase continues to 

undermine economic growth. This is almost certainly because population planning in 

Kiribati has focussed on family planning, population redistribution and emigration rather 

than taking a comprehensive, population and development approach. 

The 2008-2011 Kiribati Development Plan places 'Monitor and control population growth' 

under the Key Development Area of Health. The three strategies to achieve this outcome are: 



13 TFR = average number of children a woman would bear during her lifetime if current fertility rates applied 

throughout her reproductive period. 





Because population planning has not been linked with increasing employment opportunities 

and improving living standards, the benefits of a smaller family size have not been 

experienced in the general community. This has limited the success of population planning 

efforts. A shift in population policy focus to an approach that focuses on human resources 

development and improving living standards is needed to enhance national productivity, 

increase the acceptability of population planning and strengthen population outcomes. 

8. Why will a comprehensive Population Policy Implementation Strategy have 

more impact on the population growth rate? 

While population size is obviously a crucially important determinant of development, and 

access to contraception of some kind (either natural or modern) is part of fertility reduction, 

good population planning is about much more than that. Comprehensive population 

planning promotes lower fertility by increasing employment opportunities and improving 

living standards. As described above, increased opportunities and improving living 

standards provide the incentive and motivation for a smaller family size. This is far more 

effective than making family planning the main focus of a population policy. 

The Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy addresses population well-being 

rather than just concentrating on numbers. UN and donor initiatives since 2000 have placed 

more emphasise on development goals and human rights than on population numbers per se. 

For example, basic goals and rights set out in the MDGs, CRC and CEDAW 14 

include the 

elimination of poverty; universal access to health, education, safe water and sanitation; and 

the right to decent work and a sustainable livelihood. 

Balancing population and resources is part of ensuring that everyone can realise 

development goals and enjoy their rights. Holistic population planning that emphasises the 

attainment of basic goals and rights rather than only population numbers shifts attention to 

positive social outcomes. This approach also helps people to understand that there is no 

'optimum population density' or 'critical mass' for development. Population is not a 'constant' 

or in any sense a uniform commodity. People vary enormously in their attributes, such as 

age, gender, health status, education, skills development, purchasing power and experience. 

Changing the attributes of the people, especially enhancing skills for employment, adds 

value to human resources and increases capacity. As long as there are opportunities to utilise 

the skills acquired, human resource development can make a very substantial contribution to 

economic growth by improving the balance between population resources. 

An implementation strategy that takes a comprehensive approach has several other 

advantages: 

• although population targets may be included, the emphasis is on developing human 

potential to enhance the value and utilisation of resources, which in turn improves 

living standards; 

• it is more widely acceptable because it is not perceived simply as family planning; 

14 MDGs = Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000), CRC = Convention on the Rights 

of the Child (United Nations, 1989), and CEDAW = Convention on the Elimination of all 

Forms of Discrimination Against Women (United Nations, 1995). 




• it has inbuilt flexibility because targets can be adjusted in response to achievements 

in the supply of services and opportunity; 

• it has inbuilt incentives for a smaller family size, because smaller families are 

advantageous when there is increased engagement with the cash economy (see next 

section). 

9. What is in the Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy? 

The Implementation Strategy is comprehensive but simple. It: 

• promotes human resources development to improve the balance between population 

and resources and increase food security; 

• facilitates the attainment of a stable population as soon as possible; 

• facilitates economic growth; 

• facilitates the enjoyment of universal development goals and rights by everyone in 

Kiribati; and 

• alleviates current population pressure; 

It focuses on human resources development to realise human potential and achieve all these 

objectives in a manner that is acceptable to the community: 

• Coordination of population-related activities will add value and ensure better 

population outcomes 

• The strategy will be cross cutting, with Ministries, NGOs, FBOs and communities 

working together to maximise opportunity and outcome 

• Energetic promotion and campaigning will increase levels of population awareness 

and ensure that population is prioritised on the national agenda 

• Increased community awareness of population and development linkages and new 

attitudes to parental responsibilities will promote lower fertility 

The Population Policy Implementation Strategy focuses on six key areas: 

1) Strengthened human resources development 

2) Facilitation of overseas employment opportunities and permanent emigration 

3) Facilitation of local employment and income generation 

4) Improve basic infrastructure and economic opportunities for managed 

resettlement to outer island growth centres and retention of population in 

other outer islands. 

5) Increased information and advocacy for informed parenting 

6) Improved access to sexual and reproductive health information and 

contraception. 

It includes a special focus on Kiritimati Island where major improvements in infrastructure 

and increases in economic opportunities are needed to support settlement. 

Details of needs in each key area and how the Implementation Strategy will contribute to 

these areas are provided in Annex Four. 




10. Summary 

As stated above, the six proposed key areas are not new, and are already being implemented 

in Kiribati to a greater or lesser extent. What is new is supporting this grouping of strategies 

with the ACE toolkit – advocacy, coordination and education – to raise the profile of 

population activities. This will create synergies and a population implementation strategy 

that is driven by economic factors rather than by health and family planning objectives. 

This approach emulates the factors that brought about fertility decline in Europe and other 

high-income countries, where major declines in fertility occurred without any promotion of 

population or family planning objectives whatsoever. The focus in these countries was not 

on slowing population growth rates but on human betterment. As the skills level and 

opportunities for wage employment increased, people realised of their own accord that a 

smaller family size facilitated the achievement of higher aspirations. 

A focus on developing skills and improving living standards is consistent with Kiribati’s 

commitment to MDGs as a strategy to achieve a stable population. The proposed Kiribati 

Population Plan Implementation Strategy has low start-up costs, and takes a cross-sectoral 

approach. Many of the proposed activities already have funding from Government, NGOs, 

FBOs, donors or the community. As these activities are expanded the Implementation 

Strategy can be used to obtain more funding for this crucially important development 

outcome. It will prove much more effective than a traditional population policy based on 

achieving targets and promoting family planning. 




ANNEX FOUR: The Six Key Areas of the Kiribati Population Implementation 

Strategy 

1) Strengthened Human Resources Development 

This is the most important component and the spearhead of the Implementation Strategy. It 

means upgrading the skills of Kiribati workers by improving standards of education, 

promoting universal literacy, strengthening technical and vocational education (TVET) and 

seeking out opportunities to develop capacity. It includes providing more access to 

vocational training at secondary level, strengthening post-secondary vocational training, and 

negotiating training opportunities and apprenticeships for Kiribati workers in Australia and 

New Zealand, as well as providing on-the-job training for workers in Kiribati. 

Human resources development includes expanding and building on opportunities in other 

countries, such as the courses offered overseas by the Australia-Pacific Technical College 

(APTC) the Kiribati Australia Nursing Initiative (KANI) and the medical training provided 

by Cuba. 

A major component will be strengthening, expanding and raising the standard of courses 

taught in Kiribati at the Kiribati Institute of Technology (KIT) and other national training 

institutions. This should include expanding apprenticeship opportunities, especially in the 

construction trades, and providing more TVET opportunities for both males and females. A 

potential area for expansion is hospitality training based at the two Government-owned 

hotels. Also crucial is maintaining the quality of training at the Marine Training Centre 

(MTC) and ensuring that it adapts to changing skills needs that arise as new technologies are 

introduced in the maritime industries. 

Secondary schools can help to improve performances in post-secondary training by 

providing careers advice and opportunities for students to learn about and prepare for their 

chosen vocation. For example, there is a strong demand for places in the Fisheries Training 

Centre (FTC), originally established to prepare fishermen to work on Japanese ships, but 

dropout rates are high. Japanese language is no longer a requirement for the course and the 

FTC now trains for Taiwan and Korea, but there are still dropouts. 15 

Providing prospective 

students with opportunities to learn about these Asian cultures and their approach to the 

fishing industry could help improve performances, commitment and adaptation to the 

foreign working environment. 

Other strategies encompassed by human resources development include preparing Kiribati 

workers to take advantage of emerging opportunities in the local and international labour 

markets. It is estimated that between one quarter and half of the 2,000 new entrants to the 

labour force each year do not have skills to obtain employment or qualifications to gain 

access to a TVET program. 16 

Lack or underdevelopment of skills not only contributes to 

unemployment in the formal sector but also inhibits self-employment and income generation. 

Skills development is also a crucial part of population retention in outer islands as it 

facilitates employment growth and income generation. Skilled workers who resettle in outer 

islands growth centres are more likely to find or create work opportunities, which in turn 

15 

ML&HRD, 2008 ‘Labour Market Analysis Kiribati, p. 53 

16 

ML&HRD, 2008 ‘Labour Market Analysis Kiribati, p. 1. 




will contribute to a healthy climate for the establishment of new enterprises and income 

generating activities. 

2) Facilitation of overseas employment opportunities and permanent emigration 

Expansion of overseas migration and employment has the potential to make a very 

substantial contribution to the Kiribati economy. In the past few decades phosphate workers 

in Nauru, fish cannery workers in American Samoa and seafarers employed on overseas 

shipping lines have made substantial contributions to household income in the form of 

remittances. The 2005 census found that 14% of all households in Kiribati received 

remittances from seafarers, and 20% of households in South Tarawa. 17 

Negotiating other 

opportunities and ensuring that the labour force is equipped with the skills to take advantage 

of them could make a very substantial contribution to economic development. The new 

Australian Labour Government is considering allowing some Kiribati workers into Australia 

on short-term employment visas. To take advantage of these and other possible emerging 

opportunities, Kiribati workers need to show that they are appropriately skilled and 

responsible workers. 

An essential part of developing and deploying overseas workers is pre-departure briefing 

and social and cultural preparation. Mastering the language used in their new workplace is 

the first step and a crucial part of ensuring success. It is also essential that potential workers 

understand and are prepared to comply with work ethics and expectations of their new 

employers. Preparation for work overseas should include cultural briefings and advice on 

risks and difficulties that could be encountered while working overseas, such as exploitation, 

prejudice, unaccustomed freedom from social regulation and health risks. Workers need to 

be well prepared with a plan for managing such risks before they leave Kiribati, including 

knowing where they can obtain counselling and assistance if required. 

There should also be monitoring of work conditions of overseas contract workers and a 

source of counselling and support if they experience any kind of difficulty, including 

personal problems such as depression. Employing a social worker and offering telephone 

counselling in countries with substantial numbers of Kiribati contract workers should be 

considered. The pre-departure preparation and support services that overseas countries 

provide to volunteers and diplomatic personnel working in Kiribati could serve as models 

for the development of support services for Kiribati workers. 

Whereas short-term overseas labour contracts may make a small contribution to alleviation 

of population pressure, permanent emigration can make a major contribution to slowing the 

population growth rate. There appears to be no shortage of Kiribati citizens willing to 

emigrate to Pacific Rim countries, but potential destinations are quite limited. 

New Zealand currently accepts 75 permanent migrants from Kiribati each year under the 

Pacific Access Scheme, with applicants far exceeding the number of places. So far the 

Australian Government has resisted offering a special quote for Kiribati, although as early as 

1984 the Jackson Committee on Immigration recommended that consideration should be 

given to doing so. 

17 Calculated from National Statistics Office, 2005 Census of Population Volume 1, Table H38, p.101. 




While efforts to lobby for such opportunities should continue, great care needs to be taken to 

ensure that new emigration opportunities do not result in a 'brain drain' from Kiribati. This 

risk should be managed during preliminary negotiations by including safeguards to ensure 

that recipient countries do not set criteria that can be met by only the most qualified white 

collar workers and skilled tradesmen. 

3. Facilitation of local employment and income generation 

Growth of employment opportunities outside the Public Sector depends on generating 

markets, opportunities and skills. When high percentages of the population depend largely 

on subsistence, the markets for construction, retailing and other private services tend to be 

small and underdeveloped. Increasing engagement with the cash sector increases the demand 

for these services, which in turn stimulates more employment and more engagement with 

the cash sector. Conversely, reduction in demand leads to contraction of employment 

opportunities. Growth in demand is thus the basis of the momentum that sustains economic 

growth. 

Private sector employment generation thus depends on recognises opportunities to supply a 

demand, and acquiring the necessary skills or offering the services to do so. The capacity of 

I-Kiribati to recognise opportunities and provide services in response to a demand is well 

illustrated by the proliferation of small retail businesses and local transport services. What is 

needed now is enhanced skills, finance and business management support to enable other 

business development in response to other opportunities. 

Some of the skills gaps noted in the MLHRD Labour Market Analysis are an on-going 

demand for technicians, electricians, plumbers, mechanics, operators of heavy equipment, 

including excavator and crane drivers, laboratory technicians, engineers, surveyors and 

workers with finishing skills such as paving, tiling and painting. In the retail sector there is a 

demand for skilled salespersons, especially in hardware, automotive and electronics where 

advice and/or follow-up services are essential. Acute shortages of plumbers, pavers, car 

mechanics and telecommunications and refrigeration technicians were noted. Jobs in these 

areas needs are currently being filled by expatriate labour because adequately skilled 

workers are not available in Kiribati. Replacing them with Kiribati workers would make a 

substantial contribution to local employment, which in turn would generate an increased 

demand and further opportunities for business and services. Other potential growth areas 

noted in the report include the tourism and hospitality industry, including work on overseas 

airlines and cruise liners. 18 

As employment in these areas increases there will also be a 

growing demand for management skills. 

While some of these jobs are with existing employers, there are also opportunities that could 

be filled by new small businesses. This may be more attractive to some tradesmen as it 

usually generates higher returns, although start-up involves greater risk. A key part of 

facilitating development of small business opportunities is provision of start-up capital at 

affordable interest rates and access to support services. For example, a tradesman such as a 

plumber who wishes to start his own business is likely to require at least the purchase of 

18 MLHRD, 2008, Labour Market Analysis Kiribati: p 9 




tools and a vehicle, obtaining suitable premises from which to manage the business, 

communications, advertising and basic management skills. Establishing a small business 

advisory and support service is one way of helping small businesses get started. Such 

services could offer basic financial management assistance on a contract basis, which is 

itself another potential growth area as the small business sector expands. 

Expansion of employment opportunities and support for male and female workers and 

business people need to be encouraged in South Tarawa and in the outer islands. Increasing 

employment outside the Public Sector will bring the additional benefits of increasing the tax 

base, which in turn will enable Government to provide improved services to meet basic 

needs and the attainment of MDGs. 

Small business opportunities for outer islands include agriculture, livestock, aqua-culture 

and artisan and handicrafts. Provision of training and in these areas needs to be linked with 

business development support services, and, most importantly, market research and 

development and quality control to ensure the goods produced can be sold. 

An important part of this strategy is developing and disseminating techniques to increase 

productivity in rural food industries. Dependence on imported foods is increasing rapidly in 

Kiribati, even though increasing numbers of families have little access to cash. Productivity 

increase is crucial to provide food security as well as to increase incomes and living 

standards. 

4. Improvement of basic infrastructure for managed resettlement to outer island growth 

centres 

Improvement of water, sanitation, waste disposal, health facilities and schools are already 

priorities of the Kiribati Development Plan 2008-2011, as well as part of Kiribati's 

commitment to achieving MDGs. Satisfactory levels of basic services must be achieved at 

existing settlements, while rates of resettlement must also be determined by the availability 

of basic services at proposed destinations. Resettlement without adequate basic 

infrastructure risks transferring the problems of South Tarawa to other areas. There is 

already evidence of unregulated squatter settlements and inadequately serviced allocated 

land in Kiritimati. Alarmingly, many Kiribati citizens are tending to accept this as inevitable 

and ‘the norm’ for people who relocate. Resettlement without basic not only hinders the 

attainment of basic human rights but also sustains higher population growth rates because 

people in disadvantaged circumstances tend to have lower aspirations and higher fertility. 

A crucial part of sustaining resettlement is ensuring a healthy climate for small business and 

employment opportunities at proposed growth centres. The example of North Tabiteuea 

shows that people do not move for improved facilities alone. Despite the construction of a 

substantial new hospital, North Tabiteuea has so far attracted few settlers other than those 

employed in the hospital. Substantial resettlement is more likely to be triggered by 

increasing local demand for goods and services to attract and provide opportunities for 

additional settlers. 




5. Increased information and advocacy for informed parenting 

Education is essential to support the above strategies by raising community awareness of 

national population issues and the benefits of smaller, better-educated families. In the past 

family planning promotion in Kiribati and elsewhere in the Pacific has tended to emphasise 

minimum and maximum ages for child bearing and family spacing as a way of achieving 

smaller families ('Too young, too old, too many, too close'). 

In fact there is a simpler and more flexible set of conditions that can produce better 

population outcomes. It is: ‘Every child should be wanted, planned for and deliberately 

conceived by both parents. Both parents should plan to meet all that child’s needs for food, 

clothing, shelter, health, education and good parenting until it obtains a sustainable 

livelihood.’ These conditions link to two key concepts in the Implementation Strategy: 1) 

that the basic needs and rights of every child should be respected, and 2) ‘affordable family 

size’. 

If everyone of reproductive age strictly observed these conditions and thought in terms of 

long-term parental responsibilities and ‘affordable family size’ there would be no unplanned 

teenage pregnancies. Parents would have only as many children as they could afford to raise 

and every child would be properly supported until it reached working age. These conditions 

are appropriate regardless of whether the parents’ and child's ambition is subsistence, wage 

employment, or life outside the labour force. Moreover, they do not compromise the basic 

human right of parents to choose how many children they will have. 

Informed parenting promotes this objective by reminding all people of reproductive age of 

their on-going responsibilities to the children they bear, and that these responsibilities may 

persist for 20 years or even more. It means providing the necessary information and other 

support so that all parents can properly perform their duty to help their children realise their 

human potential. Informed parenting is also compatible with existing programs on 

prevention of STIs and promotion of safe sex. 

The main vehicles for delivering informed parenting messages are workshops, community 

consultations, schools and the media. NGOs and FBOs could increase and make more 

specific informed parenting messages in many of their activities. Informed parenting is a 

crucial strategy for generating population-awareness and adding value to the other key areas 

of this Implementation Strategy. 

6. Strengthen health services and ensure easy access and confidential health services 

for all ages 

The final pillar of an effective population program must be that adequate health services are 

readily available to all who need them, including everyone of reproductive age. While the 

Implementation Strategy is based on realising human potential does not prioritise family 

planning, it must be recognised that many families are likely to seek medical assistance to 

prevent unplanned births. Any limitations in health services such as discrimination, lack of 

confidentiality or unavailability of supplies could compromise the effectiveness of the whole 

population strategy. 




There is growing concern about unplanned teenage pregnancy in Kiribati. While often 

regarded as simply disobedience and ‘bad behaviour’, teenage pregnancy is often a 

consequence of lack of opportunity for young people to achieve personal goals and career 

choices. This can lead to low self-esteem and/or indifference to the outcomes of sexual 

activity. The Population Implementation Strategy promotes informed parenting activities, 

and enhancing opportunities for young people in the workforce. Specific measures include 

promotion of employment opportunities, especially for females, and raising awareness of 

parental responsibilities to prepare all children with appropriate skills for employment and a 

sustainable livelihood. The Implementation Strategy will therefore help to strengthen 

MHMS and NGOs initiatives to reduce teenage and unplanned pregnancies and prevent 

HIV/AIDS and STIs. 

7. Importance of a special focus on Kiritimati 

Implementation activities should include a special focus on Kiritimati Island. As crown land 

with no long history of settlement, Kiritimati lacks established structures and practices to 

absorb settlers. On the one hand this can help to promote enterprise and initiative, but there 

is evidence that it is also contributing to mismanagement of resources and poor living 

conditions on Kiritimati. Special efforts are needed to ensure that all six strategies are 

applied in Kiritimati, including prioritising investment in the provision of adequate basic 

infrastructure, sustainable economic opportunities and optimum management strategies. 



Annex 2.d: McMURRAY – Population and Development Handbook 

UNDERSTANDING POPULATION 

AND DEVELOPMENT: 

A simple handbook for Kiribati 

DRAFT 



By 

Chris McMurray 

This handbook was prepared to support The Kiribati Population Policy 

Implementation Strategy. Preparation was part of the assistance provided by The 

Asian Development Bank under ADB TA 4878 - Kir: Republic of Kiribati: 

Integrated Land and Population Development Program on Kiritimati Island 

(Population Policy Component) 

1


INTRODUCTION 

An understanding of the basic theories and processes of population and development 

will help the Population and Development Coordinator and other stakeholders interpret 

population data and identify potential linkages and synergies to enhance population and 

development outcomes. Sharing this basic understanding with as many people as possible 

throughout the Kiribati community – male and female, young and old – will assist the 

formulation and acceptance of sound population and development strategies and 

increase community motivation and participation. 

This handbook provides an easy-to-understand introduction to the key population and 

development concepts relevant to Kiribati planners and community. It comprises 

simplified summaries of the most important theoretical concepts, with examples, simple 

exercises and discussion topics to facilitate learning. 

Initially this paper should be used as a basic reference handbook for the Population and 

Development Coordinator and distributed to Ministerial Secretaries and members of the 

Population and Development Task Force. 

The handbook can also be used as source material for the development of appropriate 

training materials for a range of workshops to raise awareness of population and 

development linkages and processes. This includes training materials for NGO trainersof-trainers, 

teachers in schools and FBOs, and community leaders. The trainers should 

select topics that are appropriate and relevant to their particular target audience, simplify 

the material still further and present it in user-friendly formats. Only one or two topics 

should be covered per training session. 



2


PART ONE: POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT LINKAGES AND 

THEORIES OF POPULATION CHANGE 

1.1) Population and development linkages 

Living standards in any country are usually determined by the balance between 

population and resources. Population simply means ‘the people’. Resources include all 

forms of produce from land, sea and mineral wealth. We can picture this balance scales 

with resources on one side and population on the other. When there are plenty of 

resources and not many people to share them, living standards tend to be high. But when 

population numbers increase and the share of resources for each person declines, the 

population side becomes heavier and living standards decline. 

POOR 

Population 

Land, sea and minerals doesn’t usually increase unless a country acquires new territory. 

On the other hand, population numbers tend to increase gradually over time, so 

strategies are needed to prevent population outweighing resources. One way of 

preventing a decline in living standards is to continually increase outputs from natural 

resources. But there’s also another way: that is, increase human productivity though 

eduction and productive work. We call this ‘human resources development’. With 

effective human resources development, living standards can remain high even if 

population numbers increase. This is because human skills and capacity add value to the 

resources on the other side of the balance. 

So you can see that there are actually two types of population. One type has low levels of 

education and workplace skills, and is mostly engaged in subsistence or low paying work, 

or unemployed. This population weighs heavily and does not add much value to natural 

resources. The other type of population is highly educated, highly skilled and highly 

productive. Workers add much value to resource outputs. This offsets population 

increase and maintains a favourable balance and high living standards. 

Population 

Resources 

Population 

RICH 

Resources/services 

Resources 

VERY RICH 



3


A large population in a small country with few resources can have high living standards if 

human resources are well developed. The world’s richest countries have highly developed 

and very productive human resources that add to the value of resource outputs, provide 

high quality services and generate much wealth. 

So, what’s the situation in Kiribati? Well, Kiribati has experienced sustained population 

increase since the 1940s, and there is now clear evidence that increasing numbers are 

leading to an unfavourable balance between population and resources. Swift action is 

needed to improve the balance and prevent major declines in living standards. As natural 

resources cannot be increased, human resources should be developed to increase 

productivity. This means improving and diversifying education to provide marketable 

skills for the workplace. Equally important is developing new wage employment and 

business opportunities, so that education and skills can be used to generate wealth and 

high incomes. This strategy will create the favourable balance shown in Figure Three and 

improve living standards in Kiribati. 

An understanding of how social and economic factors can affect population growth 

helps population planners make policies that will produce the outcomes they want. The 

following well-known theories, developed by historians and researchers, are based on 

observations of similar patterns in many countries over many years. 

1.2) Demographic Transition 

Demographic Transition explains how technology and economic development shaped 

population patterns in Europe between about 1800 and the 1950s. As described in 2.1 

below, population size is determined by balance between births, deaths and migration. In 

the days before modern medicine and technology, both birth rates (often called ‘fertility 

rates’) and death rates (often called the ‘mortality rates’) tended to be quite high. Overall, 

the number of births each year tended to be only slightly higher than the number of 

deaths. The population growth rate was therefore very slow and it took many thousands 

of years for the World's population to reach one billion. 

Figure One: Landmarks in World Population Growth 

The above figure shows that population growth was still quite slow during the early 

human civilisations. It began to accelerate during the Agricultural and Industrial 



4


Revolutions, and then in the past century began to increase rapidly. Since the 1960s there 

have been huge 'population explosions' especially in the poorest countries in Asia, Africa 

and Latin America. Although it took thousands of years for the World's population to 

reach one billion, it took only 12 years (1987-1999) to increase from 5 to 6 billion!! 

The theory of Demographic Transition describes five main phases in the change from 

high to low birth (fertility) and death (mortality) rates. When considering the Phases 

described in table below it's very important to remember that these changes don't occur 

at the same time in every country. While most of Europe and the more developed 

countries are now in Phase Four or Five, many countries are still in Phase Two or Three, 

and there are even a few countries still in Phase One. 

Table One: Phases of the Demographic Transition 

There were many reasons for the major reduction in mortality in Phase Two. In the early 

19th Century it was probably due mainly to improved nutrition and the spread of safe 

water and sanitation technology. Later in the century improvements in hygiene in 

households and hospitals brought further declines. In the early 20th Century mortality 

was greatly reduced by the spread of more effective medicines and especially by the 

development of vaccines to prevent serious childhood infectious diseases. 

Early declines in the birth rate in European countries in Phase Three occurred before 

modern contraception was developed, with widespread use of various traditional 

methods including abortion. Since the 20th Century there has been much greater reliance 

on modern contraception to reduce the birth rate. 

The impact of Demographic Transition on population growth can be seen very clearly in 

Figure Two below. It shows ‘crude’ birth and death rates, that is, the number of births or 

deaths per 1000 population. Before demographic transition these rates are usually around 

40-50. After demographic transition they usually drop to below 20 per 1000 or even 

below 10 per thousand. 



5


Figure Two: Population growth during demographic transition 

Population growth occurs when there are more births than deaths. When the birth rate 

and the death rate are both high and there’s little difference between them, there's not 

much population growth (left hand side of figure). When the death rate declines quickly 

but the birth rate stays high or declines only slowly, the excess of births over deaths 

causes rapid population growth (shaded area in middle of figure).When the birth rate 

declines further and becomes similar to the death rate population growth slows to little 

or nothing (right hand side of figure). Of course, whenever the death rate exceeds the 

birth rate, as can be seen for short periods on the left and right hand sides of the figure, 

population size actually declines until the birth rate increases again. A little fluctuation is 

normal in both high birth and death and low birth and death countries. 

These phases occurred at different times in different countries. Most of the World's 

more developed countries, including those in Asia and South America, passed through a 

phase of rapid population growth and have now reached Phase Five. That is, although 

fertility and mortality rates are much lower, there's not much difference between them, 

so population growth is zero, negative or very slow. 

Until the mid to late 20th Century it was widely assumed that all countries would 

automatically pass through the Demographic Transition and reach Phase 4 with very 

slow population increase. Then it was noticed that many developing countries seemed to 

be getting stuck somewhere between Phase 2 and 3. That is, they had substantial declines 

in mortality rates but little or no decline in fertility. This meant that their populations 

continued to increase rapidly. 

In the 1970s country governments, donors and the international community began to be 

became very concerned about population increase and there was vigorous promotion of 

family planning programs. Although these campaigns helped to slow the birth rate, what 

probably had more impact was economic development and improvements in living 

standards (more about that in 1.3 below). Although most countries now have gradually 

declining birth rates, both birth rates and population growth rates tend to be lowest in 

countries that have achieved most economic development, and highest in the least 

developed and poorest countries. 

This is no coincidence. There's plenty of evidence that, on average, people engaged in 

traditional and subsistence lifestyles tend to have larger families than wage-workers, 



6


especially when large percentages of women are employed in wage work. Most of the 

World's poorest countries still depend heavily on subsistence because their wage sectors 

are underdeveloped and there are few employment opportunities. (We will discuss this 

further in 1.3 and 1.4 below). 

Discussion: Can you see any evidence of a Demographic Transition in Kiribati? If so, 

which phase of the Demographic Transition would you say Kiribati has reached now? 

What do you think would cause it to move to the next stage? When would you expect 

that to happen? 

1.3) Causes of fertility decline 

So, we have discussed World and country patterns of change in population size and 

growth rates. Now we will consider family size at the household level. As everybody 

knows, decisions about family size are made by couples, not by governments. So if most 

couples decide to have smaller families than was usual in the past, something must have 

happened to change the way they think. 

As you would expect, many different factors influence decisions about family size. The 

most important factors seem to be patterns of 'wealth flows', changing perceptions of the 

'value of children' and changing perceptions of status. 

The theories go like this: In traditional, subsistence societies, the costs of having children 

are very low. Families grow or catch most of their food, so cash isn't needed to feed a 

family. Children don't need to stay in school for long or spend time studying after school, 

and from an early age they can help by caring for younger children, doing chores, feeding 

animals, gathering food and so on. This means the main 'flow of wealth' is mainly from 

children to parents. Also, in traditional societies a large family tends to be an important 

sign of family status and influence. It also improves the chances that some of the 

children will help to take care of the parents when they become old. This is why the 

'value of children' in traditional societies tends to mean having many children, because 

more children means more wealth. 

It is quite the opposite in a modern urban environment where everything is store bought 

and survival depends on having cash. There are fewer opportunities for children to 

contribute to the household economy because most food is purchased. A good education 

is essential for a well-paid job, so parents want their children to be well-educated and 

well-prepared with work and life skills for the future. The 'value of children' is no longer 

judged by family size, but by the skills and earning capacity of each child. Now parents 

need to invest in developing their children's skills, and children must spend more time at 

school and less time helping in the house. Parents must buy more and better clothing for 

their children, books, sporting equipment and other costly items and support them for 

much longer than in a traditional society. Most parents in developed societies provide all 

their children’s needs for at least 18 years. If children progress to higher education they 

may depend on their parents for 25 years or more before they are able to earn their own 

income and support themselves. Thus for many years the 'flow of wealth' is mainly from 

parents to children. 



7


A large family also reduces the parents' ability to buy other things, such as modern 

housing, expensive household items, motor vehicles, and more expensive food and 

clothing. In most modern societies status is judged by money and ability to buy such 

items, not by a large family size. In fact, a large family size tends to be associated with 

poverty. Another factor is that having a lot of children takes up much of the mother's 

time and limits her capacity to work in the cash sector. In a developed society most 

women return to work after marriage and even after they have children, because it is 

more profitable and more interesting than staying at home. Many continue to work 

throughout their lives, with only short breaks to bear and care for children. Increasingly 

employers are encouraging this by providing benefits for maternity leave, and child care 

facilities at the workplace. In developed societies women's status, as well as that of men, 

tends to be judged by the type of work they do and their income rather than the number 

of children they have borne. 

So you can see how a modern, cash society tends to promote a smaller family size. In 

most of the highly developed countries it is now normal for families to comprise only 

one or two children. Much money is spent on the education of these children and 

preparing them for employment. Although as is well known the Catholic church is 

generally opposed to use of modern contraception, some of the lowest fertility rates in 

the world can be found in Catholic countries such as Ireland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 

Poland and South Korea. This is because these countries have strongly growing 

economies that provide plenty of opportunities for wage employment and increasing 

aspirations. 

What is particularly interesting is that most of the World's highly developed countries 

have never promoted family planning or encouraged smaller families. Their low fertility 

and slow population growth rates are not due to any deliberate policies or strategies. 

What has happened is that as living standards improve and opportunity increases, large 

families are seen as a burden while smaller families are seen as an economic advantage. 

This is what makes couples decide to have fewer children. 

Obviously there are always exceptions, and families of five or more children can still be 

found in highly developed countries, even in urban areas where they are wholly 

dependent on cash for all their needs. But it is very clear that, throughout the World, 

average family size is almost always larger where people live mainly by subsistence, and 

smaller where they live in urban areas and earn their living from wage work. This is true 

in virtually every country, rich or poor, as well as all Pacific countries. 

DISCUSSION: How well do you think these theories explain family size in Kiribati? Can 

you think of reasons why average family size in Kiribati still tends to be larger than most 

developed countries, even in urban areas? What changes to the economy and society do 

you think could cause the average family size in Kiribati to become only two children? 

1.4) Determinants of fertility 

The theories of fertility decline (described in 1.3) above tell us about the changing 

community attitudes and values that lead to smaller families. But these are only the 

underlying factors. Before we can fully understand fertility change, we have to consider 

exactly what causes or prevents child bearing at the individual level. We all know that 



8


children are produced from a relationship between a man and a woman. But a normal, 

healthy man and woman in a relationship that lasts until they die are physically capable of 

producing 20 or more children! 

Since most couples don't produce anywhere near this number, there are obviously factors 

that limit the number of births, even in traditional and subsistence societies. They include 

biological, socio-economic and environmental factors. They are called 'determinants of 

fertility' 1 

and can be grouped roughly as follows: 

1. The amount of her lifetime that a woman spends in a relationship with a man 

(affected by age at marriage, divorce, widowhood, proportion who never marry) 

2. The amount of sexual contact of a couple, i.e. time together 

(affected by amount of time couples spend apart, relationship breakdown, serious 

illness) 

3. The time a woman spends fully breastfeeding her babies 

(full breastfeeding prevents conception for up to six months) 

4. Prevention of births and foetal death 

(contraception, abortion, miscarriages, still births) 

5. The physical ability of the couple to produce a child 

(male or female natural or acquired infertility) 

Some of these determinants are shaped by social attitudes and personal preferences, 

while are others are a result of the physical characteristics of the parents, or to 

unforeseen events. 

ACTIVITY: Consider the three stories below. Then fill out the table that follows them, 

to indicate which 'determinants of fertility' affected each of the three couples. 

Uera and Timi fell in love while they were still in High School. Neither of them were 

very interested in schoolwork, and both dropped out of school before they 

reached 18. They married soon afterwards and went to live with Timi's family on 

an outer island. They both enjoyed the peaceful island lifestyle. Uera and Timi 

were both very healthy, and for the rest of their lives were rarely apart for more 

than a night or two. They did not use modern contraception. Uera had her first 

child at age 19, breastfed for six months, and then had a second child almost two 

years after the first one. She continued to have babies every two or three years. 

By the time Uera was 37 they had seven children, all healthy and strong. The 

nurse suggested that Uera had a tubal ligation and Timi agreed. After that there 

were no more babies. 

Anere and Tom fell in love in their final year at high school. Anere was selected to train 

as a nurse under the KANI scheme, and Tom went to Suva to do accounting at 

USP. They decided to delay marriage until they had finished their studies. Anere 

completed her training and found a work-experience employment in a Brisbane 

1 This list is derived from J. Bongaarts, O. Frank and R. Lesthaeghe, 1984 ‘The proximate determinants 

of fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Population and Development Review, 10(3): 511-537. The 

Bongaarts et al. classification is generally preferred and easier to apply than an earlier model proposed 

by K. Davis and J. Blake (1956) in ‘Social structure and fertility’, Economic Development and Cultural 

Change, 4: 211-235. 



9


hospital. Tom did very well at his studies at USP and when he finished his degree 

he too was offered the chance to go to Australia to gain work experience. 

Although the job was in Sydney, not Brisbane, he decided to take it. As they were 

living in different cities, Tom and Anere only saw each other ever few months 

and at Christmas when they both came home to Kiribati for a holiday. After a 

few years of this they decided to return to Kiribati permanently and get married. 

By this time Anere was 25 and Tom was 26. Soon they were busy with their 

careers again. Tom had a good job in the Public Service, and Anere was working 

at Tawerewere Hospital. So they used modern contraception to delay having 

children for a couple of years. Anere had her first child when she was 29. She 

took six months of maternity leave to breastfeed, then she returned to work for 

two years. She had her second child when she was 32, this time taking a whole 

year off work. Even though now they were both in well-paid jobs, Tom and 

Anere decided not to have any more children. They were still paying off their 

house and their car and they wanted to save money so their two children could 

have the same educational opportunities they had. Also Anere wanted to do 

some postgraduate training in Australia so she could become a nurse educator. 

Tieri and Mina didn't meet until they had been out of high school for a few years. Tieri 

had trained at the Maritime College and had a contract with a German shipping 

line. Mina was working part-time as a receptionist at a hotel, and also helping her 

mother prepare and sell school lunches. When they decided to marry Mina was 

19 and Tieri was 22. Soon after the wedding, Tieri signed a new 11-month 

contract and went back to sea. Mina found she was pregnant, but sadly, she 

miscarried that baby, and also the one she conceived next time Tieri came home 

between contracts. The third time she found she was pregnant she went to the 

clinic straight away, and the nurse and doctors supervised her very carefully 

throughout the pregnancy. Next time Tieri came home again he found Mina 

breastfeeding a beautiful two-month old son. After a short break Tieri returned 

to sea again, but Mina did not find herself pregnant that year. Then, just before 

he returned home for another break, tragedy struck and Tieri was badly injured in 

an accident. After three months in hospital in Europe he returned to Kiribati, but 

his back and hip had not yet mended and he could not walk. It was two years 

before he was fully recovered. As he couldn't go back to sea again, he started a 

small business selling and repairing outboard motors. Tieri and Mina were 

delighted when Mina became pregnant again, as by now their only son was 

already four. But even though she was very well looked after, Mina had another 

miscarriage, and then another one. Eventually the doctor advised her not to try to 

become pregnant again because she was severely anaemic and the chances of her 

successfully carrying another child were very low. Luckily for Tiera and Mina 

their only son grew up to be a fine young man and very successful businessman. 

Uera & Timi 

Anere & Tom 

Mina and Tieri 

1. 

Delayed 

marriage 

2. 

Time 

apart 

3. 

Breastfeeding 

prevents 

conception 

4. 

Contraception, 

abortion, 

miscarriage. 



5. 

Infertility/physic 

al inability to 

bear child 

10


ACTIVITY AND DISCUSSION: Tick the boxes in the table above to show which of 

the five groups of 'determinants of fertility' affected each couple in the stories. Compare 

and discuss your answers and the way the ‘determinants of fertility’ have shaped the 

family size of each couple. Do you all agree? 

Without mentioning any names, discuss how the ‘determinants of fertility’ have shaped 

the size of some of the families you know. 

So now the picture is coming together. Economic and social changes affect the way 

people think about family size. This in turn affects their behaviour and causes the fertility 

determinants to affect the number of children they bear. But before we sum up there are 

a couple of other things that need to be mentioned about population and development. 

1.5) Determinants of mortality 

Mortality (i.e. death) is different from fertility in that it is inevitable. Sooner or later 

everyone on earth must die. The determinants of mortality are therefore not about 

preventing death, but about delaying death and maximising years of healthy life. So 

when we talk about 'a decline in the death rate' or a 'low deathrate' we are really talking 

about fewer deaths at young ages and more people surviving into old age. That is, about 

an increase in average life expectancy. 

As death is a usually a consequence of illness, the determinants of ill health (morbidity) 

and mortality are similar. The main factors associated with health and long life are: 

• Safe water 

• Safe sanitation and garbage disposal 

• Good household hygiene 

• A nutritious diet 

• Normal body weight 

• Not smoking 

• Drinking little or no alcohol 

• High safety standards in every workplace 

• Road safety and safety of other forms of transport 

• Ready access to health services and medical care when needed 

• Medical supervision of pregnancy 

• Safe and medically supervised delivery of infants 

• Maternal and child healthcare and full immunisation of all infants 

ACTIVITY AND DISCUSSION: Can you make the opposite list - the factors 

associated with LOW life expectancy and HIGH mortality? Exactly how do each of these 

factors decrease or increase mortality? 

Obviously economic development and improving living standards are associated with 

improvements in most of the factors associated with low mortality in the list above. But 

there's a catch. As living standards increase, there's also a tendency for some unhealthy 

adult behaviours to increase. These unhealthy behaviours include smoking, drinking 



11


alcohol, being overweight or obese and not doing enough physical exercise. Another 

behaviour that's becoming a concern is practicing unsafe sex and risking serious and/or 

fatal sexually transmitted infections, such as syphilis and HIV/AIDS. There are also the 

health and mortality risks associated with use of drugs and increased use of motor 

vehicles. 

So, as you can see, the mortality picture is complicated. On the one hand economic 

development, improved living standards and better medical care are reducing the risk of 

death from most infectious diseases. On the other hand, human behaviour is increasing 

the risk of death from non-infectious diseases, especially cancer, heart disease and 

circulatory problems (e.g. stroke), sexually transmitted infectious diseases for which there 

are no vaccines, and motor vehicle accidents. 

Infant and child deaths are included in the calculation of life expectancy at birth. High 

infant mortality is normally said to reflect low living standards and lack of access to 

maternal and child health care. The Kiribati infant mortality rate is higher than most 

other Pacific countries, and increased from 43 deaths per 1000 live births between 1995 

and 2000 to 52 between 2000 and 2005. This is one reason why Kiribati life expectancy 

at birth is still relatively low by Pacific standards, and well below that of as some of the 

World's most developed countries. 

DISCUSSION: Why do you think Kiribati infant and child mortality increased between 

2000 and 2005? 

The health of adults may be affected by their lifestyle. Overweight, smoking, drinking, 

and not doing enough exercise are generally considered to have a negative impact on 

health and life expectancy. How true is this for Kiribati? Can you think aspects of 

traditional lifestyles that were better for health, and life expectancy? Can you think of 

aspects of traditional lifestyles that were worse for health and life expectancy? 

1.6) Internal migration and urbanization 

The last key population and development concepts that we need to consider are internal 

migration (i.e. movement within the country) and urbanization. A striking trend 

throughout the World in the past two hundred years has been the growth of urban areas. 

Most people in developed countries live in urban areas and purchase all their needs with 

cash. This is possible because agriculture has become very efficient, and only a relatively 

small number of farmers are needed to provide food for the whole country. This frees up 

the rest of the population to migrate to urban areas and work in wage jobs. 

