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STEPHEN BRUNET the women involved that made Nero's actions reprehensible. 34 As Dio clearly puts it, women (and men) of high rank were made to perform like people of the lowest position in society.35 Dio and Tacitus do not seem to have any objection to the practice of women fighting in the arena so long as it did not involve women of elite status. 2. The three references discussed above-Mart. Sp. 6 and 6B, D.C. 66.25.2-that deal with Titus' use of female venatores in the games celebrating the inauguration of the Colosseum. Of interest here is the fact, specifically mentioned by Dio, that Titus did not use women of high social status and hence was praised (or. in Dio's case. not censured) for this practice. Also important is the possibility that they were dressed like Venus, which would have made their gender clear to the audience. 3. The three accounts discussed above-Suet. Dom. 4.1, Stat. Silv. 1.6. D.C. 67.8.4-that testify to Domitian's use of women for his shows. As argued above. none of these sources can be taken to mean that women were matched against dwarfs. In fact, Statius' account makes it clear that they fought separately during the show Domitian gave to celebrate the Saturnalia. Statius only describes one occasion when women fought as gladiators. and the other two authors are vague about exactly how often Domitian used women in his shows, although they both felt the appearance of women was a noteworthy feature of his games. 36 Neither Dio nor Suetonius. however. felt that their appearance was to be censured. while Statius actually praised the display of military skill shown by the female gladiators, an effect that was robably highlighted by their being dressed as Amazons. 4. A late second-century inscription honoring a magistrate for being the first person since the founding of Rome to offer the people of Ostia a gladiatorial show involving women: qrJi primus [omniu]m ab Vrbe condita ludos cum/[. .. ]or et muliere$ [a]c:;i ferrum dedit. 37 No exact par- 34 Briquel (above. n. 7) 50 rightly observes that the contrast between the rebuke that Nero earned for his use of upper-class women and the praise that Titus received for his use of women of relatively low status is striking. 35 R. Newbold, "Cassius Dio and the games," AC 44 (1975) esp. 591, 595,597, notes that the status of participants in games was an issue which greatly interested Dio and which he consistently made a point of recording. 3 6 Ville (above, n. 7) 151 argues that the last part of D.C. 67.8 deals with Domitian's general activities regarding the games and not Dio's ostensible subject, the spectacle marking Domitian's Dacian victory. Hence Dio's comment about female and dwarf gladiators cannot be localized to any particular game or games. 37 M. Cebeillac-Gervasoni and F. Zevi, "Revisions et nouveautes pour trois inscriptions d'Ostie," MEFRA 88 (1976) 612-620 = AEpigr(I977) 153.
FEMALE AND DWARFGLADIATORS 157 aIle! exists for the expression ad ferrum dedit. and it has been taken to mean that the women were sentenced to die in the arena. 38 A comparison with similar expressions. though. makes it more likely that these women fought as gladiators. Coleman notes that the use of the term mulieres (in contrast to feminas) implies that they were not of high social status. 39 The magistrate seems to have provided some other kind of entertainment in addition to these female gladiators. but unfortunately only the last two letters of this section (-or) are preserved. No restoration has been suggested for this missing section. but "dwarfs" (e.g. nanos. pumiJiones) does not seem to be an option given the letters that remain. II. Fictional Accounts 1. Echion's description in Petronius of games that, in contrast to a recent. rather shabby show. were going to be a crowd-pleaser in part because a woman was scheduled to fight as an essedarius (45.7). The name essedarius implies that this type of gladiator fought from a chariot. but it is in fact very difficult to determine what special armor or combat technique distinguished the essedarius from other types of gladiators. 