Preparing the Outer Island Growth Centers Project – Phase 2 (Water ...

Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report
Project Number: TA 4456 - KIR
December, 2007
Kiribati. Preparing the Outer Island Growth Centers
Project – Phase 2 (Water Supply and Sanitation)
Working Papers (Volume 2)
Working Paper No 8: Environmental Information and Assessment
(Financed by the Asian Development Bank)
Prepared by the designated Project Team Members, TA 4456 - KIR
Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM)
Melbourne, Australia
For Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MFED)
Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID)
This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and
ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents. (For project preparatory technical
assistance: All the views expressed herein may not be incorporated into the proposed project’s design.

Report Structure – Volume 2
The Working Papers contained in this volume detail work completed in Kiritimati Island,
Kiribati, during October - December, 2007, in respect of a feasibility study undertaken for a
proposed ADB investment project in water and sanitation. The feasibility study was
undertaken as the main output of Phase 2 of the TA No. 4456 - KIR: Preparing the Outer
Island Growth Canters Project (Kiritimati Island). 1
The results of the TA are contained within 3 main reports;
• the Executive Report (Volume 1); 2
• the Working Papers (Volume 2 - the current volume) which provide the detail of the
overall feasibility study and the summary Executive Report, and
• the draft Kiritimati Island Development Plan (KIDP - Volume 3) which addresses
overarching island development issues and directions on Kiritimati Island.
The Working Papers are contained in this volume in the following order;
1. Hydrology
2. Water Supply
3. Sanitation
4. Economic and Financial Analysis
5. Social and Poverty Analysis
6. Initial Environmental Examination
7. Summary Initial Environmental Examination
8. Environmental Information and Assessment
9. Institutional Arrangements for Improved Island Planning and Development
10. Existing Infrastructure Survey for Water and Sanitation
1 The team comprised Paul Jones, Development/ Planner/Team Leader, Tony Falkland, Civil Engineer and Water
Resources, Tony McDonald, Environmental Adviser, Jonathan Powell, Community Development Adviser, Marcus
Napud, Economist and Ian White, Water Resources/Engineer. Ms. Makurita Bauro proved liaison support to the TA
while based in Tarawa. Special thanks to Ms. Maketara Ioane, Resource Economist, from the MLPID and GoK TA
counterpart for her valuable assistance and support in Kiritimati Island.
2 A draft ADB Report and Recommendations to the President (RRP) was also prepared for internal ADB consideration.
The Executive Report is based on the information contained in the draft RRP.

Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report
Project Number: TA 4456-KIR
March, 2008
Kiribati: Preparing the Outer Island Growth Centers
Project – Phase 2 (Water Supply and Sanitation)
Working Paper No. 8: Environmental Information and
Assessment (Volume 2)
(Financed by the Asian Development Bank)
Prepared by Tony McDonald
Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM)
Melbourne, Australia
For: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MFED) and
Ministry of Line and Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID)
This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and
ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents. (For project preparatory technical
assistance: All the views expressed herein may not be incorporated into the proposed project’s design.)

Environmental Information and Assessment page i
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 3
1.1 Republic of Kiribati .......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Kiritimati Island ............................................................................................... 4
1.3 National Development Strategy ...................................................................... 5
1.4 Report Format and Structure .......................................................................... 5
2. Description of the Project ............................................................... 6
2.1 Project Rationale ............................................................................................ 6
2.2 Objectives and Scope ..................................................................................... 7
2.3 Key Project Outputs ........................................................................................ 7
2.4 Major Project Activities .................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Water Supply ..................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Sanitation ........................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Part B Project Activities ...................................................................... 9
2.3 Alternatives Considered ................................................................................ 10
2.4 Impact and Outcome ..................................................................................... 10
2.5 Lessons learnt; other projects ....................................................................... 13
2.6 ADB Project Category ................................................................................... 13
3. Kiritimati - Physical Resource ...................................................... 14
3.1 Oceanographic Setting and Climate ............................................................. 14
3.2 Geology & Land form .................................................................................... 15
3.3 Resources and Ecology ................................................................................ 16
3.3.1 Water Resources; Rainfall, Lens & Groundwater Quality. ................ 16
3.3.2 Vegetation / Soils / Habitat ............................................................... 18
3.3.3 Marine: Resource Status & Harvest Issues ...................................... 20
3.3.4 Avifauna – The Birds of Kiritimati ..................................................... 27
3.4 Summary ...................................................................................................... 30
4. Environmental Governance & Stewardship ................................ 33
4.1 Role of Government in Environmental Management .................................... 33
4.2 Relevant Legislation; Ownership, Decentralization ....................................... 34
4.3 Environmental Assessment - Development and Environmental Protection .. 35
Environmental Impact Assessment ..................................................................... 36
4.4 Local Governance on Kiritimati Island (Urban Gvt only) ............................... 38
4.5 Capacity building within Government Departments ...................................... 39
4.6 Summary ...................................................................................................... 40
5. Environmental Management: Social Dimensions ....................... 41
5.1 Historical Perspective ................................................................................... 41
5.2 Contemporary Perspective ........................................................................... 42
5.2.1 Shelter & Land ................................................................................. 42
5.2.2 Sustainability .................................................................................... 43
5.2.3 Facilitating Mobilization within the Community ................................. 44
5.3 Resource Based Economic Opportunities .................................................... 45
5.3.1 Tourism ............................................................................................ 45
5.3.2 The Kiritimati Port ............................................................................ 47
5.3.3 Salt Production ................................................................................. 51

Environmental Information and Assessment page ii
5.3.4 Seaweed Production ........................................................................ 52
5.4 Public Consultation and Information Disclosure ............................................ 53
5.4.1 Formal & Informal Meetings ............................................................. 53
5.4.2 Household Survey ............................................................................ 54
5.5 Education & Public Awareness programs ..................................................... 55
5.6 Potential Characteristics of an Environmental Program ................................ 56
5.4.2 The Notion of Participation ............................................................... 58
5.7 Summary ...................................................................................................... 60
6. Project Impacts, Management & Mitigation ................................ 62
6.1 Public Health Issues – Water Supply ............................................................ 62
6.2 Public Health Issues - Sanitation .................................................................. 62
6.3 Positive Project Impacts ................................................................................ 63
6.4 With and Without the Project Scenarios ........................................................ 64
6.6 Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures during Construction Phase
65
6.6 Environmentally Sensitive Areas .................................................................. 66
6.7 Potential Environmental Impacts & Management ......................................... 67
6.8 Environmental Monitoring Plan ..................................................................... 72
6.9 Summary - Environmental Impacts ............................................................... 73
7. Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................... 74
7.1 Understanding the need for Sanitation (PS) ................................................ 74
7.2 Leadership & Institutional Strengthening for Environmental Management
(PS) ..................................................................................................................... 74
7.3 Visioning the Future - Institutional Strengthening (PS) ................................. 75
7.4 Eco-footprint (CC) ........................................................................................ 75
7.5 Degrees of Sensitivity & Code of Conduct (CC) ........................................... 75
7.6 Decentralisation (CC) ................................................................................... 76
7.7 Tourism (CC) .............................................................................................. 76
7.8 Compared to the rest of Kiribati .................................................................... 77
8. References ..................................................................................... 78
List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Terms of Reference – Environmental Specialist 81
Appendix 2 Meetings and Field Trip Diary 82
Appendix 3 Complete List of Pet Fish as Catalogued (after Lovell 2003) 83
Appendix 4 Management of the Kiritimati Island Bonefish Fishery 84
Appendix 5 Recommendations from Pierce et al for Kiritimati Island Bonefish
Fishery 86
Appendix 6 Promotional Literature for Fly Fishing Lodges 87
Appendix 7 Environmental Specialist Workplan 89
Appendix 8 Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) Checklist 90
Appendix 9 Household Survey 93
Appendix 10 Prescribed Development 102

Environmental Information and Assessment page iii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Project Location – Republic of Kiribati 3
Figure 2: Satellite Imagery Kiritimati Island – 4
Figure 3 Existing and Proposed Water Supply Infrastructure - London 11
Figure 4 Existing and Proposed Water Supply Infrastructure – Banana 12
Figure 5 Kiritimati – Rainfall Graph at 60 month intervals 15
Figure 6 Yearly Quantity and Value of Pet Fish Exported 26
Figure 7 General Land Use Plan highlights ‘Protected Areas’. 29
List of Tables
Table 1 Proposed Project Activities and Issues 9
Table 2 Development Themes Over Fifty Years 13
Table 3 Decline in Availability of some Marine Resources 25
Table 4 Kiribati signatory to the Agenda 21 Conventions 34
Table 5 Responsibilities under the Prescribed Development Process 35
Table 6 Constraints in the Prescribed Development Approval Process 37
Table 7 Thematic Issues Identified 39
Table 8 Regular shipping to London Port 48
Table 9 Recent Cruise Shipping Visitation to Kiritimati 49
Table 10 Solar Salt Cash Flow. 52
Table 11 Average Lagoon depth in Line Islands for Seaweed growth. 53
Table 12 Graduations Assuming Successful Community Development 56
Table 13 Identification of Change Required in Operational Environment 57
Table 14 Identification of Change Required Agencies and Staff 57
Table 15 Identification of Change Required for Projects and thus Beneficiaries 58
Table 16 Range of Participation Typologies 59
Table 17 Environmental Management Plan 67
Table 18 Environmental Monitoring Plan 72

Environmental Information and Assessment page iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acronyms and abbreviations used frequently in the text.
ADB Asian Development Bank
AusAID Australian Agency for International Development
CC Code of Conduct
CPP Central Pacific Producers
EC Electrical Conductivity
ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation
EPA Environmental Protection Act
FFG Fly Fishing Guides
FFV Fly Fishing Visitors
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GLUP General Land Use Plan
GoK Government of Kiribati
IDNGOs International Development Non Government Organisations
IEC Information, Education and Communication
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
KCCS Kiribati Copra Cooperative Society
KPF Kiribati Provident Fund
KIC Kiritimati Island Council
KLLPB Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board
KWASP Kiritimati Island Water and Sanitation project
LMDK Land Management Division Kiritimati
MCTTD Ministry of Communications, Transport & Tourism Development
MELAD Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development
MFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
MFMRD Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resource Development
MLPID Ministry of Line and Phoenix Island Development
NAP National Action Plan
NDS National Development Strategy
NGOs Non Government Organisations
PA Protected Areas
PS Project Specific
SLA State Lands Act, 2001
SOE State Owned Enterprise
SPC South Pacific Commission
SWM Solid Waste Management
TA Technical Assistance
TOR Terms of Reference
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
Watsan Water and Sanitation
WB World Bank
Note on currencies
The national currency of Kiribati is the Australian dollar, with the prefix $AUD or A$.
Monetary values in this report are stated in the national currency unless otherwise indicated.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 1
Executive Summary
Working Paper – Environmental Information and Assessment
This Environmental Information and Assessment Working Paper contributes to the ‘Preparing the
Outer Islands Growth Centres Project, Phase 2’. Phase 2 proposes an island wide upgrade of water
supply and sanitation services on Kiritimati. This Working Paper is comprised of 7 sections. It
commences with two sections that introduce the Republic of Kiribati, which is interpreted as the
Project beneficiary, and then describes the proposed Project. The next three sections of the paper
analyse the physical resources of Kiritimati, discusses the existing environmental governance, and the
previous history of environmental management. The final two sections identify the proposed project
impacts, management, mitigation and monitoring systems. The report finishes with conclusions and
recommendations.
The Working Paper finds that while there are limited direct environmental impacts which will result
from the proposed Project, the poor status of existing environmental governance and management,
counter balanced against potential population growth scenarios that are envisaged to be facilitated by
successful implementation of the Project will be a greater problem than any direct environmental
impacts.
At times the Working Paper interprets the TOR in a very holist manner, making cross-sectoral links
between environment from a physical, cultural, and socio-economic perspective. Some of the issues
discussed are difficult for all sovereign states to address, and most particularly a developing country
such as Kiribati. However, given the potential status of the island as an internationally important highclass
conservation zone, this position is deemed valid.
The climate, geographical position and the physical resources of Kiritimati all present limitations to
growth. The island is drought prone and the existing precious ground water and soil and floral
resources clearly have limits. Internationally Kiritimati is recognised as both a bird sanctuary and a
highly significant marine habitat and protection of water, avifauna, and marine resources is critical.
Governance to effectively monitor and manage the precious resources is seen as inadequate, underresourced
and compromised due in part to top-down levels of control from central government, which
is located 3000 kms to the west. There is a lack of community ownership of issues and limited
opportunity for local leadership to achieve change. In the civil service there is a lack of capacity and
resources amidst a predominance of low staff morale. When it comes to management of the
environment, the government institutions that are represented are passive observers and appear
highly dependent upon outside agents to assist with ideas, actions, programs, projects and money.
Management of the internationally significant birds and the unique marine resources is amateurish,
superficial and inadequate. To raise standards requires the involvement of the entire community.
Although Kiribati is signatory to three Agenda 21 Conventions, it would appear that there is negligible
recognition of the need to empower local people is in evidence.
The existing water and sanitation system is inadequate due to bacteria in the water supply,
dysfunctional septic tank systems, and the almost wholesale rejection of a previous bilaterally funded
compost toilet initiative. The effect upon community health from the inadequate system, which most
directly effects young child, is of concern. There are cultural norms that need to be considered if an
improved sanitation system is to be adopted in a wholesale manner.
Numerous issues are raised in the paper as being linked to the possible long-term outcomes of the
proposed Project, mostly stemming from the increased pressure being placed upon a finite resource.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 2
This pressure includes the diet of the people, their physical health, and the sustainability of their
livelihood.
The people living on Kiritimati are predominantly dependent upon subsistence level livelihoods. They
have been migrants to the island, mostly via Tarawa in the west where life is crowded and water,
sanitation and food resources are under pressure. In contrast, Kiritimati is viewed by people as a well
endowed environment.
Examples such as the export Petfish industry, the poaching of ‘protected fish’ and birds, combined
with the notable absence of any food production of great consequence is summarized as being the
equivalent of “mining the environment”. The relative costs of imported foods will only increase and the
present livelihoods on the island are unsustainable. Apart from employment in government there are
limited alternative livelihood opportunities.
Tourism has offered significant opportunities for a small number of people however there are clear
signs that the principle source of tourism revenue is under too much pressure. In fact it is clear that all
marine resources are being over harvested. The much prised Bonefish caught by the fly fishing
tourists, is being over-fished. Ecologically the targeting of one species, as is the case, will place
pressure across throughout the system.
The proposed water and sanitation Project provides an opportunity for some well placed TA’s in the
area of institutional capacity building and community awareness raising. It is envisaged that these
TA’s use the GoK institutions to challenge the relatively small population on the Kiritimati with a
greater knowledge and awareness of environmental stewardship and, over-time, to thoroughly change
existing practices. It is interpreted by the consultant that only by commencing such a program can the
island have a chance of maintaining what is a high significant physical environment.
At the same time the expected outcomes of the Project will be enhanced through TA’s that offer
Information, Education and effective Communication (IEC) programs. While this has been attempted
in the past, the challenge is there in the proposed Project to improve the design of these IEC
components with the ultimate goal of empowering the community to have local conviction regarding
the importance of protecting their environment for their individual health, the longevity of their children
and the sustainability of life on Kiritimati.
The EMP and Monitoring plan outline how the primary effects of the project can be managed.
The conclusions and recommendations are divided into two categories; one being specifically project
specific, the other being viewed as broader issues which have a bearing upon wise environmental
management.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 3
1. Introduction
1.1 Republic of Kiribati
Kiribati is one of the most isolated countries in the Central Pacific being remote from major sea or
airports, major markets and communication networks. The country comprises 32 coral atolls and one
raised coral island spread over three island groups across 3,500 km on the equator 1 . The three island
groups, the Gilberts (to the west), the Phoenix (central) and Line Islands (to the east) have an average
elevation of approximately 1.5 metres above sea level, poor soils and limited vegetation. The country
area of Kiribati is 3.55 million square kilometres (km 2 ), predominantly as water, but with a land area of
only 820 km 2 . The capital of Kiribati is South Tarawa, an atoll in the central Gilbert Group and the
location of the country’s main international sea and air port.
South Tarawa remains a magnet for people from the outer islands, attracted by opportunities, albeit
limited, in cash employment and consumption diversity as well as access to better social services
such as schools, hospital and amenities including electricity. Many new immigrants to Tarawa end up
as squatters; often on Government owned or leased land. As a result, the stress on natural resources
(land, lagoon and fresh groundwater lenses), public health services and other essential services such
as water, electricity, and roads in the Capital has risen to alarming levels. Tarawa lagoon is heavily
polluted due to high population, poor sewage disposal from traditional practices as used on outer
islands (for example, high levels of beach defecation), leaking septic and pit latrines, and open-pit
dumping on the foreshore. Sand and gravel extraction, groundwater depletion, over-fishing of the reefs
and the lagoon, deforestation, and coastal erosion are both common and rising problems. It is not
surprising therefore that in the new millennium that Kiritimati, an Island some 3200 km to the east, has
been nominated as a major growth centre for population and development.
Figure 1: Project Location – Republic of Kiribati
Source: http://www.fao.org/AG/AGP/agpc/doc/Counprof/southpacific/kiribati.htm
1 Banaba is the only raised coral island in Kiribati and sits to the south west of Tarawa, east of Nauru.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 4
1.2 Kiritimati Island
Kiritimati Island is the worlds’ largest coral atoll and is an asset of international ecological and
conservation significance, reported to having the highest species diversity and largest number of
breeding seabirds, of any island in the world. It is also the largest island of Kiribati, being 388 km 2 or
53% of national country land area. Kiritimati was named Christmas Island after it was visited by
Captain James Cook, from where he and his team witness the anticipated eclipse of the sun on
Christmas Day in 1777. This particular Christmas Island is therefore discrete from the similarly named
island in the Indian Ocean (Bailey 1977). This report will use the word Kiritimati in referring to the
island, which is the I-Kiribati name for the island.
The Central Pacific location of Kiritimati (approx. 20N; 157030W) in the Line Islands is just north of
equator and the country’s eastern most extent of settlement in the Northern Hemisphere. In relation to
the political and administrative centres in the Gilberts, the island can be said to enjoy a comparatively
low population.
The geographical position of Kiritimati locates it in the dry equatorial oceanic climate zone of the
Pacific Ocean where the temperature range is a minor feature, fluctuating between 26 0 C and 32 0 C.
Freshwater resources in Kiribati are extremely limited. The major source of potable water is from the
groundwater lenses, which comprise a discrete body of freshwater floating over a denser saline
groundwater. These freshwater bodies exist where island width and rainfall are sufficiently large. As
a result of the predominant coral and course sand composition of the soil profile on atolls, a large
percentage of rainfall can potentially percolate efficiently into the ground. Where they exist, the water
lenses are vulnerable to contamination from human activity and livestock (for example, piggeries) as
well as sea water intrusion due mainly to the efficient rate of subsurface percolation. Protecting
freshwater lenses for potable water supply and maintaining adequate water quality is a key
consideration in atoll living.
Figure 2: Kiritimati – Satellite imagery. Source, Google Earth, 2007

Environmental Information and Assessment page 5
1.3 National Development Strategy
The Government of Kiribati (GoK) National Development Strategy (NDS), 2004-2007, sets out the
development framework for Kiribati for the current period. The NDS has six key policy objectives,
namely; (i) promote economic growth through prudent investment, (ii) provide for equitable distribution
of opportunities and wealth including development of Kiritimati Island, (iii) increase the efficiency and
performance of the public sector (iv) equip people to manage change especially in education, health
and culture, (v) ensure the sustainable use of physical resources and (vi) protect and use financial
reserves wisely. To address the imbalance of social and economic development between the Gilbert
Group to the west and the Line Islands to the east, the GoK announced in 2004 a strategic emphasis
on promoting outer island growth centres. Although there has been no strategic assessment of the
selection of growth centres at the national level by the GoK, Kiritimati has been designated as the
main potential growth island in Kiribati. 2
As a result of the overcrowding experienced in South Tarawa, combined with the NDS to promote
development in the Line Islands, Kiritimati has experienced relatively rapid population growth during
the last decade. Population of the island has increased from 3225 in 1995 to 3431 in 2003, 5111 by
2005 and an estimated 5965 in 2007. At the same time that the island has been experiencing growth,
the provision of basic urban infrastructure and services has been dependent on a water supply system
that was recognized as working almost beyond its capacity when completed in 2003. When combined
with an inadequate sanitation system which comprised a combination of septic tanks and compost
toilets, (95% of which are not in use), basic services and infrastructure have been stretched beyond
limits. The Health indicators from clinic and hospital records show that the incidence of diarrhoea is
high, with those affected greatest being children. A clean water and sanitation (watsan) system will
aim to improve this situation.
The Republic of Kiribati gained its independence from Britain in 1978. As one of an isolated group of
islands which are too distant to benefit from routine interaction with similar cultures, there is a constant
theme of inaccessible on Kiritimati, one that contributes in both a positive and negative way to the
culture.
1.4 Report Format and Structure
The ADB Guidelines for Environmental Assessment have been used in the preparation of this report 3 .
The TORs for the consultant has specified the need to determine the categorization of the proposed
project and develop an appropriate IEE. This Working Paper provides a summary of the consultant’s
activities which were focused upon achieving the TOR and identifying information concerning potential
impacts of the project, the characteristics of the impacts, magnitude and distribution. The Working
Paper also identifies those who will be the affected groups. The structure of this Working Paper is as
follows:
collection of relevant baseline information on biophysical, social and economic aspects;
description of the proposed Water and Sanitation Project;
identification of the area of potential environmental impacts and the components, design of
appropriate mitigation measures;
institutional requirements and environmental monitoring plan;
public consultation and information disclosure;
the proposed environmental management plan;
findings, recommendations and conclusions.
2 Other potential growth islands nominated by Government include Tabituea North (southern Gilbert Group) and
Butaritari (northern Gilbert Group). Based in MISA, UNDP has been Undertaking Island profiling as a basis
to identify other potential growth centers.
3 ‘Environmental Assessment Guidelines of the Asian Development Bank’. ADB, 2003.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 6
2. Description of the Project
2.1 Project Rationale
To align Kiritimati to a position where it can accommodate a finite future population growth, the GoK
has realized that investments must be made in infrastructure and services while at the same time
strengthening capacity in island planning and management. This includes decentralizing power and
government control from South Tarawa and providing greater autonomy to Kiritimati so government
departments, businesses and the community can have increased control, with appropriate checks and
balances, over the future of Kiritimati Island. The growing demand for adequate water and sanitation
services in the new millennium has stretched the capacity of the current system. The existing water
supply system is inadequately maintained and monitored. No analysis of water pumping, distribution
efficiency nor losses is presently carried out, repairs are needed and the major water lens at Decca is
being pumped greater than the designed sustainable rate for the gallery. Where septic tanks are used,
they leak into the groundwater and contaminate water in household wells. Inadequate water supplies
prevent good personal hygiene and cause pneumonia, skin infections and some cancers. Many in the
community still continue to use the beach or bush as a toilet. Despite its environmental benefits, the
introduction of compost toilets promoted widely under Kiritimati Water and Sanitation Project (KWASP)
was a failure. The result is poor sanitation practices that contaminate the soil, lagoon and water table
causing diarrhoea, worm infestation, skin infections and other infectious diseases.
It is important to recognise both the high profile and spectacular failure of the previous sanitation
intervention on the island. In general it is fair to say that strong negative sentiments were frequently
made by people regarding the above mentioned KWASP initiative. Although there was clearly a
sensible and rational logic behind the promotion of the compost toilets for Kiritimati, the community
failed to adopt the technology and subsequently have demonstrated a collective abhorrence of what
now remains of the compost toilet infrastructure.
With the Government due to release 150 of a planned 300 plots in 2008, the need to rehabilitate and
improve the water supply system is pressing, as is the need to find a socio culturally acceptable form
of sanitation which is not externally imposed. Equally important is the need to conserve the water
resource, minimize contamination, improve personal and island health and meet the varying needs of
the community for potable and non potable water supply. Based on previous experience, incremental
solutions are now needed for improved sanitation and water supply which generate gains for both the
health and well-being of the population, as well as the environment.
The depth of I-Kiribati traditional attitudes, norms and values to sanitation and hygiene practices,
combined with the expectation that public utilities should be a free social service with minimal financial
and maintenance responsibility, urgently require revitalized approaches from leadership and
governance. These changes require greater community involvement with Government in the decision
making process, institutional development, as well as restoring and embedding values of
environmental conservation. In this context, the Project rationale is equally concerned with the
provision of infrastructure and services as it is about community development and the process of
embedding change.
As previously noted, Kiritimati has been designated by the GoK as a growth centre to cater for
economic development and population growth. This status aims to relieve population pressure in
overcrowded South Tarawa, based on voluntary relocation 4 . Section 3 of this report will offer
background to support the position that the largest atoll in the world has highly significant ecological
4 This is based on meeting selection criteria. The current Government plot release target is 450 plots for 2008
with 50% of plots to be allocated to residents already residing in Kiritimati (with family or as squatters) and 50%
for those living in the Gilbert Group, primarily in overcrowded areas of South Tarawa. The original target was
300 plots but 150 plots were added by Government for bush subsistence living in July, 2007.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 7
and conservation values. It follows therefore that if this significance is to be respected, there needs to
be guidelines and limits established to manage appropriate development of the island. One economic
potential of Kiritimati depends much on carefully developing potential niche-tourism opportunities
which can benefit the I-Kiribati, whilst at the same time managing and conserving the islands unique
natural resource for future generations.
2.2 Objectives and Scope
The principal objective of the Project is to improve the development potential of Kiritimati and the
health of the population and the environment through a program of improvements in water supply and
sanitation. This will be supported by community education, information and awareness. The Project
will; (i) provide potable water supply 24 hours 7 days a week to households, businesses and
Government offices, (ii) provide alternative sources of potable and non potable water supply, (iii)
provide a socially culturally acceptable form of sanitation to minimize contamination of the
groundwater resource, and (iv) provide institutional, policy, financial and regulatory reforms in the
management of water supply and sanitation. This will include greater community involvement in the
decision making process.
The scope of the Project includes; (i) water resource monitoring, (ii) rehabilitation and improvements to
the existing water system including galleries, pumps, header tanks and tank stands, (iii) provision of
rainwater tanks, (iv) wells for non-potable uses, (v) provision of sealed polyethylene septic tanks and
evaporation trenches for effluent for existing and new household sanitation systems, (vi) provision of
polyethylene evaporation trenches for grey water, (vii) community development including education
and awareness, and (viii) capacity building, policy, institutional and regulatory support for the Water
and Sanitation Division in MLPID including operations and maintenance. The Project will include the
provision of civil works, equipment, design and supervision consulting services and staff training for
maintenance of plant and equipment.
The focal area of physical improvements under the Project will be in the northern peninsula of
Kiritimati Island, primarily in the London to North Tabwakea and Main Camp to New Banana corridors.
There will be much needed improvements in Banana village at the eastern boundary of the northern
peninsula as well as improvements in Poland to the south west. Community education, information
and awareness will apply island-wide for water supply and sanitation, as well as focusing on the
importance and value of the conserving and protecting the island resource.
2.3 Key Project Outputs
The Project consists of two parts: Part A: Physical Infrastructure; and Part B: Project Support
• Part A - Implementation of water supply and sanitation infrastructure;
• Part B - Project Support - institutional strengthening, community mobilization, Project
management and implementation support.
Part A is concerned with achieving technical competencies in terms of existing hardware upgrade,
additional installation of hardware and establishment of a well resourced proactive maintenance
regime. Part B of the Project concerns the management of Project software including people and
system components that depend upon institutional strengthening, community mobilization, Project
management and implementation support.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 8
2.4 Major Project Activities
2.4.1 Water Supply
The Project will supply potable water to approximately 11,300 persons living in 2 major growth areas
of London to North Tabwakea (Growth Area 1) and Main Camp to New Banana (Growth Area 2.) The
Project will also supply improved water supply to the villages of Banana and Poland. The Project will:
rehabilitate the existing water supply system including new pumps and meters at galleries; install
a new head tank and reticulation system and repairs to leaks, head tanks, galleries and extraction
points in the village of Banana;
Install a new main trunk line from Decca to London; new head tanks and stands (including 3
Tabwakea, 1 London, 1 New Banana);
install 10 new galleries at Decca and Four Wells;
extend the trunk main from Main Camp to New Banana village;
provide a 500 litre supply tanks to all houses, and provision of 10,000 litre rainwater tanks and
gutters to selected community buildings;
install local reticulation systems from header tanks and connection to new houses;
institute new chlorination facilities at the header tanks (rather than the source) and plant and
operational equipment;
Implement appropriate water monitoring as well as drilling to determine the location of new
galleries to be constructed on the water lenses will also be undertaken.
The major considerations regarding the potential negative effects of the water supply component
during implementation include the:
Management and protection from any damage to mature vegetation;
Ensuring trench and soil excavation works are made good upon completion, finished with
appropriate detail to ensure that post settlement of backfill on any excavated site will assume the
original ground level;
All on-site waste generated from site preparation, implementation and completion including gallery
components including any excess filtration gravel and rock, discarded pipes, meters, and fittings
be appropriately removed and dealt with in an environmentally responsible manner.
2.4.2 Sanitation
To minimize contamination of the groundwater and make potable and non potable water supply safer,
the Project will:
replace 324 septic tanks with sealed polyethylene tanks connected to polyethylene effluent
trenches;
improve existing wells to minimize contaminants including provision of well covers;
provide pour-flush pedestal or squat toilets to all households that do not have a toilet;
connect the pour-flush toilets into sealed polyethylene septic tanks that are connected to
polyethylene effluent trenches;
Remove all existing masonry septic tanks and pump-out sludge beforehand; sludge to be
dewatered and dried for use as compost. All masonry to be removed from site and buried to a
depth above the water-table;
provide 924 polyethylene effluent trenches for household grey-water, 624 for existing houses and
premises and 300 for new households, incorporating a cover of the trench with rubble and sand;
provide a well for to all households that do not have one in villages outside of London (where
groundwater is not suitable for non potable uses), including Tabwakea, Banana and Poland;
assist those households with an existing well to improve the well walls with above-ground casing,
including secure covers such that the water can be used for non potable uses;
provide a covered sludge collection and evaporation centre, comprising a number of chambers,
outside of the growth villages for the disposal and drying of sludge into compost;

