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The Encyclopedia of
SAINTS

The Encyclopedia of
SAINTS
Rosemary Ellen Guiley

The Encyclopedia of Saints
Copyright © 2001 by Visionary Living, Inc.
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Guiley, Rosemary.
The encyclopedia of saints / Rosemary Ellen Guiley.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-4133-4 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-8160-4134-2 (pbk.: alk. paper)
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CONTENTS
f
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii
INTRODUCTION ix
ENTRIES A TO Z 1
APPENDICES 355
SOURCES AND FURTHER
READING RECOMMENDATIONS 401
INDEX 403

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
f
I am especially grateful for the expertise and assistance of James G. Matlock and
Joanne P. Austin in the research and compilation of this encyclopedia. I also would like
to thank my editor, James Chambers, for his vision and support of this project.
vii

My long-standing interest in saints came to a turning
point in 1997 after an unexpected, spontaneous and
deeply moving experience.
In the spring of that year, I traveled to Montreal to
speak at a conference. Montreal is home to St. Joseph’s
Oratory, a magnificent structure built on Mount Royal, a
small mountain within the city environs. It is a healing
shrine, the world’s largest pilgrimage center dedicated to
St. Joseph. Some 2 million people of all faiths from all
over the world come here every year to pray for the intercession
of a remarkable saint, Blessed Brother André,
whose tomb lies within the oratory. One Sunday, I visited
the oratory and joined a large throng of people lined up to
pay their respects at the tomb. I came with no particular
purpose other than to see the oratory and witness others.
I didn’t even know much about the life of Brother André.
What happened to me there caused me to learn about his
life and miraculous healing work.
Brother André was born Alfred Bessette in a village
east of Montreal in 1845 to a poor and humble family. He
was small and of delicate constitution, and suffered poor
health all of his life. In 1870, he sought to enter the
Congregation of the Holy Cross, a religious order dedicated
to the teaching profession. The order accepted him
despite his lack of education, and gave him the lowly job
of doorkeeper at Notre Dame College in Mount Royal. He
took the name André in honor of his sponsor, Pastor
André Provençal.
Brother André spent much of his time in prayer. When
he was off-duty, he visited the sick. Miraculous cures were
attributed to him and he soon became renowned as the
“Wonder Man of Mount Royal.” People came from afar to
see him. He always credited the cures to the intercession
of his patron saint, Joseph.
INTRODUCTION
f
ix
Brother André’s ability was not greeted with warmth
within his own religious community. Some were skeptical
and even opposed him. The quiet little man persevered,
always within the requirements of authority, and finally
realized his great dream to build an oratory in honor of St.
Joseph. It began with a tiny chapel on Mount Royal in
1904. Over the years, donations in honor of Brother
André have enabled expansions. The present basilica is
the tallest point in Montreal, and holds 3,000 people.
Brother André died in 1937 and was beatified in 1987
by Pope John Paul II (r. 1978– ). His death did not end
his healing work. As millions of pilgrims attest, his intercession
from beyond the grave enables continuing miracles
of divine healing.
Brother André’s heart is on view as a relic, encased in
a clear glass container in the oratory. But the real attraction,
the real power center, is his small black granite
tomb, called the Black Coffin. Pilgrims come to touch the
tomb and pray for healing.
So there I was this one Sunday morning, filing into the
small alcove that contains the tomb. Outside the alcove,
candlelight flickered over the high walls filled with the
canes and crutches people had thrown away after miraculous
healings there.
The tomb itself was small, plain and unadorned. The
simplicity of its surroundings certainly gave no hint that
therein lay the remains of a miracle healer revered around
the world. Someone had placed a single red rose atop the
tomb. People waited for a turn to touch the black granite
while others crowded around them. At last I maneuvered
to the front and placed both palms on top of the tomb.
When I touched the tomb, I felt a burning begin in the
center of my chest. It astonished me. The feeling intensified,
as though my heart center were on fire. This feeling

x Introduction
of fiery heat radiated out to the rest of my body, growing
stronger, until I felt as though I were enveloped in invisible
flames. I felt strangely unable to move. As I stood riveted
to the tomb, it came to me that I was touching the
Heart of God, experiencing the burning fire of true
unconditional love. It was flowing into me as a heat and
fire that literally were burning away imperfections in me.
Layer upon layer peeled away. The intensity and brilliance
of this radiance were overwhelming.
Suddenly I understood that there is a difference
between love and unconditional love. Love heals, nurtures,
nourishes and sustains. Unconditional love purifies.
This difference is at once subtle and profound; at
once infinitesimal and vast. I was being purified in some
way by unconditional love.
The burning sensation lasted as long as I held my
hands on the tomb. I remained swept up in a rapture
equal to that of any saint. I have never felt so much in the
presence of God.
Afterward, the only thing I was capable of doing was
walking into an adjoining chapel, where I wept and
prayed, and tried to understand what I had just experienced.
On my last day in Montreal, I returned to the oratory.
I was anxious to touch the Black Coffin again. I desired
that incredible fire that had taken me into the presence of
God. It was a weekday, with few people about, and so this
time I had the entire alcove to myself. But when I touched
the tomb again there was no burning. Instead I felt a deep
and soft inner radiance. It was another extraordinary
experience, but of a different sort.
In retrospect, I realized that of course I would not
experience the same fire. A mystical experience is unique
and not repeated. The expansion of consciousness that
comes from it is needed only once.
What was the source of the power that facilitated such
an experience? How can a holy person continue, from the
other side of death, as a channel for divine grace? I do not
know the answers, but only continue to explore the mystery.
Was I changed? Yes. Like the experience itself, I was
changed in both subtle and profound ways. I did not feel
that I had become “holy” or anything of the sort. And
though I felt “stuff” burned off of me, I still possessed the
same flaws and shortcomings. But I have a much different
awareness of love now, and of the importance of bringing
love to its highest and purest expression, that of unconditional
love.
This experience joins the records of countless other
transformative experiences had by people the world over
when they come into the presence of saints. As I mentioned
at the beginning, I had already long been interested
in saints as part of my study of mysticism. This experience
with Brother André propelled me into a deeper
study of both.
What exactly is sainthood? The Roman Catholic
Church has a formal process of canonization for recognizing
the holiest of the holy as saints—saints are not “made”
but simply honored for their achievements. The Church
thoroughly examines a candidate’s life and works, and
requires validation of at least two posthumous miracles.
But fewer than 300 of the 10,000 or so documented saints
throughout history have been canonized (Brother André
has been beatified, a step that precedes canonization). The
rest have achieved a saint status by popular acclaim. They
are venerated locally. Some, popular once upon a time,
have disappeared altogether from current devotion. And
some belong more to legend than to history.
A saint’s sanctity and purity, as well as writings and
acts of charity and sacrifice, certainly are important considerations
to formal sainthood. But what drives the popular
interest and devotion is belief in the power of the
saint to bring help and healing to the living. Some saints
are important to the Church for their treatises and works
on theology and philosophy. The people, however, look
for miracles. We the public are drawn to saints because of
the mystery around them: their rich inner lives of mystical
and visionary experience, and their ability to work
wonders and miracles.
There are too many saints to put them all in a single
volume. In this book, I have made a selection of saints
who have made important contributions to the Church
and to society, especially in education, charity and health
care. Among these are towering figures such as St.
Thomas Aquinas, who shaped the development of
Western philosophy. I have also included some of the
early martyrs and legendary figures, as well as church
fathers, church doctors and beatified and canonized
popes. I have paid special attention to the inner, mystical
lives of saints and to their miracles, for here is where we
come closest to the Mystery.
I keep Brother André’s picture at my desk, and carry
some of the little medallions of him that the oratory sells,
including one that contains a tiny piece of relic. They are
links not so much to the man, but to what he and other
saints represent: that miracles are made possible by a
heart that loves.
—Rosemary Ellen Guiley

The Encyclopedia of
SAINTS

Adalbald of Ostrevant (d. ca. 650–652) Martyr
Also known as: Adalbald d’Ostrevant
Adalbald of Ostrevant was born in Flanders to a noble
family. His mother or grandmother (sources differ)
was St. Gertrude, founder of the monastery at Hamage.
Adalbert served at the Merovingian court of King
Dagobert I, great-great-grandson of Clovis I and St.
Clotilde of the Franks, and Dagobert’s successor, Clovis
II. While in Dagobert’s service against the rebellious
Gascons, Adalbert fell in love with Rictrude
(later sainted herself), the daughter of a Gascon noble
family. Her relatives forbade the union, but Rictrude
married Adalbert anyway. They had four children: St.
Maurontius, St. Clotsindis, St. Eusebia and St. Adalsindis.
Rictrude’s kin never accepted Adalbald, reportedly
jealous of his reputation and political position. Members
of her family assassinated Adalbald while he was
traveling to Gascony. Devastated, Rictrude nevertheless
retrieved the body and buried it. Almost immediately,
rumors spread of miraculous healings at the tomb. Rictrude
continued her work, reputedly founding the
abbey at Marchiennes.
Feast: February 2
Patronage: parents of large families
Af
1
Adalbert of Prague (b. ca. 939–956–d. 997) Archbishop
and missionary to Poland
Also known as: Apostle of the Prussians; Adelbert;
Voitech, Voytiekh, Voytech, Wojtech; Apostle of
Bohemia
Christened Wojtech, Adalbert was born in Libice,
Bohemia, to a princely family. The dates of his birth are
placed anywhere from 939 to 956. He studied under
archbishop St. Adalbert of Magdeburg and took his
mentor’s name when the archbishop died in 981. Adalbert
became the second bishop of Prague in 983, but
his righteous efforts to convert the Bohemian pagans
made an enemy of Duke Boleslaus II of Bohemia, and
Adalbert left for Rome in 990.
Released from his responsibilities by Pope John XV
(r. 985–996), Adalbert joined the Benedictine monastery
of SS. Boniface and Alexius. But two years later,
Duke Boleslaus agreed to accept Adalbert’s authority,
and Pope John XV sent Adalbert back to Prague. The
Bohemian people cheered his return, and he founded
the monastery of Brevnov with Majolus of Cluny. Adalbert’s
relations with Duke Boleslaus and the nobility
worsened, however, after an adulterous but penitent
noblewoman seeking sanctuary in a convent was
dragged out and killed. Adalbert excommunicated
everyone involved and was forced to flee again to

2 Adelaide
Rome in 995. This time Boleslaus massacred some of
Adalbert’s family, and he did not return to Prague.
Adalbert’s next mission was to Hungary, where he
evangelized the Magyars and may have baptized Kings
Geysa and Stephen. But at the invitation of Prince
Boleslaus I of Poland, he traveled to Pomerania to
evangelize the Prussians. The Prussian nobility and the
pagan priests liked him no better than had the Bohemians,
and Adalbert and his missionaries were assassinated
as Polish spies in 997 near Danzig. One account
says Prince Boleslaus I buried Adalbert’s body at
Gniezno, Poland; another says that the prince ransomed
the body for its weight in gold.
Despite his disappointments, Adalbert exercised
considerable influence. He was friends with Holy
Roman Emperor Otto III and inspired St. Boniface of
Querfurt. Adalbert composed Czech and Polish hymns
in the vernacular and is credited with writing the Polish
battle song, “Boga-Rodzica.” His righteous zeal for
religious compliance, which was not well appreciated,
included extraction of the teeth of anyone found
breaking fast on a holy day. His relics were taken to
Prague in 1039.
Canonized: 999
Feast: April 23
Patronage: Bohemia (part of the Czech Republic);
Poland; Prussia
FURTHER READING
Reston, James Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year 1000
A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Adelaide (931–999) Princess, foundress of religious
programs, regent
Name meaning: noble person
Also known as: Adelheid
Adelaide was born in 931, the daughter of King
Rudolph II of Burgundy. She became a political pawn
at age two. Her father, embroiled in a war with Hugh of
Provence for the crown of Lombardy (Italy), agreed to
betroth her to Hugh’s son Lothaire in order to end the
fighting in 933. Her brother Conrad honored his
father’s agreement in 947, when Adelaide was 16;
Rudolph had died years before, and his widow, Adelaide’s
mother, had since married Hugh. Meanwhile,
Berengarius (or Berengar) II, Marquis of Ivrea, claimed
Lombardy and forced Hugh to abdicate in favor of
Lothaire. Lothaire and Adelaide were king and queen
of Italy only a short while before Lothaire died, probably
from poison at the instigation of Berengarius in
950.
Berengarius tried to force Adelaide to marry his son,
but the young widow refused and was imprisoned in a
castle in the middle of Lake Garda. Accounts differ
about her escape from Castle Garda: One story says a
priest named Martin dug a subterranean passage under
the lake, rescued Adelaide and kept her in the passage,
surviving on fish alone, until Alberto Uzzo, duke of
Canossa, whisked the queen off to his castle. Nevertheless,
the Italian nobles, tired of Berengarius and his
wars, invited King Otto I of Germany, called the Great,
to invade Italy and dispose of Berengarius. Otto
entered Italy in 951, rescued Queen Adelaide (either
from Castle Garda or from the eager duke) and married
her on Christmas Day 951 at Pavia, thereby taking
the title King of the Lombards. Berengarius fled to his
castle at Montefeltro.
The couple did not linger long in Italy because Liudolf,
Otto’s son by his first wife Edith, was trying to
start an uprising against the French influence of his
stepmother. He failed, however, and the German people
supposedly adored their new queen. She and Otto
had five children, with the son and heir, Otto II, born
in 955. Throughout the next 10 years, Otto I fought
continuous wars over the control of Italy, which was
not only plundered by soldiers but also allowed to
decay under the debauched reign of Pope John XII.
When Berengarius became a threat again in 961, the
pope offered Otto I the crown of the empire in return
for protection. The spectacular coronation of Otto I
and Adelaide as Holy Roman Emperor and Empress of
the German Nation on February 2, 962, not only
assured Germany’s dominance in Europe but also fulfilled
Otto’s ultimate goal of reestablishing a Christian
empire with himself as the new Caesar.
In 969, Otto I designated his 14-year-old son Otto
II as co-emperor, thereby securing the boy’s right of
succession. To further cement Otto II’s authority, Otto I
arranged his son’s marriage to the Byzantine princess
Theophano, daughter of the usurper John Tzimisces.
Tzimisces, called Little Slippers, was the lover to the
wife (also named Theophano) of the murdered Byzantine
emperor Nicephorus II Phocas. Otto II and Theophano
were married in Rome in 972 and ascended to
the throne after Otto I died in 973. Theophano, a politically
astute and strong-willed woman, exerted great
influence on royal affairs and reputedly turned her
husband against his mother. Relations with her
mother-in-law Empress Adelaide were strained at best,
and Adelaide left court to join her brother Conrad in
Vienne, appealing to St. Majolus, abbot of Cluny, to
intervene. The abbot arranged a reconciliation at Adelaide’s
court at Pavia.
Relations between the two women remained difficult
until Otto II’s death on December 7, 983. Theophano
traveled to Pavia seeking refuge with Adelaide.
The heir, three-year-old Otto III, was in the care of the

ishop of Cologne, far too close to the domain of
Prince Henry of Bavaria, called the Quarrelsome, who,
along with Henry of Carinthia and Bishop Henry of
Augsburg, was trying to take the crown. On Christmas
Day, 983, Otto III was symbolically crowned Holy
Roman Emperor in Aachen, Charlemagne’s ancient
seat. Almost immediately Henry of Bavaria kidnapped
the child and took him to Quedlinburg, where Henry
had himself proclaimed king.
Adelaide and Theophano appealed to Gerbert of
Aurillac, a brilliant theologian, mathematician, counselor
to Otto II and eventually Pope Sylvester II, to intercede,
and he created a coalition of powerful kings and
churchmen to put pressure on Henry. Conceding defeat,
Henry returned young Otto III to his mother, Empress
Theophano, on June 29, 984. Adelaide returned to
Pavia, still unable to reconcile fully with Theophano,
while the empress ably ruled as her son’s regent until her
sudden death in June 991.
But Otto III was still underage in 991, so his grandmother
Adelaide assumed the regency until Otto III
could be fully crowned at age 16 in 996. Writers of the
period characterized Adelaide’s regency as a wise and
peaceful era in which the empress established monasteries
and churches, supported the works of St. Adalbert
of Magdeburg, St. Majolus of Cluny and St. Odilo,
also of Cluny. She concentrated on converting the Slavs
and other pagans on the empire’s northern borders.
After Otto III took the throne, Adelaide retired to a
convent and continued her works of charity and conversion.
In 999 Adelaide traveled to Burgundy to arrange a
reconciliation between her nephew Rudolph and his
vassals. She died en route at her monastery at Seltz,
near Strasbourg in Alsace, on December 16 at age 68.
Her relics are enshrined at Hanover.
Canonized: 1097 by Pope Urban II
Feast: December 16
Patronage: abuse victims; brides; empresses; exiles;
in-law problems; parents of large families;
princesses; prisoners; second parents; step-parents;
widows
FURTHER READING
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Adeodatus I (d. 618) Pope
Also known as: Deusdedit
Adeodatus was born in Rome, the son of a subdeacon
named Stephen. He had been a priest in Rome for 40
years when he was elected to the Chair of St. Peter to
succeed St. Boniface IV. Consecrated on October 19,
615, he was the first priest who was not also a monastic
to become pope since John II (r. 533–535).
His pontificate was conducted in a time of many
troubles—war between the Lombards and Byzantines,
a plague of leprosy, and a major earthquake. He gave
generously to the victims and helped them in any way
he could. He was equally supportive of his clergy, who
were impoverished by the same events, leaving each a
year’s stipend in his will.
Adeodatus is thought to have been the first to use
leaden bullae to seal his official pronouncements, thus
the name “bulls,” as papal documents are still known
today.
He died in Rome on November 8, 618.
Feast: November 8
Adrian III (d. 885) Pope
Also known as: Hadrian III
Little is known of the life or papacy of Adrian III, or
why he is venerated as a saint. He was born in Rome
and was elected to the Chair of St. Peter on May 17,
884.
During his reign, there was a great famine in Rome,
which he mitigated as he could. He opposed an aristocratic
faction led by Formosus, Bishop of Porto; had
George of the Aventine, a member of the Formosan
group and a notorious murderer, tried, condemned and
blinded; and had a widow of another of the group
whipped naked through the streets of the city.
Adrian died either in early September or on July 8,
885, near Modena, while on his way to a diet in
Worms, Germany, at the invitation of Emperor Charles
the Fat, probably to settle the question of Charles’s
succession and to seek help in defense against the
Muslim Saracens. He was buried in the monastery of
Nonantula, where his memory has ever since been held
in veneration.
Cultus confirmed: 1892 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: July 8 (formerly September 7)
Agapetus I (d. 536) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Agapitus
Agapetus I 3
Agapetus was the son of a priest named Gordianus
who was killed in riots during the reign of Pope St.
Symmachus. He was archdeacon of the Roman clergy
when he was elected to succeed Pope St. Felix IV in
the Chair of St. Peter on May 13, 535.
Agapetus confirmed decrees barring converts from
Arianism from becoming priests, and requiring those
already ordained to serve in lay capacities only. However,
he is remembered primarily for a trip he took to

4 Agatha
Constantinople at the behest of Queen Amalasuntha of
the Goths. The Byzantine Belisarius, having taken
Sicily, was preparing to mount an offensive on Italy,
and Amalasuntha hoped that a personal appeal from
Agapetus would change the mind of Emperor Justinian.
He arrived in Constantinople to discover that the
new patriarch, Anthinus, was an adherent of the
Monophysite heresy, then very strong in Byzantium.
Anthinus had been appointed by Justinian at the
advice of Queen Theodora. When Agapetus ordered
Anthinus to make a written profession of his faith, he
refused. Justinian at first threatened to banish the
pope, but then, convinced of Anthinus’s heresy, he
relented, and not only allowed Agapetus to dismiss
Anthinus, but also permitted him (for the first time in
the history of the Church) to consecrate his successor,
Mennas.
Agapatus was not able to dissuade Justinian from
his designs on Italy, however. While still in Constantinople,
he fell ill and died on April 22, 536. His
relics were translated to Rome in a leaden coffin on
September 20 and interred in St. Peter’s basilica in
the Vatican. Like many other saints of the period, he
owes his cultus to the devotion of Pope St. Gregory I
(Gregory the Great, r. 590–604). He is venerated in
both the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox
churches. His name appears in the Roman Martyrology.
Feast: April 22 (formerly September 20; April 22
in Greek Orthodox Church)
Agatha (d. ca. 250) Virgin and martyr
Name meaning: good
Although Agatha has been venerated as a saint and
martyr since ancient times, none of the legendary
details of her life or death can be authenticated. The
stories of her terrible persecutions appear in the Martyrologium
Hieronymianum (Martyrology of St. Jerome)
and the Martyrologium Carthaginiense (Carthaginian
calendar of martyrs), the Carmina of Venantius Fortunatus,
and the canon of the Mass, but many scholars
now believe Agatha to have been an inspiring but fictional
character.
Both Palermo and Catania in Sicily take credit as
the site of Agatha’s birth, supposedly to a wealthy and
influential family. Her beauty attracted the attention of
the Roman consul Quintinian, but Agatha refused his
offer of marriage, having dedicated her life as a virgin
to Christ. His ego bruised, Quintinian committed
Agatha to a brothel, but she stood firm and retained
her virginity. Enraged, Quintinian turned her over to a
magistrate and accused her of being a Christian. The
Acts of her martyrdom place her arrest during the reign
of Emperor Decian, about 250—a period of horrific
persecution.
First the magistrate ordered Agatha to be beaten
and imprisoned, but when those tortures had no effect
on her faith he condemned her to be stretched on the
rack. Her cheerful confidence in Christ’s love against
such suffering so offended the magistrate that he had
her breasts crushed and then cut off, ordering her to a
dungeon without food, water or medicine. But St. Peter
supposedly came to her in a vision of light, accompanied
by a youth carrying a torch, and healed her
wounds. Unimpressed by such a miracle, Quintinian
ordered the magistrate to have Agatha rolled naked
over live coals mixed with broken potsherds. Agatha
prayed for release, and at that very moment an earthquake
struck Catania. Asking Christ to receive her
soul, Agatha died.
Her courage and spirit fostered a cult of worship all
over Christendom. Pope Symmachus built a church in
her honor on the Via Aurelia in Rome. Prayers by St.
Lucy of Syracuse at St. Agatha’s tomb reportedly cured
the saint’s mother, Eutychia, from hemorrhage. A letter
from Pope Gelasius (r. 492–496) to a Bishop Victor in
the fifth century referred to the basilica of St. Agatha.
Pope St. Gregory I the Great (r. 590–604) mentioned a
Roman church dedicated to St. Agatha given to the
Arian Goths. Pope Gregory reconsecrated the church
of Sant’ Agata dei Goti for Catholic worship in the late
sixth century.
Medieval church paintings of Agatha often showed
her carrying her severed breasts on a platter—an
image many mistook for loaves of bread. Consequently,
the tradition arose of blessing “Agatha bread”
on her feast day. The shape of her breasts also evoked
bells, especially those used as fire alarms. The carrying
of her veil, supposedly taken from her tomb, on a
lance in procession reportedly has stopped or prevented
eruptions of Mount Etna. Prayers for her intercession
were credited with preventing the Turks from
taking the island of Malta in 1551. Following the
Peace of Constantine, Agatha’s relics went to Constantinople,
but they were translated to Catania about
1126.
Feast: February 5
Patronage: alpine guides; bell founders; breast disease;
earthquakes; eruptions of Mount Etna; fire
and fire prevention; girdlers; jewelers; martyrs;
natural disasters; nurses; rape victims; shepherdesses;
single laywomen; sterility; torture victims;
volcanic eruptions; wet nurses; Catania,
Sicily; Malta; Zamarramala, Spain

Agatho (d. 681) Pope
Also known as: Thaumaturgus
Agatho was born in Sicily, probably in Palermo. He had
been married for 20 years and had become financially
successful when he decided to join the Benedictine
monastery of St. Hermes in Palermo. He is thought to
be the Agatho whom Pope St. Gregory I (Gregory the
Great, r. 590–604) authorized to join the monastery if
his wife became a nun. In that case, he would have
been more than 100 years old when he was elected
bishop of Rome to succeed Pope Dounus (r. 676–678)
on June 27, 678.
Agatho was renowned for his affability and charity.
His life experience also made him an unusually good
business man, and he maintained the Vatican’s
accounting books himself, contrary to custom.
Shortly after Agatho’s election, Wilfrid, bishop of
York, who had been dismissed from his see, appealed
to Agatho, who ordered him reinstated. He also dispatched
an envoy to teach the Britons about chanting
and to report to him on the state of the English
Church.
However, the signal event of Agatho’s pontificate
was the Sixth Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople
in 680. Although he was unable to attend, he
sent emissaries who read a letter from him condemning
Monothelitism, a heresy that held that Christ possessed
a single, divine nature rather than a double,
divine and human, nature. Monothelitism had at one
time divided the Eastern and Western Church, but the
council accepted Agatho’s definitions, Patriarch George
of Constantinople proclaiming: “Peter has spoken by
Agatho.” By the time the council’s decrees reached
Rome, however, Agatho had died.
He died during a plague on January 10, 681, and
was buried in St. Peter’s at the Vatican. The many miracles
thereafter received through his intercession led to
his being called Thaumaturgus (Wonderworker). He is
venerated in the Greek Orthodox as well as the Roman
Catholic Church. His memory is celebrated especially
at York, England, and Palermo, Italy.
In art, Agatho is shown wearing a tiara and holding
a long cross.
Feast: January 10
Agnes of Assisi (ca. 1197–1253) Abbess and miracle
worker; the younger sister of St. Clare of Assisi, founder
of the Poor Clares
Agnes of Assisi was born at Assisi, Italy, in 1197 or
1198 to a noble family. Her father was Count Favorino
Scifi, and her mother, Bl. Hortulana, belonged to the
noble family of the Fiumi. In addition, her cousin
Rufino was one of the celebrated “Three Companions”
of St. Francis of Assisi.
Agnes lived an idyllic childhood in luxurious surroundings
in her father’s palace in the city and in his
castle of Sasso Rosso on Mount Subasio. On March 18,
1212, Clare, Agnes’s sister, left home to follow the
example set by St. Francis. Inspired, Agnes departed 16
days later and went to the Benedictine monastery of St.
Angelo in Panso.
Furious, Count Favorino sent his brother Monaldo,
with several relatives and some armed followers, to
force Agnes to return home. According to an account
in the Chronicles of the Twenty-four Generals, Monaldo
drew his sword to strike Agnes, but his arm dropped,
withered and useless, by his side. Others dragged
Agnes out of the monastery by the hair, striking her
and kicking her repeatedly until she was near death.
Clare came to the rescue. Suddenly Agnes’s body
became so heavy that the soldiers dropped her in a
field near the monastery.
Agnes stayed, and Francis rewarded her by cutting
off her hair and giving her the habit of poverty. He
installed Clare and Agnes at St. Damian’s, along with
their mother, their sister Beatrice and some noblewomen.
The Order of the Poor Ladies of St. Damian’s,
or Poor Clares, was born.
Agnes became abbess and was well-loved. In 1219
Francis sent her to Monticelli, near Florence, to found
and govern a community of the Poor Ladies. She also
established communities at Mantua, Venice and Padua.
In 1253 Agnes attended Clare on her deathbed and
assisted at her funeral. Clare had predicted that Agnes
would soon follow her. Three months later, on November
16, Agnes died and was buried near her mother
and sisters Clare and Beatrice in the church of St. Clare
at Assisi. Miracles were reported at her tomb.
Benedict XIV (r. 1740–58) permitted the Order of
St. Francis to celebrate her feast.
Feast: November 16
Agnes of Rome 5
Agnes of Rome (d. ca. 304) Virgin and martyr
Name meaning: Pure one
Little is known about Agnes, and the circumstances of
her martyrdom are not documented. According to St.
Ambrose in De virginitate, she died by fire at age 12.
Other versions of her martyrdom are given by Pope
St. Damasus (r. 366–384) and Prudentius in Peristephanon.
Agnes is said to have been a beautiful, wealthy
Roman maiden born during the reign of Emperor Diocletian
(284–305) to Christian parents at a time when

6 Agostina Petrantoni
St. Agnes of Rome (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
most of the nobility were pagan. Diocletian was an
ardent persecutor of Christians.
One story holds that a rejected suitor betrayed her
to the authorities.
According to an epitaph written by Damasus, preserved
at her tomb and church, she announced her
faith and was sentenced to die by fire. Before dying, she
was stripped of all her clothing, and covered herself
with her hair.
According to Prudentius, who composed a hymn in
her honor, she was punished by being placed into a
brothel. Miraculously, her virginity was preserved, for
anyone who approached her was blinded and knocked
down by a divine force. Her suitor tried and was thus
punished, but Agnes prayed and asked Christ to
restore his sight. She was then thrown into the flames.
Another version says that she remained unharmed
in the flames, and so finally was decapitated. Yet
another version says she was killed by a sword.
During the reign of Constantine (323–337), a basilica
was built on the site of her grave near the Via
Nomentana. It was remodeled by Pope Honorius I (r.
625–638) in 630.
Agnes’s emblem in art is the lamb, a symbol of
purity, and because of the similarity between her name
and the Latin word for lamb, agnus. In art she is often
depicted in flames and with a sword at her feet. On her
feast day, two lambs are blessed, and their wool is then
made into pallia and given to archbishops of the
Church.
Feast: January 21
Patronage: young girls
Agostina Petrantoni (1864–1894) Martyr of charity
Also known as: Agostina Pietrantoni, Livia Pietranton
Little is known of Agostina Petrantoni’s early life
beyond her birthplace of Pozzaglia Sabina in Rieti,
Italy. She was born on March 27, 1864, and was given
the name Livia. She joined the Sisters of Charity and
dedicated her life in service to the sick, working at the
Holy Spirit Hospital in Rome. From 1886 on she
worked with the most critically ill patients, succumbing
to many of their diseases.
After contracting tuberculosis, Agostina asked to
serve in the tuberculosis ward exclusively. She died in
1894 when a tuberculosis patient stabbed her to death
after a rape attempt. Her last words were a prayer for
her attacker’s forgiveness.
In his speech at her canonization, Pope John Paul II
said that Sister Agostina understood the gift of generous
service, especially to the neediest, in whose faces is
reflected the face of Christ.
Canonized: April 18, 1999, by Pope John Paul II
Patronage: abuse victims; martyrs; people ridiculed
for piety; against poverty
Aidan of Lindisfarne (d. 651) Bishop and monastic
founder
Most of what scholars know about Aidan comes from
favorable accounts by the Venerable Bede in his Ecclesiastical
History of the English People. In 635, Aidan, a
monk at St. Columba’s monastery on the island of
Iona, traveled on foot to the city of Bamburgh in the
old, Romanized part of Britain, now Northumbria, to
serve as bishop at the request of St. King Oswald of
Northumbria. Aidan followed the Celtic/Irish custom
of establishing his see in a monastery, rather than
in Northumbria’s largest city of York, and founded
Lindisfarne as a royal fortress protected by the king.

