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162 STEPHEN BRUNET debase themselves in such a fashion. 3. The report that Hadrian banned the sale of a slave or a maidservant to a pimp and a lanista unless the owner gave a reason for doing so (SHA Hadr. 18.8--9). Some scholars have taken this to mean that male slaves were not to be sold to the gladiatorial schools and female slaves were not to be sold into prostitution, Le., the provision had nothing to do with female gladiators. so Yet even if Hadrian's measure did limit the sale of women to lanistae, this does not tell us much. We can already presume that female gladiators came from the same source as male gladiators: sometimes from volunteers (or those an emperor had forced to volunteer), especially when dealing with gladiators from the upper classes. but most often by some sort of purchase. We still do not know if it was common for private individuals to sell members of their household, either male or female. to the gladiatorial schools or whether virtually all gladiators were purchased directly from the slave markets. Schiifer does make the valid point that even if an owner did sell a female slave to a gladiator school. she is not likely to have actually become a gladiator. The majority of such women woul' have been physically unsuited for fighting in armor, and the arena had many occupations besides fighting as a gladiator or venator. such as performing as a musician, that regularly employed women.5' 4. Some scholars would include here Dio's report that Septimius Severus banned performances by women (75.16.1). The ban was not prompted by Severus' objection to having women perform but to the fact that the contestants had caused noblewomen to be slandered, although exactly how this happened is not clear. Dio's report is somewhat garbled, and it is possible that the ban involved women appearing in the arena. since Dio uses the word \lOVO\laXElv. The contest. though. seems to have been a gymnastic competition-the contestants are clearly named as athletes-and Severus' action was m re likely aimed at keeping women from competing as athletes. 52 50 See Schafer (above. n. 6) 264-265. who reviews different ways scholars have interpreted the language of this provision. On the history of provisions limiting the sale of female slaves into prostitution. see T. McGinn. Prostitution. Sexuality. and the Law in Ancient Rome (Oxford 1998) ch. 8. esp. 294 (other evidence for Hadrian's interest in the limitation of such sales) and 305 n. 81 (the reference in SHA). For provisions limiting the right of masters to force their slaves (with no specific mention of women) to fight as venatores. see Digesta 18·I.42.48.8.I I.l-2. 5' Schafer (above. n. 6) 260-262. 265. 52 So Ville (above. n. 7) 264 n. 75.
IV. Artistic Evidence FEMALE AND DWARFGLADIA TORS I. We also possess some very limited artistic evidence for female gladiators. The one undisputed depiction of female gladiators is the much-illustrated relief from Halicarnassus showing the gladiators Amazon and Akhillia. 53 The inscription indicates that they had been granted a missio in their combat (CllTEAV8Tlcav). They are shown facing each other and. to the degree we can tell (the figure on the right has suffered damage). they were both armed with shields. greaves. swords, and manicae to protect their sword arms. Since the figure on the right. presumably Akhillia. fought left-handed. she wore her manica on her left arm with her greave on her right leg and held her shield on the right side. The breasts of both gladiators. or at least the right breast of the figure on the left. were not covered. As well. they are not shown wearing helmets. which has led several scholars to claim that they in fact never wore helmets during their match. 54 Underlying this claim is the presumption that they did not need helmets since they were simply playing at being gladiators in a parody of their male counterparts. Certainly not wearing helmets during a match would have constituted a major variation from standard practice since. of the major types of gladiators. only the retiarius fought without a helmet. 55 It would also have marked Amazon and Akhillia as being quite different from the female gladiators described by ]uvenaI. who made a point of wearing helmets. along with full armor. in their attempt at verisimilitude (6.252. 262). Yet. as it turns out. their helmets are present. but the artist chose to put them behind them at each end of the platform on which they stand. As Coleman has shown. this was an artistic device to indicate that. in what was a very rare ending to a gladiatorial match. the two women had fought to a draw (stantes missae).5 6 Moreover, they were able to accomplish this distinction under somewhat difficult circumstances since matches between right- and left-handed gladiators were considered especially challenging. 57 The artist. then. was not treating 53 See e.g. Coleman (above. n. 38) fig. I; E. Kohne, C. Ewigleben, and R. Jackson. eds.. Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome (Berkeley 2000) fig. 137. 54 L. Robert, Les gladiateurs dans l'Orient grec (Paris 1940) 188-189: Briquel (above, n. 7) 52; Gunderson (above. n. 6) 143· 55 Coleman (above. n. 38) 491 has located one description in Lucian (Tox. 60) of a gladiator who did not wear a helmet. As she points out, however, he was a foolish amateur, and his example shows that in standard practice all gladiators except retiarii wore helmets. 56 Coleman (above, n. 38) esp. 493-495. 57 On left-handed gladiators. see Robert (n. 54 above) 70-72; K. Coleman...A
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IV. Artistic Evidence<br />
FEMALE AND DWARFGLADIA TORS<br />
I. We also possess some very limited artistic evidence for female<br />
gladiators. The one undisputed depiction of female gladiators is the<br />
much-illustrated relief from Halicarnassus showing the gladiators<br />
Amazon and Akhillia. 53 The inscription indicates that they had been<br />
granted a missio in their combat (CllTEAV8Tlcav). They are shown facing<br />
each other and. to the degree we can tell (the figure on the right has suffered<br />
damage). they were both armed with shields. greaves. swords,<br />
and manicae to protect their sword arms. Since the figure on the right.<br />
presumably Akhillia. fought left-handed. she wore her manica on her<br />
left arm with her greave on her right leg and held her shield on the<br />
right side. The breasts of both gladiators. or at least the right breast of<br />
the figure on the left. were not covered. As well. they are not shown<br />
wearing helmets. which has led several scholars to claim that they in<br />
fact never wore helmets during their match. 54 Underlying this claim is<br />
the presumption that they did not need helmets since they were simply<br />
playing at being gladiators in a parody of their male counterparts. Certainly<br />
not wearing helmets during a match would have constituted a<br />
major variation from standard practice since. of the major types of<br />
gladiators. only the retiarius fought without a helmet. 55 It would also<br />
have marked Amazon and Akhillia as being quite different from the<br />
female gladiators described by ]uvenaI. who made a point of wearing<br />
helmets. along with full armor. in their attempt at verisimilitude (6.252.<br />
262). Yet. as it turns out. their helmets are present. but the artist chose<br />
to put them behind them at each end of the platform on which they<br />
stand. As Coleman has shown. this was an artistic device to indicate<br />
that. in what was a very rare ending to a gladiatorial match. the two<br />
women had fought to a draw (stantes missae).5 6 Moreover, they were<br />
able to accomplish this distinction under somewhat difficult circumstances<br />
since matches between right- and left-handed gladiators were<br />
considered especially challenging. 57 The artist. then. was not treating<br />
53 See e.g. Coleman (above. n. 38) fig. I; E. Kohne, C. Ewigleben, and R. Jackson.<br />
eds.. Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome<br />
(Berkeley 2000) fig. 137.<br />
54 L. Robert, Les gladiateurs dans l'Orient grec (Paris 1940) 188-189: Briquel<br />
(above, n. 7) 52; Gunderson (above. n. 6) 143·<br />
55 Coleman (above. n. 38) 491 has located one description in Lucian (Tox. 60)<br />
of a gladiator who did not wear a helmet. As she points out, however, he was a<br />
foolish amateur, and his example shows that in standard practice all gladiators<br />
except retiarii wore helmets.<br />
56 Coleman (above, n. 38) esp. 493-495.<br />
57 On left-handed gladiators. see Robert (n. 54 above) 70-72; K. Coleman...A
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