Environmental Information and Assessment page 9
provide a sludge removal truck as well as plant and equipment.
The major considerations regarding the potential negative effects of the sanitation component during
implementation, combined with the expected on-going maintenance include the:
Management and protection from any damage to mature vegetation during excavation;
Ensuring soil excavation works for tanks and effluent trenches are made good upon completion,
finished with appropriate detail to ensure that post settlement of backfill in all excavated sites will
assume intended ground levels as per design specification, resolved with pre-construction
conditions;
Appropriate management of all off and on-site waste generated from site preparation,
implementation and completion including safe removal of all old and unserviceable sanitation
equipment and fittings, production of plastic septic tanks and water tanks, excavated holes for
tanks, well walls including excess soil, filtration gravel and rock associated with soil movement for
effluent trenches, discarded pipes and fittings. All waste therefore will be removed and dealt with
in an environmentally responsible manner;
Establishment of a safe and regular septic tank pump-out system that combines the drying-out
and recycling of sludge waste into compost for value-add agricultural.
2.4.2 Part B Project Activities
The Project recognises that importance must be given to activities that deliver both hardware and
software. The software components include those elements that are without doubt the most difficult
issues to deal with and it is clear that, to be successful, they will require inputs and supports well
beyond the timeline of the proposed Project. Ultimately Part B concerns a higher order of deliverables,
those which are associated with community development, specifically associated with local resource
management. The need for this level of input is immediately clear from field analysis which sees a
collective malaise by local people concerning the delivery and maintenance of what is ultimately the
most valuable resource on the island. The following Table 1 summarises the thoughts associated with
Part B.
Institutional
Strengthening
Activity Issues
Commences with a simple approach focused upon the one project
and develops over time.
Applies local skills with mentoring support to manage and monitor.
Community Mobilization Establishing the reasons for watsan interventions
Creates link in peoples mind concerning public health, sanitation,
environmental management.
Utilizes local radio and talent in song, music, story telling.
Aims to generate reciprocal engagement
Project Management Cultivates and supports local leadership activities associated with
day to day implementation of the project.
Contracted team proactively engage with local technicians who are
given the responsibility to of local implementation
Management recognises specific challenges
Implementation Support A proforma project design approach which delivers a network of
hardware will not be sustainable.
There is a need to reward successful monitoring and management
of the system.
Slow steady
Routine, pilot approach, handover at appropriate stage.
Table 1 Proposed Project Activities and Issues

Environmental Information and Assessment page 10
It was recognised that the most successfully managed water system on the island was that which was
delivering water at Poland. Rapid assessment indicated the commitment of the local person
responsible, combined with the ease of communication at village level. A fusion of these elements
was seen as a highly valuable starting point for subsequent hardware management. The proposed
project will therefore place a high value upon generating the equivalent of water and sanitation user
groups on the island, where local monitoring and management of the four independent sources of
water can be established. Such a proposition could challenge the existing hierarchy and dominance
of South Tarawa institutions but it is seen to be important that communities become involved. It is
expected that this involvement should include economic incentives. Amalgams of existing NGO’s
such as Church Groups are the most highly probable groups that could act as crucibles for this
community based work.
2.3 Alternatives Considered
For water supply, the options considered were (i) expanded use of treated groundwater from the main
freshwater lenses for all uses, except toilet flushing, (ii) the use of local groundwater (from below the
village areas) for toilet flushing, and (iii) the use of rainwater collection for drinking water at times when
there is sufficient rainfall. The optimal strategy is to use all three sources and the Project has been
based on this strategy. Options such as desalination require high power demands and on going
technical support which at this point in time, are not appropriate for Kiritimati Island.
For sanitation, the options canvassed were; (i) pedestal or squat toilet draining to a pit latrine, open or
water sealed, (ii) compost toilets, (iii) pedestal or squat toilet draining to a septic tank (with or without
an evaporation trench) constructed of either concrete block, polyethylene, pre cast concrete, steel or
fibreglass, (iv) pedestal or squat toilet draining to a septic tank with part on site treatment, with effluent
collected from a number of households draining to a common treatment area, and (v) a reticulated
sewage based on a piped system with pump stations, outfalls and the like.
The preferred solution for Kiritimati at this point in time is one which is culturally appropriate,
acceptable and affordable; minimizes contamination of the groundwater from faecal contamination and
excessive nutrient loads, as far as possible; separates household grey water from toilet water; uses
simple, appropriate technology which is easy to maintain; minimises dependence on using potable
water for flushing, and is within the financial capacity of the community and government to pay for the
infrastructure.
Part B alternatives considered included the engagement of an international NGO to support the
implementation. Such an arrangement recognises that the technical hardware constitutes the major
investment side of the project but that both the track record of previous projects and the existing status
of infrastructure, as well as the general laissez-faire response of government departments responsible
for infrastructure, all highlight that a major commitment needs to be assigned to that of Part B activities.
2.4 Impact and Outcome
The principal objective of the Project is to improve the development potential of Kiritimati and the
health of the population and the environment through a program of improvements in water supply and
sanitation. This will be supported by an extensive program of community education, information and
awareness in both Kiritimati and South Tarawa. The Project will; (i) provide potable water supply 24
hours 7 days a week to households, businesses and Government offices, (ii) provide alternative
sources of potable and non potable water supply, (iii) provide a socially and culturally acceptable form
of sanitation to minimize contamination of the groundwater resource, and (iv) provide institutional,
policy, financial and regulatory reforms in the management of water supply and sanitation. This will
include greater community involvement in the decision making process.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 11
As an outcome there will be improved personal and collective island health, protection of the valuable
water reserves, improved water monitoring and greater community input into managing island water
supply and sanitation, as well as the unique environmental resource of Kiritimati Island.
NB: Proximity of Proposed Pipeline is in close vicinity to the Tennessee School
Figure 3 Map of Existing and Proposed Water Supply Infrastructure for London and
Tabwakea Villages – Schematic Layout

Environmental Information and Assessment page 12
Figure 4 Existing & Proposed Water Supply Infrastructure for Banana, Main Camp, New Banana – Schematic Layout
Note: (i) The areas shown as water lens in Figures 3 and 4 are based on best areas as defined by Douglas Partners (2002). Areas
shown are the thickest groundwater areas based on EM surveys undertaken by Douglas Partners in 1997. The full extent of the
water lens is subject to confirmation or otherwise of further monitoring and borehole drilling. (ii) The exact location of the proposed
village head tanks are approximate and will be defined in the detailed design phase.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 13
The proforma, Rapid Environmental Assessment Checklist is Tabled as Appendix 8.
2.5 Lessons learnt; other projects
Repeatedly through the two month period of field work the consultant has heard the
expectation that donors of one persuasion or another will manifest to solve major and minor
problems. There is in the civil service generally an expectation that problem solving will
occur from the outside. In addition, a constant issue for the technical team during the field
work and situational analysis has been to become aware of the achievements and the failure
of the previous KWASP watsan project initiative conducted by AusAID. Although the overall
delivery of a major component of the project can be judged to be a success, the actual
provision of one fundamental component, that of the sanitation, can only be judged to be an
outrageous failure, a status that was both predicted and outline in Rogers et al 1997. In a
difficult situation that Project did deliver what can be seen as a serviceable but now
inadequate water supply system. Difficulties observed and documented by various KWASP
reports and reinforced by the present consultancy survey work is that 27% of people of the
representative sample surveyed do not see the need for sanitation, choosing instead a
preference to use the “bush” of the “beach” for their toilet.
The pertinent question therefore is what lessons are there to be learnt from previous projects,
what does development theory offer to guide subsequent initiatives and how can project
design benefit from theory. It is clear that the KWASP had major beneficial deliverables to
offer the Kiritimati community however it is difficult to see whether there was am actual
transfer of ownership.
The following Table 2 offers a summary of theoretic changes in the predominant
characteristics and position of development projects over a period of near 60 years. From
the environmental perspective there is a need to graduate to the facilitation of empowerment.
However, the KWASP, could perhaps be best described as a project that was safely
ensconced in the 1960’s-1970’s thinking. The proposed watsan project would do well to
place a great emphasis upon some contemporary thinking regarding project design and
implementation, most particularly if the outcomes are to include improvements in community
directed management of the system along with achieving broader environmental
management goals.
Decade Development Characteristics
1950-60s Do development to the people
1960-70s Do development for the people
1970-80s Do development through the people
1980-90s Do development with the people
1990-00s Do development to facilitate empowerment
2000- Development belongs to the people
Facilitation of Development in others
Table 2 Characteristic Development Themes Over Fifty Years. (After Mayfield 1995,
Sarma 2002)
2.6 ADB Project Category
The Project has been designated as Environmental Category non-sensitive B 5 .
5
The recently completed ADB water and sanitation project in South Tarawa also had the same
environmental category.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 14
3. Kiritimati - Physical Resource
3.1 Oceanographic Setting and Climate
The geographical position of Kiritimati locates it in the dry equatorial oceanic climate zone of
the Pacific Ocean where the daily temperature range is of minimal consequence, fluctuating
between 26 0 C and 32 0 C. Recently installed air monitoring equipment, a component of the
global nuclear test ban treaty, indicates that the air quality on the island is “superb, amongst
the cleanest in the world 6 . In great contrast to the comparatively minor range in temperature
difference, the records show that the annual rainfall for the island can vary within a large
range. The highest recorded annual rainfall on Kiritimati is 3686mm (1997), the lowest
177mm (1954), a difference of 3509mm. In April 2004 982.5mm fell, a figure which exceeds
the average annual count of 975mm. Although many authors have categorized and
documented certain months as “wet and dry” seasons, the figures indicate that there is
clearly no discernable and predictable seasons. Kiritimati has a very unique and highly
unusual climatic pattern, one which operates in strong association with the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) episodes, a phenomena triggered by increase and decrease in surface
temperature of the ocean.
Taylor (1973) demonstrates that rainfall distribution is not even across the Pacific Ocean and
that Kiritimati is positioned in the north-west quadrant of a significant “dry zone” of the
Pacific, a zone which expands as a tapered band across the central and eastern parts of the
Pacific. The fluctuation of rainfall across months and years is acknowledged as a clear
reason why there is no evidence of lengthy permanent settlement pre European times
(Bailey 1977). The island is therefore subject to frequent extended droughts. This localised
climatic phenomenon on Kiritimati is in great contrast to the islands of Tabuaeran (Fanning)
and Teraina (Washington) which lie only a very short distance to the north. Both these
northern Line Islands are influenced by the inter-tropical convergence zone and have
average annual rainfalls of 2,109 mm and 3,021 mm respectively (Taylor 1973).
Significantly, the rainfall figures on Malden help to highlight and affirm the previous
description of Kiritimati in relation to the Pacific Ocean “dry Zone”. Malden is positioned
approximately 600 km south-east and has an average rainfall of 675mm based upon data
from 1890-1926.
The intensity of recorded drought periods on Kiritimati is illustrated in the accompanying
graph, Figure 5. The data used in the graph was compiled from 1955 to 2006 records and
has been aggregated into 60 month units. Employing this contraction of data units, four
distinctive troughs are highlighted in rainfall, occurring at approximately 10 yearly intervals. It
is clear from Figure 5 that Kiritimati has been subject to frequent extended periods of drought.
These events occurred around 1962, 1971, 1981 and 1997. The graph also shows that the
drought periods in the 1960’s and 70’s were of greater length in time, most particularly the
1960’s. An additional trend which the graph illustrates is that over the period (1955-2006) an
actual increase in rainfall has occurred.
6 Conversation with Geneva based technician who is a member of a global equipment monitoring team.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 15
60 mth Rainfall (mm)
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
60 month rainfall, Kiritimati
1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Figure 5: Kiritimati Rainfall Graph at 60 month intervals
Source: Falkland & White, 2007.
Kiritimati experiences strong winds throughout most of the year, an element that is reported
to contribute an additional desiccating effect upon vegetation and soils. It is also theorised
that winds have been the main contributing factor to the formation of sand dunes and the
relative high surface elevation of the island over millennia (Thaman 1996).
Climate Change – A Driver for Change.
Thaman (1996) summarises the program and networks of support into which Kiribati and
thus Kiritimati is engaged in order to systematically monitor the potential of global warming
and much discussed associated rise in sea level. At this stage it is highly likely that the
potential effect of climate change on Kiritimati in the foreseeable future can be expected to
be more centred on the occurrence of uncharacteristic weather events than the wholesale
inundation of the island (Hay, 2006). The potential weather events contributing to risk could
include a continuation of lengthy drought periods followed by extreme high rainfall events,
higher sea levels, intense periods of potentially damaging winds and extreme high water
temperatures (ibid)
The island already experiences a considerable raise and fall in water level associated with
the ENSO. Two additional variables that can presently contribute to a fluctuation of water
level of 500mm or greater include (i) cyclic pressure increase, (ii) what been described as the
Pacific “bath tub effect” where this major body of water is moving and sloshing about, loosely
confined between the large land mass on the east and western extremes of the ocean mass,
with the sum effect of causing sea level to rise (White, pers. comm. 2007).
3.2 Geology & Land form
Kiritimati is the world's largest coral atoll with a total land area of 321sq.km and an
approximately equal area of lagoons. Rising out of the ocean floor more than 4,000m in
depth, the island is ringed by a reef platform or shallow shelf, beyond which the seabed

Environmental Information and Assessment page 16
dramatically falls away. Kiritimati is one of the highest atolls above sea level, a status said to
have been caused by tectonic uplift of the Pacific plate in the Pleistocene (White, I. pers.
comm., 2007) 7 . On the ocean side the landform is composed of coral shingle or platy rubble
and, with large amounts of ocean sediment constantly being thrown up onto the shore, there
are limits to the fine-grain sandy beaches on the northern side of the island (Wentworth
1931), and virtually 98 percent of the shoreline has a coral reef adjacent a shelf skirting the
island (Dahl 1991 cited in Ioran 2006). Although the physical limits of the island is defined by
the shallow shelf, the southern coastal area and inner lagoon demonstrates, in places some
significant accretion (Moana, pers. Comm. 2007) 8 .
The single, large, flat island consists of mostly uncompacted coral formations 30-120 m in
depth overlying volcanic rock, and has a large tidal lagoon covering approximately 16,000 ha
and opening to the northwest. At the eastern end of this lagoon, there are several hundred
smaller landlocked lagoons delimited by causeways and larger tracts of land. Generally soil
development across the entire island is poor due to the limited supply of organic matter.
Invariably some of the best soils are to be found in areas over-lying the freshwater lens
systems. Recommendations from the hydrologic perspective, which understandably place a
high importance upon protection and management of a potentially vulnerable resource,
endorse that these valuable soil profiles that sit above the freshwater lens should be left
undisturbed by any human or domestic animal activity (Falkland, pers. Comm. 2007).
The island can be categorized into thirteen different physical land units, as described by
Garnett (1983). Nominally these land units are; (1) seaward reef, (2) seaward beach, (3) beach crest,
(4) coastal dunes, (5) boulder ramparts, (6) coastal plain, (7) central ridge, (8) inland dunes, (9) lagoon scarp,
(10) lagoon dunes, (11) lagoon flats, (12) lagoon beach and (13) lagoon reef. A reef platform extends 30-
120 m from the shoreline around the whole island, being widest along the north coast.
Beyond this reef platform, the ocean floor drops rapidly in depth, in places to over 3000m
(Garnett,1983; UNEP/IUCN,1988; IUCN, 1991).
As noted previously, a significant feature of the island are the concentrations of well-formed
coastal dunes that rise to varying heights along the north coast of the Southeast Peninsula.
This coastal dune landform contributes to the relatively high elevation of Kiritimati in
comparison with other atolls, most of which rarely attain elevations of greater than 2 or 3 m
above sea level. These coastal dunes, in particular Joe's Hill on the south-east arm, have
developed over thousands of years as a result of the strong winds and rough seas. They are
ecologically unique in the Pacific Islands, could potentially offer considerable ecotourism
interest, and it has been previously recommended that they be protected as reserve areas
(Thaman 1996).
3.3 Resources and Ecology
3.3.1 Water Resources; Rainfall, Lens & Groundwater Quality.
The fragility and limiting capacity of the island is firmly correlated with water resources. As
noted previously, Kiritimati lies within the equatorial dry zone and thus the protection and
management of water as a resource has been well recognised by previous studies (Ranck
1993; Dames & Moore 2000; AGRICO-NZ 1993). The dynamic nature of the atoll’s fresh
water lens system responds to both rainfall and tidal movement. Subsequently, as the lens
moves up and down in response to the tidal, displacement/harvest and recharge forces,
there is a steady and localised horizontal movement of fresh water into the surrounding
7 Prof Ian White (Australian National University) was a member of the team for three weeks.
8 Moana Kobe is one of several field guides on Kiritimati who combines a well-rounded
knowledge of natural resource issues merged with a passion and conviction for conservation
and protection.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 17
lagoon and adjacent ocean coast. Freshwater lenses occur with salinities varying between
400 and 1000 (EC meter readings) and with a water table varying at a depth of between 0
and 2 m. In many parts of the island the emergence and flow of this fresh water can be
clearly identified, either by way of associated algal blooms along the strandline, or as steady
clear flows into often reddish coloured saline ponds. Overuse of water from the lens can
potentially deplete the freshwater balance, causing an inflow of the adjacent saline waters, a
condition that will not be reversed until the occurrence of a major rainfall event recharges the
lens.
When drawn in plan the water lens is commonly delineated as an evenly sketched curve
although anecdotal evidence suggest that with the Banana lens, the boundary for occurrence
of fresh water actually weaves and bends in a convoluted manner, snaking its way through
the sub-terrain (Moama, pers. comm. 2007). Caution is therefore needed in any system that
aims to protect each lens from contamination and a buffer zone around each freshwater lens
has been routinely recommended by various authors (Falkland 1983, Ranck 1996).
Salinity of water bodies vary widely across the island and many of the lagoons and landlocked
ponds are supersaline. In many cases it can be assumed that this condition is
relative to rainfall. The tidal and landlocked lagoon system contains hundreds of islets, the
three principal ones being Cook Island, Motu Tabu and Motu Upoa.
There are considerable variations in water level, and extensive intertidal mudflats are present.
Sedimentation rates of land locked ponds and lagoon flats are considered to be significant
(Valencia 1977) 9 . As previously noted, various informants indicate that accretion within the
lagoon has been a steady process, increasing particularly over the last 20 years (Moana,
Perry Langston, Anderson; pers. Comm. 2007). Alternatively it is also possible that the inner
lagoon accretion is more of a cyclical process and the sand bed of the lagoon will be flushed
and altered after the occurrence of intense periods of rainfall. In numerous places it is clear
from the surface that there has been an uplift and emergence of landform, a phenomena
demonstrated by an evenly weathered and water worn profile running parallel to the eastern
edge (lagoon scarp) of many ponds. Contrary to much contemporary discussion regarding
the potential raising of water levels related to climate change, in-situ Holocene corals in
some of the central lagoon and pond areas indicate a previous long-term sea level of
approximately 500 mm above that of the existing.
Water Quality: The provision of safe water to communities in Kiritimati is of paramount
importance in the design of any enhanced public water supply system. The principle
concerns over water quality are the concentrations of inorganic, organic and microbiological
species in the sources and supply systems. In atolls, besides anthropogenic sources of
inorganic materials, dissolved salt from underlying seawater is a significant issue and can
make water unpalatable. Previous reports have detailed high incidences of diarrhoea,
dysentery, typhoid fever and hepatitis on Kiritimati. This is particularly so for infants, and
generally contributes to the very high incidence of infant mortality across all of Kiribati
attributable to water-borne diseases. The presence of indicator bacteria such as E. coli and
total coliforms in groundwater, particularly household shallow groundwater wells on Kiritimati,
has been reported by earlier studies. The recently completed Household field study has also
revealed high nitrate concentrations in addition to copious bacteria levels in one household’s
shallow groundwater well (Falkland & White, 2007) 10 .
9
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the rate of accretion has increased, disrupting the emerging
seaweed growing industry in Kiritimati.
10
This section summarizes the Executive Summary of the Water Sampling Test Report
completed during the mission.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 18
Field measurements were taken of the current quality of the supplied water and the
effectiveness of the water supply disinfection in the Decca-Four Wells-London Tabwakea,
Banana-Main Camp and New Zealand Airfield - Poland water supply systems. The level of
dissolved salts in water samples were estimated by measuring the EC using a portable meter.
The presence or absence of E. coli and total coliforms was measured using the Colisure
method (ibid).
Salinity, as measured by electrical conductivity (EC) in the groundwater at New Zealand
Airfield is lowest of all groundwater samples measured. This reflects the size and thickness
of the fresh groundwater lens and the limited pumping from that lens. One each of the wind
pumped Four Wells and Decca galleries had lower salinity than the wind/solar pumped
gallery at Four Wells and the diesel/wind pumped gallery 3 at Decca. The EC in the water
supply head tank at New Zealand Airfield is the lowest of all three systems, a finding that
supports the lower groundwater salinity at this water source area. Next is the salinity in the
head tanks at Banana. The more heavily used head tanks at Decca-Four Wells have the
highest salinity despite having some galleries in the Decca-Four Wells source area that have
low salinities. This appears due to over extraction through the pumping with the diesel and
petrol pumps, and possibly the water tanker. These could constitute a problem during long
droughts.
Protection of Freshwater Resources
A rapid snap-shot study has confirmed that the groundwater in the major water supply
freshwater lenses in Kiritimati has both E. coli and total coliforms present in most lenses.
Given the isolated nature of the New Zealand Airfield water source area, it is probable that
there is a natural source of these micro-organisms, possibly from birds or crabs. It is doubtful
that any more stringent regulations for the protection of the water source areas will improve
their natural microbiological quality. Regulation and improved practices can and should
prevent further deterioration. Testing at the head tanks revealed that only the disinfection
system in the lower demand New Zealand Airfield – Poland water supply system successfully
removed total coliforms. The reticulations systems, (with the exception of the Captain Cook
Hotel), and particularly that in the Decca-Four Wells-London-Tabwakea system had
significant microbiological contamination, perhaps indicating bio-film build-up in the
reticulation systems as well as the distance from the demand points.. The nature of the nonconstant
pumping supplied by wind and solar pumps, suggests that the constant-rate
chlorination systems used may be problematic.
Any future water supply system will need to identify a more effective and reliable way of
disinfecting water and of cleaning the reticulation systems including swabbing of the major
trunk pipelines. The high nitrate and bacteria concentrations found previously in one
household groundwater well in Tabwakea may pose particular problems for poorer families
who cannot afford KWASP water (Falkland & White, 2007).
Given the relative proximity of settlement to the prevention of pollution to freshwater is a
highly important consideration. An IEC program which aims to assertively cultivate a change
in stewardship of water resources is needed.
3.3.2 Vegetation / Soils / Habitat
Agrico (1993) offers that the indigenous floral communities on Kiribati’s atolls are amongst
the poorest on the earth. James Cook noted similar sentiments when writing in his journal
regarding Kiritimati (Bailey 1977). Vegetation on Kiritimati consists largely of widespread
strand and coral island species with no endemism (Thaman 1992). It has a total of 69 floral
species; 19 indigenous plants, 25 cultivated or persistent species, and 25 adventives (ibid).
Compared to the other islands in the Line group, Kiritimati is a far less modified system, even

Environmental Information and Assessment page 19
when taking into consideration the large areas of coconut plantations. The indigenous
vegetation consists of predominantly low scrub with little species or plant community diversity.
Introduced plants, a product of settlement and systematically documented by Thaman in
1996, include rare coconut varieties, (Cocos nucifera var), rare pandanus varieties, (Pandanus
tectorius var), native fig varieties, (Ficus tinctoria), Pisonia (Pisonia grandis), Tahitian gardenia,
(Gardenia taitensis), Terminalia (Terminalia litoralis), Guettarda (Guettarda speciosa).
Numerous reports record and describe the paucity of the soils on the island. Examples of
these reports include surveys to investigate and improve coconut growing potential (Jenkin &
Foale, 1968 cited in Bailey), assessment documentation to support potential protected area
status (Thaman, 1996), and previous water and sanitation initiatives (Sullivan, M., 1995). All
observations from these previous reports are affirmed by Gilbert (2006). It is clear from the
pronounced chlorotic condition of many adolescent and mature coconut palms that, in some
areas, soils are nitrogen or iron deficient. The ph is high, organic levels almost non existent,
and therefore water holding and nutrient availability severely limited. In parts, it is evident
that the hyper-saline conditions, which have been the result of closed water bodies/ponds
being subjected to long periods of sun, contribute to the incidence of vegetation decline.
There are a number of places on the island where the inter-relationship between soils,
groundwater and vegetation appear to be more profound, most particularly in the vicinity of
Banana. Although a soil sampling survey was not completed, the area surrounding the
Banana village appears to be remarkably more fertile with a higher bio-count and diversity of
under-story vegetation than other areas. This may relate to the reported close proximity of
the groundwater lens in the area, which also may have been enhanced by the introduction of
more vigorously growing exotic and cultivated material over years of settlement. As
replenishment or recharge of the freshwater lens is solely dependent on rainfall, the cycle of
drought that is a feature of the island’s climatic patterns will periodically have a major effect
upon the biomass. The high water table and, therefore, relatively shallow root systems,
means that much of the canopy and shrubby bio-mass is influenced by the frequent drought
cycles, when much of the island becomes parched, and a range of the perennial plants can
reach wilting point (Falkland – pers. comm. 2007).
The minimalist vegetation communities offer some species habitat for breeding, particularly
those birds that nest on the ground, under burrows or in grass tussocks (Perry & Garnett
1998). Thaman also places emphasis on the importance of vegetation to provide shade for
humans around settlement (1996). As outlined by Gilbert (2006), habitat distribution is a
product of climate, geomorphology and flora. Kiritimati contains the following principal
habitats:
Supersaline lagoons;
Scaevola taccada (scrub);
Sida fallax (dwarf scrub);
Suriana maritima (bush);
Lepturus spp. (grasslands); and
Coconut plantations.
A number of studies have recommended that removal of coconut palms and under-story
shrubs such as Scaevola spp as a technique of optimizing water availability be adopted
(Falkland 1983, White, 2007, pers. comm.) 11 . Removal of plant material helps to ensure that
settlement of the specific areas above freshwater are not attractive to humans nor animals, a
11 Studies of transpiration from coconut palms in Tarawa indicate that a mature plant will loose
between 150-200 litres per day. Across a freshwater lens this can amount to considerable quantity.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 20
significant issue in protection of the water lens from potential contamination. This consultant
agrees with removal of coconut palms from above the fresh water lens areas, but does not
support deletion of more drought tolerant under-story material (Scaevola spp).
3.3.3 Marine: Resource Status & Harvest Issues
Since the arrival of James Cook to Kiritimati, the island has been recognised for its plentiful
marine resources (Bailey 1977). The speciation and quantification of the marine resource is
outstanding and in keeping with traditional Kiribati diet. During the various periods of
settlement commencing in the 19 th century, marine resources have constituted the major
source of protein for the inhabitants on the island and contemporary research confirms this
fact to be still the case (Ioran 2006).
The relationship between the status and management of fish resources in the waters
surrounding Kiritimati and the proposed water and sanitation Project, is that increased
population will undoubtedly place more pressure upon marine resources. Two issues
dominate the present status of the resource base; (i) the rich ecological diversity of ocean,
reef and lagoon resources, and (ii) the fact that use of these resources is supported with no
management plan and almost without exception, is being mined! Among all the considerable
documentation that has been produced and can be assembled, no Plan of Management
could be found that in any way assists the community to understand how much they have,
how much they can take, and what they need to do to ensure that there will be any marine
resources tomorrow! More importantly, where reports exist that promote findings, their
recommendations have not been implemented nor policed. While there are guidelines and
some regulations, no integrated documentation to assist monitoring and management for
marine resources has been developed.
A number of comprehensive catalogues of physical resources have been produced (Thaman
1996, Agrico 1993, Dames & Moore 2000), although unfortunately no baseline data exists to
support a quantification of the resource status. Discussions of sampling techniques with the
fisheries department in order to maintain a monitor on the resource indicated that this is
currently not within their program of activities due to lack of resources. However, the
application of either simple or complex surveying techniques that aim to adjudicate on the
status of any resource cannot be judged to be the only legitimate methodology to establish
the condition of marine stocks.
Thaman (1996) itemizes a number of categories into which marine resources can be
itemized including: i) the lagoon, reef, or "inshore" fishery; ii) "offshore" fishery, including both
the pelagic and near-shore deep water fisheries; and iii) mariculture or aquaculture of finfish and
seaweed. The main categories of lagoonal and reef resources include: i) a wide range of finfish;
and ii) a range of marine non-finfish resources, including turtles, crustaceans, shellfish,
holothurians (beche-de-mer), sipunculid sea worms and jellyfish; and iii) marine algae and
seagrass.
The biodiversity of the island is reported to be at its greatest where the island shelf meets the
breaking waves (Perry & Garnett 1998). One way or another, all three categories within the
lagoon system have been routinely targeted for harvest by the I Kiribati and, in response, a
system of “Protected Areas” was established after 1977 in the name of resource management
(Garnett 1983).
Numerous authors offer that traditionally, Pacific island fishermen have demonstrated an
almost encyclopaedic knowledge of marine resources. Johannes (1992) citing Ottino and
Plessis (1972) writes that some native knowledge of fish behaviour was “of stupefying
richness, and at times of such precision that the corresponding poverty of our own
conceptions makes inquiry very difficult”. Johannes goes on to proffer that while scientific