Aidan walked over all of Northumbria, gaining many
converts and serving the poor, often with King
Oswald translating the monk’s Latin into common
English.
The establishment of Lindisfarne monastery was
Aidan’s greatest achievement. The Lindisfarne Gospels,
almost the only codex (a manuscript book rather than
a scroll) that can be attributed to a single scribe, was
written by Eadfrith, abbot of Lindisfarne after Aidan’s
death. However, Viking raiders, who pillaged the monasteries
for their silver and precious objects, often
destroyed the illuminated manuscripts for their gilded
covers. Barbarians attacked Lindisfarne in 793, 801,
806 and 867; any survivors left the ruins for good in
875. The Lindisfarne Gospels were perhaps buried or
sent to another monastery for safekeeping; one copy
remains.
Aidan died in 651 after the murder of King Oswin,
Oswald’s successor. He was buried at the abbey.
Feast: August 31
FURTHER READING
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York:
Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995.
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Alban (d. ca. 304) Reportedly the first martyr in England
during the persecutions by Emperor Diocletian (r.
284–305)
The story of Alban, a pagan by birth, was recorded by
the Venerable Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the
English People. A resident of Verulamium (now St.
Alban’s in Hertfordshire, between Birmingham and
London), Alban gave shelter to a Christian priest who
was trying to escape the persecutions. So impressed
was Alban by the man’s humble demeanor, prayer and
wisdom that he converted and was baptized.
Authorities learned that the priest was hiding in
Alban’s house, and sent soldiers to arrest him. Alban
donned the man’s clothing, enabling him to escape,
and was arrested in his stead. He was taken before the
governor and repeatedly refused to renounce his new
faith. He was severely scourged and tortured and condemned
to die by beheading.
The route to the execution site required Alban and
his guards to wade across a river. There were so many
onlookers that progress was impeded. Tradition holds
that Alban prayed, and the waters of the river divided
to create a dry passage. The executioner was so moved
by this miracle that he converted himself, and was
martyred along with Alban.
When the party reached the hill where the executions
were to take place, a fountain miraculously
sprang up out of the ground.
The priest whom Alban had sheltered was captured
several days later and stoned to death in Redbourn,
near Verulamium.
Alban has been venerated in Britain since the fifth
century, and was even known in France. Other
accounts of his life have been written, some stating
that he had been a soldier. A church was built on the
site of the execution and became famous for miracles.
A monastery was built there later.
Feast: June 20
Albert the Great 7
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Albert the Great (ca. 1206–1280) Doctor of the
Church, theologian, bishop and philosopher
Name meaning: noble; brilliant
Also known as: Albertus Magnus, Doctor Universalis,
Doctor Expertus, Albert the German, Universal Doctor
The eldest son of Count Bollstadt, a military nobleman
in the service of Emperor Frederick II, Albert was born
ca. 1206 at the castle of Lauingen in Swabia, a southern
German province along the Danube River. Nothing
is known of his early childhood or education, but as a
young man he studied at the University of Padua. At
age 16 he became impressed with the Order of Preaching
Friars, or Brothers, founded by St. Dominic, and
became a postulant in 1222 under Blessed Jordan of
Saxony, second master general of the Friars Preachers
and immediate successor to Dominic. Rumors circulated
that Albert’s father, angry at his son’s renunciation
of title and wealth, would try to retrieve him by force,
but they came to nothing when the Brothers, commonly
called Dominicans, discreetly sent the young
Albert to the friary in Cologne. There he completed his
studies and taught others, as well as teaching at
Hildesheim, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Regensburg and
Strasbourg.
Learning and thinking in 13th-century Europe were
undergoing radical changes, and Albert’s approach to
these changes was intelligent, scientific and commonsensical.
As a member of one of the new mendicant
orders, Albert was not tied to a parish church or
monastery, leaving him free to teach and preach anywhere,
and, like the other friars, able to assume a key
position in the new universities. Up until the 12th century,
traditional education in the Latin-based world
was based on the Scriptures and commentaries on

8 Albert the Great
them. Meanwhile, Islamic scholars had assimilated the
logic and philosophy of Aristotle and other Greek
works of mathematics and science. In the 12th century,
Latin translations of these works became available,
presenting Christian scholars with a challenge: how to
use this valuable knowledge, reconcile it with earlier
Christian thinking, and remove the heresy associated
with Islam.
Albert’s answer to this challenge was to learn all he
could of the newly revealed information, try to understand
it, examine it critically and accept what he could
and adapt it to established Church dogma. He was
interpreting Peter Lombard’s Book of the Sentences in
1245 when he was sent to the university in Paris, generally
acknowledged as the greatest school of theology.
There he encountered the Summa Theologiæ of Alexander
of Hales, the first book written after all the works
of Aristotle had become known in Paris. He received
his doctorate.
Among Albert’s students accompanying him to
Paris from Cologne was a young friar named Thomas
Aquinas, who took his master’s teachings and became
the greatest philosopher of his day. Thomas returned
to Cologne when Albert was selected regent of the
new Studium Generale there in 1248 and became second
professor under Albert and master of students. In
1250 Albert drew up the rules for direction of study
and graduation from Dominican universities and institutions.
Thomas remained with Albert until 1252.
What Albert began, and Thomas perfected, became
known as the Scholastic system or Scholasticism: the
application of Aristotelian methods and principles to
the study of revealed doctrine, or the reconciliation of
reason and orthodoxy. Albert did not believe the
works of Aristotle should be banned or totally subsumed
to early Christian teaching, nor did he accept
all of Aristotle’s philosophy without question, but he
showed that sense and experience were the basis of all
human knowledge.
In 1254, Albert was named prior provincial of the
Dominican Order in Germany. In 1256, he traveled to
Rome to defend the mendicant orders against the
attacks of William of St. Amour in the book De Novissimis
Temporum Periculis, or “The Dangers of These
Present Times.” Pope Alexander IV (r. 1254–61)
agreed with Albert and his peers, condemning
William’s book on October 5, 1256. While in Rome
Albert served as master of the sacred palace, the position
as the pope’s personal theologian and canonist
always filled by a Dominican. Albert returned to
Cologne and resigned the office of prior provincial in
1257 to allow him more time for study and teaching.
Three years later, in 1260, Alexander IV named the
reluctant Albert bishop of Regensburg, a post that he
resigned in 1262 to return to his beloved Studium in
Cologne.
In 1270 Albert wrote a treatise against Siger de Brabant
and the Muslim philosopher Averroës in defense
of his former student Thomas. In 1274, Pope Gregory
X called Albert to attend the 14th General Council at
Lyons. While en route he learned that Thomas had
died at Fossa Nuova, and Albert lamented that “the
light of the Church” had been extinguished. Albert
journeyed from Cologne once more, in 1277, again to
defend himself and St. Thomas against Church conservatives—specifically,
Stephen Tempier, bishop of Paris,
who accused Albert and Thomas of being too favorable
to the unbelieving philosophers. Albert hotly defended
himself and Thomas, challenging his detractors to
examine his theological record, but the so-called ape of
Aristotle could not win on all points.
A prodigious writer, thinker and experimenter,
Albert fearlessly tested previously accepted facts and
made keen observations about science and nature. In
one famous episode, Albert had himself lowered over a
cliff edge so he could check firsthand whether eagles
had one egg and offspring per season, as was thought
at the time. For centuries, his works were the accepted
authorities on physics, geography, astronomy, mineralogy,
chemistry and biology. He was renowned as an
alchemist and said to practice the magical arts; he
reportedly carried a magic cup that cured the ill. He
traced the chief mountain ranges of Europe, explained
the influence of latitude on climate and proved the
Earth was a sphere. He performed groundbreaking
studies on insects. Albert also wrote works of theology
and logic and composed the Mass for the Feast of Corpus
Christi. All in all, Albert wrote 38 quarto volumes
of scientific and theological literature.
By 1278, however, Albert was in poor health. His
memory failed during a lecture that year, and his
strength and mind continued to deteriorate. He died
peacefully, sitting in a chair among his brethren at
Cologne, on November 15, 1280, and is buried at St.
Andrea’s Church. His tomb became a pilgrimage site.
Some of his remains were translated to Lauingen and
Regensburg.
In art, Albert is shown in his Dominican habit.
Beatified: 1622 by Pope Gregory XV
Canonized: 1931 by Pope Pius XI
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1931 by Pope Pius XI
Feast: November 15
Patronage: all students and researchers of the natural
sciences; medical technicians; miners; naturalists;
schoolchildren; scientists; students;
theology students; Cologne University

Alexander I (d. ca. 115) Pope
Alexander was a Roman and is said to have been a student
of Pliny the Younger. He converted to Christianity
and succeeded St. Evaristus as bishop of Rome, thus
becoming the sixth pope. His reign lasted from ca. 105
to ca. 115.
Alexander is sometimes credited with having introduced
the custom of blessing houses with salt water,
but this was in fact an ancient Roman practice. He is
also said to have introduced the commemoration of the
Last Supper into the Mass, although this almost certainly
came later.
According to tradition, Alexander was arrested by
Emperor Hadrian and imprisoned along with two
priests, SS. Eventulus and Theodulus. During his
imprisonment, he managed to convert his jailer, St.
Quirinus, and his daughter, St. Balbina. This, however,
did not save him and his friends from being burned
and then beheaded by Hadrian’s soldiers on the Via
Nomentana in Rome. In 1855, archaeologists discovered
what are thought to be their bodies in a semisubterranean
cemetery at the spot where they died. Their
relics have since been moved to the church of St.
Sabina, now under the charge of the Dominicans.
In art, Alexander wears a triple tiara and holds a
triple cross and book.
Feast: October 18
Alexis (ca. 380–ca. 417–440) Mystic and confessor
known as “the Man of God”
Name meaning: Defender, helper
Also known as: Alexis, Alexios, Alessio
There are no traces of Alexis in any early Western martyrology
or liturgy. He apparently was an Eastern or
Byzantine saint venerated in Rome during the 10th
century.
Alexis was born in Rome to Euphemanius and
Aglaia, a wealthy senator and his wife. The child
devoted himself to God, but bowed to his parents’
wishes that he marry. Apparently the ceremony took
place, but Alexis—who had seen a vision of St. Paul
calling him to service—could not live with his bride.
She agreed to release him and he fled Rome for Edessa,
in Syria, on his wedding night.
For 17 years Alexis lived in a shack next to the
church of Bishop Rabula, begging for alms only in the
evening, sharing his meager resources with the poor
and keeping his identity a secret. At the end of that
time, however, a statue of the Virgin apparently called
on the people of Edessa to “seek the Man of God,” and
Alexis fled the city for Tarsus, following his early
Alfred the Great 9
vision of Paul. A storm stopped his voyage, and he was
rescued and taken to Rome. Filled with desire to see
his family, Alexis returned to his father’s estate but was
not recognized by his parents or bride, who lived with
her in-laws. They allowed Alexis to minister to the
peasants and children and to live beneath the stairs of
the house, where he remained anonymous for another
17 years.
At the end of that 17-year period, another voice
spoke to Pope Innocent I (r. 401–417), calling him to
“seek the Man of God.” The pope traced the voice to
Euphemanius’s house, to a cupboard under the stairs.
There lay Alexis, dead, clutching a parchment letter
explaining who he was and how much he loved his
family.
Scholars now believe that the story of Alexis
became confused over time with that of St. John Calybata,
a Roman nobleman with a similar history. But
accounts from the ninth century tell of a poor monk in
Edessa, supposedly with patrician Roman parents, who
lived as a beggar and died there, buried in a common
pauper’s grave.
Pope Benedict VII (r. 974–983) gave the exiled metropolitan
of the Byzantine Church, Sergius of Damascus,
the crumbling church of St. Boniface on the
Aventine in Rome. Sergius erected a monastery and
added Alexis’s name as patron of the church and
monastery. The church still stands, renovated many
times, and reportedly contains the remains of the staircase
under which Alexis lived, in his own father’s
house.
Feast: July 17 (in the West); March 17 (in the
East)
Patronage: beggars; belt makers; against earthquakes;
against lightning; nurses; pilgrims;
against storms; travelers
Alfred the Great (849–899) Anglo-Saxon king of
Wessex
Name meaning: Elf counsel; all peace
Alfred, the youngest of either four or five sons of the
Anglo-Saxon king Aethelwulf of Wessex, was born in
849 in Wantage, Berkshire. King Aethelwulf may have
considered a career in the Church for Alfred, as the boy
visited Rome in 853. In 869, at age 20, Alfred married
the Mercian princess Aetheswitha or Ealswyth to
cement an alliance between Mercia and Wessex, and
they had five or six children.
The greatest threat to Wessex in the ninth century
were the invasions of Mercia, Northumbria and East
Anglia by Danish Vikings. In 868, Alfred’s older
brother, St. King Aethelred, led his armies into Mercia

10 Aloysius Gonzaga
to stop the Danes. Alfred, only 19, was Aethelred’s
deputy. By 871, the Danes were pushing the Anglo-
Saxons farther south into Wessex. King Aethelred was
killed at the battle of Merton, and the kingship passed
to Alfred.
Although poorly supported, Alfred managed to hold
back the Danes for seven years, mainly through alliances
with the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: the beginnings
of a united England. In 878, the Danes attacked Wessex
for four months, and Alfred retreated into the marshes
of Somerset to regroup. Reorganizing his army, Alfred
defeated the Danes at Edington later that year. He signed
the Treaty of Wedmore with the Danish king Guthrum
and divided England along the road from London to
Chester. Anything north of this line, including York and
East Anglia, became the Danelaw—ruled according to
Danish law—and lands south were English. Alfred
forced the Danish leader to convert to Christianity. To
prevent further invasions, Alfred built fortresses and
strongholds throughout Mercia, rebuilt the army by
requiring military service of all free men, and formed a
navy with ships of his own design.
But Alfred’s successes lay not just in conquest. He
learned to read and write, eventually translating many
Latin texts into Old English, including the treatise Pastoral
Care by Pope Gregory the Great (Gregory I), the
Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and most probably
the Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the
Venerable Bede. Alfred also encouraged literacy among
his nobles, founding a court school for the clergy and
young people and inviting scholars from all over
Europe to teach there. He introduced decent and fair
laws throughout the kingdom, making no distinction
between his English and Welsh subjects. But perhaps
Alfred’s greatest contribution was his patronage of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Chronicle tells the stories
and events of Christianity from the time of Christ
through 1154 and is often the only source of information
about the Danish invasions. The book also
includes accounts of the Norman Conquest. The
Chronicle is one of the first books written in the vernacular,
and its description of the reign of King
Stephen shows the language moving from Old English
to Middle English.
Alfred suffered from unspecified diseases, perhaps
psychosomatic in nature, which caused him pain, illness
and self-doubt all his life. He was never king of
England, although his reign strengthened the rule of
later English kings. Alfred’s image did appear on
coinage. Alfred died October 26, 899, and was deemed
“the Great” in the 17th century.
Feast: October 26
FURTHER READING
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Aloysius Gonzaga (1568–1591) Scholar and patron
of youth
Also known as: Luigi
The eldest son of Don Ferrante Gonzaga, marquis of
Castiglione, and his wife, Marta Tana Santena, was
born at castle Castiglione delle Stivieri in Lombardy on
March 9, 1568. The Gonzagas (reputedly known for
their brutality and immorality) were the ruling family
of Mantua, and Don Ferrante also held a high position
at the court of King Philip II of Spain. Marta Tana
served as lady-in-waiting to Philip’s queen. Don Ferrante
desired his son to be a military commander, so at
age four little Luigi, as the saint was called, was sent to
military school. At seven Luigi felt drawn to a religious
life, and at nine took a vow of chastity, never looking a
woman—not even his mother—in the face again.
In 1579, when the boy was 11, Don Ferrante placed
him and his younger brother Ridolfo at the court of the
duke of Mantua, who had recently appointed Don Ferrante
governor of Monferrat. But appalled by the vices
of court, Aloysius decided to renounce his inheritance
in favor of Ridolfo, even though Aloysius had already
received investiture from the emperor. About this time
Aloysius contracted kidney disease, which he welcomed
as a way to stay in his room and pray. He also
began practicing severe austerities: fasting every other
day on bread and water, allowing no fire in his room
no matter the temperature, and scourging himself. By
age 12 Aloysius dreamed of being a Jesuit missionary,
receiving his First Communion at Brescia from St.
Charles Borromeo and filling his summer days at Castiglione
by teaching the catechism to poor local boys.
In 1581, Philip II summoned Don Ferrante to
accompany Empress Mary of Austria on a journey from
Bohemia to Spain, and the family accompanied him.
Upon arrival at court, Aloysius and Ridolfo became
pages in the service of the Infante, Don Diego (James),
prince of the Spanish Asturias. Although duty-bound
to serve Don Diego, Aloysius continued his devotions
and hardened his resolve to become a Jesuit. His
mother approved his decision, but Don Ferrante
adamantly opposed it by any means possible: threats of
beatings, tempting the boy with the pleasures of the
northern Italian courts, sending him on diplomatic
missions all over Europe. When Don Diego died in
1584 and Aloysius and Ridolfo returned to Castiglione,
Aloysius again pressed his case and his father relented,
but only after an imperial commission officially transferred
the succession to Ridolfo.

Aloysius joined the Jesuit novitiate house of Sant’
Andrea in Rome on November 25, 1585. The Jesuits
curbed his austerities, ordering him to eat and take
recreation, and sent him to Milan. While praying one
morning, Aloysius received a vision telling him he had
not long to live, a revelation that filled him with joy.
He returned to Rome and was professed in 1587. In
1591 plague struck the city, and Aloysius begged to
serve in the Jesuit hospital, tending patients and performing
menial tasks. He caught the plague but miraculously
recovered.
But then Aloysius contracted a fever that severely
weakened him for three months. Unable to work, he
would nevertheless arise at night and worship before
his crucifix and kiss his sacred pictures, then kneel in
prayer propped between his bed and wall. He asked his
confessor, St. Robert Bellarmine, whether it was possible
to go straight to heaven without passing through
purgatory, and St. Robert replied that he believed
someone like Aloysius could hope for such grace.
Aloysius immediately fell into an ecstatic state and
revealed that he would die on the octave of Corpus
Christi.
When the octave arrived on June 20, Aloysius
seemed so much improved that the rector talked of
sending him on a trip, but Aloysius maintained he was
dying and requested the viaticum in the evening. After
receiving the last rites, Aloysius lay very still, occasionally
saying, “into Thy hands,” and appeared to ebb
away between 10:00 p.m. and 11:00 p.m. With Jesus’
name on his lips, Aloysius died about midnight of
June 20–21, 1589, at age 23. St. Robert Bellarmine
testified that Aloysius had never committed a mortal
sin and through his Jesuit service had developed total
devotion to God and man. Aloysius is buried under
the altar in the Lancellotti Chapel at the Church of St.
Ignatius in Rome. Pope Benedict XIII (r. 1724–1730)
named Aloysius the patron of young students in 1729,
and Pius XI later designated him the patron of all
Christian youth.
Beatified: 1621 by Pope Gregory XV
Canonized: 1726 by Pope Benedict XIII
Feast: June 21
Patronage: AIDS caregivers; AIDS sufferers; Catholic
youth; against eye troubles and diseases; Jesuit
students; against plague; relief from pestilence;
teenagers; youth
FURTHER READING
Meschler, Maurice. Life of St. Aloysius Gonzaga Patron of
Christian Youth. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers,
1985.
Alphonsus Marie Liguori 11
Alphonsa Hawthorne (1851–1926) Dominican known
for her work among cancer patients
Name meaning: noble ready, battle ready
Also known as: Rose Hawthorne, Mother Alphonsa
Alphonsa was born Rose Hawthorne, the daughter of
famous American author Nathaniel Hawthorne, and
was a convert to Catholicism.
In the 1890s, cancer was considered a contagious
disease, and destitute sufferers were usually warehoused
in poor houses, shunned by friends and family
and left to die without care or spiritual comfort. Believing
she had found her life’s work with these abandoned
souls, Alphonsa first enrolled in a three-month nursing
course at New York Cancer Hospital in order to provide
the best care she could. Following the completion
of her nursing training, and with hardly any money
and relying on God to provide, Alphonsa moved into a
three-room tenement apartment in New York’s Lower
East Side, one of the city’s worst neighborhoods, and
opened a home for incurable cancer patients.
The work was grueling and sad, but Alphonsa persevered.
Charitable donations from private individuals
allowed Alphonsa to move her charges to a larger
apartment. Over time like-minded women joined
Alphonsa in her mission, the first of them a young portrait
painter named Alice Huber. Eventually the
women became an American congregation of Dominican
Sisters: the Servants of Relief for Incurable Cancer.
In 1899, public generosity allowed the women to
purchase an entire building, which they christened St.
Rose’s Free Home for Incurable Cancer. Also that year
the Servants of Relief became part of the Third Order
of St. Dominic. A second home opened in 1901 in
Sherman Park, now called Hawthorne, New York.
Today the group, known as the Dominican Sisters of
Hawthorne, has seven homes in six states.
Patronage: against death of children; difficult marriages;
divorced people; loss of parents; sick children
FURTHER READING
Joseph, Sr. M., OP. “Out of Many Hearts.” URL: http://
www.hawthorne-dominicans.org/dsh/history_1.html.
Downloaded June 26, 2000.
Alphonsus Marie Liguori (1696–1787) Bishop, founder
of the Redemptorist Congregation, moral theologian, mystic
and Doctor of the Church
The life of Alphonsus Marie Liguori was fraught with
strife and illness, but the saint nonetheless made prodigious
accomplishments. He was born Alphonsus Marie
Anthony John Cosmas Damian Michael Gaspard de’

12 Alphonsus Marie Liguori
Liguori on September 27, 1696, at Marianella near
Naples, to a somewhat impoverished noble family. His
father, Don Joseph de Liguori, was a naval officer and
captain of the galleys. His mother was of Spanish
descent.
Alphonsus was a precocious child and learned
quickly in his home tutoring. He was a skilled musician.
At age 16, he took his doctor of laws degree even
though the law required an age of 20. By age 19 he was
practicing law in court and by age 27 was one of the
leading lawyers in Naples. He enjoyed worldly pursuits,
but retained his innocence.
In 1723, his legal career came to a crashing halt. He
served as counsel in an important lawsuit involving the
grand duke of Tuscany and prepared his case. After
making his opening statement in court, the opposition
informed him that he had overlooked a crucial document
that undermined his entire case. Alphonsus was
forced to agree. Devastated and humiliated, he refused
to eat for three days and vowed never to return to
court.
He spent days in prayer seeking God’s will. On a
charitable visit to a hospital, he had a mystical experience
in which he found himself surrounded by light,
and an interior voice said, “Leave the world and give
thyself to Me.” This occurred twice. Alphonsus went to
the church of the Redemption of Captives, where he
laid his sword before a statue of Mary and vowed to
offer himself as a novice to the Fathers of the Oratory.
His father was not pleased, but consented, provided
Alphonsus lived at home. On October 23, 1723,
Alphonsus joined the Oratorians. He received his tonsure
the following year, and joined the Neapolitan Propaganda,
an association of missionary secular priests.
For six years he traveled in and around Naples, preaching,
and enrolled thousands in a sort of confraternity
called the Association of the Chapels.
In 1729, Alphonsus left home and went to live with
Matthew Ripa, the “Apostle of China,” who had
founded a missionary college in Naples. There he met
Father Thomas Falcoia of the Congregation of the
Pious Workers. The two became close friends despite a
33-year difference in their ages.
Falcoia had a vision to found a new order of men
and women dedicated to the imitation of Christ’s
virtues. Meanwhile, Sister Maria Celeste, a nun at the
convent of Scala, which Falcoia had helped to refound,
was having visions of a new order, complete with a
Rule. Thus in 1732 was born the new order, the Congregation
of the Most Holy Savior (17 years later “Savior”
was replaced with “Redeemer”). In accordance
with another of Sister Maria’s visions, Alphonsus
became its director. In 1743 he was formally elected
superior general. Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740–58)
approved the Rule and Institute of men in 1749, and
the Rule and Institute of women in 1750. The new
order suffered from dissension within the ranks, and
political opposition from without. Alphonsus’s health
suffered, but he maintained his duties. He continued
his missionary work until 1752. Even though the order
had papal approval, it did not have state approval—
there was a law forbidding new religious orders—and
Alphonsus spent the rest of his life in a futile effort to
gain state approval.
In 1762, King Charles of Naples forced Alphonsus
to accept the bishopric of St. Agatha of Goths against
his wishes. The tiny diocese near Naples had a lax
clergy and largely uninstructed people. There Alphonsus
labored until 1775. Not everyone was happy with
his reforms, and he was repeatedly threatened with
assassination. He often was seriously ill—eight times
in his life he was given last rites. From May 1768 to
June 1769, he suffered a terrible attack of rheumatic
fever that left him partially paralyzed for the rest of his
life. His neck was permanently bent, at first so badly
that his head rested on his chest. He had to drink from
a tube at meals and required assistance at mass to
drink from the chalice. After he was permitted to
resign in 1775, Alphonsus returned to his order’s
monastery at Nocera di Pagani, hoping for a speedy
death. He would live 12 more years.
In 1780, a crisis arose that split the order. The Rule
was drastically altered and presented to the deaf and
nearly blind saint for signing to present for royal
approval. Unsuspecting, Alphonsus did so. The order
seemed destroyed. In 1781 the Papal States assumed
control of the order and appointed a new superior general.
Alphonsus was cut out of his own order. This
state of affairs remained until after the saint’s death. In
1793, the Neapolitan government recognized the original
Rule, and the order was reunited under one head.
During the last three years of his life, Alphonsus
weathered a dark night of the soul, in which he was
besieged by temptations, dreadful apparitions and
despair. Nonetheless, he died peacefully on August 1,
1787, at Nocera di Pagani near Naples, just as the midday
Angelus was ringing. He was buried there and a
shrine was erected. Another shrine was built at St.
Agatha of the Goths.
Though gifted with words as a lawyer, Alphonsus
did not become a writer until late in life. His first
work was a small volume, Visits to the Blessed Sacrament,
published at age 49. Annotations to Busenbaum,
a work on moral theology, appeared in 1748. His
great work, Moral Theology, appeared in two volumes
in 1753 and 1755. He also published numerous treatises,
and compiled stories of the early martyrs in Victories
of the Martyrs. His writings and sermons remain

popular today. Altogether, he wrote 110 books and
pamphlets.
Alphonsus was a visionary and mystic, and miracles
were attested to him. There are numerous cases of bilocation,
in which he simultaneously heard confessions
and in a distant location preached sermons. The most
significant bilocation took place in 1774. After saying
mass in Arienzo, he sank into a chair and remained
unmoved until the next day. During that time, he had
been at the bedside of the dying pope Clement XIV (r.
1769–74) in Rome.
Alphonsus also was seen to levitate on numerous
occasions, even while preaching. In 1745 he was
preaching in Foggia at a church where 14 years earlier
he had beheld a vision of Mary. During his sermon a
ray of light from a picture of Mary struck him, and he
fell into an ecstasy and was raised several inches off the
floor.
Alphonsus knew people’s secret and hidden
thoughts, and knew of events in distant locations. He
controlled nature and the elements. In 1779 Mount
Vesuvius was spewing flames and people feared an
eruption. Alphonsus looked at the mountain, uttered
the name “Jesus” and made the sign of the cross.
According to witnesses, the flames disappeared.
He was buried wearing his scapular of Our Lady of
Mount Carmel. Forty years later, he was exhumed. His
body and clothing had turned to dust, but the scapular
was incorrupt. In art he is shown as a young priest, or
as an older man bent double with rheumatism.
Beatified: 1816 by Pope Pius VII
Canonized: 1839 by Pope Gregory XVI
Declared Doctor of the Church: by Pope Pius IX
Feast: August 1
Patronage: confessors; the lay apostolate; moral theologians;
vocations
FURTHER READING
Jones, Frederick M. Alphonsus De Liguori: Saint of Bourbon
Naples, 1696–1787, Founder of the Redemptorists. Liguori,
Mo.: Liguori Publications, 1999.
Sermons of St. Alphonsus Liguori. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books
and Publishers, 1982.
The Way of Saint Alphonsus Liguori: Selected Writings on the
Spiritual Life. Liguori, Mo.: Liguori Publications, 1999.
Alphonsus Rodriguez (1533–1617) Widower, doorman
and mystic
Also known as: Alonso Rodríguez
Alphonsus Rodriguez was born in Segovia, Spain, on
July 25, 1533, the third child in a large family of wool
merchants. When he was about 10, Bl. Peter Faber
arrived in Segovia to preach, stayed with Alphonsus’s
Alphonsus Rodriguez 13
family, and took them up on their offer to spend some
time in their country house. While there, he prepared
Alphonsus for his first communion.
Peter was one of the group of seven who founded
the Society of Jesus along with St. Ignatius of Loyola in
1540. In 1547, when he was 14, Alphonsus was sent
along with an elder brother to study under the Jesuits
at Alcalá. However, when their father died a short
while later, Alphonsus was called home to help manage
the family business. When his mother retired in 1556,
he inherited the business. Four years later, he married
Maria Suarez.
Alphonsus and Maria had three children, although
two died young. Maria herself died shortly after giving
birth to the last child, their only son. Two years later
Alphonsus’s mother died. Since the business wasn’t
prospering either, he sold it, and took his son to live
with the boy’s two maiden aunts, Antonia and Juliana.
He had taken to praying and doing penance, and from
Antonia and Juliana he learned to meditate daily.
Finally, he decided to resume his studies with the
intention of pursuing the religious life.
Alphonsus was then well into his 30s and barely literate.
His health also was precarious. Not surprisingly,
therefore, he was rejected by the Jesuits at Segovia. He
turned to the novitiate of the Jesuits of Aragon at
Valencia, where he was rejected as a candidate priest,
but allowed to enroll in the school. He picked up his
studies where he had broken them off in his youth;
after two years, he applied to become a Jesuit brother,
but was rejected again. At this point the provincial
stepped in, declaring that if Alphonsus was not to be a
Jesuit priest or brother, at least he could become a
Jesuit saint. Thus, in 1571, Alphonsus joined the
Jesuits and was sent to Montesión College on the
island of Majorca. In 1585, at age 54, he professed his
final vows as a brother.
At Montesión, Alphonsus held the position of doorkeeper.
He was diligent in his duties, but he also spent
much time in prayer. One day, tempted by impure
thoughts, he passed in front of an icon of the Virgin
Mary and cried in Latin: “Sacred Mary, Mother of God,
remember me!” Immediately, he felt the temptations
disappear. From then on dedicated himself to communicating
with Mary, praying several rosaries each day
and reciting psalms in her honor. He was rewarded
with frequent visions, and in his most extreme illnesses
felt as if he were living in Nazareth at the time
she and her son were there.
Alphonsus was 72 in 1605 when he met St. Peter
Claver, then a young man who wanted to serve God
but didn’t know how. Alphonsus had a vision in which
he was told that Peter would do great things in South

14 Ambrose
America. He urged him to go as a missionary to Cartagena
(Colombia), where he did indeed do great things,
becoming apostle to the African slaves passing through
the port.
In May 1617, when the rector of Montesión, Father
Julian, was struck with rheumatic fever, he called
Alphonsus to intercede with God and the Virgin Mary
on his behalf. Alphonsus spent the night in prayer, and
by morning Julian was completely recovered.
On October 29, 1617, Alphonsus entered his final
ecstasy. This lasted until midnight on October 31,
when the death pangs began for real. After half
an hour, he briefly regained consciousness, looked
lovingly at his brethren, kissed the crucifix, and
expired. His last words were: “Jesus, Jesus, Jesus!” He
was 84.
In art, Alphonsus is depicted as an old Jesuit with
two hearts on his breast, connected by rays of light to
Christ and the Virgin.
Beatified: 1825 by Pope Leo XII
Canonized: 1888 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: October 30 (formerly October 31)
FURTHER READING
“San Alonso Rodríguez.” Church Forum website. URL:
http://www.churchforum.org/santoral/Octubre/3010.htm.
Downloaded: February 13, 2000.
“St. Alphonsus Rodriguez, SJ.” University of Detroit Mercy
website. URL: http://www.udmercy.edu/htmls/Jesuits/saints/
rodrigez.htm. Downloaded: February 13, 2000.
Ambrose (ca. 339–397) Bishop of Milan, Latin Father
and Doctor of the Church, known for his miracles and his
writings
Name meaning: divine immortal
Also known as: Ambrose of Milan; Ambrosio, Ambrogio;
the Honey-Tongued Doctor
Ambrose was born about 339–340 in Trier (Treves),
the youngest of three children. His father, Ambrosius,
was the praetorian prefect of Gaul, an area that
included the territories of present-day France, Britain,
Spain and part of Africa—one of the four great prefectures
of the Roman Empire and the highest office that
could be held by a subject. Ambrosius died when his
son was young, and the family moved to Rome. There
Ambrose and his brother Satyrus studied law, literature,
philosophy and Greek. They received religious
instruction from their older sister Marcellina, who had
already taken vows as a virgin nun in front of Liberius,
the Roman pontiff, and who lived in her mother’s
house with another consecrated virgin. Like most
Christians of his day, Ambrose was not baptized,
because sins committed after baptism were regarded
with such horror that baptism was delayed. All three
siblings eventually were canonized.
Upon completion of their studies, Ambrose and
Satyrus began practicing law. Ambrose, in particular,
came to the attention of Anicius Probus, the praetorian
prefect of Italy. By his early thirties, Ambrose was the
consular governor of Liguria and Aemilia with residence
in Milan—a post obtained for him by Probus
from Emperor Valentinian I. Ambrose became head of
all civil administration, police and justice systems in
Milan, the center of Western imperial government
since the beginning of the fourth century.
Since 355, the see of Milan had been occupied by
Auxentius, an Arian. (The Arian heresy taught that the
Logos, or Word, is but a creature created by God and is
not God incarnate. Many Christians were Arians in the
third, fourth and fifth centuries, including the missionaries
sent by Emperor Constantius, son of Constantine
the Great, to evangelize the Gothic tribes.) When Auxentius
died in 374, the provincial bishops begged
Emperor Valentinian I to appoint a successor by edict,
but Valentinian refused. Passions were high on both
sides. As consular governor, Ambrose went to the
cathedral and tried to maintain peace by giving a conciliatory
speech. While he was talking, someone
(Ambrose’s biographer, St. Paulinus of Nola, said it was
a child) called out, “Ambrose, bishop!” and the crowd
roared its approval.
Ambrose, however, was still unbaptized and ignorant
of theology. He immediately refused the position,
even, according to Paulinus, inviting prostitutes into
his home to make himself unworthy in the people’s
eyes. He appealed to Valentinian to excuse him, but the
emperor, pleased that one of his governors could
become bishop, promised severe penalties to anyone
found hiding Ambrose. Ambrose reluctantly acquiesced,
and in eight days he was baptized, ordained and
passed through the orders to be consecrated bishop of
Milan on December 7, 374.
The new bishop gave away all his wealth except a
stipend for his sister St. Marcellina. His brother St.
Satyrus left his legal work to handle Ambrose’s secular
affairs. He prayed often, fasted regularly, wrote, studied
Scriptural texts and Greek philosophers—particularly
Origen and St. Basil—and conducted Mass daily.
His door was always open to speak to anyone,
whether noble or peasant. St. Monica, mother of St.
Augustine of Hippo, was one of Ambrose’s followers,
and the bishop managed to convince Augustine that
the intellect could be reconciled with the spirit, bringing
him back to the Church in 387. Ambrose took an
early stand against capital punishment and was a
vocal proponent of vows of virginity—so much so
that some Italian mothers kept their marriageable

daughters away from Ambrose’s sermons. Ambrose
retorted that virgins do not depopulate countries;
wars do.
But much to the Arians’ dismay, Ambrose was an
unyielding Catholic. When Emperor Valentinian I died
suddenly in 375, his brother Valens, an Arian, took
control of the East and Valentinian’s son Gratian
assumed leadership of the West, except Italy. The army
proclaimed the late emperor’s four-year-old son by his
second wife, Justina, as Emperor Valentinian II, and
Gratian agreed to share power. This situation made the
Arian Justina regent. In 377, the Goths invaded the
eastern part of the empire and Gratian raised an army
to aid his uncle Valens. Concerned that he might fall
victim to Arian influence, Gratian appealed to
Ambrose for guidance, and he responded with his
famous treatise, De Fide ad Gratianum Augustum, or
“To Gratian concerning the Faith.”
After the usurper Maximus killed Gratian in 383,
Justina begged Ambrose to act as ambassador on her
son’s behalf. In what is believed to be the first occasion
that an ecclesiastic acted on behalf of secular politics,
Ambrose managed to convince Maximus to confine
himself to Gaul, Spain and Britain and not to invade
the lands under the control of Valentinian II—and
Justina. Justina had remained circumspect about her
plans to further Arianism while her husband Valentinian
and his son Gratian lived, but now that she was
empress-regent and supported by a Gothic court,
Justina began aggressively pursuing her agenda. In
385, Justina induced Valentinian II to demand that
Ambrose relinquish the old Portian basilica to be used
as a place for Arian worship. He refused, saying no
bishop could surrender a temple of God. Valentinian
sent messengers demanding the basilica, but Ambrose
stood firm, calmly celebrating the Mass and rescuing
an Arian priest seized by the crowd.
In January 386, Justina persuaded Valentinian II to
pass a law authorizing Arian assemblies and proscribing
Catholic ones. Ambrose disregarded the law. On
Palm Sunday of that year he preached a sermon against
relinquishing any church, and his followers, fearful of
their lives, barricaded themselves and Ambrose in the
basilica. Imperial guards surrounded the basilica,
thinking to starve the congregants out, but by Easter
they were still inside. To pass the time Ambrose had
taught his people hymns and chants he had written,
sung by two choirs singing alternate stanzas. (The
Arian debate has long since faded from memory, but
Ambrosian antiphonal singing remains a treasured
legacy and still a popular form of worship.) Again,
Valentinian conceded defeat to the bishop, with
Ambrose remarking, “The emperor is in the Church,
not over it.”
Ambrose 15
Meanwhile, Valentinian’s court learned that
Emperor Maximus was planning to cross the Alps.
Ambrose agreed to speak with Maximus a second time,
rising above his battles with Justina. Ambrose publicly
accused the tyrant of breaking faith and asked Maximus
to send Gratian’s remains as a sign of peace, but
Maximus ordered the bishop to leave. The emperor
was already displeased with Ambrose because the
bishop had excommunicated him for the execution of
the Spanish heretic Priscillian. The death of Priscillian
and six followers was the first instance of capital punishment
for heresy meted out by secular, rather than
ecclesiastical, authorities.
Ambrose sent advance word to Valentinian of Maximus’s
intentions, and the emperor and his mother fled
to the Eastern court of Theodosius I, leaving Milan
defenseless. Theodosius engaged Maximus, killing him
in Pannonia (Hungary), and restored Valentinian II to
the throne and awarded him control of the usurper’s
territories. But although Valentinian II was the nominal
ruler, Theodosius now controlled the entire
empire. He stayed for a while in Milan and convinced
the young emperor to denounce Arianism and accept
Catholicism after Justina’s death. At Ambrose’s urging,
Valentinian also thwarted efforts to reintroduce pagan
worship of the goddess Victory in the Senate.
While Theodosius was still in Milan, a mob of
Christians at Kallinikum, in Mesopotamia, destroyed a
Jewish synagogue. Theodosius ordered the local bishop
to rebuild the synagogue, and the bishop appealed to
Ambrose. Ambrose responded that no Christian bishop
could pay for a building used for false worship, but
Theodosius ordered the reconstruction to proceed.
Ambrose preached against Theodosius, they argued,
and Ambrose threatened never to sing Mass at the altar
unless Theodosius revoked the order. Rightly or
wrongly, Ambrose won.
A more serious scandal occurred in 390. Word
reached Milan that Butheric, the governor of Thessalonica,
had imprisoned a popular charioteer for having
seduced a servant girl in Butheric’s family. Butheric
refused to release the charioteer for the games, so
enraging the crowd that they killed Butheric and
stoned several guards to death. Theodosius ordered
savage reprisals. When the people gathered in the circus
for games, soldiers surrounded the building and
massacred 7,000, with no regard to age, gender, guilt
or innocence. Ambrose wrote Theodosius, exhorting
him to perform public penance and warning the
emperor that Ambrose neither would nor could accept
the monarch’s offering on the altar, nor would he ever
celebrate the Divine Mysteries before him until he had
offered penance. Theodosius did public penance like
any commoner, thereafter ordering that henceforth no