Rural to urban migration has become substantial in most countries in the Pacific Region, 

even those that have not attained a high level of economic development. This is because 

it is well known that most employment opportunities can be found in urban areas. 

Moreover, as both rural and urban areas now rely on imported food such as rice, there is 

a strong demand for wage employment. 

Kiribati also has experienced rapid urban growth as a result of internal migration. In 

2005 most of the 24 islands/atolls of Kiribati had two or three times as many people as 

in 1947, but South Tarawa had 25 times as many!! This wasn't because there was a higher 

birth rate on South Tarawa, but because many people have moved there from the outer 



12


islands. And, as in other countries, the most common reason for moving to the urban 

area of South Tarawa was to find opportunities to earn cash. 

Unfortunately, moving to South Tarawa hasn't always brought the benefits the migrants 

were looking for. It is well known that employment opportunities and the development 

of facilities haven't kept up with population increase. Even though they are no longer on 

their land, many families that have migrated to South Tarawa have no choice but to live a 

semi-subsistence lifestyle because their cash income is insufficient to purchase all their 

needs. 

The 2005 census showed that 44% of the total Kiribati population were living on the 

small atoll of South Tarawa. Another 5% were living in the more developed, 'nearly 

urban' parts of Kiritimati Island, which are also currently unable to provide enough 

employment opportunities and facilities to keep up with the demand. This means almost 

half the Kiribati population is living in a few small urban areas, while the outer islands 

remain thinly populated. 

DISCUSSION: Urbanisation can bring both benefits and problems. What benefits has 

urbanisation brought to Kiribati? What are the main problems for the people living in 

crowded settlements? What problems has it brought for town councils? 

This section of the handbook has described the main factors that cause populations to 

change. Many people will that find Part One, plus the short summary in Part Three (see 

last page of this handbook) are quite enough to think about. If you feel you are one of 

those people, you can skip Part Two. 

Part Two has been included for those people who enjoy doing calculations and would 

like to learn a little more about the Kiribati population. It explains a few simple 

demographic and statistical techniques and provides more information about population 

trends in Kiribati to help us understand and keep track of population change. 



13


PART TWO: KEEPING TRACK OF POPULATION CHANGE 

2.1) Population dynamics and the balancing equation 

Population size in any country is always determined by only three things: births, deaths 

and international migration. The birth rate (sometimes called the fertility rate) is the 

number of births added to the population. The death rate (sometimes called mortality 

rate) is the number of deaths subtracted from the population. The international 

migration rate may be positive or negative. If there are more immigrants (people coming 

into the country) than emigrants (people leaving the country) it is positive, because it 

increases the population. If there are more emigrants than immigrants it is negative, and 

reduces population. 

The effect of these rates on population size can be seen in the simple formula used to 

calculate population growth. 

Population (Yr 1) + births – deaths +/- net international migration 

= Population (Yr 2) 

For example, let's suppose that Kiribati had 100,000 people at the beginning of Year 1. 

During that year there were 

4,500 births 

3,000 deaths, and 

5,000 people went overseas but only 4,800 came back (that is, net international 

migration was -200). 

In this example the Population in Year 2 would be 

100,000 + 4500 - 3000 -200 

= 101,200 

This formula is sometimes called 'The Balancing Equation'. 

Usually the death rate changes very gradually, as health improves and average life 

expectancy increases. But sometimes a serious epidemic, a war or natural disaster or big 

reductions or increases in infant and child deaths can bring a sudden increase in the 

death rate. The number of births also fluctuates from year to year, and also tends to 

follow an overall trend, usually downward. On the other hand, the migration balance can 

change substantially from one year to the next in response to economic and political 

changes. 

Part A above has discussed causes of change in the three rates. The important point to 

note here is that the factors most likely to slow the population growth rate quickly are 

substantial reductions in the birth rate and increases in emigration to overseas countries. 

2.2) Interpreting population growth rates 

Population growth rates are usually expressed as a percentage each year. For example, the 

average Kiribati population growth rate since 1947 has been 1.8% each year. 



14


A population growth rate works exactly the same as the compound interest rate paid on 

money in the bank. It simply means the amount (percentage) added each year. 

For example, if the population in Year 1 is 100,000 and the average annual growth rate is 

1.8%, in Year 2 the population will have increased to 101,800. 

(i.e. 100,000 + (100,000 x 0.018 = 1,800) 

= 101,800 

In Year 3 the 101,800 will again increase by 1.8%, to become . 

(i.e. 101,800 + (101,800 x 0.018 = 1,832) 

= 103,632 

Then in Year 4 the 103,632 increases by 1.8% to become 105,497, 

and so on and on. 

In this example you are calculating the population for the following year simply by 

multiplying the previous year by 1.018 (very easy if you know how to use a spreadsheet 

on a computer). 

You can use this formula for any rate of increase, simply by changing the multiplier. For 

example, if the average annual increase were 2.2%, you would multiply by 1.022. 

You can also calculate roughly how long the current growth rate would take to double 

the population size. Just divide 70 by the growth rate. 

For example, 70/1.8 = 39. 

This means that if the Kiribati population continued to increase steadily at an average 

annual rate of 1.8%, it would take 39 years to double. 

Between 2000 and 2005 the population of Kiritimati Island increased by an average of 

7.9% each year. How long would it take to double if that rate continued? 

Yes, that's right, 

70/7.9 

= 8.86...which is just under 9 years! 

Of course, this was not just due to births, but because many people moved from South 

Tarawa to Kiritimati Island. That is, there was in-migration. 

By the way, if you know the interest rate you are being paid, you can use the population 

doubling formula to estimate how long it would take to double any money you have 

invested in a bank or a provident fund! Why don’t you try it? 



15


2.3) Understanding population projections and the impact of different fertility, 

mortality and international migration rates on population size 

Population projections are estimates of how large the population will be in the future. To 

make a population projection you need to know the exact population size at a particular 

time (usually you use the total number from the last census). You can make a projection 

in one of two ways. The very simple way is to estimate either the likely overall growth 

rate (or use the average for past years) and keep multiplying year by year, as in 3) above. 

This gives a very simple estimate of what overall population size might be in a particular 

year. 

The more usual way of making population projections is to start with population size at a 

particular time and then estimate growth rates for each age and gender group in the 

population. Past rates are calculated from previous census data for fertility (i.e. the 

average number of children per woman), mortality (deaths) and international migration, 

then likely trends in these rates are estimated and used to calculate possible population 

increase. This produces a more detailed picture of the possible age/sex composition of 

the population in the future, as well as its size. 

But is the second, more detailed method more likely to give you the true population size 

in the future? No! Only someone who can see into the future can tell you for certain how 

big the population will be, and no one can do that. In fact, all population projections are 

just guesses! 

Even so, they are still very useful for planning purposes. Since it is impossible predict the 

future growth rate or future fertility, mortality and international migration rates, we don't 

pretend that population projections are predictions. Instead we use them to show us how 

big the population could be if it grew at a particular rate. This is why population 

projections are usually produced in sets of at least three. 

For example, in the 2005 Kiribati Census Report, nine population projections were 

made, for the years 2005 to 2025. Three of these projections were given names and 

discussed in detail: Medium Fertility, High Fertility and Low Fertility. 

• The Medium Fertility projection assumed that fertility decreases to 2.6 children 

per women by 2025, but slowly. 

• The High Fertility projection assumed that fertility increases sightly, then 

decreases to 3.1 children per woman by 2025. 

• The Low Fertility projection assumes that fertility decreases more rapidly, to 2.1 

by the year 2025. 

All three projections assumed roughly the same slow decline in the death rate. As it is 

extremely difficult to predict international migration patterns, and because these 

projections were not attempting to predict the actual future population size, they didn't 

include different assumptions about international migration. 

How much difference to the total estimate do these small differences in assumptions 

make? The answer is, they make a lot of difference! 



16


According to the Census, the total Kiribati population in 2005 was 92,500. 

• The Medium Fertility projection estimate is 129,500 in 2025 

• The High Fertility Projection estimates 140,400 in 2025 

• The Low Fertility Projection estimates 119,400 in 2025 

You can see the difference on the graph below, which is taken from the 2005 census 

report. 

Popultion size (in numbers) 

150.0 

145.0 

140.0 

135.0 

130.0 

125.0 

120.0 

115.0 

110.0 

105.0 

100.0 

95.0 

90.0 

85.0 

80.0 

75.0 

77.7 

84.5 

92.5 

102.8 

So, if there's such a big difference, how useful are these projections? In fact they are very 

useful. Even though they can't tell us exactly how big the population will be in 2025, they 

tell us how big it could be if there are particular rates apply to fertility, mortality and 

international migration. Planners use this information to estimate the likely demand for 

facilities and services (see 2.5) below). They can also use it to make policies to encourage 

changes in rates and produce the desired population size. 

Obviously, fertility, mortality and international migration rates don't usually remain 

constant from one year to the next. Nor is it likely that any of the rates assumed would 

turn out to be exactly right. We are seldom guess exactly what the average rates and 

future population will be. It may turn out that the actual population of Kiribati in 2025 

could be more or less than any of the projections. It's even possible that by 2025 the 

population could be smaller than in 2005, if lots of people emigrate! 

The important thing to remember is that population projections tell us what the 

population size and composition COULD be if certain assumptions proved correct, not 

what it WILL be. They are not predictions about the future, but still they are very useful 

planning tools. The other important thing to remember is that new projections should 

always be made as soon as new information - i.e. the next census - becomes available. 

2.4) Monitoring population trends and sources of population information 

A very important part of development planning is monitoring population trends and 

adjusting government policies accordingly. Population size and composition (that is the 

17 

115.0 

106.0 

110.5 

127.8 

120.3 

113.0 

140.4 

129.8 

119.4 



99.1 

1995 2000 2005 2010 

Year 

2015 2020 2025 

Past High Medium Low


numbers of each age and gender) determine the demand for services and opportunities. 

This includes: 

• The number of women likely to produce children and require Maternal Child 

health services; 

• The number of people likely to use health facilities, doctors and nurses; 

• The number of children who will require a place in primary school 

• The number of secondary school places required; 

• The number of school leavers each year; 

• The expected size of the labour force and the number of working age likely to 

need wage work; 

• The number of houses likely to be needed; and 

• The likely demand for transport, water, sanitation, electricity and 

communications. 

Planners need to consider not just the total population numbers at the national level, but 

also population distribution. Dense population concentrations such as Betio have a much 

higher demand for services and opportunities than thinly populated islands of the same 

size. It is therefore very important to have reliable population data and sensible 

population projections. 

So where do we get good population data? And what are the most important indicators 

(i.e. measures) for monitoring and planning for the population? 

2.4.1 The Census: The most important source of population information in Kiribati is 

the census, which is carried out every five years. The census counts everyone in the 

country, and also collects other very valuable information about the population to assist 

planners. It is extremely important that censuses are carried out efficiently and with the 

full cooperation of the people so that the data are as reliable as possible. Although the 

census collects information about individuals, personal details are always kept 

confidential, and names are never recorded in census data files. Census analysis is 

concerned with the big picture, not with individual people. 

Analysis of census data and comparison of one census with another provides many key 

population indicators that are vital for planners. This includes: 

• Total population size on census night 

• The number of men and women 

• The number of people of each age 

• Distribution of the population between islands and rural and urban areas 

• The change in numbers and the population growth rate between one census and 

another 

• The average number of children born per woman, and the average ages at which 

women bear children 

• The average number of years people live (which can be used to calculate the 

death rate, the chances of surviving each age and average life expectancy) 

• Estimates of international migration 

• Numbers belonging to each religious faith 

• Education and skills attainment 

• Economic activity, employment and occupational patterns, 



18


• Data to make population projections, and 

• various information about household characteristics and ownership 

A great deal of analysis that can be done with census data, and most census are never 

fully analysed. The reports produced after each census are extremely valuable sources of 

information, however, not just for planners but for many others. For example, census 

data and population projections can help businesses estimate the demand for their 

products, and air and shipping lines estimate how many passengers they can expect. 

2.4.2: Birth and death registration. The other main source of population information 

is registration of births and deaths, by both the Civil Registration Office and the health 

system. Registration tells us the number of births and deaths each year, and, if complete 

and timely, registration data provides more reliable estimates of fertility and mortality. 

Unfortunately, in Kiribati, as in most Pacific countries, registration of births and deaths is 

far from complete and often delayed several years. Moreover, civil registration and health 

system data are not always consistent. 

The census therefore continues to form the basis for estimates of fertility and mortality, 

while registration data help to fill out the picture in between censuses. 

2.4.3: Migration records. Records of international immigration and emigration are a 

valuable source of information about population movements, but they too are not 

reliable unless complete. There is a lot of movement in and out of Kiribati by air and sea. 

Some I-Kiribati citizens, some I-Matang, some staying a few days, some staying a long 

time, some leaving permanently. So it can be difficult and very time consuming to analyse 

international migration data, even if it is fully computerised. In recent years only a few 

hundred I-Kiribati each year have migrated permanently to overseas destinations. This is 

mainly because most countries place strict limits on immigration so there are few 

opportunities for I-Kiribati to emigrate. Migration patterns can therefore increase or 

decrease sharply if there is a change in policy, and it can be difficult to predict future 

patterns. For example, between 2000 and 2005 about 1,000 long-term I-Kiribati residents 

of Nauru returned to Kiribati. 

Discussion: Why do you think many births in Kiribati are not registered? Can you think 

of ways of increasing birth registration in those places where it is low? Suppose Australia 

decided to accept 1,000 permanent immigrants from Kiribati each year, and New 

Zealand decided to accept 500. Can you think of both good and bad consequences this 

policy change would have for Kiribati? 

2.5) Short-term and long-term population indicators 

One of the traps in the interpretation of population information is the difference 

between short-term and long-term indicators (i.e. measures). In fact most population 

indicators can relate to any period of time for which the data are available, short or longterm. 

The trap is that indicators often fluctuate significantly between one year and the 

next, especially in relatively small countries such as Kiribati. For example, according to 

the 2005 census, there were 2,472 people born in 2000 and only 2,005 born in 2003. 



19


Does this mean the birth rate declined sharply between 2000 and 2003? No. As shown in 

Figure Four, the census data show that the number of births in 2005 was 2,403, which is 

almost the same as in 2000 2 

. 

Figure Four: Number of births each year (according to the 2005 census) 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 

So, while we should take note of short-term changes, we should not draw conclusions 

about trends until we have compared indicators over a longer term. Depending on the 

source of data, a short-term increase or decrease in a population indicator such as the 

birth rate could be due to chance, to people rounding off their child's age to the nearest 

year, giving an incorrect birth date or to delayed or incomplete information being sent 

from health centres. For this reason estimates of fertility and mortality rates are usually 

based on three or five year averages, because this helps to smooth out short-term 

fluctuations. When we look at the long-term trend, it does seem that the number of 

births in Kiribati is gradually declining, but perhaps not as sharply as suggested from a 

comparison of 2000 and 2003. 

The important thing to remember is, if there's a promising sign such as a reduction in the 

fertility or mortality rate for a particular year, be happy about it and publicise it as a 

promising sign. But don't assume it's a long-term trend until you have evidence that it 

has been sustained for several years or more. 

So there are a few tools to help you understand and follow changes in population size 

and population indicators. Part Three will now pull together everything we have 

discussed in this handbook. 

2 

These are not exact calendar years. The census figure is actually the number of births in the year 

preceding the census date, in the year before that, and so on. 



20


PART THREE: CONCLUSION: Putting it all together… 

In Part One we looked at the factors that cause population growth rates to change, and 

especially at the factors that influence decisions about family size. Part Two was about 

how we measure and project population growth. So how does all this apply to Kiribati? 

Earlier you were asked which phase of the Demographic Transition applies to Kiribati 

now. Although it doesn't fit any of them exactly, it is probably closest to Phase Three. 

Mortality is lower than in traditional times, but still not very low, while fertility is 

declining slowly. The population has increased substantially since traditional times, and is 

continuing at a steady average of 1.8 per cent per year. It hasn't yet reached the phase of 

little or no growth. Why not? 

Well, although Kiribati has substantial modernisation, and almost half the population are 

living in urban areas, many people are still living a subsistence lifestyle. While some 

families have wage work, good incomes, a high standard of living and high ambitions 

that encourage them to have fewer children, many do not. Many I-Kiribati still see large 

families as an advantage, or maybe they just don't think about family size at all, because 

they still think in traditional ways and are not in the habit of planning for the long-term. 

But now the nation of Kiribati has to face major new challenges from the changing 

world economic situation and climate change. These changes are affecting livelihoods, 

food security and gradual sea-level rise is even starting to eat away at area of land. 

Adaptation to these changes is vital, and improving the balance between population and 

resources is an essential part of that adaptation. As stated at the beginning of this 

handbook, it is difficult to increase natural resources, but it is possible to add value to 

human resources by developing capacity. And as we have seen in the discussion of 

fertility determinants above, when human resources develop and people have 

opportunities to improve their living standards and economic situation, they tend to want 

fewer children. 

This improves the population and resources balance in two ways. On the one hand 

human resources become more productive, while on the other hand the population 

growth rate slows. 

The Kiribati Population Policy Implementation Strategy is designed to improve the 

balance between population and resources in exactly this way. It promotes the 

development of human resources and employment, while at the same time encouraging 

people to take a long-term view of their future. This includes having only the number of 

children they can afford to support, and educate until they can find a sustainable 

livelihood. It will require a lot of time and effort before everyone in Kiribati understands 

the importance of this adaptation, and even longer before everyone starts to act in a way 

that makes it happen. But, if properly implemented, these strategies will play a major part 

in achieving sustainability and a bright and prosperous future for Kiribati. 



21

'Population' simply means 'the people'. We 

usually say 'population' instead of 'the people' 

when we talk about things like 

• The total number in the country 

• How fast that number is growing 

• Distribution across the country 

• The numbers of males and females 

• The numbers in each age group 

Population and living standards 

Population size and the balance between 

population and resources are the major 

determinants of living standards. 

Resources are the wealth of the nation, 

including natural resources, such as the land, 

coconut trees and fish, and human capacity, 

skills and knowledge. 

If resources are shared among a small 

population a high standard of living is possible 

If the same resources are shared among a 

larger population, living standards tend to be 

lower. 

As population increases, living standards tend 

to decline unless resources also increase. 

This is true for each family as well as for the 

whole country 

Which family will get the biggest share per 

person from their $100? 

How can Kiribati improve its balance 

between population and resources? 

There are three main ways: 

• Human resource development (more 

education, more skills, more cash 

earning opportunities) 

• Use human skills to increase the value 

of natural resources like fish and 

coconuts 

• Slow the population growth rate 

(promote a smaller family size) 

The best strategy is a combination of all three, 

because they are linked: 

Investing in education to develop human 

resources, especially trade skills, gives the 

population more capacity to earn cash and add 

value to natural resources. This helps to slow 

population growth because smaller families are 

an advantage when livelihoods come mainly 

from cash earnings. 

The Kiribati Population Policy 

Implementation Strategy uses this approach 

to improve living standards and slow the 

population growth rate

What do I need to know 

about population? 

Kiribati Population Implementation Strategy 

2009 

Some useful facts about the Kiribati 

population 1 

: 

Total population, 1969 = 48,000 

Total population, 2009 = 100,000 

Average increase 

each year = 1.8 % 

Population doubling time 

(at 1.8% per year) = 39 years 

Males = 49.3 % 

Females = 50.7 % 

Age groups: 

Younger than 15 years = 37 % 

Less than 21 years =50% 

Working age (15-59) = 58% 

Past working age 

(55 years and over) = 5 % 

Population living in 

South Tarawa = 44 % 

Population living in 

Line Islands = 6 % 

Population living on 

other Outer Islands = 50 % 

1 Estimates based on 2005 census report 

Why does Kiribati need a population 

strategy as soon as possible? 

The World is changing. International economic 

and financial systems are becoming unstable. 

The climate is becoming warmer and 

substantial sea level rise is predicted. Some i- 

Kiribati may need to look for jobs and/or new 

homes in other countries. 

I-Kiribati need to be well prepared with skills to 

help them find work, at home or overseas. 

Smaller families and slower population growth 

make it easier to adapt to new conditions and 

climate change. 

Some I-Kiribati, in both South Tarawa and the 

outer islands, do not have safe water, 

adequate sanitation or a good standard of 

health. Many do not have the right skills to find 

wage employment. 

Developing skills and upgrading services 

across the entire country would encourage 

people to remain or resettle in the outer islands, 

including Kiritimati. This would increase cash 

earning opportunities outside South Tarawa. 

Spreading the population more evenly would 

improve living standards in both South Tarawa 

and the outer islands.

Annex 3.a: JONES: Discussion Paper - Squatters in Kiritimati Island 

Squatters in Kiritimati Island 

Issues, Causes and Strategic Directions 

Squatter housing on the edge of Poland, a small copra cutting village on the south west peninsula 

of Kiritimati Island. 

March, 2009 

TA 4878 - KIR: Integrated Land and Population Program on Kiritimati Island 

(Population Component)

Discussion Paper - Squatters in Kiritimati Island 

Table of Contents 

1. Objectives of the Paper 

2. What is a Squatter? 

3. The Number and Location of Squatters in Kiritimati Island 

4. Results of the Squatter Survey, 2008 

5. Summary of the Survey Findings 

6. The Causes of Squatting 

7. The Impacts of Squatting 

8. Option for Management 

TA 4878 - KIR: Integrated Land and Population Program on Kiritimati Island (Population) 

2


The objectives of this discussion paper are to; 


(i) assess the condition and characteristics of squatters living on Kiritimati Island, 

including understanding why drives households to illegally occupy State lands. 

(ii) identify options to address the growing squatter problem on Kiritimati Island, and 

(iii) recommend directions for the future management of squatters. 1 

2. What is a Squatter? 

In the Kiritimati Island context, squatter refers to a household who is living illegally on State 

lands. Illegal refers to a household who has not been issued formal permission to reside and 

develop State lands. Such permission could have been given in the form of a lease, the issue of 

freehold land or a licence to cut copra. Lease and freehold land tenure can be conferred under the 

provisions of the State Lands Act, 2001. 

A main driver of squatting has been the issue of licences to cut copra. The copra licences were 

issued jointly by the Wildlife Unit of the Environment and Conservation Division, MELAD, in 

London, as well as the Land Management Division, Kiritimati Island (LMDK). The legal basis 

of these licences is uncertain and cannot be ascertained from either LMDK or the Wildlife Unit. 

However, a direction from the Minster in late 2008 has resulted in no more licences being issued 

given the concern on the extent of squatters (te ka kai) and the environmental damage now being 

caused. This direction was reaffirmed during the MELAD Ministerial Tour to Kiritimati Island in 

early March, 2009. 

The copra licences as issued were for 3 months at a cost of $30 for households who wish to live 

in the bush to cut copra. Weekend or daily access to cut copra requires no permit or permission. 

It is estimated by the Wildlife Unit that approximately 50% of copra cutters issued with licences 

(now well expired) are squatters, that is, they have resided in the bush as over stayers. Under the 

licence conditions, copra cutters are supposed to vacate the site at the end of 3 months and have 

to wait one month before reapplying. The number of applicants applying to the Wildlife Unit for 

1 

The fieldwork for this paper was undertaken in July 2008, and completed after discussion with stakeholders in 

March, 2009. 


3


a copra licence declined in 2008, one reason being that the copra cutters are staying on as 

squatters at the expiry of their lease and not renewing. 

2. The Number and Location of Squatters in Kiritimati Island 

As at July, 2008, there were 48 squatter families in Kiritimati Island, comprising 19 squatters in 

the villages (40%) and 29 squatters in the bush (60%). 2 A recount of squatters was done at the 

beginning of March, 2009, to gauge the extent of change. 3 As at the 6 th 

March, 2009, there were 

now 67 squatter families, comprising 64 in the bush and 3 in the villages. Thus, over an 8 month 

period, there had been an increase of nearly 40% of squatters. 

The location of squatters can be divided into two broad categories, namely, village or bush. 

Village refers to the planned settlements of London, Tennessee, Tabwakea, Main Camp, Banana 

and Poland where land has been leased or allocated as freehold. Squatters have taken up land 

mainly in the villages of Banana and Poland, and to a lesser extent Tabwakea. The villages of 

Banana and Poland are furthest removed from the headquarters of Government. With the 

exception of several agricultural leases allocated between Banana and Man Camp, the villages 

are surrounded by State lands that have not been alienated. Bush refers to all the areas outside 

the villages in Kiritimati Island, and specifically, the former copra plantations. These copra 

plantations are numbered numerically in the northern peninsula area (1 to 7) including those near 

the Decca and Four Wells water reserves on the lagoon side. To the south of Banana, as well as 

near Poland and the New Zealand airstrip, there are located another 7 plantations, all having 

4 

specific names. It is these plantations which are targeted by the population including squatters 

for the cutting of copra. The only non copra based squatter households in the bush are the pet 

fish divers located to the southeast near the Korean Wreck. 

Previous attempts at dealing with squatters have focused on asking them formally and informally 

to leave and issuing them with notices to vacate. However, none of these actions have ever 

proceeded to court as a direction had been issued by the responsible Ministry not to proceed. 

2 Best estimate after field research by LMDK, July, 2008 and February, 2009.. 

3 Undertaken for the Population Component of the ADB TA as well as to provide an up to date figure for the 

MELAD Ministerial Tour which visited Kiritimati Island, beginning of March, 2009. 

4 Sourced from Wildlife Unit, Conservation and Environment Division, MELAD, London. 


4




4. Results of the Squatter Survey, 2008 


A survey of 25 squatter households was undertaken in the week Monday 30 June, to 4 July, 

2008. The survey represents some 52% of squatters in Kiritimati Island as counted by the 

LMDK and provides a ‘snapshot’ of conditions, concerns and lifestyle characteristics of 

squatters. The survey was pre-tested on Friday 27 June, 2008, and fine tuned. A copy of the 

questionnaire is provided as Annex 1. Some 11 squatters were interviewed in the villages and 14 

squatters interviewed in the bush. Some 19 of those interviewed (76%) were the head of the 

household while 6 were the wife of the husband who was head of the household (22%). The 

total number of people living in the households was 108 people which equates to a household of 

size of approximately 4.3 per household here. This lower than average household size may be 

explained by the fact that most squatters have moved from a larger family group to the village or 

bush. The squatters are more akin to a nuclear group rather than an extended family. 

* Question 1; Home Island (Birthplace) 

Number 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Home Island - Birthplace 

Rabi Tarawa Other Gilbert 

Group 

Home Island 

Kiritimati Fanning 

Of the 25 respondents, some 16% were from Tarawa and 64% were from other islands in the 

Gilbert Groups. Thus, the total from the Gilbert Group was 80%. Only 3 respondents or 12% of 

squatters were from Kiritimati Island. In migration is high with 88% of squatters on Kiritimati 

Island being born elsewhere. 




* Question 2: Place of residence immediately before coming to Kiritimati Island 

Of the 23 respondents who had moved to Kiritimati Island - 2 respondents indicated they have 

always been living here - 21 or 91% said they were living in Tarawa before coming to Kiritimati 

Island. The other 2 were living in Fiji and Teeraina before relocating to Kiritimati Island. 

Number 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Place of Residence before Kiritimati Island 

Tarawa Teeraina 

Location 

Fiji 

* Question 3: List of places of residence before the last place of residence 

The places of residence include islands in the Gilbert Group, the Line and Phoenix Islands as 

well as Fiji. The average number of locations before the last place of residence was 5.3. If one 

excludes the 3 households who lived in over 10 locations, the average is 4.3 


7

Number 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 


Place of Residence before Last Residence 

* Question 4: How long have you lived here? 

up to 5 locations 6-10 locations 11-12 locations 

Range of Locations 

Of the 23 respondents, the majority of squatters had lived in their current location for less than 

one year. The two squatters that had lived in one location for 17 and 20 years respectively were 

in Banana. If one excludes these two squatters, the average length of time the squatters have been 

in their current location is 1.7 years. 

Number of Years 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Length of Time in Current Location 

up to 1 year 2 to 5 years 

Range 

6 to 20 years 

* Question 5: Where else in Kiritimati have you lived besides this place? 

In addition to their current place of residence, squatters having lived on average in 2.4 other 

locations in the village or bush in Kiritimati Island. Only 2 out of 25 respondents had been in the 

same location (Banana). Some 9 squatters (36%) had been in 3 locations before the current place 

of squatting. 


8

Number 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 


Other Locations of Residence in KI besides 

Current Place 

same 

location 

1 location 2 locations 3 locations 4 locations 5 locations 


9 

Range 

* Question 6 (a): Why did you choose to live in the village rather than bush? 

Some 11 of the 25 squatters were living in the villages. The reasons for residing in the village 

rather than bush were diverse including: (i) social interaction - access to news, play games, (ii) 

earn money, (iii) family in the village, (iv) close to school, (v) no tools for copra and (vi) easy to 

fulfil needs. 

Number 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

Easy to get 

needs 

Main reasons for squatting in village 

Close to 

schools 

Social 

interaction 

Reasons 

Family ties Other 

* Question 6(b): Why did you choose to live in the bush rather than village?


Some 14 of the 25 squatters were residing in the bush. The overwhelming reason for squatting in 

the bush instead of the village was the need cash and money (71%) followed by (i) easier to meet 

needs in bush rather than village, (ii) not working, and (iii) to serve the family. 

Number 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Main reasons for squatting in bush 

Not working Serve family Easier to meet 

needs 

Reasons 

* Question 7 (a): Is it easy to get medical treatment for the family? 


10 

Need cash and 

monery 

While 2 out of the 25 respondents said they do not use the formal clinics or health center in 

London. The remainder (92%) said it was easy to get medical treatment. 

Number 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Easy to get Medical Treatment? 

Don’t use Yes 

Response 

* Question 7(b): Where do you go for medical treatment?


There is a strong relationship between place of squatting and use of clinics. Most squatters use 

the clinics in the village where they reside or the closest village to the bush where they are 

squatting. Of the 23 respondents, 7 used the clinic in Banana, 8 used the clinic in Tabwakea, 3 

used the London Health Center and 5 used a mix of clinics as well as the Health Center. 

Number 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Location of Medical Treatment 

Banana clinic Tabwakea clinic London Health 

Center 

Clinics and Health Center Used 

* Question 8: Is it easy for children to get to school? 


11 

Mix if clinic - HC 

Some 20 out of the 25 squatters had school children. One was unsure as to ease of access while 

the remaining 19 (95%) said access to school was not a constraint.

Number 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 


Ease of Access to Schools 

* Question 9(a): Is it easy for you to earn cash? 

unsure no school age children easy to get to school 

Results 

Of the 25 respondents, 5 (20%) indicated it was easy to earn cash and 20 (80%) indicated it 

wasn’t. Of the 5 that said it was easy to earn cash, 4 of these households were located in the 

villages (Banana and Tennessee). 

Number of 

Respondents 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Easy to Earn Cash 

Yes No 

Response 

* Question 9(b): How does your family earn cash? 


12


There were a total of 38 responses with the two dominant ways of earning money being cutting 

of copra (45%) and fishing (24%). Other ways of earning cash included selling of handicrafts, 

casual and contract work such as working when the ship comes in at the Kiribati Port Authority, 

making toddy and other including pet fish diving and cash from other family members in full 

time employment. 

Number of Respondents 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Casual 

contract 

work 

Main Ways of Earning Cash 

Cutting 

copra 

Fishing Making 

toddy 

Response 


13 

Selling 

crafts 

Other 

* Question 10(a and b)); Did your family apply for land under the Phase 1 CASL land 

release and were you successful or unsuccessful? 

Only six respondents (24%) applied for land under the Phase 1 land release. Of the six 

respondents, 4 (66%) were successful and 2 (33%) unsuccessful. 

Number of 

Respondents 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Phase 1 CASL Land Release 

Apllied Not Applied Successful Unsuccessful 

Result


* Question 10 (c): Why did you not apply for land under the CASL land release? 

There were 19 responses with a range of reasons given as to why they did not apply. The main 

reason was not being eligible (such as under 25 years of age), just arrived in Kiritimati Island, 

some already have an existing lease in Kiritimati Island and some had no plans as yet. Other 

responses included the mother or grandmother had applied and one respondent was just happy to 

stay as a squatter. 

Number 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Why household did not apply for land in the 

CASL land release? 

Have 

existing 

lease 

Not eligible No plans Just arrived Other 

Response 

* Question 11: Would you apply for land if you got another opportunity? 

There were 22 responses with 18 (82%) indicating they would apply and 4 (18%) indicating they 

would not. The reason for the four not reapplying was that they had applied and anticipated 

being allocated land. 

Number 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Would you reapply for land? 

Yes No 

Response 


14


* Question 12(a): What is the best thing about living here? 

There were a range of responses (31) with the most prominent being ease of access to food 

(copra and fish - 52%) followed by the location being quite with no people, plenty of free time 

and money easy to get. 

Number 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Easy to get 

food 

Best thing about squatting ? 

Quiet - no 

people 

Free time Money easy 

to get 

Response 

* Question 12(b): What is the worst thing about living here? 

TA 4878 - KIR: Integrated Land and Population Response Program on Kiritimati Island (Population) 

15 

Other 

There were 28 responses with the half the responses being that there was nothing wrong with 

living in their current location as a squatter (50%). Some 21% complained of youth and people 

generally drinking, while 11% complained of noise (likely from drinking). Other responses 

included no toilet, flies, difficulty of transport and limited vegetables. 

Number 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Worst thing about living here? 

Nothing People - youth 

drnking 

Noise Other

5. Summary of the Survey Findings 


There are a number of findings that can be derived from the survey. In summary, these are; 

• the squatters are a highly mobile group, being overwhelmingly non Kiritimati Island 

born residents. Only 12% of squatters nominated Kiritimati Island as their birthplace 

while 80% had come from the Gilbert Group. Some 91% of squatters said they were 

living in Tarawa before coming to Kiritimati Island. 

• the average number of locations lived in prior to coming to Kiritimati Island was 5.3 and 

excluding three households who had lived in over ten locations, the average was 4.3 

locations. Prior places of residence include islands in the Gilbert Group, Line and 

Phoenix Islands as well as Fiji. The average length of time in their current location in 

Kiritimati Island was 1.7 years. 

• squatters had lived on average in 2.4 other locations in Kiritimati Island prior to their 

current location. Whether such residence was as a squatter or as part of a household on 

leasehold or freehold land, is unclear. All of the above findings are significant as they 

point towards a highly mobile and itinerant group of people who migrate within Kiribati 

as well as move within Kiritimati Island. 

• squatters reside in the village and bush for different motives. In the village the main 

drivers are family connections, the need for social interaction as well access to schools 

and other needs. In the bush, the main overwhelming driver is the need for employment 

in copra so as to generate cash and money (71%). Those squatting in the bush saw it 

easier to meet their needs by not living in the village. 

• access to medical treatment by squatters including use of health clinics and London 

Health Center was not seen as a problem. Some 92% said it was easy to access to 

medical treatment while access to schools (95%) was also not seen as problematic. Thus, 

basic services such as medical services and schools are not seen as limiting factors by 

squatters in their location. 

• while working to earn cash and money is not seen as easy, the two dominant ways of 

earning money come from copra (45%) and fishing (24%). Thus, some 69% rely directly 

on exploitation of the natural resource for household monetisation. 


16


• few squatters (24%) applied for land under the CASL Phase 1 release. There was range 

of reason given including not being eligible to apply, respondents having just arrived in 

Kiritimati Island, squatters already having leases and some being unsure of their future 

plans. Some 82% of squatters said they would apply for land if another land release 

phase was announced, suggesting security of land tenure was an aspiration for many. 

• In terms of living in their current location, the overwhelming factor that squatters liked 

was ease of access to food (52%). When asked what the worst thing about living in the 

current location, 50% said there was nothing wrong. Thus, there is a perception by half 

of the squatters surveyed that the quality life that squatting offers in the bush and village 

is satisfactory and provides no constraint. 

6. The Causes of Squatting 

The survey results indicate that the bulk of squatters are from the Gilbert Group. Residents from 

Kiritimati Island represent only a small number of those who are squatting in the villages and 

bush. When in migrants arrive in Kiritimati Island, primarily by ship, they reside with relatives 

or friends, occupy private or government housing, or stay in a church compound area. These 

settlers are prominent in the Baha’i in Banana, Church of Christ in Tabwakea and the Catholic 

Church compound in London, for example. These accommodation arrangements provide a 

safety valve for families who do not have access to their own land, the land of relatives or friends 

or access to Government and private housing. Families do not squat on immediate arrival in 

Kiritimati Island, the process being a step by step movement from one location to another so as 

to best meet family needs at the time. Civil servants who have retired, left their government 

housing and have not been able to get land on Kiritimati Island and are now squatting in village 

areas, provide one example of the range of squatters living on Kiritimati Island. . 

The survey results show that there are two types of squatter groups in Kiritimati Island - those 

who prefer to reside in the village and those who reside in the bush. Those wanting to live in the 

village have different needs and expectations from those in the bush and vice versa. Those 

squatting in the village have not been able to get land through the formal land process and are not 

prepared to wait the many years that this process may take. Those living in the bush seek ready 

access to copra so as to generate cash and income. The trigger for a family to move from a 

household and squat comes from three main drivers: 


17


• social issues and concerns such as disagreement or argument with the household or 

church, moving to be close to another relative, the need to have better access to food such 

as fish and coconut, completion of government work contract and loss of housing, etc, 

• economic drivers, namely, the need to cut copra so as to obtain money. There are also 

the residents who squat so they have access to the better pet fish diving sites. These were 

originally based in the villages but as the pet fish resource has declined, the better fish 

sites are now accessed from areas outside the village. For those living in the bush, 

cutting copra and generating cash is the overwhelming driver. 

• environmental concerns such as overcrowding, less noise, less people, etc. 

From the survey, the first two triggers emerge as the main drivers for squatting although in 

reality it is a combination of all and primarily the social and economic concerns. 

In addition to the above, there are a number of other factors which create a favourable enabling 

environment which assists in facilitating the process of squatting in Kiritimati Island. These are; 

• the reality that lands to be occupied are State lands and as such, the public have some 

right to share the resources of these ‘public’ lands, 

• the reluctance by the land owner (the State) to take eviction action against those who are 

squatters. Squatters would be far less likely to squat without permission on lands that are 

family or traditional lands, as the consequences could be severe, 

• the small amount of land that is periodically released, with families knowing that demand 

for land far outstrip supply. Eligibility criteria has to be met and the outcome is very 

much uncertain. 

• the slowness and erratic nature of the land allocation process to date. In other words, 

land is not readily available as in a ‘normal’ market where there is buying or leasing of 

land and there is reasonable supply in advance of demand. The land market in Kiritimati 

Island is constrained and heavily regulated, with land being more readily available 

through the informal system (such as squatting) so as to meet immediate day to day needs 

rather than complying with a long term uncertain formal process. 

Figure 1 outlines a conceptual approach to understanding the process of squatting in Kiritimati 

Island. 


18


Figure 1: Conceptual Approach to Understanding the Process of Squatting in Kiritimati Island 

Kiritimati 

Island 

residents 

Social Drivers 

* family and 

household disputes 

* need for easy 

access to natural 

resources for food 

In migration primarily 

from the Gilbert Group 

Migrants reside with 

relatives, friends, use church 

compounds-maneabas 

Triggers for squatting - social, 

economic and environmental drivers to 

meet day to day and short term needs 

Economic 

Drivers 

* cut copra and 

catch fish to 

generate cash and 

income 

Squat on State lands 

Village lands Bush lands 

Little or no enforcement 


19 

Consider 

options for 

formal land 

supply in 3-4 

years 

Obtain 3 month 

copra license 

Environmental 

Drivers 

* noise 

* overcrowding 

* too many people

7. The Impacts of Squatting 


There is increasing concern by the Wildlife Unit and others such as Agriculture over the increase 

in population numbers generally and specifically the increase in squatters in the bush. Squatters 

are now visibly impacting on the environmental protected areas which exist to the south and 

south east of the island. Many of the copra plantations used by copra cutters including squatters 

exist side by side with the areas designated by legislation as ‘environmental protection’. These 

‘protected areas’ are recognised nationally and globally for their bird and fish life. These latter 

areas are approximately marked on the ground with concrete markers and signs. 

The concerns being expressed on the environmental impacts are wide ranging and include; 

• an increase in traffic including construction of new roads. This includes the new ‘cross 

island’ road constructed by the pet fish squatters in the south east of the island near 

Korean Wreck. The road, now formalised, goes through a protected area. 

• an increase in cats, dogs and pigs, many of which end up as feral in the bush. The cats are 

a recognised danger to a declining bird life including the endangered ground bird species, 

the bokikokiko. 

• the stripping of young nuts from coconut trees, which have not yet reached maturity, 

• the spread of wildfire which has occurred in the past, burning for 2- 3 weeks over 

extensive protected and no protected areas. 

• the permanency of many dwellings including extensive use of local materials and more 

recently permanent materials such as roofing iron, and 

• the extent of non renewable rubbish now being left in the bush, such as tins, rubber and 

plastics. 

8. Options for Management 

The community and the Government have created for themselves a problem of major magnitude. 

Unchecked in migration and population growth, lack of formal employment, lack of access to 

land combined with no or little enforcement, has mean the creation of a squatter problem with 

major consequences. There are only 2 paths of action: 


20


• Take action - this will require strength and commitment which, as history shows, is not 

a key feature of Kiribati community, political life and the machinery of Government. 

Clearly, the causes of the problem need to be foremost and firstly addressed, namely, in 

migration and population growth and access to land. Until this main driver is tackled, the 

symptoms such as squatting with its major environmental consequences will not change. 

Concurrent with the above, is the need for enforcement, albeit done in a manner which 

allows families ‘breathing space’ to return to other families in the villages or move back 

to their home islands. This should be the priority action to be put in place in 

combination with awareness of environmental responsibilities. The reality is that there 

should be access to the bush areas but on a highly regulated short term basis aimed at 

sustaining the islands resources. 