Environmental Information and Assessment page 21
enquiry might focus upon a narrowly defined area of investigation, many Pacific Islander
fishermen traditionally had knowledge handed down to them “of brilliant ecological
integration”. Gosline and Brock (1960) suggest that “it is probable that the Hawaiians of
Captain Cook’s time knew more about fishes of their islands than is known today.” Handy
(1932) wrote in reference to Tahitians that “the native fishermen are possessed of a store of
precise knowledge that may be truly characterized as a natural science. Johannes further
cites Nordhoff (1930) that “an accomplished fly fisherman in Europe or America does not
carry in his head one-half the store of practical knowledge a bonito fisherman uses every
day.” It is fair to suggest that there is, therefore, a great tradition of marine knowledge
among the peoples of the Pacific 12 .
Although there has been a breakdown in many traditions as a result of the colonial period,
migration and subsequent influence of modernization and globalisation, a situation
compounded by relocation of settlement as is the case in Kiritimati, it can be assumed that
there is still a very tangible body of practical knowledge associated with the daily rituals of
fishing among men involved with various aspects of fishing on Kiritimati. The consultant spent
time talking with a cross section of these fishermen to discuss their perceptions and estimations
of resource status. Four of these men have made a relatively very good living as fly fishing
guides for twenty plus years and another, although now ‘retired’, continues with his love of
fishing to be by far the most passionate and articulate source of information, and is well
respected amongst his peers. His natural scientific curiosity and ease of demonstrating
ecological interactions assisted this consultants understanding of pertinent issues. During the
entire period of the mission there was also constant dialogue with fly fishing tourists/visitors
(FFV) who were staying at the various hotels.
It is clear that in the past, the notion of marine resource closure has been a strong component of
Kiribati resource management techniques. Unfortunately the immediate history on Kiritimati has
been such that all I-Kiribati, except for the younger generation, have been migrants to the island
and for this reason some still offer the phrase that “although we live here it is not our old home –
it is where we live now.” Associated with the legacy of previous use of the islands by Europeans,
there is increased use of motorised boats capable of fishing in the open ocean, compared to the
traditional duel-hulled outrigger canoe. Along with adoption of these contemporary innovations,
there is of course an awareness of their potential involvement in commercial fishing export.
Although the GoK has sold rights to a number of international companies and the village of
London is equipped with a fish processing factory of impressive dimensions, there is only a very
small amount of locally caught deep sea fish that is reported to be exported through the factory.
However, the tuna resource is reported as “being mined within 200 Km of Kiritimati, with purse
seiners taking just six to ten days to harvest 900 tonnes of tuna” (Gillett 2004). Amidst this
background of tradition and knowledge, it is clear that the quantity and quality of fish resources
is deteriorating and fishermen on the island complain that they see no direct benefit (ibid).
Lagoon Resources: Over the years the lagoon area has been targeted for different forms
of production and harvest; small scale or artisanal fishing, recreational (fly fishing), Milkfish
cultivation, brine shrimp culture, as well as seaweed and salt production. Due to the
relatively sheltered conditions, the preferred place to fish is in the lagoon. Gilbert (2006)
assembled data regarding artisanal fisheries by research conducted in 1995 with the Kiribati
Fisheries Division (Fisheries) and reported in Dames & Moore (1997). The data
demonstrates that the lagoon is the favoured target for daily fish (53%), that gill netting is the
technique preferred (67%), a high dependency (76%) on one species (Milkfish -Chanos
chanos) and Bonefish (Albula spp.) being the next (7%). The 1995 survey revealed that in 7
days the total fish catch of 30 species was 8,757. The vast majority of this fish catch (91%)
12 Numerous quotes and references cited above have been taken from Johannes (1992)
including Ottino & Plessis, Gosline & Brock, Handy, Nordhoff.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 22
was from shallow water using gillnets. Demand on what all agreed was a diminishing
resource unfortunately continues to grow! The 1995 census indicated a Kiritimati population
of 3225. Based upon the expected growth, since the 2005 census, the current consultancy
estimates this population figure for 2007 to have doubled to approximately 6000. It is
reasonable to assume that potential daily and weekly fish harvest has, by necessity, aimed to
double as well.
It stands to reason that any aquatic ecosystem that is targeted for the harvest of a specific
species will be modified. It is clear from the anecdotal evidence that, over the period of
increase in permanent settlement on Kiritimati, particularly since the 1970’s, that fishing for
certain species has brought about a change in the speciation mix. A rapid survey of ten fly
fishing visitors (FFV) who had visited Kiritimati more than once over the last 15 years offered
a picture of decline in size, occurrence and diversity in the lagoon area. In addition
interviews with the head fly fishing guides, all of whom had been involved as guides for more
than 15, some for 27 years, indicated that although the fish stocks have fluctuated to some
degree, and that there had been a period of improvement, there is generally a negative trend
in the status of fishing stocks within the lagoon area. Those species that have declined in
number, size and occurrence within the lagoon include Bonefish (Albula glossodonta), milkfish
(Chanos chanos), and Trevally (Caranx sp). The fly fishing guides freely indicate that, as a
result of both the lagoon and the ponds now having limited fish, the most efficient way for
people to get their daily fish is to target the “Protected Areas”, where Milkfish are specifically
cultivated by Fisheries to replenish stocks. This cultivation of Milkfish was the only explicit
and dedicated form of systematic farming and maintenance of the fresh food supply
witnessed on the island.
It is reported that there are two areas on the lagoon to which the Bonefish traditionally find
their way during their spawning and subsequent nursery cycle. Two well known fishing
guides indicated that one was an area to the south-west of the lagoon in the Paris Peninsula
where the fish spawn around the full moon, the other the Manulu Lagoon in the north eastern
corner was recognized as the nursery area. It is alarming where the status of one species
represents the single element on which the major tourism enterprise is based, but the Paris
Peninsula area is not protected!
The Manulu Lagoon, which had been regarded as having a higher salinity levels due to its
narrow channel opening and thus slower tidal exchange, became dedicated to the production
of crystallized salt, initiated by an American named Chester Jenkins (pers. comm., John
Bryden 2007). A rapid analysis of the net return of that salt production is offered in Section
5.0. The analysis suggests that a considerable proportion of the lagoon system is being
ecologically compromised for a very limited economic return. It would further appear that the
breeding cycle and therefore population of this much prized species has been much
compromised in the name of a spectacular negative cash flow! No environmental impact
assessment could be found to have been completed for the dedication of a major area of the
lagoon, an area that was previously tidally influenced and which now has its lagoonal waters
controlled by a sluice gate in order to induce the necessary hyper saline conditions for salt
production. Along with the high saline condition goes the subsequent death of almost all
marine life within the impounded area. Salinity readings using an EC meter were taken
within the Manulu area revealing conditions of three times that of sea water. This is clearly
an example of where further analysis of the entire system is required, and findings
contributing to a Plan of Management for the lagoon. To halt decline in marine resource
populations, however, rapid action needs to be taken and there are no guarantees that the
previous nursery ground of the Manulu Lagoon can be rescued.
Poaching the Protected Areas: Policing of the lagoon’s “protected” areas is the role of the
five under-resourced fish wardens employed by the Fisheries. A number of these wardens

Environmental Information and Assessment page 23
have been involved in the task of protecting the lagoon stocks for more than 20 years.
Separate interviews were conducted with two of these Wardens in order to get an
understanding of the work and the challenges they face 13 . They both discussed openly that
the present system of “enforcement” was not working! One considered that 85% of Milkfish
produced in the Fisheries ponds was poached; “it takes four months to produce a 1 llb fish, it
is normally 6 months before we harvest and the fish are poached”. The poaching of Milkfish
rapidly escalates in the period leading up to the leaving of a ship for Tarawa, when local
people feel obliged to send to relatives the highly prised food resources of Kiritimati!
The Wardens relate that the same offenders can be found to be repeatedly poaching.
Poachers are fined in the local Magistrates Court, are expected to pay a fine of approx $50,
but then find it easy to return to the Protected Areas with gillnets, where they can make $200
a day with ease, selling the fish on the informal market. During numerous journeys into the
Protected Areas, field guides were able to point out potential poachers to the consultant.
While field guides are not pleased with the situation, there appears to be no shame regarding
poaching from the poachers themselves. Some poachers are said to be long term residents
but consistently it is under-employed people who use the Protected Areas for income and as
the main source of family food (field guide pers. comm. 2007). Previously the wardens would
weigh and measure all fish that was found to be in possession of poachers, but due to
workload and presumably a lack of staff morale, Fisheries staff ceased this practice some 8
years ago (Warden interview, 2007).
Bonefish: The sport of fly fishing for Bonefish on Kiritimati was established in the 1980’s by
two US companies known as Fishing International and Frontiers. The fly fishing was initiated
by a number of North Americans, Suzie and Mike Fitzgerald and Bob and Helen Norhine
(pers. comm., Brydon & Kiraren, 2007). By 1982, an average of 20 fly fishermen per week
were arriving via two flights a week from Hawaii, almost entirely organised and chaperoned
through the “Frontiers” company from the USA. These companies are said to take a service
fee of 25% from each FFV, a lucrative arrangement. If these companies had previously
supported the development of the industry, negligible sign of any overt support to manage
existing resource is presently obvious.
Since it was established and built by the Japanese in 1975 to service the expected demand
from the space tracking station, the Captain Cook Hotel (CCH) was the only accommodation
service on the island. As the FFV commenced to arrive in numbers, it was managed by
woman from the US (Kiraren – pers. comm., 2007) 14 . Over a short period recreational
angling rapidly grew and was pursued on 43 different “flats” within the lagoon, employing 128
people including 35 fly fishing guides (FFG’s) and, for those FFV’s who wanted it, 8 “private”
guides 15 . As touted on numerous promotional posters and advertising paraphernalia
witnessed on the island, Kiritimati was subsequently voted best Bonefish destination in the
world by respectable fishing organizations which fuelled the enthusiasm of further visitors. In
addition to the CCH (which is now a GoK enterprise), there are now an additional 5 lodges
vying for custom 16 .
Fly fishing for Bonefish has created job opportunities, generates incomes for more than 100
families, is estimated to bring $2.4 million dollars into the economy, is the centre of the
13 In order to establish confidence between the consultant and the warden in each interview, it was
agreed that no names would be used in this report. Quotations given by these wardens are unattributed.
A translator was used in both cases to assist communication.
14 Bailey refers to the CCH as initially opening under the name of the NASDA Hotel.
15 It is collectively considered by the FFG’s that many of the FFV’s are wealthy people. The largesse
of the visitors is now expected and the FFG’s can expect very hansome fees for the work they
perform.
16 CCH, Crystal Beach Resort, The Villages, Mini Kiritimati Hotel, Ikari House, Big Eddies Lodge.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 24
Kiritimati tourism industry and, therefore, by default, the tourism industry of Kiribati. Although
the main office for Tourism is on South Tarawa, “90% of tourist activity and thus dollars is
said to be in the eastern island of the Line and Phoenix Group (Kiraren, pers. comm., 2007).
Protection of this industry should be considered to require the highest of priorities, however,
at this stage, there is a long way to go before there can be confidence that the resource is
being managed. Of the Protected Areas that were identified for the whole island, the
Bonefish spawning area around the Paris Flats is noticeably absent (Garnett 1983). During
the monthly full moon running of the bonefish through this Paris Flats area, the consultant,
along with the entire Project team, witnessed people with nets fishing in the area. It is
unfortunate but it appears that while there maybe good intentions mouthed; there is actually
a difficulty in converting words into actions. The consultant was told on numerous occasions
that strict regulations are needed; otherwise people will not voluntarily assist in managing
resources. It is also clear that it is only a combination of effective regulation and policing that
will make any difference to the situation.
Assistance to manage one species in the Lagoon in a more stringent and systematic manner
has been pursued for PhD research by a member of the Secretariat of the Pacific
Community 17 . As a component of the research, a community Public Consultation Workshop
was held on Kiritimati in March 2007. What is significant about the recommendations from
the community on the island is that they emanate from a sound understanding of the decline
of one species and are so stringent! The critical initiatives that the workshop identified were:
That any sale of Bonefish should be banned totally;
That no Bonefish should be allowed to be exported from Kiritimati;
That gillnetting should not be allowed in the lagoon and in the passages, but only in the
outer reef;
That big mesh size floating nets that do not reach the lagoon bottom can be allowed in
the deeper side of the lagoon closer to the passages for the purpose of catching large
Milkfish.
The process of getting these recommendations actually processed into some legal regulation
would appear to be taking an inordinate amount of time. The people who understand and
depend upon the resource for their livelihood are unfortunately reliant upon getting their voice
heard in Tarawa, a situation that has historically had a track record of disappointment from
the local perspective (pers. comm. with FFG’s & Local Government, 2007).
Export of Pet fish: The position of Kiritimati in relation to the equator, added to its
longitudinal position provides a distinctive set of ecological conditions and thus marine
speciation of some unique character. The island has extensive coral reef habitats with
prolific reef life (Thaman 1995). This, coupled with its proximity south of the Hawaiian
Islands, yields distinctive coral reef fish both in terms of colour (geographic variation),
abundance and market access (Lovell, 2003). A number of reef fish are much prised by the
aquarium Pet Fish industry in Japan and the USA.
Export of Pet Fish from Kiritimati was initiated in 1989 by a Fijian/Australian named Phil
Wilder who had relocated a similar business enterprise from South Tarawa after stocks in
that part of the country depleted. Wilder is reported to have exported to Japan and the US
through Hawaii and, according to some sources, saw the opportunity to wholesale the fish at
high prices per species unit (Anderson pers. comm., 2007). Wilder passed away some years
ago but in the time since his death, the export industry has grown with the number of
companies involved in export from Kiritimati now twelve. A number of those people who
Wilder trained as divers are still involved in the business.
17 Being Yeeting is the Senior Reef Fisheries Scientist at the SPC.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 25
Harvest and Holding of Pet fish: Gilbert 2006 notes that in 1993, 70 different species were
potentially collected (AGRICo 1993). (A list of the 70 species previously targeted is tabled in
Appendix 3). A meeting with an industry committee during this mission revealed that 10
species are currently commonly targeted. The individual species have been determined by a
combination of supply, harvest-ability, tolerance of and adaptability to handling and transport,
as well as market demand for colour, shape and size (pers. comm., Divers meeting, 2007).
On three occasions, meetings were held with groups and individuals who could describe the
problems with diving for the fish, the harvest methods, the export and wholesale market
situation and the sustainability of the industry. The harvest potential of each species
includes the suitability to being captured, adaptability to withstand the pressure changes
during assent, and the fact that some species need to be within a younger age bracket due
to their higher potential retail value being correlated to immature size (Diver interviews, 2007).
A clear indicator of the population / status is the depth to which divers need to go to retrieve
the targeted fish. Over the last 20 years, the period of time that the Pet fish have been
harvested, the depths to which divers descend has increased. Divers have described that 20
years ago it was possible to easily gather a large number of different fish at 20’ (5.0 m). It is
clear that now the depth that divers need to go is much deeper. On the basis of this
information, it is reasonable to assume that the fish stocks are being depleted. The following
Table 3 offers an indication regarding the increase in depth that divers need to descend to for
three favoured species.
Fish / resource 1989 2007
Emperor 3.05 m (10’) 18.29 m (60’)
Brown Trigger 3.05 m (10’) Difficult to get
Black Tangs 3.05 m (10’) 30.48 m (100’)
Sea Cucumber (Beche de mere) 3.05 m (10’) 60.96 m (200’)
Table 3 Decline in Availability of some Marine Resources
Source: Meeting with Divers Association, confirmed with Pet fish export company.
While they go deeper, the increase in the number of export companies has also targeted
more harvesting locations. However, one company reports that they are now exploring the
opportunity to extend operations to Fanning Island as “it is too difficult to get some species
here”.
There is no doubting the fact that numbers of fish exported and the value that they represent
has increased steadily over time. The Fisheries department in Kiritimati collects freight export
records as the fish leave by air for Hawaii and Fiji. Figure 6 below indicates the growth in the
value and number of pet fish exports over the period 1994-2006. The graph illustrates some
variance year to year and the overall trend has been for an increase in the exported amount.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 26
Value & Quantity of Pet Fish
1000000
900000
800000
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
Yearly Quantity and Value of Pet fish Exported from Kiritimati
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
# Fish 83,683 67,648 27,328 80,535 100,948 96,565 73,977 115,091 130,479 161,436 111,134 110,098 141,675
USD Value 417,796.0 325,973.0 124,234.2 370,811.5 512,612.0 410,410.9 372,502.0 610,316.0 554,060.5 756,615.0 510,764.2 639,917.7 920,416.0
1994-2006
Figure 6: Yearly Quantity and Value of Pet Fish Exported from Kiritimati
Source: Fisheries Department records.
Currently teams of divers receive an order from a wholesaler based in Hawaii and so they
know what fish they are required to harvest to complete the market needs. Harvesting of Pet
fish is reported to be concluded with hand-held nets and due to the fact that they are highly
territorial, the individual fish need to be kept in separate containers (T Smith, pers. comm.,
2007). Small 75mm diameter see-through plastic containers are used to hold each fish insitu
for the time leading up to the weekly departure of the freight plane. One company has
an extensive set of oxygenated holding tanks, all housed indoors. In such a situation, there
is a need to maintain a feeding regime as well as maintaining appropriate temperature and
cleanliness of the water. Operational costs for each company are therefore considerable.
There are presently reported to be over 40 men involved in actually diving for the fish. This
represents more divers than are needed and, as a result, week-by-week, the available work
is shared around. Over the years, there have been serious diving accidents, mostly due to a
lack of awareness of the potential of decompression sickness and other hazards such as
embolism, failure of diving gear, and in particular, bad air in tank fills (Gillett 2003). There
has been a tendency to take greater risks than is necessary in the name of making money
from a diminishing resource. Death, paralysis or temporary effects from “the bends” have all
taken their toll on the diving community. A diver training program (Farnel and Gillett, 1992)
was conducted in the early-1990s and another in the 2004. The UNDP also funded a
program of certifying all the divers and while these combined initiatives have caused the
levels of competence to increase, there has, reported some divers, also been an increase in
attitudes of bravado by some others (pers. comm., divers 2007). As a result of the training,
the accident rate has greatly decreased but all involved can relate tragedies of work mates
and family who have suffered paralysis and/or death.
According to one export company owner, Kiritimati has enjoyed a strong comparative
advantage in the market for some highly sort-after species (e.g. Flame Angelfish, Gold Flake
Angelfish, Declivis Butterflyfish). Although there is some commonality with species in
Indonesia, the greater ease of access to the North American markets has meant a steady
demand for the supply.
Damage to the Coral: Some divers relate that it is difficult to get some species because the
fish “run away and hide in the coral when we dive”. As a result, and in order to cause the fish
to reveal themselves, some divers are said to use steel bars to knock on the rocks, a practice
that sometimes breaks and damages the coral. The consultant was taken to places where it

Environmental Information and Assessment page 27
is clear that there is damage to the coral but without actually seeing any destructive actions
taking place, it is possible only to draw the conclusion that some physical action is breaking
coral.
No plan of management or “farming” of the resource presently exists although the need to do
this is well understood by some operators. In one meeting with a group of divers they
indicated the highly competitive and dangerous nature of their work, as well as the
diminishing returns. One spokesperson for the companies involved in export indicated that it
was difficult to foster cooperation that could perhaps produce a rotating system of zones,
develop and impose a limit to exports and, in a bold move, initiate a collective strategy to
raise the export cost of fish to the wholesalers.
Accurate Data: Gaining accurate data on the status of fish stocks is a difficult exercise.
However, there is no baseline data on the numbers of the targeted fish pre-commencement
of the pet fish industry and their density. Yeeting (pers. comm. 2007) has been aiming to
complete surveys to establish sustainable harvest yields. It is clear to the consultant that the
number of companies, divers, and present size of Pet fish export, is too great. Certainly the
value to Kiribati’s economy of the export of the Pet fish is considerable but without any
management plan, and use of appropriate farming techniques, species decline will continue 18 .
If this is not explored, the loss of opportunity from the diving fraternity can be assumed to be
considerable. In discussion with divers and export companies during interview it was
suggested that they could commence a process to increase prices but they are not sure if
they will loose an income (divers, pers. comm., 2007). It can be reasonably assumed that if
there is a demand for the Pet fish there will be a ready awareness and ability to absorb any
realistic cost increases associated with limits to supply in the commercial and retail market
place of the USA and Japan, those involved in the Kiritimati Pet fish export business could
benefit from applying a sustainable harvest and marketing plan with the goal of lifting
incomes per fish unit, actually exporting less and moving towards a more sustainable
operation.
New Ministers: Towards the end of the mission (27/11) a short meeting was held with the
recently appointed Minister for Fisheries. The Minister was keen to relate his awareness of
the need to protect resources on Kiritimati and offered that he understood that changing the
way people perceive and manage their resources will take time. He further offered that
Kiritimati “belong to all the people of the Republic of Kiribati and so people on the island
should recognise the responsibility that they have to look after the precious and “promised
land”. These are strong words from the new Minister and the timing is right for these words to
be supported with appropriate actions.
Another meeting was held with the Minister for Health (1/12) who was visiting Kiritimati. He
also indicated concern regarding the status of resources and the way in which they are
managed. He ensured that the national government was motivated to initiate some changes
in the way that fish stocks are managed.
3.3.4 Avifauna – The Birds of Kiritimati
The bird population of Kiritimati is world renowned. It is the birds on the island that have
endowed it with recognition as a major “biodiversity area in Conservation International’s
‘Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund’ and an ‘important Bird Area’ by BirdLife International.
These international designations reflect the important seabird populations of the Phoenix
Islands and Line Islands (Pierce et al 2007). Of global importance, Kiritimati is reportedly the
home for the largest populations of two threatened species, Phoenix Petrel, which is
18 An unconfirmed source has indicated that Pet Fish account for 40% of Kiribati foreign exchange.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 28
endangered, and the White-Throated Storm Petrel which is Vulnerable (ibid) 19 . The
relationship between the bird numbers on the island and the proposed water and sanitation
Project is that increased population will undoubtedly place more pressure upon these
internationally important resources.
The terrestrial fauna of Kiritimati is dominated by what is reported to be the greatest
concentration of birds during their breeding season in the oceanic tropics. Thaman (1996)
reports that the Smithsonian Institution’s “Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program” surveyed
in the 1960s and early 1970s and their work indicated that the ocean area surrounding the
Line and Phoenix Islands forms one of the world’s largest marine avifauna flyways; this
includes migratory species and those that find the isolated atoll habitats ideal for breeding
and nesting. Gilbert cites Gallagher (1959) who identifies that eighteen species of seabirds,
and one land bird, nest on Kiritimati, and over 37 additional species have been recorded as
visitors to the island 20 . In a small A4 size paperback guidebook, Jones (2000) summarises
with informative detail the spectacular features of the individual species of birds found on the
island 21 .
Wildlife Sanctuary: In recognition of the global and regional avian importance of Kiritimati
and prior to independence, the island was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1977, after the
work completed by Garnett during the 1970’s. The sanctuary status, although altered
somewhat from the original intentions, has been supported with varying degrees of success
by the efforts of the Wildlife Conservation Unit (WCU), under the Ministry of Environment
Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD). Working on a very limited budget, the WCU
aims to combine the role of awareness-raising in schools with the monitoring of bird colonies
in Protected Areas.
Anecdotally it is reported that numbers of birds on the island have declined considerably over
the years. However, at the same time it is clear that the numbers of birds and their incidence
historically would have been affected by the climatic cycles. In addition, but more importantly,
the process of plotting bird population numbers and the movement of roosting colonies
indicates that bird numbers can be very dynamic within their roosting areas, geographically
changing in response to various disturbance. For example, the association between the
onset of an El Niño and the demise of bird numbers due to the associated lack of food has
been recorded as being a product of the heavy rainfall of 1982–1983, when all bird
populations are reported to have experienced a 90% mortality with no reproductive success
in a number of species (Schreiber & Schreiber 1984). Both numbers of birds and
reproductive activity increased in 1983, but recovery was set back by El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) of 1986-87 (Lovell 2007).
Additional reasons for bird colony decline are seen to be the result of hunting by feral cats as
well as Polynesian and Black Rats and, with increased significance, human activity (Rogers,
et al 1997, Perry & Garnett 1998). Wholesale attrition of bird flocks is reported as a result of
the British H-Bomb testing during the late 1950’s, from when it is reported that millions of
birds died when they lost their sight as a result of “the flash” from the various bombs
(“Operation Grapple”) 22 .
19
The key recommendations from Pierce et al 2007 are tabled as Appendix 8
20
21
Gallagher (1959) was unfortunately an omission from the reference list in Gilbert 2006.
Unfortunately only four copies of Jones (2000) booklet could be found on the island. The WCU
had one well worn and torn copy.
22
Operation Grapple, BBC Cine film / Documentary, (undated).

Environmental Information and Assessment page 29
Figure 7: General Land Use Plan; highlights ‘Protected Areas’ in Green.
Source: Lands Department, London, Kiritimati,
The greatest quotient of the work the WCU is presently focused upon concerns monitoring
for poachers. Various species are callously targeted, the juvenile Boobie being one of the
favourite targets due to the combination of its limited flying skills, plus the fact that its tender
meat is much preferred for eating (Moana, Field Guide, 2007). All over the island and lagoon
area, the consultant has been able to witness and record systematic poaching where
discarded feathers and some body parts are piled high in heaps.
A blatant example of the shortfalls in the current system is recorded in VanderWer and
Young (2007) when they both, accompanied by a WCU Warden recorded the following;
“On Motu Upua, 2 poachers were caught and photographed taking a Phoenix Petrel
and Wedge-tailed Shearwater. [Staff] Bio from WCU confronted these poachers and
asked them to leave the island, and WCU staff are currently working on bringing
these men to trial. It is hoped that if WCU staff collect all future remains, that rates of
poaching can be determined, which could then help assess the impacts of poaching
on the seabird populations. On some islands in Manulu Lagoon and north of Carver
Way upwards of 50 carcasses of the larger bird species were found.”
Even though the WCU staff and the two consultants had caught, recorded, photographed
and reported to the police an infringement, at the time of writing, some five months after the
event, the poachers were reported to have not been charged nor penalized by the
Magistrates Court. In fact, the WCU offered that as the poacher gave a false name and that
no one could identify the person by the photograph, they could therefore do nothing! On an
island the size of Kiritimati, with small village settlement and all the intimacy that goes with it,
the consultant would not accept this explanation at face value. After talking with a number of
guides and wardens, it is more accurate to assess that culturally, it is just all too difficult for
the wardens to actually police the community, and this is a first class example! The warden

Environmental Information and Assessment page 30
system is presently a failure as, when it comes to infringement, there is no intrinsic value
placed upon the birds either by the community or the wardens, a situation which overrides
the collective inability to shame people who could be family, neighbours or perhaps even the
Minister or fellow parishioners from their church!
Regularly, during the field work of this mission, evidence of poaching could be seen across
the island and regularly the futility of the existing warden system to prevent poachers was
related. Culturally I-Kiribati people are cautious about shaming others and this situation
presents a massive challenge to peoples’ outlook. An additional challenge is that it is
actually very difficult for the uninitiated to know when one is within a PA or outside of it.
Rusting 44 gallon drums and steel stakes appear to have been initially used to demark the
PA but neither signage nor markers are left in many areas.
As a product of their work, VanderWer and Young (2007) have produced an excellent set of
photographs and an A1 size poster, both of which are designed as educational tools to assist
identification of each species, combined with an appreciation of the beauty of these birds. To
raise the profile of the importance of these ‘protected species’, high priority needs to be given
to reproduction of this calibre of material and subsequent distribution to the offices of citizens
of the Republic, including the offices of the Ministers in Tarawa, the religious leaders,
churches, school teachers, hospitals, school classrooms, hotels, airport, the wharves where
visiting tourists land, and any other places where people are welcomed, farewelled,
instructed, entertained, waiting or otherwise. In addition, purpose built identification and
interpretation boards made of appropriate weather resistant material need to be mounted
across the villages and Protected Areas of Kiritimati. Presented well, many tourists would
pay handsomely for a field guide booklet that includes these photographs. Sold and
presented with an envelope and local Christmas Island stamps, such an item would be an
ideal gift for visitors to ‘post’ home to family and friends when they come ashore from the
visiting cruise ships.
The issue of bio-security is of importance in protecting and conserving the bird populations.
In particular this means that previous biological control programs need to be followed up,
ensuring that feral cats and rats are kept under control. For example, processes that ensure
that additional rats do not find access to islands is imperative if the nesting bird colonies on
Motu Tabu and Cook Island are to offer sanctuary. Protection to the sooty tern colonies will
only occur when the population understands that the taking of eggs is not acceptable from an
individual conviction as opposed to GoK regulations!
3.4 Summary
Generally it can be said that the physical resources of Kiritimati are recognised and
celebrated for their unique characteristics, their biological significance and fragility by a small
group of natural scientists and organisations, most of who live outside of the Republic of
Kiribati, well beyond the island. It is extremely important that the significance of the island,
the vulnerability of freshwater reserves, the finite characteristics of the marine resources and
the international importance of the bird colonies be understood and highlighted to the
Kiritimati population.
Climate, Geology & Land Form
The island of Kiritimati has a highly unusual climatic pattern, one which operates in strong
association with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) episodes, a phenomena triggered
by increase and decrease in surface temperature of the ocean. Subsequently there can be a
large range in the annual maximum and minimum rainfall. The island is also positioned in
the north-west quadrant of a significant “dry zone” of the Pacific, a zone which expands as a
tapered band across the central and eastern parts of the Pacific. The localised climatic
phenomenon on Kiritimati is in considerable contrast to the islands of Tabuaeran (Fanning)

Environmental Information and Assessment page 31
and Teraina (Washington) which lie only a very short distance to the north. Rainfall data
demonstrates that historically cycles of drought have occurred at approximately 10 yearly
intervals.
It is highly likely that the potential effect of climate change on Kiritimati in the foreseeable
future can be expected to be more centred on the occurrence of uncharacteristic weather
events than the wholesale inundation of the island. Potential weather events contributing to
risk could include a continuation of lengthy drought periods followed by extreme high rainfall
events, higher sea levels, intense periods of potentially damaging winds and extreme high
water temperatures.
Kiritimati is the world's largest coral atoll with a total land area of 321sq.km and an
approximately equal area of lagoons. Soils consist mostly of uncompacted coral formations
lacking organic material and do not lend themselves to intensive cultivation.
Marine Conclusions: There is large body of anecdotal evidence on Kiritimati of declining
yields of Bonefish, Milkfish, Trevally, lobster, sharks, billfish, all species of Pet fish and other
species including due to:
Uncertainty of the positive benefits of the catch-and-release policy and techniques due
to the ease with which fish can be damaged through handling,
Lack of ‘Protection’ status of critically important spawning areas;
Inadequate to no effectual protection to those areas designated as ‘Protected’;
Heavy concentration on local inshore fishing;
No time during the year or lunar cycle when any water-body associated with the island
has a period of respite;
Uncontrolled use of fine grade gillnets in the lagoon and along coral reef shelf;
Targeting of a specific handful of species, including age and size groups,
Destruction to coral habit as a product of harvesting techniques;
No sense of ‘personal ownership’ of the marine resources demonstrated by the majority
of the community and thus a ‘mining’ approach predominates which plunders all and
puts nothing back. While the GoK rhetoric from South Tarawa continues the present
theme that the island belongs to all people of Kiribati then the consultant expects this
situation not to change.
In deep water beyond the island, there is reportedly over-fishing by international
contractors (otherwise known as Distant Water Fishing Nations – DWFN) using long-line
vessels for Tuna [ including Skip Jack, Yellow Fin, Big Eye] (Gillett 2003). Due to the need
for international currency, combined with a growing population applying greater pressure on
limited, fragile and finite resources, traditional forms of conservation no longer have neither
the same standing nor the capacity to ensure resource management. An appropriate Plan of
Management combined with a sustained program to foster attitudinal change is urgently
required.
Local concern: It must be clearly stated that there are a number of very concerned
people on the island who put forward comments via the household survey and during
conversation with the consultant. Any mild mannered summary of the present situation will
sound trite to those concerned people! There is a simply and clear need for action to
address the problems which threaten the sustainability of the marine resources, and with it,
the livelihoods on Kiritimati.
Ownership: Regarding the lack of strong ‘ownership’ of marine resources it is the
consultants view that it is important for the GoK to reconsider how it wants its people to view
resources and how it can foster greater proactivity in protection and management. To
address these issues there is certainly a need to look for a more complex set of tools beyond