16 Ambrose Sansedoni, Blessed
capital punishment should be carried out for 30 days
after sentencing to allow time for calmer judgment to
prevail.
Valentinian II was murdered by Arbogastes in 393
in Gaul. Ambrose mourned the emperor and left Milan
before Arbogastes’s emissary, the pagan Eugenius,
arrived in Milan, threatening to overthrow all Christianity.
Ambrose traveled throughout his diocese in
394, encouraging the people to resist, then returned to
Milan to learn that his old friend Theodosius had
defeated and killed Arbogastes at Aquileia, the final
blow to paganism in the empire. A few months later, in
395, Theodosius died in Ambrose’s arms, and the
bishop who loved him conducted the emperor’s
funeral.
Ambrose died peacefully on Good Friday, April 4,
397. For several hours before his death he lay with his
arms extended as if on a cross, then, after receiving the
sacraments from St. Honoratus, bishop of Vercelli, he
died. His followers buried him in his basilica near the
relics of the holy martyrs Gervase and Protase. In 835
Bishop Angilbert II placed the relics of all three saints
in a porphyry—the royal purple stone—sarcophagus
under the altar, where they were discovered in 1864.
Ambrose is one of the Four Great Doctors of the Latin
(Western) Undivided Church, along with SS. Jerome,
Augustine and Pope Gregory the Great.
Ambrose’s writings include sermons and homilies;
mystical writings, commentaries and hymns; of the latter,
one is still sung in order to bring good weather.
Of his miracles, Ambrose healed by a laying on of
hands, exorcized demons and is said to have raised the
dead. When the son of Decentius, an important Christian
in Florence, died, Ambrose spread himself over the
corpse and brought the boy back to life.
Ambrose discovered the tombs of Gervase and Protase,
and people were healed by touching the relics.
The most famous incident involved a blind butcher,
Severus, who touched the relics with his handkerchief
and then applied the cloth to his eyes.
Feast: December 7
Patronage: bakers of honeybread; bees and beekeepers;
bishops; candlemakers; chandlers; domestic
animals; the French Army Commissariat; geese;
gingerbread makers; learning; schoolchildren;
stone masons; students; wax melters and refiners;
Bologna, Italy; Milan, Italy
FURTHER READING
“Ambrose of Milan, Bishop and Doctor.” URL: http://elvis.
rowan.edu/~kilroy/JEK/12/07.html. Downloaded March
1, 2000.
Herbert, Albert J. Raised from the Dead: True Stories of 400
Resurrection Miracles. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers,
1986.
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2: St. Ambrose. Philip
Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1984.
Ambrose Sansedoni, Blessed (1220–d. ca. 1286–
1287) Dominican, diplomat
Also known as: Ambrose of Siena or Sienna; Ambrose
Sassedoni
Although three brilliant stars heralded his arrival,
Ambrose, born on April 16, 1220, was so ugly and
deformed that his mother and father, a book illuminator,
couldn’t bear to look at him. They entrusted the
baby to a nurse, who took the fretful child with her
every day to Mass at the Dominican church of St. Mary
Magdalene in Siena.
According to lore, Ambrose quieted down if near
the altar of relics but cried loudly when removed.
When Ambrose was about one year old the nurse took
him as usual to church and covered his hideous face
with a scarf. While she was praying, a pilgrim said to
her, “Do not cover that child’s face. He will one day be
the glory of this city.” A few days later the child
stretched out his twisted arms and legs, distinctly said
the name “Jesus,” and became a normal and beautiful
child.
With such a miraculous gift from God, Ambrose
embraced piety from the beginning. When he was two
or three years old, his father offered him one of two
books—one secular, one on saints—and Ambrose
chose the one about saints. The child naturally gravitated
to the care of the sick, poor and abandoned. At
age seven he rose at night to pray and meditate, reciting
the “Little Office of the Blessed Virgin” daily.
Against the wishes of his friends and family, the
handsome young Ambrose entered the Dominican
order of preaching friars at age 17 in 1237. The friars
sent him to Paris to study under St. Albert the Great,
joining Albert’s other famous pupil, St. Thomas
Aquinas. In 1248 Thomas and Ambrose accompanied
Albert to Cologne, where Ambrose taught in the
Dominican schools. Supposedly Ambrose had desired
to write, but recognizing his inability to compete with
Thomas, he became a preacher instead.
Ambrose also served as a missionary and diplomat,
traveling to Hungary in 1260 to evangelize the people.
In 1266, he successfully represented Siena in its efforts
to be released from an interdict, issued as the result of
supporting Emperor Frederick II against the Holy See.
Not only did the pope pardon Siena and restore her
privileges, but he also forgave the city’s misplaced allegiance
a second time with Ambrose’s intercession.
Ambrose brokered peace between Emperor Conrad of
Germany and Pope Clement IV (r. 1265–68) and

preached the Crusade. Ambrose was named bishop of
Siena but declined the office.
At the request of Pope Gregory X (r. 1271–76)
Ambrose resumed teaching at the Dominican convent
in Rome. Although Ambrose tried to retire after Gregory’s
death, Pope Innocent V sent him as papal legate
to Tuscany. He restored peace between Venice and
Genoa and between Florence and Pisa. For 30 years
Ambrose’s diplomatic skills gained him the regard of
popes and kings.
Nevertheless, Ambrose never let his service stand in
the way of his devotion. He prayed and meditated constantly,
often in a state of ecstasy. Stories of his victories
over carnal temptations were legendary, and he frequently
levitated while preaching. Sometimes Ambrose was surrounded
by a “circle of glory”: a mystical light filled
with birds of brilliant plumage. Shortly before his death in
1287 (brought on, according to some, by the vehemence
of his preaching), Ambrose supposedly saw visions of
great beauty. No collections of his sermons remain.
Beatified: 1622 (his cultus confirmed) by Pope Gregory
XV
Feast: March 20
Patronage: betrothed couples; Siena, Italy
Anastasia (d. ca. 249) Roman martyr
Anastasia suffered particularly cruel tortures, according
to the story of her martyrdom. After Valerian succeeded
to the throne of the Roman Empire in 244, he
showed benevolence toward the Christians, but near
the end of 247 turned on them with vicious persecutions.
Anastasia was a young Roman woman of both
noble and Christian birth who decided to enroll in a
Christian nunnery. Her holiness earned her a great reputation.
Valerian’s inquisitors broke into the nunnery and
arrested her. She was taken before the prefect general,
Probus, who threatened her with torture if she did not
renounce her faith. He promised her happiness if she
would go with him to sacrifice at the temple of Jove.
Anastasia chose torture. Her face was then beaten
bloody and she was sent back to prison.
Her joy made Probus angrier. He had all of her
limbs dislocated and her sides burned by torches. This
did not break her, so he ordered her nails to be torn
from her fingers, her teeth to be broken with a hammer,
and her breasts to be torn from her body with hot
iron pincers. Instead of dying in prison, her wounds
were miraculously healed.
Probus then ordered her tongue to be pulled out by
the roots. This was carried out before a crowd of spectators.
Blood gushed from her mouth. She made signs
to a Christian, Cyril, for water, and he gave her some.
Despite the loss of her tongue, Anastasia reportedly
raised her hands to heaven and blessed the Lord and
asked him to help her consummate her sacrifice.
Probus had her hands and feet cut off, and then finally
ordered her to be beheaded. Cyril also was beheaded
for assisting her. The executions took place on the
27th or 28th of October, in about the year 249.
Anastasia’s body was buried outside the city by
Sophia, the head of the nunnery.
Feast: October 28
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Anastasius I (d. 401) Pope and martyr
Anastasius, son of Maximus, was a native of Rome. A
priest in the Roman Church, he was elected the successor
of Pope St. Siricius (r. 384–399) on November 27,
399.
Anastasius is known for his personal holiness and
piety and for some important ecclesiastical pronouncements.
He is responsible for the instruction to priests
to read the Gospels standing and bowing their heads.
In 400, he convened a synod to consider the writings
of Origen, and upheld the council’s condemnation of
the work as heterodox. He also supported the Church
in North Africa in its struggle against Donatism, a
schism that lasted from about 311 to 411.
Anastasius died in 401 after a reign of only two years
and was buried in the Pontian catacombs. Although
his death was natural, he is honored in the Roman Martyrology.
Feast: December 19
Anastasius the Sinaite (d. 700) Father of the Church,
abbot and defender of the faith
A Greek, Anastasius the Sinaite was born in Alexandria.
He became the abbot of the monastery at Mount
Sinai, where he earned the name of “the new Moses”
for his vigorous attacks on groups seeking to influence
the Church. He is best known for his work The Guide,
a defense of the faith that remained popular for
centuries.
Feast: April 21
Andrew the Apostle 17
Andrew the Apostle (d. 60) One of Jesus’ Twelve Disciples
or Apostles
Name meaning: Strong, manly, valorous
Also known as: Andreas; Endres

18 Andrew Avellino
Jesus calling SS. Peter and Andrew. (Engraving, 19th
century)
Andrew was born at Bethsaida on Lake Genesareth
(the Sea of Galilee). He was the brother of St. Peter and
in adulthood lived with him in a house at Capharnaum,
on Lake Genesareth. The brothers were prosperous
fishermen. They were also followers of St. John the
Baptist, through whom they came into contact with
Jesus. Andrew was the first to meet Jesus; immediately
recognizing him as the Christ, he introduced him to
Peter. They followed Jesus on an evangelizing tour and
later were called by him to be among his twelve regular
disciples or apostles.
Not much is known about Andrew’s subsequent
career. Together with St. Philip, he presented the
Gentiles to Christ (as described in John 12:20–22).
When as a result of the persecutions of Herod
Agrippa I (r. 42–44) the apostles were forced to flee
Galilee, Andrew is believed to have preached in many
regions. By tradition, he spent some time in Byzantium,
where he appointed St. Stachys as the first
bishop. There is another unfounded tradition that he
preached in Russia, reaching as far as Kiev in the
Ukraine, whence the conversion of the Slavs spread in
the 11th century.
The exact whereabouts and circumstances of
Andrew’s death are not known. According to an early
account now known to be a forgery intended to
counter Rome’s claim to the relics of SS. Peter and
Paul, Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped cross
(today called a St. Andrew’s Cross) at Patras (Patrae) in
Achaia. This tradition has it that the Roman governor,
Aegeas or Aegates, had him tied rather than nailed to
the cross to extend his suffering, but that he used the
opportunity to preach to all who came to view his execution.
In any event, his martyrdom came during the
reign of Nero, perhaps on November 30, A.D. 60.
Andrew’s relics were translated to Constantinople,
where they were deposited in the Church of the Apostles,
about the year 357. Tradition has it that some
were conveyed to Scotland in the fourth century, in
response to a dream of St. Rule (Regulus) in which he
was guided by an angel to a place called St. Andrew’s,
where he built a church to house the relics. Rule
became the first bishop of St. Andrews and spent the
next three decades evangelizing the Scots. When the
French Lombards took Constantinople at the start of
the 13th century, Cardinal Peter of Capua carried the
remaining relics to Italy and placed them in the cathedral
of Amalfi, where most are to be found today.
Andrew’s head, however, was returned to Constantinople
by Pope Paul VI (r. 1963–78).
Andrew’s feast has been universal in the West since
the sixth century.
Andrew is represented as an old man with a book
and an x-shaped cross; a man bound to a cross; a man
preaching from a cross; a man sitting in a boat; a
preacher holding some fish. His symbols include a fishing
net, an x-shaped cross (saltire) and fish. In the oldest
images, he is depicted with a normal Latin cross.
The saltire became associated with Andrew beginning
in the 10th century, becoming common only in the
14th.
Feast: November 30
Patronage: anglers; fishmongers; fishermen; against
gout; maidens; old maids; singers; against sore
throats; spinsters; against stiff-neck; unmarried
women; women who wish to become mothers;
Achaia; Amalfi, Italy; Avranches; Brabant;
Brunswick; Burgundy; Greece; Holstein; Luxembourg;
Minden; Patras, Greece; Pesaro; Russia;
Scotland; University of Patras
Andrew Avellino (1521–1608) Theologian, founder of
monasteries, friend of St. Charles Borromeo

Name meaning: strong, manly
Also known as: Lorenzo Avellino; Lancellotto
Andrew was born at Castronuovo, near Naples, in
1521. He was christened Lorenzo, but his mother
called him Lancellotto. The young man dedicated his
life to Christ quite early, embracing chastity. After finishing
his elementary studies in Castronuovo, Lancellotto
went to Venice to study the humanities and
philosophy. His vow of chastity was so challenged by
the lovely Venetian girls that he assumed tonsure and
quickly left for Naples, where he studied canon and
civil law. Lancellotto received the Doctor of Laws and
was ordained a priest in 1547 at age 26.
For a while Lancellotto practiced canon law at the
court in Naples. He was quite accomplished—so silvertongued,
in fact, that he feared his preoccupation with
argument weakened his devotion to meditation and
prayer. The situation came to a head when, in the heat
of a friend’s defense, he perjured himself. Filled with
remorse, Lancellotto renounced the law and vowed to
live as a penitent.
But the archbishop of Naples had other plans for
him, sending him to reform the Sant’ Arcangelo convent
in Baiano. The nuns had become so lax in their
vows that the convent was for all practical purposes
a brothel. Through zeal and example Lancellotto
brought the convent back to its rules, but he nearly
died in the effort. Certain men of the area were so used
to the services of the convent that in 1556 they captured
Lancellotto and beat him severely. He was taken
to the monastery of the Theatines to recover and there
decided to join the order, only recently founded by St.
Cajetan. At age 35 he was invested during the Vigil of
the Assumption and took the name Andrew.
Following his novitiate he visited the tombs of apostles
and martyrs in Rome, then returned to the
monastery as master of novices. His success at improving
the quality of priests gained him promotion to
superior of the Naples house 10 years later. In 1570, at
the request of St. Charles Borromeo, Andrew traveled to
Lombardy to found Theatine houses in Milan and Piacenza
and became a close friend of Charles Borromeo.
Other houses were founded throughout Italy, and
Andrew attracted many disciples, including Lorenzo
Scupoli, author of the book The Spiritual Combat.
In 1582 Andrew returned to Naples, where he spent
his last years teaching, preaching, writing, fighting
heresy and converting Protestants. His many letters
were published in two volumes in 1731, followed by
five volumes of his other works in 1734.
On November 10, 1608, while preparing the Mass,
Andrew suffered a massive stroke and died after receiving
the Holy Viaticum. He was 88.
People who came to pay their respects clipped bits
of his hair for relics. During this, his face was cut accidentally
several times. When fresh-looking, red blood
welled out of the cuts, some speculated that Andrew
had not initially died but had been catatonic and actually
buried alive. Physicians confirmed his death, and
made more cuts in his skin and collected his blood for
the next three days. Andrew was buried in the
monastery church of St. Paul in Naples.
The blood reportedly bubbled in a vial. On the
anniversary of his death, the hardened blood was said
to liquefy and bubble (similar to the blood of St. Januarius)
when brought out for veneration. The blood is
said to bubble every year on the anniversary of his
death.
Beatified: 1624 by Pope Urban VIII
Canonized: 1712 by Pope Clement XI
Feast: November 10
Patronage: against sudden death; apoplexy; for a
holy death; strokes and stroke victims; Naples
Andrew of Crete (ca. 660–740) Greek Father of the
Church
Andrew of Crete was born about 660 in Damascus. He
became a monk at Mar Saba and served later at the Holy
Sepulchre. Around 685, he was ordained a deacon at
Hagia Sophia. He ran a refuge for orphans, the elderly
and others. In 692 he became archbishop of Gortyna on
Crete, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Andrew of Crete had substantial oratorical skills, as
evidenced in his homilies and panegyrics to the saints.
He is credited with authoring the “Great Canon”
prayed by the Orthodox during Lent.
Feast: July 4
Andrew Kim Taegon 19
Andrew Kim Taegon (d. 1846) One of the Korean
Martyrs
Also known as: Andrew Kim
Andrew Kim was born to the nobility. Both his parents
converted to Christianity, and his father died a martyr.
Christianity did not come to Korea until the 1600s and
not to any extent until the late 1700s. Korea’s rulers
maintained a policy of total isolationism, keeping out
any Western influence and making entry into Korea
practically impossible. In 1784, Pietro Yi was the first
Korean to be baptized at Pechino, but he denied his
faith in the persecutions of 1791, started when a
Korean Christian noble refused to burn incense to
honor the memory of his mother.
By 1801, sporadic and localized persecutions had
been extended to the entire country. One Chinese

20 Anencletus
priest who had managed to enter Korea offered himself
as a sacrifice, hoping that his death might stop the sufferings
of other Christians. Authorities beheaded him
on May 31, 1801, but did not end the persecutions.
Martyrdom inspired the faithful, and Korea’s tiny
Catholic community petitioned other countries to send
priests. France answered the Koreans’ prayers, secretly
slipping several bishops and priests, all members of the
Foreign Mission Society of Paris, into the country.
In 1839, the return of the conservative faction to
Korean government resulted in widespread persecution,
lasting until 1846. Three French clerics—two
priests and the bishop Msgr. Laurence Imbert—all died
by beheading on September 21, 1839.
Andrew Kim had been baptized at 15. He then traveled
1,300 miles from Korea to the nearest seminary in
China. He also studied Latin in Macao. Slipping back
into Korea in 1845, he became the first native-born
Korean ordained a priest, working tirelessly to bring
the Sacraments to the people until Korean tribesmen
captured, tortured, then beheaded him at the edge of a
river at sunset on September 16, 1846. Terrified followers
retrieved his body late that night, taking it into
the mountains for a proper and safe burial.
Only two letters remain from Andrew Kim: one to
the vicar apostolic bishop who ordained him, and one
to his followers, exhorting them to keep the faith. One
of those faithful was Paul Chong Hasang, who was
killed less than a week later on September 22.
Persecutions rose again in 1861. Two more French
bishops and a number of missionaries were martyred,
as well as many ordinary Koreans. Estimates run as
high as 10,000 over the two periods. Official persecutions
ended in 1886; up until 1881, Christianity was
referred to in government documents as “the perverse
doctrine.” Today Christianity flourishes in South Korea
and struggles on as the Church of Silence in communist
North Korea.
On May 6, 1984, Pope John Paul II held services in
Seoul to canonize 103 saints, including Andrew Kim
and Paul Chong Hasang, as representatives of the
Korean martyrs. The saints’ feast day was inserted into
the Calendar of the Universal Church.
Beatified: July 1925, martyrs of the 1839–46 persecutions
by Pope Pius XI; October 1968, martyrs
of the 1861–66 persecutions by Pope Paul VI
Canonized: May 6, 1984, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: September 20
Patronage: Korean clergy
FURTHER READING
“Saints Andrew Kim Taegon, Paul Chong Hasang and Companion
Martyrs in Korea.” Daily Catholic. Section Two,
vol. 10, no. 178, September 20, 1999. URL: http://
www.DailyCatholic.org. Downloaded July 11, 2000.
Anencletus (d. ca. 91) Pope and martyr
Name meaning: Blameless
Also known as: Anacletus, Cletus
Almost nothing is known for sure about Anencletus,
even his name. Some early Church documents identify
him with Anicletus and Cletus, whereas others suggest
these were different people. He is thought to have succeeded
St. Linus as bishop of Rome when Linus died
around the year 79. He was thus the third pope. During
his 12-year reign he divided Rome into 25 parishes
and ordained an unknown number of priests.
Anencletus was martyred by the Roman emperor
Domitian around the year 91. He was buried near
Linus at the foot of Vatican Hill, where his relics may
be found today.
Feast: April 26
Angela Merici (1470 or 1474–1540) Founder of the
Order of Ursulines
Name meaning: Angel, messenger
Also known as: Angela de Marici, Angela of Brescia
Angela Merici was born March 21, 1470, or 1474, at
Desenzano, a small town on the southwestern shore of
Lake Garda in Lombardy. Orphaned at 10, Angela and
her brother and older sister went to live with a wealthy
uncle at Salo. Angela’s sister died suddenly, when
Angela was 13, without benefit of the last rites. Angela
prayed and suffered on her sister’s behalf until receiving
a vision of the Blessed Mother accompanied by the
sister—confirmation to Angela that her sister was in
heaven. In gratitude Angela consecrated herself to
God, becoming a Franciscan tertiary at 15. She lived
very austerely, shunning any possessions, even a bed,
and living on bread and water and a few vegetables.
Angela’s uncle died when she was 20, and she
returned to Desenzano. Shocked at how little the poorest
neighborhood girls knew of religion, she discussed
her plans to begin teaching them with a few of her
friends, mostly tertiaries like herself. A natural, charming
leader, Angela had no difficulty enlisting other
young women to her cause. Her plans were confirmed
when a vision revealed virgins ascending a ladder of
light, accompanied by angels playing golden harps,
until the Savior called her by name to start a society of
teaching women. Converting her home to a school,
Angela and her friends began teaching the rudiments
of religion to the local little girls—so successfully that

Angela was invited to open a similar school in nearby
Brescia.
In Brescia, Angela came in contact with many influential
people who supported her efforts and whom she
inspired in their devotion. Her photographic memory
of the Bible and knowledge of Latin placed her in a
position as counsel and speaker as well. In 1524,
Angela made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where
reputedly she was struck blind in Crete. Resisting
entreaties to return home, Angela completed her pilgrimage
with enthusiasm. While praying before a crucifix
upon the very spot in Crete where she had gone
blind, her eyesight was miraculously restored.
The next year, 1525, Angela traveled to Rome to
receive jubilee year indulgences from Pope Clement
VII (r. 1523–34). His Holiness tried to persuade Angela
to remain in Rome as head of a community of nursing
sisters, but she declined. After hearing of her vision of
the virgins on the ladder, the pope gave Angela permission
to establish a community of teaching women. In
another vision, St. Ursula—patroness of medieval universities
and a leader of women—appeared to Angela,
who was so transported by her ecstasy that she apparently
levitated.
Years would pass before Angela could accomplish
her goal, however. Shortly after returning to Brescia
from her papal visit, war broke out in Lombardy. As
Charles V neared Brescia, civilians fled the city, and
Angela and some of her friends went to Cremona. After
peace was declared, the citizens of Brescia welcomed
Angela as a prophetess and saint. Finally, in 1533,
Angela began training some young women to form a
community. Angela and 28 companions consecrated
themselves to God, under the protection of St. Ursula,
on November 25, 1535, at St. Afra’s Church in Brescia,
with Angela as their first superior.
The Company of St. Ursula was the first teaching
order of women, which was a radical concept for many
years. The women took no formal vows and did not
live communally or in a cloister. Although some lived
with Angela in her home near St. Afra’s, most lived in
their own homes with their families. The women did
not adopt a habit but were encouraged to wear a simple
black dress. They met, worshiped and taught
classes together or in their students’ homes. Pope Paul
III (r. 1534–49) formally recognized the Ursulines in
1544; they did not become a Congregation until 1565.
In 1568, St. Charles Borromeo called the Ursulines to
Milan and persuaded the women to assume a cloistered,
communal life as a means of reform of the dioceses
in which they worked. Unable to accept Angela’s
mission of a flexible society, rules of strict enclosure
were enacted in France.
Angela directed her community for only four years,
falling ill in January 1540 and dying January 27 in
Brescia. Her sisters, surrounding her at the end,
reported that a ray of light shone upon her at death,
and that the Lord’s name was on her lips. Her body
later was found to be incorruptible.
Beatified: 1768 by Pope Clement XIII
Canonized: 1807 by Pope Pius VII
Feast: January 27
Patronage: bodily ills; disabled or handicapped people;
loss of parents; sickness
Anicetus (d. ca. 166) Pope and martyr
Anicetus was born in Emesa, Syria. Around 155 he
succeeded St. Pius I as bishop of Rome, making him
the 11th pope. Anicetus ruled only until about 166,
but his short reign was full of controversy.
Anicetus forbade priests to wear long hair, perhaps
because the Gnostics did so. Gnostics and Marcionites,
each preaching their own heresies, had not yet been
stifled by the Church, and were very much in evidence
in Rome at this time. There were also signs of a growing
rift between Eastern and Western churches over
the question of when Easter should be celebrated.
Western churches followed Rome in celebrating Easter
on Sunday, but Eastern churches celebrated the feast
on the 14th day of the month of Nisan (that is, after
the first moon of the vernal equinox), regardless of the
day of the week on which it fell. St. Polycarp, bishop of
Smyrna, an Eastern church, came to confer with Anicetus
about the year 160, but left without resolving
the conflict, which was to grow larger in the coming
centuries.
Anicetus is said to have died a martyr, although his
martyrdom may be only figurative, worn down as he
was by the many problems he could not resolve. He
died sometime between 160 and 166, on the 16th, 17th
or 20th of April.
Feast: April 17
Anne, Matron 21
Anne, Matron (n.d.) Believed to be the mother of the
Virgin Mary and grandmother of Jesus Christ
Name meaning: Grace, gracious one
Also known as: Ann or Anna
Anne receives no mention in the Bible, either by name
or by any reference to Mary’s parents. But by the second
century, the apocryphal Book of James or Protoevangelium
Jacobi, written about 170, fills in the
legendary details of Anne’s life and the birth and childhood
of Mary. Anne’s story also appears in The Golden

22 Anne Line
Legend, a book of the saints’ lives written by Jacobus de
Voragine.
Anne’s story in the Book of James followed closely
the Old Testament story of Hannah in I Samuel 1,
2:1–10; indeed, Anne or Anna is the Latin form of the
Greek name Hannah, and both mean “grace.” Hannah
is one of the two wives of Elkanah. The other wife,
Peninnah, bore Elkanah sons and daughters and
taunted Hannah for her barrenness, so much so that
Hannah prayed to the Lord to give her a son, and she
would consecrate him to the Lord’s service. Even
though Hannah was old, her prayer was granted, and
when her son Samuel was weaned she left him in the
care of the priests.
Anne’s husband, Joachim of Nazareth, endured
embarrassments for his childlessness. Joachim was so
despondent that he left Anne in Jerusalem and went to
live for 40 days and nights in a rude shepherd’s hut,
praying ceaselessly for a child.
James wrote that Anne’s sorrow was doubled, as a
widow and as a barren woman. Praying in the garden,
Anne despaired of ever finding favor in God’s sight,
until an angel appeared assuring her of a child. Anne
promised that whether she had a son or daughter the
child would be consecrated to the Lord. The angel told
her that Joachim was returning, as he had received a
visit from the angel as well, and Anne hurried to meet
her husband. They embraced at the Golden Gate of
Jerusalem and went home. Nine months later Anne
delivered a daughter called Mary.
Medieval ecclesiastics believed that Mary was conceived
merely through Anne and Joachim’s embrace
(James had delicately omitted the details of their return
to the house), leading to the doctrine of Mary’s Immaculate
Conception.
The Book of James detailed Mary’s childhood as
well, giving a loving picture of Anne as a tender and
godly mother. At six months, Mary took her first baby
steps, and Anne quickly moved the child to an undefiled
area of the bedroom so that Mary wouldn’t walk
on unclean ground before her consecration. On
Mary’s third birthday, Joachim and Anne took her to
the Temple, where the child rejoiced in her new surroundings
and lived until her 14th birthday. A major
flaw in this story is that Judaic law forbade women in
the Temple.
Anne’s devotion as a mother and grandmother to
Jesus Christ made her a popular figure in the early
Church. By the eighth century, Pope Constantine introduced
Anne worship into Rome, and the saint received
her own feast day on July 26. Crusaders brought Anne
to Western Europe, where she was venerated in England
as early as 1030.
The popularity of Anne’s story helped medieval
ecclesiastics solve a thorny New Testament issue.
Matthew 12:46 refers to Jesus’ “brothers,” yet the
Church had decided that Mary remained a virgin
throughout her life, as had Joseph. If that were true,
who were these “brothers”?—not Joseph’s children
from a previous marriage, and not Mary’s children. St.
Jerome suggested that they were sons of Mary’s sisters,
or Jesus’ cousins. This doctrine, called the Holy Kinship
and popularized in medieval literature, art and
prayer, pulled together all the Marys of the New Testament,
except for Mary Magdalen, into one family and
gave Anne two husbands after the death of Joachim.
The Holy Kinship not only solved the problem of Jesus’
brothers but also established a matriarchal lineage for
Jesus, a factor in the extraordinary popularity of Anne’s
cult.
By the 16th century, Martin Luther attacked the worship
of Anne as spurious, especially the so-called selbdritt
paintings, which portrayed Mary and Jesus always
accompanied by Anne. Despite Luther’s efforts, veneration
of Anne, concentrated in England, was extended
to full canonical worship Churchwide in 1584.
In 1650, Breton sailors, caught in a storm at sea off
the coast of Quebec, promised Anne a sanctuary if they
safely reached shore. The sailors built a shrine at
Beaupré, which was rebuilt in 1658, and attracts over
one million pilgrims a year. Several of her relics are
there, including a finger bone. St. Anne de Beaupré is
especially famous for the crutches left behind by
healed cripples.
In art, Anne often appears at her betrothal to
Joachim or embracing him at Jerusalem’s Golden Gate.
Canonized: 1584 by Pope Gregory XIII
Feast: July 26
Patronage: broommakers; cabinetmakers; carpenters;
childless people; homemakers and housewives;
infertility; grandparents, especially
grandmothers; lace makers and workers; lost
articles; miners; mothers; old-clothes dealers;
against poverty; pregnant women; seamstresses;
stablemen; turners; women in labor; Brittany;
Canada; Quebec; Santa Ana Indian pueblo; Taos,
New Mexico
FURTHER READING
Streep, Peg. Mary, Queen of Heaven. New York: Book of the
Month Club, 1997.
Anne Line (ca. 1574–1601) One of the Forty Martyrs
of England and Wales
Name meaning: Gracious one
Also known as: Anne Higham

Anne Line was born to the wealthy and strongly
Calvinist family of William Heigham of Dunmow, in
Essex. When she and her brother converted to Catholicism—an
illegal religion from 1570 to 1791—they
were disowned and disinherited. At 19, Anne married
Roger Line of Ringwood, also a convert, but he was
arrested for recusancy (failure to obey the law requiring
Catholics to attend Church of England services)
and exiled to Flanders in 1594, where he died within
months.
Alone and in ill health, Anne devoted all her efforts
to assisting fellow Catholics. She first moved to the
home of Mrs. Wiseman in Braddox, but Mrs. Wiseman
was executed for helping priests. Her next job was managing
a house of refuge for priests in London organized
by the Jesuit, Father John Gerard. Father Gerard was
arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London but
escaped in 1597. His return to the safe house caused
Anne to come under suspicion, so she moved again.
On Candlemas Day (February 2), 1601, Anne
invited a large number of Catholics to celebrate Mass
in her apartment. Noticing the large assembly, Anne’s
neighbors alerted the authorities. The priest-catchers
broke into her home just as another Jesuit, Father
Francis Page, was about to conduct the Mass. The
heavily barred door gave Father Francis just enough
time to remove his vestments and mingle with the
crowd, but the discovery of an altar and communion
vessels was enough to indict Anne.
Anne awaited trial at Newgate prison. She was so ill
that she had to be carried in on a chair. But when questioned
by Lord Chief Justice Popham at the Old Bailey
on February 26 if she were guilty of the charge of harboring
a priest from overseas (Act of 27 Elizabeth),
Anne bravely replied that her only regret was that she
had not received a thousand more. Even though the
prosecution had very little evidence—only the altar
and one witness who said Anne had been in her house
with a man dressed in white—the jury found her guilty
at the judge’s direction, and she was sentenced to
death.
The next day, February 27, Anne rode to Tyburn
for execution. Composed to the end, she kissed the
gallows and knelt in prayer. Hanged along with Anne
were a Jesuit, Father Bl. Roger Filcock, her friend and
confessor, and a Benedictine, Father Bl. Mark Barkworth,
the first Benedictine to be martyred since the
suppression of the monasteries.
Beatified: 1929 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: October 25, 1970, by Paul VI as one of
the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
Feast: February 27
Patronage: childless people; converts; widows
Anselm 23
Anselm (ca. 1033–1109) Archbishop of Canterbury,
Doctor of the Church
Also known as: the Father of Scholasticism
Anselm was born about 1033 to a noble family from
the Aosta region of the Piedmont in Italy. He was sent
to a monastery school before he was five and suffered
under the strict and sometimes cruel education practices
of the day, leading him to champion more liberal
teaching methods all his life. As a child he dreamed
that he sought Heaven in the mountains and there
received bread from the Lord. He tried to enter a
monastery at about age 15, but the abbot, fearing that
Anselm’s father Gundulf would object, refused him
admission. Anselm prayed for illness, hoping that the
monks would relent if he were ill; he did become sick
but to no avail. He soon fell in with less-religious
friends and began enjoying the pursuits of a young
nobleman, restrained only by his mother Ermenberga’s
love. Once she died, Gundulf’s unremitting hatred and
harshness drove Anselm away, and he crossed the Alps
into France in 1056.
After nearly three years of study and wandering in
France and Burgundy, Anselm traveled to Normandy,
where the Blessed Abbot Lanfranc of Lombardy lived
with a group of fellow scholars at Bec Abbey. Lanfranc,
who was prior, welcomed the young man into the
Benedictine order in 1060. In 1063 William, duke of
Normandy, later King William I the Conqueror, named
Lanfranc abbot of St. Stephen’s Abbey at Caen, and
young Anselm succeeded him as prior of Bec. Anselm
served as prior for 15 years, during which time he
wrote two of his major treatises: the Monologium and
the Proslogium. The greater of the two, the Proslogium,
attempts to present an ontological argument of the
existence of God by showing that the mere fact that
even nonbelievers understand the uniqueness of God
as a perfect being validates His presence. Anselm’s was
heavily influenced by the writings of St. Augustine,
and his arguments in turn influenced great thinkers of
his day, such as St. Thomas Aquinas (who disagreed)
and later philosophers such as Hegel, Kant and
Descartes.
In 1078, the abbot of Bec, Blessed Herluin, died,
and Anselm succeeded him—but not without great
reluctance. As abbot, Anselm traveled to England,
where the abbey owned property. He met often with his
old mentor Lanfranc, whom King William I had named
archbishop of Canterbury in 1070. Lanfranc served as
regent on behalf of the king in his absence and helped
ensure the smooth transition of power to William’s
son, William II Rufus (meaning “red-haired”), when
the king died in 1087.