• Take no action - continuation of inaction will mean the issues and concerns will 

continue to escalate. The unique environmental resource will be depleted and continued 

to be ‘mined’. Many in the community are acutely aware of the consequences of no 

action. However, day to day demands for living including food, and lack of collective 

local; vision, mean a longer term view of sustaining and protecting the resource for 

others, is not a realistic consideration in the I-Kiribati socio-cultural order. Therein lies 

the challenge to be confronted. 


21


Annex 1 

KIRITIMATI ISLAND SURVEY OF SQUATTER LIVING CONDITIONS, JULY 2008 

Interview location________________________________________________ 

Date of Interview: ________________Interviewer: ______________________ 

Person Interviewed 

[1] Head of household 

[2] Wife of husband of head 

[3] Other 

Number in household 

Males 16 yrs and over 

Males under 16 years 

Female 16 yrs and over 

Female under 16 yrs 

TOTAL 

Males Females 

*************************************************************** 

Q1 Where is your home island (birthplace)? 


22


_____________________________________________________________ 

Q2 Where were you living immediately before you came to Kiritimati? 

_____________________________________________________________ 

Q3 Where did you live before that? (List all places in reverse order) 

_____________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________ 

Q4 How long have you lived here? 

_____________________________________________________________ 

Q5 Where else have you lived in Kiritimati besides this place? (List all places 

in reverse order, and put (R) after those that were living with relatives) 

_____________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________ 


23


Q6 Why did you choose to live in (village/bush) instead of (village/bush)? 

__________________________________________________________ 

Q7 Is it easy for you to get medical treatment for your family? 

[1] Yes 

[2] No 

Where do you go?________________________________________________ 

Q8 Is it easy for your children to get to school? 

[1] Yes 

[2] No 

Q9 Is it easy for you to earn cash? 

[1] Yes 

[2] No 

How does your family earn cash?____________________________________ 

_______________________________________________________________ 


24


Q10 Did your family apply for land under the recent CASL land release? 

[1] Yes 

[2] No 

---> Successful [1] Unsuccessful [2] 

If no, why not?_________________________________________________ 

____________________________________________________________ 

Q11 Would you consider applying for land if you get another opportunity? 

[1] Yes 

[2] No 

If no, why not?__________________________________________________ 

____________________________________________________________________ 

Q12 What is the best thing about living here? 

____________________________________________________________________ 

Q12 What is the worst thing about living here? 

____________________________________________________________________ 


25

Q13 Anything else you would like to say? 


____________________________________________________________________ 


26

Annex 3.b: JONES: Discussion Paper - Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island 

A Review and Analysis of Settlement and Resettlement 

Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island 

February, 2009 



Discussion Paper - Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island 


Section A - Existing Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Polices for Kiritimati Island 


2. The Uniqueness of Land on Kiritimati Island 

3. Population and Migration 

4. Future Population Estimates 

5. Settlement History 

6. Village Settlement Patterns 

7. Institutional Arrangements 

8. Legislative Framework for Settlement and Resettlement Planning 

9. Arrangements for Land Tenure 

10. Physical Framework Plans for the Growth of Kiritimati Island 

11. Settlement and Resettlement Policy 

12. Characteristics of the New Settlers 

13. New Forms of Villages 

14. Land Allocation Policy Before 2005 

15. Land Allocation Targets and Process Post 2005 

16. Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL) 

17. Infrastructure Needs for the Phase 1 222 Plot Release, 2008 

18. Environmental Decline 

19. Limits to Settlement Growth 

Section B – Recommendations for Future Settlement and Resettlement on Kiritimati Island 


2


Section A - Existing Settlement and Resettlement Plans and Polices 


The objectives of this discussion paper are to; 

(i) identify and assess Governments existing settlement and resettlement plans and 

polices for Kiritimati Island, and 

(ii) outline recommendations to guide the future settlement and resettlement of 


In this paper, settlement refers to the varying concentrations and patterns of housing, business 

and other uses and functions including villages and towns which arise from population, 

economic and social change. Settlements may increase in size due to population growth and 

other factors, or decreasing in size and function due to economic change, for example. 

Resettlement is the movement from one location to another and maybe voluntary or 

involuntary. Voluntary resettlement is when people or households decide on their own 

volition to move, such as from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island. Involuntary resettlement is 

when people are forced to move from one settlement to another as a result of development or a 

natural disaster such as construction of an airport runway, protection of a public water reserve or 

widening of a major road. For both voluntary and involuntary settlements, Governments and 

other organisations may or may not assist in the process. 

2. The Uniqueness of Land on Kiritimati Island 

Kiritimati Island is located in the isolated Line Islands to the east of Kiribati. The Line and 

Phoenix Islands are unique in Kiribati in that all of the islands were not historically part of 

Kiribati. It was not until immediately after political independence in 1979 that they formally 

became a part of the country having being ceded by the Government of the United of States of 

America to the Government of Kiribati under the Treaty of Friendship. (Tabuaeran - Fanning 

Island - to the north of Kiritimati Island was purchased from Burns Philp Ltd after the country 

gained political independence) 

As a result, all of the land in this group as acquired is State owned land. The exceptions to this 

are Government approved one acre freehold tittles sold by Government to individuals chosen by 

their own Island Councils in the Gilbert Group for Tabuaeran and Teeraina (Washington) 

Islands. This was carried out under what is perhaps the largest resettlement scheme in the 


3


Pacific in the 1980s. More recently, the Government granted limited freehold tittles on Kiritimati 

Island in what is now known as Tabwakea village in the 1990s. 1 The latter was allocated to long 

term I-Kiribati copra workers who had been employed by the Burns Philp Company on the 

plantations on Kiritimati Island. 

Consequently, with the exception of first and second generation children born on these islands, 

there is no-one on the Line and Phoenix islands including Kiritimati Island who can truly say 

their families are from those islands compared to say someone from Abaiang, Tarawa or other 

islands in the Gilbert Group. Families in these latter islands have land tittles that can be traced 

back to ancestral wars prior to the arrival of the British Colonial Administration and the 

beginnings of land registers that now exist. Because of this, there is no sense of ownership of the 

land except for those with freehold land tittles at the village of Tabwakea. Some residents with 

leases on Kiritimati Island consider the issue of freehold title as improper, seeing them as 

political favours. 

There is therefore a corresponding absence of the traditional notion of individual land owners 

being custodians to the land with an obligation to, not only take from the land but also, tender, 

1 Formerly called ‘Te Riiti’ (Lease Village) as lease agreements were in place prior to the granting of freehold title. 


4


manage and look after the land for future generations as is common in the rest of Kiribati. More 

importantly, there are no traditional social structures revolving around the maneaba and the 

“unimwane” (old wise men) system in Kiritimati as is characteristic of other islands of Kiribati 

in the Gilbert Group (except for South Tarawa). 

3. Population and Migration 

Kiritimati Island was designated by Government as a “closed district” until the mid 1990s when 

it was opened up to I-Kiribati wanting to go there following a court case decision declaring the 

“closed district order” as non-Constitutional. This decision was the beginning of a steady flow of 

people and increase in population on Kiritimati Island (see Table 1). The 2005 population was 

5,115 persons with a growth rate of 7.9% over the previous five years. This compares to a 1.2% 

population growth over the previous 1995-2000 period. At the end of 2008, the population on 

the island was estimated to be approximately 6,443 persons. 

Population (in numbers) 

7,000 

6,000 

5,000 

4,000 

3,000 

2,000 

1,000 

0 

52 

Table 1: Kiritimati Island Population Trends: 1947- 2005 

477 367 

674 

1,265 


5 

1,737 

2,537 

3,225 

3,431 

5,115 

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 

Census year 

The increase in population in Kiritimati Island needs to be understood in the context of 

population changes occurring in wider Kiribati. While the overall growth rate of Kiribati was 

1.8% per annum, islands in the Gilbert Group grew only at a rate of 1.4% while the islands in the 

Line and Phoenix Group grew at rapid rate of 6.7% per annum. Islands that experienced major 

population increases included South Tarawa (3,594), Kiritimati Island (1,684) and Fanning 

Island (782). The proportion of the national population living in the Gilbert Group in 1985 was


96% while by 2005 this had decreased to 90%. The proportion of the population now residing in 

the Line and Phoenix Group is approximately 10% and has increased steadily since 1985 when 

only 4.2% of the population lived there. 

Migration is a key element in the growth of Kiritimati Island. Internal migration within Kiribati 

can be estimated from the following: 

• comparing the 2000 and 2005 intercensal growth rates per island and region, 

• comparing the actual number of people born on certain islands and who still live there, 

and 

• comparing the place of residence in 2000 with the 2005 place of residence. 

Based on the question of where a person lived 5 years ago before the 2000 Census, 72% of the 

population 5 years and older said they had not moved from their current place, while 26% said 

they had lived elsewhere in Kiribati. During the 2000-2005 period, South Tarawa had a net loss 

of people to the Gilbert Group of 360 people and net loss of 495 people to the Line and Phoenix 

Islands. The Gilbert Group excluding South Tarawa had a net loss to the Line and Phoenix 

Islands of 470 persons. Overall, the Line and Phoenix Islands had a net gain from the Gilbert 

Group and South Tarawa of approximately 1,000 persons (965) during the 2000-2005 intercensal 

period. 

In terms of place of birth, less than one third (27,552 persons) of the population were born in 

South Tarawa and 5% of the population in the Line and Phoenix Islands. Almost 82% of the 

residents of the Gilbert group were born there while only 39% of the residents of the Line and 

Phoenix Islands were born at their current place of residence. Thus, some 71% of residents in the 

Line and Phoenix Islands had moved from other locations to settle. Considering the above 

trends, South Tarawa had net gain of 11,149 persons in 2000-2005, mainly from the Gilbert 

Group, while the Line and Phoenix Islands had a net gain of nearly 4,000 persons, also from the 

Gilbert Group. (Table 2) 


6


Table 2: Interregional Migration, Kiribati, 2005 

Island and Region In Migrants Out 

Migrants 


7 

Net 

Migration 

South Tarawa 19,055 7,906 11,149 

Gilbert islands (excluding South 

Tarawa) 

6,931 22,074 -15,143 

Line and Phoenix islands 5,184 1,190 3,944 

Kiribati 31,170 31,170 0 

Source: Kiribati 2006 Census, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2007 

The Kiritimati Island squatter survey (June - July, 2008) undertaken as part of the Population 

Component of TA 4878 - KIR, asked 3 questions that provide further information on the nature 

of migration from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island; (i) where is your home island?, (ii) where 

did you live before coming to Kiritimati Island?, and (iii) where did you live before that this 

former place of residence? 

As to ones Home Island, only 3 out of 23 respondents (12%) said they were born on Kiritimati 

Island. Some 20% were born on Tarawa and the rest (68%) were distributed over the remaining 

Kiribati islands. In terms of where did you live before Kiritimati Island, 76% said they were from 

Tarawa while the remainder were from islands ranging from Teeraina to Fiji. In terms of where 

did you live before the above island, the average location was 4.48, with 2 respondents having 

lived in 11 places and one respondent having lived in 12 places. The above all adds weight to 

the itinerant nature of many of the migrants to Kiritimati Island. 

4. Future Population Estimates 

There are a number of population scenarios for Kiritimati Island (see Table 3). At the 1995 - 

2000 growth rate, the population of Kiritimati Island will have doubled to approximately 10,000 

persons by around 2020. At the higher 2000-2005 7.9% growth rate, the population will have 

tripled to nearly 17,000 persons by 2020 and will have doubled by 2010. If population continues 

unchecked as current, the higher 2000-2005 7.9% growth rate scenario is likely to be most 

realistic for Kiritimati Island.


Table 3: Population Estimates 1995 to 2020 – Kiribati and Kiritimati Island 

Population Projections 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 

Kiribati 77,658 84,494 92,533 

(a) 1995-2005 growth rate: 

1.75% 100,994 110,230 120,309 

(b) 2000-2005 growth rate: 

1.82% 101,349 111,004 121,579 

South Tarawa 28,350 36,717 40,311 


3.52% 48,068 57,319 68,349 

(b) 2000-2005 growth rate: 

1.87% 44,262 48,600 53,363 



3,225 3,431 5,115 

4.61% 6,441 8,111 10,213 

(b) 2000-2005 growth rate: 7.99% (8 

Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), 2007 

7,515 11,041 16,957 

Based on the above growth rate of 7.9% (8%), the annual estimates of population for Kiritimati 

Island for the period 2006 to 2012 are as follows: 

* 2006: 5,524 * 2007: 5,966 

* 2008: 6,443 * 2009: 6,958 

* 2010: 7,515 * 2011: 8,116 

* 2012: 8,765 * 2013: 9,466 

* 2014: 10,223 * 2015: 11,041 

The above indicates that the population of Kiritimati Island end 2008 was approximately 6,443 

persons, an increase of approximately 1,328 persons since the 2005 Census. In February, 2008, 

as a result of work undertaken by the ADB Water and Sanitation Design (the Growth Centers TA 

Project), the Government agreed that measures needed to be taken to better manage ‘undesirable 

trends in population growth in Kiritimati Island’. The options by which this could be achieved 

are now awaited. 


8


5. Settlement History 

Permanent population commenced on Kiritimati Island in 1882, six years before the atoll was 

formally annexed to Great Britain from the jurisdiction of the United States. Initial settlement on 

Kiritimati Island was for the collection of pearl shells and copra harvesting, but projects were 

uneconomic and occupation had to be abandoned. In the 1911, the island was resettled and 

development was limited to harvesting the existing coconut plantations and accommodating 

copra cutters. During the Second World War, Kiritimati Island was used as a base for the Allied 

Pacific Air Command, comprising United States and New Zealand forces. A Cantilena seaplane 

used to service a hotel and guest accommodation built in the area known as Paris Flats near 

Poland village after the Second World War. In 1957, the British military used Kiritimati Island to 

conduct hydrogen bomb tests (“Operation Grapple”), subsequently followed by US military 

bomb testing (“Operation Dominic”). By 1962, all testing had been completed and by 1964, the 

extensive military presence had ended. In 1979, the British Government as part of the 

independence agreement gave Kiritimati Island to the newly formed Republic of Kiribati. Some 

1265 people were living on Kiritimati Island at that time, harvesting copra and exporting lobster 

and fish. Government policy restricted entry to Kiritimati Island through a permit system until 

late 1994 when Government decided to focus on the Line Islands, specifically Tabuaeran and 

Teeraina Islands, as growth islands for the increasingly overcrowded islands to the west such as 

South Tarawa. These islands were promoted for formal resettlement on the basis of their 

subsistence affluence. 

As a result of the hydrogen bomb testing, Kiritimati Island has two international sized airports, 

both constructed by the British. Only one is currently operational, Cassidy Airport. There is an 

extensive network of sealed road infrastructure in the northern peninsula, a legacy of the British 

occupation. Because of its historical origins, names of major population centers in Kiritimati are 

not typical Kiribati names. Examples are Ronton (London), Baeriti (Paris), Boran (Poland) 

Banana, Bamboo, Main Camp (named from where the British military camp had it headquarters 

during the testing days). Kiritimati Island is therefore not typical of the islands in Kiribati and is 

seen as a place to get additional land. Kiritimati Island is over three thousand kilometres east 

from Tarawa just 2degrees north of the equator. In the new millennium, the only way to get to 

Kiritimati Island by air from Tarawa is to go through Hawaii, and thus I-Kiribati travelling to 

Kiritimati Island required an American visa. With the recent introduction of the Air Pacific direct 

flight from Nadi to Kiritimati Island in 2006, one has to travel to Fiji first to get to Kiritimati 

Island. There is no direct air connection from Tarawa to Kiritimati Island. 


9


6. Village Settlement Patterns 

Kiritimati Island has an area of 388 km 2 or 53% of the total land area of Kiribati (726 km 2 ). If 

all the land on the islands in the Gilbert Group were considered as one (285 km 2 ), they would 

comprise only 75% of the area of Kiritimati Island. Approximately one third of Kiritimati Island 

is salt flats, subject to tidal inundation, and is uninhabitable for human occupation. The area of 

the main lagoon is 160 km 2 

. Unlike the small atolls in the Gilbert Group such as the islets 

comprising South Tarawa, the land varies from 1 to 4 metres above mean sea level, with the 

highest point (“Joe’s Hill”) being 13 metres above sea level. 

There were initially three villages in Kiritimati Island, namely, London, Poland and Banana. 

These villages have been expanded to include London to Tennessee, Tabwakea, Main Camp, 

Banana and Poland. The village of Poland is in southern peninsula while the remaining areas are 

within the northern peninsula. Tennessee village is located between London and Tabwakea and 

is part of the wider London-Tabwakea growth corridor. Approximately 75% of all housing in 

Kiritimati Island is located in the contiguous ‘urban’ area in the London to Tabwakea corridor. 

Excluding Poland village to the south, development is primarily contained in what is referred to 

as the northern peninsula corridor - that is, from Banana to London and vice versa. Except for 

the pet fish squatter housing, there are no settlements on the expansive south-eastern portion of 

the island. The main development activities of the island including population growth, housing, 

social and economic activities are focused in London -Tennessee - Tabwakea corridor. London 

is the main Government administrative center and with Banana, forms the main locations for 

government housing. Main Camp consists of the Captain Cook Hotel and associated government 

housing while Poland consists of a school, a clinic, 25 government houses, churches and 

maneabas. Due to the location of the existing Banana village and the impact of human and 

animal activities on the adjoining water lens, Government agreed in 2001 that no new 

development should occur in Banana and that a new village be commenced on a site to the north 

west of Main Camp (referred to as New Banana). Two new church buildings have commenced 

construction on the New Banana site. 

Population by village in 2000 - 2005 is shown in Table 4. Population densities in Kiritimati 

Island are low and are in the order 13 persons per km 2 . Average household size is 6.7 persons 

per household compared to 7.7 persons per household in South Tarawa. 2 

2 Source: 2005 Census 


10


Table 4: Population by Village, Kiritimati Island, 2000-2005 

Village 2000 Census 2005 Census 

London - Tennessee 1465 1829 

Tabwakea 976 1881 

Banana – Main Camp 707 1170 

Poland 283 235 

Total Kiritimati Island 3,431 5,115 

Source: Census 2000 and 2005 

7. Institutional Arrangements 

There are a number of key stakeholder’s involved in the planning and development of Kiritimati 

Island. These comprise central government; local government; committees (boards) established 

via legislation, and advisory committees. There are six main groups; 

• the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD) under 

which LMDK sits and who is responsible for implementing the release of lands under the 

State Lands Act. This includes implementing land use plans and polices, undertaking land 

survey and land administration. 3 

MELAD is responsible for the planning and releasing 

of State lands under the current 2008 Phase 1 and proposed Phase 2 release. For the 

proposed Phase 2 release for applicants from South Tarawa, MELAD will coordinate the 

process in South Tarawa. This will include liaising with the 2 local councils (Betio Town 

Council and Teinanano Urban Council), agreeing the priority applicants, confirming the 

criteria, establishing the Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL), and 

monitoring the cadastral survey in Kiritimati Island. 

• the Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development (MLPID) who is responsible of 

overall economic, social and environmental planning and development of Kiritimati 

Island. These include infrastructure and service coordination and provision. While the 

MLPID has no statutory base setting out its planning functions and enabling it to formally 

coordinate with other Ministries, it is accepted by all as the overarching island planner 

3 Such as the lease contracts and collection of leasehold rent. 


11


and coordinator. All major settlement and resettlement settlement decisions are done 

jointly in consultation with the MLPID. 

• the Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board (KLLPB) who is responsible for undertaking 

physical land use planning derived from powers set down in the (LPA), 1977. The LPA 

provides for the designation of islands and parts thereof for land use planning purposes 

including the establishment of a local land planning board (LLPB) to undertake land use 

planning. The LMDK provides the secretarial services to the KLLPB. The KLLPB 

comprises a range of cross sector groups representing both government, such as the 

Ministry of Commerce, Tourism, KUC, and the community. The Secretary for the 

MLPID is the chairperson of the KLLPB. 

• the CASL, a screening and selection committee agreed to by Cabinet in 2005. It was 

established in Kiritimati Island in 2007 to evaluate applications for land from Kiritimati 

Island residents against criteria as set and agreed by Cabinet. The key role of CASL is to 

recommend the preferred applicants as assessed by CASL to Cabinet. 

• the Kiritimati Urban Council (KUC) who is responsible for solid waste disposal in the 

Government and non Government villages. There are eight councillors from the three 

main village areas. The KUC was only recently established in 2004 and is struggling to 

find to find its legitimacy with the population, aside from selective and erratic waste 

disposal collection. 

• Cabinet who has overarching responsibility for setting the land targets and the land tenure 

type, agreeing the priority groups, confirming the criteria and agreeing the recommended 

list of preferred applicants including any objections received. All national and Kiritimati 

Island development policy and plans must ultimately come from Cabinet. 

For the resettlement to Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands, the coordination was undertaken by the 

former Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development (MHARD) based in Tarawa. MHARD 

coordinated with island councils the selection of applicants, organised the land survey, shipping, 

issue of a deed licence and ensured accommodation in maneabas when settlers first arrived. A 

specific Resettlement Position existed to coordinate and implement the process. When land 

management was annexed to the new MELAD in 2003 and MHARD was renamed and refocused 

to the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs (MISA), MELAD took the lead role in the 

settlement process. This was based on its role as mandated in the State Lands Act of planning 


12


and managing the alienation of State Lands in Kiritimati, Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands, as 

agreed from time to time by Cabinet. 

Institutionally, there is no community and government approved ‘whole of island’ integrated 

plan’ for Kiritimati Island which identifies an overall vision for settlement, key development 

directions, program works, priority project needs, etc, at the island level. Settlement and 

resettlement is seen as being much about securing land and land only. Households are left to 

their own devices to survive. There are no mechanisms to translate the overarching national 

development plan, 2008-2011, into a local reality with key agencies who are working in 

Kiritimati Island. The result is that the overarching policy directions for Kiritimati Island are not 

systematically integrated into Ministry policy activities, and hence, many Ministries tend to do 

‘their own thing’. Furthermore, because individual Ministry budgets are not linked to an overall 

island development vision such as a Cabinet ‘whole of island plan’ for Kiritimati Island, budgets 

are prepared in isolation to overall island needs and priorities. 

8. Legislative Framework for Settlement and Resettlement Planning 

Planning and managing settlement growth on Kiritimati Island falls under the auspices of two 

main pieces of legislation, namely, the Land Planning Act (Cap. 48, 1977) and the State Lands 

Act, 2001. 4 The Native Lands Act (Cap. 61), which applies to the bulk of native lands in 

Kiribati, is irrelevant on Kiritimati Island as such lands are State lands, that is, Government 

owned. 5 

The purpose of the LPA is to address issues of land use planning, development control and 

assessment on all forms of land tenure in Kiribati, that is, native, freehold and state lands. The 

purpose of the State Lands Act is to establish a strategic framework by which State lands can be 

effectively administered and made available for orderly development including alienation from 

Government to another party as part of Governments settlement plans. The State Lands Act was 

only developed in the early 2000’s to deal with the increasing number of persons migrating from 

the Gilbert Group of islands to the predominantly State lands in Kiritimati, Tabuaeran and 

Teeraina Islands. Migration has been undertaken either as part of the Governments formal 

voluntary resettlement program or by informal movement by families. Given this migration, 

4 Note - The words 'Act' or 'Ordinance' are often used interchangeably in describing I-Kiribati legislation. 

5 The only exception to this is in Tabwakea village. These lands were originally State lands and their tenure 

changed by Government from state leasehold to freehold as part of an arrangement by Government to grant former 

employees of the Atoll Plantation Limited, who worked on Kiritimati Island prior to 1972, land plots. 


13


there has been no framework in which State lands can be alienated, whether for freehold or lease, 

to third parties. This contrasts to the Native Lands Act, which sets out a clear process for the 

protection of native lands including the issue of leases, in Kiribati. 

In addition to the above, a State Pre-Emptive Rights of Purchase Act, 2001, came into effect in 

2002 in regard to freehold lands that were given to settlers under deed or license in Tabuaeran 

and Teeraina Islands during the period 1988 to 1992. The Act provides that these freehold 1 acre 

lands in question (described in a schedule to the Act) shall not be alienated without first 

providing the State (that is, the Government) the opportunity to acquire such lands under 

processes and procedures set out in the Act. The Act was an attempt to reign in freehold lands 

that had been allocated and which Government now realised maybe transferred to anyone and 

commercially exploited in the future. 

The State Lands Act is the key legal instrument that allows Government as owner of State Lands 

to undertake the process of making land available for development. The State Lands Act leaves 

open the question of preferred land tenure for development in an island such as freehold or lease. 

This was to be decided from time to time as Cabinet see fit for the development period in 

question. The State Lands Act requires that the Minister for Environment, Lands and Agriculture 

may by order declare an island or part of it to be available for the disposal of State lands. Before 

recommending on the number of plots to be available for development including plot size 6 and 

any surveys required to be undertaken, a strategic plan is to be prepared for the land in question. 

Importantly, the plan may include a plan prepared under the LPA 1977 and shall include the 

number of plots that may be transferred to a third party in the next ‘strategic planning period’. 7 

The President on the advice of Cabinet must approve the plan. Under the State Lands Act, the 

potential occupants of land will be required to sign a contract, namely, a transfer agreement from 

the Government to the new owners regarding the plot in question, the lease or freehold amount to 

be paid and any other conditions. 

9. Arrangements for Land Tenure 

Land tenure refers to the systems of man made rights and obligations which are attached to the 

use, management and ownership of land. There are four different types of land tenure 

characterising land in Kiritimati Island. State lands dominate 98% of all land in Kiritimati 

6 

This is to be based on the unit of land required to sustain the support for a family including subsistence. 

7 

Although land is being released in Kiritimati Island, no strategic plan as made under the State Lands Act has been 

prepared. 


14


Island, with the remaining three tenure types being land tenure models applied to land as 

alienated from State lands. Aside from State lands, these three land tenure types are; 

(i) freehold land for the Tabwakea village Phase 1 and 2 and 3. Settlers have full title to the 

land over which Government has no control. This land was released in the 1980’s and 

1990’s prior to any legislative framework being in place for the management of State 

lands. These lands can be transferred and sold to anyone, I-Kiribati or foreigner - there are 

no restrictions on sale or transfer. 

(ii) restricted freehold lands for Tabwakea Phase 3, released under the new State Lands Act, 

2001. They are not 100% freehold lands as consent must be obtained from Government 

before transferring the land onto to anyone other than a family member, 

(iii) leasehold tenure on State lands for a 25 renewable year term for business, residential, 

churches, community and Government corporations. 8 

Lessees are supposed to pay an 

annual rent to Government. 

All lands on Kiritimati Island are State owned land and leased, with the exception of 139 half 

acre plots released in Tabwakea village, Phase 1, 2 and 3 which were given to residents as 

9 

freehold or restricted freehold by Government prior to 2000 and in 2003. Leasehold is the form 

of land tenure to be applied to land as allocated for residential use under the current 2008 Phase 1 

and Phase 2 land release. In 2006, a Cabinet paper was prepared outlining the various options 

for land tenure for Kiritimati Island given the planned land releases. Various options for 

freehold, restricted freehold and leasehold were discussed including the benefits and advantages 

of each land tenure arrangement. Restricted freehold was argued as the preferred approach as it 

would mean up front revenue for Government, a stimulus for economic growth and retain a 

degree of control by Government if the land was to be transferred. Importantly, it was a move 

away from the current leasehold regime, with only 25% of lease rent paid and some $450,000 

being in rent arrears in Kiritimati Island. Cabinet adopted the most conservative approach 

restraining economic growth and agreed that 25 year leasehold be the preferred land tenure 

system, despite the major problems of managing a leasehold system. 

8 

It is possible that freehold land in Tabwakea could also be leased in the future. 

9 

These 135 plots were half an acre ($1,000 price) and allocated as follows: 64 in Tabwakea 1, 58 Tabwakea 2 ands 

17 in Tabwakea 3. 


15


10. Physical Framework Plans for the Growth of Kiritimati Island 

There are two types of physical framework plans which are used to guide the physical, social and 

environmental development of Kiritimati Island for the next 10-15 years. These plans are; (i) the 

General Land Use Plan (GLUP) which guides development at the overall strategic island level, 

and (ii) Detailed Land Use Plans (DLUPs) which provide for local detailed plans such as those at 

the village level. Both plans are prepared under the provisions of the LPA, 1978, with the 

DLUPS being a more detailed subset of the overarching GLUP. The draft GLUP for Kiritimati 

Island prepared in 2005 by the LMDK (MELAD) and the KLLPB, including a local exhibition 

process in Kiritimati Island, sets the strategic framework for accommodating future land use and 

development on Kiritimati Island over the next 10 to 15 year period. The development strategy 

embodied in the GLUP includes identification of what village lands should be expanded or 

contained, the need for protection of key water lenses and identification of areas considered to be 

of major environmental and conservation significance to the health of Kiritimati Island in the 

medium to longer term. 

The key features of the draft GLUP (see Figure 1) as agreed were that: 

• development be consolidated into key village areas in the northern peninsula, that is, 

from Cassidy Airport - Banana to London development corridor, 

• Tabwakea North and Main Camp - New Banana be the focus of future main growth 

villages in the northern peninsula corridor, 

• Banana village be contained, with no new development and no new plots released, with 

any relocation (if any) to be on a voluntary basis to Tabwakea or New Banana villages, 

• the isolated Poland village be contained as far as possible, with minimal growth due to its 

isolation, lack of services and potential impact of population on the natural resource, 

• the main freshwater lenses - Decca, Four Wells, Banana, New Zealand Airfield - and 

surrounding buffer areas be protected from all development activity, and 

• that the island outside the northern corroder located to the south and southwest of 

Banana including the main lagoon, be designated as major environmental protection areas 

and managed accordingly. 

The draft GLUP has major implications for the future development pattern for Kiritimati Island 

including what infrastructure needs to be provided by development front and when, such as land, 


16


water and sanitation. In terms of settlement patterns, the draft GLUP identifies that Tabwakea 

North and New Banana will be the main new development villages (both developing as major 

extensions to existing village areas of Tabwakea and Main Camp respectively) and that Poland 

and Banana will be ‘minor’ villages with little or no growth respectively. 

11. Settlement and Resettlement Policy 

The resettlement policy of former Governments has been the main driver for the development on 

Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands to the northwest of Kiritimati Island. 10 Despite documentation 

to the contrary, there have been no formal resettlement programs, voluntary or involuntary, in 

place for Kiritimati Island. Increased voluntary settlement and development on Kiritimati Island 

is essentially a policy of the current Government, as elected in 2003, in line with the National 

Development Strategy (NDS), 2004-2007. Formal resettlement of population to Tabuaeran and 

Teeraina Islands has occurred from the Gilbert Group at intervals of approximately 5 years, the 

last organised resettlement of people being in 2001. Residents accepted under Government 

resettlement programs for Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands received free passage and were 

allocated land plots that had to be purchased from Government. The size of the residential plots 

allocated in Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands was 1 acre, sufficient to support subsistence living. 

Government also provided basic island infrastructure including health clinics, schools, port 

facilities and island councils. 11 

The islands were developed along the lines of ‘social 

development models’, building on their subsistence affluence, rather then being planned and 

developed as economic growth centers. 

In the 1990’s and early 2000 on Kiritimati Island, development via leases had been encouraged 

on the basis that it was for the establishment of business purposes. Any housing was to be a 

minor use associated with the larger business. Land was not to be allocated solely for residential 

use, with the exception being development of land given to the former copra cutters, associated 

workers and their families in Tabwakea. This included a final ‘one off’ release of freehold plots 

and 20 leases for residential use at 

10 Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands are 280 km and 430 km respectively northwest of Kiritimati Island. 

11 The exception for local government has been Kiritimati Island, established only since June, 2004 


17


Figure 1: The General Land Use Plan for Kiritimati Island 




Tabwakea in early 2003. 12 

The size of a plot allocated for a business lease has been a quarter of 

an acre, 25 year lease renewable, while plots allocated for residential development at Tabwakea 

(Stage 1, 2 and 3) phase for the original copra cutters have been half an acre. Given the demand 

for land for residential use and the inability to obtain it except if one fitted the criteria applied to 

former copra cutters, it was not surprising that many people submitted business applications 

when the real intent was to obtain land for the main use of housing. LMDK (2008) estimate some 

75% of leases issued for business are used solely for housing and non business purposes. As a 

consequence of this policy and an inability of residents to secure land tenure, squatters, 

inappropriate uses and overcrowded households exist on Kiritimati Island. The latter includes 

Government housing, as well as freehold and leasehold plots. 

The Government as elected in 2003 changed this restricted policy of ‘business only’ leases in 

Kiritimati Island, with the current land allocation process now allowing for residential use. A 

backlog of applications for business leases now exists, as well as those for residential use. It is 

intended to deal with the business leases once the 2008 Phase 1 residential release of 222 plots is 

underway. 

12. Characteristics of the New Settlers 

Notwithstanding the formal resettlement programs which has operated from time to time in 

Tabuaeran and Teeraina Islands, residents continue to arrive at Kiritimati Island on their own 

initiative, knowing their ability to secure land is uncertain. Because of the distance from the 

Gilbert Group, the relatively expensive passage in fares, both sea 13 

and air, and the strong 

perception of Kiritimati being a land of opportunities, those who take the initiative to travel to 

Kiritimati fall into one of three categories. Firstly, there are those who are Government 

employees who are posted or apply for work in Kiritimati Island. Some Government employees 

stay long term depending on seniority and performance while others are rotated and return to 

Tarawa after 3-4 years. Secondly, there are those with business aspirations that are willing to 

take the risk to travel all the way to build something for their families, sensing opportunities in a 

far away place. Thirdly, there are those who for family reasons or reasons want to leave to start 

all over somewhere afar from the Gilbert Group. Because people in these latter two categories 

pay their own way to get to Kiritimati Island, there is often a prevailing view of having earned 

12 

These plots were given to those copra cutters who complained they had not been included in the earlier Tabwakea 

freehold releases. They existed on their lands under interim occupation agreements 

13 

The cost for a ticket for a one way 10-12 day boat trip to Tarawa or vice versa to Kiritimati Island is 

approximately $200 AUD. 




the right for preferential treatment from Government and more importantly, the rights to access 

the resources of the land and sea. 

In Kiritimati Island, there is also a greater prevalence of “pushy,” aggressive and go-getters than 

in the rest of the islands in Kiribati. The population on Kiritimati Island generally have strong 

views including resistance to further movements of population from the rest of the country, a 

view that is not generally shared by Government (Government of Kiribati Millennium 

Development Goals report, 2007). This is partly related to the absence of traditional structures, 

norms and values which are prevalent on home islands with their rules and regulations but not on 


13. New Forms of Villages 

A major feature of the settlements as developed in Kiritimati Island is the absence of the 

“unimwane system” and the intricate social order surrounding the “maneaba system” in the 

villages in Kiritimati Island. The traditional meeting house in Kiribati called the “maneaba” is 

more than just a physical structure. It is the centre of the social fabric of life in the outer island 

villages. Each family has an allocated place to sit in the maneaba that is associated with a role, 

defined by traditions, which is reflected by each family in the “maneaba” and in the village. 

Central to the maneaba system is the “unimwane” (old men) who meet in the maneaba and 

discuss and make decisions on issues which affect village life on a daily basis. Old men’s 

decisions on rules and regulations carry a lot of weight and have often conflicted with western 

laws as they now exist, particularly in relation to sanctions for wrong doings in the village. 

On Kiritimati Island, this important traditional system has been lost in the villages with the surge 

of population from other islands to these main centres. Those newcomers who arrive recognize 

no higher traditional authority in the family or village, unlike their own home islands. Families 

from the islands of Makin and Beru live next to families from Arorae and Maiana within the 

Kiritimati Island villages. The population is heterogeneous and no overarching social structures, 

norms and values apply. Social control measures as seen on outer islands in the Gilbert group, 

for example, have been lost with urbanisation on State lands and the emergence of new village 

forms. 

Church groups (makoro) are fast replacing traditional authority in the villages. An important 

differentiation is that these church groupings are mostly focused on fund raising and church 

oriented support which is not as effective as a social control measure. Also, participation in these 

groupings is voluntary, and one can pull out of the groupings. However, in a traditional village 

setting, one is a life long member and cannot decide to pull out of the village if not happy with 


20


the decisions of the old men. The only way out is to move out of the village and move to another 

village, or move to State lands such as in Kiritimati, Tabuaeran or Teeraina Islands where less 

restrictive village and family social structures exist. 

The absence of higher traditional authority on Kiritimati Island has resulted in a social vacuum 

where each person and family is not part of a traditional community. They are therefore not 

answerable to systems of traditional authority as applies in the Gilbert Group. This breakdown 

of traditional social order is also seen on South Tarawa and is accompanied by a weaker sense of 

community and a stronger individual and nuclear family focus. The stronger individual 

aspirations are best reflected in the talk by some of the desire to start a small business on State 

lands. These business aspirations are not as common in outer islands where social control and an 

individuals place in the community, defining what one can do and can’t do, is clearly 

demarcated. Conformity rather than expressing ones view are the norm on outer islands while in 

Kiritimati Island one is less constrained in their development aspirations for State lands. 

14. Land Allocation Policy Before 2005 

Prior to the agreement by Government to a new land release and allocation system in June, 2005, 

an application for a business lease needed to be made to the Kiritimati Local Land Planning 

Board (KLLPB). The KLLPB was the body responsible for recommending the allocation of plots 

and a change in land tenure from State lands to lease hold, or to freehold as has been the case for 

special allocated in Tabwakea. At the same time, the KLLPB was the body responsible for the 

land planning and development assessment as provided for under the LPA. Until 2005, the 

KLLPB assessed both the land use planning permit and the lease application in the same process. 

Using the same form and process, the KLLPB considered applications for land use planning and 

business lease, with all applicants required to submit a business plan for the proposed 

commercial operation. 

The demand for land has been historically strong, with the KLLPB receiving 409 applications for 

business leases between 1988 and 2003, with few being approved. 14 

Potential applicants for land 

since late 2003 have been advised that planning and lease applications would only be considered 

by Cabinet when a new land management system is in place, such system agreed by Government 

in 2005 and now currently being implemented. This includes the current 222 plot release for 

14 In 2003, Cabinet agreed to review the land allocation process in Kiritimati Island. No more sublease applications 

were accepted after that, with the current land lease being the main land release program in place since that time. 


21


Kiritimati Island residents now being implemented. The current breakdown of State lands as 

allocated on Kiritimati Island to end 2007 is summarised in Table 5. 

Tenure 

Type and 

Total Plots 

Leasehold 

374 

Freehold 

139 

Total: 513 

% 

Table 5: Leasehold and Freehold Lands from State Lands by Village, 2008 

London Tabwakea Main Camp Banana Poland 

110 

202 21 12 21 

0 139 0 0 0 

110 

22% 

341 

67% 

Prior to 2005, planning for the movement of people to Kiritimati Island has been characterized 

by; (i) a lack of an orderly land supply program on a regular basis, (ii) an absence of a strategic 

plan addressing the integrated needs of the three islands in the Line Group which indicates the 

number of plots to be provided, their timing and the level of infrastructure needed, and (iii) no 

effective system to ensure security of land tenure. 

15. Land Allocation Targets and Process Post 2005 

In June, 2005, the Government approved a new land management system for the planning and 

release of land on Kiritimati Island (see Figure 2). The system comprised a number of key 

elements including: 

• the separation of the role of the KLLPB as both; (i) a land use planner and regulator and 

(ii) a body undertaking the allocation of State lands. Thus, the often conflicting role of 

KLLPB being both a land use planner and acting as the land owner, needed to be 

differentiated. 

• strengthened role for the KLLPB in island physical and land use planning and 

coordination (rather than acting as a landowner), 


22 

21 

4% 

12 

3% 

21 

4%


• a strengthened role for the Government as the landowner in deciding who should be 

allocated land on Kiritimati Island including the establishment of the Committee for 

Allocation of State Lands (CASL), 

• the setting of regular land releases and supply targets, such as bi annual land supply 

targets, subject to an agreed physical island development strategy being 

Figure 2: Process for obtaining Land and Development Assessment on State Lands, 

Kiritimati Island, as agreed by Cabinet, 2005 

Landowner (Government) (i) agrees 

land application eligibility criteria for 

business, residential land use; etc (ii) 

confirms land tenure type 

If rejected, 

appeal or 

reapply 

later 

LMDK prepares Strategic Plan assessment 

of land to accommodate growth as required 

by State Lands Act, 2001 

Residents from KI and South Tarawa, 

business, churches, etc make application 

to reserve plot on State lands 

23 

Cabinet agrees to land supply 

targets in Kiritimati Island – 600 

plots over next 4 years for residents 

from KI and South Tarawa 

Committee for Allocation of State Lands (CASL), with 

LMDK as Secretariat, assesses land applications against 

criteria – CASL recommends applicants to Cabinet 

If applicant successful, CASL allocates name 

to plot, LMDK issues 25 year lease contracts 

and lease pays 1 st annual lease rent 

KLLPB undertakes development assessment of 

If application 

land use application - land, water, sanitation, 

rejected, 

land use, EIA, environmental impacts, etc, under 

appeal to 

Land Planning Act, 1977 – determines applications 

Central Land 

TA 4878 - KIR: Integrated Land and Population Program on Kiritimati Island (Population) Planning Board


in place (the GLUP) to accommodate growth in a planned manner, and a clear allocation 

process including setting of assessment criteria and a transparent plot allocation process 

for applicants. 