Environmental Information and Assessment page 32
the application of simplistic rules and regulations; particularly when existing statutes do not
appear to work. It is critical that people on Kiritimati feel greater ‘ownership’ and stewardship
for the natural resources of the island. While the South Tarawa government holds all the
controls and offers no recognition of local efforts and potential, no incentives, no
empowerment nor opportunities to local people, they can, without doubt, expect there to be a
continuation of the present decline in resources.
BIRDS – CONCLUSIONS
Unless some wholesale change in values can be fostered, one where the poaching is
considered to be just as shameful as shaming others, the demise of bird colonies will
continue! Similar to the marine resources, the mining of bird colonies is the mode of
operation!
Conclusion: It is clear that the so called ‘Protected Areas’ on Kiritimati are not being
protected. Bird numbers have declined and there is no leadership within the community to
changes the situation. The existing management techniques that utilize wardens and
delineate no-go ‘Protected Areas’, are unfortunately failing. There is a chronic cultural fear of
shaming neighbours and thus even when poachers are caught, they face no sanction.
By default, the island that is a major nodal point for migratory birds and internationally
recognised centre for biodiversity has become the dinner table for predation by cats, rats and
human beings.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 33
4. Environmental Governance & Stewardship
4.1 Role of Government in Environmental Management
In examination of the role of government in environmental management, the consultant finds
some direct and indirect actions of government that contribute in a positive and negative
manner. These direct actions concern issues such as land ownership, the use of Permit
systems, the adoption of “Protected Area’ status and all that is implied. Indirect actions
include the two tiered structure of the community that sees civil servants enjoying
entitlements without any great accountability, and others in the community accessing
negligible privilege. The newly independent Republic determined that the island of Kiritimati
would belong to the whole nation and as a result all land is recognised as being owned by
the government and /or leased to individuals. There is no freehold ownership of land on
Kiritimati.
Wildlife Sanctuary
During the last period of the previous colonial regime and the early years of the new Republic
there was a growing awareness of the biophysical importance of the island. Several reports
were produced to highlight the need to protect and conserve the fragility of the island and the
outcome was the proclamation of the wildlife sanctuary status that identified five “closed”
areas for the protection, particularly of birds (Garnett). Upholding and ensuring that the
protected status for both birds and fish is appropriately upheld and maintained has been
seen as the responsibility of the Fisheries and the WCU. Wardens from these two
government departments have the responsibility to “police” the resource, in order to
prosecute those who break the rules.
Permit systems
To control the potential movement of people moving from more populous islands to Kiritimati,
and indeed to demonstrate some control of all visitors, a Permit system was established
during the first 12 years of the Republic. This system acted as an opportunity for
government to reinforce with all people the wildlife sanctuary status of the island and that
visitors were entering a place that protected birds and fish. The Permit instructed people that,
as a result, they would subsequently be obliged to conduct themselves with appropriate
behaviour. In the early 1990’s a new government removed this Permit system on the basis
that it created a barrier to all I-Kiribati being treated equally. As a result, as long as people
could find their way to the island they were entitled to stay. The price of the ticket and fear of
the unknown became the only barrier to increased settlement on Kiritimati.
However, for these new arrivals it has been very difficult to secure land for housing and
staying with relatives is the alternative.
Data
Unfortunately there are large gaps in availability of relevant post-independence socioeconomic
data on the island. A large fire in 2003 completely destroyed the offices of the
Ministry of Line and Phoenix. This fire unfortunately consumed much of the relevant historic
data that had been filed and archived concerning including various natural resource based
enterprises, (for example the Solar Salt enterprise) and verification of related data.
Communication between relevant government offices in Tarawa and Kiritimati is presently
still difficult. Internet connections presently lack bandwidth, compromising dramatically
routine office communications.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 34
4.2 Relevant Legislation; Ownership, Decentralization
Gilbert (2006) details and tabulates the relevant legislation and the international conventions
that the GoK is signatory to. The consultant sees that while there are shortfalls, the policies,
legislation, rules and regulations are in place and there is an over inflated expectation that
this is all that is needed to achieve governance. There is presently a dependency upon use
of policing and enforcement more than empowerment of the community; more stick than
carrot!
In addition to those listed in Gilbert, the GoK has also acceded to three additional
conventions; Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Climate Change, and the
Convention to Combat Desertification. The status and dates that the Republic of Kiribati
ratified each of these three conventions is tabled below. A significant component and
obligation of the GoK being a member of these agreements is that each signatory
government commits to the development and production of a National Action Plan (NAP).
Convention/Treaty Status Ratified
Convention on Biological Diversity Party / Accession 20/04/2004
Convention on Climate Change Party / Accession 07/02/1995
Convention to Combat Desertification Party / Accession 07/12/1998
Table 4 Kiribati signatory to the Agenda 21 Conventions
Source: Respective UNCED web pages
In recognition of what is known as “Agenda 21” all three conventions recognise that a NAP
cannot be simply a series of pro-forma type government legislation, but that the NAP will only
be productive if it manifests as a process that involves, empowers and ultimately fosters a
strong responsibility for the environment from civil society 23 . Put simply, a NAP was not ever
perceived to be a passive academic document, but a roadmap for change. Sovereign states
from all parts of the globe have collectively recognised the difficulty of natural resource
management, particularly where the resources they are responsible for defy political
boundaries. Analogous to this is the implied collective understanding, demonstrated by the
three Agenda 21 conventions from UNCED, that most people on the planet, including almost
all on Kiritimati, depend for their daily existence upon natural resources. Without the
community playing an active role that is equal to or superior to that of government, “caring”
for the future of the planet will not occur.
There is unfortunately no ‘silver-bullet’ or prescriptive approach that can assist all
stakeholders to successfully address complex physical and social problems. Many
developing countries will be reliant upon the donor community to assist with resources for
implementation. A NAP needs to focus on many inter-related physical and social topics,
developing sub-projects that aim to change the management of resources. The NAP can
therefore potentially be a complex document to produce and the subsequent implementation
process difficult.
Sustainability of all livelihoods therefore needs to be a proactive pursuit, working on a broad
front of addressing physical and social issues that includes the collective issue of
decentralising power, supporting development of alternative livelihoods, inflating awareness
of demographic dynamics including population growth, specific resource management issues,
refining appropriate agricultural practices, seeking out and supporting alternative energy
sources, creating enabling institutional and legal frameworks and ensuring that signatory
23 Agenda 21 was a product from UNCED held in Rio in 1992,

Environmental Information and Assessment page 35
countries have the capacity to monitor and assess their progress. The end product of this
theoretical framework needs to be a national series of simple, straightforward initiatives that
mobilise the community in an effort to achieve change. To take pressure off resources the
three conventions recommend combined strategies and programs that thematically focus
upon major themes. These themes include exploration of (i) alternative livelihoods, (ii)
demographic dynamics / decentralisation (iii) resource management, (iv) agricultural
practices, (v) alternative energy sources, (vi) institutional & legal frameworks, (vii) the
capacity to assess, (viii) education / public awareness. These themes could be adopted as
an implementation framework for small or larger action on Kiritimati.
4.3 Environmental Assessment - Development and Environmental Protection
The Republic of Kiribati Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (EPA) controls environmental
assessment by utilising the Prescribed Development process outlined in Section 14 of the
EPA Act 24 . Prescribed Development includes any development that may impact on the
environment in many way the list includes examples such as abattoirs, manufacture of
cement, fish processing, hotels, landfills, port and harbours and the like. Responsibilities
under the Prescribed Development process are outlined in Table 5 below. Environmental
assessment falls under the broader process of development assessment carried out by the
Kiritimati Local Land Planning Board (KLLPB).
Prescribed Developments are currently assessed by the KLLPB and requires the Tabled
process to be followed. The level of enactment for the Prescribed Development process
appears to vary between projects with some Prescribed Developments exempted from the
environmental assessment process. Reasons for the lack of application generally result from
referral agencies lacking specific environmental triggers where further details of impact and
mitigation and/or specific treatment requirements are required. Referral Agencies may also
lack specific expertise to fully assess potential environmental issues associated with
Prescribed Developments.
Current applications generally require 2 matters to be answered by the Environment Officer
on Kiritimati Island. These matters relate to the use of fuels during operation of the
development and if any impact to the environment is anticipated from the operation of
equipment and/or plant on the development site. The latter is broad and should trigger a
more detailed assessment for the majority of Prescribed Developments listed within the EPA.
Licensing for discharges from Prescribed Developments does not appear to be undertaken
on Kiritimati Island. It is noted that there are few developments that would require a license,
most being Government owned such as waste management and potential leachate from
waste cells, CPP fisheries processing facility and Government service workshops.
Component Minister and/or Secretary, MELAD
1. Lodge application for prescribed
development
2. Conduct environmental
assessment IEE or EIS and
lodge with application
* Minister to consider the level of environmental
assessment required (IEE or EIS or exempt) based on the
probability of significant impact
* Notify the Secretary within 15 working days
* Secretary notifies the proponent (note. no time limit set
for notification from Secretary to the Proponent)
* Minister to assess application and IEE/EIS with advice
from concurrence agencies and provide conditions for the
development
* May request additional information on the proposed
development
24 The Prescribed Development listing is Tabled in Appendix 10.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 36
3. May appeal refusal to minister
within 14 days
4. May appeal to high court within
30 days of above
5. Apply for a license to discharge
waste
6. Conduct environmental
monitoring as per license
conditions
* Minister to publish IEE/EIS in manner deemed suitable
* Public to provide objections within thirty days of
publication
* Minister to consider objections and provide
consent/provide consent with conditions/request further
information/EIS/refuse development
* Minister to notify developer of mitigation and monitoring
requirements
* Secretary may monitor or cause to be monitored potential
impacts
* Minister to reconsider decision
* High Court to provide decision
* Secretary to assess application in relation to objectives of
EPA
* Secretary to seek public consultation (no timeframe)
* Secretary to consider public submissions and issue
license with conditions/refuse application
* Regularly assess compliance with license conditions
Table 5 – Responsibilities under the Prescribed Development Process, EPA, Kiritimati
Island (Source: EPA 1999)
A number of issues have been identified in relation to strengthening the Prescribed
Development process and environmental protection required to meet key objectives in terms
of long term sustainability. These include:
• the strengthening of the policy, institutional and regulatory sectors of environmental
management including the KLLPB;
• provision of firm guidance to referral agencies to enable a consistent and thorough
assessment of potential environmental risks of proposed development projects;
• devolution of some prescribed development assessment to the KIC.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Under Part III of the EPA Act (Clause 14), any developer carrying out Prescribed
Development (Tabled in Appendix 10) must firstly make application to the Minister advising
on the type of development. The Prescribed Development includes, amongst other things,
Infrastructure Development or Watershed Management and thus it can be expected that
under the act, an EIA will be required. It is also noted that the Schedule may be amended at
any time (Clause 13.2) by the Minister with advice from Cabinet. It is also noted in Table 6
which follows below that there maybe Constraints within the process for approval of a
prescribed development and these potential constraints are outlined
In assessing a Prescribed Development, the Minister shall take into account the affect the
development will have on the environment and any other matter that may be defined in the
regulations under the Act (Clause 14.5). No prescribed development shall proceed unless
the developer has submitted the necessary documentation and received Development
Consent, or has been granted exemption by the Minister (Clause 16).
In the case of the Initial Environmental Evaluation Report (Clause 17-19), the Act describes
the contents required for the report. The Minister may also with the advice of Cabinet require
the developer to submit further information. When the Minister, with advice from Cabinet is

Environmental Information and Assessment page 37
satisfied with the IEER, he shall release the report to the public and call for written objections.
Public comments and objections to the proposed Prescribed Development are required
within 30 days.
Based on all the above information, the Minister, with advice of Cabinet, shall make one of
the following three decisions:
• consent to the development with or without conditions;
• require an EIS to be produced; or
• refuse consent to the development.
In the case on an Environmental Impact Statement (Clause 20-21), the Act describes the
contents required for the report. When the Minister, with advice from Cabinet is satisfied with
the EIS, he shall release the report to the public and call for written objections. Based on all
the above information, the Minister, with advice of Cabinet shall make one of the following
two decisions:
• consent to the development with or without conditions;
• refuse consent to the development.
A developer must carry out a development in accordance with the development consent, and
the development may be checked by an inspector, who has the right to stop any
development. There are appeal rights for any person who disagrees with an inspectors
decision, firstly to the Minister, and finally to the High Court (Clause 22).
The public shall have access to all development applications, Environment Impact
Assessments Public Environmental Reports and Development Consents (Clause 25).
The Minister, with the advice of Cabinet, may issue guidelines for the assessment or
evaluation of any report discussed under part III of the Act (Clause 26). Either the Secretary,
or Minister, both acting with the advice of Cabinet, have certain powers related to the
monitoring of environmental effects (funded by the developer) of approved developments,
which may include the adoption of additional safeguards, with which the developed must
comply (Clause 28). No development consents are transferable (Clause 29). The only right
of appeal to the granting or rejecting of Development Consent is limited to the issue of
Judicial Review (Clause 51).
Development Stage Constraints
1 – Application for development
submitted by the applicant to
the Minister
2 – Concurrence inputs from
Government Departments to
assess level of impact
3 – Notification of Investigation
Requirement
No Issues
No set guidelines/assessment criteria exist to assist staff in
making decisions relating to potential environmental impacts;
No set time period for the Secretary to notify the applicant;
Current assessment of impact significance is based on staff
experience which may be limited;
Staff require external guidance when assessing large
projects outside their experience.
Current notification requires application to be sent to
Tarawa. Often causes significant delay in achieving
development approval.
Few projects assessed within 15 day statutory period
4 – Consideration of IEE or EIS No statutory time period for consideration of DA is provided

Environmental Information and Assessment page 38
in the Act.
Approval mostly takes a long time
5 - Approval/Refusal Evidence of bias in approval process to external funded
projects etc
6 – Appeal Unclear Appeal process
Table 6: Constraints in the Prescribed Development Approval Process
4.4 Local Governance on Kiritimati Island (Urban Gvt only)
Local Island Government has been constituted on Kiritimati with representatives from all
villages. This council has, as its previous and present members, a number of men who have
interest in standing for election to the GoK parliament. The consultant met with the Local
Council early in the mission and as a group they were enthusiastic to be informed of the
activities of the watsan mission. The Council has as its mandate responsibility for “urban”
areas, a limitation that has major shortfalls from the natural resource management
perspective.
Regarding environmental issues, Councillors were most keen to share that their efforts to
raise the importance of protecting Bonefish in the lagoon through an attempt to introduce
new regulations had, at time of writing, received no feedback from the South Tarawa
government in two years (Langston, pers. comm. 2007). As the Council has no formal
jurisdiction outside of urban areas they acknowledge that their efforts were a long-shot in the
first place, but they had put forward in draft form, regulations to protect what they saw and
still see as a valuable asset. There is no lawyer who operates on Kiritimati and therefore any
written document needs to be forwarded in draft form to the Attorney General’s office in
South Tarawa. While the consultant did not sight the actual draft regulation forwarded to
Tarawa, the Council meeting indicated that this had been a major Council initiative and,
given the context, was considered to be an exciting development in local commitment to
achieving change.
No notification of ‘receipt’ of the draft had been returned from South Tarawa and the Kiritimati
Council were frustrated in their efforts. This situation may highlight the (i) shortfall in
governance within Kiribati, and/or a (ii) lack of capacity to respond in the Attorney General’s
office due to over-work. However, the situation also indicates that formalised community
effort to get a response from South Tarawa on environmental issues is not easy. The
consultant observed a recurrent theme emerging from discussions; it was conjectured that
the GoK were happier with a ‘do nothing’ option and/or deferring to endless protocols which
achieved no action on the ground at all, rather than being involved in setting out to change
things.
Regardless of the GoK being a signatory to the various International conventions, and no doubt
with representation going along to all conference meetings, it would appear that efforts by
community minded local people to raise the issue of resource protection and management
appear to have had limited or no impression on the previous national government in Tarawa.
Local Kiritimati people constantly shared with the consultant stories of how degraded, dirty and
uncared for environmental conditions on the island of Tarawa had graduated to! Numerous
people indicated that, at the end of their contracts, they had decided they would not return to the
conditions in Tarawa, regardless of their extended family being there. Furthermore, these
people were keen to see that things can be protected and managed in a different manner on
Kiritimati.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 39
To date it would appear from people’s sentiments that government departments in Tarawa have
performed in a negligent manner, while being determined that no local initiatives be offered
even limited legitimation. In the name of due process, with overdue emphasis placed upon
protocols at the expense of actually achieving change, there is negligible response from leaders
in Tarawa, particularly on simple yet critically important steps of applying some sensible
management controls on resource use. The Local Island Council, the various FFG’s, hotels
managers and the small business people spoken with all understand that there is a need to stop
the endless rounds of meetings, reports and recommendations, and move forward with inspired
public awareness strengthened with simple and clear legislation that recognises the need to
protect the intrinsic value of the island before it is too late. Reports dating from 1983 (Garnett)
call for action to implement and improve environmental management; to date there have been
negligible results. The following quote sums up some people’s frustration!
“No step by step! This is not time for step by step. Things are going down now, fish
getting smaller, birds are dying. In my heart I’m crying and these people want to sit
and talk and write reports! It is time for everyone to wake up, to do things that
change. Not next year, not wait – but now. [The situation is] these are government
jobs, everyone gets paid and it is not a problem. So you can do nothing and still
get paid. But, we are loosing our tomorrow, the world for our kids is going.”
Government Warden, Wildlife Conservation Unit.
4.5 Capacity building within Government Departments
As a product of the time period of the mission (2 X month) and the relative small size of the
population, there was an easy opportunity to become familiar with the relevant government
departments. The consultant was able to visit all government offices associated with land use,
resource management and planning. This included Lands, Fisheries, the Port administration,
the CPP, WCU, Tourism, as well as various enterprise arms of MLPID including the Solar
Salt, the CCH and the sea weed production and export company.
The team had good cooperation with immediate counterparts who actively assisted in
organising meetings. A number of key points and recurrent themes were observed as a
result of these meetings, which are summarized in the following Table 7. Due to the previous
mentioned small population size the summary points do not specify nor list names and
departments but, as observations and comments from the meetings and discussions had
some common threads running through them, they are assembled in one grouping.
Thematic Issue Description
Information There is a lack of ease about sharing information. Unless one asks the specific
question, information will not be volunteered, seemingly due to a lack of understanding
as to why information might be shared.
Cargo Cult Dependency There is a constant theme of dependency on outside agents for assistance in moving
forward. Outside organisations (Bilaterals, Universities, Private donors etc) are
volunteering all sorts of uncoordinated help, much of which can get lost among the
preoccupation to not share.
Central Government Most decisions are reliant upon final arbitration from South Tarawa, a situation which
fosters a climate of hesitant thinking on Kiritimati.
Leadership There is limited leadership, certainly not the kind that is actually committed to making
any difference.
Work Schedules People do not seem to have a work schedule that is maintained. On a number of
occasions people agreed to meet and then did not attend.
Collaboration There appears to be discomfort in attending meetings with other departments. All
departments were invited to Project consultation and information meetings, and very
few attended.
Inertia There is a very slow and cumbersome ‘civil service inertia’ about the activities in each

Environmental Information and Assessment page 40
office. Limited evidence of leadership is demonstrated, no achievable program of work
that is linked to a strategy is evident and no one seems to bother if there is no
attendance by staff for days on end. So, as a result, there is no accountability.
Low Morale From the environmental management perspective it was seen that morale is very low
for those involved in warden type activities. These people cannot actually achieve what
is expected of the department as they are under-resourced and no actions are
Qualified but without
Action
Local Civil Service not
proactive
subsequently taken even when they catch people violating the law.
While some staff have professional qualifications and skills for their role, there appears
to be no reason to show any initiative, enthusiasm nor determination to actually apply
skills and do anything. Government positions appear to leave people in a indeterminate
and cautious state, rewarding the delivery of limited actions.
The civil service needs for Kiritimati are fractured due to the bulk of government
resources being on South Tarawa. 90% of tourism activity for Kiribati occurs on
Kiritimati and Fanning, yet the focus for planning and staffing is on South Tarawa.
Strategy Strategically the recently elected GoK could look at Kiritimati as an opportunity to apply
some different approaches to environmental management. If as the consultant
understands, Kiritimati is the most significant island in terms of biodiversity and
tourism, then it would be worthwhile to consider adopting the island as a country wide
pilot to raise standards, set goals, achieve change and use this as a part of a learning
Unease regarding local
curve for other islands in Kiribati.
If civil society indicates a desire to be involved in issues, there is a lack of ease among
actions
Government departments
Records / Data Records are not kept, or if they are they are incomplete
Table 7 Thematic Issues Identified
Source: Consultant Meetings and Consultations
Obviously some of the observations are products of specific cultural qualities, however, if
there is to be any road forward in environmental management these issues presently
demonstrate a negative assessment of the contribution that government departments make.
There is a need to actually build a civil service that is responsive, achieves results, has a
clear set of objectives and is equipped with leadership to take the staff there. The consultant
recommends that such a department can be developed over time woven around the need to
achieve on environmental issues.
4.6 Summary
The present reality is that Kiritimati is an area where logistics are difficult and where
immediate past history suggests that no project runs smoothly to schedule. While there are
attractive prospects for programs to make an impact, the consultant has found profound
constraints in the form of governance and institutional capacity.
Unfortunately there are large gaps in availability of relevant post-independence socioeconomic
data on the island. A large fire in 2003 completely destroyed the offices of the
Ministry of Line and Phoenix. This fire unfortunately consumed much of the relevant historic
data that had been assembled concerning including various natural resource based
enterprises including the solar salt enterprise and verification of related data.
Communication between relevant government offices in Tarawa and Kiritimati is presently
still difficult. Internet connections presently lack bandwidth, which in turn contributes to a
highly compromised office communication system. As internet systems are economical to
establish and operate, what could be an easy environment for communications is
unfortunately compromised.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 41
5. Environmental Management: Social Dimensions
5.1 Historical Perspective
Archaeological investigation of Kiritimati carried out by a number of researchers indicates
some evidence of permanent settlement by Pacific Islands people on Kiritimati. Extensive
archaeological work was performed during the 1970’s by a French team which determined
that a period of Polynesian settlement had occurred over a short period prior to the 1800’s
(Langston, pers. comm. 2007). The drought prone nature of the island combined with the
poor soils was seen to be the greatest impediment to permanent settlement (Thaman 1996).
As a result of the positive reporting by Captain James Cook in 1777, the small atoll of
‘Christmas Island’ became the destination of sailing vessels that required replenishment of
on-board food resources, and records show that many ships visited Christmas to gather
sources of food including the now endangered Green Turtle (Bailey 1977). Pre the
establishment of military installations during WWII, Kiritimati Island had a long history of
ultimately short-lived enterprises including a combination of guano harvest and coconut
plantation establishment for copra. Bailey (1977) details numerous exploratory endeavours
which aimed to both assess and exploit the natural resource potential on the island.
Potential population estimates for any settlement were consistently conservative and the
island morphed from one ownership and national assignation to another during those times.
Through the 1880’s and early 1890’s there is a colourful history of larger than life characters
with religious backgrounds, plantation management of both cruel and determined dimensions,
and maritime skills of legendary proportions who have been apart of island life (ibid).
During the 1940’s, 50’s and 60’s the profile of military establishments was high and with this
profile came the implicitly firm expectation that the island’s resources were subservient to the
dramatic importance of the atomic testing program. The heritage of this period includes a
bewildering network of high quality bitumen finished roads, and, until recently, a mountain of
rusting trucks, machinery, buildings, rubber tyres and, given the life threatening and
destructive nature of the atomic testing period, surprisingly minor amounts of hazardous
waste. The detritus from the atomic testing period has been, until recently, a major element
on the landscape. With the scheduled departure of the final shipment of waste due in early
2008, all underwritten by the British Government, the removal of a great deal of this rusting
artefact has all but finished 25 .
To support the large military efforts on Kiritimati, people from what was then known as the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands groups were recruited and relocated. A small number of these
people remained from the 1960’s, and after independence was given to the Gilbert and Ellice
Islands from colonial rule in 1978, they now constitute the oldest citizens from what is now by
far the largest island in the Republic of Kiribati. Although more than 3,500 kms from the
Capital of the new republic, and at the time operating one day behind the international
dateline, the island was a distant satellite and minor settlement compared to the centre of
activity on the island of Tarawa.
A considerable legacy from the period since the 1960’s, and confirmed in the post
independence period, is that some I-Kiribati who have made their home on Kiritimati were
only initially contracted to be on the island for a short period and had an expectation of
returning home. However, although for many the island has held such appeal that they have
continued to live on at the end of their contract, there remains a temporary theme for some,
25 Personal communication with the contracted Occupational Health and Safety Officer who is
the last person left from a team of up to 60 people that worked with light and heavy duty
machinery for over two years to dig, dismantle, relocate and ship off the island the mountains
of waste.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 42
one where they consider themselves to be boarders or immigrants in their own country.
Such a situation is a huge negative when there is a need for people to demonstrate
conviction regarding stewardship for the environment. There are few places that are not
accessible to all people, no ‘Protected Area’ that is not easily violated, and no sanctions if
one is caught. Easy to understand then that, just like a variation on the “Tragedy of the
Commons”, the entire environment will ultimately pay for the ongoing ‘mining’ of collective
resources 26 . Seldom is anything put back, on the contrary it is unfortunately take, take take!
The older housing and institutional buildings on Kiritimati comprises few that do not owe their
origins as support infrastructure to the various military and coconut plantation initiatives. The
built form on Kiritimati therefore characterises well the previous parade of resource users,
and those who are living there now cleverly utilize the shelter solutions of others from a
different cultures and modes of operation. While this is a positive example of recycling, it
reinforces an island-wide discordance. While other islands in Kiribati may demonstrate a
heritage of traditional buildings, Kiritimati utilizes discarded ‘Nissan Huts’, military barracks,
aircraft hangers and machinery sheds, along with obtuse gifts to the community such as the
over engineered but inappropriately constructed contemporary wharf that is too high for 90%
of shipping that visits the island, or the huge fish processing factory that single-handedly
consumes 60% of electricity generated for the village of London. The consultant observes
that a downstream effect of these themes is that few people have actually built their homes
with a sense of permanence, a situation that runs parallel with the predominant subsistence
level livelihoods. This observation is not intended to undermine the legitimacy of subsistence
livelihoods but recognises the difficulty of pursuing such a livelihood where there is both
population increase and resource decline. Merged with the highly attractive cultural
characteristic which demonstrates limited worry about tomorrow, it is understandable why the
un-sustainability of present resource utilization is of limited concern.
5.2 Contemporary Perspective
5.2.1 Shelter & Land
When analysed in its entirety, the recurrent themes previously discussed concerning natural
elements, landuse models, land tenure limitations and settlement patterns reflecting
employment status tend to manifest collectively as a community in transience, a place for
temporary short-term contracts with limited localised response to the environmental
limitations. Predominantly people may live simply but within the broader context it is highly
questionably whether present settlement is sustainable. From a cultural perspective the
Equatorial climate demands little in the way of shelter from the elements, and traditionally
could provide all that was necessary for shelter in the form of two trees, the coconut and the
pandanus (Trussell 1988). Unfortunately there are not too many pandanus growing on
Kiritimati, and all that are there are said to be planted by Gilbertese who came to assist in the
development of the coconut plantations mid last century (Moana, pers. comm. 2007).
Groundwater
Social infrastructure including the existing village models and the impact on the urban
ecology and environment, most particularly groundwater quality is an issue on Kiritimati.
Ranck (1996) was particularly concerned regarding proximity of settlement to the freshwater
lens and indeed recommended that a high priority be given to entire relocation of the Banana
settlement. This recommendation to move Banana was discarded after subsequent
investigation (Rogers et al, Falkland – pers. comm. 2007). However, the importance of
protecting the freshwater lens cannot be over stated. In terms of water supply Kiritimati
offers the potential to support but not sustain a larger human population, but only if the highly
dynamic water resource is appropriately managed.
26 Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science 162, 1243-1248

Environmental Information and Assessment page 43
Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management (SWM) is another area where the urban and peri urban areas of
the island need to be rigorously managed. Indeed, SWM requires innovative planning and
collaboration with the community if appropriate behaviour is to become absorbed into
people’s consciousness.
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency on Kiritimati may not appear to be a huge difficulty but the import of diesel
and oil to drive generators is only going to become more expensive and thus difficult over
time. Where renewable resources are so constant and easy to access, particularly sun and
wind, it is important that buildings, services, and transport are all looked at from the energy
efficiency perspective. It was noted that the CPP building in London, which actually has very
limited enterprise moving through it, consumes over 60% of the electricity produced for
London! There appears to have been no thought at all given to alternative energy and basic
environmental awareness when this building was produced. This is not a good model at all.
Diesel generation of power actually does not cultivate a culture of saving energy. Once the
generator is turning over what it produces is either used or is lost. Wise planning and energy
resource use should determine that diesel generation should be used only as a standby.
Concrete Blocks & Pandanus
In contradiction to the sense of transience, the pragmatic and generally preferred
contemporary form of building does not utilise pandanus or coconut, but almost all presentday
buildings have been built using concrete block. The preference for the concrete block as
a building material is easy to understand from the maintenance perspective, but difficult from
that of quality of life and aesthetical point of view. While traditional building materials create
a more functional and comfortable ambience for people, they simply require a high degree of
maintenance, most particularly roofing thatch, and therefore a ready supply of materials,
most particularly pandanus and coconut (Mapolo, pers. comm. 2007). Modern buildings are
more permanent, require more energy and greater cost to build, and are commonly
augmented by a traditional building erected close bye for outdoor living purposes. Design
wise they are climatically inappropriate with limited application of qualities that would make
them more serviceable for needs. Additionally they are very bland in appearance, something
which is paradoxical in a society that commonly chooses extraverted colour in clothing.
5.2.2 Sustainability
In looking at the inter-related environmental issues associated with the possible effects of an
improved water and sanitation system, the consultant has been concerned with the prospect
of any subsequent population growth. There is a need therefore to observe possible
scenarios from a holist perspective. A critical indicator is how the existing population
manage their natural resources. What importance do they place on stewardship and does
the island presently sustain their existence? When considering the island’s eco-footprint,
there major concerns.
Eco-footprint
The ecological footprint of Kiritimati is huge and is dangerously unsustainable! A breakdown
in the supply chain is reported to cause difficulties regarding such basic foodstuffs as rice
(imported from Australia) when the price of a 20kg bag can inflate to $80. The local Kiritimati
shops have on display a great deal of food that is not healthy, is high in fat and sugars, is
packaged and transported over huge distances and subsequently costs a lot of money for
negligible food value! Vegetables are said not to be popular but the island has a severe
climate and poor soils – making the production of a range of vegetables difficult. Vegetables
are therefore sourced from the west and east coast of the USA, Fiji and also Hawaii. High
sugar foods including soft drinks, confectionary and biscuits are predominantly produced in

Environmental Information and Assessment page 44
the USA. Beer arrives from Australia, Fiji and the USA. For those who cannot access fresh
fish of which the island is well endowed, tinned salmon is also available. All fuel is imported.
For a population that is predominantly dependent upon subsistence livelihoods the added
difficulty is that all these imports are priced at first world plus freight type prices!
Poaching
Poaching of all resources from within and out of PA is, as has been previously described,
chronic. As has been shared with the consultant, due to physical layout of the island, it is
easy for poachers to monitor the activities of the fisheries and Wildlife unit and as a result
people know exactly when they can poach and when they cannot. Seldom do people get
caught and when they are nothing happens to them.
While people need food and it is available in great quantities, it is important that the unsustainability
of existing practices is highlighted and people adopt a different code of practice.
Living on an island that incorporates a wildlife sanctuary requires a different mode of living.
A code of conduct that outlines an appropriate way that people can live on Kiritimati is
needed.
Social Context
There are a number of significant social factors that could contribute in a more positive
manner to sustainability of resources on the island:
Animist beliefs – up until relatively recent times I-Kiribati people were animist in their
beliefs. Numerous sources indicated that some of these beliefs still hold some currency
and thus it is assumed that, if harnessed well, these beliefs could be used to facilitate
greater protection of the environment. While it is not immediately obvious what this
might look like, it is worthy of some consideration. For example, it is possible that the
importance of Protected Areas could be strengthened by animist interpretation of the
resources.
Profile of Christian Churches – there is both a profound network of churches combined
with a high attendance numbers at churches throughout the island. In pursuit of input
from the respective churches, a meeting was held with church leaders to discuss the
potential watsan project. While there was reasonable physical attendance at the
meeting (13 were invited, 10 attended), it would be fair to say that the meeting was not a
success. While a few may have not been sure why they were being asked to attend,
there was, with the exception of one, no easy input or contribution to the meeting.
Living on Kiritimati should be different - From the resources point of view, one of the
greatest challenges for people on Kiritimati is that there is negligible evidence that there
has previously been any attempt to adapt to living on this particular island in a manner
different from anywhere else. GoK must take the opportunity to recognise this fact and
develop a plan in collaboration with people which outlines strategies, codes of conduct,
and performance indicators regarding caring for the environment of Kiritimati.
Mining Approach – It would appear that it is not a culturally overt characteristic to be
involved in caring for the environment – what is presently observed is a mining approach!
Leadership - If things are to change, there is a great need for leadership and along with
that leadership some rapid achievable actions that facilitate a path to greater change.
However such an initiative has to start where the concerns of the community are at its
greatest.
5.2.3 Facilitating Mobilization within the Community
As a component of the environmental specialist work it was decided to hold a meeting with
those people involved with the fly fishing ‘business’ and discuss with them the collective
findings of the watsan team, particularly regarding resource management and then raise the
prospect that something should be done to reverse the predominant absence of effective

Environmental Information and Assessment page 45
environmental management, specifically associated with Bonefish. The meeting included
FFG’s, hotel owners and managers.
The meeting had a reasonable attendance and various speakers related that they had
previously been singularly and collectively involved in abortive attempts to take up the issue
and try to address them. Over the course of two hours those in attendance shared that
decision making processes within the GoK did not take kindly to local involvement, that many
of them had given up on trying to change things and that they only attended the meeting for
two reasons; (i) because they had been personally invited and that (ii) they considered that
the ADB, within the context of the watsan project, was an institution that had some potential
clout with the GoK.
The output from that meeting has been to date very positive. The group has held at least
four additional meetings independent of any ADB involvement, it has developed a petition to
lobby the GoK to ban gill net fishing over a certain size, has developed and produced a half
hour radio program focusing upon the management of Bonefish, sponsored by a variety of
sources including two of the fly fishing organisations in the USA that have benefited from the
Bonefish resources (Henry Genthe, pers. comm.2007).
The hinge pin for this mobilisation has been something which all the people involved are very
clear about. The Bonefish resources are declining and something needs to be done about it!
From previous efforts it was considered that the Government in South Tarawa appeared to
be determined that local actions had no credibility. It is still early days but this is the sort of
action that can change things. The consultant views such activities as being critical in
developing momentum for change.
5.3 Resource Based Economic Opportunities
5.3.1 Tourism
On Kiritimati, Tourism could be perhaps best described as the ‘unprepared-for enterprise
opportunity’. There is no doubt that there would be communities in other parts of the world
that would jump at the tourism opportunity that exists on Kiritimati, but the culture of the local
people would appear to be both a positive and a negative in an analysis of the situation.
There is an easy-going laid back attitude about islander people that others find attractive.
However, the demands that tourism can place upon any community can clash with this
attitude.
Tourism on Kiritimati has basically evolved from the availability of (a) the right pre conditions
for fly fishing, (b) the bird sanctuary status of the island and (b) the position of the island
relative to the cruise shipping lines, independent yachting and small plane travellers. Very
little work has been required to actually develop these business opportunities and from the
period of time which the consultant spent on the island, other than production of small
handicrafts, limited evidence was actually observed where the community were actually
putting effort and planning back into the tourism opportunities.
Tourism meeting Demands
Operators and guides are presented with the challenge that is always there with Tourism –
be on time, every time to present the tourist with what they expect! This is a cultural
challenge for a laidback and easy going islander worldview. By default therefore, Kiritimati
has a niche market for fly fishing that it can service but the enterprise will only last as long as
there are fish!