24 Anselm
But when Lanfranc died in 1089, William Rufus
did not replace him, seizing the see’s revenues and
leaving the Church of England in anarchy. The English
bishops clearly wanted Anselm to succeed Lanfranc,
but Anselm did not want the office. He even
refused to travel to England for fear of appearing to
seek the archbishopric. But in 1092, at the urging of
Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm came to England and
was hailed as the new archbishop by the clergy, nobles
and people. Anselm stayed for several months, often
meeting with the king. But when he tried to return to
Bec, the king denied him permission. The people
prayed all over England that the king would choose
Anselm to fill the Chair of Augustine. By early 1093,
William Rufus fell ill and, fearing for his mortal soul,
repented of his sins and named Anselm archbishop of
Canterbury. Anselm tried to refuse the honor—he had
to be dragged to the king’s bedside and forced to
receive the pastoral staff—but finally agreed to accept
the office.
Once William Rufus regained health, he returned to
his old ways. First he kept Anselm from calling the
synods necessary to handle church business. Next the
king and Anselm argued over the king’s gift of Church
property to his friends. Always looking for revenue,
William Rufus demanded a gift of 500 pounds from
Anselm to seal his election as archbishop. But when
Anselm accumulated the money from his impoverished
see, the king scornfully refused the levy as insufficient.
Anselm angrily retorted that as long as the king
treated him as a free man Anselm would serve him, but
if he treated him like a slave the king would have nothing
of him or his office. Anselm then gave the 500
pounds to the poor. He finally was consecrated archbishop
on December 4, 1093.
To be fully invested, however, Anselm needed to
receive the pallium from Rome. Complicating the situation
was the dispute over papal authority between
the rightful pope, Urban II (r. 1088–99), and the
antipope Clement. William Rufus saw the schism as a
means for him to assert his own power, so when
Anselm asked to go to Rome to receive the pallium,
William commanded that no one could communicate
with either pope until he, William, had established
his position on the matter. Anselm supported Urban
II, and the question went to a council at Rockingham
in March 1095. William finally assented to Anselm’s
trip to Rome to get the pallium from Urban II, and
Walter, bishop of Albano, accompanied Anselm back
to Canterbury as papal legate with the pallium.
William demanded that he place the pallium on
Anselm—thereby asserting royal authority over the
Church—but Anselm would not acquiesce. In a compromise,
the papal legate, Walter, placed the pallium
on the altar on June 10, 1095, and Anselm invested
himself.
In 1097, after the king’s ineffectual campaign to
Wales, William accused Anselm of providing poor support
and formally charged him. Anselm demanded to
plead his case in Rome, which William first denied
then hurriedly granted. Anselm blessed the king, set
sail for Rome, and did not return to England during
the rest of William Rufus’s reign.
Pope Urban II welcomed Anselm to Rome and
allowed him to enjoy his exile at an Italian monastery.
During this period Anselm wrote his most famous
work, Cur Deus Homo, or “Why God Became Man.” In
his book, Anselm put forward the “satisfaction theory”
of the Incarnation to explain the Atonement: that man’s
rebellion against God demanded satisfaction, but fallen
man was incapable of making adequate satisfaction.
God assumed human nature upon Himself, so that a
God-made man could make perfect satisfaction and
thereby save the human race.
Believing that he had failed as archbishop, Anselm
begged Urban II to release him from office, but the
pope refused. In 1098, Urban II asked Anselm to represent
him at the Council of Bari, where Anselm helped
the Italo-Greek bishops understand the papacy’s position
on the controversial doctrine of filioque, or the
procession of the Holy Spirit. The clergy in attendance
also discussed Anselm’s persecution by William Rufus.
They denounced William for simony, oppression and
depravity, and only agreed to threaten excommunication
rather than assess a solemn anathema at Anselm’s
urging.
William II Rufus died in an accident while hunting
with his younger brother Henry in 1100. One of the
party, Walter Tirel, shot William with an arrow (some
believe on Henry’s orders). Henry immediately went to
Winchester and seized the treasury, then had himself
crowned King Henry I before his oldest brother,
Robert, duke of Normandy, could act. Henry also married
Matilda of Scotland, daughter of St. Margaret, further
cementing his claim. Anselm returned to England
amid great rejoicing, but soon argued with Henry I
about the king’s demands to reinvest Anselm as archbishop.
Anselm said that a Roman synod at Easter in
1099 expressly forbade lay investiture; offenders would
be punished by excommunication.
Robert of Normandy invaded England in 1101. In
order to have the Church on his side, Henry I
promised to obey the Holy See, and Anselm helped
persuade the barons of Henry’s legitimacy, preventing a
rebellion. The brothers agreed to a peaceful end to hostilities
if Henry relinquished all claims to Normandy.
As soon as the war was over, Henry resumed his
demands of investiture and sent an emissary to Rome

asking Pope Paschal II (r. 1099–1118) for an exemption
from the Easter decrees. The pope refused the
exemption, and Henry I sent another emissary to try
again. The answer was the same, but the envoys
claimed that the pope had orally agreed to the exemption,
but not in writing. During this period the king
continued to invest bishops and abbots, but Anselm
was not required to consecrate them.
In 1102, Anselm held a council at Westminster to
reinstate some English saints removed earlier from the
calendar, to encourage the ordination of English
priests, enforce celibacy and protest Henry’s latest
demands that the archbishop consecrate the bishops
invested by the king. Also during that council, Anselm
condemned slavery and prohibited the sale of men
“like cattle.” Anselm continued to resist Henry’s
demands for investiture, returning to Rome in 1103 to
plead his case before Pope Paschal II, who again denied
Henry’s request for exemption. Returning to England,
Anselm stopped in Lyons, where he learned that
although the king’s counselors had been excommunicated,
the king had not. Anselm traveled on to visit
with Henry’s sister, Adela of Blois, who was ill. He
informed her that he intended to excommunicate her
brother, and she arranged a brief reconciliation in
1105. The agreement soon fell apart, with Henry again
demanding the right of investiture while reneging on
his promise to his brother Robert, invading Normandy
and defeating Robert in battle. Henry’s victory united
England and Normandy, and the king imprisoned
Robert in an English castle for 28 years.
Anselm again went to Rome to plead his case and
secured a letter allowing him to absolve Henry of censures
enacted for past offenses but not settling the
question. At long last, at a royal council in London in
1107, the king agreed to relinquish his claim to invest
bishops and abbots, and the Church allowed clergy to
pay homage—fees of entitlement—on their possessions
and properties. The Church emerged victorious
over the Crown. Amazingly, this pact was kept by
Henry I. He even designated Anselm his regent while
the king was in Normandy in 1108.
By 1109 Anselm was 76 years old. He had spent the
two years since the 1107 council peacefully, writing
and tending to pastoral duties. He died at Canterbury
on April 21, 1109, and is believed to be interred in the
cathedral church. Dante Alighieri immortalized
Anselm by placing the archbishop among the spirits of
light and power, next to St. John Chrysostom, in the
Sphere of the Sun (Paradiso, canto XII).
Anselm is especially venerated in Canterbury; Bec
and Rouen, France; and Aosta and Turin, Italy. He is
shown in his episcopal vestments in art. He was never
formally canonized.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1720 by Pope Clement
XI
Feast: April 21
FURTHER READING
“Anselm of Canterbury, Monk, Archbishop, Theologian.”
URL: http://elvis.rowan.edu/~kilroy/JEK/04/21.html. Downloaded
March 1, 2000.
Cantor, Norman F., gen. ed. The Encyclopedia of the Middle
Ages. New York: Reference Works/Viking, 1999.
St. Anselm’s Proslogion. M.J. Charlesworth. London: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1979.
Anterus (d. 236) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Antheros, Antherus
The Greek Anterus was elected pope upon the resignation
of St. Pontian. He reigned for 43 days, from
November 21, 235, until January 3, 236. He caused
the acts of the Christian martyrs to be collected and
placed in the Vatican archives, and for this he himself
was martyred. He was the first pope to be buried in the
papal crypt of the Roman cemetery of San Callistus.
Feast: January 3
Anthelm 25
Anthelm (ca. 1105–07–1178) Carthusian monk and
bishop
Little is known of this saint’s early life. Anthelm was
born ca. 1105–07 at Chignin Castle, six miles from the
town of Chambéry, to nobility. Although he had chosen
a life in the Church from an early age, he was more
attracted to the things of this world, rather than the
next, and pursued ecclesiastical positions to enhance
his prestige. A visit to relatives at the Carthusian
monastery at Portes changed his life, however, and he
entered the strict order of St. Bruno in 1137.
Not long into his novitiate, Anthelm was sent to
help rebuild the monastery at Grande Chartreuse,
which had been nearly destroyed in an avalanche. His
gifts for organization and business soon restored
the life and prosperity of the monastery. He supervised
rebuilding the ruins and then built a security
wall. He brought water to the monastery with an
aqueduct and renewed the farmlands and sheepfolds.
When Hugh I resigned as prior of the monastery
in 1139, Anthelm succeeded him. Throughout
these activities Anthelm enforced the Carthusian
rule and organized the various monasteries—previously
answerable only to the bishop—into a unified
order, calling the first general chapter about 1140.
Grande Chartreuse became the mother house and
Anthelm the first minister general. Anthelm’s skills
and reputation brought many new monks into the

26 Anthony
order, including his father, a brother, and William,
count of Nivernais.
Anthelm resigned his post in 1152, hoping to retire
in solitude, but succeeded Bernard, prior of Portes
monastery, as abbot instead. The monks at Portes had
become very prosperous—too prosperous, Anthelm
believed, for an order with rules of poverty. He gave
away most of the grain stores and even sold church
ornaments for alms.
Two years later Anthelm returned to Grande Chartreuse,
longing for the contemplative life, but was
again called to service. In 1159 two popes vied for
legitimacy: Alexander III (r. 1159–81), supported by
King Louis VII of France and most of the bishops, and
Victor IV, the favorite of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.
Anthelm threw himself into the argument
and, along with Geoffrey, the Cistercian abbot of
Hautecombe, recruited both clergy and nobility from
France, Spain and England in support of Alexander. In
gratitude, Alexander III appointed Anthelm as bishop
of Belley, much against Anthelm’s wishes, in September
1163.
Bishop Anthelm energetically promoted reform of
his diocese. In his first synod he encouraged the
priests and clergy to return to celibacy; many priests
had married. When after two years he still found
lapsed celibates he deprived them of their benefices.
He tolerated no oppression or disorder from the laity,
either, standing firm against the intrusion of secular
kings into ecclesiastical affairs. Alexander III even
sent him to England to try to mediate a truce between
King Henry II and Archbishop Thomas Becket but
with no success. Anthelm’s flock so loved him that
for a time the town of Belley was renamed Anthelmopolis.
Anthelm died at age 72 on June 26, 1178. He had
devoted his last years to the Carthusian order and two
other institutions: a women’s community at Bons and a
leper house. His tomb at Grande Chartreuse quickly
became known for its miraculous powers; St. Hugh of
Lincoln visited the shrine before he died in 1200.
Anthelm is depicted in art with a lamp lit by a
divine hand.
Feast: June 26
Anthony (251–356) Credited as a founder of monasticism
Name meaning: Inestimable
Also known as: Anthony, Anthony or Antony of Egypt,
Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Abbott
Anthony was born in 251 to Christian parents in a
little village (reported as Coma or Koman) south of
St. Anthony (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1519)
Memphis in Upper Egypt. Perhaps fearing the persecutions
ordered by Emperor Decius in 250, his parents
kept him at home, unread and ignorant of any language
except his own. Anthony was about 20 years old
when his parents died, leaving him a large estate and
the care of his younger sister. About six months after
his parents’ deaths Anthony heard the Gospel text,
“Go, sell what thou hast, give it to the poor and thou
shalt have treasure in heaven” (Matthew 19:21), and
he resolved to sell and distribute all of the estate except
what he and his sister needed to live on. Not long
thereafter, Anthony again heard the Gospel, “Be not
solicitous for tomorrow” (Matthew 6:34), and he
gave away the rest. He placed his sister in a house of
maidens or pious women, the first recorded description
of a nunnery, and began a life of solitude about the
year 272.
Anthony’s first retreat was in the Libyan desert, not
far from his home, where he lived in an abandoned
tomb. He usually ate only after sunset, his meal consisting
of bread with a little salt, and water to drink.
Sometimes he would not eat for three or four days. He
slept on a rush mat or the bare floor, and spent his days
in prayer, reading and manual labor.
But the devil’s temptations, particularly visions
of sexual seduction, invaded the young man’s solitude.
One time, the devil beat Anthony so severely that
he was left for dead, saved only by a friend who
had come to bring bread to the tomb. The temptations
of Anthony were a popular subject for medieval
artists.
After emerging triumphant from the temptations,
about 285, Anthony crossed the Nile River to live in
the abandoned ruins of a mountain fort, where he
stayed in almost total isolation for 20 years. He rarely

had human contact except for the man who brought
bread every six months, but nevertheless attracted the
faithful and the curious. Anthony finally came down
from the mountain in 305, at age 54, to respond to the
entreaties of his followers, founding the first
monastery at Fayum.
In the year 311, after the resumption of persecutions
under Maximinus, Anthony traveled to Alexandria
to comfort Christians awaiting martyrdom. He
made no secret of his presence or intentions, but amazingly
was not arrested. Once the persecutions abated,
he returned to the desert, where he founded another
monastery called Pispir. But Anthony still chose solitude,
living in a cell on Mount Kolzim with his disciple
Macarius and tending a desert garden. Unable to fully
escape the world, eventually Anthony lived with a
company of followers, instructing them in monastic
life. In 337, Emperor Constantine and his two sons
Constantius and Constans wrote Anthony, begging that
the holy man remember them in his prayers.
Anthony returned to Alexandria in 355 to combat
the Arian heresy, which taught that God the Son is a
creature and not at the same level as God the Father.
Anthony’s friend and biographer, St. Athanasius, patriarch
of the Church at Alexandria, reported that
Anthony attracted crowds of both the faithful and
pagans alike. St. Jerome wrote that while Anthony visited
Alexandria, he met the famous holy man Didymus,
the head of the catechetical school and
completely blind. Anthony reportedly told Didymus
that he “should not regret his loss of eyes, which were
common even to insects, but to rejoice in the treasure
of the inner light which the apostles enjoyed, by which
we see God and kindle the fire of His love in our
souls.”
Shortly before his death, Anthony visited a community
of his followers, but hurried back to his refuge at
Mount Kolzim. Upon becoming ill, he directed his disciples
to bury him secretly at Kolzim next to his followers
Macarius and Amathas, and send his cloak to
Athanasius. Anthony then lay down, assured his disciples
that his body would rise incorruptible in the resurrection,
and stopped breathing. The year was 356,
and Anthony was 105 years old and apparently in good
health until the end. In 561, his remains supposedly
were discovered and moved first to Alexandria, then to
Constantinople, then finally to Vienne, France, during
the Crusades.
The Order of Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony,
founded in 1096, tended the sufferers of “St. Anthony’s
Fire” or ergot—a horrible medieval disease with painful
skin eruptions that blackened and turned gangrenous,
often requiring amputation, caused by a fungus in rye
bread flour. Nervous spasms and convulsions accompa-
Anthony Mary Claret 27
nied the eruptions. The Brothers, ignorant of the fungus,
treated the afflicted with an herbal balm and
prayers to St. Anthony, believed to have miraculous
healing powers and who, with Christ, had suffered
terrible torments. The most famous depiction of this
role is by the 16th-century German artist Matthias
Grunewald in the Isenheim Altarpiece in Colmar, in
which Anthony, surrounded by the plants used in the
balm, is tormented by demons trying to destroy his
faith.
Feast: January 17
Patronage: amputees; basket makers and weavers;
brushmakers; butchers; domestic animals; epileptics;
gravediggers; hermits; monks; sufferers from
ergotism; pestilence, eczema and other skin diseases
and rashes
FURTHER READING
Athanasius, St. Vita S. Antoni (Life of St. Anthony). Internet
Medieval Sourcebook. URL:http://www.fordham.edu.
halsall/basis/vita-anthony/html. Downloaded on January
31, 2000.
Rubenson, Samuel. The Letters of St. Anthony: Monasticism
and the Making of a Saint. Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1995.
Anthony Mary Claret (1807–1870) Archbishop and
founder of the Claretians
Anthony Mary Claret was born December 24, 1807, in
Sallent, Catalonia, in northeastern Spain. His father
was a weaver who kept his small factory in the family
home. As a boy, he experienced his first miracle when
he went swimming one day at the beach at Carceloneta,
and was swept out to sea by a huge wave. His
friends thought him drowned. Anthony had the presence
of mind to pray to the Blessed Virgin Mary for
help, and another wave deposited him back ashore.
Anthony intended to follow in his father’s footsteps,
and when he was 18 his father sent him to a designer’s
school in Barcelona. There he became attracted to the
religious life and announced his intent to study for the
priesthood and become a Jesuit. His health prevented
him from being accepted. Instead, he became a secular
priest in the diocese of Vich at age 28. He was assigned
to Sallent. Soon he felt a calling to become a missionary,
which he did with Rome’s approval. He traveled
through Catalonia, the Canary Islands and parts of
Spain, working in the style of the apostles.
In 1849, Anthony founded the Missionary Sons of
the Immaculate Heart of Mary, which became known
as the Claretians. The same year, he was named archbishop
of Santiago, Cuba, where he spent the next six
years. He was popular and effective, but his success

28 Anthony Mary Zaccaria
St. Anthony Mary Claret
attracted enemies, and Anthony was subjected to many
trials.
In 1857 he returned to the court of Queen Isabella
as her confessor. He endured political persecution
and accompanied the queen into exile in France in
1868 for a year. He then participated in the First Vatican
Council in 1869 and 1870, still enduring persecution.
Anthony returned to France and died on October
24, 1870, in the Cistercian monastery of Fontfroide in
southern France. He had preached 25,000 sermons,
written 144 works and performed many miracles.
So many miracles happened in the Church of
Montserrat through the prayers of the saint that it
became known as the Church of Miracles.
He was seen to levitate while deep in prayer, rising
slowly into the air in a kneeling position until he was
more than two feet off the ground. One witness
attested to the “heat of great devotion” that emanated
from his body during one such episode. People liked to
touch his clothing or kiss his hand because of the
sweet odor of sanctity that he carried. He also was seen
with his face transfigured, and surrounded by an aura
of brilliant light.
Anthony also had the gifts of prophecy and discernment,
knowing the sins and faults of those with whom
he came into contact. He said he could “read their consciences.”
He had the gift of miraculous transport. While a
seminarian, he lived at Vich in the rectory of Don Fortunato
Bres, his friend and adviser. Many years later,
Bres, on his way to mass one winter day, slipped on ice
and broke his leg. He asked for Anthony, who was
many miles away, to be notified. Ten minutes later,
Anthony arrived. The route was snow-covered, and it
was snowing at the time, but Anthony was not wet. He
said that “an irresistible impulse” had caused him to
come to Don Fortunato.
While in Cuba, Anthony seemed to be able to prevent
earthquakes during a time of frequent earthquakes.
Once while preaching in a public square, the
earth trembled, but the saint assured people that all
would be well. There were no earthquakes. He also
calmed storms.
Beatified: 1935 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: 1950 by Pope Pius XII
Feast: October 24
FURTHER READING
“Saint Anthony Mary Claret: Tireless Apostle.” Available on
the Claretians website. URL: http://www.claret.org/anthonyclaret/E_Life.html.
Downloaded Sept. 3, 2000.
Anthony Mary Zaccaria (1502–1539) Cofounder of
the Barnabites, the regular Order of St. Paul
Also known as: Antonio Maria Zaccaria
Anthony Mary was born in 1502 in Cremona, in Lombardy
(Italy), to wealthy patrician parents. His father
Lazzaro died when the boy was two, widowing his
mother, Antonia Pescaroli, at 18. She devoted the rest
of her life to her son and his education, sending him to
school in Cremona and Padua. She also taught
Anthony Mary compassion for the suffering and destitute.
In 1520, Anthony Mary began studying medicine
at Padua and received his doctor of medicine degree at
22. He returned to Cremona to practice, but instead
began studying theology and ministering to the poor
and sick.
Still a layman, Anthony Mary nevertheless began
teaching the catechism to both children and adults
from the small church of St. Vitalis next to his mother’s
home. He served in prisons and hospitals, especially
during the plague of 1528, and the citizens of Cremona
began calling him an apostle. Anthony Mary received
ordination in January 1529 and preached his first ser-

mon from St. Vitalis, surrounded by only family and
friends. Legend holds that angels were seen at the altar.
Anthony Mary’s work was so successful that he
wanted to expand his ministry. But first the Dominican,
Fra Battista, a friend of Girolamo Savonarola,
named him chaplain to the wealthy Ludovica Torelli,
countess of Guastalla. In 1531 the countess, Fra Battista
and Anthony Mary traveled to Milan, where they
joined the Confraternity of Eternal Wisdom. Along
with two Milanese priests he met at the confraternity—
Giacomo Morigia and Bartolomeo Ferrari—Anthony
Mary organized a congregation of secular clergy to
combat the effects of years of famine, war and plague
that had scourged Milan and all of northern Italy. Their
idea was to establish three religious families within the
community—priests, sisters and lay people—and Pope
Clement VII (r. 1523–34) agreed, approving the Sons
of St. Paul in 1533. In 1535, the congregation became
the Clerics Regular of St. Paul with the approval of
Pope Paul III (r. 1534–49) and under the superiorship
of Anthony Mary.
In 1536, Anthony Mary named Father Morigia as
superior and went to Vicenza to reform the clergy and
bring two communities of sisters to stricter observance
of their rules. The countess, meanwhile, had been
gathering young women in her home in Milan who
yearned for a spiritual life. Pope Paul III recognized
these women, known as the Angelicals of St. Paul,
under the Rule of Augustine in 1535, formalizing the
second part of Anthony Mary’s vision. The third part,
the lay followers, was the Marrieds of St. Paul. All
three families shared the same zealous mission for
reform and preaching, encouraging daily Communion,
penitence and service to the sick and poor. They established
the ringing of church bells at 3:00 P.M. every Friday
to commemorate the death of the Lord on Good
Friday, and the Forty Hours Prayers: exposition of the
Sacrament by turns in the various city churches.
The zeal of Anthony Mary’s congregation did not
inspire all Milanese citizens, however. Anthony Mary
and his followers were accused of Pelagianism and the
heresies of the Beguines and the Poor Men of Lyons.
Their association with Fra Battista made them suspect
as well. Church and civil authorities tried the Sons of
St. Paul on October 5, 1534; the trial ended in dismissal.
Then both the Sons of St. Paul and the Angelicals
were tried from June through August 1537; that
trial ended in full acquittal. The trials only stiffened
Anthony Mary’s resolve, leading to more reform missions
and the acceptance of the rule of poverty for the
congregation. Anthony Mary had already relinquished
his considerable inheritance many years before. By
1539, Anthony Mary sought a church to house his
growing congregation. He was offered the Church of
Anthony of Padua 29
St. Barnabas in Milan, which eventually gave the congregation
their more common name: the Barnabites.
Anthony Mary did not live to see his followers in the
church, however. While back in Guastalla in May 1539
he fell ill with fever. Believing his end was near he
asked to be taken home to his mother in Cremona,
where he died peacefully on July 5 at age 37. He was
supposedly granted a vision of St. Paul just before
death.
After the funeral in Cremona, Anthony Mary’s body
was returned to Milan and buried at St. Paul’s Convent
of the Angelics. The faithful immediately venerated him
as Blessed, but he missed automatic canonization after
100 years of veneration by only five years when Pope
Urban VIII (r. 1623–44) issued new rules for sainthood
in 1634. His body reportedly was still incorrupt 27
years after death. Anthony Mary’s cause was reintroduced
in 1802, with three miracles approved for full
canonization in 1897.
Beatified: 1849 by Pope Pius IX
Canonized: May 27, 1897, by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: July 5
Anthony of Padua (1195–1231) Franciscan; Doctor
of the Church
Name meaning: Inestimable
Also known as: Hammer of the Heretics, Ark of The
Covenant, the Wonder-Worker
Anthony of Padua, one of the most beloved and
revered saints of the Church, was born in Lisbon, Portugal,
in 1195 to wealthy, noble parents. He was christened
Ferdinand. Some have given his family name as
de Bulhoes; writers of the 15th century linked him to
Godfrey de Bouillon, commander of the First Crusade.
But all that is known of his childhood is that he was
educated at the cathedral school in Lisbon.
In 1210, at age 15, Ferdinand joined the Canons
Regular of St. Augustine in the convent of São Vicente
outside the city walls. To avoid the distractions of
friends and visitors, Ferdinand asked to be reassigned
to the convent of Santa Croce in Coimbra two years
later. There he worked and studied for eight years,
where his intelligence and amazing memory enabled
Ferdinand to accumulate a wealth of knowledge of theology
and Scripture.
Ferdinand’s life changed in 1220, when Don Pedro
brought from Morocco to Coimbra the relics of the first
Franciscan martyrs. Fired with missionary zeal and
seeking martyrdom, Ferdinand knew he had no chance
to convert the Saracens merely as a canon regular. After
pouring out his emotions to a group of Franciscan
brothers who had come to the convent to beg, Ferdi-

30 Anthony of Padua
St. Anthony of Padua (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
nand left his order and joined the Franciscan Order of
Friars Minor at Olivares, taking the name Anthony
after Antony Abbot, patriarch of monks and monasteries.
Anthony left for Morocco late in 1220, but became
so ill on his arrival that he tried to return to Portugal.
Shipwrecked during a storm at Messina, Sicily,
Anthony remained there for several months to recuperate.
While in Sicily, the brothers told Anthony that a
general chapter of the Franciscans was to be held in
Assisi, the last chapter open to all brethren. Anthony
traveled to Assisi in May 1221 for the chapter, presided
over by Vicar General Elias, with St. Francis sitting at
Elias’s feet. Once the chapter concluded, Anthony was
assigned to the hermitage at Montepaolo near Forli,
outside Bologna. There he lived quietly, celebrating
Mass for the lay brethren and working in the kitchen.
No one knew of his education.
But Anthony’s talents were soon recognized. Due to
a misunderstanding, there was no speaker for an ordination
ceremony held at Forli for both Dominicans
and Franciscans. Neither order had anyone prepared to
give the homily. In desperation, the superior asked
Anthony to speak whatever the Holy Spirit should put
into his mouth. Anthony protested but obeyed, deliv-
ering a moving and eloquent sermon to the astonishment
of his listeners. Brother Gratian, minister provincial,
sent Anthony to preach throughout Lombardy,
and St. Francis himself appointed Anthony as lector, or
teacher, of theology to the Franciscans—the first member
of the order to fill that position. Anthony taught at
Bologna and the universities of Montpellier and
Toulouse. He attended the general chapter at Arles,
France, in 1226, and, following St. Francis’s death in
October of that year, served as envoy from the chapter
to Pope Gregory IX (r. 1227–41) to present Francis’s
rule to the papacy. He was elected minister provincial
of Emilia in May 1227, a demanding job that required
travel to all the priories under his jurisdiction. He also
wrote sermons for feast days, for saints’ days and for
regular Sunday worship.
Anthony’s true gift, however, was preaching. His
eloquence, powers of persuasion, messianic zeal and
sonorous voice inspired thousands, and he never hesitated
to use his pulpit to fight for the poor, the prisoners,
debtors and disenfranchised. He was as likely to
reprove a bishop for his ways as to cherish a child.
Needless to say, Anthony attracted huge crowds to hear
him speak, and the stories of his miracles soon followed.
One legend says that while he was walking on a
seacoast, reflecting about the frequent appearance of
fish in the Gospels, the fish rose out of the water and
gathered around him to listen. Another says he
restored a field ready to be harvested after followers
had trampled it. He miraculously protected his listeners
from the rain, and he prophesied the destruction of
his pulpit by the Devil during another sermon. In one
village, a wife forbidden to go hear Anthony speak
threw open the window to catch what words she
could. Anthony’s voice so inspired the husband that he
repented.
One of Anthony’s frequent sermon topics was
heresy. Different heresies by the Cathars (or Albigensians)
and the Waldensians wracked Germany, northern
Italy and southern France. Known as the “hammer of
heretics,” or malleus hereticorum, Anthony zealously
spoke out against their efforts to demean the role of the
clergy (whom the heretics believed corrupt) and to
question the Presence in the sacraments. One miraculous
story tells that an Albigensian named Bonvillo
challenged Anthony regarding the Eucharist. If a mule
who hadn’t eaten in three days bowed before the
Eucharist before eating anything, then the Albigensian
would believe. The mule was offered hay but he refused
to eat before acknowledging the Holy Presence.
In May 1230, Anthony asked Pope Gregory IX (r.
1227–41) to release him from his duties as minister
provincial in order that he might spend more time on

preaching and prayer. Anthony retired to the convent
of Padua, which he had founded, but continued his
efforts for the people. Hating usury, he lobbied and
persuaded the municipality of Padua in March 1231 to
pass a law allowing debtors to remain out of debtors’
prison if they had any other sources of recompense.
The year before he had traveled to Verona to beg liberty
for Guelph political prisoners from the Ghibelline
tyrant Ezzelino.
His last major sermon was during Lent in 1231.
Right after Easter, Anthony became ill with dropsy and
left Padua with two other friars for a woodland retreat
at Camposanpiero. The brothers built him a small
house in a walnut tree, where he lived for a short
while. Realizing he was dying, Anthony asked to
return to Padua. He made it as far as the convent of
Poor Clares in Arcella, where he died on June 13,
1231, in the chaplain’s apartment. Anthony was 36.
Immediately after his death, Anthony supposedly
appeared to the abbot at Vercelli, Thomas Gallo, who
announced the holy man’s passing to the grieving citizens
of Padua. Reportedly a group of Paduan children
also received the message and announced Anthony’s
death. Although the Poor Clares at Arcella tried to
claim Anthony’s body, it was taken to Padua for burial
at the Church of Our Lady. Shortly after his canonization
in 1232, a Moroccan-style basilica was begun in
his honor, and his relics were transferred there in 1263.
When St. Bonaventure, Minister General, opened Anthony’s
tomb for the transferral, he found the saint’s
tongue uncorrupted and still red in color. Bonaventure
kissed the tongue and praised its former abilities of
speech as a gift from God. References to Anthony’s
“honeyed tongue” are revealed in the appearance of
bees in icons and paintings.
Artists since the 17th century have depicted
Anthony holding the Infant Jesus—a legend says that
once, while staying with friends, Anthony’s host spied
on him and found him enraptured, holding the Christ
Child. Anthony also appears with a book for wisdom,
with a lily for purity, and with his devout mule. On
Tuesdays, Franciscans customarily give bread or alms
to the poor called “St. Anthony’s bread.”
Canonized: 1232 by Pope Gregory IX
Declared Doctor of the Church: January 16, 1946, by
Pope Pius XII
Feast: June 13
Patronage: amputees; animals; barrenness; boatmen;
donkeys; elderly people; expectant mothers; fishermen;
harvests; horses; lost articles; mariners;
Native Americans; the oppressed; the poor; Portugal;
against shipwrecks; against starvation;
sterility; the Tigua Indian tribe; travelers
Antoninus 31
FURTHER READING
Stoddard, Charles. St. Anthony, the Wonder-Worker of Padua.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1992.
Antoninus (1389–1459) Archbishop of Florence
Also known as: Antonius, Antonino
Antoninus was born in Florence on March 1, 1389,
the only child of Niccolo Pierozzi, a lawyer, and his
wife Thomassina. He was baptized Antonius or Antonio,
but because of his small size and gentle nature he
was called by the diminutive “Antoninus” or “Antonino”
all his life.
Supposedly a pious child, at age 15 Antoninus applied
to Blessed John Dominic for admission to the Dominican
Order. In 1404 Bl. John was at the Convent of
Santa Maria Novella in Florence, but he was reforming
the Dominican priories in the area and organizing a
new house at Fiesole. Afraid that the frail Antoninus
could not tolerate the vigorous austerities of the new
monastery, Bl. John did not turn the boy down directly
but told him to go home and memorize the Decretum
Gratiani, or Decrees of Gratian, an enormous compilation
of Church law. Determined, Antoninus returned in
a year, the book entirely committed to memory, and was
accepted. Along with Fra Angelico and Fra Benedetto
(natural brothers: one the famous painter, the other a
miniaturist), Antoninus spent his novitiate in Cortona,
then returned to Fiesole, where he stayed until 1409.
A zealous reformer like Bl. John, Antoninus was
named vicar of the convent at Foligno in 1414, then
subprior and prior of the convent at Cortona. From
1418 to 1428 he served as prior of convents in Naples,
Gaeta, Siena and Fiesole, and then was named prior of
the convent at Minerva in Rome in 1430. From 1433 to
1446 he was superior of the reformed Tuscan and
Neapolitan congregations, in which post he restored
the primitive rules of the Dominican order. In 1439
Pope Eugenius IV summoned Antoninus to attend all
sessions of the General Council of Florence.
Antoninus’s greatest achievement was the foundation
of the convent of St. Mark, or San Marco, in Florence,
in buildings formerly owned by the Silvestrines.
The monastery and adjoining church—generously supported
by Cosimo de’ Medici—became a center for
Christian art and scholarship, housing a large library
and gracefully redesigned by Michelozzo. The chapel
frescoes were painted by Antoninus’s old friend Fra
Angelico, and his brother Benedetto decorated the choir
books. Scenes from Antoninus’s life adorn the cloisters.
Reportedly to Antoninus’s dismay, his great talents
for preaching, Church reform, scholarship and diplomacy
led Pope Eugene IV (r. 1431–47) to name him
archbishop of Florence in 1446. He tried to hide on the

32 Apollonia
island of Sardinia to escape the post, but was consecrated
at the pope’s command on March 13, 1446. Less
than a year later, Eugene asked Antoninus to administer
the final sacraments to him before he died on February
23, 1447, in the archbishop’s arms. Antoninus pursued
his new duties with enthusiasm, visiting all the parishes
of his diocese on foot each year, reforming clerical
abuses, putting a stop to gambling, opposing usury and
magic, and preaching, praying and writing. He was
especially active in helping the poor, often emptying
the church’s pantries and storerooms and even selling
furniture when there was nothing else to give. He
nursed and comforted victims of the plague of 1448
and attempted to rebuild shelters for those made homeless
in the earthquakes of 1453–55. Pope Nicholas V (r.
1447–55) frequently consulted him on both civil and
ecclesiastical issues, valuing the archbishop’s opinion so
highly that he forbade any appeal to Rome of Antoninus’s
decisions. Nicholas V even went so far as to
declare that Antoninus, in his lifetime, deserved sainthood
as much as the dead Bernardine of Siena, whom
the pope was about to canonize. Antoninus often
served as a papal ambassador, and Pope Pius II named
him to a commission charged with reforming the
Roman curia. A distinguished theologian, Antoninus
was one of the first Christian writers to acknowledge
the changes in economics and society brought on by
the Renaissance, teaching that money invested in commerce
and industry was true capital, and that receiving
interest on such investment was not usury and therefore
morally lawful.
Antoninus died on May 2, 1459, at San Marco, and
Pope Pius II (r. 1458–64) himself presided over the
funeral. Cosimo de’ Medici, not particularly fond of the
Dominicans, frankly admitted that Florence would not
have survived the dangers, natural catastrophes and
seditious plots against it without the intercession of the
archbishop. Antoninus’s incorrupt body was moved to
a new chapel at San Marco in 1559.
Canonized: May 31, 1523, by Pope Adrian VI
Feast: May 10
Patronage: fever sufferers
Apollonia (d. 249) Deaconess and martyr
Apollonia lived in Alexandria, Egypt, as a deaconess.
Under Emperor Philip the Arabian and his successor Trajanus
Decius, mobs roamed about Alexandria persecuting
Christians. Apollonia, who was elderly, was snared by
a mob. She refused to deny Christ. The mob tortured her,
tearing out her teeth with pincers. They took her to a
pyre and threatened to throw her on the fire. Apollonia
answered by throwing herself into the flame.
The account of the life of Apollonia was written by
St. Dionysius to Fabian, bishop of Antioch. In art she is
depicted with a golden tooth at the end of her necklace,
or with pincers holding a tooth.
Feast: February 9
Patronage: dentists, toothache sufferers
Arnulf of Metz (ca. 580–ca. 640) Bishop and member
of the Frankish court
Also known as: Arnold, Arnulph
Arnulf was born to a distinguished Frankish family in
Austrasia, the eastern section of the original kingdom
established by the Merovingian king Clovis I. He studied
under Gundulf, mayor of the palace under Austrasian
king Theodebert II, and was so skilled that he
became a trusted minister of the king and eventual
head of six provinces. These palace mayors (major
domus) actually ran the civil and military affairs of the
kingdom; later Merovingian kings were mere figureheads.
Arnulf married Lady Doda, and they had two
sons: Anseghisel and Clodulf.
In 610, Arnulf planned to join the abbey of Lerins
as a monk along with his friend Romaricus; Doda had
already become a nun at Treves. But the episcopal see
of Metz was vacant, and Arnulf was consecrated bishop
in 611. He remained an officer and adviser at court,
handling both civil and ecclesiastical business. In 613,
following the death of Theodebert II, he and other
nobles—principally Blessed Pepin of Landen—negotiated
the installation of Clothaire II, king of Neustria, as
king of Austrasia. Upon Clothaire II’s death in 623,
Arnulf served as the new king Dagobert I’s tutor as well
as chief minister. Arnulf wielded so much power that
succeeding ministers were known as “Arnulfings.”
By 626, Arnulf yearned for the monastic life and
resigned his see. His son Clodulf eventually became
the third bishop of Metz. Arnulf and his friend Romaricus,
later St. Romaric, withdrew to a hermitage in the
mountains at Vosges, where he lived until his death in
640. The hermitage later became the Remiremont
monastery.
Arnulf’s other son, Anseghisel, married St. Begga,
daughter of the nobleman Pepin of Landen. Their son
Pepin II of Heristal was the father of Charles Martel—
Pippinid mayor of the palace under kings Chilperic II
and Theuderic IV, sole ruler but not king of Austrasia
from 737 to 741, grandfather of Charlemagne and
founder of the Carolingian dynasty.
Feast: July 18
Patronage: brewers; millers; music; finding lost
objects