As part of the decision in June, 2005, the Government agreed to release up to 600 private 

leasehold plots in Kiritimati Island over the next 4 years, with the initial release consisting of 300 

residential plots. 15 The first 300 plots were to address the backlog in applications submitted to 

the KLLPB for housing only. The targets as set were commensurate with; (i) the precarious state 

of infrastructure and services on Kiritimati Island and (ii) minimal resources for coordinating the 

allocation process. Of the 300 plot target, some; (i) 150 plots were to be allocated to residents 

already residing in Kiritimati Island who, in the main, had been waiting for land to be released 

for a number of years, and (ii) the remaining 150 plots allocated to residents from South Tarawa, 

including overcrowded parts of the Betio Town Council and Teinanano Urban Council. 16 

The 

allocation of land to residents in Kiritimati Island (Phase 1) was to precede the process for 

allocating State lands to people in the Gilbert Group (Phase 2), and as such, this process is yet to 

commence. 

16. Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL) 

Following Government’s decision to commence a new planning system for Kiritimati Island, the 

CASL was established in early 2007. The objectives of CASL were to: (i) prepare and approve 

forms for applicants based on agreed criteria from Cabinet, (ii) screen and consider applications 

for land leases in Kiritimati Island and (iii) make recommendations to Cabinet for approval of 

applicants. The CASL was appointed by Cabinet and consisted of 4 representatives: (i) 

Secretary of the M:PID (Chairperson), (ii) Chief Councillor from the KUC, (iii) an unimane 

representative from the old men’s association, and (iv) the Chief Land Management Officer, 

LMDK. The LMDK was the Secretariat. 

In March, 2007, CASL called for applications from Kiritimati Island residents who wished to 

apply for a plot (size 1,000 m2 and lease 25 years renewable) as part of the 150 plot allocation 

release process. The application process included meeting screening and selection criteria as 

approved by Cabinet in 2006. (see Table 6). The initial screening criteria were assessed by 

LMDK on behalf of CASL and if the screening criterion was met, CASL then assessed the 

15 Note - applications for business lease are to be considered separate to this 300 target. 

16 The 150 plot target was also to accommodate requests from I-Kiribati displaced from Orona Island in the Phoenix 

Group, and who were resettled to Solomon Islands in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Some of these settlers now wish to 

return to Kiribati following the recent civil unrest in the Solomon Islands. 


24


applications against the assessment criteria as publicly advertised. CASL members undertook 

the latter process, with each assessment criteria weighted and scored. By the end of April, 2007, 

following a 6 week application submission period, CASL had received 699 applications for 

assessment against the screening and assessment criteria. 

Table 6: Screening and Assessment Criteria as used by CASL 

Screening Criteria to determine if eligible to apply: 

* no evidence by Police of a criminal record 

* applicant has no or minimal lands (freehold or lease) within the Line and Phoenix Islands, or 

Government lease or sublease which they have surrendered, 

* applicant has no outstanding payment to Government such as outstanding rent 

* applicant was not squatting at the time of application 

Assessment Criteria to determine eligibility for allocation; 

* applicant has land leased from them by Government in South Tarawa 

* applicant is over 25 years of age, married and has children 

* applicant has certified skills including but not limited to plumbing, electrical, etc 

* ability to pay rent on the leased land 

* minimum 5 years residence on Kiritimati Island with a preference for those that have stayed 

longer 

* civil servants who are over 45 years of age 

In late May, 2007, CASL recommended to Tarawa the ranking of the 699 applications. In June, 

2007, Cabinet agreed that applicants for residential village plots (permanent houses) be those with 

a score of 16 or above - in other words, 153 successful applicants. Of these 153 applications, 131 

were to be allocated to Tabwakea village and 22 to Poland. Cabinet also agreed at its June meeting 

that in addition to the 300 plot target, 150 traditional village plots (local houses) be provided with 

69 being for applicants in Kiritimati Island in Tabwakea village. The remainder of these 81 plots 

would be for those who will apply under the South Tarawa release scheme. Thus, the total plots 

for release for Kiritimati Island residents under the current Phase 1 are 222 plots, being 200 for 

Tabwakea and 22 for Poland. The above plot allocation by origin of selection is summarised in 

Table 7. 


25


Based on the 222 applicants as approved by Cabinet, CASL in February, 2008, publicly announced 

the names of the successful applicants and the villages to which they had been allocated. 

Applicants were given nominated days in March, 2008, by which to attend 

Figure 2: Location of the 222 Plots for Tabwakea and Poland 


26


the MLPID offices and randomly select a plot number in the designated village as allocated, 

namely, Tabwakea or Poland. The latter was done in full view of the public and other 

representatives, with applicants formally signing to acknowledge the plot allocation process. The 

location of the 222 plots is shown in Figure 2. 

Origin of 

Applicant 

Kiritimati 

Island 

(Phase 1) 

South 

Tarawa 

(Phase 2) 

Table 7: Residential Plots for Release as agreed by Government, 2007 

Permanent 

Houses 

153 

Local 

Houses 

69 

Total Plots Village 

Location in 

Kiritimati 

222 200 

Tabwakea 

22 Poland 

150 81 231 not 

determined 


27 

Allocation - 

Release 


in progress - 

release 

process 

advanced 

yet to 

commence 

Total: 303 150 453 - - 

After the public release of the approved applicants in February, 2008, LMDK and MLPID 

received some 210 complaints by the end March, 2008, from people not selected. These 

objectors raised issues concerning the land allocation process, the criteria and the weighting as 

applied. These complaints and objections were assessed by MELAD in Tarawa in conjunction 

with the MLPID and in June, 2008, Cabinet agreed that 168 of the 222 plots could be released as 

soon as possible while the remaining 54 needed further scrutiny. The extremely slow pace by 

which land has been released in Kiritimati Island, combined with steady in migration from 

Tarawa, is continuing to cause overcrowding issues in London, Banana and particularly 

Tabwakea village as well as environmental concerns. There is frustration at the process by the 

community at the way the 222 plots were released especially the criteria and whether it has been 

rigorously applied or not. 

17. Infrastructure Needs for the Phase 1 222 Plot Release, 2008-2009 

The Phase 1 land release focuses on the development of 222 plots of which 200 are in Tabwakea 

and 22 in Poland. Table 8 summarises the main development needs for the 200 new plots in 

Tabwakea in terms of;


• land administration, water supply and water resources, 

• sanitation, 

• civil works, 

• power, and 

• phone connections. 

Land 

Development 

Need 

1. Land 

administration 

2. Protection 

of the water 

resources 

3. Water 

supply 

Summary of Priority 

Infrastructure or Service to 

be Provided 

* plot survey - cadastral plans 

* preparation of leases 

* issue of leases 

* dealing with CASL 

unapproved applicants 

* legal requirements to be met 

under State Lands Act 

* KLLPB development 

assessment 

* salinity monitoring at 

headtank taps and gallery pump 

wells at Banana, Decca, Four 

Wells 

* salinity monitoring of 3 

boreholes at 3 Decca galleries 

* meter readings at Decca 

headtank, combined Decca 

galleries and combined 

galleries at Four Wells 

* local reticulation for main 3 

sub areas of North Tabwakea 

and Tabwakea infill, Tabwakea 

permanent and local village, 

and Tabwakea antaai 

* laying of 729 metres of 100 

mm PVC pipe and 6,097 

metres of 50 mm PVC pipe 

* installation of maximum 200 

x 500 litre household supply 

tanks and household 

connections 


28 

Current Status 

- Summary 

Advanced with 

all external area 

boundaries 

marked. Survey 

finished by 

June, 2008. 

Lease contracts 

approved 

No monitoring 

program in 

place 

Some galleries 

being over 

pumped as solar 

pumps and 

windmills have 

failed 

No planning, 

design and 

budget process 

commenced. 

Major Constraints to 

Infrastructure or 

Service Provision 

* human resources 

* technical resources 

* limited budget 

* human resources 

* technical resources 

* limited budget 

* approval for ADB 

major water resources 

rehabilitation, 

improvements and 

monitoring program by 

Government uncertain 

* material procurement 

* no budget for Phase 1 

release for materials, 

transport and 

equipment 

* siting of supply tanks 

* compliance with EIA 

process 

* approval for project 

for primary supply 

works by ADB not in 

place by Government


4. Sanitation * on site concrete septic tank, 

evaporation field, soak pit and 

toilet structure (with pedestal 

toile) to be provided by each 

household. 

* water supply for toilet from 

well (bucket or pump) 

5. Civil works * clearing and construction of 

6.8 kilometres of local roads 

* construction of community 

sports ground in Tabwakea 

6. Power * relocation of power generator 

to new site west Tabwakea 

* installation of 220 KVA 

power generator from London 

* installation of maximum 200 

distribution boxes and power 

cable to households 

7. Telecom - 

Phone 

Connections 

In terms of the provision of basic infrastructure, the reality is that the 200 plots being released in 

Tabwakea in 2008 will be provided without water and electricity. No forward planning has been 

put in place to cater for the increased demand, with the exception of local funds which have been 

requested for the power generator. On site sanitation is to be provided by each household, 

technically in accordance with the standard plans used by the Water and Sanitation Unit, 

MLPID, for concrete septic, evaporation trench and pedestal toilet. Water for sanitation will be 

sourced from wells, not the reticulated water supply system. Implementation of this arrangement 

remains problematic and requires leadership and enforcement by the KLLPB if the existing 

system is to work. Telecom will be available in 2008. Land administration is well advanced, 

with all external area boundaries have been surveyed, identified and permanently marked on the 

ground. Internal plot boundaries have been temporarily marked and are to be completed by June, 

2008. Major constraints to the provision of infrastructure in Tabwakea for the 200 new plots 

include; 


29 

Household 

responsibility. 

No 

enforcement by 

KLLPB and 

WSD at 

individual plot 

level 

No planning, 

design and 

budget process 

commenced. 

Emergency 

local funds 

allocated – 

procurement 

2009. 

* procurement by 

suppliers (e.g. KSCL) 

of pedestal toilet 

* assumption that each 

household will install 

septic - pedestal toilet 

* no KLLPB 

enforcement 

* no budget for Phase 1 

release area for 

materials, transport and 

equipment (grader, 

roller, etc) 

* delay in funds and 

generator procurement 

for new London 500 

KVA generator which 

will release London 

generator for 

Tabwakea 

* EIA process for 

* affordability 

* installation of new island Planning, design 

satellite tower at TSKL in budget process 

London (60 metre) 

advanced - 

* wireless phones for operational 

households 

2008 

Table 8: Land Development needs for the 200 Plot release, Tabwakea, 2008


• no budget available, including no specific budget tied for the proposed land release and 

its development, and 

• technical and human resources limitations, with the process of budgeting, planning and 

procurement yet to commence for water, power and civil works for Phase 2. 

18. Environmental Decline 

Growing settlements such as Tabwakea village has resulted in increasing environmental 

degradation of the land and exploitation of the marine resources. These impacts have been well 

documented over the last few years by ADB, SPREP and the Government of Kiribati. 17 

The 

symptoms of expanding settlements as well as uncontrolled squatters living in the bush outside 

the planned villages include: 

• a decline in birds, bird eggs and coconuts, 

• the expansion of rats and cats into the environmental protection and conservation areas, 

• indiscriminate lagoon fishing, with unregulated fishing nets impacting on the numbers of 

fish generally, 

• a decline in bonefish and milkfish, 

• increasing utilisation of coconut trees for building materials and roof thatching, 

• an increasing number of poachers into the protected conservation areas especially to the 

south west, and 

• increasing domestic waste disposal, with no system in place to manage all households 

(only Government households and businesses get their domestic waste collected - private 

households such as in Tabwakea village receive no collection). 

There are wide differences in methods of sanitation by villages and resultant impact on the 

environment. Cistern and flush toilets are more prevalent in Government villages such as 

London while the use of a pit toilet and beach is highest in non Government villages. Sanitation 

in Kiritimati Island is a significant consumer of water, a polluter of groundwater and the 

17 See (i) ADB Environmental Working Paper No. 8, ADB Water and Sanitation Project Design, April, 2008, (ii) 

Government of Kiribati Millennium Development Gaols Report, 2007. UNDP, and (iii) Surveys and Capacity 

Building in Kiritimati June, 2007, to assist in Restorations of Bokikokiko and Seabirds. SPREP and IUCN. 


30


environment generally. Poor sanitation practices are a potential risk to personal and family 

health. Poorer households in Kiritimati Island rely almost exclusively on household well water as 

their main source of water, a practice also common amongst households that have access to 

piped water. However, it is the local groundwater that is contaminated by poor sanitation 

practices and other activities such as household pig pens. Many wells, even those classed as 

protected, are contaminated by poor sanitation. Illnesses related to poor water and sanitation as 

reported to the London Hospital include diarrhoea diseases, urinary tract infections, infectious 

hepatitis (hepatitis A and E viruses), typhoid, skin, ear and eye infections. 

19. Limits to Settlement Growth 

New settlement increases the demand for land, water supply, protection of the water resource, 

waste disposal, sanitation, electricity, roads, services such as schools and hospitals, as well as 

consumption of goods and materials. The 2004 Kiribati Population and Development Plan 

suggested Kiritimati Island could accommodate a population of approximately 23,400 persons, 

although the basis of the assessment was not defined. Earlier ADB studies suggested a capacity 

of around 25 - 30,000 persons based on usable land and water resources, such land being subject 

to detailed local assessments. Water has often been elevated as the limiting factor determining 

the carrying capacity of Kiritimati Island. Considering water alone as the key limit to growth 

and assuming water is sourced from the major freshwater lenses, the estimated sustainable yield 

and approximate gross population capacity for each of the major lenses are shown in Table 9. 

The Table indicates an estimated population capacity of 21,700 persons of which approximately 

13,000 persons could be contained in the northern peninsula if no other limits and constraints to 

growth are considered. The estimated sustainable yields are based on a December, 2007, analysis 

of groundwater recharge from rainfall to the lenses and knowledge of the thickness and lateral 

extent of the lenses assessed from previous studies. 

Table 9: Capacity of the Freshwater lenses, Kiritimati Island, 2007 

Water Lenses Estimated Sustainable 

Yield 


31 

Estimated Gross 

Population Capacity 

Decca 260 2,200 

Four Wells 300 3,800 

Banana 550 6,900 

NZ Airfield 700 8,800 

Total 1,810 21,700


As continued population increases and the challenges of managing settlement in Kiritimati Island 

become more clearer, there are other limits to growth which are as important, if not more 

important, than water resources. These are; 

• lack of suitable soils and insufficient rainfall for supporting eatable fruit and vegetables. 

This constraint contributes to the high emphasis by the population on the exploitation of 

the natural environment, 

• failing water supply and sanitation systems to meet current population needs, 

• minimal implementation of agreed plans and polices for Kiritimati Island which are 

necessary to align Kiritimati Island as an economic growth center, the most obvious 

being the ADB Water and Sanitation Project as deferred by Government, 

• uncontrolled and unchecked in migration, 

• a culture of ‘taking’ and ‘mining’ of a nationally and globally recognised environment 

resource, rather than managing and conserving it, 

• little community support, respect and responsibility for protecting the environment, the 

latter a key component of the economic future of the island, 

• minimal opportunities for employment and livelihoods, 

• limited human resource capacity, and 

• poor cross sector and ‘whole of island’ leadership including environmental stewardship. 

The above are the real limits to sustainable settlement and island development which need to be 

addressed urgently. The above constraints and limits to growth all suggest that the current 

population levels are not sustainable. Population levels need to be maintained within the carrying 

capacity of the social, economic and environmental framework which underpins the future of 

Kiritimati Island. The fragility of this framework all suggests that in the short term, there should 

be no more land released, with an emphasis on maintaining existing population levels and better 

managing in migration. There needs to be moratorium on the future development of Kiritimati 

Island as the current approaches to the planning and management of settlement and the 

environment in Kiritimati Island are not sustainable. 


32


Section B – Recommendations for Future Settlement and Resettlement on Kiritimati Island 

A number of conclusions can be drawn from the existing settlement and resettlement patterns 

and processes. 

• Demand for land in Kiritimati Island exceeds supply. Government has not been able 

to keep up with the demand for land as demands outstrips supply. This issue has been 

exacerbated by the inability of Government to manage the free movement of people to 

Kiritimati Island. There is an expectation that if people migrate to Kiritimati Island and 

stay there long enough, they will be rewarded with State land with secure tenure. 

• The land allocation process has been slow and erratic. On average, Government has 

released land every 4 to 5 years in Kiritimati Island, to ease the demand placed on the 

land owner (the Government). The policy basis for some of the releases is questionable 

including the release policy in the 1990’s and early millennium which was based on 

land being released for business use only. No land was to be made available solely for 

housing except for those who were Government employees and associated island 

workers. 

• More people means greater pressure on the natural resource. Continued population 

increase and little opportunity for livelihoods and employment means the national and 

globally recognised land resource are under major pressure for exploitation. Pressures 

on families to met demands for day to day survival combined with limited or no cash 

income - such as seen in families in Tabwakea - means continued pressure on the 

natural resource. The island continues to be ‘mined’ for its limited resource rather than 

being managed. 

• Perpetuating a culture of ‘taking’ from State lands. The current land tenure system 

based on leasehold (not freehold) and the historical background of Kiritimati Island 

being State and ‘public’ lands has meant there is no real sense of belonging and 

affiliation to Kiritimati Island by the average I-Kiribati. The absence of the traditional 

notion of being custodian to family lands has resulted in the development of an unusual 

and destructive culture of “taking as much as you can”, with no obligation to return to 

the land on Kiritimati Island. This mindset is the dominant norm as it applies to the 

management of natural resources in Kiritimati Island. 

• There are many inequalities in the land tenure arrangements. Land tenure ranges 

from freehold, to restricted freehold and to leasehold. There are also inconsistencies in 


33


the plot size, originally at half an acre and now quarter of an acre. The current 25 year 

leasehold arrangements are the least conducive land tenure arrangements to support 

economic growth and development activity. Many in the community question the 

inequality of the varying land tenure arrangements now in place across the villages. 

• There is no institutional responsibility for planning and managing Kiritimati 

Island in its totality as a Growth Center. Kiritimati Island is at a stage where it is a 

‘rudderless ship’ with little on island coordination and integration for planning and 

managing its future. There is no institution taking the lead on coordinating the future 

planning and development of Kiritimati Island as a Growth Center. At the Kiritimati 

Island or national level, there is no ‘institutional home’ for addressing development 

issues arising on Kiritimati Island. 18 A Growth Center implies well planned, 

coordinated and integrated development. An economic growth center implies the 

promotion of economic activity through business incentives and marketing of 

opportunities including timely land releases for genuine businesses. Cabinet has agreed 

a number of times over the last 3 years to realign the MLPID to be a more effective 

island planner focusing on a ‘whole of island plan’ for Kiritimati Island. 19 

This cross 

sector plan would have to be I-Kiribati driven and owned and would be time bound plan 

with budget, setting out strategy, objectives, priority island actions, responsibilities, 

monitoring and evaluation. 

• There is no National Growth Centers Strategy. All the current studies undertaken 

over the past 4 years with Government and other development partners, have 

increasingly reached the conclusion that the answer to managing the distribution of 

population in Kiribati does not lie solely in Kiritimati Island. Government in 2005 

nominated other potential growth areas for development primarily in the Gilbert Group 

but no systematic assessment of their potential was ever undertaken. “The 

implementation of outer island growth centers has not been fully released and more 

work needs to be done to develop outer islands”, (Government of Kiribati Millennium 

Development Gaols report, p.47, 2007). There exists no national strategy or plan for 

growth centers, or no national strategy or plan for land and human settlement 

18 Cabinet in February, 2008, agreed to appoint a local Project Manager to take responsibility for resolving whole of 

island and project kevel issues and coordination in both Tarawa and Kiritimati Island. 

19 Substantial work has already been done in preparing a draft Kiritimati Island Development Plan (KIDP) which 

could form the basis of this ‘whole of island plan. See ADB TA No. 4456 – KIR. Preparing the Outer Islands 

Growth Centers Project (Kiritimati Island). March, 2006. 


34


development for all of Kiribati. Such growth management plans are fundamental tenet 

to national development as they indicate where population should be encouraged, how 

the settlement would be sustained (for example, options to mobilise family and 

traditional lands), economic opportunities and the infrastructure, services, costs, budget 

and other support required for their development. 

• Functioning infrastructure is absent. Most of the infrastructure for water, sanitation 

and power is already in a precarious state of decline or failure in Kiritimati Island due to 

under design, lack of maintenance or both. The needs of the existing population are not 

being met let alone any future population. The 200 plots to be released in Tabwakea in 

2008 will be provided without water and electricity. Water will be from wells and many 

wells, both protected and unprotected, are contaminated from poor sanitation. The 

uncertainty over the proposed ADB Water and Sanitation Project only contributes to this 

crisis in infrastructure given the 2-3 year lead times requited to bring these projects on 

line. There has been no forward planning and budgeting of any note for major and minor 

infrastructure needed to underpin the land development process. The exception is the 

land planning and survey activities in place by LMDK. The concept of providing 

infrastructure in advance of the land to be released so that serviced land is available 

remains a foreign concept. It is hard to plan and develop a Growth Center where these 

principles are absent. 

• Need for major changes to the State Lands Act, 2001. The State Lands Act is the key 

legal instrument that allows Government as owner and custodian of State Lands to 

undertake the process of making land available for development. The State Lands Act 

includes the process of making a Strategic Plan so that land allocation and land 

development is undertaken in a systematic approach. However, the Act has major 

shortcomings, the most significant being the absence of provisions to allow existing and 

future residents on Kiritimati Island to use leased land as collateral and security to gain 

a mortgage or development loan. 20 

Such a move would enhance economic activity 

across all sections of the community such as building construction, brick making, 

purchase of water tanks, etc, for all those currently unable to borrow development 

monies. 

20 Leased land could be used as collateral with the Bank of Kiribati (BoK) or Development Bank of Kiribati (DBK). 


35


• Human resources and capacity is limited. Despite the enthusiasm by some in 

Government and the community to work towards a more integrated and coordinated 

approach to development on Kiritimati Island - for example, a rejuvenated and far 

stronger MLPID - human resource capacity is limited. Most Ministries are preoccupied 

with their own mandate and there is little on island coordination by the MLPID to 

address major issues. Most Ministries doing their ‘own thing’. Human resource 

capacity in key positions is absent or limited, with most having no experience or having 

seen what a growth center is, how it functions and what needs to be done to achieve it. 

The MLPID needs to be urgently rejuvenated. 

• Poor leadership and stewardship. The culture of ‘taking’ and the mining of the natural 

resource as it applies to the unique situation of State lands on Kiritimati Island, requires 

long term solutions and hard decisions. Kiritimati has reached a stage where there is a 

crisis in the absence of integrated and coordinated planning, with strong leadership. No 

serous moves are place to address issues of environmental sustainability. Squatters, for 

example, are on the increase and there is not serous attempt to address the underlying 

issues of lack of land supply and unchecked in migration. 

The conclusion to be drawn from the above is that there should be no more settlement and 

resettlement (including the proposed Phase 2) until the key existing planning and 

development issues are systematically resolved. As the world’s largest atoll, Kiritimati Island 

is an asset of national and international ecological and conservation significance. The whole 

island is basically a wildlife reserve now competing with increasing development pressures. The 

notion that the Kiritimati Island can sustain continued major increases in population with the 

current mindset with minimal impact on the environment is incorrect. While water is often held 

up as a key limiting factor in the islands development, the real limits lie in; (i) the inherent 

physical characteristics of the island and (ii) the attitudes and values of residents which 

determine current lifestyle patterns - economic, social and environmental. 

The key constraints are reliance on a lifestyle that depends on the natural resource for survival, 

poor soils, insufficient and intermittent rainfall, minimal employment opportunities and a 

mindset showing little concern for conserving and managing the natural resource for the existing 

and future generations. All of the above continue to contribute to the exploitation of the natural 

environment. Human habitation can be sustained but at a major cost. All anecdotal evidence 

indicates that the natural resource stocks of fish and, to a lesser extent, birds are exploited for 

subsistence and commercial purposes. Unless these trends are quickly modified, then current 

and future population growth will not be sustainable. 


36


In this setting, the recommended approach to the development of Kiritimati Island is a step by 

step and cautious approach to the future release of land. This needs to be accompanied by 

renewed approaches to managing in migration, respecting the islands unique environmental 

values, urgently improving the existing poor state of infrastructure, the need for changes to 

environmental management practices and mindset, reducing squatter numbers and greater 

community mobilisation on environmental and natural resource issues. In migration needs to 

reduced significantly while the Government and community take stock of the impacts occurring. 

At a national level, what is increasingly clear is that Kiritimati Island is only part of the solution 

to addressing overcrowding problems and broader economic development issues in the Gilbert 

Group. It is definitely not the answer to all of the problems of Kiribati as often implied in 

national plans such as the NDS 2004-2007 and the new Kiribati Development Plan, 2008-2011. 

The need for a National Growth Centers Strategy is urgent. 

In this setting, the 222 Phase 1 plot release for residents of Kiritimati Island is best viewed as a 

‘release valve’ for the current overcrowded households already on Kiritimati Island seeking land. 

This is most relevant in villages such as Tabwakea where 80% of the approved applicants for the 

222 plots reside and have the highest persons per household. By 2012, the population in 

Kiritimati Island based on the 2000-2005 7.9% growth rate is estimated as 8,765 persons. This 

would require 365 new plots of which Government has already agreed to provide 231 for 

residents from the Gilbert Group. Land should be provided for; 

• the 222 plots as now agreed to be released in 2008, and 

• a further maximum 231 plots for residents from the Gilbert group who will be allocated 

land and to which Government has made a commitment. However, such release needs 

to be deferred until adequate infrastructure – namely, water, sanitation and power - 

is physically in place in the preferred location for these plots, New Banana. 

It follows that no more land should be provided for in Kiritimati Island until all the existing 

population, resettlement and migration issues are addressed; the water system is rehabilitated and 

improved; new environmental programs to address the decline of the natural resource are put in 

place, rising squatter issues and the unsustainable impact of population growth mitigated are 

addressed. Planning for integrated island development in Kiritimati Island is in crisis and it 

would be irresponsible to continue to keep planning and releasing land in the current adverse 


37


development climate of Kiritimati Island. 21 At best, the existing land commitments for Phase 1 

should be met and nothing more. 

The MLPID has struggled in its role of island planner and coordinator, especially in 

forward planning for village infrastructure (water supply, sanitation and power 

generation) and ensuring plot development is contained to the agreed growth villages. 

A step by step and cautious approach to releasing land is recommended in the short to medium 

term because: 

• major overcrowding and squatter issues already exist because land supply has been 

constrained and in migration unchecked. 

• urgent measures are needed to address the major environmental degradation being driven 

by a rising population dependent on the natural resource for survival. Government has 

agreed to examine options to manage in migration and action is awaited. 

21 The recent suspension of Air Pacific flights to Kiritimati Island in September and October, 2008, is further 

evidence of the inability to put in place basic forward planning procedures. . 


38


• the constraints and opportunities to development including the current water supply 

system, the state of sanitation, declining water quality, maximum load on the stand alone 

power systems, and the uncertain status of maximum groundwater yields. All these are 

major limits to growth which must be acknowledged and addressed before any further 

resettlement. 

• there remains no firm commitment by Government to provide upgraded water supply, 

sanitation systems and power as land is released. As a principle, infrastructure should be 

provide with the plots to be released. Water supply, power and proper sanitation are 

village priorities and need to be urgently rehabilitated and improved for the existing 

population, let alone providing for any future population from natural growth on 

Kiritimati Island or resettlement, 

• the declining state and ‘mining’ of the environmental resources of the island which can 

only be resolved by leadership, a change in mindset and major community involvement, 

and 

• the absence of a ‘whole of island’ and whole of Government plan as agreed with 

stakeholders, and implemented by a strengthened and realigned MLPID. Cabinet agreed 

to prepare this a ‘whole of island’ plan in February, 2008, and this should be in place 

before any further resettlement. 

The existing land commitments for the current Phase 1 land release should be met and 

nothing more. Phase 2 should be deferred until commitments for infrastructure for water, 

sanitation and power are agreed and physical works are in place. 


39

Annex 3.c: JONES - Rapid Social and Poverty Assessment 

RAPID SOCIAL AND POVERTY 

ASSESSMENT 

KIRITIMATI ISLAND 

July, 2008 


(Population)


ABBREVIATIONS 



CBO Community Based Organization 

DBK Development Bank of Kiribati 

FPL Food Poverty Line 

GoK Government of Kiribati 

HDI Human Development Index 

HH Household 

ICC Island Church Council 

IDEA information, dissemination, education and awareness 

IPSA Initial Poverty and Social Analysis 

JSS Junior Secondary School 

KLLPB Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board 

KIDP Kiritimati Island Development Plan 

KDP Kiritimati Development Plan 



KUC Kiritimati Urban Council 


LMDK Land Management Division Kiritimati (Division of MELAD) 


MELAD Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agriculture Development 

MEYSD Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport Development 


MFMRD Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development 




NGO Non Government Organization 

NPRS National Poverty Reduction Strategy 

NPV Net Present Value 

PDMCs Pacific Developing Member Countries 

PIR Poverty Impact Ratio 

PL Poverty Line 

RERF Revenue Equalisation Reserve Fund 

RCC Roman Catholic Church 

RRP Report and Recommendation to the President 

SDA Seventh Day Adventist Church 

SOE State Owned Enterprise 

SPRSS Summary Poverty Reduction and Social Strategy 



(Population Component) 

v


Kiritimati Island – Location of Main Growth Villages (Ronton to Tabwalea North, and Main Camp to New Banana) 



6

Rapid Social and Poverty Assessment 1 

1. Major Stakeholder Groups 

Stakeholder 

Category 

TA Executing 

Agency and 

Key 

Government 

Institutions 


Table 1: Key Stakeholders in Kiritimati Island 

National Level Island (Kiritimati) Level 

Community / Village 

Level 

Ministry of Finance and 

Economic Development 

(MFED) 

Ministry of Line and 

Phoenix Island 

Development (MLPID) 

Ministry of Internal and 

Social Affairs (MISA) 

Ministry of Environment, 

Lands and Agriculture 

Development (MELAD) 

Ministry of Health and 

Medical Services (MHMS) 

Ministry of Fisheries and 

Marine Resource 

Development (MFMRD) 

Ministry of Education, 

Youth and Sport 

Development (MEYSD) 

MLPID Main Office 

- Administration 

- Water & Sanitation 

Development Planning 

Divisions 

- Civil & Technical 

Kiritimati Urban Council 

(KUC) 

- MELAD Kiritimati 

(Land Management 

Division; Wildlife 

Conservation) 

- Kiritimati Local Land 

Planning Board 

- Kiritimati Hospital & 

Laboratory 

- MFMRD Kiritimati 

Island Councillors (8) 

- London (3) 

- Tabwakea (3) 

- Banana (1) 

- Poland (1) 

- Council Clerk, 

Social Development 

Officer 

- London Clinic 

- Tabwakea Clinic 

- Banana Clinic 

- Poland Clinic 

- MEYSD Kiritimati - Itoini Mainiku High 

School 

(Terawanbakoa) 

- Saint Francis High 

School 


- TRW Junior 

Secondary School 

(Tennessee) 

- Banana Primary 

School 

- Poland Primary 

1 This Rapid and Social Poverty Assessment builds on a range of data and information sources in Kiritimati 

Island. This includes detailed work undertaken for TA KIR - 4456 ‘Water and Sanitation Project Design’ (ADB 

Growth Centers Project), Final reports, April, 2008. 


(Population)


Category 

Government 

Enterprises 



- Captain Cook Hotel 

Limited 

- Development Bank of 

Kiribati (DBK) 

- Bobotin Kiribati 

Limited 

Private Sector Retail and Wholesale 

- JMB Enterprises 

- Dojin 

Tourism and 

Accommodation 

- Dive Kiribati 

- Various 1-2 star lodges 

and guest houses 

Pet Fish 

Churches and 

Community 

Groups 

Island Church Council 

(ICC) 

Roman Catholic Church 

(RCC) 

Kiribati Protestant Church 

(KPC) 


Level 

School 

- Tennessee Primary 

School 

Retail and Wholesale 

- Numerous mini and 

small general stores 

- Noel Catholic 

Church (London) 

- St Teresa’s Catholic 

Church (Tabwakea) 

- Saint Francis 

Catholic Church 


- Banana Catholic 

Church 

- St Stanislaus 

Catholic Church 

(Poland) 

- London KPC 

- Tabwakea KPC 

- Itoini Mainiku KPC 


- Banana KPC 

- Poland KPC 

Church of God - Tabwakea Church of 

God 

Church of Christ - Tabwakea Church of 

Christ 

Seven Day Adventist - London SDA 

Church of Jesus Christ for 

Latter Day Saints 

(Mormon) 

- Tabwakea Church of 

Jesus Christ for 

Latter Day Saints 

Bahai Church - London Bahai 



8


Category 

Viilage 

Communities 



Unimane – Te 

Ekonikabanei 

Nei Baneawa (Combined 

Women’s Association) 

Roro n rikirake (Youth 

Groups) 

The key stakeholders in Kiritimati Island are briefly described bellow; 

* Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development (MLPID) 


Level 

- Banana Bahai 

- Numerous Women’s 

Associations as part 

of churches 

- Numerous Youth 

Groups as part of 

churches 

- London 

- Tennessee 

- Tabwakea 

- Terawanbakoa 

- Main Camp 

- New Banana 

- Banana 

- Poland 

The MLPID (also referred to as LINNIX) is responsible for the coordination of a broad range 

of Government services in the Line and Phoenix Islands. 2 . Primarily focused in Kiritimati 

Island, these functions include: (i) infrastructure services such as power and water supply; (ii) 

government housing; (iii) revenue collection; (iv) surveillance of wildlife closed areas; and 

(v) support services for government owned companies. The management of the above 

services and infrastructure is mediocre, with the power, water and housing divisions and all 

government enterprises currently operating with substantial losses and heavily subsidised by 

central government from Tarawa. 3 

MPLID provides a potential key role in coordination and 

integration for island planning and development in Kiritimati Island. 

* Kiritimati Urban Council 

Administered by the Ministry of Social and Internal Affairs (MISA), the Kiritimati Urban 

Council (KUC) was established in April 2004 for the provision of local services within the 

urban villages of Kiritimati Island. The KUC consists of councillors from each of the eight 

urban wards (3 in London, 3 in Tabwakea, 1 in Banana and 1 in Poland), one nominated 

member from the Combined Women’s Association (Nei Baneawa) and one nominated 

member from the Unimane. 4 

The KUC is responsible for local by-laws, waste collection, 

social development (interaction with Women’s Associations and Youth Groups), distribution 

of the elderly pension and local business licenses. The KUC is still in its infancy in 

Kiritimati Island and does not have the capability or capacity to maintain and operate systems 

for basic services such as domestic waste collection, water supply and sanitation. The KUC 

2 

The inhabited islands in the Line Islands Group include Kiritimati (Christmas), Tabuaeran (Fanning) and Teraina 

(Washington), whilst the only inhabited island in the Phoenix Islands Group is Canton. 

3 

Refer to institutional capacity in TA 4456-KIR Phase 2 Financial and Economic Working Paper. 

4 

Unimane in I-Kiribati culture are the ‘old men’ or ‘community wise men’ and are usually over 65 years. 



9


could play an active role in community mobilization as it has established linkages with the 

community through councillor representation, appointment of village wardens and social 

development networks. 

* Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board 

The Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board (KLLPB) is comprised of government staff from 

MLPID, MELAD and other government agencies such as Commerce and TSKL. KLLPB is 

tasked with development assessment and planning for land use on Kiritimati Island, including 

future growth and coordination of land development. 

* Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agriculture Development 

In Kiritimati Island, there are three divisions of MELAD, namely the Land Management 

Division (LMDK), Wildlife Conservation Office and the Agriculture Development Division. 

The LMDK is responsible for the leasing of land for private households, government owned 

enterprises and for business, collecting rent arrears, executing government policies relating to 

land management such as reducing squatters, and licenses for extractive industries, such as 

gravel removal. The Wildlife Conservation Office is responsible for: (i) survey and 

monitoring of seabird populations; (ii) enforcing strict exclusion from conservation zones; 

(iii) control of feral cats and pigs; (iv) support for the development of tourism; and (v) 

provision of Conservation Education Programs. The terrestrial and aquatic ecology of 

Kiritimati Island is unique and globally recognised for its high conservation value and 

potential for economic growth from eco tourism. 5 

* Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MHMS) 

The MHMS is present in Kiritimati Island through (i) London Hospital - Health Center; (ii) 

Health Clinics in Tabwakea, Banana and Poland villages; and (iii) administrative staff and 

public health officers. The MHMS provides the following free services in Kiritimati Island: 

(i) general outpatient and inpatient care; (ii) emergency care; (iii) midwifery, maternal and 

child health; (iv) limited dental care; (v) laboratory services; (vi) ambulance services; (vii) 

provision of medication; (viii) medical tours to Fanning and Washington Islands; and (ix) 

public health education and awareness programs. The MHMS is a key stakeholder in 

implementing programs to increase the health and well-being of Kiritimati Island residents, 

although as noted elsewhere in the TA reports, services are under resourced and stretched to 

capacity. 

* Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development (MFMRD) 

The Kiritimati Island Division of the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources 

Development (formerly the Ministry of Natural Resources Development) has operated in 

London for more than 20 years, providing services for the management of marine resources 

in the lagoon, reef and open ocean areas. Like the Wildlife Conservation Office, the 

MFMRD is a key stakeholder in the exiting and future management and conservation of the 

island’s natural resources. 

5 

Tourism activities in Kiritimati Island include fly and deep sea fishing, bird watching, snorkeling / diving and 

short island tours for day tourists from cruise ships. 



10


* Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport Development (MEYSD) 

In Kiritimati Island, the MEYSD manages three primary schools (Banana, Poland and 

Tennessee – for ages 6-11 years), one junior secondary school (Tennessee JSS – for ages 12- 

14 years) and two secondary / high schools (both in Terawanbakoa village – for ages 15-18 

years). The MEYSD play an important role in the community mobilization and public 

education / awareness components of the Project, given that 39% of the population are under 

the age of 15 years. 6 

* Government Enterprises 

As with other parts of Kiribati, the majority of economic sectors in Kiritimati Island are 

dominated by state owned enterprises (SOEs). The vast majority of SOEs are running at a 

loss, however, as a form of social safety net, they do provide a high number of jobs for the 

island. The largest SOE is the Captain Cook Hotel, which is the main tourist provider on the 

island with some 50 plus staff. 

* Private Sector 

The 2005 Census shows that 11% of households in the Line Islands Group are involved in 

private business. Most private industry in Kiritimati Island is concerned with either; (i) 

wholesale or retail sales, and (ii) tourism-related business including accommodation. At 

present, the private sector is being constrained by a number of factors, namely: (i) lack of 

access to State lands; (ii) type of land tenure; (iii) lack of business ‘Know How’ and Skills; 

(iv) uncertainty of transport services; (v) quality of physical infrastructure services; (vi) lack 

of autonomy from Tarawa; (vii) poor information flow; (viii) community service obligations 

versus commercial operations; (ix) public service inefficiency; (x) access to capital; and (xi) 

island development coordination and governance. 7 

Despite these constraints, the private 

sector continues to grow albeit slowly. 

* Churches and Community Groups 

Churches 

Churches and religion play a key role in the socio-cultural makeup of Kiritimati Island, as for 

Kiribati as a whole. The vast majority of I-Kiribati families are part of either the Roman 

Catholic Church (55%) or the Kiribati Protestant Church (36%) (see Table 2). The church 

plays an important role in the Kiritimati Island community, namely: (i) caring for spiritual, 

social, physical and mental needs; (ii) promoting healthy living through a good diet, drinking 

clean water and exercising; (iii) running workshops/training session on family life, 

counselling and health; (iv) organising events for women’s association and youth groups, and 

(v) cultural and sports events. 

6 Refer to 2005 Kiribati Census. 

7 Refer to Draft Kiritimati Island Development Plan (KIDP), p.89 (TA 4456-KIR Phase 1B). 



11


Table 2: Percentage of Kiribati Population by Religion 

Religion % of Pop'n 

Roman Catholic Church (RC) 55 

Kiribati Protestant Church (KPC) 36 

Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA) 2 

Bahai Church 2 

Church of Jesus Christ and the Latter Day Saints (Mormon) 3 

Other 1 

Total 100 

Source: 2005 Census 

Religion and belonging to a “church family” provides the community with a sense of 

belonging and purpose. The churches are the most prominent community group within I- 

Kiribati society and provide a solid platform for community mobilization and community 

development activities in coordination with Church Ministers and senior church members 

(Elders / Deacons). 

Unimane 

There are approximately 30 unimane (‘older wise men’) in Kiritimati Island. The decisionmaking 

powers of the Unimane Association are limited in Kiritimati Island, with traditional 

leadership and influence not strong given the absence of traditional village structures seen 

elsewhere in Kiribati (discussed later in the analysis). Instead, leadership at the community 

level occurs primarily through the church and its associated committees. 

Nei Baneawa (Women’s Associations) 

The Women’s Associations operate within churches in Kiritimati Island, with the Roman 

Catholic, KPC and SDA groups the most active. The groups meet on a regular basis to share 

food, discuss future program activities, work on sewing or handicraft projects and discuss 

family and community issues. One elected member of the women’s association represents 

women’s issues on the KUC. 

Roron-rikirake (Youth Groups) 

Like the Women’s Associations, the majority of churches in Kiritimati Island have an active 

youth group, with between 10 and 50 regular participants per group. Youth group leaders are 

often requested to represent the church or youth society at the KUC and other government 

meetings. 

Other Associations 

There are a number of other smaller groups, both formal and informal, that operate to 

represent and support various business organizations. These groups represent industries such 

as: (i) commercial pet fish; (ii) hotels and guesthouses; (iii) diving; (iv) commercial fishing, 

(v) fishing guides and (vi) in 2008, the establishment of the Rotary Club of Kiritimati Island. 



