OUSEION - Memorial University's Digital Archives Initiative ...

FEMALE AND DWARFGLADIATORS 169
female gladiators a substantial challenge to the social order. In the end.
for female gladiators to have a substantial role in the games. they
needed to fight opponents that presented a realistic and substantial
challenge. No other real choices presented themselves except certain
animals and other women.
It is now clear why no Roman expressed any contempt or ridicule
for the practice per se of having women fight in the arena. In fact. the
general attitude is one of acceptance and even approval. The objections
raised to the appearance in the arena of women from the equestrian
and senatorial classes do not count here since they arose from the high
social status of the participants. not the use per se of women as gladiators.
The complaints we hear in Tacitus. Dio. and Juv. Sat. I about upper-class
women becoming gladiators or venatores represent fairly
typical reactions to the transgressions by anyone of the rules regarding
who could perform publicly.66 Yet provided that emperors avoided the
problems engendered by allowing or requiring noblewomen to appear
in the arena. female gladiators provided a very visible and striking lesson
that military bravery and fortitude were within the grasp of any
Roman. In this role they functioned to affirm values essential to Roman
society and they thereby affirmed that the gladiatorial games had a
greater purpose than simply entertaining the Roman populace. 67 Martial
and Statius are therefore likely to have reflected the opinions of
many Romans when they greatly praised Titus and Domitian for arranging
for women to provide such notable demonstrations of virtue.
So if we pay close heed to what the Romans said and did not say
66 On the infamia that attached to certain Romans from appearing as public
performers. see Friedlander. Sittengeschichte Roms 'o II 19-21 (he lists many of
the pertinent references in ancient authors); Ville (above, n. 7) esp. 255-262,
267-27°,339-343: Levick (above, n. 48) 108-110; Wiedemann (above, n. 4) 26-30:
P. Plass. The Game of Death in Ancient Rome: Arena Sport and Political Suicide
(Madison 1995) 74-75; C. Edwards, "Unspeakable professions: Public performance
and prostitution in ancient Rome," in J. Hallett and M. Skinner. eds., Roman
Sexualities (Princeton 1997) 66-95·
67 The reasons why the Romans valued gladiatorial games cannot be considered
here in any detail. Yet some ancient authors-e.g. Plin. Pan. 33, Tac. Ann.
12.56.2, and Lib. Or. 64,60-clearly felt that it was inspiring to watch people
fight and die bravely, especially if they were not normally considered capable of
virtus. On the moral value of watching gladiators, see further Ville (above, n. 7)
455-456; M. Wistrand. "Violence and entertainment in Seneca the Younger,"
Eranos 88 (1990) 39-42: Wiedemann (above, n. 4) 35-40; P. Cagniart, "The philosopher
and the gladiator," CW 93 (1999-2000) 607-618. See also the review
articles by S. Brown, "Explaining the arena: Did the Romans 'need' gladiators?,"
JRA 8 (1995) 376-384: D. Kyle, "Rethinking the Roman arena: Gladiators. sorrows,
and games," AHB 11.2-3 (1997) 94-97·