Athanasius (d. 373) Bishop; Father of the Church and
Doctor of the Church
Also known as: “Pillar of the Church,” “Father of
Orthodoxy” and “Champion of Christ’s Divinity”
Athanasius was one of the greatest opponents of the
heresy of Arianism, a movement under the popular
priest, Arius, which denied the divinity of Christ and
the eternal nature of the Word of God. He was born
around 296–298 in Alexandria, Egypt, to prominent
Christian parents. He was well educated under the eye
of Alexander—who became bishop of the city—studying
Greek philosophy and rhetoric and Christian doctrine.
He learned theology from teachers who had been
confessors under Maximian I. In 313, Alexander succeeded
Achillas in the patriarchal see. In 315, Athanasius
went to the desert to spend some time in retreat
with St. Anthony.
In 318, Athanasius was ordained a deacon and
became archdeacon and secretary to Alexander. He is
thought to have written his first work at around this
time: De Incarnatione Verbi Dei, which concerns the
redemptive work of Christ. From 323 on, he spent
much of his life combatting the Arian heresy. In 325,
he attended the Council of Nicaea with Alexander,
where his influence began to be felt. This important
council set forth the true doctrine of the Church and
the confession known as the Nicene Creed, and confirmed
the excommunication of Arius.
Five months after the council, Alexander died. On
his death bed he recommended Athanasius—still in his
twenties—as his successor as bishop. In consequence
of this, Athanasius was unanimously elected patriarch
in 326.
His refusal to tolerate the Arian heresy was the
cause of many trials and persecutions for Athanasius.
In 330, Eusebius of Nicomedia, the Arian bishop,
returned from exile and persuaded Emperor Constantine
to allow Arians to take Communion. Athanasius
refused to follow the order and was accused of crimes
by the Arians, including treason and misuse of Church
funds and property. He was tried and found innocent.
He was then accused of killing a bishop. This was
proved groundless, for the bishop was alive and in hiding.
Athanasius refused to attend an Arian synod to
discuss the charges. Summoned by Constantine to the
Council of Tyre in Lebanon in 335, Athanasius had to
face angry Arians who assembled there and again
charged him with crimes.
The Arians succeeded in having Athanasius exiled
to Trier, Germany, where he remained two and a half
years. Meanwhile, Arius and Constantine died, and
Athanasius returned to Alexandria in 338.
Eusebius of Nicomedia had him deposed again, and
a usurper took his place (the people refused to
acknowledge the usurper). Athanasius went to Rome
to defend himself to Pope Julian I (r. 337–352). His
opponents failed to appear and he was vindicated.
After the usurper died in 345, Athanasius was restored
to Alexandria. But he was condemned again by the Arians
in the councils of Arles, France, in 353 and Milan,
Italy, in 355. Even his church was attacked and members
of his congregation were wounded.
Athanasius retreated to the desert in Egypt, spending
six years as a hermit. There he wrote Apology to
Constantius; Apology for His Flight; Letter to the Monks;
and History of the Arians.
He returned to Alexandria on February 22, 362.
Though welcomed by an enthusiastic crowd, he was
exiled back to the desert by Emperor Julian the Apostate
as “a disturber of the peace and an enemy of the
gods.” There he remained until the emperor died in
363. Athanasius enjoyed another eight months in
Alexandria under Emperor Jovian, but was thrown out
once again by Jovian’s successor, Valens. He hid in his
father’s tomb for four months. Finally, Athanasius was
restored permanently to his see. He had been banished
five times and had spent 17 years in exile.
During his last years, he consolidated the doctrines
of the Council of Nicaea and wrote the Life of St.
Anthony. He died in Alexandria on May 2, 373. Later
his remains were translated to Constantinople and
then Venice.
The Athanasian Creed was not written by him but
is drawn from his work. His other important writings
are Contra Gentes and De Incarnatione Verbi Dei.
Feast: May 2
Augustine of Canterbury 33
FURTHER READING
Early Christian Fathers: A Selection from the Writings of the
Fathers from St. Clement of Rome to St. Athanasius. Tr.
Henry Bettenson. London: Oxford University Press,
1969.
Gregory of Nazianzus, “Oration 21: On Athanasius of
Alexandria.” URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/
gregnaz-athan/html. Downloaded September 24, 2000.
Augustine of Canterbury (d. 604 or 605) Benedictine
and first bishop of Canterbury, Apostle to England, Apostle
to the Anglo-Saxons
Also known as: Austin
Augustine was by all accounts a timid man, a librarian
and monk. In 596, Pope St. Gregory the Great (r.
590–604) chose about 30 monks from St. Andrew
Monastery on the Coelian Hill in Rome, led by their
prior, Augustine, to serve in the first papal mission to

34 Augustine of Hippo
St. Augustine of Hippo (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
convert the pagans. The band traveled as far as
Provence, in Gaul; but, terrified by tales of the Anglo-
Saxons and the dangers of crossing the English Channel,
the monks persuaded Augustine to return to Rome
and beg His Holiness to end their mission. Gregory
knew, however, that the Saxon king Aethelbert was
married to a Christian princess, Bertha. He told Augustine
that he had no choice but to go on to England.
They landed on the Isle of Thanet off the coast of Kent
in late 596 and were warmly welcomed by the king and
queen, who gave Augustine a house in Canterbury and
permission to preach. On Pentecost in 597, Augustine
baptized King Aethelbert.
Augustine traveled back to France almost immediately
to receive consecration as bishop of the English
by St. Virgilius, metropolitan of Arles. Instead of establishing
his see in London, Augustine chose Canterbury,
the royal capital of Kent. He rebuilt an ancient church
that served as the center of the cathedral and erected a
monastery to SS. Peter and Paul outside the walls. The
present cathedral, begun in 1070, stands on the original
site. Augustine also established episcopal sees at
London and Rochester and dedicated the first church
in England to St. Pancras.
Gregory I gave Augustine very specific instructions
regarding the conversion of the English. Pagan temples
were not to be destroyed but instead cleansed and consecrated
for Christian worship. Local customs and festivals
were to be retained, with substitutions of feast
days for saints and martyrs whenever possible. Consequently,
by 601 Augustine had converted many of the
English people.
Converting the clergy to a unified liturgy proved a
more difficult task. Unable to communicate effectively
with the Church in Rome, the British Church had
established its own patterns of worship and practice.
Many also were unwilling to evangelize the Anglo-Saxons,
whom they considered their enemies. A meeting
failed miserably when Augustine supposedly failed to
rise at the arrival of the British bishops. Deeming
Augustine arrogant, the bishops would not accept him
as metropolitan.
Discouraged and exhausted, Augustine died on May
26, 604 or 605. He was buried at the abbey of SS. Peter
and Paul outside the Canterbury Cathedral. From then
on, the monastery became known as St. Augustine’s,
and succeeding archbishops of the English Church
were buried there. The archbishop of Canterbury
remains the head of the Church of England and is
described as occupying the “Chair of Augustine.”
Feast: May 27 (May 28 on some calendars; May
26 in England and Wales)
Patronage: England
FURTHER READING
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York:
Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Father of the Church,
Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Aurelius Augustinus, Doctor of Grace
Augustine of Hippo was one of the greatest figures in
the Church. His philosophical and theological thought
influenced Christianity and philosophy for at least
1,000 years. His early years were spent in sin, which he
later chronicled with great frankness in his remarkable
work, Confessions.
Augustine was born November 13, 354, in Tagaste,
North Africa. His mother, St. Monica, was Christian,
and his father Patricius was a pagan, whom Monica
eventually converted by her patience and good example.
He was not baptized as an infant, but his
mother enrolled him as a catechumen in the Catholic

Church. He studied Latin and Greek grammar and literature
in his boyhood, complaining about rough treatment
by his schoolmasters.
After his father died in 370, Augustine went to
Carthage to study rhetoric as the first step to prepare
for a public life. There he met a young woman at a
church service, began to live with her and fathered a
son named Adeodatus (“God’s gift”). With adolescence,
he confides to God in Confessions, “both love
and lust boiled within me, and swept my youthful
immaturity over the precipice of evil desires to leave
me half drowned in a whirlpool of abominable sins. . . .
my soul was sick, and broke out in sores, whose itch I
agonized to scratch with the rub of carnal things,”
including stage plays, “with the mirror they held up to
my own miseries and the fuel they poured on my
flame.”
Augustine was still making those judgments 20
years later. But, during the years in Carthage, he was
probably embroiled in tensions set in motion by conflicting
explanations of the human condition by his
mother and his father’s behavior (his father being
guilty of marital infidelities) and religions. This tension
was also at the base of the Manichaean religion,
which Augustine joined in 373. The Manichees taught
that there are two supreme gods, one good and one
evil, and similarly two competing souls within the
human person. For nine years he maintained interest
in this cult. After his move to Rome in 383 to teach a
better class of rhetoric students, he was the guest of a
Manichee and socialized with many prominent members
of the sect.
The next year, 384, he won an appointment as a
professor of rhetoric in Milan. Within two years he
abandoned Manichaeanism and gradually came under
the influence of his Christian mentors: Ambrose, the
influential local bishop, and Simplicianus, a wise
elderly former bishop. At the same time, he wanted to
advance himself in position and possessions, so marriage
seemed the next step. His mother had joined him
and helped him to arrange a marriage to a girl who was
not yet 12, so he agreed to wait two years. Augustine’s
mistress of many years had to leave him as part of this
marriage plan, which threw Augustine into emotional
turmoil. “My heart which had held her very dear was
broken and wounded and shed blood,” he wrote. “She
went back to Africa, swearing that she would never
know another man, and left with me the natural son I
had of her. . . . I was simply a slave of lust. So I took
another woman, not of course as a wife; and thus my
soul’s disease was kept alive as vigorously as ever.” He
was tormented both by the loss of his former lover and
the hopelessness for him of a life of continence, which
Augustine of Hippo 35
ran in circles alongside his growing seriousness in
reexamining Christianity.
In Confessions, he tells how he experienced a striking
conversion while in a garden, in which his selfdoubt
was expelled and “the light of utter confidence
shone in all my heart.” His mother was exultant.
Augustine decided to give up his teaching position and
was baptized along with his son Adeodatus and
another close friend on Easter of 387. About a year
later the group was at the port of Ostia on their way
home to Africa when Monica died. She and Augustine
had shared an ecstatic experience five days previously,
after which she had told him that all her prayers had
been answered in superabundance and she no longer
hoped for anything in this world.
When Augustine finally returned in 388 to Tagaste
in North Africa, he set up a sort of monastery on
his family land with his close friends. His son Adeodatus
died within a year, aged 16. (In Confessions,
Augustine reveals his love for his son, crediting God
entirely for the boy’s many virtues and intelligence.
He notes that his book De Magistro is a dialogue
between the two, and “that all the ideas . . . put into
his mouth were truly his, though he was but sixteen.”)
Augustine soon gave away his possessions, and for the
rest of his life lived simply as a monk in community
with men.
In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo by Bishop
Valerius, who permitted Augustine to preach almost
immediately. Upon Valerius’s death in 396, Augustine
became bishop of Hippo, and was to serve there for 35
years. He composed the Rule that the Augustinian
Order follows to this day. In the 390s he started a convent
for women following the Rule. He preached
almost daily, and wrote incessantly: theological treatises,
letters, polemics against heresies, the Confessions
(finished in 400), and The City of God, written in
installments between 413 and 426. He died on August
28, 430, while the city of Hippo was under siege by the
Vandals. In 700, his remains were taken to the church
of St. Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, Italy.
When Augustine was about 72, he sat down to
review his writings and put them in chronological
order, and was astounded at the quantity. His complete
works, written in Latin, are about the size of an encyclopedia.
Generations of scholars have consulted
Augustine. The Confessions is not only his intimate
spiritual autobiography, but it is also a presentation of
the writer’s mystical experiences during his spiritual
struggle to accept Christianity. However, it is not a
mystical work in the sense of a contemplative introspection
or poetic reflection; rather it is an expression
of what has been called Augustine’s “mysticism of
action.”

36 Augustine of Hippo
The City of God is, in the words of Thomas Merton,
“the autobiography of the Catholic Church.” When
Rome was sacked by the Goths under Alaric in 410,
many intellectuals made accusations that Christianity
had debilitated the empire, exhausted and made it vulnerable
to attack. The City of God is Augustine’s
response. His defense of Christian doctrine was
informed by politics and history, full of direct references
to pagan philosophers from Plato to his contemporaries.
Augustine said that the fall of the earthly city of
Rome was the inevitable result of the sinful wills of its
rulers and citizens; at the same time the rise of the City
of God (the Catholic Church) was a process that had
begun before time and was infused with grace, personified
by Jesus Christ. This concept of the two cities is
eloquently summarized in a famous passage from Book
XIV: “Two loves have built two cities: the love of self,
which reaches even to contempt for God, the earthly
City; and the love of God, which reaches even to contempt
for self, the heavenly City. One glories in itself,
the other in the Lord. One seeks its own glory amongst
men; the greatest glory of the other is God, witness of
its conscience. One, swollen with pride, uplifts its
haughty head; the other cries out to God with the
Psalmist: ‘Thou art my glory, it is Thou who dost lift up
my head.’” Augustine shows in Books XI and XII how
the good and bad angels had inaugurated the two cities
on the basis of the two loves.
Augustine believed that the soul by its nature is the
equal of an angel’s, and any inferiority is due to sin. By
emulating the ways of angels, humans have the capacity
to change into angelic form and join the City of
God. These and other views about the soul and the
restoration of its original status are discussed in other
works.
Augustine vigorously defended Catholicism against
various heresies, stating that pagan religion and magic
were inventions of the devil to tempt people away from
Christianity. He said that error had no rights; therefore,
heretics had no rights.
The tension in the will that characterized Augustine’s
early life became the base of his theology, which,
because of his great influence, became the core of
Christian doctrine. It is in his later works that Augustine
becomes more philosophically theological. His references
to mystical experience appear in Confessions
and in The City of God. In the latter, he said of experiences
of the supernatural: “When . . . we hear with the
inner ear some part of the speech of God, we approximate
to the angels. But in this work I need not labor to
give an account of the ways in which God speaks. For
either the unchangeable Truth speaks directly to the
mind of the rational creature in some indescribable
way, or speaks through the changeable creature, either
presenting spiritual images to our spirit, or bodily
voices to our bodily sense.”
Augustine usually is acknowledged to be second
only to St. Paul in influence on Christianity. His writings
established the theological foundation for
medieval Christianity, and much later influenced the
dualistic philosophy of René Descartes.
Roman Catholic religious orders and congregations
called Augustinians trace a spiritual lineage to Augustine,
but date their actual origins only from the 10th
and later centuries. The young Martin Luther
(1483–1546) was an Augustinian.
Feast: August 28
Patronage: Augustinians; brewers, printers, theologians,
Carthage
FURTHER READING
Augustine. The City of God. Tr. Marcus Dods, George Wilson
and J. J. Smith; intro. Thomas Merton. New York: Modern
Library, 1950.
Augustine. Confessions. Tr. F. J. Sheed. New York: Sheed and
Ward, 1943, 1970.
Battenhouse, Roy W., ed. A Companion to the Study of St.
Augustine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955.
Bourke, Vernon J. Wisdom from St. Augustine. St. Thomas,
Texas: Center for Thomistic Studies, 1984.
Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1967.

Balbina (d. ca. 130) Martyr; Roman nun and daughter
of the Blessed Quirinus, martyr
According to the legendary Acts of Sts. Peter and Balbina,
Balbina was baptized by Pope St. Alexander I (r.
105–115). She was martyred and was buried near her
father in the Praetextus catacomb on the Via Appia of
Rome. Her relics were later enshrined in St. Balbina’s
Church on the Aventine.
Feast: March 31
Patronage: Scrofulous diseases, struma
Barbara (d. fourth century) Legendary martyr of enduring
popularity, despite the suppression of her cult in
1969
Name meaning: Stranger
William Caxton’s version of The Golden Legend tells
Barbara’s story, which is probably entirely fictitious.
She was not known prior to the seventh century. Her
story spread in the ninth century, and by the Middle
Ages she was one of the most popular of all saints.
According to lore, Barbara was the daughter of a
rich Greek man, Dioscorus. Because of her great
beauty, he kept her imprisoned in a high tower. Princes
still sought her hand in marriage, but she refused, saying
she did not want to marry anyone. She spent her
time in prayer and study.
Bf
37
While Dioscorus was away on a long trip, Barbara
descended from the tower to look at a bathhouse
her father had under construction. She was dismayed
that it had only two windows, and persuaded workmen
to make a third window to honor the Trinity.
Barbara lived in the bathhouse and was secretly
baptized by a priest. She ate only honeysuckles and
locusts, following the example set by St. John the
Baptist.
She returned to the tower, where she received the
Holy Ghost and other graces. She disfigured all the
pagan idols in the tower.
Upon his return, her father was enraged. He tried to
kill her with a sword, but she prayed (and perhaps
became entranced) and was taken to a mountain,
where two shepherds saw her fly. Dioscorus then
seized her by the hair, drew her down from the mountain
and had her thrown in prison. He denounced her
before the civil tribunal. She refused to recant and was
severely scourged and beaten. She endured the torture
with the help of comforting visions of the Lord. The
judge ordered her killed by the sword.
Dioscorus took her to a mountain and killed her;
she received her martyrdom along with St. Juliana
(perhaps Juliana of Cumae). Her father immediately
was slain by fire from heaven (probably a lightning
bolt), and his body was reduced to ashes.

38 Barnabas
St. Barbara (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)
A nobleman named Valentine buried the bodies of
Barbara and Juliana in a little town where many miracles
were then reported.
Different versions of the legend of Barbara give various
places and times of her martyrdom: Tuscany, Rome,
Antioch, Heliopolis and Nicomedia, where Juliana of
Cumae reportedly was martyred.
Barbara is invoked against fire, lightning, sudden
death and impenitence. In art she is depicted holding a
tower or the palm of martyrdom. She is one of the
Fourteen Holy Helpers.
Feast: formerly December 4
Patronage: ammunition workers; architects; builders;
dying; fire prevention; founders; gunners;
miners; prisoners; stonemasons
Barnabas (d. ca. 61) Apostle, martyr and patron of
St. Paul
Barnabas was not one of the original apostles of Jesus,
but was named so by the apostles after he converted
from Judaism (he was a Levite) to Christianity in
Jerusalem.
He was born Joses Justus on Cyprus. Upon his conversion,
he sold his property and gave the money to
the Apostles. He persuaded the Christians in Jerusalem
to accept Paul as a disciple. He went to Antioch, Syria,
and brought Paul there from Tarsus. Barnabas, his
cousin, John Mark, and Paul went on missions in
Cyprus and Perga. John Mark left them, and Barnabas
and Paul went on to Antioch in Pisidia and to Iconium,
Lystria and Lycaonia (present-day Turkey). They were
severely persecuted in Pisidion Antioch; and in Lycaonia
they were welcomed as gods but then literally
stoned out of the city. They returned to Antioch in
Syria. Barnabas and Paul went to a council in
Jerusalem, but fell out with each other upon their
return to Syrian Antioch. Barnabas wished to have
John Mark travel with them again, but Paul objected
because John Mark had not stayed with them on their
previous journey.
Barnabas returned to Cyprus with John Mark. Little
is known about the rest of his life. He is said to have
preached in Rome and Alexandria. Legend holds that
he was stoned to death in Salamis, Greece, in A.D. 61.
His grave was discovered in 485 or 486, and his
remains were taken to Constantinople (now Istanbul)
by Emperor Zeno. Some of his remains were distributed
to Milan, Edenna, Pavia, Genoa, Cremona,
Naples, Cologne, Bologna, Florence, Prague, Namur,
Tournai and Toulouse.
Barnabas is invoked against hailstorms, arguments
and grief. His name is first in Eucharistic prayers. He is
described in the Acts of the Apostles. Historians have
established that he is not the author of the apocryphal
epistle of Barnabas or the gospel of Barnabas. The Acts
of Barnabas, supposedly written by John Mark, actually
were composed much later, in the fifth century.
SS. Paul, center, and Barnabas, right

Feast: June 11
Patronage: missionary labors; weavers; Florence;
Milan
Bartholomew the Apostle (first century) One of the
Twelve Disciples of Jesus; martyr
Also known as: Nathanael bar Tolomai, Nathaniel
Bartholomew was a native of Cana who was introduced
to Jesus by St. Philip and was called to the Apostolate,
but beyond that nothing certain is known about him.
He is described in various traditions as having preached
in Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Armenia,
and on the shores of the Black Sea.
Bartholomew is believed to have died at Albanopolis,
Armenia, martyred on the order of Astyges for having
converted his brother, Polymius, King of Armenia.
According to the Roman Martyrology, he was flayed
alive and beheaded, though other accounts say he was
St. Bartholomew (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1523)
Basil the Great 39
flayed and then crucified head-down. His relics are
thought to have been interred on the island of Lipara,
whence they were translated to Benevento, Italy, and
later to Rome. They rest today in the Church of St.
Bartholomew-on-the-Tiber. In the 11th century, King
Canute’s wife, Queen Emma, is said to have presented
one of his arms to the cathedral at Canterbury in England.
Bartholomew’s symbol is a tanner’s knife. In art, he
is represented as a bearded man holding a book or a
tanner’s knife and a human skin. Sometimes the skin
he holds is his own.
Feast: August 24 (in Rome); August 25 (in Echternach
and Cambrai); June 11 (in the East); June
13 (in Persia)
Patronage: bookbinders; butchers; cobblers; cornchandlers;
dyers; glovers; Florentine salt and
cheese merchants; furriers; leather workers;
against nervous diseases; plasterers; shoemakers;
tailors, tanners; trappers; against twitching; vinegrowers;
whiteners; Armenia
Basil the Great (ca. 329–379) One of the greatest
Doctors of the Church, Father of the Church, Bishop of
Caesarea
Basil the Great was born in Caesarea, Cappadocia (now
in Turkey), around 329 to a Christian family. His
grandparents had suffered under Christian persecutions
and spent several years in exile living in the
harsh and wild mountains of Pontus. St. Basil the
Elder, Basil the Great’s father, was a teacher. He married
a martyr, Emmelia; the couple had 10 children.
Besides Basil, his sister Macrina and brothers Gregory
of Nyssa and Peter of Sebaste became saints. Basil, Gregory,
and Basil’s friend St. Gregory of Nazianzus the
Younger became known as the “Three Cappadocians,”
of whom Basil earned the highest esteem.
Basil received religious instruction in the tradition
of St. Gregory Thaumaturgus from his grandmother,
St. Macrina the Elder. The family moved to Macrina’s
estate on the River Iris after Basil the Elder died, when
young Basil was still but a boy. After school in Caesarea,
where Basil was instructed by Bishop Dianius, he
was sent to Constantinople and Athens to study. He
met Gregory of Nazianzus, and the two became close
friends.
When he had completed his studies, Basil returned
to Caesarea and was baptized and ordained Reader by
Dianius. He was furthered influenced toward a spiritual
life by his sister, Macrina, who had founded a religious
community on the family estate with their
mother. Basil visited monasteries in Egypt, Palestine,

40 Beatrix da Silva
St. Basil the Great (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Coele-Syria and Mesopotamia, gaining the inspiration
for his own monastery, which he founded in 356 in
Pontus, near Macrina’s community. He composed a
rule and thus became known as the father of Eastern
monasticism, much the same as St. Benedict is
regarded as the father of Western monasticism.
When Dianius died in 362, Eusebius was named his
successor as bishop with the help of the elder Gregory
of Nazianzus. Eusebius persuaded Basil to be ordained
priest and gave him administrative duties. Basil was far
more competent than Eusebius and their relationship
deteriorated. Basil returned to Pontus, but was summoned
back to Caesarea by Gregory of Nazianzus in
365 to combat the Arian heresy. Basil essentially ran
the diocese without interference from Eusebius. He
demonstrated superb administrative ability and was
not afraid of powerful people. He also devoted much
time and attention to the poor.
With the help of the elder Gregory, Basil became the
bishop of Caesarea in 370, a position that enabled him
to wield great power. He laid down the law, required
spiritual discipline, settled disputes and vigorously
opposed heresy. He was a formidable statesman and
opponent, and incurred the wrath of Emperor Valens
(r. 364–378), who favored Arianism and persecuted
Basil.
In 373, a series of setbacks and sufferings began for
Basil: In that year, his key friend and supporter, St.
Athanasius, died, followed by Gregory of Nazianzus
the Elder in 374. Basil also became estranged from his
good friend, Gregory of Nazianzus the Younger. He
had known enemies and lost ground to the Arians. A
schism was erupting in the Church. His health was
failing, and invading Goths threatened the empire.
Pope Damasus (r. 366–384) suspected him of heresy,
and St. Jerome accused him of pride.
Basil died on January 1, 379. His death was
mourned by Christians, Jews and pagans alike. The
honorific “the Great” was appended to his name
posthumously. His relics were not mentioned until the
12th century, when parts of his body and other relics
allegedly were brought to Bruges by a Crusader. In the
16th century, the Naples Oratory was given a relic sent
from Constantinople to the pope.
Despite the setbacks in the latter part of his life,
Basil left a lasting imprint on the Church. He was
responsible for the victory of Nicene orthodoxy over
Arianism in the East. Arianism was denounced at the
Council of Constantinople in 381–382, thanks largely
to his influence.
Basil wrote important works on dogma, especially
defending the Divinity of the Three Persons of the
Trinity; commentaries on the Scriptures; treatises on
morals and monastic rules; and sermons. Some of his
works have been lost. Three hundred and sixty-six of
his letters survive. He either composed a liturgy or
reformed an existing one; several Eastern liturgies have
been attributed to him.
Feast: January 2
Patronage: hospital administrators; Order of St.
Basil
FURTHER READING
The Fathers Speak: St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of
Nazianzus, St. Gregory of Nyssa. Georges Barrois, trans.
and ed. Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press,
1986.
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2: St. Basil. Philip
Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1988.
Beatrix da Silva (1424–1490) Cistercian abbess
Also known as: Brites, Beatrice da Silva
Beatrix da Silva was born in Portugal in 1424 to a
noble family with ties to royalty. She accompanied
Isabel of Portugal to the court of Spain. She joined the
Cistercian convent of Santo Domingo de Silos in

Toledo, and founded the Congregational of the Immaculate
Conception.
Beatified: 1926 by Pius XI
Canonized: 1976 by Paul VI
Feast: August 16
Patronage: prisoners
Bede the Venerable (b. 672 or 673–d. 735) Doctor
of the Church and historian
A scholarly man and one of the most learned of his
time, Bede compiled meticulous historical records
recounting the development of Christianity in his
native England from Roman times to his own lifetime.
Though he wrote extensively on many famous church
figures, he had little to say about himself. Few details
of his life are known. At the end of his great work, the
five-volume Ecclesiastical History of the English People,
he added only a paragraph about himself.
Bede was born in 672 or 673 in the area of Wearmouth-Jarrow,
Northumberland, England. At the age of
seven, he was taken by his relatives to the nearby
monastery of SS. Peter and Paul and given over to the
care of the abbot St. Benedict Biscop, and later to
Abbot Ceolfrid. Bede spent the rest of his life at the
monastery, occasionally traveling to visit friends. He
devoted himself to the study of the Scriptures,
observed monastic discipline and took part in the daily
singing.
Bede was ordained deacon at age 19 and priest at
age 30. Both ordinations were performed by Bishop
John (later St. John of Beverly). From the time of his
priesthood, Bede spent most of his time in study and
writing. He seems to have enjoyed a peaceful and productive
life. He was well regarded and loved by his
peers.
He studied and wrote right up to the day of his
death. During his final illness, his disciples—who
included St. Cuthbert—read aloud by his bedside. On
the day of Bede’s death, the vigil of the Ascension in
735, he dictated a translation of the Gospel of St. John.
He died sitting on the floor of his cell singing, “Glory
be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy
Ghost.”
Within two generations of his death, the honorific
Venerabilis (the Venerable) was used in conjunction
with his name. The title was officially bestowed in 835
by the Council of Aachen. Throughout the Middle
Ages, a cult of Bede was maintained in northern England.
In 1899 Bede was declared a Doctor of the
Church, the only English person to hold that title.
His most important work, Ecclesiastical History of
the English People, completed in 729, has remained
Benedict 41
through the centuries one of the most authoritative
sources for historians of that time period. In his preface,
addressed to King Ceolwulph, Bede said he was
encouraged to undertake the writing by Abbot Albinus,
who had been educated at the Church of Canterbury
and who gave him considerable help. Ecclesiastical History
was translated into Anglo-Saxon upon the orders
of King Alfred, and was translated and published in
Europe.
Bede wrote other chronological treatises, biographies,
a description of Jerusalem and other holy places,
a martyrology, works on science and numerous commentaries
on books of the Bible. He also wrote verse
and composed chant music. He is credited with initiating
the custom of marking dates from the Incarnation
with the term Anno Domini, or A.D.
Declared Doctor of the Church: November 13, 1899,
by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: May 27
Patronage: scholars
FURTHER READING
Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. URL:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html.
Downloaded: February 10, 2000.
Benedict (ca. 480–ca. 547) Father of Western monasticism
and founder of the Benedictines
Name meaning: “Blessed”
Also known as: Benedict of Nursia
Benedict was born ca. 480 in the Sabine town of Nursia.
As a youth he was attracted to the art of rhetoric,
and was sent to Rome to be educated. He was so
revolted by the licentiousness of the city that he and
his nurse fled to Enfide, a village about 30 miles away.
After a time Benedict then went to a remote place now
called Subiaco, where he encountered a monk,
Romanus, who led him to a cave. Here Benedict
became a hermit, at about age 14, and spent three years
living in the cave. Romanus brought him bread every
day, which Benedict raised by rope to his cave.
While at Subiaco, Benedict was violently attacked
one day by a black bird, which he sent off by making a
sign of the cross. He knew he was under attack by
Satan and was seized with a temptation against holy
purity. To conquer it, he undressed and rolled himself
several times in thorn bushes. His remedy worked, and
he said throughout his life that he never again experienced
such an attack on his purity. The thorn bushes
became celebrated and were regarded as relics. His act
inspired many later saints to mortify themselves whenever
they felt themselves tempted or demonically
assailed.

42 Benedict
St. Benedict (copyright © Robert Michael Place. Used
with permission)
Centuries later, in 1223, St. Francis of Assisi visited
the cave. According to one story, he grafted rose bushes
onto the thorn bushes. Another story says he blessed
the thorn bushes, converting them into roses, which
had healing properties to the pilgrims who visited the
site.
Benedict’s solitude eventually came to an end. His
sanctity and alleged miraculous powers began to
attract followers. Benedict organized them into 12
monasteries of 12 monks each, and each under a prior.
He exercised supreme rule over all. The Subiaco
monastic community became a permanent settlement,
but Benedict at some point left abruptly, allegedly
because another priest, Florentius, attempted to undermine
him.
In about 525, Benedict went to Monte Cassino and
destroyed the temple to Apollo at its top. In its place,
he established ca. 530 the first structures of a
monastery that would become the most famous in the
world, the birthplace of Western monasticism. The
monastery attracted a large following of disciples, as
well as Church officials from Rome and Capua, who
came to consult Benedict for his wisdom and prophetic
powers.
At about this time, he probably wrote his famous
Regula Monachorum, called the Rule (also Benedict’s
Rule or the Benedictine Rule), a monastic rule that
became the standard for monastic living throughout
the Western world. The Rule calls for a year of probation,
a vow of obedience to a single abbot or abbess,
moderate asceticism, and work and prayer (ora et labora
became a motto of the Benedictines). Benedict’s
rule was influenced by, and passages were accommodated
from, the Rule of the Master, a monastic document
also dating from the sixth century but not as
spiritual, personal and broad as Benedict’s Rule.
Benedict expanded his activities beyond the
monastery to the surrounding population, curing the
sick, distributing alms and food, and providing aid
and counseling. It is alleged that he raised the dead on
at least several occasions. Benedict’s tunic, of which he
had just one, was reported to give off a fragrance
sweeter than all the perfumes of India, as did Benedict
himself.
His twin sister, St. Scholastica, settled nearby and
pursued a religious life.
Benedict foretold his own death six days in
advance, and instructed his monks to dig a grave in
secret. As soon as the task was accomplished, he fell ill
with fever and deteriorated. On the sixth day, he
instructed his monks to carry him into the oratory,
where he took Communion. In his final moments, he
stood, supported by monks, and died with his hands
raised in prayer.
The remains of Benedict and Scholastica—who had
died some months earlier—were buried on Monte
Cassino. One story holds that they were removed to
Fleury, France, in 703. Another holds that they were
unearthed at Monte Cassino during the World War II
bombing.
Benedict was named a patron of Europe by Pope
Paul VI in 1964.
The only source for documenting Benedict’s life is
The Dialogues by Pope St. Gregory the Great (r.
590–604). Gregory offers the following description of
one of Benedict’s mystical experiences:
. . . . In the dead of night he [Benedict] suddenly beheld
a flood of light shining down from above more brilliant

than the sun, and with it every trace of darkness cleared
away. Another remarkable sight followed. According to
his own description, the whole world was gathered up
before his eyes in what appeared to be a single ray of
light. As he gazed at all this dazzling display, he saw the
soul of Germanus, the bishop of Capua, being carried by
angels up to heaven in a ball of fire.
Many marvels and miracles were attributed to Benedict.
He could move stones too heavy for others to lift.
According to Gregory, his sanctity enabled a pupil,
Maurus, to walk on water in order to rescue a drowning
child. Benedict manifested money for a man in
debt. Peregrinus, a Catholic layman, appealed to Benedict
for help in relieving his great debt. Benedict told
him to return in three days. Meanwhile, he prayed.
When Peregrinus returned, they went to inspect a store
of grain, where they found 13 gold coins. Benedict told
him to take 12 for his debt and spend the 13th however
he chose.
Benedict also is said to have multiplied flour and oil
to feed his monks, thus demonstrating the power of
faith. When the monks had difficulty finding water,
Benedict prayed and water was found at that spot.
The saint had powers of prophecy, and foresaw the
downfall of his own monastery. In 590, the Lombards
invaded and destroyed it, forcing the monks to flee.
The monastery was rebuilt, but was damaged by Saracen
invaders in 883 and by an earthquake in 1349. The
monastery was bombed to ruins during World War II,
but was lavishly reconstructed.
The Order of Saint Benedict (O.S.B.) is the oldest
order of monks in the West; for over five centuries it
was the only monastic order in the West and greatly
influenced the spread of civilization in the Middle
Ages. During the Middle Ages, Benedictines were
called the Black Monks, referring to the color of their
habit. There are Benedictine monasteries worldwide
today in Roman Catholic and Anglican churches,
housing not only Benedictines but also Carthusians,
Cistercians, Trappists and other related orders.
The Benedictine Rule continues to be one of the
most important documents of Christian religious practice,
and has been interpreted for, and applied to, the
lay life as well as the monastic life. The Rule reflects
what Benedict learned and understood about the
power of words—and thus the power of the Word of
God.
Central to Benedict’s structure was daily prayer. His
prayer of the Divine Office, chanted several times daily
from the breviary, required all work to stop. If monks
were out in the fields, they had to stop whatever they
were doing, kneel and pray at the specified times. The
Divine Office is considered the prayer of the Catholic
Church.
Benedict II 43
Benedict also required the study of Scriptures (lectio
divinia) as another way to pray the Word of God, and
one that would especially harmonize the mind and
heart. Four to six hours were set aside in the
monastery for monks to read, memorize and repeat
passages that seized the monks with inspiration. The
idea was to allow the meaning of the words to penetrate
the heart and become part of the person, finally
losing all meaning except the power of the Word of
God. At this point the monks surrendered to contemplation
in the presence of God that was beyond intellectual
understanding.
Feast: July 11 (Western Church), March 14 (Eastern
Church)
Patronage: against poisoning; against witchcraft;
speleologists; Europe
FURTHER READING
Chittister, Joan. Wisdom Distilled from the Daily: Living the
Rule of St. Benedict Today. San Francisco: HarperSan Francisco,
1991.
Gregory the Great. The Dialogues, Book Two. Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1967.
Happold, F. C. Mysticism: A Study and an Anthology, rev. ed.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books,
1970.
Benedict II (d. 685) Pope
The date of Benedict’s birth is not known. He was a
native of Rome, the son of John. As a youth, he was
active in Church affairs. He was ordained a priest and
became a respected scholar of the Scriptures and an
expert in sacred chants. He was distinguished further
by his humility, his generosity, and his love for the
poor.
Benedict was elected to the Chair of St. Peter to succeed
Pope St. Leo II (r. 682–683) upon the latter’s
death in June 683, though he was not consecrated
until June 26 of the following year.
The delay in Benedict’s consecration was due to the
wait for the traditional approval of the emperor. The
consecrations of Leo II and several other of his predecessors
had been delayed for the same reason. In order
to prevent this from happening again, Benedict sought
and obtained a decree from Emperor Constantine Pogonatus
(Constantine the Bearded) that abolished the
practice of imperial confirmation.
During his brief reign, Benedict was an active head
of the Church throughout Europe. He opposed the
Monothelitism heresy and worked to bring several
Spanish bishops in line with his views. He was also one
of several popes to support the Englishman, St. Wilfred
of York, who was trying to return to his see after hav-