12

2. Population 8 


Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development (MLPID), London 

In 2005, Kiritimati Island had a population of 5,115 persons and an annual 2000-2005 growth 

rate of 7.9% (8%) compared to a growth rate of 1.2% for the 1995-2000 period. The increase 

in 2000-2005 is the largest in the islands recent settlement history. The capital South Tarawa 

has a land area of 15.8 km2 and nearly 44% of the nation’s population, while Kiritimati 

Island, the largest atoll in the world, has a land area of approximately 388 km2. The latter is 

nearly half the total land area of Kiribati but contains only 5.2% of the national population. 

Population density in South Tarawa is 2,558 persons per km2, with up to 15,000 people per 

km2 in overdeveloped islets such as Betio. Overall, Kiritimati Island population densities are 

low and in the order 13 persons per km2. Population for Kiritimati Island by village in 2000 

- 2005 is as follows: 

8 More detailed analysis on the population of Kiritimati Island and Kiribati is discussed elsewhere in the TA reports. 



13


Table 3: Population by Village, Kiritimati Island, 2000-2005 

Village 2000 Census 2005 Census 

London - Tennessee 1,465 1,829 

Tabwakea 976 1,881 

Banana - Main Camp 707 1,170 

Poland 283 235 

Total Kiritimati Island 3,431 5,115 

Source: Census 2000 and 2005 

3. Housing and Household Size 

Housing in Kiritimai Island is primarily contained within the five main village areas, namely, 

London, Tabwakea, Banana, Main Camp, New Banana and Poland. Since the late 1990’s, 

there has been an increasing number of both squatters and approved houses being permitted 

outside the designated village areas. Housing varies in quality from permanent materials to 

local village housing and all forms of combinations in between. Construction materials 

include coconut trees, thatching and locally manufactured grey blocks as well as the use of 

imported materials primarily masonite and corrugated iron sheeting. 

Seven main housing types can be identified on Kiritimati Island, namely: 

• Government housing for Government employees, 

• Government housing for Government owned companies such as Development Bank 

of Kiribati and Kiribati Port Authority, 

• Government houses to accommodate affiliated government bodies such as the Kiribati 

Maintenance Corporation, 

• housing for special projects such as for KWASP or the recently completed (2008) 

British funded Clean Up Kiritimati Island Project, 

• housing on freehold land in Tabwakea, 

• housing constructed as part of the approved business leases, and 

• squatter housing either within or outside the planned villages. 

Based on LMDK records, there were approximately 609 houses in Kiritimati Island 

beginning 2007, assuming one house per business lease, with approximately 75% of housing 

located in the contiguous London to Tabwakea corridor. The 100% Water and Sanitation 

Survey for Kiritimati Island (October, 2007) carried as out as part of the ADB Water and 

Sanitation Design Project counted 626 occupied buildings primarily houses, including 



14


commercial and other uses. This included 250 in London, 232 in Tabwakea, 110 in Banana 

and Main Camp, and 44 in Poland. 

In 2005, household size in Kiritimati Island was 7.2 persons per household (pph) compared to 

a national pph of 6.3 for Kiribati. A 10% Household Survey (November, 2007) indicated that 

average household size on Kiritimati Island was 9.5 person per household. 9 

Household size 

by village (Census, 2005) is shown in Table 4 with Tabwakea having the highest pph. The 

increased household size on Kiritimati Island compared to the rest of Kiribati reflects the 

strictness of the land release programs and the larger national issue of not addressing in 

migration. 

Table 4: Household Size by Village, Kiritimati Island, 2005 

Village Name Number of % of Total Population Household Size 

Households 

Households 

London 266 37.9% 1,829 6.9 

Tabwakea 252 35.9% 1,881 7.5 

Banana 151 21.5% 1,170 7.7 

Poland 33 4.7% 235 7.1 

Total 702 100.0% 5,115 7.2 

Source: Census 2005. 

4. Water Supply and Sanitation 

* Water Supply 

The water supply statistics for Kiritimati Island for 2005 show the main sources of drinking 

water being; (i) 84% use water from the piped reticulated system, (ii) 32% use rainwater, (iii) 

38% use a closed or open well and (iv) 2% use bottled water. 10 

Wells currently provide a 

source of groundwater for a number of uses, depending on the location of the village and 

quality of the underlying groundwater. There are, however, major issues associated with 

main source of potable water, namely, the current reticulated water supply system. Although 

the system is simple in conceptual design including good use of renewable energy via 

windmills and solar pumps for groundwater pumping and use of head tanks, the water system 

as provided by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) under the 

Kiritimati Water and Sanitation Project (KWASP) suffers from poor construction standards, 

inadequate attention to detail, inadequate operations and maintenance regimes, limited 

monitoring and analysis of data as well as limited institutional capacity. Apart from Poland 

village, there is insufficient water from the piped systems to supply the current major 

population centers due to; (i) insufficient pumping capacity; (ii) major leakage from domestic 

reticulation systems, and possibly from the main reticulation system; and (iii) direct 

connections to the main pipeline from the Decca and Four Wells lenses to Tabwakea and 

London. Bacteriological water quality within the pump wells and water in the reticulation 

9 Undertaken as part of the ADB Water and Sanitation Design Project (October, 2007) 

10 Source: 2005 Census. 



15


systems after chlorination varies greatly, with both E.coli and total coliforms present. 

Irregular testing is carried out by the laboratory at the Health Center (hospital) in London. 

Water supply storage tanks from Four Wells located at Decca galleries which supplies water to 

Tabwakea, Tennessee and London 

* Sanitation 

Sanitation is a problematic and a major issue in Kiritimati Island where traditional sanitation 

measures such as beach and bush defecation remain strong and freshwater sources are 

limited. Current methods of sanitation as used on Kiritimati Island (2005 Census) indicate 

73% of households had flush toilets using either cistern (35%) or pour-flush (38%), 25% had 

pit toilets, 20% had compost toilets, and 35% used either bush or beach for defecation (see 

Table 5 for type of toilet used by village). 

Number of Toilets 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

Table 5: Number of Toilets Used in each Village, Kiritimati Island 2005 

50 

0 

Source: 2005 Census 

Cistern 

flush 

Pourflush 

London Tabw akea Banana Poland 

Pit Toilet Compost 

toilet 

Beach Bush 



16


The analysis shows that, amongst other matters; (i) more than one type of toilet is used by 

households - for example, use of a cistern toilet in a Government office and the beach or bush 

defecation at the household level, and (ii) there are wide differences in methods of sanitation 

by villages. For example, London has a high use of cistern and pour flush toilets while 

Tabwakea has the highest use of the bush and beach as a toilet. Sanitation in Kiritimati 

Island is a significant consumer of water, a polluter of groundwater and the environment 

generally as well as a potential major risk to personal health. Poorer households in Kiritimati 

Island such as in Tabwakea rely almost exclusively on household well water as their main 

source of water. However, it is the local groundwater that will be contaminated by sanitation 

and other activities such as household pig pens. 

In Kiritimati Island, the benchmark for sanitation systems has already been set by the longestablished 

standards applied in government housing - approximately 55% of housing in 

Kiritimati Island - in the villages of London, Tennessee and to a lesser extent, Banana. This 

also includes the Government-owned Captain Cook Hotel where government employees and 

tourists have access to flush pedestal toilets connected to septic tank systems. 11 

One of the failed 130 compost toilets from the AusAID KWASP, 1999-2003 

3. The Policy Setting for Poverty Assessment 

The Government of Kiribati and the ADB have assessed poverty in Kiribati in increasing 

detail over recent years and as a result, developed policies and strategies to promote poverty 

reduction and social development. To provide a context for the social and poverty 

(hardship) 12 

analysis, a brief discussion on the new Kiribati Development Plan, the ADB 

Poverty Reduction Policy and the Kiribati Millennium Development Goals (MDG) report is 

provided. 

11 

See TA KIR - 4456. Water and Sanitation Project Design (ADB Growth Centers Project), 2008. 

12 

Note - poverty is defined differently in different parts of the Pacific Region. 



17


* Kiribati Development Plan (2008-2011) 

The recently released Kiribati Development Plan (KDP), 2008-2011, sets out the 

development framework for Kiribati for the 2008-2011 period. The theme of the KDP is 

’enhancing economic growth for sustainable development’ and has six key policy areas, 

namely; (i) human resource development, (ii) economic growth and poverty reduction, (iii) 

health, (iv) environment, (v) governance, and (vi) infrastructure. The Ministry of Finance and 

Economic Development (MFED) was responsible for preparing the new KDP which was 

formally released by the President in Parliament in April, 2008. 

To address the imbalance of social and economic development between the Gilbert Group to 

the west and the Line Islands to the east, the GoK announced in 2004 a strategic emphasis on 

promoting outer island growth centers. Kiritimati Island was designated as a main potential 

growth island in Kiribati, along with other potential centres. 13 

* ADB Poverty Reduction Policy 

ADB’s poverty reduction strategy establishes poverty reduction as its over-arching goal. The 

three pillars of the ADB’s Poverty Reduction Strategies (Good Governance, Social 

Development and Equitable, Pro-poor Growth) recognises that no single answer or specific 

policy will provide strategies for hardship alleviation. 14 The strategy provides that ADB enter 

into a partnership with each government to develop a National Poverty Reduction Strategy 

(NPRS) which will also support ADB’s operational strategy for the country. A Poverty 

Partnership was also established between the Government of Kiribati and the ADB in 

September 2003 and promotes a vision which is in line with the three poverty reduction 

pillars shown in Figure 1, namely, pro-poor economic growth, inclusive social development 

and good governance. 15 ADB identifies five thematic priorities which support these pillars: 

(a) gender equality, (b) environmental sustainability, (c) private sector development, (d) 

regional cooperation, and (e) capacity development. 16 



18 

The strategy as initially 

outlined in the National Development Strategy (2004-2007) indicated Kiritimati Island had 

many potential opportunities including eco-tourism, agriculture (primarily copra), fisheries 

and space telecommunications. The NDS also targeted Kiritimati Island as accommodating 

an increasing island population migrating from the overpopulated islands in the Gilbert 

Group, particularly urban South Tarawa. 

13 

Other potential growth islands nominated by Government include Tabituea North (southern Gilbert Group) and 

Butaritari (northern Gilbert Group). . 

14 

ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment – Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’ 

15 

Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Poverty Partnership between GoK and ADB’, p.2 

16 

Refer to ADB (2007) ‘Handbook on Social Analysis - A Working Document’, p.3


Figure 1: ADB Poverty Reduction Strategies 

GOAL POVERTY REDUCTION 

PILLARS 

THEMATIC 

PRIORITIES 

Source: ADB, 2007, ‘Handbook on Social Analysis - A Working Document’, p.2 

* Kiribati Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Report, 2007 

The Kiribati Millennium Development Goal (MDG) report provides an update on progress by 

Kiribati as to how it is achieving the targets under the 8 gaols of the MDG Declaration, as 

adopted at the World Summit, 2000. 17 

The eight MDGs are: 

• eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 

• achieve universal primary education, 

• promote gender equity and empower women, 

• reduce child mortality, 

• improve maternal health, 

Pro-poor 

Sustainable 

Economic Growth 

Private 

Sector 

Development 

Regional 

Cooperation 

• combat HIV - AIDS, TB, malaria and other communicable disease, 

• ensure environmental sustainability, and 

• develop a global partnership for development. 

Inclusive Social 

Development 

Environmental 

Sustainability 

17 Government of Kiribati Millennium Development Goals Report. UNDP, 2007. 

Gender 

Equality 

Good Governance 

Capacity 

Development 



19


Goal number 1 specifically addresses the eradication of extreme poverty. The assessment of 

progress against poverty indicators indicates varied progress. The report identifies that per 

capita income in Kiribati is highest in the Line Group (in which Kiritimati Island is located) 

primarily due to more income generating activities being available including handicrafts, 

seaweed and copra cutting. The report highlights the free access to large State owned lands 

for subsistence living as enhancing opportunities for cash incomes. The report argues that if 

one uses the I-Kiribati definition of poverty as “lack of access to opportunities and hardship” 

and targets the most vulnerable people such as unemployed including youth, large families, 

people with limited education etc, then the peoples priorities in reducing poverty would be in 

areas such as: 

• education and training including vocational skills such as carpentry and automotive 

repair, 

• economic opportunities through subsidising copra, 

• establishing markets for home made products, 

• improved services and infrastructure such as water and sanitation, 

• better price control on basic commodities, 

• support for the elderly especially those separated from family, 

• implementation of the National Population Policy, including family planning 

components, and 

• improvements in ‘town planning’ and building codes. 

Kiritimati Island is specifically addressed in the MDG report in regard to progress on goal 7 - 

‘ensure environmental sustainability’ – where issues of unchecked urban drift, environmental 

degradation and resource `depletion are highlighted as major challenges and opportunities to 

maintaining a reasonable quality of life on Kiritimati Island. 

3. Poverty and Hardship in Kiribati and Kiritimati Island 

* Defining Poverty in Kiribati 

As defined in the ADB and GoK Poverty Partnership, the term poverty refers to a deprivation 

of essential assets and opportunities to which every human is entitled. Generally in the 

Pacific region, poverty of opportunity is of greater concern than income poverty. Poverty or 

poor, (known as te kainnano ni kainnano in I-Kiribati), can be offensive in Kiribati and 

causes insult when used to describe a person or group of people. Hardship, or te maiu ni 

kanganga, is the term commonly used and describes one who is having difficulty in 

providing for the family’s needs, is living on credit or regularly practices bubuti, that is, 

begging or asking from relatives and friends. 18 

18 

Bubuti in this context is referring to regular demands for resources, which is distinctly different from the 

traditional I-Kiribati practice of reciprocal sharing. 



20


ADB’s most recent assessment of hardship and poverty in Kiribati found that that the level of 

absolute poverty in Kiribati is low. 19 In Kiribati, hardship most commonly manifests itself 

not through income poverty but through poverty of opportunity, for example, lack of access 

to basic services, land, infrastructure, employment opportunities, standards of good 

governance and equal opportunities across gender and age. 20 People who lack income, assets 

or family support were considered to be facing considerable hardship when assessed during 

the ADB Hardship in Kiribati study in 2005. 21 

The following categories of people were 

identified as among the most disadvantaged and therefore most likely to be experiencing 

hardship: 

large families with low incomes; 

people who are unemployed due to having left school early; 

people without assets and property; 

employed people who have visitors (long term or regular) that do not contribute to the 

household budget; 

people who are not productive or lazy, and always ask for bubuti (assistance for basic 

needs from immediate or wider family members); 

those in poor health; 

single mothers with several children and little income; 

elderly people with no children (and therefore no safety net beyond the Government 

Pension; A$40/month); 

‘orphans’ (including children whose parents have died and who are separated), and 

children of alcoholic parents; 

people living in overcrowded conditions; 

‘homeless’ people, who do not live on their home islands and have no means to build 

their own homes where they live (commonly referred to as squatters, who most often 

stay in or adjacent to a church or community maneaba); 

alcoholics; 

people who are paid to cultivate bwaibwai (a local yam) and catch fish for others; and 

people without access to bank loans or other lines of credit. 22 

* Poverty Line Analysis and the Household Economy 

The Poverty Line as defined by the ADB 23 

is a calculation of the minimum income (or 

expenditure) required; (i) to provide an individual with a basic subsistence diet, (measured in 

terms of the minimum daily calorie intake required for human survival, which is 

internationally benchmarked at 2,200 calories/day), termed the “Food Poverty Line”, and (ii) 

an additional allowance to meet the costs of basic non-food expenditure. Together, these two 

components make up the Poverty Line. 

Income and expenditure levels, living conditions and levels of consumption of own food 

production differ widely throughout Kiribati, particularly between South Tarawa and the 

Outer Islands. Due to the marked differences between these settings, two poverty lines were 

19 

Refer to ADB (2005) ‘Priorities of the People: Hardship in Kiribati’ 

20 

Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment – Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’ 

21 

The ADB Hardship in Kiribati study also included fieldwork in Kiritimati Island. 

22 

This also includes government employees who are casual staff. Only permanent staff can apply for credit from 

the Development Bank of Kiribati. 

23 

Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment - Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’, p.4 



21


adopted for use in the poverty analysis for the recent ADB water and Sanitation Project 

design, namely, one for South Tarawa households and the other for Outer Island households. 

For the Outer Islands, the Food Poverty Line (FPL) 24 

was estimated to be A$167 per capita 

per annum (pc p.a.) in 1996 prices, which equates to A$202 pc p.a. in end 2007, whilst South 

Tarawa was estimated to be A$600 pc p.a. in 1996 prices, which equates to A$725 pc pa. 

This difference reflects the much higher level of consumption of own-production food that is 

possible in the outer islands compared to South Tarawa. Adjusting for the estimated 

requirement for additional non-food basic-needs expenditure to give a minimum standard of 

living in each location, a Poverty Line (PL) of A$907 pc p.a. was estimated for South Tarawa 

and A$243 pc p.a. was estimated for the outer islands (end 2007 prices). 

Due to the uniqueness of Kiritimati Island, assessing it against both the Food Poverty Line 

and Poverty Line of South Tarawa and the outer islands is complex. For the purposes of 

ADB Water and Sanitation Project Design (ADB Growth Centres TA), it was been assumed 

that Kiritimati Island villages - particularly Tabwakea, Banana and Poland - are more 

reflective in character of outer island villages in wider Kiribati due to: 

large distances from markets in South Tarawa and elsewhere (i.e Fiji, Australia 

and USA), and as such high transport costs; 

relatively high prices for staple food products such as rice, flour and sugar when 

compared with prices in South Tarawa; 

high levels of consumption of own-production food such as coconut products, 

fish, fruit and some vegetables; and 

a large proportion of the population being involved in informal employment 

activities such as fishing, copra cutting, bread making, preparing roof thatching, 

sewing, local cigarette making and handicrafts. 

The exception to this assumption in Kiritimati Island is the village of London. The majority 

of residents in London live in government housing, with one or more household members 

involved in formal government employment. The majority of these houses have piped water 

supply and septic sanitation systems (comprising a pedestal toilet with cistern or bucket flush, 

and septic tank of concrete block construction). Table 6 shows the average income for 

London is 37% higher (A$1,602 pc p.a.) than the reported average for Kiritimati Island 

(A$1,172 pc p.a.) and is more than twice the average income of households in Tabwakea 

(A$788 pc p.a.). 

24 Basic Needs Poverty and Food Poverty lines for South Tarawa and the Outer Islands were calculated using 

data from the 1996 HIES (South Tarawa, Onotoa and Butaritari) and a model subsistence diet (based on an adult 

food requirement of 2200 calories/day) provided by the Nutrition Unit of the Ministry of Health. The diet was 

costed separately for South Tarawa and Outer Island households to take account of the varying availability of 

own-production food. The results and conclusions must however be treated with some caution as the 1996 HIES 

data is not considered to be very robust or reliable. The results of the 2006 HIES are available and initial 

analysis of income and expenditure shows reasonable correlation with the analysis presented from the 1996 

HIES. 



22

Kiribati a 


Table 6: Income and Expenditure Per Capita per Annum by Village 

Average Income c 

Average Expenditure Net Income 

$1,418 $1,530 -$112 

South Tarawa $1,531 $1,756 -$225 

Outer Islands $1,324 $1,313 $11 

Kiritimati b 

$1,172 $992 $180 

London $1,602 $1,292 $310 

Tabwakea $788 $878 -$90 

Banana $1,131 $798 $334 

Poland 

Notes: 

$1,186 $834 $352 

a 

– Data from 2006 HIES (November 2007) 

b 

– Data from TA 4456-KIR 10% Household Survey, October, 2007 

c 

– Information in Table 4.1 does not include income from subsistence activity. 

The lowest recorded income pc p.a. was for the village of Tabwakea, which was also the only 

village in Kiritimati Island to show a negative net income (-A$90 pc p.a.). The figures reflect 

the lower level of formal employment in Tabwakea compared with London and to a lesser 

degree Banana and Poland villages. It is also observed that Tabwakea derives a much larger 

proportion of its income (and potential expenditure savings) from subsistence and informal 

activities. The income and expenditure data for Tabwakea provides an indication of the type 

of future private leasehold migrants that may come to Kiritimati Island, namely: (i) high 

levels of unemployment; (ii) greater reliance on the natural environment for ownproduction/subsistence 

activities (including fishing and coconut products for own 

consumption, on-selling and housing); and (iii) greater propensity for social instability due to 

increased levels of hardship. This factor needs to be considered in the resettlement 

process for Phase 2 (South Tarawa) and the type of criteria to be applied to ensure all 

socio economic groups (not just the more vulnerable) are catered for. 

Whilst average income is below both the Kiribati national (A$1,418) and outer islands 

(A$1,324) averages, net income across the majority of Kiritimati Island is much greater. 

Average income is also lower in Kiritimati Island which may be due to limited financial data 

on subsistence activities. Subsistence activities may be shown by default in the available data 

as reduced costs for food products. The high proportion of subsistence activity in the Line 

Islands 25 

when compared with South Tarawa and the Kiribati average, may account for some 

of the reductions in expenditure costs in Kiritimati Island (see Table 7). Table 7 also shows 

that a much greater proportion of the population are involved in economic activities (that is, 

excluding ‘unemployed’ and ‘not active’) - 52.7% in the Line Islands compared with 38.3% 

across the whole of Kiribati. Likewise, the ’unemployed’ is lower in the Line Islands (33%) 

compared to 38% for all of Kiribati. 

Table 7: Percentage of Persons aged 15+ Years by Economic Activity 

Economic Activity South Tarawa Line Islands Kiribati 

Wages & Salaries 30.8% 21.5% 22.8% 

Own Business 3.5% 11.0% 4.2% 

Subsistence 4.1% 20.2% 11.3% 

Unemployed 38.4% 33.2% 38.2% 

Not Active 23.2% 14.1% 23.5% 

Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 

Source: 2006 HIES, p.13 

25 Refer to 2006 HIES Survey for Kiritimati Island and Tabuaeran (Fanning) 



23


Based on the results of the expenditure analysis from the 10% TA Household Survey for 

Water and Sanitation Project (October, 2007), 16% of the population in Kiritimati Island are 

below the FPL for outer islands of A$202 pc p.a. and 24% below the PL for outer islands of 

A$243 pc p.a. (Table 8). 

Table 8: Poverty Incidence in Kiribati and Kiritimati Island 

Food Poverty Poverty Line 

Line (FPL) (PL) 

Food Poverty Poverty Line 

Line (FPL) (PL) 

South Tarawa a 46 59 39 51 

Outer Islands a 65 69 39 50 

Kiritimati b 

% of Households 

Below 

Recorded Income Recorded Expenditure 

7 11 16 24 

London 0 7 3 3 

Tabwakea 13 17 20 33 

Banana 8 13 17 29 

Poland 0 0 75 75 

Notes: 

a 

– Data from 1996 HIES 

b 

– Data from TA 4456-KIR 10% Household Survey, October, 2007 

Encouragingly, the percentage of Kiritimati Island households below the PL and FPL for both 

income and expenditure is less than those recorded in South Tarawa and the outer islands. 

This is recognition of the increased economic opportunities available in Kiritimati Island as 

reflected in the economic data which indicates a higher percentage of the population in the 

Line Islands who are involved in private business - 11% compared with 3.5% in South 

Tarawa and 4.2% across all of Kiribati (see Table 7). 

The incidence of poverty relating to expenditure was highest in the villages of Tabwakea and 

Banana, with 20% and 17% respectively for FPL and 33% and 29% respectively for PL. 

Therefore, the poverty line analysis depicts higher levels of (economic) hardship in the 

villages where private leasehold and freehold land is dominant (Tabwakea and Banana). By 

contrast, those living in the largest concentration of Government housing, that is, London 

village, reflect the lowest levels of (economic) hardship. 

Despite the high levels of hardship visually seen in Tabwakea village, very few residents 

suffer from hunger or malnutrition. Residents have free and unrestricted access to the land 

and sea resources (such as fish and coconut products) as long as resources are harvested 

outside the designated protected areas on the island (although poaching is rife). As part of 

the AusAID KWASP design process in the 1990’s, comment was sort from residents 

regarding life in Kiritimati Island. 26 Residents noted that “here you can live without money - 

fish, coconuts and toddy” and “you are free to take coconuts and make money” and “no 

hardship, easy living”. Balanced with access to common resources on State lands is the high 

dependence on imported staple food, such as rice, flour, sugar and tinned meats. Kiritimati 

Island often experiences shortages of these staple foods due to irregular shipping and this can 

raise household food expenditure appreciably. 27 

26 

Refer to Ranck (1995) Socio-cultural Factors of Importance in the Design and Maintenance of Water Supplies 

for Kiritimati Island 

27 

For instance, bags of rice, which usually trade for between A$20-25/bag can rise to as much as A$60-80/bag 

during periods of limited supply. Shipping, on average, is every 2-4 months from Tarawa. 



24


There are a high percentage of households shown to be below the poverty line in Poland. 

However, this is perceived to be more of a reflection on the small number of households 

surveyed in October, 2007, (4) and not a reflection on the poverty or hardship levels of 

Poland residents. Field observations in Poland indicate that like other villages in Kiritimati 

Island, there are no visible signs of malnutrition or hunger. If households require additional 

income for a specific reason, then it is common in Poland for the men of working age to 

spend between 1 week and 2 months in the field cutting copra, which is in relative abundance 

on the southwest side of Kiritimati Island. This product is then on-sold to London (then 

Tarawa) and the revenue distributed to the Poland workers and retail / wholesale outlets in 

Kiritimati Island. If people are not in formal employment and don’t need money to meet 

specific needs, then they do not work. 

* Household Income and Affordability 

Traditional I-Kiribati culture is structured around equality and even distribution of resources 

through the practice of bubuti. 28 

As this egalitarian framework begins to breakdown from 

increasing monetisation, there is an increasing inequality between different sections of the 

community. This is also a growing trend in Kiritimati Island, as displayed in the differences 

between the quality of housing in the villages of London and Tabwakea. As shown in Table 

6, residents in London earn on average more than two times that of the residents from 

Tabwakea. 

Figure 2 displays the Lorenz Curve for expenditure distribution, plotting (actual) cumulative 

expenditure against equal distribution. The Figure suggests that around 74% of households 

account for 50% of expenditure and that the 26% of households with the highest levels of 

expenditure account for the other 50% of total expenditure (that is, H26 - 50%; L74 - 50%). 

This very closely reflects the expenditure distribution in South Tarawa, which showed 75% 

of households account for 50% of expenditure and that 25% of household account for the 

other 50% of total expenditure. 

Cumulative Expenditure % 

Figure 2: Kiritimati Island Expenditure Distribution (Lorenz Curve) 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

1 13 24 36 47 59 70 82 93 

Households % 

Cumulative Expenditure Equal Distribution 

28 Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment – Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’, p.8 



25


* Dependency Ratio 

Based on the income and expenditure analysis of the 10% TA Household Survey (October, 

2007), the dependency ratio for Kiritimati Island is 0.75 (that is, 1 income earner for every 3 

dependents). The Kiribati national dependency ratio is 0.76, 29 which is mid-ranking among 

Pacific Developing Member Countries (PDMCs) of the ADB. As noted by the ADB, the 

relatively high dependency ratio in Kiribati reflects: (i) a combination of high birth rate, (ii) 

39% of the population being below 15 years, and (iii) approximately 1,500 working age 

adults (mostly males - equivalent to 7.5% of the resident male labour market) working 

overseas. 30 

* Landlessness and Overcrowding 

One of the most significant factors affecting hardship in Kiritimati Island is overcrowding 

and landlessness. Both of these factors stem from; (i) delayed land releases for private 

leasehold plots and (ii) restricted land supply. In June, 2005, the Government approved the 

process for releasing up to 600 private leasehold plots in Kiritimati Island. The first release 

of plots include: (i) 222 for the existing Kiritimati Islands residents; and (ii) 231 plots for 

residents from South Tarawa. 

Housing conditions in Tabwakea village 

As an indication of the demand for leasehold plots, 699 applications were filed with MELAD 

(LMDK) by the closing date (March 2007) for the 222 Kiritimati Island residents plot release. 

The extremely slow pace at which land is released in Kiritimati Island, 31 

combined with 

29 

Refer to 1996 HIES 

30 

Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment – Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’, p.10 

31 

There are a range of views at senior Government levels including MPs as to: (i) how quickly; and (ii) what type 

of land tenure system should be applied to Kiritimati Island. This debate has led to the land release program 

being deferred over the last 4 years, hence its slowness. 



26


steady migration from Tarawa, is continuing to cause overcrowding issues in London, 

Banana and particularly Tabwakea village. 32 The vast majority of landless families are able 

to reside with extended family members. However, sometimes there is insufficient space and 

they must then be housed in or adjacent to church maneaba .and compounds If these safety 

valves do not exist in the villages, or households need to earn money from cutting copra in 

the bush, households will then squat as illegal tenants on State land. 33 

* Social Safety Nets 

As hardship becomes a more prevalent issue in I-Kiribati society, the Government of Kiribati 

has instituted three policy initiatives to assist, namely: (i) copra subsidy; (ii) elderly pension; 

and (iii) free Junior Secondary Schooling (JSS). The copra subsidy accounts for 25% of the 

selling price for copra (equivalent to A$0.15/kg). In 2008, there are 61 persons (30 men and 

31 women) receiving the elderly pension in Kiritimati Island, which is available to all who 

are 70 years or older and equates to A$40/month. The elderly pension is administered by the 

KUC on behalf of MISA. The number of JSS students taking advantage of no tuition fees in 

Kiritimati Island is 387. 34 

As noted elsewhere in this paper, I-Kiribati society is based around the concept of sharing 

and reciprocal relationships. The practice of sharing resources has provided an effective 

social security net, particularly for those with a higher chance of experiencing hardship in 

Kiritimati Island. These include, but are limited not to, people who are: (i) unemployed or 

not in permanent employment (which can affect their ability to access credit), (ii) living in 

overcrowded conditions, (iii) landless and/or squatting; (iv) widows, orphans and the aged, 

and (v) households which only have one income source, formal or informal. 

The State owned land in Kiritimati Island, and more specifically the natural resources 

available from this land, is also another important social safety net. A number of respondents 

from the 10% TA Household Survey in October, 2007, and other anecdotal evidence shows 

that a large percentage of the population enjoy living in Kiritimati Island, when compared 

with either South Tarawa or their ‘home island’ in the Gilbert Islands Group. These natural 

resources also allow a large proportion of the population to obtain income from the informal 

sector. Table 9 reflects the wide array of informal activities undertaken in Kiritimati Island 

and also the potential economic return from each. Income derived from ‘free access’ to the 

island’s natural resources, such as fish and coconut products, feature strongly. 

32 

Refer to ADB (2004) TA 4257-KIR Supporting Land Use Management on Kiritimati Island: Final TA Report 

Volume 1, p.15 

33 

As at July, 2008, there were 48 squatter households in Kiritimati Island, comprising 19 squatters in the villages 

and 29 squatters in the bush. Note - there is a separate TA analysis being undertaken on squatters. 

34 

MEYSD records show 387 JSS students in 2007: 130 in Form 1, 140 in Form 2 and 117 in Form 3. 



27


Family at work in the maneaba 

Table 9: Range of Informal Activities on Kiritimati Island which Generate Cash - Money 

Main Informal Activity Kiribati name Value Estimate (AUD) 

Baking - bread/cakes kariki 1 loaf (2 halves) - $2.00 

Sweets and candy kanre $0.20 per candy 

Block making karao buriki $1.80 per block 

Roof thatching raranga ato $2.50 per thatch 

Money lending tango mwane 10% interest 

Cigarette making ni moko $0.30 per local cigarette 

Toddy timbakatai $1.00 per cup 

Cordial kaimaimai $5.00 per bottle 

Coconut oil karaoan te bwa $5.00 per bottle 

Coconut string te kora $3.00 per 20 metre 

Ice block making karao aiti $0.20 per ice block 

Hairdressing arao ira Free/contribution 

Sewing te itutu $2.00 per hour 

Fishing products (tuna jerky) te ika eg. taari $1.00 per cupful 

Handicrafts karao bwain Kiribati $5.00-$10.00 for a canoe 

Vegetables/fruit growing te ununiki $2.00 per cabbage 

Food ‘street’ vendors kamwarake $2.50 per plate 

Hiring DVD / Burn CD or DVD tango birim / karaoan te CD, DVD $2.50/day; $5-10 each 

Boat hire tangoan te booti $15.00 per day 

Passport photos passport tamnei $2.50 per photo 

Secondhand clothes kaboan kinikai $1.00-$10.00 per item 

Copra harvesting oro ben $0.60 per kilogram 

Sleeping mats kie ni matu $50.00 per single mat 

Source: LMDK, MELAD, July, 2008. 

* Non Traditional Social Structures 

A major difference between Kiritimati Island (and former State lands the Line and Phoenix 

Islands in general) and the rest of the islands in Kiribati (except for Tarawa) is the absence of 

a strong “unimwane system” and the intricate social order surrounding the “maneaba 



28


system.” The traditional meeting house in Kiribati, called the “maneaba”, is more than just a 

building. It is the centre of the social fabric of life on the outer islands and each family has an 

allocated place to sit in the maneaba that is associated with a role, defined by traditions, 

which outlines each family’s role under the “maneaba” and thus in the village. Central to the 

maneaba system is the “unimwane” (old wise men) who meet in the maneaba and discuss and 

make decisions on issues which affect the village on a daily basis. Old men’s decisions on 

rules and regulations carry a lot of weight and have often conflicted with western laws as they 

now exist, particularly in relation to sanctions for wrong doings in the village. 

On Kiritimati Island, this important traditional system is greatly eroded and has been lost 

with the surge of population from other islands to these new villages. Those newcomers who 

arrive recognize no higher traditional authority unlike their own home islands. Families from 

the islands of Makin and Aabemama live next to families from the islands of Arorae and 

Tabiteuea within the Kiritimati Island villages. The population is heterogeneous and no 

overarching social structures, norms and values apply. Important social control measures are 

therefore lost with urbanisation on State lands on Kiritimati Island. 

Church groups (makoro) are fast replacing traditional authority. An important differentiation 

is that these church groupings are mostly fund raising and church oriented groups which are 

not as effective as a social control measure. Also, participation in these groupings is 

voluntary, and one can pull out of the groupings whereas in a village setting, one is a life long 

member and cannot decide to pull out of the village if not happy with the decisions of the old 

men. The only way out is to move out of the village and move to another village, or move to 

State lands such as in Kiritimati Island and Tabuaeran (Fanning) for Teraina (Washington) 

Islands to the north. 

This absence of higher traditional authority on Kiritimati Island has resulted in a social 

vacuum where each person and family is not part of a tight traditional community. They are 

therefore not answerable to any traditional authority as is the case elsewhere in the Gilbert 

Group. This breakdown of traditional social order also exists on Tarawa and is accompanied 

by a weaker sense of community and a stronger individual and nuclear family focus. The 

stronger individual aspirations are best reflected in the talk by some of the desire to start a 

small business on State lands. These business aspirations are not as common in outer islands 

where social control and an individuals place in the community, defining what one can do 

and can’t do, is clearly demarcated. Conformity rather than expressing ones view are the 

norm on outer islands while in Kiritimati Island one is less constrained in their development 

aspirations for State lands. 

* Public Health 

Kiribati has the fourth lowest human development index (HDI) of all the Pacific developing 

member countries 35 (PDMCs) at 0.515. 36 

Average life expectancy at birth is 63.6 years, 

which is attributed to high infant and child mortality associated with respiratory disease and 

diarrhoea (the second highest incidence among PDMCs after Papua New Guinea). 

35 Refer to ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati Poverty Assessment – Assessment of Hardship and Poverty’ 

36 HDI is a summary composite index that measures a country's average achievements in three basic aspects of 

human development: (i) health (life expectancy at birth), knowledge (combination of the adult literacy rate and the 

combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrolment ratio), and a decent standard of living (GDP per 

capita (PPP US$) (Human Development Report Office of UNDP). 



29


The recorded morbidity cases for Kiritimati Island (2002-2007) are listed below in Table 10. 

The data shows that on average the most common reported illnesses are (i) cold/flu - 75%; 

(ii) respiratory illnesses - 22%; (iii) fever - 15%; and (iv) diarrhoea - 5%. The total 

percentage of the population suffering from water-borne illness is 6.27%, based on available 

health data. Significantly, these statistics only reflect the number of people who attended the 

village clinics/ hospital and as such the actual number of people with water-borne illness 

(diarrhoea, dysentery and some hepatitis) is likely to be much higher, perhaps as much as 5 

times higher. 37 

Diseases related to water and sanitation includes: diarrhoea diseases, urinary tract infections, 

infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A and E viruses), typhoid, skin, ear and eye infections among 

others. Vector-borne diseases (for example, those transmitted through organisms such as 

mosquitoes or ticks from infected individuals to other persons, or from infected animals to 

human beings) include: diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax, 

ophthalmia, intestinal worms, skin disorders, pneumonia, parasitism, malaria, and hepatitis 

A. 38 

Table 10: Morbidity for Kiritimati Island for 2002-2007 

Medical 

Condition 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 a Total Average 

p.a. 

% of Pop'n 

p.a. b 

Diarrhoea 196 162 126 262 477 88 1,311 238.4 4.83% 

Dysentery 30 68 27 118 119 26 388 70.5 1.43% 

Pneumonia 12 38 105 47 76 114 392 71.3 1.44% 

Other ARI c 

531 1,081 987 1,453 1,279 568 5,899 1,072.5 21.72% 

Meningitis 1 1 0 1 0 1 4 0.7 0.01% 

Conjunctivitis 92 57 110 147 428 19 853 155.1 3.14% 

STD d 

1 7 6 1 4 3 22 4.0 0.08% 

Malnutrition 0 0 1 0 30 6 37 6.7 0.14% 

Acute Fever 703 1,921 517 602 470 69 4,282 778.5 15.77% 

Hepatitis 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 0.7 0.01% 

Others e 

1,938 3,750 3,153 4,934 3,712 2,834 20,321 3,694.7 74.83% 

Food poisoning 22 0 0 0 0 0 22 4.0 0.08% 

Scabies 12 0 0 0 0 0 12 2.2 0.04% 

Mental illness 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.4 0.01% 

Teburculosus 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.4 0.01% 

Leprosy 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0.4 0.01% 

Total 3,542 7,085 5,034 7,565 6,599 3,728 33,553 6,101 

Source: Ministry of Health and Medical Services, South Tarawa, 2008 

Notes: 

a 

– Only January to July data is available for 2007. 

b 

– Percentage of the population per annum is calculated by dividing the average occurrence per annum by the 

average population per annum for the specified period. 

c 

– ARI refers to Acute Respiratory Illness. 

d 

– STI refers to Sexually Transmitted Infections. 

e 

– Others refers to medical conditions such as colds and flu. 

* Women and Vulnerable Groups 

Women in I-Kiribati Society 

37 Personal Communication, Head Doctor, Kiritimati Island Hospital, November 2007. 

38 Kundsen A.B., Sloof, R. Vector-Borne Disease Problems in Rapid Urbanization: New Approaches to Vector 

Control. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1992; 70(1): 1-6. 



30


The role of women in traditional I-Kiribati culture is one of primary caregiver and household 

level decision maker. However, community level decision making is largely the domain of 

men within I-Kiribati society, which is supported by the very low number of women in 

politics. Women do occupy a number of the senior positions within Government and 

compose 51.5% of the workforce (37% in paid employment). 39 

Girls slightly outnumber boys 

within the school environment. Women are also generally reluctant to speak openly when 

men are present, particularly in a maneaba setting. 

Vulnerable Groups 

There are some groups in Kiritimati Island that are currently experiencing hardship, as noted 

earlier. The most prevalent amongst this group are the unemployed and/or landless, who are 

largely concentrated in the villages of Tabwakea and Banana. Households which only have 

one income earner are also vulnerable, particularly if the “bread-winner” is unable to work 

because of illness or other reason. Based on the 10% TA Household Survey in October, 

2007, 27.6% of households (some 24 of 87 households interviewed) fit this profile. 

Children are also acknowledged as a vulnerable group especially with respect to access to 

potable water, sanitation and non participation in schooling. Special programs, such as 

MEYSD-MLPID working together, could be devised so schools receive the highest possible 

water and sanitation services, such that children are not disadvantaged. 

* CBOs and NGOs 

With the exception of churches, there are no NGOs or other support groups in Kiritimati 

Island through which people in hardship can seek assistance. This means that these people 

must rely on the extended community, government colleagues and the churches for support. 

There are a number of areas in which NGOs and community based organizations (CBOs) 

could play a significant role, such as: (i) community education; (ii) environmental 

management and conservation; (iii) micro-enterprise development and micro-credit schemes; 

(iv) training and capacity building of community groups and government; and (v) tourism 

development. 

39 ADB (2002) ‘Kiribati: Monetization in an Atoll Society - Managing Economic and Social Change 



31

Annex 3.d: JONES: Framework for Managing Voluntary Resettlement from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island 

A Framework for 

Voluntary Resettlement from 

South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island 

February, 2009 





1. Aims of the Paper 

2. Policy Background to the Voluntary Resettlement 

3. Target Groups for Phase 2 

4. Assessment of the Phase 1 Allocation Process on Kiritimati Island 

5. Summary of the CASL Experience and Lessons Learned 

6. Recommended Framework for the Phase 2 Resettlement 

7. Main Functions of the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee 

8. Main Functions of the South Tarawa CASL 

9. Main Phase 2 Steps in the Voluntary Relocation Process 

10. Moving the Phase 2 Framework Forward 

11. Checklist of Key Activities to Implement Phase 2 

Annexes 

Annex 1 - Phase 1 Screening and Selection Criteria 

Annex 2 - Phase 1 Lease Agreement for Kiritimati Island (English version) 

Annex 3 - Draft Background Information and Selection Criteria, Phase 2 


2


1. Aims of the Paper 

The overall goal of this paper is to provide a resource document for Government and specifically 

the Ministry of Environment Land and Agricultural Development (MELAD) so as to assist them 

in undertaking the proposed voluntary resettlement process of people from South Tarawa to 

Kiritimati Island. The specific objectives of the paper are to; 

(i) assess Governments Phase 1 land allocation process currently being implemented 

in Kiritimati Island (that is, for residents in Kiritimati Island), 

(ii) define the framework for the Phase 2 voluntary resettlement from South Tarawa 

to Kiritimati Island, and 

(iii) detail the key elements of this framework and how it may work in practice. 

