13 Dilke: Ground survey <strong>and</strong> measurement <strong>in</strong> Roman towns
The mechanics of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g trade 1 There is virtually no direct <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> organization of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g trade <strong>in</strong> Roman Brita<strong>in</strong> beyond <strong>the</strong> evidence of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong>mselves. From <strong>the</strong>se we can work out someth<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> pattern of distribution of materials or, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case of f<strong>in</strong>e carved stonework, someth<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> movements <strong>and</strong> mutual <strong>in</strong>fluences of masons. From <strong>the</strong> analysis of fabrics <strong>and</strong> classification of stamps on tiles we can deduce, as recent research has demonstrated, someth<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong> production <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g of one particular build<strong>in</strong>g element. The plans of build<strong>in</strong>gs too may reveal regional peculiarities <strong>and</strong> thus shed light on <strong>the</strong> movements or sources of <strong>in</strong>spiration of architects. O<strong>the</strong>rwise we have very little to go on. In <strong>the</strong> case of military <strong>in</strong>stallations we know from quarry marks <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>scriptions what we could have guessed anyway, that <strong>the</strong> army was generally responsible both for cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> stone <strong>and</strong> for <strong>the</strong> actual build<strong>in</strong>g. In <strong>the</strong> civilian sphere we occasionally learn from <strong>in</strong>scriptions who was <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiator of a build<strong>in</strong>g project. We even know <strong>the</strong> names of two architects who worked <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>, a slave or peregr<strong>in</strong>us called Am<strong>and</strong>us who dedicated an altar to Brigantia at Birrens (RIB 2091), <strong>and</strong> a Roman citizen named Qu<strong>in</strong>tus who dedicated an altar to M<strong>in</strong>erva at Carrawburgh (RIB 1542), as well as that of a mason, Priscus, son of Toutius, an immigrant from Gaul, who set up an altar to Sulis at Bath (RIB 149). But on <strong>the</strong> day-to-day operation of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g trade our <strong>in</strong>formation is nil. I make no apologies, <strong>the</strong>refore, for treat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>in</strong> more general terms, firstly by tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account evidence from Italy <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Empire</strong>, <strong>and</strong> secondly by consider<strong>in</strong>g how build<strong>in</strong>gs were put up ra<strong>the</strong>r than merely how <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry was organized. This enables us to use <strong>the</strong> evidence not only of archaeological rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>scriptions but also of literary sources, especially <strong>the</strong> legal codes, <strong>and</strong> of artistic representations of builders at work. The follow<strong>in</strong>g account will review <strong>the</strong> different stages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> execution of a build<strong>in</strong>g, from conception to completion, draw<strong>in</strong>g upon <strong>the</strong> different k<strong>in</strong>ds of evidence as appropriate. Commission<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs The first stage was obviously to <strong>in</strong>itiate or commission a build<strong>in</strong>g. Here we must dist<strong>in</strong>guish between military <strong>and</strong> civil works. For military works <strong>and</strong> roads <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiative almost always lay with <strong>the</strong> emperor; he acted through his legates <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> work was supervised by <strong>the</strong> local military comm<strong>and</strong>er (or sometimes <strong>the</strong> imperial procurator). Thus when Gordian restored <strong>the</strong> headquarters build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> arsenals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fort at Lanchester it was done through <strong>the</strong> agency of <strong>the</strong> propraetorian legate Maecilius Fuscus <strong>and</strong> under <strong>the</strong> direction of <strong>the</strong> prefect of a cohort stationed <strong>the</strong>re (RIB 1092). Such exceptions as occur seem to be late <strong>in</strong> date <strong>and</strong> due to abnormal circumstances. Probably <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 4th century, for <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>and</strong> perhaps as a result of 14 Roger L<strong>in</strong>g pressures on <strong>the</strong> imperial exchequer, sections of Hadrian’s Wall were restored by <strong>the</strong> civil authorities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of <strong>in</strong>dividual civitates, while named <strong>in</strong>dividuals (architects? contractors? sponsors?) took <strong>the</strong> credit for specific lengths of wall<strong>in</strong>g (RIB 1629,1672-3,1843-4, 1962,2022,2053). Apart from <strong>the</strong>se exceptional cases military build<strong>in</strong>g would normally have been adm<strong>in</strong>istered with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> army <strong>and</strong> carried out by soldiers. Civilian build<strong>in</strong>g followed a much more varied range of patterns, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest of my remarks will deal largely with that sphere. Here, broadly speak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiative could have come from four ma<strong>in</strong> sources: <strong>the</strong> emperor or his representatives (especially <strong>the</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>cial governors), <strong>the</strong> Roman Senate, <strong>the</strong> local senate or magistrates, <strong>and</strong> private citizens. The last-named were, ef course, active especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field of private houses <strong>and</strong> tombs, though a private <strong>in</strong>dividual would frequently endow <strong>the</strong> community, or a religious group of which he or she was a member, with a public or semi-public structure. A case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t is <strong>the</strong> commercial build<strong>in</strong>g at Pompeii, probably a k<strong>in</strong>d of stock exchange, endowed by <strong>the</strong> priestess Eumachia dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> reign of Tiberius (CIL, 10, 810-11). Ano<strong>the</strong>r is <strong>the</strong> temple of Isis, also at Pompeii, rebuilt from its foundations after <strong>the</strong> earthquake of AD 62 by N Popidius Ampliatus <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> name of his <strong>in</strong>fant son Cels<strong>in</strong>us (CIL, 10, 846). The organization of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry To construct his build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> patron could proceed <strong>in</strong> various ways. An early stage would have been to decide upon <strong>the</strong> exact form <strong>and</strong> dimensions. For this, as nowadays, he would engage an architect, who might subsequently act as supervisor of <strong>the</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g work <strong>in</strong> progress. Alternatively <strong>the</strong> patron could act as his own architect; Vitruvius, after condemn<strong>in</strong>g unscrupulous, uneducated, money-grubb<strong>in</strong>g architects who vie for con- tracts, praises wealthy householders who build for <strong>the</strong>m- selves, because <strong>the</strong>y will know that <strong>the</strong>ir money is be<strong>in</strong>g spent as <strong>the</strong>y would wish it (vi. praef 5-6). The actual build<strong>in</strong>g work, if not supervised directly by a public or imperial official, could have been put <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s of a contractor, or aga<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case of a well-to-do householder, entrusted to his own freedmen or slaves. For private work <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>in</strong>formation to be gleaned from Roman writers such as Cicero, who <strong>in</strong> a letter of Septem- Septem- ber, 54 BC, reports to his bro<strong>the</strong>r Qu<strong>in</strong>tus on build<strong>in</strong>g operations <strong>in</strong> progress on a family villa (Ad Qu<strong>in</strong>tum fratrem, iii. 1.1-2): ‘On <strong>the</strong> Manilius estate I found Diphilus be<strong>in</strong>g slower than ever; but <strong>the</strong>re was noth<strong>in</strong>g left to do except <strong>the</strong> baths, <strong>the</strong> promenade, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> aviary. I was pleased with <strong>the</strong> villa; <strong>the</strong> paved portico is most impressive now that it has been fully opened up <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> columns have been surfaced. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g depends on <strong>the</strong> plasterwork be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g; I shall see to it myself. The pavements seemed to be com<strong>in</strong>g on nicely. I disapproved of one or two vaults <strong>and</strong> ordered <strong>the</strong>m to be altered.’