44 Benedict XI
ing been forced out by St. Theodore. Benedict was also
energetic in his support of the Church of Rome, restoring
several churches and supporting the clergy and lay
sacristans.
Benedict died on May 8, 685, and was laid to rest
in St. Peter’s.
Feast: May 8
Benedict XI (1240–1304) Dominican monk and pope
Also known as: Nicholas Boccasini
There is much uncertainty concerning the childhood
of the man who came to be known as Pope Benedict
XI. He was born in Treviso, Italy, in 1240, as Nicholas
Baccasini. His father was either a poor shepherd or an
impoverished nobleman; he died while Nicholas was
young, and the boy was put in the charge of an uncle
who was a priest in Treviso.
Since Nicholas proved to be highly intelligent, his
uncle had him trained in Latin and other clerical subjects.
When he was 10, he began acting as a tutor to
noble children, a vocation he followed for four years,
then entered the Dominican monastery at Venice. As a
monk, he continued his teaching career, primarily in
Venice and Bologna. In 1295, he received a master’s
degree in theology. He also became involved in administrative
affairs, for a while serving as the Dominican
prior general for Lombardy; in 1296 he was elected the
order’s ninth master general.
Nicholas was a strong supporter of Pope Boniface
VIII (r. 1294–1303), widely unpopular for his treatment
of his predecessor, Pope St. Celestine V (r. 1294).
Nicholas issued a general ordinance forbidding
Dominicans to show any favor to Boniface’s opponents
and enjoined them to defend the legitimacy of Boniface’s
election in their sermons. Boniface rewarded this
loyalty by sending Nicholas on papal missions and, in
1298, by appointing him bishop of Ostia and dean of
the Sacred College of Cardinals. Dominicans hastened
to Rome to protest these appointments, only to hear
from the pope a prophecy that God had reserved an
even greater burden for Nicholas.
Nicholas stood by Boniface even in 1303, when
forces unfriendly to him captured the Lateran Palace.
Troops under King Philip the Fair of France’s counselor
William of Nogaret then besieged the pope in the
castle of Anagni, whence he had fled, and demanded
that he abdicate the papal throne. The soldiers
stormed the house, where they were met by the pope
and Nicholas, along with one other supporter, the cardinal-bishop
of Sabina. For a time it seemed that all
would die, but Nicholas succeeded in rallying the
pope’s forces, and they were rescued. Nevertheless,
Boniface had suffered much, and he died a short while
later.
The Sacred College met on October 22, 1303, and
elected Nicholas as Boniface’s successor, thus fulfilling
the latter’s prophecy concerning the former. Assuming
the name Benedict XI, Nicholas immediately set about
making peace with Philip the Fair. He absolved the
king and his subjects of censures Boniface had placed
on them. However, he excommunicated William and
summoned him to appear before his tribunal.
Benedict died suddenly at Perugia on July 7, 1304,
after a reign of only eight months. It was thought that
he had been poisoned by William, though this was
never proved. Miracles at his intercession were
reported even before his burial, and continued thereafter
at his tomb. He is venerated especially in Perugia,
though his feast is celebrated in Rome and throughout
the Dominican order.
In art, Benedict is depicted as wearing a Dominican
habit and papal tiara, while holding the keys.
Beatified: 1733 by Pope Clement XII
Feast: July 7
Benedict Biscop (ca. 628–ca. 690) Benedictine abbot
Name meaning: Blessed
A monastic founder, Benedict Biscop was born John
Biscop Baducing ca. 628 in England to a family of
Anglo-Saxon nobility that had close ties to the court of
King Oswy of Northumbria. He spent much of his
youth at court, serving the king as a warrior.
In 653, at age 25, Biscop was inspired to make the
first of five pilgrimages to Rome with St. Wilfrid. His
trips inspired him to become a monk and bring Roman
elements of worship, including rituals and chant, to
England. After his return to Britain, Biscop traveled
again to Rome with Alcfrith, the son of Oswy. After his
return in 666, he took the habit and was tonsured at
St.-Honorat at Lérins, where he took the monastic
name Benedict.
He made a third trip to Rome where he quickly
found favor with Pope Vitalian, who in 668 sent him to
serve as adviser to Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of
Canterbury. Theodore appointed Benedict abbot of SS.
Peter and Paul monastery in Canterbury (now St.
Augustine’s). In 671 he resigned the post in order to
make another pilgrimage to Rome.
On a fourth trip to Rome in 679, he assured Pope
Agatho of the orthodoxy of the English Church. On
this and his last two pilgrimages, he collected numerous
relics, books and paintings. Many of these were
given to two Benedictine monasteries he founded in
England: Wearmouth in 674 and Jarrow in 682. He

also introduced the teaching of Gregorian chant and
the Divine Rule in these monasteries, under the direction
of Abbot John of Rome. He is credited with introducing
stone churches and glass church windows to
England.
Benedict was paralyzed for the last three years of his
life. He became a mentor to St. Bede the Venerable,
who wrote his biography. Benedict died on January 12,
c. 690. Around 980, his relics were translated from
Wearmouth to Thorney. Glastonbury also claims his
relics.
Feast: January 12
Patronage: musicians, painters
Benedict Joseph Labre (1748–1783) Pilgrim recluse
known for his sanctity, austerity and miracles of intervention
Also known as: the “Beggar of Rome”
Benedict Joseph Labre was born in Amettes, France, on
March 25, 1748, the oldest of 18 children. At an early
age he showed great interest in austerity and mortification.
His uncle was a parish priest in Erin, France, and
at age 12 Benedict went to study with him for six
years. He earnestly desired a religious life, but his parents
did not approve. After his uncle died in 1766, he
renewed his efforts to join an order and his parents
acquiesced. He was rejected by the Trappists. He spent
a brief six weeks as postulant with the Carthusians. He
received permission to enter the Cisterican abbey of
Sept-Fonts, but after a short stay his health failed, and
he left.
Benedict was inspired to live like St. Alexis and be
neither in a cloister nor in the wilderness, but simply
be a pilgrim to the famous shrines of Christendom.
Thus, he set out through Europe in 1770. He had only
the clothes on his back, a rosary, a crucifix, a Testament,
breviary, a copy of the Imitation of Christ and a
few other books. If he could not find food in the wild
or was not given any, he rummaged through garbage
heaps.
In 1774 he settled in Rome. He became known for
his devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, his attendance
of the Forty Hours devotion and his ecstasies. Once he
was seen levitating in a kneeling position while he
prayed at the Church of Gesu in Rome. According to
his biography (written by his confessor, Marconi), witnesses
were amazed but the sacristan, who had seen it
before, was not, and calmly continued his sweeping.
His body finally gave out from his austerity and
mortification. He collapsed on April 16, 1783, on the
steps of the Church of Santa Maria dei Monti in Rome
and was carried to a nearby house, where he died.
Immediately miracles were attributed to his intervention.
Marconi documented 136 such cases.
Declared Venerable: 1859 by Pope Pius IX
Canonized: 1883 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: April 16
Patronage: beggars; the homeless; religious orders;
toy makers
Benevenuto Scotivoli of Osimo (d. 1282) Franciscan
bishop
Benevenuto Scotivoli of Osimo was born in Ancona,
Italy. He studied law at Bologna and became a student
of St. Sylvester Gozzolini. He entered the Franciscan
order and served as archdeacon of Ancona and bishop
of Osimo.
Canonized: by Pope Martin IV (r. 1281–85)
Feast: March 22
Berard and Companions (d. 1220) Martyrs
Also known as: Berardus and Companions
Berard was born in Carbio, Italy, to a noble family, and
grew up well-educated. He learned to speak Arabic,
which served him in his missionary work.
Berard joined the Franciscan order and was
accepted by St. Francis of Assisi himself. He served the
order as a friar minor, priest and preacher. St. Francis
sent him and a party of Franciscans to preach to Muslims
in Morocco. Joining Berard were Peter, Otho,
Accurcius and Adjutus. Their work was short-lived.
After their arrival, the Franciscans began preaching in
the marketplace. They were immediately arrested and
ordered to cease. When they returned to preach again,
they were beaten. The Muslims demanded that they
renounce Christ, but they refused to do so. The sultan
had them all beheaded on January 16, 1220. It is
believed that Berard and his party were the first Franciscan
martyrs. They were canonized as a group.
Years later, St. Anthony of Padua saw their relics,
and was inspired to join the Franciscans and go to
Morocco himself.
Canonized: 1481 by Pope Sixtus V
Feast: January 16
Bernadette Soubirous 45
Bernadette Soubirous (1844–1879) Nun and visionary
of the famous apparitions of the Blessed Virgin Mary
at Lourdes, France
Also known as: Bernadette of Lourdes
Marie Bernarde (“Bernadette”) Soubirous was born on
January 7, 1844, in Lourdes, France. Her parents,

46 Bernadette Soubirous
Francis, a miller, and Louise Soubirous, were very
poor. They had nine children; five died in infancy, and
Bernadette was the oldest of the survivors.
When Bernadette was 12, her father lost his mill.
The family moved several times, finally taking a tiny
room loaned to them by a cousin. The conditions were
horrible. The building had been a jail and was converted
to a stable. The family’s room overlooked a dung
heap and the stable yard; the room next to theirs contained
livestock. It was damp and smelly, which aggravated
Bernadette’s asthma.
In 1857 Bernadette was sent to live with a foster
mother, Marie Lagues, who promised to send the child
to school and teach her the catechism. Instead, she
sent Bernadette out to tend her sheep. She did try to
give her instruction in the catechism at night, but
St. Bernadette Soubirous (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Bernadette struggled with the French—she spoke only
a dialect—and thus remained a poor student.
On February 11, 1858, when she was 14, Bernadette
was out gathering firewood along the Gave du
Pau River near Lourdes with two companions. They
waded in the water near a natural grotto at a place
called Massabielle. Her friends went on ahead and
Bernadette paused, afraid that the cold water would
bring on an asthma attack. Suddenly she heard the
sound of rushing wind and saw a brilliant light near
the grotto. A small woman appeared in the light and
bowed her head in greeting. Bernadette got out her
rosary, and the apparition prayed with her. Speaking
Bernadette’s dialect, the woman instructed her to come
back to the grotto every day for 15 days. She said, “I do
not promise to make you happy in this world but in
the next.”
Bernadette reported her experience. When more
visions occurred, crowds of the curious and skeptical
began to gather at the grotto. In all, Bernadette experienced
18 visions through March 4. Mary gave Bernadette
personal messages and messages for the world.
She urged people to pray and do penitence. During the
visions, Bernadette experienced trances or ecstasies,
some lasting an hour.
On February 25, Mary told Bernadette to drink
from a spring, pointing to a spot on the ground.
Bernadette dug into the earth, and appeared to spectators
to be eating mud. A spring emerged and subsequently
became credited with miraculous healing
powers. The water was determined to have no known
natural therapeutic properties; believers attributed its
curative powers to the patronage of Mary.
In the last apparition on March 4, the woman identified
herself as “the Immaculate Conception,” thus
confirming dogma established four years earlier by
Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78). Bernadette revealed this
message on March 25, along with the lady’s instructions
that a church should be built on the spot where
she appeared. Bernadette’s experiences were highly
controversial, and some Church officials tried to delay
or obstruct the building of the chapel. But when
Empress Eugénie of France, the wife of Napoleon III,
became interested and supportive, the chapel was
erected.
Bernadette made her First Communion in June
1858. After two years with her foster mother, she
returned to her family home in Lourdes. She was
allowed to attend school free of tuition with the Sisters
of Charity and Christian Instruction at Nevers.
In 1862 the Catholic Church authenticated Bernadette’s
visions. In 1866, Bernadette retired to the Sisters
of Notre Dame convent in Nevers, not far from Lourdes,
where she experienced the extremes of harsh treatment

from the mistress of novices and admiration as a saint
by some of her sisters. She worked as infirmarian and
sacristan. Chronically ill most of her life, she became
fatally ill with tuberculosis of the bone in the right knee.
She suffered many complications and died on April 16,
1879, asking forgiveness for her faults, especially pride.
During her life, she never deviated from her account of
the visions. She refused to go to Lourdes to try to heal
herself, saying that the site was for others, not her; it
was her duty to bear her illness. She never revealed the
personal messages given her by Mary.
Bernadette was buried in the Chapel of St. Joseph
on the convent grounds. On September 22, 1909, 30
years after her death, her body was exhumed for the
cause of her beatification. Though her clothing was
damp and the coffin contained sawdust and bits of
charcoal, Bernadette’s body was incorrupt, and her
arms and face still retained their natural tone and
coloring. Her rosary, held in her hands, was rusted, and
the crucifix upon her chest was covered with verdigris.
Further examination showed that the incorrupt
body was nonetheless emaciated, especially the afflicted
right knee. The body was washed, reclothed and
reburied.
The remains were exhumed a second time on April
3, 1919. The body was still incorrupt, except the face
had discolored—probably from the washing during the
first exhumation. A wax coating was applied to the
face. Bernadette’s relics were placed in a gold and glass
coffin for public display at the Chapel of Saint
Bernadette in the motherhouse at Nevers.
Lourdes became one of the most important pilgrimage
sites in the world, now drawing millions of visitors
every year who hope to be cured by the waters. The
spring generates 27,000 liters of water a week—
approximately 13 liters per minute. The Church investigates
reports of miraculous healings and publishes
the most noteworthy of them.
Beatified: 1925 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: December 8, 1933, by Pope Pius XI
Feast: April 16
Patronage: shepherdesses
FURTHER READING
Harris, Ruth. Lourdes: Body and Spirit in the Secular Age. New
York: Viking, 1999.
Trocem, François, Saint Bernadette Soubirous. Rockford, Ill.:
TAN Books and Publishers, 1993.
Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) Cistercian abbot
and Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Doctor Mellifluus, “The Honey-Mouthed
Doctor,” for the spiritual sweetness of his teachings
Bernard of Clairvaux 47
St. Bernard of Clairvaux (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Bernard of Clairvaux was born in Fontaines, near
Dijon, in France, to a leading family of the nobility. He
excelled in his early studies, especially in literature,
while at the same time giving evidence of great piety.
Bernard’s lifelong devotion to Mary began in childhood
in 1098. He dreamed he saw a young woman
praying in a stable, who suddenly held a radiant baby
in her arms. He recognized the baby as Jesus. Mary
smiled and allowed Bernard to caress him. He prayed
often to Mary and felt a close bond to her. Bernard
found himself equally attracted to the reformed Benedictine
community at Citeaux, and to a career as a
writer and scholar as his family wished. In 1111, he
prayed to God for direction. He had a vision of his own
departed mother, whom he understood to be sent by
Mary. He knew instantly that he was to become a
monk.
At about age 23 he entered the monastery at
Citeaux along with 30 companions; he was eventually
followed by his father and five brothers. In 1115, the
abbot, St. Stephen Harding, sent Bernard to found a
new daughter house that was to become famous as the
Cistercian abbey of Clairvaux.

48 Bernard of Clairvaux
Though Bernard sought quiet and solitude to contemplate,
the needs of the Church, the orders of his
superiors and the urgent pleas of rulers caused him to
spend much time in travels and controversies. Early in
his career, when denounced to Rome for “meddling” in
high ecclesiastical affairs, he won over his accusers by
explaining that he would like nothing better than to
retire to his monastery, but had been ordered to assist
at the Synod of Troyes. He likewise found himself
called upon to judge the rival claims of Innocent II and
Anacletus II to the papacy, and traveled widely to
bring others over to the side of Innocent. His other
activities included assisting at the Second Lateran
Council (1139), preaching the Second Crusade (1146)
and countering the theological errors of Peter Abelard
(1139) and of Gilbert, bishop of Poitiers (1147–48).
Bernard was a key figure in the condemnation of
Abelard by the Council of Sens.
Bernard’s health suffered throughout his life. He ate
very little and endured acute abdominal pains. Once
when he was quite ill, he prayed at the altars of Mary
and SS. Lawrence and Benedict. Mary and the two
saints appeared to him, placed their hands on his
abdomen and instantly healed his pain.
Worn out by his labors, and distressed by the failure
of the Crusade, he died at Clairvaux on August 20,
1153. According to lore, Mary appeared to him to welcome
his soul to heaven.
Despite his many activities, the real center of
Bernard’s life was prayer and contemplation: From
them he drew strength for his labors and journeys and
inspiration for his writings. Bernard, like all Christians,
believed that the vision of God and union with Him
was the end for which man was created. This can be
fully attained only in the afterlife, but Bernard and
many others throughout the ages have claimed an
experience, even in this life, of that vision and union.
This mystical experience, like the Beatific Vision of
which it is a foretaste, is, in the Christian view, a free
gift of God; the most that man can do is desire it and
strive to remove obstacles to it. The methods of removing
obstacles are the subject of ascetic and mystical
theology. Many Christians before Bernard had
described this mystical experience, but he was one of
the first to address himself to the theological understanding
of it, though not in any systematic way. His
work shows a profound and precise knowledge of doctrinal
subtleties.
Ascetic theology deals with groundwork of the spiritual
life: the eradication of vices, the cultivation of
virtue, the attainment of detachment, by which one
learns to give up one’s own will and accept God’s will
for one. Bernard’s works in this field include De Gratia
et Libero Arbitrio (Of grace and free will) and De
Gradibus Humilitatus et Superbiae (Of the steps of
humility and pride). Bernard’s teaching is typical of the
paradoxical Christian view of man, simultaneously
affirming his dignity as made in the image and likeness
of God (which image, for Bernard, consisted primarily
in man’s free will) and his need for humility as a creature—a
fallen creature, in whom the likeness to God is
obscured by sin.
But for Bernard, as for the author of the Johannine
book (Fourth Gospel) of the New Testament, the
beginning, end and driving force of the whole mystery
of creation and redemption is love: God’s love for man
enabling man to love God in return. In De Dilgendo
Deo (Of loving God), Bernard presents motives for loving
God, both those that all men may acknowledge
(the gifts of creation) and those that compel Christians,
who believe that God became incarnate and died
to save them (the goods of redemption). Here, as elsewhere
in his writings, the humanity of Christ has the
central role.
Love is nurtured by conversation, and so in the four
books De Consideratione (Of meditation), written for
his pupil who had become pope as Eugene III, Bernard
discusses meditation, or mental prayer, by which one
converses with God and may, perhaps, attain a vision
of God and union with Him even in this life. It is in the
86 Sermones super Cantica Canticorum (Sermons on the
song of songs) that Bernard eloquently expounds on
this vision and union, and the desire for it. As many
would do after him, he sees these ancient Hebrew
poems as describing the union of God and the soul as a
mystical marriage. Bernard stresses that the mystical
experience is, precisely, an experience, and thus strictly
incommunicable, to be known only by one who has
experienced it.
In addition to these works, Bernard composed
more than 300 sermons and 500 letters, which demonstrate
his deep devotion to Mary and the infant
Jesus. A story is told that one letter to his cousin, Robert,
was dictated in a field during a heavy downpour.
The paper never became wet. The episode was looked
upon as miraculous, and an oratory was built on the
spot.
Of other miracles and unusual events ascribed to
the saint, an interesting one concerns the “flies of
Foigny.” Bernard attended the dedication of a church
in Foigny, and the service was disturbed by a great
multitude of buzzing flies. Bernard cried, “Excommunicabo
eas!” (I shall excommunicate them!). The next
day the excommunicated flies were found dead. There
were so many they blackened the pavement and had to
be shoveled out of the church.
Bernard’s symbol is a white dog. In art he is often
depicted in Cistercian habit with a vision of Our Lady.

Canonized: 1174 by Pope Alexander III
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1830 by Pope Pius
VIII
Feast: August 20
Patronage: bees; cancer victims; chandlers; Cistercians;
climbers; Burgundy; Gibraltar; Liguria,
Italy; Speyer Cathedral, Germany
FURTHER READING
Bredero, Adrian H. Bernard of Clairvaux: Between Cult and
History. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans,
1996.
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
Gilson, Etienne. The Mystical Theology of Saint Bernard, tr.
A.H.C. Downes. New York: Sheed & Ward, 1940.
Liddy, Ailbe J., O.Cist. Life and Teaching of Saint Bernard.
Dublin: M.H. Gill & Son, 1950.
St. Bernard’s Sermon on the Canticle of Canticles, tr. by a priest
of Mount Mellary. Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1920.
Williams, Watkin. The Mysticism of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux.
London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1931.
Bernadine of Siena (1380–1444) Franciscan missionary
and preacher
Also known as: “the second Paul”
Bernadine of Siena was born on September 8, 1380, at
Massa Marittima near Siena, Italy. His father was the
governor. Bernadine was ophaned at age seven and
then raised by an aunt. He is said to have been sensitive,
and had an intense dislike for indecent language.
He fasted and spent time in prayer. In 1397 he entered
the Confraternity of Our Lady, and in 1400 organized
the hospitals of Siena to cope with a plague outbreak.
His work with the ill left him exhausted.
Bernadine joined the Franciscans in 1402 and was
ordained a priest in 1404. He had a weak and hoarse
voice, and did not give his first sermon until September
8, 1417. He did very little preaching, and for 12
years lived as a hermit.
He then went to Milan on a mission, and suddenly
found he was a charismatic speaker with a strong and
commanding voice. The story goes that he prayed
earnestly to Mary about his voice, and one day a globe
of fire came down from heaven and stopped at his
throat, instantly healing him.
Bernadine crisscrossed central and northern Italy
on foot, preaching against immorality for hours at a
time, several times a day. He also stressed punishment
for sin, reward for virtue, the mercy of Jesus and the
love of Mary. His special devotion was to the Holy
Name of Jesus. He became the foremost missionary in
Italy, and also healed people, especially lepers.
Blaise 49
Once, he told a crowd he would show them devils,
and then stunned everyone by telling them to look at
each other, for they were doing the work of Satan.
Perhaps because of his great popularity, he was slandered
by enemies and was silenced for a short while. In
1427 he was defended by Pope Martin V (r. 1417–31).
The pope offered him the see of Siena, but Bernadine
turned down that and several other offers to be bishop
in various cities. He was unable to avoid being named
vicar general of his order, the Franciscan Friars of the
Strict Observance, in 1430. Due to his efforts, the order
increased in size from about 300 members to more
than 4,000.
Bernadine was devoted to Mary and had visions of
her. In one, she appeared to him and showed him a
farm near Bergamo where a friary could be built. Three
years later, when Bernadine returned to dedicate the
friary, Mary with the infant Jesus appeared in a brilliant
light and was witnessed by many.
Even when it was clear he was dying, he preached
for consecutive days. He died at Aquila on May 20,
1444. His relics were enshrined there. Some relics also
are in Siena, Rome and Massa Marittima.
In art he is often depicted holding a sign with the
letters IHS, the first three Greek letters of the holy
name of Jesus, which he always displayed as a monogram
from the pulpit and distributed to crowds. Sometimes
mitres are at his feet, symbolizing his refusals of
the office of bishop.
Canonized: 1450 by Pope Nicholas V
Feast: May 20
Patronage: against bleeding; against chest problems;
against hoarseness; lungs and chest; wool workers;
Massa Marittima
FURTHER READING
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
Blaise (d. ca. 313–315) Bishop of Sebaste, Turkey;
martyr
Also known as: Blase
Blaise, a philosopher and physician, was elected bishop
of Sebaste and then was forced to flee during the persecutions
of Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305). Tradition
holds that he retired to a cave on Mt. Argeus. Throngs
of people came to see him for his miraculous cures;
even wild animals sought him out.
After Diocletian, persecutions continued under
Emperor Licinius Licinianus (r. 308–324). Governor
Agricolaus of Cappadocia was ordered to arrest Christians
and feed them to wild beasts. Hunters sent out to
capture the animals found Blaise; he was arrested and

50 Bonaventure
taken to Agricolaus. En route weeping followers of
Blaise gathered to ask his blessing as he passed by. One
such person was a woman who thrust at him her child,
dying of a small fish bone stuck in his throat. Blaise
healed the boy with prayer.
Blaise refused to renounce his faith and was
scourged and imprisoned. The saint remained placid
and in good humor, and continued to work miracles
from his cell. The infuriated governor ordered him to
be lacerated with iron hooks.
Certain holy women were induced to collect his
blood. They were rounded up with two of their children
and ordered to perform sacrifices to the gods.
They asked for the idols, but flung the statues into a
lake. The women and their children were beheaded.
Blaise was then hideously tortured. He was stretched
on a rack, had his flesh torn with iron combs, and
endured a red-hot coat of mail laid upon him. Agricolaus
ordered him tossed into the lake. Legend has it
that Blaise walked on water to the middle of the lake,
sat down, and urged the pagans to do the same if they
believed in their gods. Some tried and were drowned.
A voice from heaven told Blaise to accept his martyrdom.
He returned to land and was beheaded.
Blaise’s relics are in numerous cities, including
Brunswick, Mainz, Lübeck, Trier and Cologne in Germany;
Taranto, Milan and Rome in Italy; Paray-le-
Monial in France; and Dubrovnik in Croatia.
On the day of Blaise’s feast, throats are blessed and
candles lit, in commemoration of the healing of the
boy. Blaise is invoked against throat and neck complaints.
Feast: February 3
Patronage: builders; cattle; doctors; hat makers;
hosiery workers; against neck complaints; pets;
plasterers; shoemakers; stone carvers; tanners;
against throat disorders; veterinarians; weavers;
wild animals; wind musicians; wool dealers
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Bonaventure (1217–1274) Cardinal-Bishop, Minister
General of the Friars Minor, Doctor of the Church
Also known as: the Seraphic Doctor
Bonaventure is considered one of the great theologians
of the Church along with his contemporary, St.
Thomas Aquinas. He wrote extensively on theology
and philosophy; some of his works are mystical in
nature.
Little is known about the early life of Bonaventure.
He was born in 1217 in Bagnoregio near Viterbo, Italy,
to Giovanni Fidanza and Maria Ritella. It is not know
why or when his given name of John was changed to
Bonaventure. According to the saint himself, he was
saved from death in childhood by the intervention of
St. Francis of Assisi; Bonventure later became the official
biographer of Francis.
In 1217 he went to the University of Paris where he
met Franciscans. In 1243 he joined the Order of the
Friars Minor and studied under the Franciscan scholars
Alexander of Hales and John of La Rochelle. From
1248 to 1256 he taught and lectured at the university,
quitting under opposition from secular professors to
the Dominican and Franciscan professors. Pope Alexander
IV (r. 1254–61) restored the Mendicants, and in
1267 both Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas received
their doctorate degrees.
Bonaventure was elected minister general of the
Friars Minor in 1257 and became involved in internal
disputes. He visited much of the order and instituted
reforms.
In 1263, he assisted at the translation of the
remains of SS. Clare and Anthony. His life of St. Francis
was declared the official biography to the exclusion
of all others. In 1264, he took over direction of the
Poor Clares and founded the Society of the Gonfalone
in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Rome. In 1265,
he declined a request from Pope Clement IV (r.
1265–68) to become the archbishop of York.
In 1266 Bonaventure generated much controversy
when he convened a general chapter in Paris that
decreed all accounts of Francis written prior to his
should be destroyed. In 1269 he instituted the practice
of mass being sung every Saturday throughout the
order in honor of Mary.
Bonaventure played a key role in the election of
Clement’s successor in 1271, advising the cardinals to
choose Theobald Visconti of Piacenza, who became
Pope Gregory X (r. 1271–76). The pope named Bonaventure
cardinal-bishop of Albano in 1273, much to
the saint’s displeasure. The pope also instructed
Bonaventure to prepare the questions for the Fourteenth
Ecumenical Council opening in Lyons on May
7, 1274. During the discussions, the pope relied heavily
upon the counsel of Bonaventure.
While the council was in session, Bonaventure died
suddenly on July 15, 1274. The cause is not known,
but his secretary, Peregrinus of Bologna, attributed it to
poison. The saint was buried the next day in the
church of the Friars Minor in Lyons. The pope, the
king of Aragon, the cardinals and other members of the
council attended the funeral.
During his life, Bonaventure was known for his
mystical experiences and miracles. His ecstasies no
doubt provided inspiration for his more mystical writ-

ings. Once Thomas Aquinas visited him while he was
at work on the life of Francis, and found him in
ecstasy. Thomas left, saying, “Let us leave a saint to
work for a saint.” His sanctity inspired Dante Alighieri
to place him among the saints in his Paradisio.
In 1434 his remains were moved to a new church in
Lyons in honor of St. Francis. His head was found to
be perfectly preserved, and his tongue as red as it had
been in life. The people of Lyons then named him their
patron.
In 1562, his shrine was vandalized by the
Huguenots, who burned the urn containing his body.
The superior hid Bonaventure’s head and forfeited his
life in the process. During the French Revolution, the
head disappeared and has never been found.
Bonaventure left a legacy of important theological
and philosophical works esteemed throughout the
Middle Ages and still studied today. His greatest is
Commentary on the Sentences, a sweeping treatment of
the entire Scholastic theology, which is summarized
in another of his works, Brevoliquium. Like Thomas
Aquinas, he defended Aristotle, though he did not
hesitate to criticize his shortcomings. His most exemplary
mystical work is De Triplici Via, which
explores perfection. In addition, he wrote numerous
treatises and exegeses. Nearly 500 of his sermons have
survived.
Canonized: April 14, 1482, by Pope Sixtus IV
Patronage: Lyons
FURTHER READING
Bonaventure: The Soul’s Journey into God, The Tree of Life, The
Life of St. Francis. Tr. Ewert Cousins. Mahwah, N.J.:
Paulist Press, 1978.
Boniface I (d. 422) Pope
Nothing is known about the early life of Boniface, son
of the presbyter Jocandus. He was ordained a priest by
Pope St. Damasus I (366–384) and served as Pope St.
Innocent I’s (r. 401–417) representative in Constantinople.
On December 29, 418, he succeeded St.
Zosimus in the Chair of St. Peter, but not without incident.
Immediately after the obsequies for Zosimus on
December 27, a faction of the Roman clergy consisting
mainly of deacons seized the Lateran basilica and
elected Archdeacon Eulalius as pope. When the higher
clergy—who were opposed to Eulalius—tried to enter
the basilica, they were met with violence. The following
day they convened in the Church of Theodora and
elected the aged Boniface instead. Both Boniface and
Eulalius were consecrated on December 29, Boniface
in the basilica of St. Marcellus. Each then proceeded to
act as pope, throwing the Church into schism, and
dividing the city of Rome. The trouble persisted for 15
weeks until Emperor Honorius at Ravenna finally pronounced
in favor of Boniface, on April 3, 418.
When Boniface fell critically ill early in 420, Eulalius
and his backers tried again. They failed to receive
support, however, and upon his recovery in July,
Boniface appealed to Honorius to make some provision
against a renewal of the schism following his
death. In response, Honorius enacted a law stipulating
that, in contested papal elections, neither claimant
should be recognized, and a new election should be
held.
Boniface’s pontificate was marked by great zeal and
activity in upholding the jurisdiction of the universal
Church. He continued the papal opposition to Pelagianism,
a heresy that denied original sin, supporting
St. Augustine in his pronouncements against it. He was
able to persuade Emperor Theodosius II to return the
ecclesiastical provinces of Illyricum to Western control,
over the claims of the patriarch of Constantinople.
He was successful also in settling the issue regarding
appeals to Rome within the African church. Although
African bishops persisted in their disagreements with
the Holy See, they promised to obey the rulings, thus
recognizing the pope’s role as guardian of the Church’s
discipline.
Boniface renewed legislation of Pope St. Soter (r.
166–175) that prohibited women from touching the
sacred linens or ministering at the burning incense. He
enforced laws forbidding slaves to become clerics.
Boniface died in Rome on September 4, 422. He
was buried in the Catacomb of St. Maximus on the
Via Salaria, near the tomb of St. Felicitas (Felicity),
whom he revered and in whose honor he had erected
an oratory.
Feast: September 4 (formerly October 25)
Boniface IV (d. 615) Pope and martyr
Boniface IV 51
Boniface was born at Valeria, Abruzzi (Italy), the son of
a physician named John. He may have been a Benedictine
monk and student of Pope St. Gregory I (Gregory
the Great, r. 590–604). He served under Gregory as
deacon and dispensator (official in charge of administering
the patrimonies). He was elected to the Chair of
St. Peter to succeed Pope Boniface III (r. 607) late in
607, although he was not consecrated until August 25,
608, after Emperor Phocos had confirmed his election.
Phocos presented him with the Pantheon in Rome,
which Boniface converted into a Christian church,
consecrated to the Virgin Mary and all the Martyrs (the
Santa Maria Rotunda). He had some 28 cartloads of

52 Boris and Gleb
bones translated from the sacred catacombs and placed
in a porphyry basin beneath the high altar of the
church.
Boniface later received a visit from Mellitus, the first
bishop of London. Mellitus was long supposed to have
left Rome carrying letters from Boniface to Lawrence,
archbishop of Canterbury, and Ethelbert, king of England,
“concerning what was to be observed by the
Church of England,” though these are now thought to
be spurious.
Boniface died in 615 in retirement in his own home,
which, following the example of Gregory, he had converted
into a monastery. He relics were interred in the
portico of St. Peter’s Basilica at the Vatican, but were
subsequently moved three times: in the 10th or 11th
century, at the close of the 13th century, and finally on
October 21, 1603, when they were placed in the new
St. Peter’s. His cult began during the reign of Boniface
VIII (r. 1294–1303).
Feast: May 8 (formerly May 25)
Boris and Gleb (d. 1010) Martyrs of Russia, betrayed
by one of their own brothers
Also known as: Romanus and David, respectively
Boris and Gleb were sons of St. Vladimir, grand prince
of Kiev, who was the first Christian ruler in Russia.
They had two other brothers, Iaroslav (Yaroslav) and
Sviatopolk (Yaropolk). When Vladimir died in 1015,
Boris and Gleb were away. Boris, a military officer, was
off with his troops fighting the Pechengs.
Sviatopolk took over his father’s throne, but even
though he gave money to the townsfolk, their loyalty
lay with the more popular Boris. The advisers of Boris
urged him to make his rightful claim to the throne, but
he declined, saying he would not raise his hand against
his brother. His troops left him and only his servants
remained with him in Alta.
Sviatopolk obtained the loyalty of the boyars, the
ruling class, and instructed them to murder Boris. The
assassins hastened to Alta, where they found Boris in
prayer. He evidently knew they would come for him,
and when he was done with vespers, he lay down on
his couch and let them attack him with lances. In vain
his faithful personal servant, a Hungarian named
George, tried to shield him with his body. George was
slain and was decapitated so that the assassins could
steal the large gold necklace—a gift from Boris—that
was around his neck.
Boris survived. He was wrapped in canvas, loaded
onto a wagon and taken back to Sviatopolk. His
brother ordered him finished, and he was fatally
stabbed in the heart with a sword.
Sviatopolk then plotted to kill Gleb. He sent his
brother a false message, telling him to come at once to
Kiev because their father was gravely ill. But another
brother, Iaroslav, warned Gleb and told him the truth
about their father’s death and Boris’s murder.
Gleb was unable to avoid murder. Sviatopolk’s
assassins arrived and ordered the terrified servants to
kill their master. Gleb’s cook seized a knife and stabbed
him to death.
Later, Iaroslav was able to transport the bodies of
his two brothers to the Church of St. Basil in Vyshegorod.
Miracles were reported at their tomb, which
became a popular pilgrimage site.
Feast: July 24
Patronage: Moscow (Boris)
FURTHER READING
Nestor, “The Martyrdom of Boris and Gleb.” URL: http://
www.dur.ac.uk/~dm10www/borigleb.html. Downloaded
Oct. 1, 2000.
Botwid (d. 1100) Swedish martyr
Also known as: Botuid
Botwid was a Swedish layman who converted to Catholicism
while on a trip to England. Back in Sweden,
he began preaching. He bought a Finnish slave, baptized
him, gave him religious instruction and set
him free with the request to spread the Gospel in his
native land.
Botwid and a friend, Asbjorn, arranged to take the
slave by boat across the Baltic Sea. On shore at night,
the treacherous slave murdered the sleeping men and
stole the boat. A search party set out to find the missing
men. According to lore, a bird perched on the prow
of their boat and sang until the bodies were found.
Botwid was buried in Sweden and is revered as an
apostle of Sweden.
Feast: July 28
Brendan of Clonfort (b. ca. 460–486, d. ca. 577–
584) One of the greatest of Irish saints
Also known as: Brendan the Navigator, Brendan the
Voyager, Brandan, Brandon
Brendan was born sometime around 484 near the seacoast
town of Tralee in County Kerry. A descendant of
Ireland’s first-century high king Fergus MacRoy, or
McRory, the boy seemed destined for greatness. The
entire Irish countryside supposedly lit up the night he
was born. Brendan was baptized by Bishop St. Erc and
spent his first five years in the care and education of St.
Ita at her monastery school in Killeedy. Later he traveled
to many of the great Irish monasteries to receive