As outlined in the separate TA paper on “The Review and Analysis of Settlement and 

Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island”, the term resettlement refers to the 

movement from one location to another and maybe voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary 

resettlement is when people or households decide via their own volition to move, such as from 

South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island. Involuntary resettlement is when people are forced to move 

from one settlement to another as a result of development or a natural disaster such as 

construction of an airport runway, protection of a public water reserve or widening of a major 

road. For both voluntary and involuntary settlements, Governments and other organisations may 

assist in the relocation process so as to mitigate any adverse impacts. 

2. Policy Background to the Voluntary Resettlement 

In June, 2005, the Government agreed to release up to 600 private leasehold plots in Kiritimati 

Island over the next 4 years. 1 

The initial release was to consist of 300 residential plots. Of the 

300 plot target, some; (i) 150 plots (termed Phase 1) were to be allocated to residents already 

residing in Kiritimati Island and (ii) the remaining 150 plots (Phase 2) allocated to residents 

primarily from South Tarawa. Upon completion of the land assessment and ranking process of 

applicants in 2007, Cabinet amended the Kiritimati Island target to 153 plots. In addition to the 

above plots for Kiritimati Island and South Tarawa respectively, Government added another 150 

plots targeted at local housing. This housing was to be shared between both target groups, with 

81 local housing plots being for South Tarawa residents in the Phase 2 release and the remaining 

1 This paper should be read in conjunction with the “The Review and Analysis of Settlement and Resettlement Plans 

and Policies for Kiritimati Island”, September, 2008. 


3


69 plots for Kiritimati Island residents. Thus, the total allocation for Phase 1 was 222 plots and 

for Phase 2 some 231 plots. The above is summarised in Table 1. 

Origin of 

Applicant 

Kiritimati 

Island 

(Phase 1) 

South 

Tarawa 

(Phase 2) 

Table 1: Residential Plots for Release, Kiritimati Island 2008-2009 

Permanent 

Houses 

153 

Local 

Houses 

69 

Total Plots Village 

Location in 

Kiritimati 


4 

222 200 

Tabwakea 

22 Poland 

150 81 231 not 

determined 

Allocation - 

Release 


in progress - 

release 

process 

advanced 

planning and 

design in 

progress 

Total: 303 150 453 - - 

It should be noted that as a result of public complaints, 2 

Cabinet in June, 2008, agreed that 168 

of the 222 plots be released as soon as possible while the remaining 54 needed further scrutiny. 

As at September, 2008, the Phase 1 plots were being physically released to those selected and 

residing in Kiritimati Island. Advance rent payments were being received and lease agreement 

distributed to applicants for signing. 

With the Phase 1 process for those residing in Kiritimati Island now in process, Government and 

specifically MELAD have commenced the process of detailed planning for the Phase 2 voluntary 

resettlement from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island. As part of the TA 4878 - KIR: Integrated 

Land and Population Program on Kiritimati Island (Population Component), the Government 

has requested assistance in developing the framework to apply to Phase 2 so that this process 

may commence as soon as possible. 

It must be noted that the assistance as provided under the TA in developing the design of the 

Phase 2 voluntary resettlement is made in the context of the overarching TA recommendations 

regarding the future settlement and resettlement of Kiritimati Island. In summary, these key TA 

recommendations are that there should be no more settlement and resettlement after the 

2 

These objectors raised issues concerning discrepancies in the land allocation process, the criteria and the weighting 

as applied.


existing Phase 1 until the existing planning and development issues as outlined further in 

this paper are urgently addressed. 3 

Structure Plan for Tabwakea where 200 of the 222 Phase 1 plots are located. 

New Banana, west of Main Camp, is the main location of the 231 plots for Phase 2. 

3 See detailed discussion on this recommendation in the TA 4878 paper on “The Review and Analysis of Settlement 

and Resettlement Plans and Policies for Kiritimati Island” (Part B). 


5


The recommended approach to the settlement of Kiritimati Island is one of caution in releasing 

future land in line with; 

• managing in migration, 

• respecting the islands unique environmental values, 

• urgently improving the existing poor state of infrastructure, primarily water, sanitation 

and power, 

• the need for changes to environmental management practices and mindset, 

• reducing squatter numbers and greater community mobilisation on environmental and 

natural resource issues, and 

• reducing in migration significantly while the Government and the community take stock 

of the major on island impacts occurring. 

The overriding caveat is that no more land should be released in Kiritimati Island until the 

existing population, resettlement and migration issues are addressed; the water and sanitation 

systems are rehabilitated and improved; new environmental programs to address the decline of 

the natural resource are put in place, rising squatter issues and the unsustainable impact of 

population growth mitigated are addressed. The existing land commitments now underway for 

Phase 1 should be met and nothing more, with the proposed Phase 2 release to accommodate 

voluntary resettlement from South Tarawa deferred. For the TA to recommend any other 

position would be socially, environmentally and economically irresponsible. 

3. Target Groups for Phase 2 

A review of Cabinet decisions on the settlement of Kiritimati Island indicates the following 3 

target groups have been agreed as the priority for resettlement in Phase 2; 

• residents from the area known as ‘Bairiki village’ in the Teinanano Urban Council (TUC) 

area, 

• residents from area known as ‘Betio village’ in Temakin in the Betio Town Council 

(BTC) area, and 

• ex Orona Island residents (from Phoenix Islands), some of who resettled to the Solomon 

Islands in the 1970s and 1980’s while some resided in South Tarawa. These families 

were deprived of native title ownership to their family lands. 


6


The above target groups reflect a strong focus on the overcrowded ‘Bairiki and Betio village’ 

areas in the BTC and TUC local government areas. These areas represent concentrations of 

landless people that resulted from the British colonial administration in 1954 securing long term 

99 year head leases over the respective islet areas. Those landowners whose lands were acquired 

by 99 year lease were relocated to small reserve areas in Bairiki and Betio, subsequently known 

as Bairiki and Betio villages. Residents in these reserves were allocated house plots under 

licence, with licences renewed annually by the respective village area committee. This 

arrangement continued until the 1970’s when administration became too complex. While the 

village areas have remained the same, the population and local and permanent arrangements for 

shelter have increased dramatically, with unacceptable living conditions now being the norm. 


7


Housing conditions in ‘Bairiki village’, central Bairiki ocean side - TUC area 

Housing conditions in ‘Betio village’ at Temakin, Betio - BTC area 

4. Assessment of the Phase 1 Allocation Process on Kiritimati Island 

With the Phase 1 release for Kiritimati Island residents well advanced with plots from 

September, 2008, being; (i) physically released via lease and (ii) development applications for 

the plots being considered by the Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board (KLLPB), MELAD has 

requested that a review be undertaken on the Phase 1 allocation process. The purpose of the 

evaluation is to identify issues arising and lessons learned from Phase 1, especially the 

experience of the Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL), so that they may be 

considered as part of the Phase 2 design and implementation process. 

The methodology for the CASL review was to; (i) meet with the CASL collectively and where 

possible, CASL members individually in Kiritimati Island so as to discuss issues and concerns 

regarding the Phase 1 process, 4 

(ii) talk to with Kiritimati Island residents who had applied and 

4 The meeting with CASL was held on Wednesday 2 July, 2008, 4 pm, LMDK offices, London. 


8


who were both successful and unsuccessful in their applications for State lands, and (iii) discuss 

perceptions of the process with decision makers in Tarawa. 

It should be acknowledged at this point the good work of CASL in undertaking the assessment 

and allocation process in Kiritimati Island. The process of a adopting a more formal approach to 

the allocation of land was a new one for Kiritimati Island and was always going to be a 

challenging and difficult one for CASL and related agencies. The key reasons for this were that; 

(i) while the process was driven locally, the criteria was ultimately determined by Cabinet in 

Tarawa, and (ii) there was approximately 700 applicants and only 222 plots to be allocated. 

Thus, approximately two thirds of applicants would be unsuccessful as land supply was limited 

and demand high. 

The comments from CASL and residents on the Phase 1 process can be grouped under a number 

of common themes. These are summarised below; 

* Screening and Selection Criteria 

The screening and allocation criteria as used in Phase 1 are attached as Annex 1. Note criteria 

one of the selection criteria did not apply in Kiritimati Island (having land leased by government 

or limited land in South Tarawa) as it was to be applied in the forthcoming South Tarawa Phase 

2 release. The criteria as used were initially developed in Kiritimati Island and subject to changes 

in Tarawa at the committee 5 

and the Cabinet level. A number of concerns arose with the 

criteria, with some of the most common issues as raised listed below; 

• there was confusion between what was screening criteria and what were selection criteria. 

Only the key groups and issues to be targeted should have been in the selection criteria. 

However, criteria such as civil servants over 45 years of age and applicants being over 25 

years of age, married and with children, etc, should have been in the screening criteria, 

not selection criterion. 

• there were inequities in the selection criteria affecting the scoring. For example, civil 

servants over 45 years of age (worth 5 marks) and applicants over 25 years of age, 

married, etc (worth maximum 5 marks) meant a total of 10 points. However, this could 

only be achieved if one met both criteria. If you were not a civil servant but over 25 

years, you could only earn maximum 5 points. As a result of this bias, the civil servant 

criterion was not scored in the assessment process. 

5 Including the Resettlement Committee that operates from time to time under MELAD. 


9


• the main group to be targeted in the Phase 1 process - that is, those that had been in 

Kiritimati Island for many years, often with children and grandchildren who had no 

access to land - were not elevated in the selection criteria. Thus, the selection criteria 

were competing equally with other ‘minor’ screening criteria such as being over 25 years 

of age, etc. The criteria were not prioritised as to their importance. 

• vulnerable groups were disadvantaged by being excluded from the process. For example, 

squatters were unable to apply if they were squatting at the time of the application. 

Squatters had to move from their village or bush location to a lease or freehold plot to be 

eligible to apply. For most squatters, squatting is a necessity and not a choice and they 

were penalised by being excluded. 

Suggestions for Phase 2: 

* criteria needs to be developed locally in conjunction with the affected groups. Cabinet needs to 

clearly understand the rationale of the criteria as developed. 

* there needs to be a clear distinction between what comprises the screening (initial eligibility) 

criteria and the selection criteria. 

* the allocation criteria as set should target the households who are agreed as priority target 

groups such as the landless. The criteria should not be confused with the screening criteria. 

* both male and female applicants should be encouraged to apply - the process shouldn’t 

discriminate within households and gender, as well as exclude squatters. 

* there should be adequate time to review and fine tune the criteria as developed. The criteria 

should be piloted and trialled to confirm its priority. 

* Scoring of the Criteria 

All of the screening and selection criteria were scored equal marks - that is, a maximum 5 points 

for each criterion. 6 

No one criteria was elevated over the other in the scoring, even though 

some criteria for both the screening and selection were more important than others. For 

example, the long term residents or the children of the original settlers with no access to land, 

were not elevated in the scoring process. Furthermore, they were disadvantaged in the scoring 

within the criteria. For example, residents on Kiritimati Island 5 years or more were scored 2 

points for 5 years or less but then only 3 points for between 5 and 30 years, etc. One result was 

6 Criteria 1 (status of land in South Tarawa) and 6 (civil servant or not) were not scored. 


10


that aggregate scoring on lesser important criteria could mean elevation over the more important 

selection criteria. As a result, residents having lived in Kiritimati Island only 6-8 years were 

allocated land over those that had been in Kiritimati Island 25 plus years. 


* the criteria which is considered most important should be scored the highest. In other words, 

the criteria should be ranked, prioritised and scored accordingly. 

* the selection process should look at the scoring results of both the screening and selection 

criteria - applicants should score well in both, especially the selection criteria. 

* The Process 

The timeframe for the Phase 1 submission of applications and assessment by CASL took 3 

months, namely, 6 weeks for submission and 6 weeks for assessment. There was some 

community awareness on the Phase 1 process of Radio Kiritimati. Although the application form 

was in I-Kiribati, some residents struggled in understanding the information as provided and 

what was required in the application process. For example, some were led to believe that 

children of the current residents could not apply for land, despite it being a priority objective of 

the assessment process. Applicants were required to attach many documents to the application 

form such as a ‘certified’ birth certificate, police record, educational qualifications and the like. 

For some, this was new, arduous and for many not affordable. Because of the preoccupation of 

getting the process up and running including the application form, there was no appeal process 

outlined for residents who were not successful and wanted to object. This appeal process was 

only clarified after the 222 plot allocation was finished. 


* the application form should be trialled and pre tested with affected groups- individuals. 

* the length of time for completing the application form should reflect the complexity of the 

questions and information to be provided. 

* supporting information should be kept to a minimum and supplemented by interviews. 

* eligibility for application should be made clear e.g., individual, household or both. 

* there should be external monitoring of the assessment process to minimize possible appeals, 

objections and ensure due process is followed. 


11


* the process should allow for objections and appeals and this should be spelt out in the initial 

stage of the process. 

* the CASL approved list of applicants should be displayed as a draft before CASL and then 

Cabinet finally confirms the list. This will allow for any raising of issues - objections. 

* Allocation of Plots to Approved Applicants 

The process for allocating plots to approved applicants in Tabwakea (200) and Poland (22) was 

done in full public view on publicly advertised dates. The process was fully transparent and well 

received. While some applicants were not happy with the plots as randomly selected by 

themselves, this is the most equitable way for all parties. In the earlier resettlement for Teeraina 

and Tabuaeran, applicants who were not happy with the plot as allocated were allowed a 2 week 

period to exchange the plot with another approved applicant, if such arrangement could be 

mutually agreed. 


* the process of physically allocating plots to approved applicants needs to be publicly 

undertaken, with no predetermined allocation, and preferably by an independent person such as 

from the Kiritimati Island CASL. 

* applicants who wish to exchange their plot with another approved applicant should be allowed 

to do so within an immediate period after the allocation. 

* Aims, Objectives and Membership of CASL 

The role of CASL should be made clear within the broader institutional arrangements for the 

Phase 2 release, that is, that CASL is an independent body reporting to Cabinet on applicants for 

State lands as assessed against agreed criteria. The membership of the Kiritimati Island CASL 

was considered by members and observers to be effective. It was purposely kept small - 4 

members plus LMDK as the Secretariat - and membership was diverse. Members were from the 

MLPID (CASL Secretary), the Chief Councillor of the KUC, a representative from islands 

unimane’s association and the Chief Land Management Officer, LMDK. It was agreed that 

having representatives of the churches on CASL would potentially muddy the selection process. 

For South Tarawa, Cabinet agreed in 2006 that the CASL should consist of the following 

members; 

• Secretary, MELAD, 


12


• Director of Lands, MELAD, 

• Secretary, MISA, 

• Secretary, Office of the President, and 

• a representative from MLPID. 


* the aims and objectives of CASL be made public including its relationship to the BTC, TUC, 

village committees, other steering committees or Ministries. 

* the CASL membership as agreed for Phase 2 should be reviewed to ensure it includes affected 

community groups in the BTC and TUC areas (local government and village levels) and an ex 

Orona representative. 

* Secretarial support should be clearly defined and supported with resources, as occurred in the 

Kiritimati Island Phase 1 assessment and allocation process. 

5. Summary of the CASL Experience and Lessons Learned 

In the circumstances, the Kiritimati Island CASL has performed well in assessing applications 

for State land, albeit in a difficult environment where applications far exceeded the number of 

plots available. A review of the CASL process has identified a range of lessons learned which 

can be applied to the Phase 2 release for South Tarawa. Specifically, in terms of CASL and its 

role in Phase 1, experience indicates improvement could be made in the areas of: 

• clearly articulating who the target groups are and understanding why they are to be a 

priority over other groups or households, thus assisting in defining the basis on which 

their eligibility will be determined, 

• based on the above, ensuring clarity in the setting of the screening criteria and clarity in 

the setting of the selection criteria, including what criteria should be mandatory and 

what is not, 

• ensuring vulnerable groups, including landless households, disabled, squatters, women 

headed households and others, are included in the process, not excluded, 

• ensuring the scoring of the criteria rewards the priority groups which are to be targeted 

for resettlement, not the reverse, 


13


• ensuring there is an external ‘check and balance’ mechanism in the CASL, such as a 

representative from the Kiritimati Island CASL to scrutinise the process and ensure 

consistent application of the criteria as agreed, and 

• pre testing of the application form, including suitability of the criteria and the 

appropriateness of the information that needs to be submitted. The option of holding 

interviews to scrutinise authenticity of information such as on household structure, land 

ownership and the family tree, education and skill levels, should be strongly considered 

in the process. 

6. Recommended Framework for the Phase 2 Resettlement 

The proposed Phase 2 release will be the first formal resettlement scheme to be put in place for 

Kiritimati Island. This resettlement presents the Government and the community with a range of 

additional challenges that were not experienced in Phase 1. This includes; 

• selection and assessment to be held in South Tarawa, with the reality that most applicants 

will not have been to Kiritimati Island and have no first hand knowledge of conditions, 

• the physical relocation of families from South Tarawa and resulting social and economic 

impacts such as little or no formal employment opportunities in Kiritimati Island (other 

than subsistence), issues of income restoration from informal activities, etc, 

• the impact of the new ‘transplanted’ population on the already strained capacity of 

services and infrastructure in Kiritimati Island, 

• additional stress on the bio physical environment and ‘mining’ of the islands fish and bird 

stocks, 

• the task of accommodating the physical, economic and social needs of the re settlers in 

the short term after they disembark from the ship from South Tarawa, and 

• the challenge that the village lands as vacated in South Tarawa by re settlers, will be 

taken up by other family members or squatters. 

The conceptual approach to developing the Phase 2 framework involves the integration of a 

number of parameters as shown below. 


14


Figure 1: Conceptual Approach to Understanding Phase 2 Voluntary Resettlement 

Phase 2 Voluntary Resettlement - South Tarawa to Kiritimati 

Adequacy of 

institutional 

arrangements 

Legislative 

basis - adequacy 

of the State 

Lands Act, 2001 

Adequacy of 

Cabinet policy 

as a basis for 

settlement and 

resettlement 

The success or otherwise of the Phase 2 re settlement hinges around the adequacy and 

effectiveness of the integration of institutional, legislative, policy and implementation 

arrangements that need to be put in place. In the above context, it is suggested that there are 2 

options that can be realistically considered in developing the framework for the planning and 

management of Phase 2. These are; 

• Option 1 - use the same model as used in Phase 1. This model was essentially a process 

focused around the land assessment and allocation activities by CASL with support from 

the key institutional players, MELAD and the MLPID. Based on Cabinet policy, the 

CASL was basically established to deal with screening and selection criteria, land 

assessment and allocation issues, within the broader institutional framework of MELAD 

and MLPID. The process focused mainly on the assessment and allocation process - it 

did not adopt a wider approach to ensure infrastructure and services were in place for the 

plots to be allocated. Land, such a vital element of I-Kiribati life, was the cornerstone of 

the process. 

• Option 2 - adopt a more integrated and proactive approach to the resettlement process, 

with CASL being only one of a number of major activities to be undertaken. This 

approach would reflect the reality that Phase 2 involves many more potential challenges 

and issues than had occurred with Phase 1 which focused on residents already living in 

Kiritimati Island. An integrated approach for Phase 2 would involve a stronger 

institutional framework, provide institutional support for applicants and re settlers, plus 

monitor the land planning and infrastructure and services needed in Kiritimati Island to 


15 

Effective 

implementation 

arrangements in 

place for Phase 

2 process


get the 231 plots on the ground in Kiritimati Island. This approach is conceptually shown 

in Figure 2. 

If a main objectives of the Phase 2 voluntary relocation are to; 

reduce overcrowding in the Bairiki and Betio villages in South Tarawa, 

mitigate the adverse effects on the re settlers and their families during the 

resettlement process, and 

maintain and improve the living standards of those being resettled, 

then Option 2 offers a more effective approach to addressing the social, economic and 

environmental issues and concerns. The framework for an integrated Phase 2 voluntary 

resettlement from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island is shown in Figure 2. The key elements of 

an integrated framework as shown in Figure 2 are; 

• Institutional arrangements - establishment of an overarching Phase 2 Resettlement 

Committee comprising the key institutions and representatives of the affected groups. This 

should include MELAD, MLPID, Ministry of Labour and Human Resource Development 

(MLHRD), Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs (MISA), BTC, TUC, Tokatarawa, 

BTC/TUC village area committees and Orona Island people. 

Tokatarawa maneaba sign reflecting the importance of the unimane (elders) in Tarawa 


16


Figure 2: Framework for the Integrated Phase 2 Resettlement - South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island 

Cabinet direction 

on Kiritimati 

policies and plans 

and Phase 2 

resettlement 

parameters 

Identification of 

target groups, 

needs, CASL 

assessment, etc 

Amendments to 

improve the 

applications of the 

State Lands Act 

Overarching Phase 2 Resettlement Committee 

Representatives from MELAD, MLPID, MISA, MLHRD, BTC, 

TUC, Tokatarawa, BTC and TUC village and ex Orona families 

Institutional support for re 

settlers such as employment 

and income restoration, 

lease obligations 

Monitoring and evaluation - assess 

options for further settlement or 

resettlement based on status of 

social, economic and environment 

in Kiritimati Island 

Monitoring of land 

planning and survey 

for 231 planned 

plots 



Monitoring of provision 

of infrastructure and 

services for 231 plots 

especially water & power


The Phase 2 Resettlement Committee would be responsible for coordinating, integrating and 

monitoring the essential activities that need to be undertaken to achieve the best outcomes for 

Phase 2. MELAD supported by the MLPID should take the lead in the Phase 2 Resettlement 

Committee. It is also possible that a representative of the Office of the President could be 

involved in the steering committee. The rationale for the recommended membership of the 

Phase 2 Resettlement Committee is summarised in Table 2 while the recommend main 

functions of the committee are outlined in Annex 2. 

Table 2: Rationale for Membership of Phase 2 Resettlement Committee 

Ministry, Council or Group Rationale for Committee Inclusion 

Ministry of Environment, 

Lands and Agricultural 

Development (MELAD) 

Ministry of Line and Phoenix 

Islands Development (MLPID) 

Ministry of Labour and Human 

Resource Development 

(MLHRD) 

Ministry of Internal and Social 

Affairs (MISA) 

Responsible for land planning, survey and land 

administration on State lands in Kiritimati Island. 

Secretariat to the CASL 

Responsible for overall island development and 

coordination on Kiritimati Island 

Responsible for accessing employment, income 

generation, job and human resource opportunities 

in Kiribati 

Responsible for overall management and 

supervision of local government administration 

and operations (TUC,BTC, KUC) 

Betio Town Council (BTC) Responsible for planning and administration of 

Betio village area 

Teinanano Urban Council 

(TUC) 

Responsible for planning and administration of 

Bairiki village area 

Betio Village Area Committee Responsible for land and plot dispute resolution in 

Betio Village Area 

Bairiki Village Area 

Committee 

Responsible for land and plot dispute resolution in 

Bairiki village area 

Orona Islander representative Represents collective views of Orona families 

Tokatarawa representative Represents collective views of Tarawa landowners 




• Policy and Implementation Activities - the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee to undertake 

a range of tasks essential to ensuring better outcomes for all affected stakeholders in the 

Phase 2 release. These would include: 

* Identification of the target groups, their needs and demands, skill levels, household 

size and structure, completion of socio economic surveys, etc, 

* establishment and operation of the South Tarawa CASL. Based on the lessons 

learned, this would include applying the screening and allocation criteria, assessment 

and scoring of criteria, and preparing a draft list of approved applicants for the Phase 

2 Resettlement Committee and Cabinet, 

* institutional support including provision of information on the application process, 

employment opportunities, social support (schools, churches, home island 

associations), land tenure arrangements and obligations such as payment of rent, 

environmental stewardship and responsibilities such as restricted access to the 

protected areas, etc, 

Provision of information on all aspects of the social, economic and environmental 

dimensions on Kiritimati Island life, including opportunities for income 

restoration, should be provided to re settlers by the Phase 2 Resettlement 

Committee. 


19


* monitoring of the land planning tasks to be completed to ensure the 231 plots can be 

released on time in Kiritimati Island. This would include a review of the detailed land 

use plans, ensuring the appropriate lease documents are in place (see Annex 3), 

completion of a Strategic Plan under the State Lands Act, cadastral surveying, lease 

diagrams and individual contracts, 

* monitoring of the provision of infrastructure and services to be in place before the 

settlers arrive such as water, power, civil works, etc. Note the Phase 1 222 plots will 

be released without any power or piped water supply, which is far from satisfactory 

given this release has been 3 years in the planning stage. It is important that the Phase 

2 plots are released with basic infrastructure and services in place including water. 

The requirements for water, power, civil works, land planning etc, are set out in the 

draft Kiritimati Island Land Development Program, 2008-2012. 

The MLPID needs to ensure forward planning is advanced and that all the Phase 2 

plots have local water supply. The KLLPB with support from the MLPID needs to 

enforce the provision of sanitation in New Banana village. 

• Legislation - the State Lands Act, 2001, currently provides the framework by which State 

lands are managed. This includes an assessment of their potential for alienation and 

development such has occurred in Kiritimati Island. While the State Lands Act (SLA) is 

adequate enough in providing a broad assessment process to determine what lands should be 

released and how in Kiritimati Island, for example, the SLA is deficient in that it does not 


20


allow leased lands to be used as collateral or security to get a loan for the development of the 

plot as leased. What emerges from discussion with Phase 1 settlers and prospective Phase 2 

re settlers is that there are sufficient settlers willing to develop their land if micro finance was 

available. Currently, the Bank of Kiribati and Development Bank of Kiribati do not accept 

leased land as security as there is no legislative provision allowing for State lands to be used 

for such purposes. Thus, settlers who may have the capacity to repay a loan would then be 

able to access such monies using their lease land as collateral and security. 7 

Housing is usually the largest investment one makes in a lifetime. Changes to the State 

Lands Act, 2001, are urgently needed to allow I-Kiribati to use leased land as a loan 

security and thus stimulate the flow on economic activity. 

7. Main Functions of the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee 

7 There are also other changes required to the State Lands Act including clarification regarding the making of Land 

Registers, the Strategic Pan making process, clause number omissions and the like. These are being dealt with under 

the TA (Land Development Program Component) with the Office of the Attorney General. 


21


The main functions of the overarching of the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee would be; 

• to develop and implement the policy setting for the operation of the Phase 2 voluntary 

relocation, including endorsement of policy through Cabinet, 

• to determine the main eligibility, background, screening and selection criteria for the 3 

priority groups for endorsement by Cabinet, 

• to establish and oversee the operation of the Committee for the Allocation of State Lands 

(CASL), such sub committee responsible for the screening and scrutiny of applications 

for the 231 plots to be recommended to the Phase 2 Steering Committee then Cabinet; 

• to establish a small Secretariat in LMD to service the CASL with administration support 

including preparation of the application form, screening and assessment of application 

forms and liaising with applicants, 

• to provide institutional support to re settlers such as advice on employment opportunities, 

lease obligations, time period for relocation, accommodation options on arriving in 

Kiritimati Island, etc, 

• the allocation of successful applicants to the 231 plots in a transparent and equitable 

manner, 

• the monitoring of land planning and survey for the 231 Phase 2 plots for release in 

Kiritimati Island, 

• the monitoring and provision of infrastructure, budget needs and services for the 231 

Phase 2 plots for release in Kiritimati Island, and 

• ensure urgent changes to the State Lands Act especially in regard to using State lands as 

security and collateral, are systematically followed through as soon as possible. 

The main role of the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee is one of coordination and ensuring a 

more coordinated and integrated approach to resettlement is actually carried out on the ground. 

The lessons learned from Phase 1, such as providing plots with no infrastructure and poor 

forward planning generally, must be avoided. 

8. Main Functions of the South Tarawa CASL 

The South Tarawa CASL is best seen as a sub committee to the overarching Phase 2 

Resettlement Committee tasked with a specific responsibility. Its main task is to assess 

applications as made by applicants from the 3 priority areas against the agreed screening and 

selection criteria and rank applicants accordingly. The CASL should have at least TUC and BTC 

representatives and will need LMD secretariat resources for approximately one month to assess 

applications. As noted, CASL should consider use of possible applicant interviews. The main 

tasks of CASL are summarised in Figure 3. 

Figure 3: Main Tasks of the South Tarawa CASL 


22


Under the direction of the overarching Phase 2 Resettlement Committee; 

Prepare the application 

form, pre test and finalise 

Evaluate and assess 

applications against 

criteria as agreed by 

Cabinet 

Scrutinise applications and 

rank in terms of priority for 

each of the 3 areas 

Recommend priority lists of 

preferred to the Phase 2 

Resettlement Committee 

and Cabinet 

Oversee physical allocation 

of plot numbers to approved 

applicants – that is, match 

plots to re settlers 


23 

LMD 

Secretariat to 

CASL


9. Main Phase 2 Steps in the Voluntary Relocation Process 

The Phase 2 process can be disaggregated into a number of major steps, as well as main activities 

and tasks to be completed within each step. All these would form the basis of the Phase 2 

process. 

Step 1 - Timeframe: 2-3 months 

• confirm with Cabinet the key parameters of the Phase 2 process such as key groups to be 

targeted, plot target, the need for the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee, its membership 

and functions, and reconfirmation that the Phase 2 voluntary relocation will be 

undertaken by the families themselves with no financial assistance for fares and transport 

provided. 

• formally establish the overarching Phase 2 Resettlement Committee - aims, objectives, 

membership, core task and activities, representation of affected groups, clear plan of 

activities and timeframe for the Phase 2 process 

• agree priority groups, develop screening and selection criteria, rank and allocate scoring 

according to priority 

• MLPID and MELAD monitor progress on land planning, infrastructure and service 

provision for the 231 plots to be released in Kiritimati Island 

• determine community education and awareness activities on the Phase 2 process 

Step 2 - Timeframe: 3- 4 months 

• establish CASL, aims, objectives, key tasks and timeframe 

• confirm screening and selection criteria, rank and allocate scoring according to priority 

• develop and pre-test the application form 

• determine mode of eligibility such as application form and/or interview 

• call for applications from eligible individuals-households - interview if necessary 

• community education and awareness activities on application process 


provision for 231 plots to be released in Kiritimati Island 

Step 3 - Timeframe; 2-3 months 

• completion of CASL assessment and ranking 

• submission to Cabinet and approval of draft list 

• exhibition of draft list, criteria by which assessed and any comments 

• approval of final applicants 


24


• consideration of any objections 


provision for the 231 plots to be released in Kiritimati Island 

Step 4 - Timeframe; 2-3 months 

• allocate approved applicants to physical layout of plots - transparent process 

• assess needs of approved applicants including employment, schooling, health, other 

services - identify skill levels, any business aspirations, etc 

• brief re settlers on Kiritimati Island employment opportunities, land tenure, lease 

repayments, lease conditions, care and responsibilities to the environment and State 

Lands, availability of infrastructure and services on the land to be released, provisions of 

the new draft State Lands Act, etc 

• confirm timing of physical resettlement to Kiritimati Island - when, how and who is to 

pay 

• MLPID to identify support to be provided on arrival in Kiritimati Island - what support 

and how long 

• MLPID and MELAD monitor progress on land planning (survey and lease contracts), 

infrastructure and service provision for the 231 plots to be released in Kiritimati Island 

Step 5 - Timeframe; 2- 4 months 

• physical relocation of approved applicants to Kiritimati Island 

• provision of support mechanisms for re settlers on arrival in Kiritimati Island 

• advice and support on income restoration and employment opportunities 

• occupation by re settlers on allocated land with infrastructures and services 

Step 6 - Timeframe; 1 month 

• monitoring and evaluation of the Phase 2 process - lessons learned and implications 

• disseminate results and implications. 

The key steps in the Phase 2 process are summarised in Figure 4. 


25


Figure 4: Summary of Key Steps in the Phase 2 Voluntary Resettlement Process 

Liaise with key 

stakeholders 

CASL Operation and 

Establishment – finalise, 

criteria, application forms, 

assessment process, etc 

Step 4 - Physical 

Allocation of plots numbers 

to approved applicants, 

completed land survey, KI 

infrastructure complete, etc 

Step 1 - Develop and Confirm key 

elements of the Phase 2 Policy 

Setting - e.g. committee, tasks, 

membership, plot numbers, priority 

groups, timing, CASL, etc 

Step 2 – Key Tasks 

Step 3 - CASL and Phase 2 

Committee recommendation on 231 

applicants; confirmation by Cabinet 

Phase 2 Monitoring and Evaluation 

process - apply lessons learned 


26 

Phase 2 Committee - 

awareness, progress on 

land development in KI, 

needs support for re settlers 

Step 5 – Physical relocation 

and Support to re settlers from 

South Tarawa to Kiritimati 

Island; MLPID provides on 

island support programmes, etc


10. Moving the Phase 2 Framework Forward 

The framework as developed in this discussion paper has been agreed in principle by MELAD 

and now needs to be taken forward to implementation. During September, 2008, 8 

potential key 

stakeholders in South Tarawa involved in the process have been briefed and suggestions and 

comments sought on the proposed framework as now outlined. Meetings were held with senior 

staff in a range of stakeholders including MELAD, MISA, MFED, the BTC (Clerk and Lord 

Mayor), TUC as well as discussions with residents of the two affected villages, namely, Bairiki 

and Betio villages. 

A draft Cabinet paper was prepared with MELAD senior staff outlining progress on; (i) the 

Phase 1 land development issues in Kiritimati Island and (ii) key parameters that now need to be 

reconfirmed, confirmed or amended by Cabinet so as to allow the Phase 2 process to formally 

commence. 

The parameters nominated for endorsement by Cabinet included; 

• “that there will 231 plots to be shared between 3 priority groups, such mix of plots to be 

determined on a needs basis by Cabinet. 

• the priority groups for the 231 plots are those already as agreed by Cabinet, namely, 

those people living in the Bairiki village (TUC), the Betio village (BTC) and ex Orona 

settlers living in Solomon Islands. 9 

• that a Phase 2 Resettlement Steering Committee be established and chaired by MELAD 

and include senior representatives of the MLPID, BTC, TUC, Tokatarawa, MISA, 

MLHRD and an ex Orona representative. 

• that the tasks of the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee be cross sector and include: (i) 

determination of selection and screening criteria for the 3 groups for endorsement by 

Cabinet, (ii) setting up of a Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL) to do the 

screening and recommendation of applicants for the 231 plots to the Phase 2 

Resettlement Steering Committee and then Cabinet; (iii) institutional support to re 

settlers such as advice on employment opportunities, lease obligations, accommodation 

options on arriving in KI, etc, (iv) monitoring of land planning and survey for the 231 

plots, and (v) monitoring and provision of infrastructure, budget needs and services for 

the 231 plots. 

• confirmation that Phase 2 resettlement is a voluntary relocation and Government will not 

be providing financial assistance for fares and associated travel expenses, etc.” 

8 TA assistance was provided from September 9 th to September 30 th 2008 

9 During discussions with stakeholders, the Bonriki village people, whose village lands have been taken for the 

Bonriki runway development and water reserves and are now in a small area to the south west of the runway, were 

suggested as another priority group for possible consideration. 


27


The 231 plots need to be allocated between the 3 target groups, such as on a pro rata population 

basis between those living in Betio Village, Bairiki village and estimate of ex Orona people on 

South Tarawa. Residents from Betio village followed by Bairiki village and ex Orona residents 

should dominate the distribution of plots to be made available. 

In addition to the above and development of the framework, the TA provided assistance in 

developing and finalising the lease agreement to be used between the Government and lessees on 

land now being allocated under Phase 1 allocation. The English version of the lease agreement 

as finalised with officers of LMD Bairiki and LMD Kiritimati is given as Annex 3. This lease 

document is now being used in Kiritimati Island as of 23 September, 2008, for land as allocated 

under Phase 1. It should be used as a basis for lands to be allocated in Phase 2. The TA also 

compiled with LMD officers a first draft of background information required and potential 

selection criteria to be further developed for use in Phase 2 (see Annex 4). 

Notwithstanding the above detail, the overarching TA recommendation on the resettlement and 

Phase 2 land development is as follows; 

That there be no resettlement process commenced for the voluntary relocation of people 

from South Tarawa to Kiritimati Island until such time as commitments for water, 

sanitation, power infrastructure and other social support services are agreed, projects 

undertaken and physical works are in place. People should not be relocated without the 

necessary infrastructure and services in place to accommodate their needs. 

11. Checklist of Key Activities to Implement Phase 2 

Based on the framework as developed, a checklist to assist MELAD, the MLPID and the Phase 

2 Steering Committee in achieving an integrated process for the Phase 2 resettlement is outlined 

below. If concerns exist over the adequacy of available human resources to implement the 

process, then capacity building and TA support should be requested so as to adequately plan and 

manage the essential tasks at hand. Designated MELAD officers coordinating the Phase 2 

process should also use the ADB book “Guide to Resettlement” which will provide valuable 

resource information. 


28


A major challenge for the Phase 2 Resettlement Committee and the MLPID is to ensure the 

‘receiving environment’ in Kiritimati Island is to a satisfactory standard in terms of water supply, 

electricity, village layout, land survey and land administration. 


29


Checklist of the Activities for the 2008-2009 Phase 2 Voluntary Resettlement from South 


Parameters addressed include: 

* Institutional Framework 

* Institutional Support for Re-Settlers 

* Target Groups for Voluntary Resettlement 

* Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL 

* Screening and Allocation Criteria 

* Application Forms 

* Land Allocation 

* Consultation Process 

* Land Planning Support 

* Infrastructure and Services Development Support 

* Monitoring and Evaluation 

Phase 2 Parameter Yes No 

Institutional Framework 

* Has a time schedule, with targets, actions, milestones and 

participatory strategy been agreed? 

* Does a budget need to be allocated to assist in the voluntary 

resettlement such as for operations and travelling assistance for 

the re settlers? 

* Has an overarching inter-Ministry and local Council Steering 

Committee been established? 

* Has a coordinator been appointed in MELAD and a 

coordinator appointed in MLPID in Kiritimati Island to 

coordinate and oversee the process and steps involved? 

* Has the relationship between the Steering Committee and the 

specific tasks of the CASL been made clear? 

* Does their need to be any capacity building and TA support 

so as to adequately plan and manage these tasks? 


30


Institutional Support for Re-Settlers 

* Will the successful applicants complete socio economic 

surveys so as to assist in determining and understanding their 

needs, who the vulnerable groups are, possible criteria, etc? 

* Will the applicants be briefed on employment and income 

opportunities in Kiritimati Island? 

* Will the applicants be briefed on responsibilities in 

Kiritimati Island such as lease repayments, lease conditions, 

care and responsibilities to the environment and State Lands, 

status and availability of infrastructure and services for the 

land to be released, provisions of the new draft State Lands 

Act, etc? 

* Who is responsible for leading this task? 

* Which maneabas will the re settlers stay in when they arrive 

in Kiritimati Island? 

* Will the re settlers be provided with any subsistence 

allowance upon arrival and for the first few days? 

* Will there be any financial relocation support for the ex 

settlers from Orona Island now in the Solomon Islands? 

* If there is assistance, how will this migration be managed? 


Target Groups for Voluntary Resettlement 

* Have the target groups been reconfirmed such as the people 

from the Betio village, Bairiki village and ex Orona Island 

residents? 

* Has the quota of 231 households and plots been 

reconfirmed? 

* What will be the mix of target groups to comprise the 231 

plots? (for example, x% from the Betio village, x % from the 

Bairiki village and x% ex Orona Island residents) 

* What is the rationale for determining the mix of target 

groups such as population share - TUC versus BTC, size of 

Betio Village versus Bairiki Village? 


31


Committee for the Allocation of State Lands (CASL) 

* Is the membership for the Committee inclusive and cover all 

key affected groups, not just Government? 

* Has the membership of the Committee been agreed? 

* Are the aims and objectives for the Committee clear and 

reflect the main tasks to be done in a specific timeframe? 

* Who will be the Secretariat of the CASL? LMD? 

* What ’check and balance’ mechanism exists to review the 

work of CASL including consistent applications of the 

criteria? 

Screening and Allocation Criteria 

* Is the eligibility criteria as to who can apply clear? 

* Is the screening and allocation criteria realistic? 

* Are the screening and allocation criteria differentiated? 

* Does the screening and allocation criteria include a reference 

to skill levels and the need to encompass range and mix of 

applicants? 

* Does the allocation criteria reflect the priority groups to be 

selected? 

* Is the scoring of the allocation criteria reflective of the 

priority groups to be targeted in the allocation criteria? 


Application Forms 

* Has the application form been pre tested and piloted? 

* Is adequate information provided including contact for 

Ministries and key people for queries by applicants? 

* Is the application form clear on process and key dates? 

* Is the application form clear on need for supporting info? 

Land Allocation 

* Has a transparent process been agreed to by which plots will 

be allocated to agreed applicants in full public view? 

* Will the land be released in stages so as to minimise impact 


32


of people arriving and settling in Kiritimati Island? 

* Is their a time limit by which the land has to be taken up? 

* What is the process for paying rent prior to occupation? 

* Are applicants aware of the need to get planning permission 

from the KLLPB before any development works? 

Consultation Process 

* Has consultation been held with potential applicants? 

* Is the draft list of applicants to be publicly advertised so as to 

gauge any objection or gaps in data and assessment? 

* What is the process for objections and appeals? 

* What action has been agreed to ensure that when people 

move, plots in the villages are not taken up by other people? 

Land Planning Support 

* What is the progress on the land survey for the 231 plots? 

* Do all surveyed plots have concrete beacons? 

* Have the lease cadastral plans between completed? 

