Factors and Processes Contributing to Resilience
Factors and Processes Contributing to Resilience Factors and Processes Contributing to Resilience
206 Karol L Kumpfer Prevention programs that explicitly teach generat problem-solving have found increased positive outcomes in their participants, including reductions in precursors of substance use (DeMarsh & Kumpfer, 1986; Kumpfer, 1991; Spivack & Shur, 1982). Botvin and associates (1990) have also reported reductions in tobacco use (Botvin & Tortu, 1988) and alcohol use (Botvin, Baker, Renick, Filazzola, & Botvin, 1984) following a generic life skills or social problern solving skills program including advertising analysis, decision making, goal-setting, stress management, communication and dating skills. Follow-up studies (Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Tortu, & Botvin, 1990) repJicated these positive effects in seventh to ninth graders by providing booster sessions over three years. The exception to positive findings of the study was that, although the prevalence of self·reported intoxication was reduced, the quantity and frequency of alcohol use was not. Specific problern solving strategies for the resistance of alcohol and other drugs, such as peer refusal skills, assertiveness training, advertising or peer appeal analysis, consequences analysis have been popular substance abuse prevention interventions. Specific problern solving skills are often scripted and taught through cognitive behavioral techniques involving modeling, role playing, behavioral reversal often involving repeated practice, audio or video feedback and reinforcement for new skills. Increased resilience to initiation to tobacco (Biglan et al., 1985) and lower prevalence rates for weekly tobacco, alcohol and marijuana use (Pentz, 1983; Pentz et al., 1989) were found after two years of intervention using these specific skill training strategies in cm,nbination with other multicomponent education, parent and community strategies. After three years, the positive results for reduced alcohol use in participants was no Ionger supported (Johnson et al., 1989), which is a common finding for many specific skills training programs. Reducing alcohol use in youth appears to be much more difficult. However, Dieiman and associates (Dielman, Schope, Leech, & Butchard, 1989) have had success in reducing the increasing rate of alcohol misuse in students who began using alcohol with their peers in unsupervised settings. Their specific skills training program also reduced the rate of increase in susceptibility to peer pressure. Unfortunately, many of the specific substance abuse resistance skiH training programs do not directly and independently test the efficacy of the skills training in reducing alcohol and other drug use. Several exceptions are the Ketchel and Bieger (1989) study and the Kim, McLeod, and Palmgren (1989) study which both found increased intentions to not use alcohol and other drugs, and decreased substance use.lt has been hypothesized that these positive drug use changes may be due more to reinforeerneut of the existing school or peer non-use norms (Kumpfer, Moskowitz & Klitzner, 1986), or to recent changes in the social climate towards tobacco and other
Factors and Processes Contrlbufing to Resilience 101 drug use or the informal social control climate (Moskowitz, 1983): Hansen and Graham (1991) have empirical evidence that changing the perceptions of AOD norms is more salient than specific resistance skills training in reducing AOD use in youth. · Multi-Cultural and Bi-Gender Competencies. Research studies have also found multicultural or bicultural competence as related to less sub· stance use in youth (Oetting & Beauvais, 19.90; Buriel, Calzada, & Vasquez, 1982). Youth who are capable of acting competently in several cultures if needed are more successful. Additionally, bi·ge·nder competence is related to increased resilience and life success in women (Dunn, 1994). Empathy and Interpersonal Socia/ Skills. Another hallmark of resilient children is their sense of responsibility for others, willingness to care for others, and abilitytobe empathetic of the needs of others (Werner, 1985; 1986). Related coping skills include interpersonal social skills (Platt, Belding, & Husband, in press), an engaging personality, good listening and communicating ski11s (Wolin, 1991), and politencss (Kumpfer, 1990a,b). Resilient children are responsive and active in their relationships with others and elicit more positive responses from their associates even from infancy (Demos, 1989; Werner & Smith, 1982). Because of their increased social skills, resilient children are popular and have increased choice of fdends allowing them to establish friendships with positive, prosocial peers if they desire (Berndt & Ladd, 1989). When combined with the availability of social support (Rutter, 1987) and the willingness to use external supports (Schwartz, Jacobson, Hauser, & Dornbush, 1989), resilient children are capable of getting the social supports they need to buffer stressors and teach them even