St. Brendan of Clonfort (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
religious instruction from the abbots there, including
Jarlath of Tuam, Finian of Clonard and Enda of Aran.
Returning to Bishop St. Erc, Brendan received ordination
in 512 and continued his wanderings, establishing
monastic communities at Ardfert and Shanakeel (or
Baalynevinoorach).
Although revered for his saintly ways, Brendan’s
fame comes from the Navigatio Santi Brendani Abatis,
or the Navigations (or Travels) of Saint Brendan the
Abbot. Legend says that Brendan, unable to shake his
wanderlust, left the monastery at Baalynevinoorach
with between 17 and 60 monks (accounts vary) to discover
and evangelize the people living on islands
beyond the western horizon. Most specifically, Brendan
sought the “Lands of Delight,” the “Land of Promise”
or the “Isles of the Blessed Saints.” Old Irish calendars
assigned the feast day of March 22 to celebrate the
“egressio familiae S. Brendani,” or Saint Brendan’s
departure, and St. Aengus the Culdee invoked the 60
monks in his eighth-century Litany. The voyages took
seven years and included detailed descriptions of the
construction of the group’s hide-covered boats, called
currachs or coracles. Currachs—small boats that ride
high in the water, unaffected by currents—are still
built in County Kerry today much the same as they
were in the sixth century. The monks’ tales seemed
Brendan of Clonfort 53
incredible, telling of large sea-monsters that raised the
boats on their backs, of huge crystals that rose to the
sky, and of being pelted with “flaming, foul-smelling
rocks by the inhabitants of a large island.” The monks
even tried to light an Easter fire on one island only to
discover they were on a whale.
Word of Brendan’s magical voyages spread and
attracted many pilgrims to the monastery at Ardfert.
After his return, Brendan continued his mission to
spread the Word of God, founding a monastery at Inisda-druim,
now Coney Island in County Clare, about
550. He traveled throughout Ireland, to Wales, to St.
Columba’s monastery at Iona, to the Canary Islands and
to Europe. His greatest contribution was the monastery
at Cluain Fearta, or Clonfert in County Galway, built
about 557. The monastic community at Clonfert reportedly
housed 3,000 men under rules dictated to Brendan
by an angel. Although most of the monastery fell into
ruins years ago, the cathedral remains, regarded as an
Irish national treasure and one of the finest examples of
Irish Romanesque architecture. The doorway contains
six decorated arches topped by a huge triangle containing
ornaments and heads.
Brendan established a monastic community for
women at Enach Duin (Annaghdown) and placed his
sister Briga in charge. He died there in 577 at about age

54 Bridget of Sweden
93 while visiting her. Fearing that some might want his
relics, Brendan arranged for Briga to keep his death a
secret and send his body back to Clonfert in his luggage.
He is buried at Clonfert.
From medieval times into the 18th century, maps of
the western Atlantic Ocean included an island called
St. Brendan’s Isle. Mapmakers were unsure of the
island’s exact position, but it often appeared south of
the Antilles and west of the Cape Verde Islands. Scholars
speculate that locating this magical place inspired
Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the New World. Six
copies of the Navigatio manuscript remain, but few
have believed the fantastic tales were anything more
than stories for the faithful.
In 1976, British navigation scholar Tim Severin and
a crew decided to reconstruct Brendan’s journeys by
following the accounts in the Navigatio to prove that
the trip was possible. To begin with, Severin and his
crew built the currachs following Brendan’s directions.
They tanned ox-hides with oak bark, stretched them
across the wooden frame, sewed them with leather
thread and smeared the boats with animal fat to provide
water resistance. Skeptics didn’t believe the lightweight
currachs could handle ocean current, but
Severin found them quite seaworthy. The crew
embarked from Brandon Creek on the Dingle Peninsula,
supposedly Brendan’s point of departure. Severin’s
study of nautical charts indicated Brendan’s route was
governed by prevailing winds, taking the monks across
the northernmost part of the Atlantic, close to Iceland,
Greenland and maybe Newfoundland. This was the
same route Viking Leif Eriksson traveled about 400
years later. Most of the stops chronicled in the Navigatio
were islands where the Irish monks established
primitive monasteries. Indeed, the accounts of Viking
explorations remarked on meetings with “Papers”
(“papas” or fathers—priests).
Severin and his crew were surprised at the playful,
friendly encounters with North Atlantic whales, and
they speculated that the creatures were even friendlier
in the sixth century—before they had been hunted—
causing them to bump and lift the tiny boats, as the
monks recounted. Off the coast of Canada, an iceberg
punctured Severin’s currach, which he patched with a
piece of leather. Such icebergs may well have been
Brendan’s “towering crystals.” And the active volcanoes
of Iceland may explain the “flaming, foul-smelling
rocks.”
Other stops included the Hebrides Islands and the
Danish Faroe Islands. Brendan had described an island
as “the Paradise of Birds,” and Mykines in the Faroe
chain is populated by thousands of seabirds. Brendan
called the largest island the Island of Sheep, and the
word “faroe” means sheep. There is also another Bran-
don Creek on the main island. Severin and his crew
landed on Newfoundland on June 26, 1977, proving
that the possibility of a sea voyage in a currach was not
just an old sailor’s tale.
But the Navigatio says Brendan’s voyages took seven
years. Tim Severin found the boats extremely hard to
tack against winds and currents, leading him to think
that the return voyage to Ireland took much longer than
the journey west. Most intriguing is the discovery of
markers covered with Old Irish Ogham runic language
in what is now West Virginia. If the monks were the first
Europeans to explore America—what Brendan called
the “Promised Land of the Saints”—their overland
expeditions would have lengthened their trip as well.
Feast: May 16
Patronage: boatmen; mariners; sailors; travelers;
watermen; whales
FURTHER READING
Plummer, Charles. Lives of Irish Saints, Vol. 2. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1922.
Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373) Wife, mystic and
founder of the Brigittines order; patron of Sweden
Also known as: Brigid, Birgitta, Brigitta
Bridget of Sweden was born in 1303, the daughter of
Birger, the governor of Upland, Sweden, and his second
wife, Ingeborg, daughter of the governor of East
Gothland. Her parents were pious and instilled in her a
sense of religious devotion at an early age. Her father
consecrated all Fridays to special acts of penance.
Bridget’s mother died when she was 12, and she was
raised by an aunt in Aspenas on Lake Sommen. Before
she was 14, her father married her to Ulf Gudmarsson,
the 18-year-old prince of Nericia in Sweden. The marriage
was happy, and Bridget bore eight children. The
last was a daughter, Catherine, who became St. Catherine
of Sweden.
In 1335, Bridget was summoned to be the principal
lady-in-waiting to the queen of Sweden, Blanche of
Namur. She did not like the loose lifestyle in court and
tried to influence the royals, to no avail. She became
known for her prophetic dreams and visions, many of
them concerning politics and affairs of state. At the
time, the Church was in upheaval; the pope resided in
Avignon, not Rome, and many people felt there was a
need for reform. From her visions, Bridget believed
herself charged with a mission to work for reform.
Sometime after 1340, she obtained a leave of
absence, and she and Ulf made a pilgrimage to Compostela
in Galicia, Spain. Ulf became ill and nearly
died. The couple vowed to commit themselves to God
in separate religious houses. Ulf died in 1344 at the

Cistercian monastery of Alvastra. Bridget remained
there for four years as a penitent.
Meanwhile, her visions began troubling her and she
feared she was being plagued by the Devil, or deluded
by her own imagination. At the direction of a vision,
she confided in Master Matthias, canon of Linköping,
who pronounced the visions as from God. Thereafter,
she dictated her visions to the prior at Alvastra, Peter,
who recorded them in Latin. One vision instructed
Bridget to warn the king about his sinful ways. This
she did, and for a time he complied.
Another vision instructed her to found a monastery
at Vadstena on Lake Vattern. The monastery housed 60
nuns and in a separate house for men, 13 priests, four
deacons and eight choir boys. The monastery was run
according to instructions given in Bridget’s visions.
The order, which became known as the Brigittines, was
for women; the men were admitted to provide them
spiritual instruction.
In 1349 Bridget made a pilgrimage to Rome; she
never returned to the monastery. Guided by her visions,
she stayed to campaign for the return of the papacy to
that city. Many of her revelations were uncomplimentary
toward the Church and the pope. At St. Paul’s-outside-the
Walls, the crucifix spoke to her while she
prayed. At the Church of San Francesco a Ripa, a vision
of St. Francis of Assisi invited her to eat and drink with
him in his cell. She went to Assisi, and then spent two
years touring shrines in Italy. She made herself unpopular
with her predictions that the Romans would be punished
for their sins.
In 1371, a vision directed her to make what would
be her last pilgrimage, to the Holy Land with Catherine,
two sons and several others. In Naples, son
Charles became involved with Queen Joanna I, despite
the fact that they were both married. Bridget prayed for
a resolution. Charles soon became ill and died in her
arms, sending her into deep mourning.
Bridget’s last pilgrimage was marked by many
visions, including one from Christ that predicted her
death and gave instructions for her burial and for the
eventual editing of her revelations. She returned to
Rome in March 1373 in poor health. Her condition
deteriorated, and she died on July 23 at age 71. Peter
of Alvastra administered last rites. Catherine had her
body transferred to Vadstena.
Canonized: 1391 by Pope Boniface IX
Feast: July 23
Patronage: against miscarriage; Sweden
FURTHER READING
St. Bridget’s Revelations to the Popes. URL: http://www/
fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bridget-tractatus.html. Downloaded:
February 10, 2000.
Brigid of Ireland 55
St. Bridget of Sweden (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Brigid of Ireland (ca. 450–453–ca. 523–525) One of
the three patron saints of Ireland, along with Patrick and
Columba
Name meaning: Fiery arrow (Breo-Saighit in Gaelic)
Also known as: Bride, Brigid of Kildare, Mary of the
Gael, Bride of the Isles, Queen of the South, Bridget,
Ffraid (Wales)
Brigid was born half-princess, half-slave, ca. 450–453,
to the Irish chieftain Dubthach (pronounced “Duffack”
or “Duffy”) and a Pictish bondwoman named Brocessa
or Brocca at Faughart, near Dundalk in County
Louth—an area associated with the mythical Irish
queen Medb (Maeve). Her father allowed her to live
with her mother—who had been sold to a druid—until
she was older. Brigid showed an interest in God at an
early age, reportedly after hearing St. Patrick preach,
and gave whatever she had to anyone in need.
Her determination to further Christian charity by
giving away all her father’s goods angered Dubthach so
much that he decided to sell Brigid in marriage to the
Christian king of Leinster. Dubthach threw Brigid in

56 Brigid of Ireland
his chariot and drove furiously to the king’s castle,
whereupon he left his sword with Brigid so as not to
appear belligerent and went inside to strike the bargain.
No sooner had he left than a poor leper begged
alms of Brigid, and she, having no money, gave him the
sword. When Dubthach returned and found his sword
missing, he began beating Brigid, but the king stopped
him. He asked Brigid why she had given away her
father’s sword, and she replied that she would gladly
give away all the king’s wealth as well if it could serve
her brothers and sisters in Christ. The king of Leinster
diplomatically declined to marry Brigid, telling
Dubthach that, “Her merit before God is greater than
ours.”
Brigid left Dubthach to care for her ailing mother
and run the druid’s dairy, where she resumed her habit
of giving everything away. The druid—realizing he was
making no money from his dairy products—asked
Brigid to bring him a large basket of butter, thinking he
could entrap her. But miraculously the hamper was
full. Impressed with Brigid’s powers, the druid granted
her request to release her mother from bondage.
Upon her return to Dubthach’s home, her father
attempted to marry his daughter to a poet, but she had
vowed to remain a virgin. After finding a wife for the
groom, she took the veil as a nun from St. Macaille at
Croghan Hill, where she and seven other girls lived
together. About 468, Brigid followed St. Mel of Ardagh,
a pupil of Patrick’s, to Druin Criadh, in the plains of
Magh Life (Meath). There, under a large oak tree (a
tree sacred to the druids), Brigid founded Cill-Dara
(Kildare): the “church of the oaks.”
Kildare was a double monastery, meaning it housed
communities of both men and women. Legend tells
that Brigid was ordained a bishop “by mistake” as justification
for her leadership role at the abbey, including
even her supposed canonical selection of St. Conlaeth
as bishop of the men’s community. As opposed to the
Roman diocesan system, in which women had minor
roles, the Celtic Christians were organized and governed
by the monasteries. Many abbeys were governed
by abbesses, who served as spiritual leaders, preached,
heard confession and may have even performed Mass.
Kildare was a school as well, teaching reading, writing,
illumination and the practical arts of carpentry and
blacksmithing. Artisans and goldsmiths created beautiful
objects for churches, such as bells, crosiers, chalices,
patens and bookrests, and scribes copied books
sent throughout Europe. The Book of Kildare, older
than the Book of Kells, was considered one of the finest
Irish illuminated manuscripts until it disappeared over
300 years ago.
Brigid, who never left Ireland, was revered as the
prototype of all nuns. She reportedly was beautiful and
vivacious and wore a red-purple cloak over her habit.
She was joyful, pious, hospitable and generous—the
kind of person who might wipe her hands simply on
her apron as she greeted a stranger. She loved both animals
and people. She traveled all over Ireland, converting
souls and tending to the sick and hungry. In many
ways, Brigid resembled her namesake, the Celtic pagan
goddess Brighid, who presided over the arts of inspiration
and poetry, the crafts of smithing, and medicine
and healing. And in keeping with druidic influences,
Brigid kept an eternal flame burning on the altar of Kildare,
tended by 20 nuns, as a symbol of the shining
light of the Gospel.
Names of places such as Brideswell (the birth parish
of St. Thomas Becket), Tubberbride, Templebride, Kilbride
and even Bride’s Island off the coast of Japan
honor the saint. Many little girls, especially in Ireland,
are still named Brigid. As patroness of the medieval
knights of chivalry, Brigid was invoked each time a
knight called his new wife “bride” (pronounced
“brida”), supposedly becoming the English word
“bride.”
One interesting story about Brigid says that once
the Virgin Mary was trying to speak to Brigid and
became rather annoyed at Brigid’s ability to draw a
crowd, interrupting their conversation. In order to placate
the Virgin, Brigid brought out a rake whose tines
flashed like candles, distracting the onlookers. As a
reward for her thoughtfulness, Mary granted Brigid’s
request of having her feast day ahead of Mary’s: Brigid’s
memorial is February 1, while Our Lady’s Feast of the
Purification is February 2. On February 1 the faithful
put out reed crosses, reminding followers to share
whatever they have. (Interestingly, these dates are the
same as for Imbolc, a pagan winter purification festival
that celebrates Brigid (also spelled Briguid), the Irish
Celtic goddess of fire, fertility, crops, livestock, wisdom,
poetry and household arts.
As Brigid lay dying (ca. 523–525), she was attended
by St. Ninnidh, known thereafter as Ninnidh of the
Clean Hand because he encased his right hand—the
one that had administered the sacraments to Brigid—
in a metal covering to keep it undefiled. Brigid was
buried at Kildare in a jeweled casket, but her relics
were transferred to Downpatrick in 878 to avoid the
Vikings, where she was entombed with Patrick and
Columba. The relics of all three saints supposedly were
found in 1185 and enshrined in Downpatrick Cathedral.
In 1283, three knights allegedly carried Brigid’s
head with them on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. They
died in Lumier, Portugal, near Lisbon, where the head
is kept in a Jesuit chapel. Brigid remains a popular
saint and is frequently invoked in prayer, because it
is written in the Leabhar Breac, or Book of Lismore,

that the Lord granted whatever Brigid asked of Him,
and at once.
Feast: February 1
Patronage: blacksmiths; boatmen; cattle; children
whose parents are not married; dairy workers;
fugitives; healers; Irish nuns; mariners; midwives;
newborn babies; poets; the printing press; scholars;
travelers; watermen; Ireland
FURTHER READING
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York:
Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995.
Reynolds, Wendy M. “The Goddess Brighid.” The Medieval
Sourcebook. URL: http://www.millersv.edu/~english/
homepage/ duncan/medfem/bride.htm l. Downloaded
January 18, 2000.
Brother André, Blessed (1845–1937) Beatified brother
of the Holy Cross Brothers, renowned healer and
founder of St. Joseph’s Oratory in Montreal
Also known as: Frère André; the Wonder Man of
Mount Royal
Brother André was born Alfred Bessette on August 10,
1845, in a village east of Montreal. His father, Isaac,
was a carpenter. André was frail from his first breath—
in fact, he was baptized immediately after birth out of
fear that he would not live. He grew up small, slight
and of delicate constitution. Due to chronic stomach
problems, he could not eat any solid foods. Throughout
his life, his health was poor, yet the power of God
flowed through him to heal others. He was influenced
in childhood by the religious devotion of his mother,
Clothilde. From an early age, he was drawn to St.
Joseph.
In 1870, he dedicated himself to a life of religious
service with the Congregation of the Holy Cross, a religious
order dedicated to the teaching profession. He
was given the name André in honor of his sponsor,
Pastor André Provencal. Due to his poor health and
lack of stamina for physical work, the Holy Cross
Brothers asked him to leave. He appealed to a bishop,
who promised him he could stay.
Unschooled and untrained, the only thing André
could do was pray. He was given a lowly job as doorkeeper
at Notre Dame College in Mount Royal, a district
of Montreal. At night he would go out and visit
the sick. He demonstrated remarkable healing powers.
The crippled walked and the cancerous were cured.
Sometimes he rubbed holy oil on them, sometimes he
touched them, sometimes he told them, like Jesus,
simply that they were healed. He became renowned as
the “Wonder Man of Mount Royal.” People traveled
great distances to seek his healing. He credited his
Brother André, Blessed 57
work to his patron, St. Joseph. He could be brusque
and gruff with people, sometimes bluntly informing
them that they could not be healed because they
lacked faith in the power of God.
It was André’s dream to build an oratory in honor of
his patron saint. The archbishop of Montreal would
give permission to do so only if André raised the
money to pay for it. To that end, he saved small change
and enlisted the support of others. In 1904, a tiny
chapel was erected on Mount Royal on grounds opposite
the college. It was often filled to overflowing by
those who wished to be close to André. Over the years,
donations funded expansions. Today the oratory’s huge
basilica, set on the hilltop, rises taller than any building
in Montreal. It holds 3,000 people.
In his later years, André traveled around Canada
and even to the United States, visiting New England,
New York and New Jersey. He inspired Americans to
make pilgrimages to Mount Royal.
During his life, André endured the skepticism and
downright opposition of some of his peers and superiors,
who doubted that such a simple man could pos-
Brother André

58 Brother André, Blessed
sess such healing power and ability to attract the
masses. He shrugged off the poor treatment. He always
worked within his religious system, gaining permission
for everything that he did. He prayed ceaselessly. Officially,
he never was anything but a doorkeeper for his
order. He was fond of saying, “When I entered the
community they showed me the door, and I remained
there for 40 years.” Though he seldom had much physical
strength and often was ill, he always had stamina
for healing and counseling. He attributed this to the
intercession of St. Joseph. He often used oil from the
lamp in the oratory as part of his healing.
André died on January 6, 1937, after several days
of severe pain from acute gastritis, a condition that had
afflicted him his entire life. Approximately 30,000 people
gathered for his beatification 50 years later.
St. Joseph’s Oratory is the world’s largest shrine to
St. Joseph. Some two million pilgrims come each year,
many ascending the steps to the basilica on their
knees. Brother André is buried inside the oratory in a
small, black granite tomb, called the Black Coffin. Pilgrims
come to touch the tomb and pray for healing,
and numerous miracles have been reported. An entire
wall inside the oratory is covered with canes and
crutches that were discarded on the spot by people
whom André healed.
André’s heart is on view as a relic, encased in a clear
glass container. Humble to the end, he could not envision
such veneration of himself. “We keep relics of
saints, not of persons like me,” he said.
Beatified: May 23, 1987, by John Paul II
Feast: January 6
FURTHER READING
Bergeron, H.-P. Brother André: The Wonder Man of Mount
Royal. Montreal: St. Joseph’s Oratory, 1997.
Cruz, Joan Carroll. Mysteries, Marvels, Miracles in the Lives of
the Saints. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1997.

Cadoc (d. ca. 580) Bishop, martyr and one of the chief
saints of Wales
Cadoc’s life was recorded in the 12th century by Lifris,
a Norman monk at Llancarfan, and Caradoc, a Bretonborn
hermit of Gower.
Cadoc was born the grandson of Gwynllyw, a chieftain
of Glamorgan; his mother, Gwladys, was Gwynllyw’s
daughter. (Lifris gives the romantic fantasy of
Cadoc as the descendant of a long line of Roman
emperors, unbroken from Augustus.) He went to Ireland
to study. Upon his return, he converted his parents,
and they adopted an austere lifestyle.
At Llancarfan, near Cardiff, Wales, Cadoc founded
a great monastery and is said to have fed “daily a
hundred clergymen, and a hundred soldiers, and a
hundred workmen, and a hundred poor persons, with
the same number of widows, and many guests
besides.” Some of the most famous Celtic saints, such
as Brendan of Clonfort and Malo, trained at the
monastery.
Cadoc then became a hermit on the Bristol Channel
island of Flat Holm, where he was joined by a pupil,
Finian of Clonard. According to lore, the rocks in the
channel (known as “the wolves”) were wolves who
had attempted to swim the channel to get Cadoc’s
sheep, and he had turned them into stone.
Cf
59
In the 560s, Cadoc went to Scotland and reportedly
founded a monastery west of Stirling. Machan became
one of his disciples. A church is dedicated to Cadoc at
Cambusland in the Clyde Valley. Later Cadoc traveled
from Glamorgan north to the River Usk. He also went
to Rome (seven times) Jerusalem (three times) and
Greece.
At Jerusalem he visited the River Jordan and filled a
flask with its water. He took the water back to Cornwall
where he poured it into a healing well, thereby
increasing its healing powers many times. St. Cadoc’s
well remained famous for 300 years. Also, the well is
said to have been created on a journey to visit St.
Michael’s Mount, where Cadoc struck his staff on the
ground and out sprang a well of water.
Cadoc went to Brittany where he worked as a missionary.
After his return to Britain, he was involved in
the Saxon occupation. He was martyred by the Saxons
near Weedon, England.
Cadoc is the patron of at least 25 churches and
chapels in Wales.
Feast: September 25
Patronage: glandular disorders
FURTHER READING
Doble, Gilbert H. The Saints of Cornwall, Part Four. Felifach,
Cornwall: Llanearch Publishers, 1998.

60 Caesarius of Arles
Caesarius of Arles (ca. 470–543) Bishop of Arles,
Father of the Church
Caesarius of Arles was the first bishop in western
Europe to receive the pallium from a pope. He was
born at Châlons, Burgundy, France (then Gaul), in 470
or 471, of a French-Roman family. He entered the
monastery of Lérins in his youth but ill health forced
him to leave the community soon after. His uncle,
Æonus, bishop of Arles, took him into his monastery
and ordained him deacon and priest. When Æonus
died in 502 or 503, Caesarius was unanimously chosen
to succeed him.
In 505, King Alaric II of the Visigoths accused Caesarius
of treason. He had come to believe that Caesarius
intended to deliver Arles to the Burgundians, and
without putting him on trial had him exiled to Bordeaux.
He soon relented and allowed Caesarius to
return to Arles. In 506, Caesarius called the Council of
Agde and promulgated the famous adaptation of the
Roman Law known as the “Breviarium Alarici,” which
eventually became the civil code of Gaul.
Following a siege in 508, the Ostrogoths occupied
Arles and King Theodoric, son of Alaric, suspecting
Caesarius of having plotted with the besieging Franks
and Burgundians, had him deported again. Caesarius
was still in exile in 513 when Theodoric summoned
him to Ravenna and pardoned him. Caesarius then
went to Rome where Pope St. Symmachus (r. 498–514)
gave him the pallium, confirmed him as metropolitan,
and (in 514) personally renewed his appointment as
vicar of the Apostolic See in Gaul.
Caesarius used his office to update and strengthen
various aspects of church doctrine. In 529 he presided
over the Second Council of Orange, the confirmation
of whose decrees by Pope Boniface II (r. 530–532) in
531 made them authoritative in the Universal Church.
Caesarius brought the Divine Office into local parishes
and introduced monastic reforms, placing his sister St.
Caesaria as abbess of a convent he founded. He was
known as a great preacher, with a strong mystic bent.
In the many sermons that have come down to us he
inveighed at length against the main vices of his day—
adultery and concubinage, drunkenness, neglect of the
mass, love of landed wealth, and the numerous pagan
practices still in vogue.
When the Franks captured Arles in 536, Caesarius
was once more forced to flee. However, he was later
able to return to his see, and died there on August 27,
543. His name was entered in the Roman Martyrology.
Today, he is venerated especially in Arles.
In art, Caesarius is depicted as a bishop led by people
with candles.
Feast: August 27
Caesarius of Nazianzus (ca. 330–369) Father of the
Church, physician, younger and only brother of St. Gregory
of Nazianzus; son of Gregory the Elder
Most of the details of the life of Caesarius of Nazianzus
are known from his funeral oration delivered by his
older brother Gregory. Caesarius was born ca. 330 in
Arianzus near Nazianzus. His father, Gregory the
Elder, was bishop of Nazianzus, and all the children
received a careful religious upbringing. He studied
medicine, geometry and astronomy at Caesarea in Cappadocia
and in Alexandria. He established an excellent
reputation as a physician, and went to Constantinople,
where his older brother, St. Gregory of Nazianzus,
came in 358. Caesarius served as physician to the court
of Emperor Constantine and then was appointed to the
court of Emperor Julian the Apostate, who unsuccessfully
attempted to convert him to paganism. Caesarius
left the court but returned to Constantinople after
Julian’s death. He became physician for Emperor Jovian
and then treasurer for Emperor Valens.
In 368 Caesarius narrowly escaped death in a great
earthquake that nearly destroyed Nicaea. Shaken, he
was baptized and devoted himself to an ascetic life.
Soon thereafter he fell fatally ill, dying in the spring of
369. He instructed that all of his goods should be given
to the poor, but his servants kept many things.
Caesarius’s remains were buried at Nazianzus.
Feast: February 25
FURTHER READING
Gregory Nazianzus, “Oration 7: Panegyric on His Brother S.
Caesarius.” URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/
gregnaz-caesar.html. Downloaded September 23, 2000.
Caius (d. 296) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Gaius
Caius is said to have been a Dalmatian and a relative of
Emperor Diocletian. He succeeded St. Eutychianus as
pope on December 17, 283.
Caius decreed that only priests could be consecrated
bishops; other than that, nothing has come
down to us about his pontificate, which must have
been unusually tranquil. He ruled for 12 years, four
months and seven days, dying of natural causes on
April 22, 296.
Caius is honored as a martyr, though on a mistaken
basis. He is supposed to have fled the Vatican and lived
for eight years in a cave or catacomb during the Diocletian
persecution—which, however, did not begin
until seven or eight years after his death. He was the
last pontiff interred in the papal crypt of the Catacomb
of St. Callistus on the Appian Way. He shares a feast

day with Pope St. Soter (d. ca. 175) and is venerated
especially in Dalmatia and Venice.
In art, Caius is shown with St. Nereus, wearing the
papal tiara.
Feast: April 22
Callistus I (d. 222) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Callixtus
Callistus, the son of Domitius, was a Roman. As a
young Christian slave, he was put in charge of a bank
by his master, Carpophorus, but somehow lost the
money that had been entrusted to him. He fled Rome
but was discovered on a ship off Portus (Proto); he
jumped overboard but was caught and carried back to
Carpophorus. Later he was arrested for fighting in a
synagogue when he tried to borrow (or collect debts)
from some Jews. Denounced as a Christian, he was
sentenced to work in the mines of Sardinia. He was
released after the intercession of Emperor Commodus’s
mistress, Marcia, but was in such poor health that he
was sent to Antium to recuperate.
Callistus lived in Antium with the help of a pension
from Pope St. Victor I (r. 189–199). About the year 199
he was called back to Rome and made a deacon by
Pope St. Zephyrinus (r. 199–217), who put him in
charge of a cemetery (later named the San Callistus in
his honor) on the Via Appia. He was well known for
his kindness, and when Zephyrinus died about 217,
was elected his successor by popular vote of the
Roman people and clergy.
He was not without enemies, however. Critics
denounced him for admitting to Communion people
who had repented of fornication, adultery, and murder.
They were upset also with his teachings that the commission
of a mortal sin was not enough to depose a
bishop; that men who had been married more than
once could be admitted to the clergy; and that marriages
between free women and Christian slaves were
legitimate.
One of the biggest critics was St. Hippolytus, his
rival for the papal seat. Hippolytus was an opponent
also of the Monarchianists, who denied the Trinity and
held that Jesus was no more than a man who had
received supernatural abilities at his baptism. Callistus
excommunicated Sabellius, then the leader of the
Monarchianists, but this was not enough for Hippolytus,
who withdrew from the Church of Rome and had
himself consecrated bishop (and antipope), producing
a schism that was to last for decades.
Callistus died about October 14, 222, perhaps during
a popular uprising, although the legend that he was
thrown down a well has no basis in fact. He was buried
on the Via Aurelia rather than in the cemetery on the
Via Appia, where most other popes of his time were
interred.
In art, Callistus is shown wearing a red robe with a
tiara (the sign of a pope); as being thrown into a well
with a millstone around his neck; or simply with a
millstone around his neck. Often there is a fountain
near him.
Feast: October 14
Camillus de Lellis 61
Camillus de Lellis (1550–1614) Founder of the Order
of Ministers of the Sick, or the Camillians
Also known as: The Father of a Good Death
Camillus de Lellis was born in 1550 in Bocchianico,
Italy, the son of a military officer. His mother died
when he was an infant, and he was neglected as a
child. As a youth he became a soldier and fought
against the Turks. His gambling left him penniless, and
he was ill from abscesses in his feet. He subsisted by
begging. He tried to join the Franciscan order but was
rejected.
In Rome, Camillus went to the Hospital for Incurables
seeking help for his feet, and took a job there caring
for the sick, only to be dismissed on account of his
gambling and unruly behavior. He returned to soldiering
and fought the Turks again in 1569. After the war,
the Capuchins in Manfredonia hired him for a construction
project. They admitted him to the order as a
lay brother, but then dismissed him because of his diseased
legs. Camillus went back to the hospital in
Rome, where he was temporarily cured. He became a
nurse and then director of the hospital.
Camillus had an idea to found an order of lay infirmarians,
but his confessor St. Philip Neri advised him
to become a priest. He entered the Jesuit College in
Rome and in 1584 founded the Order of the Ministers
of the Sick, which became known also as the Camillians.
They devoted themselves to caring for plague
victims.
The congregation was confirmed by Pope Sixtus V
(r. 1585–90) in 1586, and Camillus served as the first
general superior. The order adopted a red cross to wear
on the front of their habits. Tradition holds that the
saint’s mother had had a vision of a child with a red
cross on his chest and holding a standard, leading
other children who wore the same symbol. The red
cross preceded by nearly 200 years the red cross
adopted as the symbol for the Red Cross volunteer
organization established by Swiss businessman Henri
Dunant.
In 1588 Camillus’s order expanded to Naples. At
that time, Rome’s harbor was full of quarantined ships

62 Casimir
with plague victims aboard. Two members of the community
died caring for them. The congregation was
made a religious order in 1591 by Pope Gregory XIV (r.
1590–91).
Camillus established more houses throughout Italy.
Though often seriously ill and debilitated himself from
chronic conditions, he devoted most of his time to visiting
and caring for the sick and the poor. He resigned
as general superior in 1607 to make more time available
for his caregiving work.
Camillus died in Rome on July 14, 1614. In art he
is often shown in the robes of his order. He shares his
patronage with St. John of God.
Eleven years after his death, Camillus was exhumed
and his body was found to be in excellent condition.
Large crowds came to view it and witnessed the flow of
a pure, fragrant liquid from an incision made by one of
the examining doctors. The liquid was collected in
cloths and claimed to have remarkable healing properties.
The Camillians still wear red crosses on the front of
their habits.
Canonized: 1746 by Pope Benedict XIV
Feast: July 14
Patronage: hospitals; infirmarians; nurses; the sick
Casimir (1458–1484) Prince and patron saint of
Poland and Lithuania
Casimir was born in 1458, the second son and third
of 13 children to King Casimir IV and Elizabeth of
Austria. In childhood he became devoted to God
through the influence of his tutor, John Duglosz. He
refused to play the royal role, instead wearing plain
clothes and sleeping on the floor. He spent much time
in prayer.
His father expected something more traditional
from Casimir, and in 1471 sent him to head an army
and seize control of the Hungarian throne. Casimir
obeyed, but felt the expedition was morally wrong.
When soldiers began deserting, he turned around and
went home. His furious father confined him to the
castle at Dzoki.
The exile strengthened Casimir’s resolve to adhere
to his spiritual calling. He refused his father’s arranged
marriage for him, as well as other plans.
From 1479 to 1483, King Casimir was out of
Poland, and son Casimir served as regent. While visiting
Grodno, Lithuania (now Belarus), Casimir became
ill with tuberculosis and died on March 4, 1483 or
1484. He was buried at Vilnius with his favorite song, a
Latin hymn favored by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, called
“Daily, Daily Sing to Mary.” It is sometimes called the
“Hymn of St. Casimir,” though he did not write it. His
tomb became renowned for miracles.
Canonized: 1522 by Pope Adrian VI
Feast: March 4
Patronage: Knights of St. John; Lithuania; Poland
Catherine de’ Ricci (1522–1590) Dominican mystic
and stigmatist
Catherine de’ Ricci was born April 23, 1522, in Florence,
Italy, to a patrician family. Her father, Pier
Francesco de’ Ricci, came from a lineage of respected
merchants and bankers. She was baptized Alexandrina.
Catherine lost her mother in infancy, and she was
reared by a stepmother, Fiammetta da Diacceto. As a
young child, she spoke to her guardian angel and
learned how to pray the rosary from the angel. She was
often in prayer. Fiammetta, a pious woman, encouraged
the child in her devotion. At age six Catherine
was sent to the convent school of Montecelli, where
her aunt, Louisa de’ Ricci, was a nun. There she developed
a devotion to the Passion that played a prominent
role in her mystical life to come.
Her father was opposed to her becoming a nun but
relented after she became ill. In 1535, when she was
14, she entered the Dominican convent of San Vicenzo
in Prato, Tuscany, under the direction of her uncle, F.
Timothy de’ Ricci. The order offered her a desired strict
religious life. She took the name of Catherine, and was
professed in 1536.
Despite a series of illnesses that permanently damaged
her health, Catherine strove to die to her senses
and practiced severe austerities and mortifications. She
fasted two or three days a week on bread and sometimes
went for a day with no food at all. She wore a
sharp iron chain next to her skin. She practiced obedience,
humility and meekness.
Catherine advanced quickly in the convent, serving
as mistress of novices, subprioress, and then by age 25
(some accounts say age 30 or 38) perpetual prioress.
Her reputation for sanctity and prudence, as well as
her astonishing mystical life, attracted numerous bishops,
cardinals and princes who paid visits to seek her
counsel. Three of them went on to become popes:
Clement VIII (r. 1523–34), Marcellus II (r. 1555) and
Leo XI (r. 1605). Catherine corresponded with St.
Charles Borromeo and Pope Pius V (r. 1566–72) and
had mystical visits with SS. Philip Neri and Mary Magdalen
de’ Pazzi.
Catherine’s remarkable mystical life had a dramatic
opening in 1542, when she was about 20. During holy
week she experienced the first of her ecstasies in which
she saw the passion of Christ enacted in sequence in