* Are the lease contracts prepared, based on the lease 

document as used in Phase 1 (Annex 2) 

* What is the status of amendments to the State Lands Act? 


Infrastructure and Services Development Support 

* What is the progress on implementing the Kiritimati Island 

Land Development Plan for the 231 plots? 

* Is forward planning including budget support in place for 

water supply and power by the MLPID? 

* Will the plots be allocated with water, power, etc? 

* If the plots will not be allocated with water, power and 

options for sanitation, when can re settlers expect basic 

infrastructure to be provided? 

Monitoring and Evaluation 


33


* Has a core set of monitoring indicators been agreed? 

* Has an evaluation and ‘lessons learned’ from Phase 2 been 

documented for consideration in any future resettlements? 


34


Annex 1 – Phase 1 Screening and Selection Criteria 

1. Screening Criteria for Residential Leases 

1. Does the applicant have a criminal record? 

2. Does the applicant hold any freehold land in the line and Phoenix Islands or Government lease or 

sublease (or has the applicant surrendered existing lease)? 

3. Does the applicant have any outstanding payment to Government? 

4. Is the applicant a squatter? 

Results of the Screening 

Eligibility to apply…………………….. 

Officer doing the Screening …………………… 

Screening checked by :…………………………… 

2. Selection Criteria for Residential Leases 

1. The applicant has land leased by Government on South Tarawa and Betio and there is evidence 

that the applicant has limited access to land because of this (…) 

2. The applicant is 25 years of age, married and has children (…….) 

3. The applicant has certified skills that can be used in the new environment including but no limited 

to carpentry, plumbing electrical etc. (……) 

4. Ability to pay rent on the leased land (……..) 

5. If on Kiritimati, the applicant must have been on Kiritimati for 5 years with preference given to 

those who have stayed longer (…….) 

6. Civil Servants who are 45 and above can apply (…….) 


35


Annex 2 - Phase 1 Lease Agreement for Kiritimati Island (English version) 

GOVERNMENT OF KIRIBATI 

LEASE AGREEMENT OVER STATE LANDS 

Name of Lessor (LANDLORD) Government of the Republic of Kiribati 

Address Director of Lands P.O.Box 7, Bairiki, Tarawa 

Name of Lessee (Tenant) 

Address 

Name & Number of Land 

(Demised Land) 

Village & Island 

Area of Demised Land 

Agreed rent for Land 

Rent per acre (subject to Rent Review 

Ordinance CAP. 

90) 

Term of Lease 

25 years commencing from: 

Executed this ……………….Day of …………………………… 2008 


36


RECITAL and INTERPRETATION 

1. This lease is provided by the Government of the Republic of Kiribati, pursuant to the State 

Lands Act 2001 (the Act), which came into force from the first day of January 2002. 

2. For the purpose of this lease the Government of the Republic of Kiribati shall be known as 

the LANDLORD, and represented by the Director of Lands within the Ministry of 

Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development. 

3. The TENANT, whose name(s) appear(s) above in the agreement, wishes to lease the 

property that is specified in this contract for a period specified above. The TENANT 

voluntarily and freely accept(s) the following conditions of the lease and the applicable law 

and regulations concerning the lease of Government property (State Land), which form part 

of the present agreement. 

4. The LANDLORD agrees to lease the property to the TENANT for the permitted use for 

the specific term subject to the terms and conditions of this agreement. 

5. A reference to legislation or to a provision of the legislation includes a modification, reenactment 

of or substitution for it and a regulation or statutory instrument issued under it; 

6. Where a reference is made to any body or authority that reference, if the body or authority 

has ceased to exist, shall be the body or authority as then serves substantially the same 

objects as that body or authority; 

7. Where the day or last day for doing anything or on which an entitlement is due to arise is 

not a business day that day or last day will be the immediately following Business Day; 

8. Every covenant by the TENANT includes a covenant by the TENANT to ensure 

compliance with the covenant by each of the TENANT's employees, agents, servants or 

invitees; 

8. A reference to a TENANT may include one or more persons, such names as shown in the 

agreement such as a husband and wife, 

10. At the termination of the rental period or anticipated termination, the property shall revert 

exclusively to the Director of Lands. 

CONDITIONS of the LEASE: 


37


11. The rent shall be paid in advance on an annual basis. The payment shall be due on the 1 st 

day of the12th month during the lease term, or if it is not a working day, then on the next day 

thereafter. As at the date of execution hereof it is acknowledged that the rent shall be paid on 

an annual basis, the first of such agreed rent has been paid in advance and the next payment 

shall be made on ………………… in the amount of …………………. 

12.Notwithstanding clause 11, where the TENANT is of the view they are constrained in 

paying the rent due on an annual basis, the LANDLORD may agree that the rent be paid 

fortnightly, monthly or six monthly in advance. If it is to be paid monthly, the rent shall be 

st 

due on the 1 day of every month during the lease term, or if it is not a working day then on 

the next day thereafter. If it is to be paid six monthly, the rent shall be due on the 1 st 

day of 

the six month during the lease term, or if it is not a working day then on the next day 

thereafter. As at the date of execution hereof, it is acknowledged that the rent shall be paid 

(specify fortnightly, monthly, six monthly or annually) ………………… , the first of such 

agreed rent has been paid in advance and the next payment shall be made on 

………………… in the amount of …………. 

13. Subject to clause11 or 12 above, the rent hereby agreed to be paid shall be first 

reviewed on the ………….. day of ………………………. 20………. and thereafter at the 

interval of 5 years; and may be reassessed at such rate as may be reasonable having regard to 

the economic circumstances prevailing at the time of such review. The rent as reassessed and 

given by notice by the LANDLORD to the TENANT shall become due and payable from 

the next day upon which rent becomes due and payable following the review date. 

14. Where the TENANT is constrained in paying the rent on the due date as specified in 

clause 11 or 12, the TENANT may request the LANDLORD in writing to defer the date on 

which the rent shall be paid. Where the LANDLORD considers the request to be reasonable, 

the LANDLORD shall advise the TENANT in writing of any such arrangement, including 

deferred rent to be paid, with such date for the rent to be paid to be no more than a maximum 

of 3 months after the due date specified in clause 11 or 12. In exceptional circumstances, a 

longer period may apply but only with the written consent of the Minster. 

15. The TENANT agrees that the property shall be used and developed for the authorized 

use only, such use and development, including construction of facilities on the property, 

being in accordance with approvals obtained from the Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board 

(KLLPB) 

16. In the case of a lease for which the authorized use is non-residential, any occupation of 

the property for residential purposes must be a supplementary and incidental to the 


38


authorized use. For any supplementary use incidental to the authorized use, approval shall be 

obtained in writing from the Director of Lands and the KLLPB prior to the occupation of the 

land. 

17. The TENANT agrees that the only persons entitled to reside on the property are the 

TENANT, and the family of the TENANT as defined in the Act 2001, and such other 

dependants of the TENANT as the Minister or Court may allow under the Act. 

18. The TENANT shall not transfer, assign, or sublet or part with possession of the land, or 

any portion of the land or buildings thereon, the subject of the lease, without first obtaining 

written consent of the LANDLORD 

19. The TENANT shall not cut down or destroy any trees or other crops growing on the 

demised land or on any other location on the island without the written consent of the 

LANDLORD and shall be liable for any compensation payable to the LANDLORD for such 

cutting down or destruction 

20. During the term of this lease the TENANT shall be entitled to the exclusive use of the 

demised land and shall pay all rates and taxes which may be payable in respect of the 

demised land 

21. At all times during the term of the Agreement the TENANT shall maintain and keep in 

proper order the land and any permanent improvements thereon (fair wear and tear and 

damage by fire excepted). At the termination of the lease the TENANT shall deliver up 

possession of the land and permanent improvements to the LANDLORD in such a state and 

conditions as shall be consistent with this lease conditions and may take from the land any 

removable improvements owned by the TENANT. The TENANT shall be liable to pay 

compensation to the LANDLORD for any damages caused. 

22. If the rent or any part thereof shall remain unpaid for a period exceeding thirty days after 

the date the rent is due, the LANDLORD may re-enter and repossess the land in part or 

whole. If the TENANT shall be in breach of any other condition of this lease and shall fail to 

remedy the breach within thirty days of being so required by the LANDLORD by notice in 

writing, the LANDLORD may re-enter and repossess the land but without prejudice to any 

claim by the LANDLORD arising from the breach of any condition contained herein. Non 

compliance with any conditions of the lease permits the LANDLORD, by notice in writing 

to the TENANT, to terminate the lease. 

23. The TENANT shall not do or permit or suffer to be done on the land or in the buildings 

on the land anything in contravention of any law or any statutory or other provisions or 


39


regulations now or hereafter in force. If the TENANT is in contravention of any law or any 

statutory or other provisions or regulations in force, the LANDLORD, by notice in writing to 

the TENANT, may terminate the lease. 

24. Upon expiration of this Agreement, the LANDLORD may grant to the TENANT a 

further lease of the property for a period not exceeding 25 years and any further period as 

may be agreed to any time in writing prior to the termination of the existing Agreement. The 

conditions necessary to the LANDLORD’s obligation to consider the request, none of which 

conditions may be varied or waived except on the option of the LANDLORD, are the 

following: 

a. The TENANT's request shall be made in writing; 

b. The TENANT's request shall be made no later than three months before the 

expiration of the term of the lease; 

c. There is at the time of the request no breach by or on behalf of the TENANT of any 

of the terms and conditions of the lease; 

d. The LANDLORD is reasonably satisfied with the TENANT's proposed continued 

use of the property and the lease, and 

e. The LANDLORD is reasonably satisfied that the use and development of the 

property are in accordance with approvals as obtained from the KLLPB. 

25. The words LANDLORD and TENANT shall include their successors in title. 

26. In the event of any inconsistency in the interpretation of this agreement, the English 

version shall prevail. 

DESCRIPTION OF the demised LAND 

Part of land …………………. situated at ……………… and known as …………… as shown on 

the attached diagram. 

IN WITNESS HEREOF, we the undersigned hereby agree to the terms and conditions set out 

herein. 

Dated this ………………. day of ……………………………… 20….. 

LANDLORD …………………………… Witness…………………………………. 

Print name …………………………… Print name……………………………… 

TENANT ………………………………….. Witness…………………………………. 


40


Print name …………………………………. Print name ……………………………… 

All rent required to be paid under this lease, prior to the signing of this lease, have been paid by 

proof to my satisfaction in the amount of $.................... on …………….. I am satisfied that the 

terms and conditions of this lease are not manifestly to the disadvantage of either party; 

I approve this lease, 

……………… ………………………………………… 

Honorable Tetabo Nakara, Minister for Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development 

Date ……………………………………. 

Lease Registered Number ………………………… 


41


Annex 3 - Draft Background Information and Selection Criteria, Phase 2 

1. Basic Requirements for Eligibility to Apply 

For example, (i) applicant must be a resident of Bairiki village, Betio village, or South 

Tarawa (if ex Orona Island resident), (ii) have been in the current place of residence for x 

years, (iii) must be at least x years of age, (iv) must be committed to paying land rent in 

advance and met the lease conditions. 

2. Background Information Required 

* location - priority group 

* applicants name 

* home island - birthplace 

* name of household head 

* family name within household (if not household head) 

* age - meets age criteria (e.g.20 -25 years) 

* marital status of applicant - married, single, divorced, widowed, etc 

* number in family 

* number of families in household 

* number in household (if more than 1 family) 

* number of family/household members in formal employment 

* number of family/household members in informal employment 

* relationship to original landowners in Betio, Bairiki, Orona 

* number of children in family/household in school 

* criminal activity - police record 

* outstanding payments to Government 

2. Potential Selection Criteria 

*original landowner, or child of original landowner from Betio or Bairiki living in village 

area 

* number of years applicant – family - household, has been living in the current location of 

Betio village, Bairiki village and in South Tarawa (if from Orona Island) 


42


* land status; the household and families are land less - have limited land or no access to 

family lands taken under a head lease in Bairiki, Betio, South Tarawa (or no land on South 

Tarawa if ex Orona) 

* woman headed households (mix with male headed household who apply) 

* size and number of family/household who are applying 

* size and number of family/household who are applying relative to current plot size 

* skills and formal qualifications (that is, opportunities for employment and income 

generation - mix with non qualified and non skill base) 


43

Annex 4: NAYLOR Health Services and Health Needs on Kiritimati Island 

HEALTH SERVICES AND HEALTH NEEDS ON 

KIRITIMATI ISLAND 

Ross Naylor 

Health Economist 


Kiritimati Island (Population Policy Component) 

1


Contents 

Executive Summary 3 

1. Introduction 6 

2. Terms Of Reference 6 

3. Location and Population Of Kiribati and the Line Islands 6 

4. Access by Plane and Ship 8 

5. Communications 8 

6. The Health of the Population of Kiribati and the Line Islands 8 

7. Health Services in the Line Islands 10 

8. Services Based at the Kiritimati Hospital 12 

9. Public Health Services 16 

10. A Summary of the Most Pressing Health Needs in the Line Islands 19 

11. Current Staffing Levels and Vacancies 19 

12. Financial Resources Applied to Health in the Line Islands 21 

13. Resource Requirements in Health to meet Current Needs 23 

14. Future Resource Requirements as Populations Expands 28 

15. Key Recommendations 31 

References 32 

Page 



2


Executive Summary 

This is a report on the health status and health services of the people of the Line Islands, which 

are in the eastern part of Kiribati in the Pacific Ocean. The Line Islands are a long distance from 

the main centre of Kiribati, Tarawa, and are very difficult to access with only one flight per week 

from Hawaii and an irregular shipping service from Tarawa. The Line Islands consist of three 

islands, with an estimated population of 8809 people (2005). The health services consist of a 

small hospital on the main island, Kiritimati, 3 health centres and 5 dispensaries, with a total of 

22 staff, including 3 doctors. The population of the Line Islands has risen dramatically in recent 

years, and had a 40.4% growth between 2000 and 2005, mainly due to high levels of internal 

migration from Tarawa and a high birth rate. The total population of Kiribati in 2005 was 

92,553, with a large concentration of people living in South Tarawa in very crowded conditions. 

Kiribati has low life expectancy and comparatively high child and maternal mortality rates, and 

high rates of infectious diseases. This pattern of health issues also prevails in the Line Islands, 

and is exacerbated by the high population growth rates, under resourced health services and 

inadequate water and sanitation infrastructure and support, and due to its remoteness, difficulty 

in referring and evacuating patients needing specialised medical and nursing support. 

Some factors affecting health in the Line Islands are not the primary responsibility of the 

Ministry of Health and Medical Services (e.g. water and sanitation infrastructure, transport and 

communications, housing availability, land tenure, internal migration rates, food availability) 

however there are some actions the MHMS can take to improve the situation. 

A first step would be to fill the key vacant positions in the staff establishment of the Line Islands 

to boost the effort in addressing the main health issues. Some key positions to be filled have been 

identified in this report after discussions with a range of MHMS departments in Tarawa. The cost 

of filling these positions and providing the resources needed for the staff to undertake the extra 

effort to tackle the considerable health issues is estimated to be $A 433,629 on top of an 

estimated current operational budget of $737,269 

A further step would be to add to the staff establishment some more key staff and supporting 

resources to tackle the health issues in more depth. It is estimated these new key positions and 

support resources will add $193, 813 to the operational budget. 

To help ensure that the current and extra staffing and resources are utilised more effectively, it is 

recommended that the MHMS create 2 management positions to manage the Line Islands health 

services as a more cohesive, flexible and integrated health service than the current situation 

where departments in Tarawa try to manage their staffing outposts so far away, and with such 

poor communications and transport links. 

Overall, these positions and extra resourcing costs will add very significantly to the Line islands 

operational health budget, and raise it to $1,403,091 (a 90.31% increase). However, once these 

positions are in place, the support resources are provided, and the management is operating more 

effectively, the Line Islands health services will be in a much better position to tackle the 

considerable health issues of the current population of close to 10,000 people. 



3


The boosting of the health services will need to be accompanied by an improved boat service 

between Kiritimati Island, where most of the health services (including the hospital) are based 

and Washington and Fanning Islands. The service is almost non-existent at the moment with 

much reliance placed on visiting yachts and fishing boats. It is recommended that the MHMS 

work with the Government of Kiribati to request financial and logistics assistance to support a 

regular and reliable boat service which can be utilised by health staff and patients. 

Extra staffing and resources cannot be added without supplying more staff and health services 

accommodation at the main hospital. The building is inadequate with little available room. It will 

be important to fast-track new buildings so as not to delay the additions of staff and services. It is 

recommended that buildings be imported to Kiritimati in staged modules by ship and that these 

modules progressively added to make up the new building infrastructure of the expanded 

hospital and community health services centre, rather than spending years building a 

conventional hospital and health centre from concrete blocks and concrete base. With some 

research, good quality portable buildings should be obtainable with only the linking walkways 

constructed on site. Hospital and health services buildings and support services are expensive 

however, and it is recommended that the Government discuss the possible financing of a staged 

modular development with an external donor. 

The health services will also need to grow to cope with future population growth and it is 

estimated that the operational budget in 2015 will need to be about $1,969,940 and $2,765,795 

in 2020 (at 2009 dollars ). This builds on the recalculated base for 2009 of $1,403,091 discussed 

earlier. 

To achieve these targets will require a significant increase in funding in the Line Islands from a 

very tight national health budget. However, if it is assumed that the national health budget rises 

over this period by an average 5% per annum, these Line Islands increases can be achieved with 

much less impact on the national health budget than initially thought. For example, to achieve 

the Line Islands target of $1,969,983 by 2015 will require an annual increase in the Line Islands 

health budget of 17.8% per annum. However, this would mean only a small change in growth 

rate of the remaining Kiribati health budget from 5% to about 4%. 

The MHMS can pursue a high target rate of budget growth (13.74% per annum) or a very high 

target rate of 17.8% (17.8%) the latter being the most desirable, as it takes account of necessary 

budget increases to boost health status, but also keeps pace with forecast population growth. 

Even the very high rate will have only a slight effect on overall MHMS budget growth rates, as 

the Line Islands budget is only a small percentage of the overall budget. 

However, whichever target rate is chosen (including lower or greater annual rates) the limiting 

factors will be staff availability, staff accommodation and training, the ability of the MHMS to 

effectively plan and manage the growth in staff and health programs and the external assistance 

available to provide boat transport and expanded hospital and community health accommodation. 

It may be appropriate for the MHMS therefore to boost the budget of the Line Islands modestly 

for 2010 (say 6-8%) then higher for 2011 (say 10-12%) and review how it is able to manage such 



4


budget growth. Much will depend on overall budget availability for the whole of the MHMS. If 

there are increases of around 5% or more for the overall health budget, then the MHMS could 

boost the Line Islands budget by 13-17% in 2012 and beyond. Without these significant budget 

increases and the improved and stronger health programs which should result if managed 

effectively, there will not be a significant improvement in the health of the Line Islands 

population, and the health status of the population could even fall below the very low levels 

being experienced currently. 

However, because of possible revenue limitations of the Government of Kiribati, it is also 

recommended that MHMS discuss the possible assistance of an external donor (multilateral, 

bilateral or NGOs) to support the Line Islands operational components of the health services in 

community and environmental health services. 



5

1. Introduction 


This document is a report on the state of health of the population and the health services of the 

Line Islands of Kiribati, and is part of the Integrated Land and Population Development 

Program on Kiritimati Island: Population Component ADB Technical Assistance (4878 – KIR). 

The consultant visited South Tarawa in Kiribati in March 2009 and met with a number of health 

officials and external agencies. A range of health data and background information was made 

available. The consultant was unable to visit the Line Islands at this time. 

2. Terms of Reference for Health Economist 

i) review MOH data on the existing health facility on Kiritimati Island and assess 

the adequacy of existing health and family planning services; 

ii) review and analyse the logistics and procurement of medicines for Kiritimati; 

iii) identify and estimate the amount of all government resources allocated to health 

and family planning services on Kiritimati Island; 

iv) prepare and cost a set of scenarios for health service delivery on Kiritimati to 

provide adequate health and family planning services under various population 

growth projections; 

v) provide policy guidance for the optimal level of services and type of facilities 

required to provide adequate and sustainable health and family planning services 

on Kiritimati Island. 

3. Location and Population of Kiribati and the Line Islands 

Kiribati spans a large part of the central Pacific on the Equator. With a total land mass of only 

810.5 square km, spread over an ocean area of 5 million square km, it consists of three groups of 

33 coral atolls, the Gilbert Islands in the west, the Phoenix Islands centrally and the Line Islands 

in the east, and one isolated volcanic island, Banaba. The Line Islands are approximately 2000 

kms from the main commercial and population centre of South Tarawa in the Gilbert Island 

Group. The Line Islands are made up of three islands, Kiritimati (Christmas Island) Tabuaeran 

(Fanning Island) and Teeraina (Washington Island). Tarawa is about 1800 km north of Suva, 

Fiji. The population of Kiribati is mainly in the Gilbert Islands, with South Tarawa having the 

highest concentration of population. 

Table One: Population by Island Group, 2005 Census 

Island Group Population 2005 

South Tarawa (urban) 40,311 

Other islands 43,372 

Total Gilbert Group 83,683 

Phoenix Group 41 

Line Islands 8,809 

Total Population 92,533 



6

Figure 1 – Map of Kiribati 


Source : Kiribati 2005 Census, Analytical Report, SPC Jan 2007 

Between 2000 and 2005 the overall population growth rate of Kiribati was 1.8 per cent per 

annum. The Gilbert Group grew at a rate of 1.4 per cent while the Line Islands grew at a very 

rapid rate of 6.7 per cent per annum. At this rate the Line Islands would double in population 

within about 10 -11 years. 

The Line Islands had a population of 8809 people in 2005, with Kiritimati Island having 58.07 % 

of the population (5115 people). The Line Islands had an overall growth rate over the 5 years 

2000-2005 of 40.4%. 

Table 2: Population of the Line Islands Kiribati 2005 

Island Popln. 

from 2000 

Census 

Popln. 

from 

2005 

Census 

Traditional 

Name 

English Name 

Kiritimati Christmas 3431 5115 49.1% 

Tabuaeran Fanning 1757 2539 44.5% 

Teeraina Washington 1087 1155 6.3% 

Totals 6275 8809 40.4% 

Source : Kiribati 2005 Census, Analytical Report, SPC Jan 2007 

Popln. 

Growth Rate 2000- 

2005 



7

4. Access By Plane and Ship 


There is regular shipping access to South Tarawa from other ports in the Pacific. Air Pacific flies 

from Nadi in Fiji twice per week. There is no direct flight linkage to Kiritimati Island from 

Tarawa. Access to the Line Islands is difficult with only one flight per week from Honolulu. This 

flight is used by staff from the MHMS head office in South Tarawa for supervisory visits. For a 

few days on Kiritimati Island the process takes about 3 weeks, and is very expensive. For 

example, if leaving Tarawa on a Tuesday flight (flights are twice per week, Tuesdays and 

Thursdays) the staff member has to stay in Fiji till the Sunday flight to Hawaii (obtaining a US 

entry visa in Fiji) then stays 2 more nights till the flight to Kiritimati. 

This plane service is also used to evacuate emergency patients or patients who may benefit from 

more specialised acute care to Honolulu where they may be treated or sent on to Fiji by 

commercial flights. 

Travel by ship from South Tarawa takes about 1-2 weeks, but this journey to Kiritimati Island 

may be only every one to six months. 

5. Communications 

Communication between Kiritimati and Tarawa is by telephone, email and facsimile. There is 

also HF long distance radio contact. Washington and Fanning Island staff are in contact with 

Kiritimati by HF radio. A new HF radio is needed at Kiritimati. Mail takes two weeks to/from 

Kiritimati. 

6. The Health of the Population of Kiribati and the Line islands 

Kiribati has high rates of infectious diseases, including acute respiratory infections, diarrhoeal 

diseases, eye diseases and other communicable diseases. This reflects crowded living conditions 

and poor water and sanitation, particularly on South Tarawa. 

Table 3 - Leading Causes of Morbidity Kiribati 2005 

Leading Causes of Morbidity Number Rate per 100,000 

Population 

Acute respiratory infections 102,148 110,391 

Diarrhoeal diseases 22,647 24,475 

Eye diseases 10,247 11,074 

Skin diseases 795 859 

Communicable diseases 694 750 

Non-communicable diseases 450 486 

Nutrition and related diseases 318 344 

Injury and Poisoning 87 94 

Source : Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006 



8


Diseases of the circulatory system (includes heart disease and strokes) infectious and parasitic 

diseases and respiratory diseases are the main causes of mortality in Kiribati with a high rate of 

death resulting from perinatal (around birth) conditions. Kiribati still has a lower life expectancy 

than most other Pacific island countries (58.9 for males and 63.1 for females in 2005). 1 Kiribati 

also has a relatively high infant mortality rate of 52 deaths per 1000 live births. 2 

Table 4 – Leading Causes of Mortality Kiribati 2006 

Leading Causes of Mortality Number Rate per 

100,000 

population 

Ill Defined conditions 127 137 

Diseases of the circulatory system 84 91 

Infectious and parasitic system 70 76 

Conditions originating in the 

perinatal 

63 68 

Diseases of the respiratory 

system 

62 67 

Diseases of the digestive system 55 59 

Endocrine, nutritional and 49 53 

metabolic 

External causes 35 38 

Neoplasms 28 30 

Diseases of the blood and 

blood forming organs 

9 10 

Source : Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006 

In relation to specific conditions, Kiribati has high rates of: 

• tuberculosis 

• a range of infectious diseases - diarrhoeal, eyes, respiratory, skin 

• sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) with some incidence of HIV/AIDS ( 25 people have 

died from HIV/AIDs since 1991). 3 

• infant mortality (52 per 1000 live births in 2005 – was gradually declining until 2000 but 

increased between the 2000 and 2005 censuses. 

• diabetes (25% of the adult population have diabetes ) 4 

• other diseases related to poor or inappropriate nutrition (anaemia in women, vitamin A 

deficiency in children) 

The introduction of vaccination programs has helped reduce the incidence of a number of 

diseases amongst children. However, continuing improvements depend on the ongoing 

sustainability of the vaccination program, including the more isolated islands. 

1 Source: Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006, page 145. 

2 Source : Kiribati 2005 Census, Analytical Report, SPC Jan 2007, page 22 

3 Source : Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006 page 147 

4 Source : Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006 page 147 



9


Table 5: Morbidity, Line Islands, Kiribati 2006 

Disease Christmas Fanning Washington Total Rate/ 100,000 

Diarrhoea 759 495 141 1,395 15,836 

Dysentery (with blood) 290 202 92 584 6,630 

Pneumonia 120 68 30 218 2,475 

Other ARI 1,883 1,611 429 3,923 44,534 

Meningitis 13 2 2 17 193 

Conjunctivitis 805 546 77 1428 16,211 

STI 33 0 1 34 386 

Malnutrition 31 16 5 52 590 

Acute Fever Syndrome ( no 

rash) 914 568 5 1,487 16,880 

Others 7,678 3,004 1,654 12,336 140,039 

Chicken pox 8 0 0 8 91 

Hypertension 5 17 0 22 250 

Diabetes 4 13 0 17 193 

Mental Illness 0 1 0 1 11 

Totals 12,543 6,543 2,436 21,522 244,318 

Source : Health Centre and Dispensary Morbidity Data 2005-6, MHMS, Kiribati 

These data indicate very high rates of diarrhoea, dysentery, pneumonia, other respiratory 

infections and conjunctivitis. Of concern also is the incidence of meningitis, STIs and emerging 

lifestyle diseases, such as hypertension and diabetes. All of these diseases can be reduced in 

incidence by improved housing conditions, water and sanitation and hygiene levels, as well as 

earlier diagnosis and treatment, and exposure to health promotion and education. 

In 2007, there were 195 births and 60 deaths recorded in the Line Islands. 5 

7. Health Services in the Line Islands 

7.1 An Outline of the Health Services 

The health services of the Line Islands are based around the provision of curative, support and 

preventative services at the Kiritimati Hospital and mainly curative services at the 3 health 

centres and 5 dispensaries provided for communities on the 3 islands. 

5 

Source : MHMS Kiribati, Monthly Consolidated Statistical Report 2007 (Note : no causes of death given in this 

report). 



10

7.2 The Kiritimati Island Hospital 


The building is old, dating back to the 1970’s, it is believed. It is cramped, especially the small 

wards, making it difficult to move and care for patients and provide appropriate patient 

surveillance by the nurses. 

Figure 2: Layout of the Kiritimati Hospital 

Storeroom 

and toilets 

Wards – 7 beds 

Senior Nursing 

Office 

Dental 

Nursing Station 

Waiting Area 

Dressing Station 

Source : Various health staff - MHMS Tarawa 

Delivery room 

Diagram not to 

Scale 

Radiology 

Laboratory 

Operating Theatre 

Table 6: Kiritimati Hospital – Reported Inpatient Bed Days and Admissions 

Month Bed Days Patients Admitted Average stay (days) 

January 125 34 3.68 

February * * * 

March * * * 

April 123 37 3.32 

May 75 33 2.27 

June 86 29 2.97 

July 64 20 3.20 

August * * * 

September * * * 

October 105 22 4.77 

November * * * 

December 66 22 3.00 

Total (7 months) 644 197 3.27 

Av for 7 months 92 28 3.29 

Potential Days ( 7 months) 1,490 

Occupancy Rate 43.2% 

Source: MHMS Statistics Dept 2009. 

Note: * = No report available for that month. Totals and averages are based on 7 months only. 



11


An analysis of the bed day and patients admitted reporting (Table 6) indicates an average 

inpatient occupancy rate of only 43.2%. It is important to note that this is based on only the 

seven months for which data were available. Moreover, it does not take into account the use of 

the nearby maneaba as an alternative to using the small wards. This is a sensible alternative for 

patients where more intensive observation is not required, and where families can visit and 

support the patient more comfortably. The occupancy rate would probably be higher if there was 

a more open ward configuration. The average length of stay per patient is quite low at 3.29 days, 

possibly also indicating patients moving to the manaeba, after initial treatment. 

7.3 The Health Clinics 

Each of the islands has a health centre (the one on Kiritimati also being the main hospital in 

London) with three dispensaries in each of the other main villages on Kiritimati, two 

dispensaries on Fanning and none on Washington. 

Table 7: Health Centres and Dispensaries in the Line Islands 

Island Health 

Centres 

Dispensaries 

Traditional 

Name 

English Name 

Kiritimati Christmas 1: London 3: Banana, 

Poland, Tabakea 

Tabuaenan Fanning 1 Paelau 2: Napari, 

Kimarimari 

Teeraina Washington 1 

Totals 3 5 

Source : MHMS Kiribati , Health Centre and Dispensary Morbidity Data 2005-6 

The clinics and dispensaries mainly offer curative nurse-based services, with some midwifery in 

the health centres. The doctors are based at the hospital with infrequent visits to the health 

centres, especially those on Washington and Fanning Islands. There are no midwives currently 

on Washington and Fanning islands. 

8. Services Based at the Kiritimati Hospital 

8.1 Medical, Surgical and other Specialist Services 

There is one general surgeon, an anaesthetist and a general medical officer. These doctors can 

conduct deliveries also, but are not able to undertake deliveries with complications. These 

patients need to be evacuated to Honolulu, but only on the scheduled once per week flight. This, 

of course, compromises the care of the mother and child at the time of an impending birth. There 

is a need for three more doctors - in obstetrics and gynaecology, medicine and paediatrics (the 

infant mortality rate is high, due to high levels of infectious diseases). The previous doctor on 

Kiritimati, who has now retired, was a paediatrician and referred patients to Tarawa, but now 

these referrals have stopped. Medical staff requiring leave are replaced by doctors from Tarawa. 



12


There are 7 beds, an operating theatre and a delivery room. There is radio and telephone contact 

with the hospital. 

There is no specialist obstetrics at Kiritimati. Normal deliveries are undertaken however by the 

doctors and the midwives. Non-normal cases are referred to Hawaii or on to Fiji. Gynaecology 

cases are referred to Tarawa (patients come by ship). There are two midwives on Kiritimati. 

General nurses are stationed on the other islands (no midwives currently). They refer patients to 

Kiritimati if too complex for them to deliver / treat, which is problematic because of the absence 

of regular transport. A portable ultrasound is used on Kiritimati to assist with monitoring the 

progress of the pregnancy. According to the head of the Obstetrics and Gynaecology Department 

at Tarawa, ideally, there should be two obstetricians on Kiritimati. Over the 5 year period, 2003- 

2007, there were 936 births recorded for the Line Islands, an average of 187 per year or 3.6 

births per week. 6 

There have only been 3 or 4 medical trips to Washington and Fanning Islands in the last 3 years 

on the Government landing barge (this has been unreliable). Visiting yachts are utilised to 

transport patients on occasions. 

In recent years, USA based specialists have occasionally visited Kiritimati Island, via the air link 

from Honolulu. These doctors are sourced through USA based volunteer organizations or as 

individuals visiting as tourist fishermen or sailors on yachts. The USA based Pacific Island 

Medical Aid (PIMA) has supported the hospital with pharmaceuticals, medical supplies and 

improved communications. It has also provided specialists in cardiology and ophthalmology, and 

visits twice per year. PIMA has also been discussing the possibility of outreach medical visits to 

Fanning and Washington Islands by the provision of a light plane and pilot. A request has been 

made to PIMA to also provide specialist visits in paediatrics, obstetrics and gynaecology and 

internal medicine. A request has also been made to the Royal Australian College of Surgeons to 

provide for a visiting ophthalmologist, as eye diseases are quite prevalent. 

8.2 Dental Services 

On Kiritimati Island there is an ex-patriot dentist and a dental assistant. The dentist is there as a 

result of her husband teaching on the island. There is also the possibility of another dentist (a 

Kiribati citizen) arriving on the island in the near future due to a new graduate in dentistry 

becoming available next year and allowing a more experienced dentist to relocate to Kiritimati. 

The current plan is for four permanent staff – a dental officer, a dental technician, a dental 

therapist and a dental assistant. The current dental surgery is inadequate – a small room in the 

hospital. The Senior Dental officer at Tarawa has suggested a surgery 4/5 times the size of the 

current facility is needed. (?.) 

The dentist at Kiritimati makes a visit to Washington and Fanning Islands once per year. Most 

dental work in the Line Islands involves extractions and fillings with little or no time for 

preventative public health work. There is generally poor dental hygiene with few people 

6 Source : MHMS Kiribati, Monthly Consolidated Statistical Report 2007 



13


regularly cleaning their teeth. There are visits to the schools but these are generally clinical. 

These visits have been operating for two years. Toothbrushes are made available to the children 

and a tube of toothpaste for the class to share. The dietary habits of people in the Line Islands are 

changing with more sweets, soft drinks and foods containing sugar being consumed. 

8.3 Nursing 

There is an overall shortage of nurses in Kiribati. This means it is difficult to bring staff over 

from the Line Islands for updating workshops, as there are no backup staff to replace them. As a 

result, replacements are taken from the wards of the main hospital, and consequently the 

remaining staff have to work overtime. Because of a shortage of funds, overtime payments are 

not always possible, so extra leave time is taken in lieu of payment, making the shortage 

situation more difficult. It is difficult to get married nurses to move to the Line Islands if the 

husband has a job in Tarawa. 

There is little ongoing contact with nurses in the Line Islands. There is a Principal Nursing 

Officer based at Kiritimati, who has a supervisory and guidance role with nursing staff in the 3 

islands. 

8.4 Pharmacy and Medical Supplies 

There is no pharmacy on Kiritimati, although pharmaceuticals are supplied to the hospital and 

the health clinics. There are plans for 3 staff (a pharmacist, a technician and an assistant) and that 

Kiritimati will be a distribution centre for the Line Islands health clinics. In the building plans, 

there is a need for an office, storeroom and a cold room and room for refrigerators. Relevant 

office and pharmacy equipment would be required. 

Pharmaceuticals and medical supplies are supplied from Tarawa by ship, using an imprest type 

system (as is used for the outer islands). A buffer amount is added in to cater for irregular 

shipping. Urgent supplies are ordered by phone to go on the ship or flown from Honolulu. 

Supplies to the clinics on Fanning and Washington Islands are irregular and rely on a local barge 

(small ship with a ramp) or private yachts or fishing boats. Drugs are supplied to Tarawa from 

Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and the Netherlands. 

8.4.1 Vaccines 

The supply of essential vaccines is from the pharmacy in South Tarawa, which in turn is supplied 

from either Hawaii or Fiji. The vaccines are transported to Kiritimati Island Hospital by 

government ships which leave intermittently from monthly to every 6 months. The ships with the 

vaccines are fitted with a MHMS refrigerator, with an accompanying technician to monitor the 

cold chain. It is intended that this technician trains staff on the cold chain after arrival at 

Kiritimati Island. At the time of writing, 4 new fridges were to be sent to the Line Islands for 

renewal / replacement. Also, at the time of writing there were no vaccines available on 

Kiritimati. As a result, the vaccination rate has been very low. A recent delivery of vaccines by 

air was spoiled by poor compliance with the need to keep them at very low temperatures in 

transit and in storage. 



14

8.5 Laboratory 


There is a laboratory at the Kiritimati Hospital with 3 staff, a technician, an assistant technician 

and a laboratory assistant. Most essential tests can be carried out there, including aspects of 

microbiology, haematology, blood bank serology and basic biochemistry, including food and 

water quality analysis. The reliability of laboratory supplies is an issue however, as they are 

dependant on shipping arrivals. Communications regarding laboratory results is by telephone 

generally. Facsimile tends to be unreliable as does email. There is a need to upgrade the 

biochemistry section with more equipment (around $50,000 cost). Staffing levels are regarded as 

adequate. The physical space is small but adequate for current demand, although there is a need 

to expand the area to cater for blood donors. If further testing is required, specimens are sent on 

to the public or private laboratories in Fiji, and staff are trained for IATA air cargo requirements 

for carrying pathology specimens. Results from Fiji are relayed by phone or mail. 

Dengue fever is an issue at Kiritimati and USA donors supply rapid test kits for testing dengue in 

patients. However, there is a need for laboratory staff to be trained in testing for major outbreaks 

of infectious diseases. Water quality is also a major issue and the laboratory needs to be able to 

undertake more comprehensive water quality testing. Currently, water in the main reservoir at 

Kiritimati is tested twice per month (sometimes more often). 

8.6 Radiology 

Currently, there is no radiology service on Kiritimati. A building has been completed (waiting on 

lead lining) and there is an X-ray machine and a portable ultrasound. There is no cardiogram. An 

assessment visit is about to be undertaken, with the view that a staff member will be sent to 

commence the service. This staff member is currently undergoing training to use the X ray and 

ultrasound. There is no equipment maintenance contract (there is none for the equipment in 

Tarawa either). 

8.7 Physiotherapy 

There is no physiotherapy service on Kiritimati. There are plans for a building and a 

physiotherapist and an assistant. There is a need for physiotherapy for inpatients, outpatients and 

in the community. Services include rehabilitation from sport and work accidents, post operative 

care and mobilisation during and after inpatient care, spinal care, post caesarean care, and care of 

fractures and delayed milestones in children. Services are also needed for physically disabled 

persons in the community. Wheelchairs are needed and there is ongoing trauma from car 

accidents and falling from coconut trees. Referrals from Kiritimati last year included a 

quadriplegic as a result of falling from a tree and a policemen suffering injury from a car 

accident. 



15

8.8 Ambulance 


The current ambulance is actually a truck-type vehicle, very unsuitable for the purpose. 

However, this is to be replaced by a purpose built ambulance in the near future. There are 2 

ambulance drivers in Kiritimati, each on duty for 12 hour shift. 

8.9 Biomedical Engineering 

There is no biomedical engineering service at Kiritimati or contracts to repair equipment. The 

staff at Tarawa have suggested that one or two staff based at Kiritimati would be very useful. 

Parts are seldom sent from Tarawa. There is no inventory of equipment at Kiritimati. 

9. Public Health Services 

There are 3 major components of public health based at Tarawa – child survival, infectious 

diseases and non-communicable diseases. However, there is little representation of these in the 

Line Islands, except through the small number of medical, nursing and ancillary staff there. As 

mentioned elsewhere, most health work is clinical with little time for preventative activities. 

Water and sanitation are probably the biggest public health issues on Kiritimati Island, made 

more difficult by a lack of co-ordinated planning of public services there. Infrastructure 

development there is primarily the responsibility of the Department of Works and Energy. The 

water supply is in reasonable condition at the moment, with reticulated water to all villages on 

the island from a reservoir where the water is quality tested by the laboratory at the hospital. 

However, the reticulation system fails from time to time. The sanitation situation is considered to 

be poor, leading to a high prevalence of infectious diseases. There are significant social and 

environmental issues emerging also, such as poor quality and unregulated housing, forest 

burning (to gather honey) an increase in crime and social problems, and pressure on flora and 

fauna through hunting birds, overfishing the lagoon and increased firewood gathering. 

A new child survival strategy is currently being developed with support from UNICEF and 

WHO, including the funding of a continuing care nurse. There is a slow reduction in child 

mortality in Kiribati, with the target to achieve a rate of less than 30 deaths at ages 12-49 months 

per 100,000 live births. 

9.1 Health Promotion 

There is only one staff member on Kiritimati Island, a senior Health Promotion Officer. Staff in 

Tarawa have suggested an Assistant Health Promotion Officer is now needed. Major priorities 

for health promotion in the Line Islands are water and sanitation management. There are 

increases in tuberculosis and leprosy and these are receiving attention from the Health Promotion 

Officer. The Health Promotion officer supports the community nurses in their work through joint 

activities and staff group meetings to agree on joint approaches (doctors, nurses, health 

promotion, environmental health). They work in the community with the Island Council, church 

groups, youth groups etc. Awareness-raising occurs through radio programs, community 



16


meetings, home gardening activities, school visits etc. However, all this is a considerable task for 

one health promotion officer. 