more coping skills. Jacobs and Wolin (1991) report that resilient children of alcoholics even as young children sought ••oases of health in interacting wilh the healthiest parts of their troubled families" (p. 111 ). By middle childhood, these children are connecting with neighbors, teachers, and other substitute parents. Werner (1985) also identified attachment to community institutions and positive rote models of youth Ieaders as important. Felsman (1989) found in his study of resilient Colombian street children that they were skillful in locating existing social supports and using ther;n to their advantage. Children of mothers who are willing to use social agency support are reported to have more competencies (Musick, Scott, Spencer, Goldman, & Cohler, 1984), possibly because of the effective role modeling of the mother, increased resulting resources or increased social contact. Wolin and Wolin (1993) report resilient individuals have a capacity for intimacy. In addition, they are careful in their choice of intimates. Rutter
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206 Karol L Kumpfer<br />
Prevention programs that explicitly teach generat problem-solving<br />
have found increased positive outcomes in their participants, including<br />
reductions in precursors of substance use (DeMarsh & Kumpfer, 1986;<br />
Kumpfer, 1991; Spivack & Shur, 1982). Botvin <strong>and</strong> associates (1990) have<br />
also reported reductions in <strong>to</strong>bacco use (Botvin & Tortu, 1988) <strong>and</strong> alcohol<br />
use (Botvin, Baker, Renick, Filazzola, & Botvin, 1984) following a generic<br />
life skills or social problern solving skills program including advertising<br />
analysis, decision making, goal-setting, stress management, communication<br />
<strong>and</strong> dating skills. Follow-up studies (Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Tortu, &<br />
Botvin, 1990) repJicated these positive effects in seventh <strong>to</strong> ninth graders<br />
by providing booster sessions over three years. The exception <strong>to</strong> positive<br />
findings of the study was that, although the prevalence of self·reported<br />
in<strong>to</strong>xication was reduced, the quantity <strong>and</strong> frequency of alcohol use was not.<br />
Specific problern solving strategies for the resistance of alcohol <strong>and</strong><br />
other drugs, such as peer refusal skills, assertiveness training, advertising or<br />
peer appeal analysis, consequences analysis have been popular substance<br />
abuse prevention interventions. Specific problern solving skills are often<br />
scripted <strong>and</strong> taught through cognitive behavioral techniques involving modeling,<br />
role playing, behavioral reversal often involving repeated practice,<br />
audio or video feedback <strong>and</strong> reinforcement for new skills.<br />
Increased resilience <strong>to</strong> initiation <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>bacco (Biglan et al., 1985) <strong>and</strong><br />
lower prevalence rates for weekly <strong>to</strong>bacco, alcohol <strong>and</strong> marijuana use<br />
(Pentz, 1983; Pentz et al., 1989) were found after two years of intervention<br />
using these specific skill training strategies in cm,nbination with other multicomponent<br />
education, parent <strong>and</strong> community strategies. After three years,<br />
the positive results for reduced alcohol use in participants was no Ionger<br />
supported (Johnson et al., 1989), which is a common finding for many<br />
specific skills training programs. Reducing alcohol use in youth appears <strong>to</strong><br />
be much more difficult. However, Dieiman <strong>and</strong> associates (Dielman,<br />
Schope, Leech, & Butchard, 1989) have had success in reducing the increasing<br />
rate of alcohol misuse in students who began using alcohol with their<br />
peers in unsupervised settings. Their specific skills training program also<br />
reduced the rate of increase in susceptibility <strong>to</strong> peer pressure.<br />
Unfortunately, many of the specific substance abuse resistance skiH<br />
training programs do not directly <strong>and</strong> independently test the efficacy of the<br />
skills training in reducing alcohol <strong>and</strong> other drug use. Several exceptions<br />
are the Ketchel <strong>and</strong> Bieger (1989) study <strong>and</strong> the Kim, McLeod, <strong>and</strong> Palmgren<br />
(1989) study which both found increased intentions <strong>to</strong> not use alcohol<br />
<strong>and</strong> other drugs, <strong>and</strong> decreased substance use.lt has been hypothesized that<br />
these positive drug use changes may be due more <strong>to</strong> reinforeerneut of the<br />
existing school or peer non-use norms (Kumpfer, Moskowitz & Klitzner,<br />
1986), or <strong>to</strong> recent changes in the social climate <strong>to</strong>wards <strong>to</strong>bacco <strong>and</strong> other
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