Environmental Information and Assessment page 46
Kiritimati is not a destination for mass tourism. A 1983 report generated to support the
development of an up-market hotel for tourism opportunities is a tough sell 27 . While there are
opportunities there are many footsteps required before a viable business could be
established and if it was to be successful the quality of the hotel would not be the critical
factor. In the developing world situation, tourism is a difficult business on which to generate
a sustainable income and it can be supported in a sustainable way if the environment holds
the desired qualities, the culture is of interest, the relative costs comparative to competing
destinations and the whole resource managed in a manner that projects care and
stewardship. Kiritimati therefore needs to be managed, with culture presented in an
authentic manner and most importantly a ‘value for money’ needs to be developed n how
operators serviced tourists. This is not to imply the prospect of positioning the island for
downmarket backpacker tourists, but merely to identify that, be it high end exclusive or lower
end budget, the product has to be good value. A niche market destination requires repeat
visitation, something achieved through genuine exchange and a quality product.
Two Types of Tourist
The literature dedicated to analysis of tourists identifies two classic tourist types b character.
One type of tourist is looking for comfort and armchairs from which to rest and take it easy.
The second is searching for excitement, prepared to take risks and enjoy everything put
before it. Kiritimati can provide opportunities for both these tourist categories however there
are prerequisites like comfortable hotels, food, challenging tourist attractions (deep sea
diving that challenges destinations like Fiji and the Great Barrier Reef in Australia). The easy
lesson to learn here is that there are steps required; identify the position upon which the
industry can be based, provide the infrastructure that is required, ensure that the island is
well cared for and then market the opportunity. Few of these steps have been to date taken.
Fly Fishermen
Fly fishermen are a very quirky lot. Many demonstrate a singular attitude; they actually like
roughing it a bit. They may not require the five star hotel treatment but they will not be happy
if the vehicle that they are being ferried in runs out of fuel (such an incident occurred for
some Japanese tourists during the mission)! One FFV offered that “in 1987 when I first
arrived here the anglers who came for the Bonefish would complain about the “pest-fish”
(Travally) that would be attracted by the fly / lure set for the target Bonefish. However, this is
no longer the situation. Now it is difficult to get trevally”. Other FFV complained about the
lack of Bonefish and offered that netting and the indiscriminate harvesting which results
along with the singular targeting of one species was responsible for the demise of the
Bonefish.
Numbers of Visitors
A number of people with whom the consultant met spoke of a period of time when the
number of fly fishermen arriving at the Island was substantially greater than now. During the
late 1980’s to early 1990’s there were reportedly times when 85 fly fishermen arrived each
week during the season. This is verified by conversations with the three fishing guides
spoken with. Attempts to peruse the CCH booking history to verify this were futile as the
turnover in management has seen the shortfall in record keeping. It is clear that present
visitation numbers are not near the previous peak of the FFV.
Bone fish mortality & Catch and Release Policy
There is a yet unproven theory that the policy of post ‘catch-and-release’ for Bonefish is
actually contributing to the species demise as the fish do not survive more than a few days
after being released. Research work completed at Charles Darwin University in the Northern
Territory of Australia, as yet unsighted by the consultant, is reported to indicate the high
27 Document to support the establishment of the Hope-X project.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 47
mortality rates associated with catch and release policies. If this is the case for Bonefish, as
is expected, the demise of the numbers is well understood. It was suggested that a program
to tag these fish with a micro / transmitter and/or GPS device could be established to validate
this situation.
Tilapia
Tilapia, which is the common name for nearly a hundred different species of family Cichlidae,
is a species that has become a problem on Kiritimati. In many of the non-tidally influenced
ponds the Tilapia now dominates, destroying the ecology required by other species. What
results are ponds where there is domination by one species. According to various sources,
Tilapia was introduced to control mosquitoes during the wet season.
Bird Watching Tourists
The opportunities for greater organisation of bird watching activities are also possible.
Watling in 1993 (cited in Rogers et al 1997) notes “there is a fine balance between
permissible and harmful activities by tourists in the vicinity of nesting birds, and that to
successfully tap the nature tourism potential will require a significant investment in training,
materials, and construction”. It is now 15 years on from the Watling observations and alas
little has been done. Many reports have been written but the struggle to systemically direct,
guide, push or simply acquiesce and wait for the community and government to find
momentum and thus action, has either not happened or has been misunderstood. It can be
seen that previously there has been some effort to produce brochures and hand-out material
which trumpets the bird colonies, the unique characteristics of the various species and the
changes during the year as migratory birds come and go. At one stage large notice boards
were erected through the protected areas but all these are reported to have been stolen as
these signs are perceived by some locals to be more valuable as building material than
providing information to tourists! So, previous and present efforts to inform tourists are not
supported with basic infrastructure and actions which contribute to a quality experience and a
sustainable enterprise. For example, there could be a range of programs to ensure biosecurity
is in place, bird hides are established in appropriate places, easy availability of
guides who know where to take tourists, careful bio-management and maintenance of
sanctuaries, monitoring of health of the colonies and programs to address the health of birds.
Island with Limited Connectivity
One marketing tool that would be very obvious to those tourists from outside of Kiribati but
perhaps not so much for those who live on Kiritimati may be the highly attractive nature of a
destination that has no telephones and no cable TV and slow internet. In other words, there
are people for whom the island may hold attraction simply because it is “cut-off” from the rest
of the world. Such a situation probably has more potential to the niche tourist than is the
norm for the mass tourist market.
Marketing Information
Numerous visitors spoken with on the island indicated the difficulty they experienced in
gaining information regarding Kiritimati. For a start there is the constant confusion with
another “Christmas Island” which is found in the Indian Ocean. For this reason the
destination should be known as and promoted under the name by which it is known locally;
Kiritimati! This whole topic has been sadly neglected by GoK office of tourism and the
marketing people in the USA. The timing is there to completely review the marketing,
management, protecting and performance of a tourist ‘product’ that could present a valuable
asset to visitors and strengthen the sustainability of life on Kiritimati for locals.
5.3.2 The Kiritimati Port
Associated with the observations of the tourism industry there was a need to understand the
role of the shipping lines in the regular ferrying of tourists to the island. A discussion was

Environmental Information and Assessment page 48
held with the manager of the shipping port to establish the present operational perspective
and ask about possible future planning. This manager had previously spent 15 years or so as
a second officer on a range of international shipping and thus has a global perspective of the
shipping industry.
Principally the small port for the island services the freight which moves in and out. Exports
include copra, seaweed, and the high quality salt crystals. Imports include building materials,
vehicles, foodstuffs etc. Movement of passengers between Tarawa to Kiritimati and then
Kiritimati to Fanning is a routine that is supported by the GoK shipping line and is commonly
victim to weather and fuel availability. It is also reputed to be a very expensive exercise that
requires considerable subsidies from which to operate.
The wharf / Pier in London was built by the Japanese in the 1990’s to support the Hope – X
project. The actual configuration and construction of the wharf was detailed to allow for ease
of unloading / loading the unmanned spaceship. In plan the wharf is a “T” shape that is
parallel to the shore, and the leg of which extends beyond the “breakers”. For the routine
needs of the island the infrastructure is a huge asset but reported by some to be totally
inappropriate for 90% of the actual shipping needs. According to the KPA, the wharf
structure offers negligible protection to shipping. Unfortunately when ships are moored
against the wharf there is a tendency in high weather for the vessels to be routinely
smashing into the wharf structure. Damage to the concrete decking etc is clearly visible.
The number of boats which regularly visit the port in London is actually not that great but it is
clear that the island is highly dependent upon shipping for a variety of reasons. The
following Table 8 outlines the major vessels that frequently visit.
Vessel Description Owner Weight
Matangare Tarawa to Kiritimati GoK 1300 tonnage
Moa Moa GoK 700 gross
Momie Local small freighter journeys to GoK 500 plus tons
Fanning Island
Kawai Sail & Diesel powered. Private Hawaii based
company
Table 8 Regular Shipping to London Port.
Approx 500 ton
The Kawai is a small vessel which carries 250 tonnes of cargo between Hawaii and Kiritimati and
from there to the Cook Islands. The Kawai only recently commenced this work and since 2006
has made 5 trips per year. The comparative advantage of this vessel is that it combines use of
wind with its diesel engine, making the vessel very economical for the Honolulu based owners,
(Island Ventures Pty Ltd). The Kawai can complete the down leg journey from Hawaii in 8-10
days depending upon wind. It carries non-perishable cargo including large and small vehicles.
The expectation that fuel costs will continue to increase, as has been the case, and the capacity
for this vessel to use wind power will mean that it has an excellent economic advantage.
In 2007 there have been 15 cruise vessels into London with 2 cancellations. Cruise ship
visitation to the island (commenced in 1980’s slowly built – some years none, some 2-3 visits)
and potentially offers the passengers a short time opportunity ashore. Immigration records
accessed unfortunately did not give a breakdown of age categories of the visitors but the age
bracket tends to include a greater number of retirees. It is therefore reasonable to expect that
comfort and ease of the whole experience is of a high premium for the bulk of these visitors.
At this time there are two regular ships; the Tahitian Princess and Pacific Princess that (although
Table 9 below details the arrival of numerous others). Cancellation of some visitations have
occurred apparently due to the arrival of vessels when the low Tide does not permit entry of the

Environmental Information and Assessment page 49
Tender boats, however alternative reasons have also been given for cancellation 28 . The Decision
to land or not can have a large bearing on the success or otherwise of the “cottage-industry”
handicrafts that are on sale adjacent the London Wharf. The Tahitian Princess has not
experienced any of these difficulties and so it would appear that perhaps good planning and
arrival / departure in synergy with the tides is critical.
Vessel Name 2005 2006 2007
MS Prinsendam 14
MS Tahitian Princess 1 3
M/S Seven Seas Navigator 1
MS Grand Odyssey 1
Real Princess -
MV Saga Ruby 1
MS C.Columbus 1
Totals 16 9 15 (+3)
Table 9 Recent Cruise Shipping Visitation to Kiritimati
(source; KPA & Tourism Office data)
There are many other companies whose ships sail past very close to Kiritimati, and if the port
could improve further on the entire infrastructure, there is, according to the KPA manager,
considerable potential. For insistence, Norwegian Cruise Lines (NCL) wanted to come but
they were concerned about the depth of the entrance Channel for their passenger Tender
vessels. There is a Public Liability attached to the entrance channel for which the GoK and
therefore the Kiribati Port Authority (KPA) take responsibility.
Facilities on Fanning
NCL built a public facility on Fanning Island where by visitors had a comfortable landing area
which is, according to reports, really beautiful! There are facilities on Fanning for visitors to
spend almost one day there and, unlike Kiritimati, there are no problem with tides. Prior to
the NCL establishing the facility on Fanning they had vessels visiting once a week, and at
some stage twice a week. This situation lasted 6-7 months however the company was
reported to have ceased the service due to a lack of marketing. Since the year 2000 (source
was not sure exactly), they have established a landing area, locally made from coconut
trunks, with thatched roof over the pier for its entire length. Passengers are therefore all
sheltered and not exposed to the hot sun when they alight to Fanning, which is in great
contrast to the experience of visiting Kiritimati. On Fanning they have an office / a big house
/ cooking facilities, equipment etc. which can all be placed on the beach before vessels come.
Staff can carry food from ship so that the tourists can be well catered for. Local people on
Fanning perform traditional dancing, etc, and the local council receives $1.00 for every
person who comes ashore. Subsequently the local council is reported to be the most cashed
up in all of Kiribati.
It is by all reports, really beautiful in Fanning and there are also good surfing waves.
However, this facility with all its attention to detail regarding servicing tourist needs is
exclusively leased to the NCL. Such an integration of port and services could change
considerably the relationship that people on Kiritimati have with the visiting cruise shipping
Tourists. What is astonishing is that what is required would not be expensive and the need
for such simple detailing has been pointed to going back as early as 1983!
28 These cancellation problems have only occurred with one of the vessels.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 50
Dredging the Channel
The Port Authority is responsible for the dredging of the channel into the passenger landing
area. At time of the mission, the KPA were dredging out a new channel close to the land to
service the predominantly shallow hulled boats that enter. Each time these cruise vessels
visit, for example once a month, the channel needs to be dredged due to the constant shift of
sands. It takes one week to dredge a suitable width of channel 300 metres in length. The
process is not dangerous but reportedly risky for the one machine. If this machine breaks
down, everything will be affected. The KPA manager offered that “behind the supplies area I
am beautifying the entrance. I need cement / concrete to build a sea wall along the area”.
During this time there is a considerable opportunity for the island to present itself to these
visitors, to provide services and to reap considerable economic opportunity. Much use is
made of the terms tourism and eco-tourism. However less is spoken about the actual
proactive business of ensuring a sustainable future for this cruise ship visitation. For many
visitors that the consultant spoke with, it is simply not a pleasant experience to embark from
a five star cruise ship and come to the hot, dusty unwelcoming port of London to witness the
sale of handicrafts. The shipping agent in London who has responsibility for organising the
arrival procedures for visiting vessels, and who subsequently visits the cruise vessels as they
arrive and depart offered that she had routinely over-heard visitors delivering negative stories
to their peer group when the returned to the visiting cruise ships from their brief time on the
island. One elderly visitor spoken with at London by the consultant said “it is a very hot day
and all I want is a cold beer and a place to sit in the shade and there is nothing here. I don’t
want to get into the back of a truck to drive to get a beer”.
There are also approximately 15 unscheduled private yachts that would visit the port per year,
mostly from Hawaii, and an average of 30 ocean going fishing boats calling by to pick up
crew who have flown into the Kiritimati Island airport. It is a convenient break for yachts,
and a good port in terms of distance from large land mass. All this ‘traffic’ presents an
opportunity for differing aspects of tourism for the population of Kiritimati.
Port Authority Staff
The Port Authority actually employs 15 permanent staff. When large freighter vessels
require loading there is a pool of up to 45 casuals who can be used to assist. These casual
labourers receive approximately $2.00 / hour. Two weeks previously to our discussion, a
copra vessel birthed in London and the casual teams worked around the clock for three days
in three teams for eight hour shifts. They loaded 1000 tones of copra for Australia.
Potential
According to the port Manager, Kiritimati is situated in the middle of the commercial vessels
routings. Heading from Japan, Panama, and Australia to the North America, Honolulu, they
all pass bye, even from Asia – South America they all pass. To help with the trans-shipment
Kiritimati could play a big role for exchange of cargo. It is just a matter of building a safer
port and storage facilities for cargo containers. The existing jetty would not meet these
needs. Shipping is not safe when they come along side. Even for international shipping
vessels the pier is too high above the high water mark.
The position that is envisaged is that a new port area could be dredge once, and it could be
well serviced. A well detailed port could serve the needs of the community, and could offer a
strong economic return. The manager explained his plan: This was our route when I was
with Columbus Line (11years) and what you are looking at on the north side of the island -
this is a shipping highway. During my time with Columbus I spoke with many other ships,
there are a lot of companies, (Squire Group, Hanjin, etc) they all come close to Kiritimati.
Kiritimati could be just like Singapore which is a “Trans Shipment Port) Honolulu does try to

Environmental Information and Assessment page 51
perform this task but it is not well placed. My plan for sea walls, protect from wave and
predominant winds, this will increase the number of vessels coming in, fishing vessels
wanting to come in and discharge/exchange their cargo, Korean Company – Sanko Bussan
Co., Ltd, wanted to build a facility here (cooling) to off-load the fish catch, utilize the
connection by plane to Honolulu”. This has not gone ahead but is another example of
enterprise opportunity.
Another issue discussed was that the present CPP building does offer potential as the
channel is too shallow. Fishing harvest needs cooling, straight from the boats to a cool place.
5.3.3 Salt Production
Within the MLPID matrix of activities there has been a business established with donor
assistance. Originally the business was a venture led by an American named Chester
Jenkins (pers. comm., John Bryden 2007). The Manulu Lagoon in the eastern end of the
lagoon south of Banana was regarded as having a higher salinity levels due to its narrow
channel opening and thus slower tidal exchange. This lagoon became dedicated to the
production of crystallized salt by Jenkins around 1980.
The salt production is now known as the Solar Salt Division, and is an enterprise operation
within the MLPID. The operation was not a success until 1997 when a contract with the
Japanese company was established. This Japanese company pays all of the operational
costs. Depending upon the weather, the salt, which requires long periods of no rain in order
to produce large crystals, is harvested twice a year. The salt is exclusively produced for the
Japanese market, shipped from Kiritimati to Tarawa and thus to Japan. The manager of the
works suggested that the salt division could use more land on which to harvest salt, as the
demand for this particular salt in Japan was huge. In other words, they could sell all that they
can produce. They employ 9 casual staff and four regulars or permanent staff. The
Japanese wholesaler pays $AUD1.00 per kilo. Ironically the local Kiritimati shops do not
keep this salt – the packaged salt on sale in London shops is imported from USA @ .60c per
imperial pound, or approximately $1.32 per kilo.
The tools and processes used for the salt production are very basic. “We use crow bars.
We have 8 crow bars so that is why we have the 9 casuals. We have ordered some more
crow bars and they will come on the ship. I think we ordered 10 or 15 more crow bars. We
presently have: 8 concentrating ponds and 5 crystalizing ponds (9 people take 2 weeks on
each pond). It is necessary to chip the salt so that the underlying layer is not disturbed. To
supply the operation with fresh water we take it [the water] there from London by truck”.
From the interview we were given the impression that the salt works was a very simple and
straight forward operation.
Two well known fishing guides indicate that the Manulu Lagoon in the north eastern corner
was previously recognized as a nursery area for younger fish. Due to the establishment of
the salt works approximately 20% of the Lagoon is now highly modified and the salinity levels
such that no fish are to be found at all in the Manulu Lagoon. A number of people were
spoken with to attempt verification of the situation pre-salt works, but unfortunately few
people were actually living on Kiritimati compared with today. It was therefore assessed as
being near impossible to attempt to test the validity of this statement.
Economic Analysis
Economic analysis of the salt works cash flow taken from the yearly budget figures of MLPID
cross referenced with the interview with the manager of the division offers a disturbing
picture as demonstrated in Table 10 below.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 52
Cash Flow - Solar Salt Division
A B C
Annual Volume Based upon Interview Volume based upon
Maximum Potential Solar Salt Manager 2007 MLPID Revenue Data 2007
Inflow
Volume of Salt Produced 100,000 kg (maximum) 65,000 Kg 18,000 kg
Unit Price A$1.00 / kg A$1.00 / kg A$1.00 / kg
Expected Revenue A$ 100,000 A$ 65,000 A$18,000 **
Outflow / O&M
Salaries & allowances 26,800 26,800 26,800
Admin Costs 12,000 12,000 12,000
Transport 17,540 17,540 17,540
Local Purchaser 7,394 7,394 7,394
Local Service 3,000 3,000 3,000
Water 600 600 600
Sub-Total A$67,344 A$67,344 A$67,344
Net Income A$32,656x (A$2344) (A$49,344)
** Target revenue A$ 18,000/year in 2007
Actual sales A$ 2994 - 9 months (as of Sept 2007)
Estimate of annual sales (2994/9) X 12 = 3992
Table 10 Solar Salt Cash Flow. (source MLPID Budget)
The three columns in the above Table 10 offer different scenarios for the cash flow in the
solar salt division within MLPID. Column A offers the figures assuming that the operation
works at maximum capacity which it does not, Column B the exiting returns which gives an
impression of the present operational capacity as per our interview with the Manager and
Column C the revenue expected as per the MLPID Revenue projections. Both B and C
have a loss of $2344 and $49,344 respectively. The theoretical return from Column A
would be a profit of almost A$33,000. The “profits” or cash flow ‘loss’ go to MLPID / Tarawa.
Therefore the analysis of salt production indicates that a considerable proportion of the
lagoon system is being ecologically compromised for a very limited or mostly negative
economic return. Regardless of whether or not the Manulu Lagoon previous performed the
highly important role of a nursery area, the present land use is ecologically destructive for
limited or negative return.
5.3.4 Seaweed Production
There has been a donor funded program to produce seaweed which according to locals has
had varying degrees of success. Seaweed production was introduced through a New
Zealand Aid program that provided technical support through the skills of a marine biologist /
botanist. It was expected that the species of seaweed (Euchema cotonii) could be dried,
compressed and exported to a ready market in Japan. Although it can perform as a
perennial, the plant is treated as an annual and produced in evenly shallow waters. For
satisfactory growth the seaweed requires a steady cross-current at times, and apparently
sufficient depth of water for roots and plant to establish. In association with the GoK, New
Zealand Aid provided ropes, raffia, a grid of iron pipes from which to establish the crop. After
harvesting and bundling it onto a skiff, a large area is required on which to dry the material.
During establishment, eight Japanese technicians came to the island to assist people in
understanding what was required.
According to Perry Langston who, along with his wife and family was enthusiastic
participants in the seaweed production, the operation was economically successful in the first
years but it did run into difficulties. Seaweed cultivation is not easy work as long hours are
required for people to be immersed in water, often with a steady cold wind moving across the

Environmental Information and Assessment page 53
lagoon. The major difficulty for the production on Kiritimati was that, compared to the more
northern islands, there was difficulty with the constantly changing dynamics of the lagoon
depth. Some found that accretion is a constant within the lagoon. At times therefore the
water level was inappropriate for the seaweed plants.
Island Lagoon Depth for Seaweed growth
Palmera 150”
Washington 120”
Fanning 75”
Kiritimati 35”
Table 11 Average Lagoon Depth in Line Islands for Seaweed Growth.
Source: Pers Comm, Perry Langston
With accretion there was an associated demise of the cross-currents through the lagoon, a
situation which, according to some, may have been exacerbated by the major earthworks
project adjacent the London wharf whereby a considerable addition was made to area of land
in order to create a protected bay. It is theorized that the ‘point’ which was created has
additionally influenced current movement within the immediate lagoon area. It is understood
that his work was carried out to improve the service to cruise shipping tender boats. The
accretion of the lagoon bed by default also contributes to an increase in the temperature of
the water.
All these issues were gleaned from discussion but supported, certainly concerning depth of
the lagoon, by figures from the other islands. The lagoon depths on other islands where
similar enterprise had been generated were offered to the consultant and tabled as follows.
The seaweed enterprise is now a GoK operation and has a company responsible for the
export of the dried product. Minimal seaweed growing activity is now seen on the Kiritimati
Lagoon, and the greatest amount of seaweed is sourced from Fanning. However, as the
seaweed production is centred on Kiritimati and Fanning, there have been some discussions
that the head office for the operation would actually move to London from Tarawa, a logical
move that makes sense economically from the resource management perspective.
5.4 Public Consultation and Information Disclosure
5.4.1 Formal & Informal Meetings
Two levels of public consultation were conducted during the course of the mission. The
Environmental Specialist took part in a total of four meetings which were held with specific
groups including; the leading civil servants, local government councillors, women’s groups
and the church religious leaders. Concerning more specific resource management issues
including the marine and the avifauna, numerous meetings were held with individuals
involved in the fishing industry including divers and pet fish export companies, tourism
industry stakeholders including FFG, hotel operators, the Tourism Department. Numerous
field trips combined visiting sites in all parts of the island. In addition to this, informal
discussions were conducted with FFV, along with tourists from visiting cruise ships, two of
which arrived during the period of the mission.
At the commencement of the mission, the local radio station was used to flag the activities of
the team and to welcome input from all people 29 . In particular the radio message flagged the
individual Household Survey that was conducted in over 230 homes. Among other issues
this survey collected information regarding environmental concerns. The primary objective of
the meetings, discussions and survey, was to hear and gather public concerns and share
29 A copy of the announcement which was broadcast three times over three evenings using the
community Radio is attached as Annex 4.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 54
information on about the proposed Project. There is overwhelming support for the Project
from the community with the expectation that there can be little negative environmental
impacts.
All public consultation focused on the prospective beneficiaries of different age groups,
gender, educational backgrounds and occupations, as well as other stakeholders.
There were also iterative rounds of consultation with government agencies, local
governments, non-government organizations and other stakeholders of the Project to discuss
locations, scope, environmental and socio-economic concerns and environmental
management and mitigation plans.
5.4.2 Household Survey
The 10% household survey received no negative feedback regarding the proposed Project.
However, the immediate connection between the implementation of the Project, increase in
population numbers and the present status of natural resource management was considered
to be a critical issue. The consultant’s TOR indicated a need to assess existing fish
resources and the findings from this work indicated that whichever way it was looked at, the
natural resources of the island are presently being mined with negligent regard for the
future 30 .
Contemporary literature regarding effective management of the environment places a
critically high priority upon the knowledge, perceptions, practical involvement and
commitment of individuals to the protection and stewardship of their environment, particularly
the education of children in these issues (Suzuki, D, Fisher, R., Pretty, J). Environmental
management success stories have seen government play the role of enabler and the
community in an active monitoring role, similar to that of a manager, and, as an equal player,
one that has a voice and thus a commitment to, and pride in, management outcomes.
With these perspectives in mind the household surveys included some questions to assist an
understanding of attitudes to environmental issues. From the results of the household
survey the major opinions and concerns on the Project can be summarized as follows:
The open ended question did not define “environment” for people but a clear majority
predetermined that the status of fish and the birds was their criterion for “environment”.
Within this context, is therefore clear from the survey that people from on the island are
aware of their environment. Indicators people voluntarily used were primarily the status
of fish but also of the birds;
Overwhelmingly those interviewed at household level have indicated a negative attitude
to the status of existing environmental management, and cautious to the prospects of
any effective future management;
There is a trend for people to see the present as being OK, but collectively are negative
in their anticipation to the future. For the purpose of the survey, these people were
judged to be negative;
It is significant that Bonefish was the only actual species of fish referred to whereas
Milkfish is traditional been the preferred fish for eating. People’s appreciation of the
Bonefish is said to have increased only as a result of the growth in the fly fishing
business;
Of those who see the environment as deteriorating, there is a decline in the fish and the
bird numbers, and these people hold government responsible (!);
Of those who are positive regarding the status of the environment, there is a trend that
these people see a shared responsibility between people and government for
environment;
30 A copy of the Consultants TOR is attached as Annex 5.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 55
A strong sentiment in the comments is the need for rules and regulations. (This is fine
but the thoughts were routinely given that regulations were all that was required to
alleviate the situation!);
The responsibility for the environment, regardless of their perceived status, was that the
government was accountable. This was a theme that was constant throughout the
Project review process;
Of the 230 households surveyed the majority (56) were represented by females, and 29
(males).
Analysis of the above findings from the point of view of where people live is significant. The
survey aimed to obtain a representative number of households from all villages, including
those with a predominance of government employers (London, Banana) and those who
predominantly are not civil servants, do not have a permanent income, and who can be
expected to rely more heavily upon natural resources for household food security and
income.
Overwhelmingly households in Banana, New Banana and Main Camp regard existing
environmental management in a negative way;
In London and Tennessee there is also an overwhelming attitude that existing and/or
future management of the environment is on or is steadily moving on a downward spiral;
Significantly in Tabwakea the same trend is clear with the qualification that apart from
only one household all negative judgements were based in the present! In other words,
almost no-one there looked to the future;
Where households occupied by government employees were negative with some
qualification, they saw the need for greater management in the future.
The raw data from the survey, specifically for the two relevant questions (20 & 21) are tabled
as Appendix 9.
Survey Outcomes: If the resource is to be managed now and into the future, people need
to have a greater sense of problem ownership. Regardless of their opinions, the community
presently expects to see government as the future initiator and provider of environmental
management. Where those surveyed are negative regarding future environmental scenarios,
they predominantly blame the government. Even the majority of civil servants hold a
negative perspective regarding future management.
A table detailing the consultation process appears as Appendix 2. Topics discussed at all
meetings focused upon the (i) proposed Project (ii) the protection and management of the
birds, fish and thus what people see as the principle environmental elements. With some
meetings the topics moved to issues related to the tourist industry on the island.
5.5 Education & Public Awareness programs
Kiritimati has previously been the target for an education and public awareness campaign
associated with the KWASP intervention. The KWASP had T-shirts printed, developed and
produced purpose written songs, supplied and operated a dedicated FM radio station for the
island, and produced information using comedy which aimed to cultivate an understanding of
hygiene issues in order to promote the introduction of compost toilets. Unfortunately this
combined might of the KWASP awareness campaign did not achieve its end goal of
successfully fostering acceptance of the composting toilets, a situation, the importance of
which was well flagged in reports (Rogers et al 1997). Lessons learnt from this exercise
have more to do with listening than with the quality, entertainment value or level of
technology deployed. The community had politely rejected the composting toilet model from
day 1.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 56
Depending upon the topic involved, success in changing the way that a community
understands an issue assumes a collective attitude and potentially adopts a change in daily
actions and practices can be an exercise requiring generational time periods. Motivation to
either accept or reject change can be pre-determined by cultural norms, and a number of
well seasoned consultants with extensive experience working with I-Kiribati have indicated
that the community on Kiritimati are fine proponents of a peaceful world view which can quite
easily cope with no change at all (Falkland, White, pers comm. 2007). Where fostering
conditions for community change in water and sanitation practices aims to cut down on the
incidence of health disorders associated with unclean water and sanitation, it has been found
that focusing upon the simple messages concerning hygiene goes a long way to instituting
an understanding of why it is important to manage sanitation in the first place. As previously
noted, Kiribati has a culture that is reported to employ in part, animist belief systems,
particularly concerning human waste. Dealing with this issue, from both the physical
environment perspective and the health of the individual, constitutes by far the greatest
challenge for the project. The technology of delivering water and housing a toilet pan is
simple. Moving 100% of the community to discard the traditional practice of “pooing in the
bush or by the beach” is far more complex.
The challenge to motivate a community to adopt any new practices will therefore need to be
a component of any proposed watsan initiative. Similarly and firmly associated with the core
messages involved is the need to foster general change in stewardship of the environment.
The WCU recently received a beautiful set of photographic identification sheets for the 18
species of birds on the island, professionally produced by a recent short term consultancy
(VanderWerf, E. & Young 2007). This work is added to the books written by Jones (2000) on
the topic of birds, another on the general environment written by Perry & Garnett (1998).
The consultant observes that the potential value and reason for the production of this
material is actually not understood within the present WCU staff. Assistance in
understanding why information is assembled, why it needs to be openly shared and how the
material may change the collective awareness of the community is a very foreign concept.
The notion of developing a long term strategy that actually walks people through a “step-bystep”
program is not presently evident in the WCU. The consultant considers that the WCU
office does not actually need a list of hardware like computers, desks or filing cabinets. What
is required is capacity building that can assist in actually undertaking some tangible actions
that achieve considerable change in public awareness, attitudes and practices. The notion
that their civil service activities, if successful, should be eliminating the need for their jobs
would perhaps come as a shock to the WCU. Assistance in understanding how they can
contribute to change, how the WCU can show leadership has been requested during the
course of the mission. A proposed watsan project could assist in this.
5.6 Potential Characteristics of an Environmental Program
Change Over Time
David Korten's (1990) work highlights that a program of projects which aim to assist
communities to grow in sustainability needs to accept that there will need to be change over
time in the relationship between donors and stakeholders. Korten acknowledges that
primary interventions can target immediate needs and, as capacity grows, so does the need
for the agents and donors to manifest as support functions for the target beneficiaries. This
move may be from manipulation of a situation to the phenomenon of community ownership
(Ehrlich 2001).
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Activity Relief & Welfare Community Sustainable People's Movement
Development Systems
Time Frame Immediate Project Life 10-20 years Indefinite Future