Health promotion materials are requested from donors and/or sent from Tarawa. There is a 

computer and printer, but little other equipment. It was suggested a new projector and video 

player would be useful, as they have a good stock of videos /CDs. Reports are sent from 

Kiritimati but tend to go straight to the filing system, without Tarawa based Health Promotion 

staff accessing them. 

Fanning and Washington Islands are visited once or twice per year (each island is about a one 

day boat trip away). There is no MHMS boat, and use is made of visiting yachts willing to 

transport staff. . 

An old building, a few hundred metres from the hospital, is used to house the health promotion 

and environmental health staff. More functional offices adjacent to the hospital need to be 

included in future building plans. 

9.2 Nutrition 

There are no nutrition staff in the Line Islands, and currently there is no staff allocation for 

nutrition staff there. Two staff are needed, according to the Nutrition Department. There are two 

qualified graduates available but no positions. The last visit to Kiritimati Island from Tarawa 

based nutrition staff was 4 or 5 years ago. Visits are impeded by the lack of staff for the current 

workload at Tarawa. The main activity of the four nutrition staff in Tarawa is increasing public 

awareness of good/poor nutrition by training the community nurses and health promotion staff 

who visit community groups. This includes encouragement of breast feeding and associated 

infant feeding practices and efforts to reduce the incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes 

and hypertension. These approaches would be valuable in the Line Islands. 

The supply of fish in the Line Islands is good, with most families having access to fresh fish on a 

regular basis. Fish poisoning is not a significant health issue in the Line Islands at the moment 

(only one case last year). Vegetables are difficult to grow on Kiritimati Island and therefore are 

not readily available. However, they can be grown with more success on Fanning and 

Washington Islands where the soil is more fertile. However, until recently there has been no 

regular way to transport vegetables to Kiritimati Island. This may change with the advent of a 

more regular barge service. There is a small market on Kiritimati where food items are sold. The 

Government is endeavouring to improve the production of livestock on Kiritimati also. More 

bread, rice and soft drinks are being added to the normal diet, bringing about greater rates of 

obesity, diabetes and diabetes related disease and poor dental health. 



17

9.3 Environmental Health 


This department has responsibilities involving water supply, sanitation, vector control, 

quarantine and food safety. Waste management is the responsibility of the Ministry of 

Environment. There is one Assistant Health Inspector on Kiritimati Island. The MHMS has 

requested a senior Health Inspector and a Health Aid position be added. 

There is no reticulated sewerage system. The Government provides septic systems only for its 

staff. Water sealed toilets can be installed also, but families have to purchase the cement 

themselves. The moulds for the water sealed toilets are provided by the Environmental Health 

Dept of the MHMS. Otherwise local residents utilise the bush or the beach for sanitation. The 

2005 Census indicated that on Kiritimati Island, 73% of people had flush toilets, 25% had pit 

toilets, 20% had compost toilets and 35% used the bush or beach for defecation. 7 

Note this 

indicates that some households still use the bush or beach, even though they supposedly are 

provided with a toilet. 

There is a reticulated water system over much of the island, except in the new settlements. 

However, it is unreliable and dependant on regular rainfall. Water is also retrieved from wells. 

The Department is not very active in vector control in the Line Islands despite the presence of 

dengue fever and filariasis (which is very prevalent). Their activities mainly involve larvae 

monitoring and encouragement of cleaning in and around houses and villages. However, these 

activities are limited, as a result of staff shortages. 

Food safety work is undertaken on Kiritimati Island through the inspection of shops, bakeries 

and schools. Despite this, some packaged food supplied to the Line Islands has exceeded expiry 

dates. The Department undertakes a limited quarantine service, only when foreign vessels arrive. 

The office space is small and shared with the Health Promotion Department. At the moment, the 

Department has little or no equipment present on the island. There is a need for more staff space 

and a storeroom, and staff have requested a computer and printer. 

There is very little monitoring of Environmental Health activities undertaken from the 

Head office at South Tarawa, and supervisory visits are infrequent (about once per four years). 

There is a move to engage the Environmental Health Department to work more with the local 

Council on Kiritimati Island. There has been little collaboration to date. The council has been 

established for about three years. Washington and Fanning Islands have separate councils. 

7 Source: Cited in Jones,’ Rapid Social and Poverty Analysis, Kiritimati Island’, page 16, June-July 2008. 



18


10. A Summary of the Most Pressing Health Needs in the Line Islands 

The population of the Line Islands experiences a range of diseases and conditions, typical of 

those in poor, overcrowded and under-serviced countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The most 

pressing needs, however in the Line Islands are: 

• To address the high level of infectious diseases, including ARI, diarrhoeal diseases, eye 

and skin diseases 

• To increase the child vaccination rate significantly 

• To reduce the incidence of nutrition related diseases, including malnutrition in children 

and emerging lifestyle diseases in adults 

• To reduce the levels of maternal and child mortality through improved obstetric and 

midwifery availability. 

• To provide regular transport to and from Washington and Fanning Islands for medical 

and nursing visits, medical supplies and patient referrals. 

Not all these diseases and conditions can be addressed fully by the MHMS. They also arise from 

levels of personal and community hygiene, which can only partly be addressed by improved 

health education and promotion. Some conditions are prevalent due to the unreliable and 

sometimes poor condition of the water and the limited safe sanitation available. These are also 

infrastructure matters, largely outside the responsibility of the MHMS. Overcrowded housing is 

not directly a health responsibility either. The provision of regular and reliable inter-island 

transport, so important for timely evacuation of patients and regular visits of medical and nursing 

staff and the regular supply of drugs and vaccines is also not a responsibility of MHMS. All 

these infrastructure and planning matters have a very significant effect on health outcomes in the 

Line Islands 

This is why the health situation of the Line Islands needs to be addressed jointly by a 

number of Ministries. However, within the MHMS, some actions can be taken to improve the 

health situation and these are discussed in Section 13 below. 

11. Current Staffing Levels and Vacancies 

Table 8 shows filled and vacant staffing positions for the Line Islands as recorded in the official 

MHMS budget for 2009. 



19


Table 8: Staffing Levels for Health Services in the Line Islands, 2009 

Position Filled Not Filled Total Positions 

Medical Consultant 8 

3 

1 4 

Principal Nursing Officer 1 0 1 

MA 3 1 4 

Senior Nursing Officer 0 1 1 

Nursing Officer 8 2 10 

Health Education Officer 1 0 1 

Assistant Health 9 

Inspector 1 

0 1 

Dental Therapist 0 1 1 

Laboratory Technician 1 0 1 

Assistant laboratory Technician 1 0 1 

X-Ray Assistant 0 3 3 

Dispensary Assistant 0 3 3 

Ambulance Officer 2 0 2 

Laboratory Aide 1 0 1 

Orderly 0 4 4 

Cleaner 0 3 3 

Totals 22 19 41 

Source : Budget documents, Accounting Office. MHMS Kiribati 2009 

Table 9: Additional Staffing Priorities as Suggested by MHMS staff Interviewed 

Based on Meetings with senior staff and Department Heads MHMS Kiribati March 2009 

Department / Function Current Actual Staffing Additional Workforce Needed 

Medical 3 doctors - 

One surgeon 

One anaesthetist 

One general doctor 

Obstetrician / 

Gynaecologist 

Paediatrician 

Internal medicine 

Midwives Only 2 based at Kiritimati One for Fanning 

One for Washington 

Nurses 8 to cover all facilities on 3 Needs not suggested – but nominally 5 

islands 

more staff 

Dental Only an ex-pat dentist with an Dentist 

assistant – not a long term Dental Therapist 

proposition 

Dental technician 

Pharmacy Nil Pharmacist 

Pharmacy technician 

Pharmacy assistant 

Radiology Nil Radiology technician 

Physiotherapy Nil Physiotherapist 

An Assistant 

Ambulance 2 staff Ambulance officer 

Biomedical staff Nil One technician 

Health promotion One Health Education officer Assistant Health Promotion Officer 

Nutrition Nil Two nutrition staff 

Environmental Health Assistant Health Inspector Senior Health Inspector 

Health Aid Worker 

8 

Note : Records indicated only one position filled, but respondents confirmed 3 positions had been filled (as at 

March 2009). 

9 

Note : Records indicated the position was vacant, but respondents said it was filled (as at March 2009). 



20


Table 8 shows that there are 41 positions in total, of which 19 (46.3%) are not filled. Given these 

vacant posts are already in the budget documents, it would be best to fill them first before 

attempting to fill any additional positions (see Table 9). However, there are likely to be both 

financial and workforce constraints in filling even existing positions. 

Staff at the MHMS at Tarawa have suggested staff recruiting priorities, as given in the discussion 

above and summarised in the Table 9. 

12. Financial Resources Applied to Health in the Line Islands 

The total 2009 operational expenditure budget for the provision of health services in the Line and 

Phoenix Group is $490,559. This, in effect, can be regarded as the budget for the Line Islands 

since there is virtually no health service provision in the Phoenix Islands. The budget breakdown 

is given below. The finance staff at MHMS indicated that there is seldom any variation to the 

budget and that, under normal circumstances, the budgeted figure is likely to be the actual figure. 

Table 10: Operational Expenditure Budget MHMS Health Services in the Line Islands, 

2009 

Expenditure Item Amount (AUD) 

Kiribati Provident Fund 7,754 

Salaries 103,386 

Housing allowance 8,496 

Allowances 69,013 

Overtime 13,013 

Temporary assistance 3,127 

Leave grants / passage 31,595 

Transport to work 13,000 

Internal travel and transport 17,300 

External travel 5,000 

Direct purchases local 25,240 

Purchases services local 12,000 

Local referral 85,625 

Hire of plant and vehicle and equipment 34,630 

Telecom charges 21,380 

Electricity and gas 28,000 

Water charges 12,000 

Total Budgeted Expenditure 490,559 

Source : MHMS Kiribati Budget Documents 2009 

Some costs that have not been apportioned to the Line Islands health budget should be included 

to ascertain the total cost of operating health services there. These include pharmaceuticals and 

medical supplies, overseas dental supplies, overseas curative services, relocation expenses, local 

training, motor vehicle costs and building repairs and maintenance. 

The apportionment of these costs is shown in Table 11. 



21


Table 11 Apportionment of Central Costs of MHMS to Line Islands Health Expenditure 

Estimates 

Item Total for all Basis for Apportionment Amount (A$) 

Kiribati 

Apportioned 

Pharmaceutical and Medical 1,888,000 7% of total actual supplies over a 132,160 

Supplies Purchased Overseas 

5 month period for Line Islands 

Other Supplies Purchased 

Overseas 

408,484 9.5 % - population proportion 38,806 

Cleaning 12,626 4.3% - ratio of already identified 543 

Line Island costs to total costs 

Overseas Services 618,206 9.5 % - population proportion 58,730 

Relocation expenses 24,000 6.4% - proportion of total staff 1,536 

Local Training 157,080 6.4% - proportion of total staff 10,053 

Motor vehicle expenses 108,533 4.3% - ratio of already identified 


4,667 

Building Repairs and 

5,000 4.3% - ratio of already identified 215 

Maintenance 


Total 3,221,929 7.66 % 246,710 

The total budgeted expenditure for the Line Islands for 2009 including these costs is estimated in 

estimated in Table 12. 

Table 12: Total Budgeted Estimated Health Expenditure for MHMS in the Line Islands 

2009 

Expenditure Item Amount (Aust$) 

Kiribati Provident Fund 7,754 

Salaries 103,386 

Housing allowance 8,496 

Allowances 69,013 

Overtime 13,013 

Temporary assistance 3,127 

Leave grants / passage 31,595 

Transport to work 13,000 

Internal travel and transport 17,300 

External travel 5,000 

Direct purchases local 25,240 

Purchases services local 12,000 

Local referral 85,625 

Hire of plant and vehicle and equipment 34,630 

Telecom charges 21,380 

Electricity and gas 28,000 

Water charges 12,000 

Pharmaceutical and Medical Supplies Purchased 

Overseas 

132,160 

Other Supplies Purchased Overseas 38,806 

Cleaning 543 

Overseas Services 58,730 

Relocation expenses 1,536 

Local Training 10,053 

Motor vehicle expenses 4,667 

Building Repairs and Maintenance 215 

Total 737,269 



22


13. Resource Requirements in Health to Meet Current Needs 

Given that the current total estimated operational health budget is $737,269, what extra costs are 

required to meet current health needs? This is difficult to ascertain, but one approach is to add in 

the extra costs of resources recognised by staff and the consultant, as required immediately to 

meet current health demand at the current population levels. This estimate can then be factored 

up by estimated changes in the population over the next few years. 

1. Fill most of the current approved staff vacancies 

The first step would be to boost the staffing which is already approved and in the budget, but 

where there are current vacancies. Within the current approved establishment of positions 

(see Table 8 above) the following staff can be added: 

• 1 medical consultant (an obstetrician and gynaecologist) 

• 1 senior nursing officer 

• 2 nursing officers 

• 1 dental therapist 

• 1 x-ray technician and one x-ray assistant (3 current vacancies could be used) 

• 1 pharmacist and 1 technician (3 current vacancies could be used) 

• 1 orderly (there are none officially at the moment) 

• 1 cleaner (there are none officially at the moment) 

The filling of these positions would impact on: 

• Improved maternal and infant care through having an obstetrician and gynaecologist 

available. 

• Improved child care through an improved vaccination program – a pharmacist looking 

after the cold chain, and extra nurses to carry out the vaccinations. 

• Improved treatments generally by better drug use due to the presence of a pharmacist, 

and improved stocking of drugs. 

• Improved patient care through the provision of more nurses. 

• Reduced infection by a cleaner hospital 

Accompanying these staff additions would be some extra expenditure in pharmaceuticals and 

medical supplies, which even though they are not part of the recognised expenditure budget of 

the Line Islands, will need to be taken into account. 

Three other important costs which will need to be added as part of this first step would be: 

• Extra referrals of obstetrics and gynaecology patients (the presence of an obstetrics and 

gynaecology doctor will mean more activity in this area including referrals to Hawaii or 

Fiji). 

• Extra costs of more visits to Washington and Fanning Islands by medical and nursing 

staff – the number of visits is inadequate at the moment. 



23


• Extra costs in referring some of the visited patients back to the hospital on Kiritimati 

Island. 

• The normal staff on-costs such as housing, travelling allowances etc. 

Table 13: Estimate of Extra Costs of Filling Most Current Staff Vacancies 

Item Amount (A$) 

Obstetrician / Gynaecologist 14,989 

Senior Nursing Officer 9,230 

Two Nursing Officers 15,496 

Dental Therapist 9,464 

X-Ray Technician 9,464 

X- Ray Assistant 7,748 

Pharmacist 11,570 

Pharmacy Technician 9,464 

Orderly 5,000 

Cleaner 4,000 

Total Estimated Base Salary costs 10 

96,425 

Staff On-costs (1.38) – includes housing allowance, overtime, 

transport to work, Provident Fund, leave passage grants – based 

on 2009 Budget. 

133,066 

Increase in Pharmaceutical and Medical Supplies (Based on 7 

more key decision-making staff to current 15 ) = 7/15 of current 

allocation 

61,674 

Increase in overseas purchases (7/15) 38,806 

Local referral costs (1/3) increase based on increase of doctors 

from 3 to 4 (this includes referrals within Line Islands and to 

Tarawa) 

28,542 

Telecom charges ( 20%) 4,276 

Electricity and gas (20%) 5,600 

Water charges ( 20%) 2,400 

Cleaning ( 500% due to full time cleaner) 2,715 

Relocation expenses (500%) – due to vacancies being filled 7,680 

Local training (100%) 10,053 

Increased Visits to Washington and Fanning Islands (4 per year, 

instead of 1) – also 3 staff instead of 1 

22,392 

New Pharmacy overhead costs ( nominal figure) 20,000 

Total Increased Operating Budget 433,629 

These estimates indicate that Step 1, involving principally filling most of the current vacancies, 

therefore increasing the need for more pharmaceutical, medical and other supplies, and also 

bringing about more obstetrics and gynaecology referrals, more visits to Washington and 

Fanning Islands, and more internal referrals, would cost an extra $433,629 on top of the current 

estimated expenditure of $737,269. This would be a 58.8% increase in the current total health 

operational budget for the Line Islands, and bring it to a total of $1,170,898. 

10 Note – these are estimates only, based on salary rates paid to current staff, whose positions may not directly 

comparable. Unfortunately, costs of vacant positions were not listed in the budget documents made available to the 

consultant. 



24


2. Seek approval for extra positions to be created and filled, which would have a further direct 

impact on improving maternal and infant mortality and a reduction in infectious 

diseases. 

Approval would be needed for additional positions not yet in the budget, but suggested by staff 

(see Table 9 above). These are: 

• Two midwives – one each for Washington and Fanning Islands 

• One Health Promotion Officer (suggested by staff and the consultant to boost the Health 

Promotion effort further). 

• A Senior Health Inspector for Environmental Health 

• A Water and Sanitation Officer (suggested by the consultant to boost improved water and 

sanitation practices in the Communities). 

• Two Nutrition staff 

The implementation of Step 2 will require further expenditures to ensure staff and programs are 

effective. These costs are: 

• Health promotion materials for use by the Health Promotion staff, the Nutrition staff and 

the Environmental Health staff (water and sanitation education and promotion). 

• Extra staff transport and per diem costs, including regular visits to communities on 

Kiritimati and Washington and Fanning Islands 

• Costs associated with holding regular Community meetings – catering, maneaba costs etc 

• Sanitation materials - cement, moulds etc 

• Costs associated with small projects e.g. home gardening costs – seeds, garden tools, 

fertiliser etc 

• Computers, printers etc to cover work requirements of new staff 



25


Table 14 Costs of Adding More Key Staff Positions to the Staff Establishment of the Line 

Islands Health Services 

Item Amount 

(A$) 

Two midwives – Fanning and Washington 18,460 

Health Promotion Officer 9,464 

Senior Health Inspector 9,464 

Water and Sanitation Officer 9,464 

Nutritionist 9,464 

Nutrition Assistant 7,748 

Total Estimated Base Salary costs 11 

64,064 

Staff On-costs (1.38) 88,408 

Extra Health Promotion materials (double current budget) 8,021 

Extra health Promotion community activities (double current budget) 3,320 

Extra staff transport and per diem costs for these staff to ensure 

regular visits to villages and other islands 

5,000 

Sanitation materials, cement, moulds etc 5,000 

Small community project costs – home gardening etc 5,000 

Computers, printers and supplies to cover work requirements of new 

staff 

15,000 

Total Increased Operating Budget 193,813 

Step 2, significantly upgrading midwifery, nutrition, water and sanitation education and health 

promotion community activities, will increase the annual operational budget by an estimated 

$193,813. 

Overall, Steps 1 and 2 will cost an estimated extra $627,442 in annual operational 

costs (an 85.1% increase over the current budget) but should bring significant 

improvements in the provision of health services in the Line Islands, and should 

bring about some improvements in the health status of the population over the next 

few years. 

3. The Need to Strengthen Management in the Line Islands 

It should be emphasised, however, that the MHMS will need to consider the management 

implications of such a significant increase in the operational budget, the resultant increase in 

staff from 22 to 40 personnel, and the increase in the scope and depth of health programs to be 

offered. In order to improve management effectiveness, the MHMS may need to consider the 

Line Islands health services as a specific management unit within the MHMS, with its own Chief 

Executive Officer and with stronger administration / accounting support. This could possibly be 

achieved by the creation of two new posts (CEO and Administrator/Accountant) with specific 

11 

Note – these are estimates only, based on salary rates paid to current staff, whose positions may not directly 

comparable. 



26


terms of reference and a higher degree of autonomy in managing both health programs and the 

budget. 

The creation of these two extra positions would add a further $38,380 to the recurrent budget, as 

indicated below. 

Table 15: The Estimated Cost of Adding Chief Executive Officer and Administrator/ 

Accountant Positions to the Line Islands Health Services 

Item Amount ($A) 

Chief Executive Officer 14,000 

Administrator / Accountant 9,464 

Total Base Salary Costs 23,464 

Staff on-costs (1.38) 32,380 

Computers, printers etc 6,000 

Total Estimated Annual Costs 38,380 

This would bring the estimated increase in the operational budget of the Line 

Islands to $665,822, with a total estimated annual budget of $1,403,091 in total, an 

increase of 90.31% 

4 The Need for Temporary Staff Accommodation – Which Could Become Permanent 

There will be a need for a much larger hospital and a community health services centre given the 

need to expand services over the next few years. 

The time taken to construct an expanded hospital and community health service may be some 

years, if the traditional approach to construction is used. This will cause severe delays in the 

provision of urgently needed services of the type outlined above. Therefore, it is most important 

that temporary accommodation needs to be arranged before and concurrent with the expanded 

staff appointments, as the growth in the operational budget allows. Modern, well designed and 

built temporary buildings are readily available from Australia, New Zealand or the USA and 

could be delivered to Kiritimati by ship. 

With some research, it may be possible for the temporary buildings to become the new 

permanent expanded hospital and community health services centre, without having to consider 

the normal longer term structures usually built from cement blocks with concrete floors. With 

new architectural and building approaches and technologies, a whole hospital and health centre 

could be shipped to Kiritimati Island in modular units, with each module delivered in line with 

steadily expanded services and staffing over the next few years. 

External donor support could be sought to finance the design, purchase, transport and 

commissioning of the new buildings. 



27


5. The Need for a Regular Boat Service To / From The Other Islands. 

Given one of the limiting factors is availability of transport to/from Washington and Fanning 

Islands, consideration should be given to the provision of a boat and crew for the 

health services there. This may be beyond the current capacity of the MHMS to provide such a 

service, so the MHMS should be encouraged to seek external assistance from aid organizations 

or NGOs to provide this service over the next few years, until there are sufficient local 

operational and capital funds available. Donors from USA have been active in recent years in the 

Line Islands, and could possibly be approached to provide such a service (this could be a 

possibility as there is current discussion of the provision of a volunteer air service – a boat 

service could be looked at as a more feasible, possibly lower cost option which the Government 

could eventually take over). 

14. Future Resource Requirements as Populations Expands 

The population of the Line Islands in 2005 was 8809, with a 40.4% increase from 2000. 

Assuming the same average annual population increase to 2009, this would yield a population 

estimate of 9,894 in 2009 and 12,367 in 2010. The analysis above suggests that the current 

operational health budget in 2009 should be in the order of $1,403,091. Using this as a basis, 

what should the operational budget be (in 2009 dollars) in 2015 and 2020? 

The table below would indicate an operational budget for 2015 of $1,969,940 and for 2020 a 

budget of $2,765,795. 

Table 16: Budget Requirements in Accordance With Population Estimates for the Line 

Islands Using 2000-2005 Population Growth Rates 

Year Population 

Estimate 

Basis for Population 

Estimate 

2000 6,275 2000 Census 

2005 8,809 2005 Census 

2009 9,894 Increase 2000-2005 

(40.4%) 

2010 12,367 Increase 2000-2005 

(40.4%) 

2015 17,742 Increase 2000-2005 

(40.4%) 

2020 24,910 Increase 2000-2005 

(40.4%) 

Actual Line Islands 

Operational Budget 

737,269 1,403,091 

Estimated Line Islands 

Operational Budget 

Required 

1,516,461 

1,969,940 

2,765,795 



28


14.1 The Process of Expanding the Line Islands Health Services Operational Budget to meet 

Current and Future Needs 

The increases in operational budgets in the Line Islands to meet the above projections would be a 

mammoth task, given the revenue limitations of the Kiribati economy. Just to achieve the 

estimated 2009 budget of $1,403,091 suggested in this analysis to sustain or improve the current 

health status of the Line Islands population, would require a 90.31% increase immediately. Even 

if the funds could be reallocated within the MHMS immediately, there would not be the planning 

and management capacity to mobilise these funds quickly into new staff positions or effective 

programs so far away in the Line Islands. In addition, there would not be the staff or 

accommodation available to undertake such changes rapidly. It is suggested therefore that the 

MHMS aim to meet and mobilise the 2009 estimated budget of $1,403,091 over a process of 

more realistic annual increases in the next 5 years, using an annual rate of increase in the budget 

of 13.74%. 

Table 17 Projected Increases 2009-2014 to Meet Suggested 2009 Line Islands Budget 

Year Operational Budget Level 

Percent 

(A$) 

Increase 

2009 737,269 

2010 838,529 13.74 

2011 953,697 13.74 

2012 1,084,683 13.74 

2013 1,233,659 13.74 

2014 1,403,097 13.74 

This process at least achieves the first aim, of getting the Line Islands budget up to a level which 

can effect a significant impact on health status. The situation could be reviewed again at a later 

date when population levels are monitored. In the case where population rate of increase slows 

down below the 2000-2005 rates, then the sort of increase suggested in Table 16 may not be 

needed. 

What is the impact of these budget increases on the total health budget? The actual impact on 

the overall health budget may be quite small, as the table below demonstrates. The annual 13.74 

% increase needed to bring the Line Islands budget up to $1,403, 097 in 5 years, would mean 

only a slight drop in the increase of the overall health budget, if it rose at an average of 5% per 

annum. Instead of a 5% increase for example, the overall health budget would grow by 4.35% to 

4.54%, which is not a significant reduction in overall growth. This means that the 13.74% annual 

increase in the Line Islands budget suggested for the next 5 years may only have a minimal 

effect on the rate of increase of the overall national health budget. This is both politically and 

managerially sensible. 



29


Table 18: Impact of Budget Increases in the Line Islands on Overall Health Budget 

Year Operational 

Budget Level 

(A$) 

For Line Islands 

Percent Increase 

To Achieve 

2009 Suggested 

Budget in 5 years 

Overall MHMS 

Budget with a 

5% annual 

increase 

Budget Available 

to Remainder of 

Health Sector 

2009 737,269 14,606,798 13,869,529 

2010 838,529 13.74 15,337,138 14,498,609 4.54 

2011 953,697 13.74 16,103,995 15,150,298 4.49 

2012 1,084,683 13.74 16,909,195 15,824,512 4.45 

2013 1,233,659 13.74 17,754,654 16,520,995 4.40 

2014 1,403,097 13.74 18,642,387 17,239,290 4.35 

Percent 

Increase in 

Remainder of 

Health Sector 

The more ambitious budget target for 2015, i.e. the estimated boosted 2009 budget of 

$1,403,091, indexed up for forecast population increases to 2015, would mean an annual 

increase of 17.80% in the Line Islands Budget. Even this would still allow a 3.74% to 4.32% 

increase in the overall MHMS budget, still a small reduction on a 5% increase overall (see Table 

19). 

Table 19 Impact of Budget Increases in the Line Islands on Overall Health Budget When 

the More Ambitious 2015 Line Islands Budget Target is Used 

Year Operational 

Budget Level 

(A$) 

For Line Islands 

Percent Increase 

To Achieve 

2015 Target 

Budget 

Overall MHMS 

Budget with a 

5% annual 

increase 

Budget Available 

to Remainder of 

Health Sector 

2009 737,269 14606,798 13,869,529 

2010 868,491 17.80 15,337,138 14,468,647 4.32 

2011 1,023,069 17.80 16,103,995 15,080,926 4.23 

2012 1,205,159 17.80 16,909,195 15,704,036 4.13 

2013 1,419,658 17.80 17,754,654 16,334,997 4.02 

2014 1,672,334 17.80 18,642,387 16,970,053 3.89 

2015 1,969,983 17.80 19,574,506 17,604,524 3.74 

Percent 

Increase in 

Remainder of 

Health Sector 

Tables 18 and 19 indicate that it is theoretically possible to make fairly rapid increases in the 

Line Islands Health budget, with a much smaller impact on the overall MHMS health budget. 

This is because in 2009, the Line Islands health budget is only 5.05% of the total health budget. 

Even with 17.80% annual increases in the Line Islands budget, with 5% increases in the overall 

health budget, the Line Islands budget in 2015 would only be 10.06% of the total (which fits well 

with the Line Islands percentage of population, currently 9.52%, and growing). 

The MHMS can pursue a high target rate of budget growth (13.74% per annum) or a very high 

target rate of 17.80% (17.80%) the latter being the most desirable, as it takes account of 

necessary budget increases to boost health status, but also keeps pace with forecast population 

growth. Even the very high rate will have only a slight effect on overall MHMS budget growth 

rates, as the Line Islands budget is only a small percentage of the overall budget. 

However, whichever target rate is chosen (including lower or greater annual rates) the limiting 

factors will be staff availability, staff accommodation and training, the ability of the MHMS to 



30


effectively plan and manage the growth in staff and health programs and the external assistance 

available to provide boat transport and expanded hospital and community health accommodation. 

It may be appropriate for the MHMS therefore to boost the budget of the Line Islands modestly 

for 2010 (say 6-8%) then higher for 2011 (say 10-12%) and review how it is able to manage such 

budget growth. Much will depend on overall budget availability for the whole of the MHMS. If 

there are increases of around 5% or more for the overall health budget, then the MHMS could 

boost the Line Islands budget by 13-17% in 2012 and beyond. Without these significant budget 

increases and the improved and stronger health programs which should result, if managed 

effectively, there will not be a significant improvement in the health of the Line Islands 

population, and the health status of the population could even fall below the very low levels 

being experienced currently. 

However, because of possible revenue limitations of the Government of Kiribati, it is also 

recommended that MHMS discuss the possible assistance of an external donor (multilateral, 

bilateral or NGOs) to support the Line Islands operational components of the health services in 


15. Key Recommendations 

1. It is recommended as a first step to improving the health services in the Line Islands, the 

MHMS fill key vacant positions in the staff establishment. Some key positions to be filled 

have been identified in this report after discussions with a range of MHMS departments in 

Tarawa. The cost of filling these positions and providing the resources needed for the staff to 

undertake the extra effort to tackle the considerable health issues is estimated to be $A 

433,629 on top of an estimated current operational budget of $737,269 

2. It is recommended that when financial resources allow, the MHMS add to the staff 

establishment some more key staff and supporting resources to tackle the health issues in 

more depth. It is estimated these new key positions and support resources will add $193,813 

to the operational budget. 

3. To help ensure that the current and extra staffing and resources are utilised more effectively, 

it is recommended that the MHMS create 2 management positions to manage the Line 

Islands health services as a more cohesive, flexible and integrated health service than the 

current situation where departments in Tarawa try to manage their staffing outposts so far 

away, and with such poor communications and transport links. 

4. It is recommended that the MHMS work with the Government of Kiribati to request financial 

and logistics assistance to support a regular and reliable boat service which can be utilised by 

health staff and patients. 

5. It is recommended that buildings be imported to Kiritimati in staged modules by ship and 

that these modules progressively are added to make up the new building infrastructure of the 

expanded hospital and community health services centre. There is no time to wait the years 

normally required to build a conventional hospital and health centre from concrete blocks 



31


and concrete base. With some research, good quality portable buildings should be obtainable 

with only the linking walkways constructed on site. 

6. Hospital and health services buildings and support services are expensive however, and it is 

recommended that the Government discuss the possible financing of a staged modular 

development with an external donor. 

7. It is recommended the MHMS in the longer term pursues a target rate of budget growth for 

the Line Islands health services between the high rate (13.74% per annum) or a very high rate 

of 17.80% per annum, the latter being the most desirable, as it takes account of necessary 

budget increases to boost health status, but also keeps pace with forecast population growth. 

Even the very high rate will have only a slight effect on overall MHMS budget growth rates, 

as the Line Islands budget is only a small percentage of the overall budget. 

8. However, in the short term, it is recommended the MHMS boosts the budget of the Line 

Islands modestly for 2010 (say 6-8%) then higher for 2011 (say 10-12%) and review how it 

is able to manage such budget growth. Much will depend on overall budget availability for 

the whole of the MHMS. If there are increases of around 5% or more for the overall health 

budget, then the MHMS could boost the Line Islands budget by 13-17% in 2012 and beyond. 

9. Because of possible revenue limitations of the Government of Kiribati, it is recommended 

that MHMS discuss the possible assistance of an external donor (multilateral, bilateral or 

NGOs) to support the Line Islands operational components of the health services in 


References 

Kiribati 2005 Census, Analytical Report, SPC Jan 2007 

Country Health Information Profiles Kiribati WHO 2006 

Health Center and Dispensary Morbidity Data 2005-6, MHMS, Kiribati 

Monthly Consolidated Statistical Report 2007, MHMS Kiribati 

Jones, P. Rapid Social and Poverty Analysis, Kiritimati Island (supporting document for ADB 

TA 4878 – KIR). 

Budget documents, Accounting Office. MHMS Kiribati 2009 

Meetings with senior staff and Department Heads MHMS Kiribati March 2009 

MHMS Strategic Plan 2008-2011 



32

Annex 5: M Baaro Extension Activities 

Work Done by the National Facilitator during TA Extension 

Makurita Baaro 

National Facilitator 



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Background 

Work on the extended TA for the Population Policy Implementation Strategy (PPIS) did not 

begin until late August 2009 as necessary approvals to go ahead with the work, the scope for 

which was agreed with the Team Leader, Dr Chris McMurray, was not received until about this 

time. There was also unavoidable delays on the ground as the National Facilitator was asked by 

Government at about this time to lead a Commission of Enquiry into one of the worst ever 

maritime accidents in Kiribati which resulted in the death of 30 people. 

Consequently, there was not much time to do the work required under the TOR for the TA 

extension before the end of the extension period, 30 September. There was however substantial 

progress on the PPIS once work commenced and these are reported in the following paragraphs. 

The period of work also coincided with the dates when Parliament met. The positive side was 

that all Permanent Secretaries were on island for the consultations and follow-up meetings. The 

downside was that the planned visit to Kiritimati did not materialise as the Minister, the 

Permanent Secretary as well as other senior staff of the Ministry of Line and Phoenix were in 

Tarawa for the meeting of Parliament. 

Approval by Cabinet 

One of the major successes was the approval by Cabinet of the PPIS in early August, 2009. This 

resulted primarily from the visit of Dr C McMurray in early July and subsequent follow-up work 

by the National Facilitator in further discussing the PPIS with both the Secretary to Cabinet (SC) 

and the President and then actually preparing a Cabinet Paper for their consideration. It became 

apparent that following the submission of the final Draft PPIS to the Secretary’s meeting in the 

first quarter of 2009, the draft was not submitted to Cabinet which was the expected next step. 

This was a direct result of uncertainties on the level of support from ADB for the next phase on 

the implementation of the strategy and in particular the proposed provision of bridging/seed 

resources to begin the ball rolling on implementation. In light of these uncertainties, a 

submission to Cabinet was put on hold to await further advice on the extent of this support rather 

than provide inconclusive information to Cabinet. The visit by Dr C McMurray provided this 

required information and the needed clarification. 

The Meetings with Stakeholders 

In the meeting with stakeholders, both within Government, with NGOs and Faith Based 

Organisations, it became apparent that there had been substantial changes to key personnel with 

important roles in the implementation of the Strategy. 

A Change of the Guards 

Five Permanent Secretaries in key Ministries have changed; in the Office of the President, the 

Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development, the Ministry of Finance and Economic 

Planning, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Labour and Human Resource 

Development. All three heads of missions, Australia, New Zealand and Taiwan were new. The 

chairmanship of the Kiribati National Council of Churches had rotated from the Kiribati 

Protestant Church Moderator, Reverend Toom Toakai with whom the Team worked in 2008, to 



2


the Head of the Catholic Church, His Lordship Bishop Paul Mea who did not attend any of the 

consultation meetings held in 2008 (he sent a representative.) 

So quite a number of those familiar with the Strategy had retired or moved on. Those remaining 

have not seen the final version of what was approved by Cabinet in August 2009. In addition, 

almost a year had passed between the extensive stakeholder consultations held last year to 

develop a Draft PPIS and the final approval of the PPIS and a lot has happened in Kiribati since 

then. 

There was therefore an important need to backtrack and reverse the process of consultation to 

report back to all those consulted what the end product of the process was and what was finally 

approved by Cabinet and what role each stakeholder has in the process of implementation. 

Because of the many changes in key personnel, it was also important to further explain the 

background and genesis of the PPIS; the extensive consultation process undertaken in 2008 to 

develop the PPIS and the approval processes it has gone through, and more importantly, what the 

PPIS is all about. This was the focus of the work done in the time available for the TA extension. 

Strong Support 

From these follow-up meetings, it was apparent that what has not changed is the strong support 

for the Strategy and the sense of urgency for its implementation; that the time to act collectively 

is now. 

It is therefore imperative that work on implementation of the Strategy commences in January 

2010 and that all parties are alerted as to what to expect and their roles in the implementation. It 

is also important that all groundwork including resourcing the implementation of the strategy be 

tied up well before then. This is an area that the National Facilitator will continue to work on 

with the Office of The President well after the completion of the extension period. 

Resourcing the Strategy 

Discussions to date with key donors on the PPIS have been very positive. There is strong support 

for the extensive consultations and the participatory process undertaken for the development of 

the PPIS. There is also very strong support for the integrated and whole of government and 

whole of nation approach taken to population issues developed through the TA. 

While no commitment has been made as yet by donors on funding the position of Population and 

Development Coordinator, and the associated programme budget for implementing the Strategy, 

work is in progress in association with this issue as this report is written. 

Kiritimati – the need for special focus 

As highlighted in the recommendations of the TA, special attention is to be given to Kiritimati. 

As it is mostly state owned land with no long history of settlement, Kiritimati lacks established 

structures and practices to absorb settlers. It therefore requires special efforts and careful 

management to ensure sustainable development. 



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As reported during Mr Brotoisworo’s visit, work is underway in developing an integrated “whole 

of island” plan for Kiritimati. Recommendations from the Land Management component of this 

TA for Kiritimati are slowly being implemented. 

Administration and development for Kiritimati has always posed major challenges for 

Government. The Ministry on Kiritimati is not a functional Ministry but more of a coordinating 

and administrative one with all other Ministries maintaining a Division on Kiritimati. Freedom of 

movement for the people is assured under the Constitution so movement of people from the 

Gilbert group to Kiritimati cannot be curtailed. Ship fares to Kiritimati have however recently 

been raised to discourage travel to Kiritimati. The distances involved from the capital has been 

and continue to be a major problem for administration and development. 

The Office of the President is currently awaiting proposals from the Ministry of Line and 

Phoenix Islands Development on the forging of stronger linkages with Tarawa and pushing for a 

more coordinated approach to development on the island. A paper on this will be presented to 

Cabinet shortly proposing OB to be the “eyes, ears and more importantly, the pushing arms” for 

the Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development on Tarawa. 

Where to next? 

The TA has successfully set the parameters for national action which all stakeholders relate to 

through the extensive consultations conducted. The real challenge is in implementation. The TA 

recommends mechanisms for implementation, the first being the Population and Development 

Coordinator (PDC). It requires commitment, energy, passion and a willingness to work together 

as well as strong leadership, human relations, facilitation and coordinating skills by the PDC. It 

is important to get the right person for the position as this is the make or break of the strategy. 

The TA recommends a Task Force of 15-20 representatives of Government, NGOs and Faith 

Based Organisations, each representing their own areas. While much depends on the PDC, 

selection of members of the Task Force is important too to get the level of commitment, the 

passion and the drive to energize population programmes. 

From the consultations, there is an emerging thinking that the Task Force idea is a very good one 

but that a more effective coordinating mechanism is perhaps in smaller Action Groups for each 

of the six focal areas (5 if the health related focal areas are combined) involving actual 

practitioners who know their areas, the people they work with and for and can actually run with 

implementation on the ground. 

A similar level of commitment required from those involved in the implementation mechanisms 

is also required from development partners and donors including ADB. A strategy such as this 

requires dedicated effort and resources over the short, medium and long term and approaches are 

being made to development partners for partnership on the implementation of this strategy. ADB 

as the original partner and the co-architect for the strategy could take the lead in demonstrating 

this commitment by providing additional resources to support the implementation of the strategy. 



4


ACTIVITY REPORT 

DATE SERVICES 

February 14 2009 Comments on draft Population Policy Implementation Strategy (PPIS) 

March 2009 Preparation of programme for Dr McMurray’s visit 

July 1 2009 Preparation of Programme for Dr McMurray’s final visit in early July 

and briefing meeting with Secretary to the Cabinet prior to visit. 

July 3 2009 Preparation of briefing for Dr Chris and accompanied Dr Chris to 

official calls 

July 6 2009 Discussions with Dr Chris on TOR and scope of work for extension of 

TA 

July 23 rd , 24 th , and Meetings with President and Secretary to Cabinet and preparation of 

28 th 

August 20 th , 26 th and 

28 th , 2009 

September 3 rd and 

4 th 

September 7 th , 8 th an 

9 th , 2009 

Cabinet paper on PPIS for final approval 

Preparations for and individual meetings with new Secretaries and 

senior staff in key stakeholder Ministries to brief them on the approved 

PPIS and next steps, (Finance, Education, Line and Phoenix Island 

Development; Labour and Human Resource Development Ministries.) 

Preparations for and meetings with Secretary for Health and Medical 

services and senior staff on PPIS implementation 

Preparations for and meetings with key NGOs on PPIS and their role in 

implementation (KANGO, [national parent NGO], Preschool Teachers 

Association, Teacher’s Union, Kiribati Family Health Association 

[KFHA] 

Preparation of programme for Mr Edy Brotoisworo, accompanied to 

September 11 th , 14 th 

and 16 th , 2009 official calls and preparation of outcomes document from meetings 

September 17 th , 18 th , 

and 22 nd Meetings with Head of Churches and senior staff on PPIS and their role 

, 2009 in implementation 

24 th , 25 th and 28 th Meetings with Office of Te Beretitenti senior staff on coordination 

arrangements and budget for PPIS 

26 th and 29 th Preparations for and Meetings with Heads of Diplomatic Missions for 

funding of PPIS * 

30 th Preparations with OB for Workshops with focal groups 

*The meeting with the Australian High Commissioner was held on 7 October 2009 and the 

meeting with the New Zealand High Commissioner will be held on 10 October as he is out of the 

country and returns to Kiribati on 9 October. 



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