4u What is germane here is that the essedarius was a fairly rare type of gladiator and that we have no other reference to a woman who fought in this fashion. In addition to this essedarius. the show was going to include. if the manuscript reading is accepted. some performers termed Manii (Jam Manios aliquot habet et mulierem essedariam et dispensatorem Glyconis). The meaning of the term is unclear. and basing his decision on Stat. Silv. 1.6. Scheffer proposed that Manios should be emended to nanos. Scheffer's emendation. however. has not won the day. in part because it seems that Manius did have a definite meaning. even if we cannot recover it. For example. Persius seems to connect the name Manius with the expression "born of the earth. "4' Various entries in Festus on Manias meaning "figurines" or "spirits used to scare children" and on Manius meaning "famous men" or "deformed men" have been cited in attempts to explain the term. 42 We should not be surprised. 38 See K. Coleman, "Missio at Halicarnassus," HSCP 100 (2000) 498. who herself feels that the women were gladiators. 39 Coleman (above. n. 38) 498. 40 On the nature of the essedarius. see n. 59 below. 4 1 6.55-60 with W. Kissel. ed.. Auks Persius FJaccus, Satiren (Heidelberg 1990) 839· 4 2 Festus, p. II4, II5. 128. 129 (Lindsay); see also J. Pirie and W.M. Lindsay. eds.. Glossaria Latina iussu Academiae Britannicae edita IV: Placidus. Festus (Paris 1930) 255-256 (on Festus p. 114). For an example of the attempt to interpret Petronius in the light of Festus, see C. Pellegrino. ed .. Petronii Arbitri Sa-
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FEMALE AND DWARFGLADIATORS 157<br />
aIle! exists for the expression ad ferrum dedit. and it has been taken to<br />
mean that the women were sentenced to die in the arena. 38 A comparison<br />
with similar expressions. though. makes it more likely that these<br />
women fought as gladiators. Coleman notes that the use of the term<br />
mulieres (in contrast to feminas) implies that they were not of high social<br />
status. 39 The magistrate seems to have provided some other kind of<br />
entertainment in addition to these female gladiators. but unfortunately<br />
only the last two letters of this section (-or) are preserved. No restoration<br />
has been suggested for this missing section. but "dwarfs" (e.g.<br />
nanos. pumiJiones) does not seem to be an option given the letters that<br />
remain.<br />
II. Fictional Accounts<br />
1. Echion's description in Petronius of games that, in contrast to a recent.<br />
rather shabby show. were going to be a crowd-pleaser in part because<br />
a woman was scheduled to fight as an essedarius (45.7). The name<br />
essedarius implies that this type of gladiator fought from a chariot. but<br />
it is in fact very difficult to determine what special armor or combat<br />
technique distinguished the essedarius from other types of gladiators. 4u<br />
What is germane here is that the essedarius was a fairly rare type of<br />
gladiator and that we have no other reference to a woman who fought<br />
in this fashion. In addition to this essedarius. the show was going to include.<br />
if the manuscript reading is accepted. some performers termed<br />
Manii (Jam Manios aliquot habet et mulierem essedariam et dispensatorem<br />
Glyconis). The meaning of the term is unclear. and basing his decision<br />
on Stat. Silv. 1.6. Scheffer proposed that Manios should be<br />
emended to nanos. Scheffer's emendation. however. has not won the<br />
day. in part because it seems that Manius did have a definite meaning.<br />
even if we cannot recover it. For example. Persius seems to connect the<br />
name Manius with the expression "born of the earth. "4' Various entries<br />
in Festus on Manias meaning "figurines" or "spirits used to scare children"<br />
and on Manius meaning "famous men" or "deformed men" have<br />
been cited in attempts to explain the term. 42 We should not be surprised.<br />
38 See K. Coleman, "Missio at Halicarnassus," HSCP 100 (2000) 498. who herself<br />
feels that the women were gladiators.<br />
39 Coleman (above. n. 38) 498.<br />
40 On the nature of the essedarius. see n. 59 below.<br />
4 1 6.55-60 with W. Kissel. ed.. Auks Persius FJaccus, Satiren (Heidelberg<br />
1990) 839·<br />
4 2 Festus, p. II4, II5. 128. 129 (Lindsay); see also J. Pirie and W.M. Lindsay.<br />
eds.. Glossaria Latina iussu Academiae Britannicae edita IV: Placidus. Festus<br />
(Paris 1930) 255-256 (on Festus p. 114). For an example of the attempt to interpret<br />
Petronius in the light of Festus, see C. Pellegrino. ed .. Petronii Arbitri Sa-
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