Environmental Information and Assessment page 57
Chief Actor IDNGO IDNGO + All Public & Loosely define
Community Private
networks
NGO Role Doer Mobilizer Catalyst Activist / Educator
Management
Style
Development
Education
Logistics
Management
Advocating for
people at risk.
Project
Management
Strategic
Management
Coalescing &
Energising
Community self Constraining Spaceship Earth
Table 12 Graduations Assuming Successful Community Development Source After
Korten 1990
Table 12 illustrates Korten's theory concerning the four phases of change which can occur
over the life of a project where successful levels of participation will effectively cultivate the
transfer of ownership to one of ascendancy by beneficiaries.
MODE BLUEPRINT APPROACH PROCESS APPROACH
Operational Environment
Premise Uni-dimensional model of
Development
Multi-dimensional model
Delivery Approach &
Bureaucracy
Fixed Document
Centralise / Standardise
Control
Participation
Decentralise / Diversify
Enable
Goals Pre-set / closed Evolving / Open
Decision Making Centralised Decentralised
Analytical Assumptions Reductionist, Simple, Linear Systems, Holist
More-complex, interlinked
Planning & Action
Power Relations
Top-Down Bottom-up
Reciprocal
Force - Flow Supply - Push Demand – Pull
Long-term Outcomes Plans, projects Sustainable local action &
institutions
Table 13 Identification of Change Required in Operational Environment
MODE BLUEPRINT APPROACH PROCESS APPROACH
Agencies & Staff
Development Agencies &
Staff
Absolute Confidence they have
answers - Dominating
Lecturing / Extracting
Commitment to Action learning
with program partners -
Facilitating
Listening / Empowering
Enabling / Empowering
People First
Women before men
Poor people set priorities
Choice of technology – baskets
Simplify
(Interaction with locals)
Professionalism
Things first
Men before women
Professionals set priorities
Transfer of technology –
packages
Complicate
Language Technical
Characteristic Procedure Fixed Document – based upon
a Logical Framework Matrix 31
Technology Fixed Package Varied Basket
Methods Rules Standardised / Universal Diverse / Local
Table 14 Identification of Change Required Agencies and Staff
Negotiated Principles &
Processes
31 An analytical, presentational and management tool which summarises project intentions,
assumptions along with a precis of the monitoring and evaluation methodology. (AusAID 2000)
Logframes have been universally adopted as a project planning methodology.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 58
The two Tables above, 13 and 14, both prescribe a mobility and responsiveness in project
operational environment and the ‘agent’ or company involved in the implementation. There
are also some pointers regarding the staff that should be involved. It is implied in all these
tables that what is occurring is a transfer, something which did not successfully occur during
the KWASP.
This transfer is further illustrated in Table 16 under Participation, where the role of
community is deemed to be evolving and the graduation from manipulation to community
ownership is promoted through increasing the quality of participation.
Lessons learnt from positive projects, particularly NRM projects that have made an impact
include a firm message that mobilisation and participation of the community is the key to
ensuring a transfer of ownership and thus a sustainable project. How a project does that
when there is an amalgam of both soft and hardware issues involved would appear to be a
difficulty. The proposed watsan project needs to overcome such difficulties.
MODE BLUEPRINT APPROACH PROCESS APPROACH
Projects & thus Beneficiaries
Situational Analysis Verbal – textual
Interview – conversation
Visual - diagram
Modes of learning From Above
“Rural Development Tourism”
Questionnaire surveys
Measurement & statistics
From ‘below’
(rapid, relaxed & participatory
appraisals etc)
RRA & PRA methods
Objective Learning by outsiders Empowerment of local people
Cause-effect attribution Clear Less clear
Donor Recipient
Relationship
Cruder More nuanced
People seen as Beneficiaries Partners / Actors
Outputs - Action more by Uniform Infrastructure,
Professionals, Outsiders
Ecological
Accountability,
Transparency
Diverse Capabilities
Local People, insiders
Upward 360 degrees including
downward
Time-Line Fixed-period Open – cooperative & iterative
Table 15 Identification of Change Required for Projects and thus Beneficiaries
5.4.2 The Notion of Participation
Rural Development
A number of authors have promoted the theory that community participation in the
developing world emerged with in the theory of rural development (Gabriel 1991, Buller &
Wright 1990) and that top down approaches to project implementation may accomplish tasks
but not be sustainable. Cernea promotes rural development as representing a focus upon
the poor people as actors and that much is to be gained from fruitfully cultivating the
participation of these actors (Cernea 1985). Tools such as Appreciative Inquiry (Booy & Ole
Sena 1998, Watkins 1999), Action Research (McTaggart 1997, Stringer 1996), PRA, RRA,
PLA, (Chambers 1994a, McCracken et al 1998, Pretty 1990,) The Ten Seed Technique
(Jayakaran, 2002) have been developed over time to foster involvement and ownership of
target groups. Many techniques and project activities have, as previously noted, valued
participation in project identification and also increasingly recognised the value of
participation in monitoring and evaluation (Pretty et al 1995, WB 2001, Wadsworth 1998,

Environmental Information and Assessment page 59
Woodhill & Robins 1998). As presented in Table 14 below, Pretty establishes seven
typologies (Pretty 1995a) and Scoones and Thompson also detail a categorisation of
techniques to engage recipients of Development Assistance in the whole project cycle.
These tools have been predominantly cultivated by IDNGOs & NGOs but as shall be seen,
bilaterals and the Inter-government organisations also utilise these tools to cultivate
participation (WB 1996).
Participation
There is recognition that intentions to cause involvement of the community were grounded in
the radical politics of the 1960's and 70's and illustrated in the work of Paulo Freire (1973)
and Ivan Illich (1990). The recognition of the importance of participation has evolved to a
point where:
participatory approaches have gained a new legitimacy, even some would say orthodoxy.
Success has conferred respectability. What was radical yesterday has become
conventional today. For better or worse, participation in development is in the process of
becoming institutionalised.
lasting effect
on
people’s lives
(Blackburn & Holland, 1998: 32)
Comment Typology Summary of Actions
1. Manipulative
Pre-textual or rubber stamp.
No Positive
Participation
2. Passive Participation People told what has been
decided
Increasing
effect
On people’s
lives
3. Participation by
Consultation
4. Participation for
Material Incentives
5. Functional
Participation
6. Interactive
Participation
People asked but external
consultants define problems and
solutions
People contribute labour during life
of project – ends at completion.
Functional Participation occurs
after others have made key
decisions.
Participation seen as a right;
seeks multiple perspectives and
“learns”.
7. Self-Mobilization People participate by taking
initiatives independently of
external institutions
Table 16 Range of Participation Typologies Source: adapted from Pretty 1995
Regarding Pretty’s seven typologies, Pretty notes that the first four types facilitate no positive
lasting effects on people’s lives (Pretty 1995). It is when the level of participation reaches a
stage where there is a sharing of power manifest for example in decision making and
independent contributions (ibid). NGOs are recognised as having been at the vanguard of
participatory practice (Rahnema in Sachs, 1992:119). The power behind the process is
validated through many authors and practicians:
Strengthening voice is becoming an important element in institutional reforms in
developing countries, as donors and government try to introduce a participatory element

Environmental Information and Assessment page 60
into program and project management and to improve democratic accountability by
decentralising power to lower level agencies
(Robinson, et.al. 2000: 43)
Certainly the evolution and growth towards a greater understanding of why aid and
development initiatives may have failed have highlighted the major negative impact of topdown
or "expert" planning and delivery approaches
(http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sbhome.htm). Programs commonly cited as being
perpetuators of inappropriate inputs are many, but the large transmigration necessary for the
building of dams during the 1950s-1970s share some of the greatest critique.
Recognition that projects or programs needed to work with a large number of "Stakeholders"
was born out of a greater understanding that successful interventions could not occur in
isolation, that success needed to be measured against both technical and social goals at
various levels. Institutions such as the WB adopted participatory rhetoric and processes
during the 1990s (Narayan et al 2000). In addition the WB recognised that the "external
expert stance," whereby the expert analysed problems, identifed and designed solutions with
the expectation that recipients could subsequently embrace, own and manage the solution
was not an approach with an absolute success rate
(http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sbhome.htm). It was also understood that
sustainability, the agreed emergent goal of many stakeholders, could only occur where
common objectives are shared and worked towards with appropriate resources and skills.
Adults learn best in an atmosphere of active involvement and participation and where the
context of the training is close to their own tasks or jobs (Broughton & Hampshire 1997).
As well as Pretty’s previously cited typologies, there are graduations in participatory
processes. These include the sharing of information, initiation and control by stakeholders,
strengthening of existing groups and committees, consultation with stakeholders and the
facilitation of joint decision making processes (ODA 1995, Narayan 1995).
On the other hand there are situations where donors, in particular NGOs, choose not to
operate in situations where participation and mobilisation of community aspirations are not
acceptable to the resident beneficiary government. “The dilemma for many authorities is
they both need and fear people’s participation” (Rahnema in Sachs, W. 1992). Indeed where
governments do not recognise the value of participation it is difficult to envisage sustainable
management of projects:
“People already have the knowledge; what they must have are the rights over their local
environments. This is the big problem in the world today. The vast majority of people
have become passive observers, and a few people are taking decisions for everyone
else.”
(Agarwal & Narain 1991)
5.7 Summary
Environmentally Kiritimati consists of a unique marine and avifaunal habitat and speciation,
which, when combined with the geographical isolation, and a population basically comprising
recently arrived migrants that are living on what has been previously recognised as a wildlife
sanctuary of international significance. The consultant has found that for those people for
whom the island is now home, there is a small recognition and major disregard for the
intrinsic value of the physical environment. More than any other finding, this is a critical issue
when considering the short and long term sustainability of the islands resources.
Cultural characteristics of the people generally favour a passive outlook over pro-activity, and
a strong sense of community both unifies and limits the horizons for individuals. The watsan

Environmental Information and Assessment page 61
project holds great opportunities to broaden out environmental management on Kiritimati.
One easily attainable example of this is the potential use of sewage sludge to assist in the
development of soil thus presenting a greater opportunity for food self sufficiency.
Kiritimati has tangible but limited economic prospects that could change the subsistence
level categorization of most livelihood activities. Although it can be seen to be a culture in
transition, for the most part Kiritimati consists of a subsistence level society living on what
could be a well detailed niche tourism destination, potentially with near year-round high
visitation rates.
Due to the interaction with fly fishing tourism over a period of over 20 years, generally it can
be seen that locals have an inflated expectation regarding monetary values and personal
incomes. For virtually no outlay of effort, tourists seeking the thrills of fly fishing have been
prepared to pay handsomely for what is considered to be amongst the most exciting of
destinations for this sport on Earth. While the resources are there, the fly fishing fraternity
will return; if there is no stewardship of the resource, there will unfortunately be no tourists.
Conversely to this, labourers who have limited or no English language skills, and thus no
entrée to working in the tourism industry, carry sacks of copra onto a ship and get A$2.00 an
hour for their work.
Socially the conditions that are seen to contribute to the limited results in environmental
management stem from:
• Lack of knowledge about the issues
• No existing culture of resource management most specifically where population
numbers and subsequent pressure on the resource is unsustainable; predominantly a
hunter and gatherer mentality prevails – one based upon the assumption of easy food
availability;
• Lack of leadership, local responsibility to actually attempt to change the status quo.
• Local Governance – difficulty in new Local government having Standing.
It is clear that precious natural resources are not being managed well. Numbers and quality
of marine and bird life have declined considerably over the last 20 years. While the numbers
of tourists may have remained constant (or declined), bolstered by the short term visits by
cruise shipping, the resources that attract tourists are declining.
The expectation shared by people that laws alone are sufficient to manage environmental
resources is something that needs to be challenged. While there appears to be a lack of a
strong ethic and the tools to do something about the situation, the experience from the
mission is that the situation is not unsolvable.
The design of the watsan project will benefit by acknowledging contemporary theories of
decentralised management, weaving in greater responsibility for resource management by
resource users. When the greatest proportion of the population relies upon subsistence
livelihoods, appropriate indicators of sustainability need to be developed in collaboration with
all and, as a result, new practices of stewardship adopted.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 62
6. Project Impacts, Management & Mitigation
Introduction
This section discusses and summarises those issues that are of important consideration in
the detailed design for the watsan project. The section includes issues connected with public
health, water and sanitation, and the expected positive contribution the project can make to
these issues. Assembled as well are tables that outline expected impacts, management and
mitigation.
6.1 Public Health Issues – Water Supply
Screening of Water Sourced from Freshwater lens
Monitoring and measurement of the freshwater lens system has been identified as an
extremely important precaution before, during and in an ongoing manner at completion of the
project. It must be understood that such work is presently not an exact science. Of four
different reports that have estimated groundwater reserves, the four have found four different
estimates. However, the present investigation is based upon more detailed data, with
withdrawal rates based on conservative estimates. However, as planned extraction from
targeted groundwater deposits is substantially higher than current extraction levels, it is
important that monitoring and data compilation is subsequently more rigorously applied in the
future. Therefore, it will be important that regular data monitoring be established as a critical
component under Project institutional strengthening. It is clear that there is currently too
greater emphasis upon outside technical assistance to understand and manage these
resources.
Protection of Water Resources and Water Quality.
Protection of the area above the freshwater lens is an important consideration for design and
ongoing management of impacts. There presently exists a system of water quality monitoring
implemented with the cooperation of the Hospital laboratory. Previous Project (KWASP)
attempts have established marker points around the water reserves and major pipelines.
Such a system is recommended to be included as part of the community awareness
component of the Project.
Impacts Caused by the Project Infrastructure Operation.
To manage Water disinfection will be implemented using electrically driven equipment that
injects ozone into the water. These disinfection / filtration facilities will be placed in separate
units associated with village header tanks, as well as at the main freshwater field pumping
points. This technology is superior and more cost effective to that of chlorination, leaving
very little room for error in dosage rates. However, monitoring of the water source, the
efficacy of ozone treatment and supply lines (groundwater gallery and over-head tanks)
requires a dedicated routine program.
6.2 Public Health Issues - Sanitation
There is a well known correlation between the demise in the incidence of disease when
appropriately specified and maintained water and sanitation infrastructure, enhanced with a
clear understanding primary health and hygiene information, is made available. The
proposed Project can only achieve maximum impact when these links are well recognised
throughout the community. There is an existing cultural taboo associated with the topic of
sanitation, a situation which is reported to be predominantly of animist origins. There is a
need for this cultural taboo to be undermined through education and an awareness-raising

Environmental Information and Assessment page 63
which would be concurrent with the introduction of appropriately managed hardware and
software as specified in the Project design.
There is a potential public health risk associated with the proposed recycling of sludge waste
into compost for agriculture. Before it can be recycled, the sludge needs to be dewatered
and dried, a process which can employ (i) sand over impermeable membrane, shallow drying
beds or (ii) mechanically assisted processes which will require greater capital cost. The
standards for allowing sludge to sit and dry-out, ensuring that pathogens are neutralised,
includes composting to a temperature of 55 degrees Celsius or an alternative process where
the sludge is left in situ drying beds for a period of two years. Which ever system is adopted
as part of final Project design will require appropriate community awareness-raising
concerning procedures and precautions.
Appropriately treated sludge is used beneficially as a soil conditioner and fertilizer in
accordance with regulation and good agricultural practices. The fertilizer value of sludge
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) along with its trace element and humus value can be of
considerable significance in the agriculture / horticultural pursuits on Kiritimati.
It has been proposed that grey water treatment from each septic tank would be using evapotranspiration
beds. It is necessary that these purpose built PVC shallow beds be introduced
to the community with the awareness raising program, explaining the process and ensuring
that each household understand the need for the whole system to be monitored and
maintained if public health benefits are to be achieved.
6.3 Positive Project Impacts
Potentially there are a range of positive environmental effects envisaged as a result of
project implementation. These effects are summarised as follows.
Water Quality: The proposed Project will bring significant benefits to the water and
sanitation situation on Kiritimati. The major impact will be for the health of people by
providing water of greater quality, ensured by the introduction of more refined filtration
systems. The existing water quality has been tested and all tests indicate positive, and
thus there is a presence of E. Coli and Coliforms.
Water Quantity will also be enhanced as a result of greater efficiency in pumping and
distribution. This will allow for households to have a 24 hour, seven days a week supply.
The existing water supply is highly compromised, particularly in Banana where although
the groundwater lens is has a sustainable supply for the existing demand the status of
the reticulation system is such that more water is reported to be leaking into the
groundwater than making it to homes. However, even at the conclusion of the project, t
is imperative that the public awareness campaign highlight the limitations of freshwater
resources, and the need for stewardship in the way water is perceived and used at the
household level.
Management: The retrofitting and extensions to the existing system will contribute to a
greater potential for monitoring and management of the islands water resources. From
the resource management perspective it is important that each and every household
becomes more familiar with, and committed to, the management of water. A
strengthening of this will occur through the proposed dedicated ‘nodal’ system of wateruser
management, where villages, through an amalgamation of church groups, will have
oversight and management of water distribution.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 64
Groundwater Quality: By aiming to minimise the flow of waste from septic tanks directly
into the groundwater, it is expected that over time the E.coli count in ground water in
some parts of the island will decline, most particularly around settlement. This does not
mean that ground water is expected to be used as potable water.
Water Usage: Groundwater will be used for toilet flushing rather than the finite, piped,
freshwater supply from the lens. Such a system will mean that potable water is not used
for the flushing of waste, a step which will enhance the sustainability potential of the
system
Resettlement: At this stage there appears to be no need for any resettlement to occur as a
result of the proposed project. While there is therefore no immediate need to address
the impacts of resettlement there is a critical need to ensure that all new arrivals that
migrate to Kiritimati be given an information and awareness-raising program to formalise
the importance of the island from the ecological perspective.
6.4 With and Without the Project Scenarios
The following two scenarios are based upon the assumption that population will grow.
However, the recommendation of the environmental specialist is that in-migration be strictly
managed (e.g. for family or Government personnel), until management of the natural
resources be established. Positive environmental contributions and features of the “with
Project” scenario are expected to be as follows:
Greater control of water resource pumping.
Expectation of greater control over the health of individuals.
More even pumping of groundwater from galleries, putting less burden on the
freshwater lens.
Less accessions to water table of any waste.
Greater community awareness of the water supply system and the reasons behind
the need to care about environmental health, hygiene, waste, and thus, sustainability
of all resources.
Use of groundwater for toilet flushing rather than piped freshwater.
Compared with the “with Project” scenario, the “without” implementation of the proposed
Project would result in:
Inadequate water and sanitation service would continue to exist with varying degrees,
across the island,
Over pumping of freshwater lens would continue with the intrusion into the system of
saline water on a more frequent basis, most particularly during periods of drought.
Energy inefficient pumping using diesel powered motors over the freshwater lens
would continue to compensate for the existing system which cannot provide
sufficient water;
Increase demand on water resources associated with increase in population;
Increase in potential contamination of the freshwater lens due to the presence of
diesel fuel to power pumps;
Community health being at risk as people continue to use polluted well water for
drinking, cooking and bathing.
Continuation in some parts of the island of a water supply system that is only running
for 2 hours a day;
An inadequate and over-taxed water distribution system would continue to struggle
to deliver. In one village (Banana) the leaking in the system is so severe that the
cycle of pumping and actual supply is minimal. Most of the water being pumped
finds its way back into the ground through damaged reticulation pipes.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 65
Freshwater being used for toilet flushing;
Wells not covered and animal droppings easily finding their way into groundwater
systems.
Flush toilets without septic tanks would continue to consign waste straight into the
ground water.
Flush toilets with a septic tank but without any evaporation basin or soak pit would
continue to convey waste into the groundwater.
Septic tanks inadequately built would continue to leak, conveying waste directly to
groundwater.
There would be no management of grey-water.
6.6 Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures during Construction
Phase
Excavated/Spoil materials
There will be spoil from the excavation of the septic tanks that will require off-site disposal.
This includes removal of sludge from tanks, dewatering of that sludge and drying for use as
compost. The disposal of these spoil materials will need to be completed to ensure minimal
impact upon landform, groundwater and flora systems.
There are a number of potential sites for the sludge dewatering processes. Location within
easy proximity to the Agriculture station would minimise the distance that the sludge would
need to be moved post drying. Final determination needs to be decided in collaboration with
stakeholders in the detailed Project Design stage.
Regarding clean spoil from the proposed new septic tank installation, there are numerous
sites to the east of Banana village where previous military activities have disturbed land for
borrow pits, road building and solid waste dumps. These sites could be ‘made-good’ using
the spoil. Determination of these sites should also be decided in collaboration with
stakeholders in the detailed Project Design stage.
Waste / contamination from on-site implementation
Potential discharge of pollutants into the freshwater lens is always a possibility. Where large
equipment is being used to dig new galleries and install pumping and piping networks there
will be waste generated.
Noise & Air borne dust
Noise is generated from construction equipment and vehicular movement, could potentially
affect nearby residents and schools. Specifically it can be seen from Figure 3 that it is the
Tennessee School which is close to where a proposed new overhead tank stand is indicated
on Figure 3. Air-borne dust can be expected due to excavation, demolition, construction
vehicle movement and materials handling can be expected to be a short term phenomena.
Traffic - during the investment of the new pipeline along the existing road will occur for a
short period.
Damage to roads: Heavily laden trucks could impact on road conditions and cause road
surface damage, especially during periods of rainfall and high ground moisture content.
Based on the results of the impact assessments and the goals of minimizing adverse impacts
in accordance with application standards, regulations, and ADB safeguard policies, the
following mitigation measures have been identified to be taken during the construction
phase:
1. Construction sites, transportation routes and materials handling sites will be water

Environmental Information and Assessment page 66
sprayed on dry and windy days up to 2-3 times a day, especially as these sites are near
sensitive receptors, such as village and school areas.
2. Spoil from excavation, particularly from septic tank installation shall be transported to
spoil disposal sites in a timely manner. This material must be covered during
transportation to avoid spillage.
3. Where existing and unserviceable septic tanks contain sewage and waste water they will
need to be pumped out prior to removal and transported off-site to sludge collector sandbeds
previously constructed for this purpose.
4. Removal of the existing masonry septic tanks will then need to proceed with care taken
to secure and cover all rubble and material during transportation. Where necessary, to
reduce odour release, sediment should be wrapped with heavy tarpaulin or straw /
Hessian sacking.
5. Construction activities will be scheduled carefully with consultation with nearby schools
and residents to minimize the impact of noise from construction machinery. Night-time
(22:00 to 06:00) and noon-time (12:00 to 14:30) uses of noisy machines will be prohibited.
Where necessary, temporary noise barrier should be set up ear schools and residential
areas. Use of horns by transport vehicles will be strictly prohibited. Personal protection
equipments or PPE (e.g., noise protection earplugs) shall be supplied to workers for
protection from the intensive noise.
6. Temporary land occupation during excavation of reticulation systems will be planned well
ahead to minimize the effect of disturbance and land will be reinstated to its original
condition on completion of construction.
7. Construction materials will be stored in appropriate places and covered or sprayed to
minimize dust.
8. Construction waste will be promptly removed from the sites. Burning of any construction
waste will be prohibited.
9. Materials will be covered during transportation to avoid spillage or leakage.
10. During rains, load access limits will be imposed on the contractor to reduce damage to
the roads. Also, the contractor will be required to rehabilitate, at the end of the
construction, the section of the roads which have been damaged by the traffic resulting
from the transport activities.
11. The Contractor will be required to take necessary safety measures at the construction
sites to protect the public, including warning signs to alert the public of potential safety
hazards at and around the construction sites.
12. Construction will be immediately suspended if any archaeological or other cultural
properties are discovered. The relevant cultural authority, through the Project
management office, will be notified promptly, and only after a thorough investigation will
construction be allowed to resume.
The above mitigation measures will, where appropriate, be included in the tender documents
and subsequently in the construction contracts as binding contractual requirements.
6.6 Environmentally Sensitive Areas
This IEE aims to promote the argument that, if Kiritimati is to have a sustainable future, the
whole island needs to be managed as an “environmentally sensitive area”. It is recognised
that the international ecological significance of the island combined with the ‘niche’ tourism
opportunities which, if cultivated in a rigorous and appropriate manner, can offer a large
number of people enhanced livelihood opportunities. From this perspective there is a need
to endorse the entire island and near shore waters as environmentally sensitive areas.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 67
6.7 Potential Environmental Impacts & Management
Environmental impacts can be identified from the physical, biological and social perspective. The tables identify impacts and mitigation
measures necessary in three categories: (i) Impacts Arising From Site Selection and Design, (ii) Impacts From Construction Phase, and (iii)
Impacts Arising From Operation and Maintenance.
Impact Mitigation
Measure
Implementation
Responsibility
1. Environmental Impacts Arising From Site Selection and Design
Potential for
inappropriate island
wide growth in
population due to new
infrastructure.
Any negative
disturbance to water
source.
Potential
contamination of
groundwater lens
from spilt fuel.
Groundwater will be
used for toilet flushing
which can lessen
efficiency of septic
tank processes.
Control of Population
growth requires
adoption of a broad
suite of policies that
maintain and monitor
population at levels
which are
sustainable with
water supply
projections.
A Source Protection
Plan developed and
applied.
Comprehensive plan
required to identify
areas of vulnerability
associated with
proximity to water
lenses, protected
areas.
Groundwater in
areas such as
London and Banana
have high levels of
bacteria. London’s
is recognised as
being polluted with
contaminants. Ongoing
monitoring of
water being used for
flushing needs to be
a part of project
Whole of Government
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Design Team
Construction /
Implementation team
Construction /
Implementation team
Potential
Institutional
Monitoring /
Community
Contribution
Whole of Government
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Whole of Government
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Whole of Island
response - Kiritimati
Public Works
Kiritimati
Indicator Comment on
Projected
Costs
Decline in expected
population growth
scenarios across all
community replaced
with a growth in
stewardship of the
resource
No disturbance on the
groundwater lens sites
90% of all population
understand and
practice protection of
lens plan by end of first
Project year
Groundwater quality
monitoring required at
various points in each
settlement.
$15,000
Community
Awareness
Program on
Population
Impacts
Proposed
Length of
Program
On-going program
with frequent
reinforcement
Cost Neutral On-going program
with frequent
reinforcement
$15,000
Community
Awareness
Program on Water
resources
More effective use
of existing budget
costs for
monitoring as
included in Water -
Sanitation Unit,
MLPID
On-going program
with frequent
reinforcement
On-going
groundwater
monitoring program
required.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 68
Impact Mitigation
Measure
Growth in Settlement
in Poland means
greater potential
human intrusion to
protected areas.
Water standing can
attract mosquitoes &
incidence of malaria.
design.
Comprehensive plan
required to identify
areas of vulnerability
associated with
proximity to water
lenses, protected
areas
All Tanks to be sealed
to ensure no access
to mosquitoes.
Implementation
Responsibility
Lands Department
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Construction /
Implementation team
2. Environmental Impacts Arising From Construction Phase
Without
understanding and
ownership of the
project, people will
not benefit.
Disturbance to
immediate flora along
the trench lines.
Potential offensive
odours and air-borne
bacteria from sludge
removed from
existing septic tanks.
As project
implementation
commences,
education program
will is undertaken;
Hygiene, NRM,
PHAST.
Implementation plan
in detailed Project
Design to include
site procedures that
detail minimal
disturbance to all
Terrestrial flora,
fauna and habitat
Strategy that ensure
all waste is covered,
kept damp &
carefully relocated to
shallow evaporation
pits for dewatering is
required. Dried
Material can be used
as organic agent for
horticulture.
Potential
Institutional
Monitoring /
Community
Contribution
Lands Department
Tarawa / Kiritimati
All island
community on
Kiritimati
Implementation Team Whole of Government
& Community
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Construction /
Implementation team
Construction /
Implementation team
Construction /
Implementation team
Construction /
Implementation team
follow Safe
Transportation Plan
Indicator Comment on
Projected
Costs
Limits to settlement
growth in Poland area
Incidence of Malaria
needs to be reported
to entire community.
90% of all population
understand and
practice ownership of
the project by end of
first Project year
At completion of
ground works, all site
has been made-good
with minimal
disturbance.
Zero complaints from
Community during
construction phase.
Incorporate in
Community
Awareness
Program on
Population
Impacts
Incorporate in
Community
Awareness
Program on Water
Resources
Included as part of
$150,000 TA for
Environmental and
Community
Management
program
$50 per household
allowed in Project
costs for trench
rehabilitation,
replanting, etc
Included as part of
$150,000 TA for
Environmental and
Community
Management
program (health
and hygiene
component)
Proposed
Length of
Program
Maintain a limits to
growth policy in
Poland.
On-going program
with frequent
reinforcement
Life of project
Life of project
Life of project

Environmental Information and Assessment page 69
Impact Mitigation
Measure
Without appropriate
base to these pits
there will be a
concentrated leaching
to groundwater.
Soils need to be
transported to
previously disturbed
sites.
Noise / Dust affect
nearby residents and
schools
Increase in vehicular
traffic
Dewatering Pits to
be implemented
following Detailed
Project Design
Specifications.
Soil excavation and
transportation to be
implemented
following Detailed
Project Design
Specifications.
A strategy to
minimise noise and
dust is adopted.
Hours of work are
scheduled to
minimise conflicts
and appropriate
coverage of all
material to be
transported will
minimise dust.
All vehicular activity
to be implemented
following Detailed
Project Design
Specifications.
Implementation
Responsibility
Construction /
Implementation team
follow specified
dewatering plans
Construction /
Implementation team
follow specified
dewatering plans
Construction /
Implementation team
Construction /
Implementation team
3. Environmental Impacts Arising From Operation and Maintenance
Potential for highly
localised leaching
from septic tank
evapo-transpiration
beds.
Steady program
ensures all tanks are
monitored and
managed to ensure
that at no time would
the tank be full.
Each household with
support from the
septic tank
maintenance and
collection team.
Potential
Institutional
Monitoring /
Community
Contribution
Construction /
Implementation team
follow specified
dewatering plans
Construction /
Implementation team
follow specified spoil
removal plan
Community wide
monitoring
Community wide
monitoring
Each household with
support from the
Septic tank
Maintenance &
Collection team.
Indicator Comment on
Projected
Costs
Establish dewatering
pits before
commencement of any
sludge removal.
All sites where soil has
been transported to are
left in ‘made-good’
condition
Zero complaints from
community
Zero complaints from
community including
schools at drop and
collection times
Evapo-transpiration
beds to be placed and
maintained at highest
level allowing for output
gravity feed from tank.
$300 per
household allowed
in Project costs for
break out of old
septic tank,
remedial works
including
dewatering.
Included as part of
$300 per
household allowed
in project costs for
break out and
removal
Included as part of
TOR and costs of
project
management
consultants
Included as part of
TOR and costs of
project
management
consultants
$300 per
household allowed
in Project costs for
placement of
evaporation
basins, backfilling
Proposed
Length of
Program
Life of project and
beyond.
Life of project
Life of project
Life of project
On-going
monitoring

Environmental Information and Assessment page 70
Impact Mitigation
Measure
Without a well
designed base to
these pits there will
be a concentrated
leaching to
groundwater.
During periods of
intense rain there is
the potential for
leaching basins to
contaminate
Fuel and chlorine can
both potentially
pollute the
groundwater lens
Sludge - Potential
health and
contamination risk.
Grey Water -
Potential health and
contamination risk.
Dewatering Pits to
be implemented
following Detailed
Project Design
Specifications.
If implemented well,
the entire project will
contribute to the
steady demise of this
problem.
All fuel and chlorine
to be stored in
appropriate
centralised yards.
Only trained staff to
have access to use.
Routine
reinforcement of the
importance to follow
procedures.
Sludge to be placed
on appropriately
designed drying
beds. For re-use in
agriculture, a
recommended 2
year period is
required.
Shallow Evapotranspiration
beds
are specified to take
grey water and
effluent waste from
Implementation
Responsibility
Septic tank
maintenance and
collection team
Each household with
support from the
septic tank
maintenance team.
Water Supply
management and
maintenance Team.
Septic tank
Maintenance and
collection team
Each household with
support from the
septic tank
maintenance and
Potential
Institutional
Monitoring /
Community
Contribution
Septic tank
maintenance and
collection team.
Each household with
support from the
septic tank
maintenance team.
Water Supply
management and
maintenance Team.
Septic tank
Maintenance and
collection team
Septic tank
maintenance and
collection team
Indicator Comment on
Projected
Costs
Implementation of
specified requirements
at construction and
after each cycle of
sludge collection.
Rainwater levels above
sides of evapotranspiration
beds
Safe keeping
procedures adopted
and maintained for all
fuel and Chlorine
Safe transportation and
dewatering procedures
adopted and
maintained for Sludge
removal and treatment
Each household knows
& practices
management of grey
water effluent
with sand,
construction of
gravity fed rubble
pit, etc
Maintenance and
operations costs
included in budget
for Water -
Sanitation Unit,
MLPID
Incorporate in
Community
Awareness
Program on Water
Resources (health
hygiene)
Workplace and
occupational
health and safety
procedures
included in budget
for (i) Water -
Sanitation Unit,
MLPID and (i)
Public Vehicles
Unit.
In Project costs,
$100,000 allowed
for new sludge
removal truck:
$20,000 allowed
for sludge
treatment and
collection centre
Included as part of
$150,000 TA for
Environmental and
Community
Management
Proposed
Length of
Program
On-going
monitoring
Monitor during rain
periods.
On-going
monitoring
On-going
monitoring
On-going
monitoring

Environmental Information and Assessment page 71
Impact Mitigation
Measure
Implementation
Responsibility
Potential
Institutional
Monitoring /
Community
Contribution
each septic tank. . collection team. associated with daily
household activities.
Indicator Comment on
Projected
Costs
program (health
and hygiene
component
Table 17 Environmental Management Plan - Impact Mitigation and Institutional Requirements for Implementation & Monitoring
Proposed
Length of
Program

Environmental Information and Assessment page 72
6.8 Environmental Monitoring Plan
Impacts To Be
Monitored
Parameters To Be
Monitored
1. Impacts Arising From Site Selection and Design
Increase in Population
Any negative disturbance
to water source
Fluctuating saline levels in
groundwater not
conducive to septic tank
operation.
Increase in the incidence
of standing water
Growth in population
areas beyond the
recommended northern
growth corridor.
Ensure Island population is not too
large for water resource potential.
Disturbance on land with
settlement, animals, with
pollutants.
Salinity levels of groundwater used
for flushing
Location Monitoring
Frequency
Entire Island On-going – Census & yearly
migration figures
Above all groundwater source sites On-going – constant
vigilance.
Groundwater Monitoring sites
across settlement areas
Monthly monitoring &
recording of data.
Responsible For
Monitoring
Whole of Government & Community
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Whole of Government & Community
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Septic tank Maintenance &
Collection team
Occurrence of malarial mosquitoes Across all settlement areas On-going routine Design Team / Specification
Settlement is positioned close to
protected areas and contributes to
increase in disturbance and
poaching
2. Impacts Arising From Construction Phase
Offensive odours and air
borne particles from
excavation.
Leachate from dewatering
beds enters groundwater.
Excavation for tank will
require that soil is taken
off site
Increase in vehicle traffic
Each excavation to be completed
and filled in to minimize odour and
dust.
Dewatering pits to be designed
and specified with non-permeable
membrane below bed of sand.
Procedures to ensure soil is
transported and deposited in
appropriate manner.
Vehicles do not become a
nuisance or damage roads
3. Impacts Arising From Operation and Maintenance
Specifically the village of Poland is
identified as an area requiring
monitoring.
Across all settlement areas During entire construction
phase.
Pits to be established on existing
site close to Agricultural station
in consultation with community.
Across all settlement areas and
spoil deposit sites
Across all settlement areas
and spoil deposit sites
On-going routine Whole of Government & Community
Responsibility
Kiritimati
Construction / Implementation team
On-going routine Construction / Implementation team
During entire construction
phase.
During entire
construction phase.
Construction / Implementation team
Construction / Implementation
team
Comment on
Cost
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral

Environmental Information and Assessment page 73
Impacts To Be
Monitored
Community maintain old
ways of sanitation
Vegetation disturbed in
construction
Leachate from evapotranspiration
beds
Leachate from dewatering
beds
Any potential pollutant to
groundwater source.
Sludge - Potential health
and contamination risk
Grey Water - Potential
health and contamination
risk
Parameters To Be
Monitored
No defecating in sea or vegetated
areas – supported by Education
and awareness program.
Unnecessary clearance of
vegetation for trenches
Minimal leaching of waste from
evapo-transpiration beds
Minimise leaching of liquid waste
from dewatering beds
Protection markers around
groundwater lens areas are
acknowledged and abided by.
Establish sludge removal / recycle
service & create incentives for
people to use it
Appropriate disposal of grey water
at Household level.
Table 18 Environmental Monitoring Plan
6.9 Summary - Environmental Impacts
Location Monitoring
Frequency
Responsible For
Monitoring
Adjacent all settlement areas On-going routine Whole of Government & Community
Responsibility
Tarawa / Kiritimati
Along water supply pipeline
route
At HH - Area around evapotranspiration
beds
Specific zone around dewatering
beds
At perimeter around the four
ground water lens areas.
All villages
Daily until trenching
completed
Construction / Implementation team
Periods of high rainfall. Construction / Implementation team
Ongoing monitoring Construction / Implementation team /
Septic tank Maintenance & Collection
team
Ongoing monitoring HH, Local Groups, MELAD /
Construction / Implementation team /
Septic tank Maintenance & Collection
team
Service required on needsbye
basis
All Households At completion of construction /
at each Septic Tank pump out
Monitored by HH, Local Groups &
MELAD Septic Tank Service.
Monitored by HH, Local Groups &
MELAD Septic Tank Service.
Comment on
Cost
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Cost Neutral
Iconic Markers
locally developed –
200 X $25
$10.00 per pump-out
Cost Neutral
It is understood from the above that, if mitigation measures are followed and recommended plans put in place and implemented, that there
would be no significant long term negative impacts directly attributed to the Project. Indeed, the proposed Project is an opportunity to
enhance considerably the environmental management on the island.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 74
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
The following section aims to conclude this report and identify recommendations on two levels.
1) Core issues related to the delivery of the Watsan project
2) Broader issues of concern which, unless addressed, will undermine the economic rationale
behind the proposed infrastructure investment.
These two levels or categories will be distinguished by the terms Project Specific (PS) and Critical
Concerns (CC). Whether or not one donor can deliver the level of integration required in one watsan
project is not the point here. From the environmental perspective, the need is clear for a
comprehensive program which addresses critical environmental issues.
The lessons learnt from previous projects indicate that firstly there is a need for any project needs to
promote understanding, conviction and tangible rewards at the household level to assist wholesale
adoption of the technology, monitoring and management skills and acknowledge that decentralisation is
critical if the system is to be successful in the short and long term.
Unsustainable demands upon resources are already evident. While it would be valuable, there is
presently limited hard data to support what is presently known regarding resource status. The time
taken to collect and present hard data is a major problem when action is immediately required. It has
been recognised that the raising of community understanding is the issue that takes time to gather
traction and therefore requires immediate adoption to optimise chances of impact.
7.1 Understanding the need for Sanitation (PS)
The survey has found a need to strengthen community understanding of, and commitment to the
fundamental issues behind the need for hygiene, sanitation and clean water. Associated with this is the
need to raise awareness to protect the freshwater lens, and to manage water reserves. It is recognised
that on Kiritimati, previous work in this topic has failed.
The proposed watsan project provides the opportunity to address this issue. While it is understandable
for projects to adopt a small ‘step X step’ approach, there is a clear need to generate an IEC program
that delivers information on a number of graduating levels:
Clean water is essential;
All animal faeces will pollute water;
Sanitation – it is no accident that a well managed and maintained system is an essential
component for Kiritimati;
There is a need to care for the environment on many different levels;
(i) Health; individual, family/household and broader community.
(ii) Economically; to sustain the tourism industry
(iii) Environmental stewardship – an expression of cultural values
7.2 Leadership & Institutional Strengthening for Environmental Management (PS)
Numerous examples can be cited where local leadership on environmental issues had been
compromised or thwarted. Contrary to any Republic of Kiribati commitment to the key international
conventions for environmental stewardship, it appears that there is limited legitimacy given to local
actions. If the environment on Kiritimati is to be managed in a more profound manner than has been
achieved to date, the knowledge, commitment and passion to accomplish this task will need to
strengthened among the local community. Rules and Regulations presently account for nothing when

Environmental Information and Assessment page 75
there is no conviction within the community. To foster that conviction requires local leadership which is
supported by firm legitimisation and recognition from central government, navigational support through
issues by locally based capacity and a well sourced knowledge base and an easy community
ownership and involvement in monitoring and management.
This report recommends that TA be given to processes that will cultivate environmental leadership
on Kiritimati. With assistance, such leadership should be facilitated by development of local
projects aimed at securing resource stewardship, greater community understanding and an island
wide commitment to protect and enhance resources.
7.3 Visioning the Future - Institutional Strengthening (PS)
Future developments on Kiritimati need to give a high priority to utilization of renewable energy
sources, sustainable solutions and affirmation to the community that it can successfully be involved in
managing its resources. To achieve such a situation requires a quantum leap from the existing.
This report recommends that a multitude of elements relevant to environmental management
can only be achieved through successful implementation of one project at a time, weaving into
that project critical elements. The proposed watsan project should therefore adopt a wide range
of soft and hardware and ensure that it creates a vision with the community.
7.4 Eco-footprint (CC)
The eco footprint of Kiritimati is presently incomprehensible. The staple is rice and is imported from
Australia. When rice becomes scarce the price is reported to have inflated at least four times. With the
exception of fish and coconuts, predominantly fresh food is imported from the US via Hawaii including
fruits, vegetables, poultry, dairy and confectionary. Conversely, eating disorders and associated
symptoms are reported by the hospital to be a major issue. The visiting Dentist briefly interviewed
suggested that the previous and existing high quality of teeth will be a thing of the past for the next
generation. It would appear that there is a shortfall in both the potential of the island to feed the people
who live there, combined with peoples’ general inadequate understanding of diet, nutrition, the
importance of maintaining fitness levels and the potential positive effects such issues have upon
community health.
This report recommends that the GoK recognise the unsustainable eco- footprint of the existing
systems on Kiritimati and seek assistance over the medium to long term to change this.
7.5 Degrees of Sensitivity & Code of Conduct (CC)
There is presently no workable demarcation system for the Protected Areas on the island. Indeed, the
consultant was told that as the road to Poland passes alongside one of the best ‘protected’ ponds for
the production of milkfish, and that this was a favourite place for poachers to stop and harvest some
protein. Understanding the importance of harnessing different techniques for management of urban,
peri-urban and more remote Protected Areas is a critical issue on Kiritimati.
There is subsequently a need to develop a system of “go” and “no-go” areas but these can only work
when built upon community understanding and conviction that resources are worth protecting.
Enforcement of regulations concerning protected areas appears to be culturally contradictory and
ambiguous for I-Kiribati people, most particularly for those people who have been on Kiritimati over a
long period, but also for those who have recently arrived and avail themselves of the opportunity, either
through necessity or otherwise, to harvest free protein as a food source.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 76
Associated with this issue is the fact that many FFG and others who are serious regarding the existing
threats to fish and birds, and the associated way that people disregard the environment have indicated
that they would like to be able to play a volunteer role in protecting the environment.
This report recommends that a system of unambiguous “go” and “no-go” areas be reestablished
that are known by the entire community and are freely policed by all. To support
these areas, a Code of Conduct needs to be developed that outlines how the community is
expected to conduct itself on the island. All community members, visitors and tourists would be
obliged to sign such a Code of Conduct. To support and assist the collective conviction
regarding natural resources, the Code of Conduct would define the relevance of terms such as
Protected and Sanctuary. These messages should be supported by acknowledgement of the
international and national importance of the island’s resources.
7.6 Decentralisation (CC)
It is clear that there is always a struggle to have sufficient resources available to address key issues of
environmental management on Kiritimati. A shortfall in the existing system is the almost complete
reliance upon central government for decisions and actions regarding fundamental issues. The existing
system is clearly not responding to obvious needs. The physical environment on Kiritimati requires far
superior management than it receives. Resources and decision making powers need to be
strengthened on Kiritimati. Associated with this, the Line Islands represent the main focus of the
Tourism industry for Kiribati and yet the office and tourism infrastructure on Kiritimati is sadly lacking.
In addition, the MLPID and the Local Island Council have a very unclear road map of how to proceed in
the processes of governance; both institutions appear to be awkwardly reliant upon central government.
This report recommends that a major revamp of government departments is required, including
the way in which the tourism department can be the vehicle for improving environmental
management. It envisages government inspired actions that secure the sustainability of
physical resources, dramatically promotes the community understanding and commitment to
protect what is there, and facilitates appropriate guidance and local action in the processes
necessary to strengthen the profile and presence of environmental consciousness on Kiritimati.
7.7 Tourism (CC)
The rallying point for all issues concerning environmental management should be the one issue about
which the island presently has some dependency, namely, tourism. Critical issues for tourism concern:
Careful marketing which promotes the ‘niche’ position of island tourism;
The need to develop a high profile of stewardship represented in the way that Protected Areas are
demarcated, interpreted;
Interpreting, Managing and Policing of those existing islands which are dedicated bird sanctuaries;
Explicit attention to detail concerning hardware and software to service tourist needs in both a
passive and active manner. This includes the way tourists are welcomed, informed, chaperoned on
the island and then finally bid a farewell such that they return;
Routine and systematic application of biological control methods for pests that threaten the bird
colonies; (This includes feral cats and rats).
Management of urban and peri-urban areas in a manner that acknowledges the needs of locals and
tourists alike in terms of amenity and utility.
The consultant could find only a few initiatives on Kiritimati which had not been identified, nurtured, and
developed without outside assistance. The fly fishing, the salt making works, the Petfish export
business, building of the Captain Cook Hotel, the Central Pacific Processors plant, the inappropriate
wharf facilities and the existing water and power supply have all been provided from outside

Environmental Information and Assessment page 77
entrepreneurs or donors. As a result there is a high expectation among people that, if we wait long
enough, things will be provided from the outside.
The areas where there are local successes in enterprise are tourism (locally operated successful
hotels/accommodation) and twelve local Petfish export companies. Without careful management,
these two categories of enterprise are unsustainable. IEC programs that build on these issues as a
starting point are recommended; i.e.: If they are to return to Kiritimati, Tourists have high expectations
which need to be serviced. A balanced environment is the goal.
Regarding fishing there are a number of recommendations.
• In collaboration with the community, develop a plan of management for the entire lagoon area.
• Banning of nets under a certain size.
• Ban all exports of fish from the Island
• Foster leadership issues.
7.8 Compared to the rest of Kiribati
Kiritimati has had a rapid population growth over the last few years. The NDS indicates the island is a
target for growth. What has been seen is that nearly all new arrivals to Kiritimati come without
employment and therefore they and their families are entirely dependent upon fish/bird resources for
food.
This report recommends that no GoK supported population increase should occur until the
development of appropriate:
i. Plans of Management to protect and enhance physical resources
ii. Development of a Code of Conduct to which all on the island, new arrivals and tourists
sign as a recognition and commitment to protecting the important resources on the
island.
iii. Institutional Capacity Building that
iv. Integration of Tourism

Environmental Information and Assessment page 78
8. References
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Asian Development Bank.
Bailey, E., 1977; The Christmas Island Story, Stacey International.
Blackburn, J., & Holland, J., (1998), Who Changes? Institutionalising Participation in
Development, Intermediate Technology, London.
Booy, D., & Ole Sena, S., (1998), Capacity Building Using the Appreciative Inquiry Approach:
The Experience of World Vision Tanzania, Working Paper No.2, World Vision Tanzania Cernea, M.,
(Ed), (1985), Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Development Projects. World Bank,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
Dames & Moore, 2000, Environmental Monitoring and Protection Plan: Hope-X Facilities and
Operations, Christmas (Kiritimati Island), Republic of Kiribati.
Dahl, C., 1991, Regional Ecosystems Survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC Technical Paper
No.179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.
Freire, Paulo (1973), Education for Critical Consciousness, Seabury Press, New York.
Garnett, M.C. 1983, A Management Plan for Nature Conservation in the Line and Phoenix Islands,
Government of Kiribati.
Gilbert, K., 2006, Working Paper No. 5:- Environmental Assessment, SKM for ADB.
Gillett, R., 2004; Tuna for Tomorrow, Some of the Science Behind an Important Fishery, ADB, &
Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
Hay, John E., 2006, Climate Risk Profile for Kiribati, ADB TA., Project Number 38031.
IORAN, A., (2006); Xmas Island Expedition: USP July Aug 2006, unpublished field research report
as part of data gathering visit.
IUCN (1991); IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania.
Jayakaran, R., (2002), The Ten Seed Technique, World Vision China.
Jenkin, R & Foale, M., 1968; An investigation of the Coconut-growing Potential of Christmas
Island, Directorate of Overseas Surveys, England.
Johannes, R. E. (1992), Words of the Lagoon: Fishing and Marine Lore in the Palau District of
Micronesia. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Jones, H. Lee, 2000, Maiuia Mannikibani: The Birdlife of Christmas Island, Dames & Moore.
Korten, D., (1990), Getting to the 21 st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda,
Kumarian Press. USA.
Lovell, E.,(2003); In-depth substantiation and diagnosis of requests for assistance from the
Kiritimati Pet Fish Association, Kiritimati Atoll, Kiribati, Gillett, Preston and Associates.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 79
Lovell, E (2007), Protected Areas and World Heritage Programme, Kiritimati Nomination notes,
Document URL: http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wetlands/kiritima.htm
McTaggart, R. (1997), Participatory Action Research: International Contexts and Consequences,
SUNY, New York.
Perry, R (1980); Wildlife Conservation in the Line Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formally Gilbert
Islands). Environmental Conservation 7:311-318.
Perry, R., & Garnett, M., 1998; The Environment of Christmas Island, Birdlife International, Canada
Fund.
Pierce, R., Anderson, R., VanderWerf, E., Young, L., (2007) Survey of Bokikokiko, Seabirds and
Invasive Pests In Kiritimati (Line Islands, Kiribati), and Recommendations for Restoration.
Unpublished Report for the Wildlife Conservation Unit, Kiritimati, Republic of Kiribati, funded by
Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN, Auckland, New Zealand) and Secretariat for the Pacific
Regional Environment Programme (Apia, Samoa).
Pretty, J., (1996), Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Self
Reliance, Earthscan, London.
Ranck, S., (1996), Socio-Cultural Factors of Importance in the Design and Maintenance of Water
Supplies for Kiritimati Island, Kiribati. (Unpublished Report to AIDAB for contributing to the
Kiritimati Water and Sanitation Project).
Rogers, N., Colebatch, P., Vass, A., (1997); Kiritimati Water Supply and Sanitation Project,
Environmental Impact Assessment. Tonkin & Taylor for OPCV, AusAID
Schreiber, R. & Schreiber, E., 1984; Central Pacific Seabirds and the El Nino Southern Oscillation:
1982 to 1983 perspectives. Science 225: 713-716.
Scoones I., & Thompson, J., (1994), Beyond Farmer First: Rural People’s Knowledge, Agriculture
Research and Extension Practice, IT Publications, London.
Suzuki, David and Vanderlinden, Kathy, (2001), Eco-Fun, David Suzuki Foundation and Greystone
Books
Suzuki, David and Vanderlinden, Kathy, (1999), You Are the Earth, David Suzuki Foundation and
Greystone Books
Taylor, R. C. (1973); Atlas of Pacific Islands Rainfall, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, Data Report No
25, HIG-73-9, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Thurman, R., (1996); [Report on the Proposed] Kiritimati Atoll Conservation Area, (Unpublished
Report to South Pacific Regional Environment Program by Prof Randy Taman, University of
California).
Trussel, Stephen (1988), The History and People of Christmas Island, Edited version published in
"Christmas Island," Photographed by Franco Salmoiraghi / Essays by Stephen Trussel & Jocelyn
Fujii, C.H.R. Ltd, http://www.trussel.com/kir/xmasi.htm
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Honolulu.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 80
Yeeting, B & Sapolo, T., (2007), Management of the Kiritimati Island Bonefish Fishery;
(Unpublished) Report of a Public Consultation Workshop. Government of Kiribati & Ministry of
fisheries and Marine Resources Development.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 81
Appendix 1
Terms of Reference – Environmental Specialist

Environmental Information and Assessment page 82
Appendix 2
Meetings and Field Trip Diary
Environmental Specialist
Introduction
Normally with a consultants report there is a list of names, dates and times of people with whom
meetings have been held. In some instances on Christmas it was clear that people were overly
cautious and reticent to answer questions which may shed a negative light on others. In all the
meetings the consultant outlined that no names would be used if people were not comfortable.
15/10/07 Meeting / Discussion: Tebohon Central Pacific Producers
16/10/07 Minister for LINNIX & Permanent Sec With Team
17/10/07 Team Field Trip - Poland With Team
18/10/07 Meeting / Discussion: Tecomal Fisheries Manager
19/10/07 Local Island Council Meeting Part meeting of Councillors
20/10/07 Field Trip – Moana Kobe Looking at closed Lagoon ponds.
22/10/07 Journey to see DIY Septic Tank Tabwakea
24/10/07 (Stakeholder Meeting) LINNIX
25/10/07 Meeting / Discussion: Tecomal Fisheries Manager
Meeting / Discussion: Mackairi Member of Parliament
27/10/07 Field Trip – Lagoon & Captain Cook With Moana / Henry.
28/10/07 Meeting; Moana Kobe Fishing Guide
29/10/07 Field Trip Protected Fishery & Birds Moana / Anna Berenti
30/10/07 Focused interview; Orania Fisheries Warden
31/10/07 Debriefing re Protected area Trip Moana & Anna Berenti
2/11/07 Team Trip into Protected Areas Team& Lands Office
3/11/07 Focused interview: Palau CCH Head Fishing Guide
5/11/07 Stakeholder Meeting # 2 LINNIX
5/11/07 Field Trip to Hyper Saline Ponds Ian / Palau / Tony
6/11/07 Mapulo - Civil Engineer Line & Phoenix
8/11/07 Kaitu Ratintera (Manager) Solar Salt
9/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Albrek Wildlife Conservation Unit
10/11/07 Field Trip to Motu Tabu / Cook Island Paul & Henry
11/11/07 Field Trip - South-East Point Moana, Henry, Paul, Marcus, Tony
12/11/07 Yanning (Manager) Central Pacific Producers
13/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Perry Langton Local Council
14/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Peter & Moma Pet Fish Divers
15/11/07 Meeting: Toanimatany The Villages Fishing Guide
16/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Babera - Radio Station Manager
17/11/07 Diving – Shallow Coral Bed Dive
17/11/07 Meeting Discussion: Peter (evening) Shark Lodge Fishing Guide
19/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Esinua (Manager) Kiribati Port Authority
Meeting / Discussion: Kiraren Tourism Development Officer
Meeting / Discussion: Tania Shipping Agency Of Kiribati
20/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Tinia Manager - CCH
20/11/07 A tour through the new Building CPP
21/11/07 “The Villages” Fishing Guides KPC Enterprise
22/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Eri – Mini Hotel Eritaia
Field Trip: Palau CCH Head Fishing Guide
Field Trip: Moana Independent Fishing Guide
23/11/07 Kannangaki – (Ikari House) DOJIN Company Manager
Meeting / Discussion: Teunaia - Fisheries Warden
Meeting / Discussion: Tawuer Smith Pet Fish Association Chair
26/11/07 LINNIX – Bonefish Action Meeting
27/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Taberannang Timeon Minister for Fisheries
28/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: Perry Langton Member Local Council
29/11/07 Meeting / Discussion: John Bryden Long term resident
1/12/07 Meeting / Discussion: Dr. Kautu Tenaua Minister for Health

Environmental Information and Assessment page 83
Appendix 3
Complete List of Pet Fish as Catalogued (after Lovell 2003)
FAMILY Common FAMILY Common FAMILY COMMON FAMILY COMMON
Pomacanthidae Flame Angel Acanthuridae Black tang Tetraodontidae Gold puffer Pomacentridae Sea bass
Lemon Peel Brown tang Yellow puffer fish Domino damsel
Lemon Dot Blue tang Black puffer
Blue & yellow
damsel
Royal blue Goldrimmed tang Gold puffer angel Deep water
Gold Flake Orange shoulder Sharpnose puffer Blue damsel
Griffis(1) Powder Puffer fish Gold damsel
Griffis Chevron tang Yellow damsel
Regal Yellow surgeon fish Green sea bass
Bi-Color Angel Kole Red sea bass
Emperor Assorted tang Sea bass damsel
Multi colour Angel Yellow tang Sea bass bait
Gold Puffer Angel White tail Black & gold damsel
False eye canridian Scopas tang Assorted Damsel
Blue dot Br/eared
Beauty colur Surgeon
Mimic
Serranidae Gold back anthias Labridae Assorted wrasse Balistidae Blue throat Cirrhitidae Hawkfish
Redfin anthias Golden fish hawk
Stocky anthias Wrasse Boomekang Assorted hawkfish
Squarespot anthias Candy cane Lagoon trigger
Purple anthias Lemon green Humu humu FAMILY COMMON
Scalefin anthias Banana wrasse Assorted trigger Chaetodontidae Declivis
Threadfin anthias Red bird wrasse Clown trigger Tinkers Butterfly
Redmouth grouper Dragon wrasse Niger trigger Coby
White lined grouper Pink Tail Painted trigger
Peacock grouper
Browned barred
Green bird Trigger
grouper Xmas Wrasse Blue line trigger
Leopard grouper Sea Trout
Miniata/Coral rgouper Eight line
Sixspot grouper
Tomato grouper
Blue stripped grouper
Cleaner

Environmental Information and Assessment page 84
Appendix 4
Management of the Kiritimati Island Bonefish Fishery
Public Consultation Workshop 9 -10 March 2007, Eddies
Lodge. Kiritimati
Bonefish Issues &
Concerns Raised
1. Exploitation of bonefish for
food from the lagoon
2. Use of gillnets in the lagoon is
very destructive to bonefish
stocks
3. Bonefish is not targeted but
caught as by-catch when
gillnetting for milkfish.
4. Commercial sales and
demand of fish from Tarawa is
encouraging fishers on Kiritimati
to capture more bonefish.
5. Total ban on fishing for
bonefish on Kiritimati.
6. Is the bonefish population
decreasing?
7. Underutilised stocks of
bonefish and trevally in ponds.
8. Two main passages are main
migration routes for bonefish to
move between lagoon and
ocean especially evident during
spawning migrations.
9. Improper handling of bonefish
especially with bare hands will
kill the fish
10. Accountability on damage to
bonefish resources should be
balanced for everyone (locals
and tourists).
11. Management and
enforcement of bonefish
management plan and
regulations will cost money.
Suggested Management Measures
Seasonal closure of fishing for bonefish in the lagoon
Zoning of lagoon into fishing areas, tourist bonefish anglers
and reserve areas.
Close areas such as closure of lagoon and flats for fishing
which needs to be enforced by fisheries
Quota limit on bonefish catch per person.
Ban use of gillnets in the lagoon but not on outer reefs
Only allow hook and line in lagoon
Ban use of gillnets in lagoon.
Development of gillnets that exclude bonefish as by-catch,
such as done in turtle exclusion devises.
Develop floating or non singing nets for use on sand flats
that will exclude catch of bonefish while feeding on lagoon
bottom.
Allow use of 125mm (5”) mesh gillnets in deep part of
lagoon only and not on sand flats.
Total ban of any commercial sales of bonefish in Kiritimati
Ban any export of bonefish from Kiritimati
Declare bonefish as the state fish of Kiritimati to give it full
protection.
Use of length data and sex ratio data already collected
would provide answer.
Need of ongoing monitoring of catch and sizes.
Possibility of using selected ponds as alternative fishing
spot for bonefish and trevally by tourists.
Include the passages as part of the marine park/reserve
area.
Ban tourist fishing around the spawning times i.e. 3 days
before and 3 day after the full moon.
Use of barbless hooks to be a requirement
Use of proper hook retrieval i.e. de-hooking device
developed by Moana should be promoted.
Proper handling guidelines for tourists and guides should be
developed and made available. Can be included as fishing
licence conditions/rules
Regulations need to consider damage by locals as well as
tourists through imposition of fishing fees and penalties for
all.
Use of bonefish fishing fees paid by tourists and guides to
be used for this.
Government be requested for these fees and also penalties
to go into a bonefish management funds and to be used
exclusively for supporting management and enforcement of

Environmental Information and Assessment page 85
Bonefish Issues &
Concerns Raised
12. Tourist industry in Kiritimati
can be lost with no efforts to
conserve bonefish resources as
tourists will choose to go
elsewhere in retaliation.
13. Lack of funds to support
enforcement efforts.
14. Bonefish Task Force needs
to be based in Kiritimati
(Lannang)
15. Equitable distribution of
funds obtained from bonefish
based tourist industry not clear
to local people.
16. Enforcement is weak due to
lack of good strong legislative
framework.
17. To reserve the bonefish
resources in Kiritimati for the
tourist fishers only.
18. Urua (Trevally) is another
important tourist based game
fish on Kiritimati that needs to
be protected as well together
with bonefish.
Suggested Management Measures
bonefish regulations
Evaluation of fees may be required to ensure that it will
cover management costs, any increases should be
accompanied by a good explanation and awareness to
tourists.
Good conservation initiatives should be promoted
Good public awareness to promote conservation
Establish good effective management plan and monitoring
program for the Kiritimati bonefish fishery
Sustainable source of finances should be developed.
Bonefish Task Force (government ministers in Tarawa) will
act as co-ordinating body for bonefish management efforts
at Government Headquarters level.
A Kiritimati Island Bonefish Management Board can be
established in Kiritimati.
Good awareness materials need to be developed and
distributed to explain the need.
Awareness workshops should be regularly organised by
enforcement officers and bonefish guides
Development of Community finds as a percentage of all
bonefish fees and penalties to be built up and used for
community projects.
The critical initiatives that the workshop identified:
Legal framework for managing bonefish will be developed
Management regulations will be formulated and would be
properly legislated to ensure that prosecution and penalties
can be applied properly to law breakers
Previous attempts to develop bonefish regulations had no
legal basis – the legal basis for the new regulations would
be developed and established properly.
Bonefish fishery is totally game fishery
Total ban on capture of bonefish for food
Not much biological information known about Trevally
(Urua)
Possible to totally ban selling and export Urua – i.e. include
in the regulation.
Ban catching of Urua for food in lagoon area – to include in
the regulation
Need to start biological research on species.
That any sale of bonefish should be banned totally
That no bonefish should be allowed to be exported out of Kiritimati
That gillnetting should not be allowed in the lagoon and in the passages but only
in the outer reef
That big mesh size floating nets that do not reach the lagoon bottom can be
allowed in the deeper side of the lagoon closer to the passages for the purpose
of catching the big milkfish (awatai).

Environmental Information and Assessment page 86
Appendix 5
Recommendations from Pierce et al for Kiritimati Island
Bonefish Fishery
Key recommendations are that:
• Quarantine activities be immediately stepped up for Motu Tabu and Cook Island to
ensure that kimoa do not gain access (Priority 1),
• Quarantine activities be stepped up to ensure that Kiritimati does not receive any more
invasive species, e.g. Norway rat, invasive ants (Priority 1),
• Eradicate kimoa from key motu and islets for Te ruru and Te bwebwe ni marawa
recovery – e.g. Drum and other specific islets in Tanguoua Lagoon, Motu Upua,
possibly others (Priority 2),
• Eliminate poaching focusing initially at keys sites, i.e. Motu Tabu, Cook Island, Motu
Upua, Tanguoua Lagoon (Priority 2),
• Complete Bokikokiko surveys in likely habitat following methodology of June 2007,
update database and provide data for specialist analysis (Priority 2),
• Continue kimoa trapping surveys to determine Rattus rattus distribution and maintain
database of captures, and sightings and reports of this species (Priority 2),
• Set up long-term monitoring sites for seabirds (Priority 3),
• Begin surveys of additional sites on islands and mainland sites for seabirds and
predators with a view towards eventual local management (Priority 3).
Key findings were:
• Bokikokiko were widely but patchily distributied and preliminary analyses suggested
that abundance was controlled by combinations of te ren (Tournefortia) height, te mao
(Scaevola) % cover and presence of ten tanini (Cassytha),
• Te ruru were confined to a few islands, with a minimum estimate of 2300-3800 pairs
present. Motu Tabu which is free of kimoa or rats supported an estimated 1500-2000
pairs in June 2007. In the Tanguoua Lagoon area populations of Te ruru and many
other seabirds, although very important, appeared to be less productive due to
predators, and on some islets high levels of poaching,
• Te bewbwe ni marawa were confined to several motu and islets, notably Motu Tabu
and islets in Manulu Lagoon and Tanguoua Lagoon-Tibo Channel area, at least some
of which were kimoa-free. They were scarce on islands with kimoa,
• Kimoa, but not cats, gain access to many of the motu and islets occupied by seabirds
in the lagoon areas,
• Rattus rattus has been reported at wide-ranging locations, but there is no evidence of
them accessing motu and islets yet,
• There are significant risks that pests (kimoa, invasive ants, etc.) could access currently
pest-free islands (e.g. Motu Tabu and Cook Island) due to frequent human visits and
inadequate quarantine and monitoring,
• Poaching is prevalent in some areas with Te taake (red-tailed tropicbird), te koota (redfooted
booby) and te eitei species (frigatebirds) being the preferred targets, but petrels,
shearwaters and noddies were also taken. Poaching is causing localized and
widespread declines in populations of these species,
• There are clear cost-effective opportunities to secure and restore populations of
seabirds and Bokikokiko on Kiritimati.

Environmental Information and Assessment page 87
Appendix 6
Promotional Literature for Fly Fishing Lodges

Environmental Information and Assessment page 88

Environmental Information and Assessment page 89
Environmental Specialist Inputs
Data Review
Familiarise with Project Documentation
Familiarise with Associated reports
Identify with Critical Local Environmental Issues
Conventions etc GoK is signatory:
Key Stakeholder Meetings & Understanding
Inputs to Community Survey
Meetings with Focus Groups
Assess Policies / Implementation capacity
GoK E'ment Assess requirements
Site Assessment - Overall island E'ment
Confirm categorization of Project - B
Physical & Social Perameters defined
Conduct Resource Survey - fisheries
Assess local skills in sustainable yields
Eco-Tourism - Physical & Cultural attributes
Protection / Conservation - Review of Existing
Formulate a program of institutional strengthening
Identify policy reforms necessary
Summary Initial Environmental Examination
Contribute to Draft RRP / Final of KIDP
Environmental Assessment of project Designs
EMP's developed for project components (?)
With Engineer, Integrate EMPs with all project.
Identify additional TA's required
Appendix 7
Environmental Specialist Workplan
Week 1-2 Week 3-4 Week 5-6 Week 7-8

Environmental Information and Assessment page 90
Appendix 8
Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) Checklist
WATER SUPPLY
Country/Project Title: Republic of Kiribati /
Preparing the Outer Island Growth Centers Project – Phase 2
Sector Division: Water Supply and Sanitation
SCREENING QUESTIONS Yes No REMARKS
A. Project Siting
Is the project area:
Densely populated? In some areas
Heavy with development activities?
Adjacent to or within any environmentally sensitive areas?
Cultural heritage site
Protected Area
Wetland
Mangrove / Lagoon
Estuarine
Buffer zone of protected area
Special area for protecting biodiversity
Bay
B. Potential Environmental Impacts
Will the Project cause…

Environmental Information and Assessment page 91
SCREENING QUESTIONS Yes No REMARKS
pollution of raw water supply from upstream wastewater discharge from communities,
industries, agriculture, and soil erosion runoff?
impairment of historical/cultural monuments/areas and loss/damage to these sites?
hazard of land subsidence caused by excessive ground water pumping?
social conflicts arising from displacement of communities?
conflicts in abstraction of raw water for water supply with other beneficial water
uses for surface and ground waters?
unsatisfactory raw water supply (e.g. excessive pathogens or mineral
constituents)?
delivery of unsafe water to distribution system?
inadequate protection of intake works or wells, leading to pollution of water
supply?
Used only for
toilet flushing
over pumping of ground water, leading to salinization and ground subsidence? If not
monitored &
managed
excessive algal growth in storage reservoir?
increase in production of sewage beyond capabilities of community facilities? Septic tank
pump-out
service
required.
inadequate disposal of sludge from water treatment plants?
inadequate buffer zone around pumping and treatment plants to alleviate noise
and other possible nuisances and protect facilities?
impairments associated with transmission lines and access roads?
health hazards arising from inadequate design of facilities for receiving,
storing, and handling of chlorine and other hazardous chemicals.
health and safety hazards to workers from the management of chlorine used
for disinfection and other contaminants?
dislocation or involuntary resettlement of people
social conflicts between construction workers from other areas and community
workers?
noise and dust from construction activities?
increased road traffic due to interference of construction activities?
continuing soil erosion/silt runoff from construction operations?
delivery of unsafe water due to poor O&M treatment processes (especially
mud accumulations in filters) and inadequate chlorination due to lack of
adequate monitoring of chlorine residuals in distribution systems?
delivery of water to distribution system, which is corrosive due to inadequate
attention to feeding of corrective chemicals?
accidental leakage of chlorine gas?
excessive abstraction of water affecting downstream water users?
competing uses of water?
increased sewage flow due to increased water supply

Environmental Information and Assessment page 92
SCREENING QUESTIONS Yes No REMARKS
increased volume of sullage (wastewater from cooking and washing) and
sludge from wastewater treatment plant

Environmental Information and Assessment page 93
Appendix 9
Household Survey
Two questions concerning environmental issues were specifically asked in the household
survey. One (Q20) concerned the identification of environmental issues, the other (Q21)
aimed to determine who the respondent considered was responsible for addressing
these issues.
The following tables present the raw data from the Household questionnaire.
Responses to specific questions regarding environment were analyzed from the point of
view of specific Village and respondent X gender. Answers to questions = female = pink
(n=56), Male = blue (n=29).
Response by Gender
Survey
No.
Q20 - Environmental Issues
5 Needs to be improved. neg
7 No issues, but we need to look after it very well. later
8 Without government management the bone fish will decrease. neg
9 No issues. Supports the government management. pos
10 No problem, decrease in the number of fish and birds. later
13 No problems seen, try to maintain and keep rules. pos
14 Many problems, the fish are not enough. neg
15
People steal fish from the channel. In the future our children will not see many fish
like we see them now.
neg
16 There is poor management, there is no full responsibility. neg
17 There is an increasing number of people taking birds and fish. neg
20 There is a drought and no food - e.g. coconuts neg
21 There is not much support for the fish and birds. neg
22 Management is good. pos
23 Bone fish are decreasing. neg
24 No problems. pos
25 No problems. Need to take care and look after it. pos
26 People still take fish from the channel. Needs improvements to look after it. neg
27 No problems. Need to look after it well. pos
28 No problem. Maintain and keep watch over these things. later
31 They take fish even though they are not meant to. neg
32 Not enough spaces for getting fish for food. neg
35 No problems. Maintain rules in order to be followed. pos
37 No problem and hope to live well in the future. pos
38 No problem, but hope to be looked after very well. pos
39 No. Future successful. pos
40 The problem is that people always steal fish/birds. neg
41
The problem is all the people steal the fish from the channel. Our future does not
look good.
neg
44
No problems when the fisheries check the channel all the time. Our island looks
nice.
pos
45 No problems. It will look beautiful while the rules are maintained well. pos
46 No problems. It will look good for the future. pos
47 No problems. Rules must be done properly in order that no problems come. later

Environmental Information and Assessment page 94
48 When they first arrived in Kiritimati there was lots of fish but now there is less. neg
49 We must support so that there will be a limited amount of fish to be taken. later
54 The fisheries didn't do their work. No future for our children. Less fish and birds. neg
55
More secretaries need to look after the fish/birds carefully. Many problems will
happen.
later
56
Throwing bad things (e.g. plastic) in the sea which can make fish sick. Bonefish and
birds decrease.
neg
58 Not enough bonefish seen nowadays. neg
59 The government must undertake good management. later
60
If the government undertakes good management then there will be better living for
the people. Government must make strong rules.
later
61 Many problems. The land is not enough and the fish too. neg
64 Hop to disappear if people don't hear what the Government or rules say.
Seen that people don't do what the Government says, so they need more strong
pos
65 rules to keep the people in order - they can follow or be afraid of it. Besides that,
birds are not seen enough while bonefish have nearly disappeared.
neg
66 The problem is the people take tiny fish. The future fish is no enough for the people. neg
67 No problems. The future generations need to look after it well. pos
68
No problem seen. Maybe there will be more problems coming from lots of people in
the future.
neg
69 No problem - it looks beautiful.
Fish is not enough and the birds are not many from people. They are pleased that
pos
70 those who work for that look after it. Our island is full for the people and the land is
not enough as they need to expand their land more than they use it now.
neg
72
People nowadays destroy and go against the rules. So then in the future there will
not enough fish and birds if they still go against the rules.
later
73 No problem seen but decrease (fish & birds) in the future. later
75 No problem now, but in the future there will be less fish and birds. later
76
Bonefish are decreasing. 10 years from now Kiritimati will lack in bonefish and
birds.
later
79 Bone fish and milk fish decreased. neg
80 There is decreased number of birds compared with previous years. neg
81 Need more management/looking after. neg
82 More people coming will make fish and birds decrease. Lack of fish and crabs. neg
85 When more people come then there will be many problems. neg
87
The Government needs more effort to protect birds and fish. Kiritimati will be just
like any island in Kiribati in the future.
1 They do not need restriction areas. pos
2 Burning kills the coconut trees. neg
3 No issues - we look after the environment. pos
4 There will be few fish for our children in the future. neg
6 No issues at present. pos
11
They don’t care about the government programs, they try to catch birds and fish for
eating.
neg
12 No problems seen, but they will be coming. pos
18 No problems. pos
19 Poor management, so people can continue taking fish and birds. neg
29
Have seen others do some of these things. Make sure the Government look after
them (birds/fish).
neg
30 Work together to look after the fish, burning and birds. pos
33 Decreased number of fish on Kiritimati. neg

Environmental Information and Assessment page 95
34 Amounts (of fish and birds) are decreasing. neg
36
Not enough management on the environment - e.g. if there is good management
then there will be an increased number of fish and birds.
neg
42 They need to look after the fish and birds. neg
43
No problem when the workers look after it. When they do their work then the future
of our environment is very good.
pos
50
The management is good. They will get the money from that in the future and
tourists will want to come for the bonefish.
pos
51
People here take the bonefish that is our economy and they take the small fish from
the sea. Our island is not enough for the people and the fish also.
neg
52 Not enough fish will occur in the future if the population grows. neg
53
Fish are being stolen and they need the Wildlife & Fisheries to look after it. The fish
is not enough.
neg
57
Reducing people who come and live on Kiritimati. Increasing people makes
fish/birds decrease.
neg
62
No problem seen nowadays, but hope for the future will disappear if others still go
against the rules regarding birds and fish.
later
63 No problems see now, but hope to appear in the coming year if the people grow up.
Many problems for the bonefish, that is our only income and now the bonefish are
pos
71 decreasing and the tourists are not happy for that. Not enough money from
overseas.
neg
74 Birds decrease. It seems that there will be no more birds. neg
77
Not much management for fish/birds. Many changes will happen (e.g. milk fish
decrease).
neg
78
There is breaking of laws by people (e.g. stealing fish/birds). Lack of milk fish and
birds. More people then less fish and birds and crops.
neg
83
No problem can be seen but more strong rules to go against people who always do
rough things.
later
84 The people here break the law for the fish. Not enough fish for the future. neg
86
There is no problem with the environment and we must keep it like that so that
Kiritimati stays an attraction to tourists.
pos
Question 21 – Who do you consider to be responsible for addressing the major
environmental issues identified in Question 20?
Male = n29
Female = n56
Q21 - Responsibility
Everyone
Fisheries & Wildlife
N&G n&other pos&g
Wildlife
Everyone
x
Government & Community x
Fisheries & Wildlife x
Everyone x
Government x
Wildlife & Fisheries x
Government x
Everyone x
Wildlife & Fisheries x

Environmental Information and Assessment page 96
Everyone x
Fisheries x
Government x
Everyone x
Wildlife x
Government x
Wildlife & Fisheries; Everyone x
Everyone x
Government x
Wildlife & Fisheries staff x
Government x
All people x
Government staff and People x
Government x
Government, all the people x x
Government, Wildlife & Fisheries
x
Government, all the people x
All people, Fisheries & Wildlife staff x
Government, all people x
Everyone x
Everyone x
Government, only us x
Government, but people will have to prevent that
problem.
x
Government and people x x
Government and people x x
Everyone x x
Government x
Government x
Government and people x
Government, or need of more big bodies to be built in
order to make strong rules to the people.
Government, Wildlife & Fisheries x
Government, Fisheries x
Government x
Government when the problems come. x
Government, and also the people when they work
together
Government, Fisheries & Wildlife staff x
Fisheries & Wildlife staff. x
Government x
Wildlife x
Government x
Everyone x x
x
x

Environmental Information and Assessment page 97
Government x
Government x
Government x
The people (and the Government) x
33 13 14
Fisheries x
Everyone x x
Everyone x
Government x
Wildlife & Fisheries x
People associated with government programs x
Everyone x
Everyone x
Government x
Everyone together with Fisheries & Wildlife staff. x x
Everyone on the island. x
Government and the people x x
Fisheries & Wildlife x
Government & Everyone on the island x x
Government, all the people x x
Government, all the people
Everyone and the Government
Government, all the people when they work together x
Government x
Government, Wildlife x
Government x
Government and all people living in Kiritimati x x
Government x
All people on Kiritimati
Government x
Wildlife x
Government x
Government and all people x x
All the people x
Me and the Government
x
x
x
x
16 9 9
x
x

Environmental Information and Assessment page 98
Survey
No.
Response by Village
Q20 - Environmental Issues
Q21 - Responsibility
Poland
1 They do not need restriction areas. later Fisheries
2 Burning kills the coconut trees. neg Everyone
86
There is no problem with the environment and we must keep it like that so that
Kiritimati stays an attraction to tourists.
pos
Me and the Government
87
The Government needs more effort to protect birds and fish. Kiritimati will be just
like any island in Kiribati in the future.
neg
The people (and the Government)
London / Tennessee
3 No issues - we look after the environment. neg Everyone
4 There will be few fish for our children in the future. neg Government
5 Needs to be improved. neg Everyone
6 No issues at present. pos Wildlife & Fisheries
7 No issues, but we need to look after it very well. later Fisheries & Wildlife
8 Without government management the bone fish will decrease. later Wildlife
9 No issues. Supports the government management. pos Everyone
10 No problem, decrease in the number of fish and birds. pos Government & Community
11
They don’t care about the government programs, they try to catch birds and fish for
eating.
neg
People associated with government
programs
12 No problems seen, but they will be coming. later Everyone
13 No problems seen, try to maintain and keep rules. neg Fisheries & Wildlife
14 Many problems, the fish are not enough. neg Everyone
15
People steal fish from the channel. In the future our children will not see many fish
like we see them now.
neg
Government
16 There is poor management, there is no full responsibility. neg Wildlife & Fisheries
17 There is an increasing number of people taking birds and fish. neg Government
18 No problems. pos Everyone
19 Poor management, so people can continue taking fish and birds. neg Government
20 There is a drought and no food - e.g. coconuts neg Everyone
21 There is not much support for the fish and birds. neg Wildlife & Fisheries
22 Management is good. pos Everyone

Environmental Information and Assessment page 99
23 Bone fish are decreasing. neg Fisheries
24 No problems. pos Government
25 No problems. Need to take care and look after it. later Everyone
26 People still take fish from the channel. Needs improvements to look after it. neg Wildlife
27 No problems. Need to look after it well. later Government
28 No problem. Maintain and keep watch over these things. pos Wildlife & Fisheries; Everyone
29
Have seen others do some of these things. Make sure the Government look after
them (birds/fish).
later
Everyone together with Fisheries & Wildlife
staff.
34 Amounts (of fish and birds) are decreasing. neg Fisheries & Wildlife
35 No problems. Maintain rules in order to be followed. pos Wildlife & Fisheries staff
15 6 8
Tabwakea / Terawanbakoa
30 Work together to look after the fish, burning and birds. neg Everyone on the island.
31 They take fish even though they are not meant to. neg Everyone
32 Not enough spaces for getting fish for food. neg Government
33 Decreased number of fish on Kiritimati. neg Government and the people
36
Not enough management on the environment - e.g. if there is good management then there
will be an increased number of fish and birds.
neg
Government & Everyone on the island
37 No problem and hope to live well in the future. pos Government
38 No problem, but hope to be looked after very well. pos All people
39 No. Future successful. pos Government staff and People
40 The problem is that people always steal fish/birds. neg Government
41 The problem is all the people steal the fish from the channel. Our (future) is not look good. neg Government, all the people
42 They need to look afte the fish and birds. neg Government, all the people
43
No problem when the workers look after it. When they do their work then the future of our
environment is very good.
later
Government, all the people
44 No problems when the fisheries check the channel all the time. Our island looks nice. pos Government, Wildlife & Fisheries
45 No problems. It will look beautiful while the rules are maintained well. pos Government, all the people
46 No problems. It will look good for the future. pos All people, Fisheries & Wildlife staff
47 No problems. Rules must be done propertly in order that no problems come. pos Government, all people
48 When they first arrived in Kiritimati there was lots of fish but now there are less. neg Everyone
49 We must support so that there will be a limited amount of fish to be taken. neg Everyone
50
The management is good. They will get the money from that in the future and tourists will
want to come for the bonefish.
pos
Everyone and the Government

Environmental Information and Assessment page 100
51
People here take the bonefish that is our economy and they take the small fish from the
sea. Our island is not enough for the people and the fish also.
neg
Government, all the people when they work together
52 Not enough fish will occur in the future if the population grows. neg Government
53
Fish are being stolen and they need the Wildlife & Fisheries to look after it. The fish is not
enough.
neg
Government, Wildlife
54 The fisheries didn't do their work. No future for our children. Less fish and birds. neg Government, only us
55 More secretary needs to look after the fish/birds carefully. Many problems will happen. neg
Government, but people will have to prevent that
problem.
56
Throwing bad things (e.g. plastic) in the sea which can make fish sick. Bonefish and birds
decrease.
neg
Government and people
57
Reducing people who come and live on Kiritimati. Increasing people makes fish/birds
decrease.
neg
Government
58 Not enough bonefish seen nowadays. neg Government and people
59 The government must undertake good management. neg Everyone
60
If the government undertakes good management then there will be better living for the
people. Government must make strong rules.
later
Government
61 Many problems. The land is not enough and the fish too. neg Government
22 8
62
Banana / MC / NB
No problem seen nowadays, but hope for the future will disappear if others still go against
the rules regarding birds and fish.
later
Government and all people living in Kiritimati
63 No problems see now, but hope to appear in the coming year if the people grow up. later Government
64 Hop to disappear if people don't hear what the Government or rules say. later Government and people
65
Seen that people don't do what the Government says, so they need more strong rules to
keep the people in order - they can follow or be afraid of it. Besides that, birds are not
seen enough while bonefish hav nearly disappeared.
neg
Government, or need of more big bodies to be built in
order to make strong rules to the people.
66 The problem is the people take tiny fish. The future fish is no enough for the people. neg Government, Wildlife & Fisheries
67 No problems. The future generations need to look after it well. pos Government, Fisheries
68
No problem seen. Maybe there will be more problems coming from lots of people in the
future.
later
Government
69 No problem - it looks beautiful. pos Government when the problems comes.
70
Fish is not enough and the birds are not many from people. They are pleased that those
who work for that look after it. Our island is full for the people and the land is not enough
as they need to expand their land more than they use it now.
neg
Government, and also the people when they work
together

Environmental Information and Assessment page 101
71
Many problems for the bonefish, that is our only income and now the bonefish are
decreasing and the tourists are not happy for that. Not enough money from overseas.
neg
All people on Kiritimati
72
People nowadays destroy and go against the rules. So then in the future there will not
enough fish and birds if they still go against the rules.
neg
Government, Fisheries & Wildlife staff
73 No problem seen but decrease (fish & birds) in the future. later Fisheries & Wildlife staff.
74 Birds decrease. It seems that there will be no more birds. neg Government
75 No problem now, but in the future there will be less fish and birds. Government
76 Bonefish are decreasing. 10 years from now Kiritimati will lack in bonefish and birds. neg Wildlife
77
Not much management for fish/birds. Many changes will happen (e.g. milk fish
decrease).
neg
Wildlife
78
There is breaking of laws by people (e.g. stealing fish/birds). Lack of milk fish and birds.
More people then less fish and birds and crops.
neg
Government
79 Bone fish and milk fish decreased. neg Government
80 There is decreased number of birds compared with previous years. neg Everyone
81 Need more management/looking after. neg Government
82 More people coming will make fish and birds decrease. Lack of fish and crabs. later Government
83
No problem can be seen but more strong rules to go against people who always do rough
things.
later
Government and all people
84 The people here break the law for the fish. Not enough fish for the future. neg All the people
85 When more people come then there will be many problems. neg Government
14 7 2

Environmental Information and Assessment page 102
Appendix 10
Prescribed Development
Under the Republic of Kiribati Environmental Protection Act (1999), the following proposed
activities grouped into 11 sectoral like categories would require EIA.
1. FOOD INDUSTRIES including:
(a) fruit processing, bottling and canning
(b) brewing, making and distillery works
(c) abattoirs
(d) other food processing requiring packaging
2. IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES
3. NON-METALLIC INDUSTRIES including:
(a) lime production
(b) brick and tile manufacture
(c) extraction of minerals and mining
(d) extraction of aggregates stones or shingles, sand and reef mud, beach rock
(e) radio-active related industries
(f) manufacture of cement
(g) plastic manufacturing and moulding
4. LEATHER, PAPER, TEXTILE AND WOOD INDUSTRIES including:
(a) leather tanning and processing
(b) textile industry with dying facilities
(c) carpet industry with chemical dying
(d) manufacture of paper, pulp and other wood products
5. FISHING AND MARINE INDUSTRY PRODUCT
(a) Fish processing,
(b) seaweed farming,
(c) land or marine foods processing or farming,
(d) pet fishing licensing, fishing ponds industries,
(e) fishing activities in Kiribati waters,
(f) introduction to Kiribati non-native (alien) species.
6. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY including:
(a) pesticide production and use
(b) pharmaceutical production
(c) fertiliser manufacture and use
(d) oil refineries
7. TOURISM INDUSTRY including:
(a) hotels
(b) golf courses
(c) recreational parks

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(d) tourism resorts or estates
8. AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY including:
(a) livestock development
(b) agricultural development schemes
(c) irrigation and water supply schemes
(d) logging operations
(e) saw milling, all forms of timber milling and treatment, copra processing
9. PUBLIC WORKS SECTOR including:
(a) landfills
(b) infrastructure developments
(c) major waste disposal plants including recycling and collection systems
(d) soil erosion, beach erosion and siltation control
(e) hydropower schemes, desalination plants
(f) reservoir development
(g) airport developments
(h) causeways, drainage and disposal systems
(i) dredging
(j) watershed management
(k) ports and harbours
(l) seawalls/land reclamation
(m) boat channels
(n) port and harbours
10. GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ORGANISMS (GEOs)
11. OTHER
(a) industrial estates
(b) housing multiple units
(c) settlement and resettlement schemes
(d) petroleum product storage and processing works.