17 scenes. The 28-hour-long ecstasies went on for 12
years, repeating every week from Thursday midday to
Friday at 4 P.M. During these raptures, Catherine’s body
would move as though going through the passion herself.
She exhibited all the wounds experienced by
Jesus. She had bleeding stigmata in her hands, feet and
side, as well as the wounds from Christ’s crown of
thorns and from His scourging. By the time the raptures
were finished, her shoulder was indented as
though from carrying the cross.
Throughout the raptures, Catherine issued a sweet
perfume that lingered on everything she touched,
sometimes for up to a day later.
In her first such experience in 1542, Catherine
meditated so intensely on the crucifixion that she
became ill, and was healed by a vision of the resurrected
Christ talking with St. Mary Magdalene.
Catherine’s raptures attracted spectators. Sometimes
she would speak out to them. The crowds increased to
the point that Catherine’s sisters prayed for her
wounds to become less visible (in 1554, they did).
Also in 1542, Catherine experienced the mystical
marriage. On Easter Sunday, Jesus appeared to her and
placed on her forefinger a gold ring with a large
pointed diamond. Others glimpsed the ring. Some saw
only a swelling and reddening of the flesh. The reddened
appearance could not be duplicated, nor made
to go away.
Spectators also saw her passion wounds differently
as well. Some people saw the actual wounds, while
others saw only redness and swelling. Still others saw
her hands actually pierced and bleeding, or the saint
surrounded in a brilliant light.
Catherine had a mystical relationship with St. Philip
Neri in Rome, with whom she exchanged letters.
The two never met in person, but did meet in mystical
visits, some of which were witnessed by others.
Catherine had the ability to bilocate.
After a lengthy illness, Catherine died on February
2, 1590, in an odor of sanctity. Her incorrupt body can
be seen in a reliquary below the major altar of the
basilica of Prato.
Beatified: 1732 by Pope Clement XII
Canonized: 1746 by Pope Benedict XIV
Feast: February 13
FURTHER READING
“St. Catherine de Ricci, V., O.S.D.” URL: http://www.cin.
org/saints/cricci.html. Downloaded September 21, 2000.
Catherine of Alexandria (d. ca. 310) Virgin and
martyr whose cult was suppressed in 1969
Name meaning: Pure one
Catherine of Alexandria 63
St. Catherine of Alexandria (copyright © Robert Michael
Place. Used with permission)
Catherine of Alexandria is believed to have been born
in Alexandria, Egypt, to a noble family. She converted
to Christianity through a vision, and denounced
Emperor Maxentius (r. 306–312) for persecuting
Christians. Catherine was arrested. She debated 50
pagan philosophers, all of whom converted on the
strength of her words. They were burned to death by
Maxentius.
The emperor offered Catherine a royal marriage if
she would deny her faith. She refused and was sent to
jail. While in prison, and while Maxentius was away,
Catherine is said to have converted Maxentius’s wife
and 200 of his soldiers. He had them all put to death.
Catherine was condemned to death and was
strapped onto a spiked wheel. The wheel broke (legend
has it that an angel destroyed it). She was then

64 Catherine of Bologna
beheaded. According to lore, an angel carried her body
to Mount Sinai and buried her there. St. Catherine’s
Monastery is still there. Her relics are in Cologne,
Rouen, Nuremberg and Grevenrode.
Catherine has been venerated in the Eastern church
since the 10th century. She is one of the Fourteen Holy
Helpers whose voices guided St. Joan of Arc. She has
been invoked against diseases of the head and tongue;
for harvests; and for assistance in drowning. In art she
is shown wearing a crown and with a spiked wheel.
Feast: formerly November 25
Patronage: bakers; barbers; hospitals; jurists;
libraries; Paris haute couture; philosophers;
preachers; pupils; single women; teachers; theologians;
universities; virgins; wheelwrights; University
of Paris; Valais, Switzerland
Catherine of Bologna (1413–1463) Mystic, writer,
artist and Poor Clare
Catherine of Bologna was born Catherine de Vigri on
March 9, 1413. She was the daughter of a diplomatic
agent of the marquis of Ferrara. At the age of 11, she
was appointed maid of honor to Margaret d’Este, the
daughter of the marquis, and shared her training and
education. Margaret married when Catherine was 14.
Catherine turned down marriage proposals, and at age
17 left the court and became a Franciscan Tertiary in
Ferrara. Eventually her community became part of the
Poor Clares.
Catherine assumed the duties of the bakers, then of
novice mistress. A story is told that once she baked
bread and left the loaves in the oven for five hours
while she attended a sermon. The loaves did not burn,
but turned out beautifully. After her death, the oven
was said to emit a sweet perfume for 10 days before
each of her feast days and for several days thereafter.
Catherine began to experience visions of Christ and
the Blessed Virgin Mary. One Christmas Eve, Mary
appeared and placed the infant Jesus in Catherine’s
arms. On another occasion, she heard angelic choirs
singing after the Elevation of the Mass.
After 24 years at the Ferrara convent, Catherine was
sent back to Bologna with 15 sisters to establish a convent.
She was abbess there for the rest of her life.
Catherine was a writer and artist. The Seven Spiritual
Weapons, a mystical work on her spiritual life, is
her most important text. She also composed books of
sermons, devotions and verses. She painted miniatures
and illustrated a breviary.
In Lent of 1463, Catherine became seriously ill.
On March 9, her birthday, she pronounced the name
of Jesus three times, and a heavenly perfume came
around her, signaling her death. Though 50 years old,
her face took on the radiance of youth.
Catherine was buried within hours without a coffin.
Her body was exhumed 18 days later because of the
sweet scent coming from her grave and the miraculous
cures claimed by those who visited it. Her body was
found to be incorrupt and bathed in sweat. While sisters
cleaned it, a pleasant perfume wafted from it. One
sister pulled off a piece of skin hanging from a foot,
and the corpse bled copiously. The next morning,
Catherine’s face was radiant. Three months later, the
corpse, exhumed, was found to bleed copiously
through the nose twice.
Since 1475, Catherine’s incorrupt body has
remained seated in an upright position in the church of
the Poor Clare convent in Bologna. In 1500, Catherine
appeared in a vision to a nun and requested that her
body be moved to a special chapel—the location and
layout were specified—and that her body be kept in its
upright position. This was done, and in 1688 the body
was moved to a larger and more elaborate chapel.
Until 1953, the relic was not covered, and pilgrims
kissed the feet. In 1953 a protective glass urn was constructed.
The hands, which were chapping, were covered
with a light coat of wax during World War II.
Catherine’s skin has darkened, perhaps due to exposure
from oil lamps.
Catherine’s biography was written by Sr. Illuminata;
the original is still at the convent in Bologna.
Canonized: May 22, 1712, by Pope Clement XI
Feast: March 9
Patronage: art; artists; liberal arts
Catherine of Genoa (1447–1510) Extraordinary
mystic
Catherine of Genoa was born in 1447 in Genoa, Italy,
to Jacopo Fieschi and Francesca di Negro, both members
of illustrious families. The Fieschi family boasted
two popes, Innocent IV (r. 1243–54) and Adrian V (r.
1276). Jacopo became the viceroy of Naples.
A delicate child with a rich inner life, Catherine
began to do penance at age eight by replacing her soft
bed with straw and a wooden block for a pillow. She
felt intense physical pain whenever she gazed upon her
favorite image of Jesus, “La Pietà.” At age 12 she began
to pray earnestly, and at age 13 announced her desire
to become a nun at the convent of Our Lady of Grace,
along with her sister Limbania. The convent turned
her away because of her age, however.
When Catherine was 16, her parents married her
against her wishes to a young nobleman, Giuliano
Adorno, who proved to be unfaithful, mean-tempered

and a spendthrift. Catherine spent five years in
depressed misery and another five years trying to
amuse herself in various activities.
Around 1473 she had a life-changing mystical experience.
Urged by her sister nun to go to confession on
the day following the feast of St. Benedict, Catherine
complied but without enthusiasm. When she knelt in
the confessional, she felt herself pierced by a burning
ray of divine love that swept her into an ecstasy. She
felt united with God and purged of her miseries. The
confessor was not witness to this, having been called
out of the booth. When he returned, she could only
murmur that she would leave her confession for
another time. She went home, on fire and wounded
with the love of God, and closed herself in her room to
weep and sigh. Thereafter, she often beheld a vision of
Jesus nailed to the cross.
Catherine made her general confession and felt
cleansed of her sins. For nearly 14 months, she
remained in an exalted state of consciousness. She
experienced intense contrition, self-hatred and total
absorption in Christ, who showed her his flaming
Sacred Heart. In her contrition, she would lick the
earth with her tongue, not knowing what she was
doing. So complete was her mystical union that she felt
her own heart die within her and proclaimed, “I live no
longer, but Christ lives in me.”
Catherine’s interior state remained profoundly
changed for the rest of her life; she was sustained by a
burning inner fire. She had many encounters with
Christ and was taken into heaven to see the realms of
the angels.
For four years, she quit the world as much as possible.
She imposed upon herself strict mortification and
penance. She wore hair cloth and ate no meat or fruit.
She slept on “sharply pointed things” and kept her
eyes cast downward. She spoke to others as little possible
and in as low a voice as possible. She spent six
hours a day in prayer in such states of intensity that
she seemed like one dead to others. She yearned for
death.
For 23 Lents and Advents, she was unable to eat,
and could consume only a glassful of water, vinegar
and pounded salt. Because of these and other measures,
Catherine was often seriously ill. She received
the conventional medical treatments, which included
bloodletting. This especially was believed to relieve her
inner fire.
In spite of her self-inflicted sufferings, Catherine
managed to do volunteer work in hospitals and among
the poor. Reduced to poverty herself thanks to Giuliano,
she was given funds to aid others by the Ladies
of Mercy. In her volunteer work, Catherine sought suffering
for herself as well. She cleaned houses of “the
Catherine of Genoa 65
most disgusting filth,” often putting it into her own
mouth in order to overcome the disgust it produced.
She took home clothing covered with filth and vermin
and cleaned them, returning them to their owners.
Remarkably, she was never affected by what she
touched.
Catherine became manager and treasurer of the
largest hospital in Genoa.
Somehow she managed to convert her wayward
husband, who became a Third Order Franciscan and
agreed to live with her in continence. Giuliano died in
1497.
Beginning around 1491, Catherine began to suffer
from a mysterious malady that doctors did not know
how to treat. It did not seem to be either physical or
spiritual; it left her greatly debilitated. In 1493, Catherine
nearly died of the plague. She recovered, but
remained permanently weakened.
Catherine followed her own inner guidance and
would not submit to the spiritual direction of anyone
else. She often told others that she could not put into
words what she experienced. In 1495 a Father
Marabotti became her spiritual adviser, and helped her
to compile her memoirs in her Life and Doctrine.
In 1509 her food intake, which had never been
good, declined drastically; she ate in a week what most
people would eat in a day. That soon dropped to nothing
more than small quantities of broth.
Nonetheless, Catherine attracted many visitors,
who saw perfection in her. She touched others with her
“burning words of divine love.” But as her strength
ebbed, she was able to utter only phrases and words,
such as “Love of God” and “charity, union and peace,”
and finally just “God.” She suffered violent attacks in
which she would seem to writhe as if in flames of fire,
and would cease breathing. She felt her heart wounded
with a new ray of divine love, which caused more
severe bodily pain.
On January 10, 1510, she lost sight and speech,
and made signs to be given last rites. She recovered her
senses but continued to suffer in agony. By May doctors
said they could do nothing for her and that her
affliction was “supernatural.” Her last months were
spent in excruciating pain. She could not tolerate taking
any food or liquid.
On September 12, black blood flowed from her
mouth and her body was covered with black stripes.
She bled violently again on September 14. That
evening, she indicated she would take her Communion
in heaven. She died uttering, “Into thy hands, O Lord, I
commend my spirit.” She was seen by several persons
ascending to heaven clothed in white and on a white
cloud.

66 Catherine of Siena
Catherine’s body was interred in the hospital of the
Pammatone, the largest hospital in Genoa, where she
had done much of her work. It was disinterred nearly a
year later when it was discovered that a conduit of
water ran behind the tomb. Though the wood coffin
was decayed and filled with worms, the body was
untouched and incorrupt, and appeared to have been
dried out. Her body was put on public display for eight
days, and pilgrims claimed to be cured. Prior to her
death, Catherine had instructed that her heart be examined
after death to see if it had been consumed by
divine love, but this was not done.
The body was placed into a marble sepulcher in the
hospital. It was moved to various locations in 1551,
1593 and 1642. In 1694 it was moved to a glass-sided
reliquary placed high on an altar in a church built in
her honor in the quarter of Portoria, Genoa.
Catherine’s body was examined by physicians in
1834 and on May 10, 1960. Though brown, dry and
rigid, her relic was determined to be free of embalming
or any treatment for preservation.
Catherine wrote Spiritual Dialogue between the Soul,
the Body, Self-Love, the Spirit, Humanity and the Lord God
and Treatise on Purgatory, two mystical works that
proved her sanctity for canonization and remain
respected today.
In her writings, Catherine exhorts people to seek
nothing less than complete union with God. Without
the grace of God, she said, man is nothing more than
the devil. She said the human intellect could not comprehend
the true nature of pure love, which is incapable
of suffering.
Beatified: 1675 by Pope Clement V
Canonized: 1737 by Pope Clement XII
Feast: September 14
FURTHER READING
“The Life and Doctrine of Saint Catherine of Genoa.” URL:
http://www.ccel.wheaton.edu/c/catherine_genoa/life.
Downloaded: February 6, 2000.
Catherine of Siena (1347–1380) Doctor of the Church
and second woman to be so named; one of the Church’s
greatest mystics; Dominican tertiary; papal adviser
Catherine of Siena was born on March 25, 1347, in
Siena, Italy, the youngest of 25 children in the Benincasa
family. Her father, Giacomo di Benincasa, was a
dyer; her mother, Lapa, the daughter of a local poet.
From her earliest childhood Catherine saw visions and
practiced extreme austerities; she wore a hair shirt.
When she was five, it was said that angels levitated her
up and down stairs, so pleased were they with her
“Hail Mary” prayers. At age six, she had a remarkable
vision of Jesus giving her a benediction, which took
place while she was traveling on a road with an older
brother. At the age of seven she consecrated her virginity
to Christ. At 16, she took the habit of the Dominican
Tertiaries.
For three years she engaged in celestial visitations
and familiar conversation with Christ.
In 1366 she had a profound mystical experience of
spiritual marriage. For a long time preceding, she had
been advised of this by Jesus speaking in her interior
voice. On the last day of Carnival, the voice told her, “I
will this day celebrate solemnly with thee the feast of
the betrothal of thy soul, and even as I promised I will
espouse thee to Myself in faith.”
While Jesus spoke, there appeared a glorious
vision of Jesus, the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. John the
Evangelist, St. Paul and St. Dominic, along with the
prophet David, who played the psaltery set to music.
Mary took Catherine’s right hand and held out its fingers
to Jesus, asking him to espouse himself to
Catherine in faith. Jesus drew out a gold ring set with
an exquisite diamond encircled with four pearls and
placed it on the ring finger of Catherine’s right hand.
He said, “Lo, I espouse thee to myself, thy Creator
and Savior in the faith, which until thou dost celebrate
thy eternal nuptials with me in Heaven thou
will preserve ever without stain. Henceforth, my
daughter, do manfully and without hesitation those
things by which the ordering of My providence will
be put into thy hands; for being now armed with the
fortitude of the faith, now will happily overcome all
thy adversaries.”
The vision disappeared. For the rest of her life,
Catherine could see the ring upon her finger, though it
was invisible to others. (Similarly, St. Teresa of Avila
was given by Jesus a rosary made of “stones more precious
than diamonds.” It, too, was visible only to her.)
Catherine experienced other mystical gifts, including
levitation during prayer, multiplication of food and
the ability to smell the stench of sin in others. She performed
miraculous healings and relieved others of diabolical
possession. Supernatural rays of light issued
forth from her face. She endured mystical fasts. In
1370, she was said to raise her mother, Lapa, from the
dead after her mother died suddenly.
Once she fell into an ecstasy in which Jesus
approached her holding a red human heart. He opened
her left side and placed the heart inside, saying, “Dearest
daughter, as I took your heart away, now, you see, I
am giving you Mine, so that you can go on living with
it forever.” The heart was said to make loud noises of
joy whenever Catherine was happy.
Catherine’s peers resented her supernatural gifts
and brought charges against her. She was cleared of

The mystical marriage of St. Catherine of Siena (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Catherine of Siena 67

68 Catherine of Siena
charges and given a spiritual director, Bl. Raymond of
Capua, who became her first biographer.
Catherine returned to Siena, and began to tend the
sick (especially lepers and plague victims), help the
poor and convert sinners. She suffered terrible physical
pain, but forced herself to live for long periods on little
food save the Blessed Sacrament. Nonetheless, she
charmed everyone with her happiness, wisdom and
spiritual insight, and was sought as a counselor and
peacemaker. She gathered disciples.
During the summer of 1370 she received a series of
special manifestations of Divine mysteries, which culminated
in a prolonged trance, a kind of mystical
death. She had a vision of hell, purgatory and heaven,
and heard a Divine command to leave her cell and
enter the public life of the world. From this trance,
Catherine produced her great mystical work, The Dialogue
of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena.
She also began to dispatch hundreds of letters to
men and women, including the princes and nobility of
the republics of Italy, and papal legates. She was consulted
about the affairs of the Church, and counseled
Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–78) on numerous matters,
including his plans for a crusade against the Turks, and
for reforming the clergy and the administration of the
Papal States. On a visit to Pisa in 1375, Catherine
received the stigmata on the fourth Sunday of Lent.
Praying before a crucifix, Catherine saw five rays of
blood come from the points of the wounds to her,
changing into rays of light as they reached her body.
She prayed that the marks would not be visible to others
as long as she lived; they appeared after her death.
She said the five wounds did not pain her but strengthened
her.
Gregory sent her to Avignon as a peace ambassador
of the Florentines when war broke out between Florence
and the Holy See, but she was unsuccessful.
However, she impressed Gregory so much that he took
her advice to return the papacy to Rome in 1377. In
1378 Gregory dispatched her again to Florence, where
an attempt was made to murder her. Gregory died
and was succeeded by Urban VI (r. 1378–89). She remained
in Florence until peace was declared, and then
returned to Siena.
Urban’s election resulted in the Great Schism and
the election of an antipope, Clement VII. Catherine
supported Urban VI, and was summoned to Rome by
him in November 1378. She remained in Rome for the
rest of her life, working for the reformation of the
Church, serving the sick and poor, and dispatching
eloquent letters in behalf of Urban (she had miraculously
learned how to write herself in 1377 and no
longer had to rely on dictation). Her last political
work, accomplished practically from her deathbed, was
the reconciliation of Pope Urban VI with the Roman
Republic.
In 1380 her health began to fail and Catherine
prayed to join Christ. She could scarcely swallow due
to severe inflammation in her throat. On Sexagesima
Sunday, she suffered a violent stroke, followed by
another one the next evening. Nonetheless, she rose
every day during most of Lent and walked a mile to St.
Peter’s, where she prayed all day. Finally, overcome, she
lay in bed for eight weeks, covered with sores and
unable to lift her head. Her body wasted away. In her
final hours, she rallied to berate herself for her imperfections
and sins, and to pray for the Church, the pope
and others. She asked for, and received, plenary indulgence
to be absolved of all her sins, saying it had been
granted to her by Popes Gregory and Urban.
Catherine died at age 33 on April 29, the Sunday
before the Ascension. Her body was displayed for three
days and remained intact, flexible and fragrant. Huge
crowds came to touch her corpse.
Catherine was buried in the cemetery of the Church
of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and soon was moved to
the foot of a column facing the Rosary Chapel, where
she remained until 1430. However, in 1385 her head
was severed, placed in a gilded copper reliquary and
secretly sent to Siena, where it eventually was placed in
the Hospital of St. Lazarus, where she had ministered
the sick. Other relics taken from the body at the same
time were an arm for Siena and three fingers for
Venice.
In 1430, what remained of the body was placed in a
new stone sarcophagus. It was opened from time to
time for the taking of more relics for Dominicans
throughout Europe, including:
• a hand taken in 1487 for the Dominican Sisters of
the Monastery of S. Domenico et Sisto in Rome;
• the left foot, bearing stigmata, taken in 1487 for the
Church of SS. John and Paul in Venice;
• a rib taken in 1501 for the convent of St. Mark in
Florence;
• a shoulder blade taken in 1575 for the Dominican
Sisters of Magnanapoli in Rome;
• two reliquaries of bone and skin taken in 1855 for
St. Dominic’s in Stone, England, and the convent of
St. Catherine in Bow, England.
The finger that bore the mystical ring of Christ was
given to the Chartreuse of Pontiniano near Florence.
Other small relics were distributed as well.
On August 4, 1855, the sarcophagus of Catherine
was placed below the main altar of the Church of Santa
Maria sopra Minerva. This event is known as the
Translation of the Relics of St. Catherine, which feast

is commemorated on the Thursday after Sexagesima
Sunday.
The feast of her Espousals is kept on the Thursday
of the carnival.
Besides her Dialogue, Catherine’s body of work
includes more than 400 letters and a collection of
prayers. Her writings are considered to be among the
classics of the Italian language. The Dialogue comprises
four treatises, on divine providence, discretion, prayer
and obedience. Its style “bears upon it all the marks of
true automatic composition of the highest type,”
according to mysticism expert Evelyn Underhill. Central
to Catherine’s teaching is that man, whether in the
cloister or in the world, must always abide by “the cell
of self-knowledge,” through which one comes into perfect
knowledge of God: “In self-knowledge, then, thou
wilt humble thyself; seeing that, in thyself, thou dost
not even exist.”
Catherine is invoked against headaches and the
plague. In art she is depicted in her Dominican Tertiary
clothing. Her emblems are the lily and book, the crown
of thorns, or sometimes a heart, referring to the legend
of her having changed hearts with Christ. She is the
second woman after St. Teresa of Avila to be named a
Doctor of the Church, and one of only three women to
hold the honor.
Canonized: 1461 by Pope Pius II
Named Doctor of the Church: 1970 by Pope Paul VI
Feast: April 29
Patronage: the dying; fire prevention; nursing
homes; spinsters; Italy (since 1939); Rome (since
1866)
FURTHER READING
The Dialogue of Saint Catherine of Siena. Tr. Algar Thorold.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1974.
The Letters of Catherine of Siena. Tr. Suzanne O.P. Noffke.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001.
Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism. New York: New American
Library, 1974.
Catherine of Sweden (1330 or 1331–1381) Daughter
of St. Bridget of Sweden and cofounder of the Brigittines
Also known as: Catherine of Vadstena
Catherine of Sweden was born in 1330 or 1331 in
Ulfasa, Sweden, one of eight children of St. Bridget.
Like her mother, she married young; her husband,
Eggared von Kurnen (Lyderrson), was a lifelong invalid.
They took a vow of continence.
When Bridget went to live in Rome in 1348,
Catherine received her husband’s permission to follow
her. He died while she was away. Catherine accompa-
Catherine Labouré 69
nied her mother to the Holy Land and elsewhere. She
declined offers to remarry and stayed with her mother
for 25 years. When her mother died, she returned to
Sweden with her body to bury it at Vadstena, a
monastery Bridget had founded.
Catherine took on the task of directing her mother’s
Order of the Holy Savior, or Brigittines. After several
years, she returned to Rome for five years to work for
her mother’s canonization. In 1380 Pope Urban VI ratified
the Brigittine rule.
While in Italy, Catherine became friends with St.
Catherine of Siena and almost accompanied her on a
trip to the court of Joanna of Naples, a notoriously
immoral queen. Joanna had brought about the moral
disgrace of Bridget’s son, Charles, and St. Catherine of
Vadstena could not bring herself to face the woman
who had endangered her brother’s soul. She returned
to Sweden at the outbreak of the Great Western
Schism.
Catherine returned to Vadstena before her mother
was canonized. Her health failed, and after a painful
illness she died peacefully at Vadstena. She was never
formally canonized, but Pope Innocent VIII (r.
1484–92) confirmed her cult. Her feast is observed in
Sweden and in the Brigittine Order. A chapel in the
Piazza Farnese in Rome is dedicated to her.
Catherine is credited with raising the dead on at
least two occasions. One case concerned a man who
fell from a coach and was run over; another was a man
who fell from a roof and was badly mangled. Both were
declared dead, and Catherine touched them and
restored them to life and health.
Feast: March 24
FURTHER READING
Herbert, Father Albert J. Raised from the Dead: True Stories of
400 Resurrection Miracles. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books,
1986.
Catherine Labouré (1806–1876) Virgin and mystic
who received a vision of the Miraculous Medal from the
Blessed Virgin Mary
Name meaning: Pure one
Catherine Labouré was born on May 2, 1806, in the
Côte d’Or, France, to a farming family. Her given name
at birth was Zoe. She was eight when her mother died,
and she assumed responsibility for helping to raise her
siblings.
At age 18 she had a dream that foretold her destiny
in the church. In the dream, she attended mass said by
a saintly old priest. She then met him again when she
visited a sick person. The priest told her, “My daughter,
it is good to nurse the sick. Now you avoid me, but

70 Catherine Labouré
St. Catherine Labouré
one day you’ll be very glad to come to me. The good
Lord has plans for you—do not forget it!”
In 1830 she joined the Daughters of Charity,
founded by St. Vincent de Paul, in Paris. When she saw
a picture of him, she was astonished to recognize him
as the saintly old priest in her dream.
Three times in 1830, while Catherine was still a
novice, Mary appeared to her. The first apparition
occurred on July 18, after Catherine had retired to her
partitioned cubicle, silently repeating a prayer. She
went to sleep with the thought that she would see
Mary that night. At about 11:30 P.M., she was awakened
by the sound of someone calling her name. She
saw a child dressed in white who appeared to be about
four or five years old. The child told her to come to the
chapel where Mary was waiting for her. Catherine was
surprised to see that the way to the chapel was lit. She
was even more surprised when she entered the chapel
and saw all the candles and lights lit, which reminded
her of midnight mass. After a long wait, Mary made
her presence known with a noise like the rustling of a
silk dress. Turning, Catherine saw Mary—a sight that
she described as “the sweetest moment in my life.”
Mary told Catherine that God wished to charge her
with a mission. She would suffer many trials and be
contradicted, but she should never have fear. She
would be inspired in her prayers. Mary advised her
how to act with her director and also told her several
secrets that she was not to disclose. She predicted that
bad times were coming for France and that the whole
world would be in upheaval due to “all sorts of troubles.”
The streets would be filled with blood and the
whole world would be in sorrow. Catherine was never
to lose faith. Mary, who seemed to be in great grief,
departed. The child—whom Catherine felt was her
guardian angel—took her back to her bed. It was 2
A.M. A few days later Catherine told her vision to her
confessor, Father Aladel, but he paid little attention to
it.
The second vision occurred on November 27,
1830, at 5:30 in the afternoon. Catherine was participating
in a community meditation in the chapel. She
saw Mary, exquisitely beautiful, dressed in white and
standing on a globe. She held a small globe, above
which was a small golden cross. Mary was looking up
toward heaven. She held the globe against her heart
and offered it to Jesus as advocate and mother of all
mankind. Suddenly her hands blazed with dazzling
light. Her fingers were covered with jewels that fell
onto the globe at her feet and she lowered her hands.
Mary looked at Catherine and said, “This globe which
you see represents the world as a whole and France in
particular and each separate individual.” The streams
of light were “the symbol of the graces which I shed on
those who ask me for them.”
Catherine then saw a slightly oval frame form
around Mary. Over it were the words “O Mary conceived
without sin, pray for us who have recourse to
thee” written in gold letters. She heard a voice say,
“Have a medal made according to this model. Everybody
who wears it will receive great graces by wearing
it around the neck. The graces will be abundant for
persons who wear it with confidence.” Catherine saw
the reverse side of the medal, which featured the cross,
the letter M, the two hearts of Jesus and Mary, and the
12 stars of the apostles.
Catherine shared her second vision with Father
Aladel, but he dismissed this one, too.
The last vision occurred in December 1830. Catherine
saw Mary standing above and in the rear of the
tabernacle on the altar. Under Mary’s feet was a green
serpent with yellow spots. When she noticed that some
of the jewels on Mary’s hands did not shine, Catherine
was told, “Those stones which remain dark symbolize

the graces that people have forgotten to request.”
Catherine was again shown the design for the medal
and instructed to have it made. Mary told her she
would not appear again but would speak to Catherine
in her prayers.
Father Aladel still refused to act. Catherine prayed
about this, and was told by Mary that a day would
come when he would do Mary’s bidding. In 1832, after
securing permission from the archbishop of Paris, he
had 1,500 medals made. They were approved in 1836.
When distributed, they immediately were associated
with miraculous healings and conversions, and quickly
spread throughout Europe. By 1836, more than six
million medals had been made in Paris and Lyons, and
millions more in 12 other cities.
Mary also instructed that Father Aladel should
found and direct the Sodality Children of Mary. This he
did.
The troubles for France proved to be the anticlerical
revolt in Paris in 1870.
Catherine and Father Aladel told no one who had
received the vision for this medal. Father Aladel took
the secret to his grave; Catherine remained silent about
it for 46 years. She continued her work as a Daughter
of Charity. On all feasts of Mary she was sick or suffering
extreme pain.
Early in 1876 she announced that she would be
dead within a year. With Mary’s permission, she gave a
full account of the apparitions to her mother superior.
She died on December 31, 1876, and was buried in the
chapel of the Daughters of Charity of Paris. Her body
was exhumed on March 21, 1933, and found to be
incorrupt. Her hands were amputated and her heart
removed for relics, as were several ribs, clavicle and the
kneecaps. Her incorrupt body, with wax hands, is on
display behind glass.
Canonized: July 27, 1947, by Pope Pius XII
Feast: November 25
FURTHER READING
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
Waters, Alma Powers. St. Catherine Labouré and the Miraculous
Medal. Fort Collins, Colo.: Ignatius Press, 2000.
Cecilia (second century?) Roman virgin and martyr
The story of Cecilia, a popular saint, is thought to be
fiction built upon fact. Cecilia is said to have been born
in Rome to a patrician family and was brought up
Christian. Dates of her life vary; by some accounts, she
is believed to have lived in the second century and
died about 177, and by other accounts she lived in the
third century.
St. Cecilia inspired by angels (Author’s collection)
Cecilia 71
She decided at a young age that she would remain a
virgin for the love of God. Her father, however, pledged
her to marry a young patrician man named Valerian.
On the day of her marriage, Cecilia wore sackcloth
next to her skin, fasted, and invoked the saints and
angels to help her guard her virginity. She told her husband,
“I have a secret to tell you. You must know that I
have an angel of God watching over me. If you touch
me in the way of marriage he will be angry and you
will suffer; but if you respect my maidenhood he’ll love
you as he loves me.” Valerian said, “Show me this
angel. If he be of God, I will refrain as you wish.”
Cecilia answered, “If you believe in the living and one
true God and receive the water of baptism, then you
shall see the angel.” Valerian agreed.
Cecilia sent him to Urban (destined to be pope
from 223 to 230), who baptized him. When he
returned, he found Cecilia praying in her chamber.
Standing beside her was an angel with flaming wings,
holding two crowns of roses and lilies. The angel
placed the crowns on their heads and vanished. Shortly

72 Celestine I
after, Tibertius, the brother of Valerian, entered the
chamber and marveled at the fragrance and beauty of
the flowers at that season of the year. He also consented
to be baptized.
Valerian and Tibertius devoted themselves to burying
the martyrs slain daily by the prefect of the city,
Turcius Almachius. [Note: There is no record of a prefect
by that name.] They were arrested and brought
before the prefect, and when they refused to sacrifice to
the gods they were beheaded. Dying with them was a
man named Maximus, who declared himself a Christian
after witnessing their courage.
Cecilia was called upon to renounce her faith.
Instead she began preaching and converting others.
She summoned 400 persons to her home, where Urban
baptized them all. Cecilia was arrested and was condemned
to be suffocated in the bathroom of her own
house. She was shut in for a night and a day. The furnace
was stoked with seven times the amount of normal
fuel, but Cecilia was not harmed. When
Almachius heard this he sent a soldier to cut off her
head in the bath. The man struck three times without
being able to sever her head. He left her bleeding.
Cecilia lived three days. Crowds came and collected
her blood with napkins and sponges while she
preached to them or prayed. After she died, she was
buried by Urban and his deacons in the catacomb of St.
Callistus.
Pope Paschal I (r. 817–824) wished to transfer the
saint’s body to a place of honor but could not locate it.
In a dream, she told him where to find it. He translated
the relics, along with the bones of Valerian, Tibertius
and Maximus, to the Church of St. Cecilia, an old and
decayed church dedicated to the saint, and believed to
be built on the site of her family home. He founded a
monastery in their honor.
In 1599 Cardinal Paul Emilius Sfondrati, nephew of
Pope Gregory XIV (r. 1590–91), rebuilt the church of
St. Cecilia. The sarcophagus of Cecilia was opened and
her body and clothing were found intact. The cypress
casket was put on display for a month until November
22, the feast of Cecilia. A sweet fragrance issued from
it. The relic was then placed in a silver coffin and
interred behind the main altar.
The story of Cecilia may have arisen along with
other stories that glorified virginity and were popular
at the time. A Greek religious romance on the “Loves
of Cecilia and Valerian” appeared in the fourth century,
apparently intended to replace more sensual romances.
The Roman calendar of the fourth century and the
Carthaginian calendar of the fifth century make no
mention of Cecilia, which surely would have been the
case had her story been true.
Additionally, Christians were not persecuted and
condemned by Emperor Alexander Severus, who
reigned when Urban was pope, though it is possible
some may have suffered. As for the prefect, Urbanus
served in that capacity during the time of Pope Urban.
Other versions of the story of Cecilia say events took
place under the reigns of the emperors Commodus or
Marcus.
Reportedly a church was dedicated to Cecilia in
Rome in the fifth century, in which Pope Symmachus
(r. 498–514) held a council in 500. But Symmachus
held no council in that year, and subsequent councils
were held elsewhere. Cecilia does not appear to have
been known or venerated in Rome until about the time
when Pope St. Gelasius (r. 492–496) introduced her
name into his Sacramentary. Her name was entered
into the Eucharistic prayer.
Cecilia is regarded as the patron of music because
on the day of her marriage she heard heavenly music
and sang to God in her heart. In art she is represented
with an organ or organ-pipes in her hand.
Feast: November 22
Patronage: composers; music; musicians; organ
builders; singers
Celestine I (d. 432) Pope
Celestine was born in Rome, the son of Priscus. He is
said to have lived for a while with St. Ambrose in
Milan and was a good friend of St. Augustine of Hippo.
He served as a deacon in the Roman Church and on
September 10, 422, succeeded Pope St. Boniface I (r.
418–422).
Like his recent predecessors, Celestine acted decisively
as head of the universal Church. Much of his
pontificate was concerned with combating various
heresies—Manichaeanism, Donatism, Noviatianism,
Pelagianism, and Nestorianism—some of which the
Church had been battling for centuries. He is perhaps
best known, however, for one of his last official acts—
dispatching St. Patrick as a missionary to Ireland
around the year 430.
Celestine died in Rome on July 26, 432, having
reigned nine years, 10 months, and 16 days. He was
buried the following day in the Catacombs of St.
Priscilla in a tomb that he had had decorated with
paintings representing the Council of Ephesus, at
which he had condemned Nestorianism. In 820, his
relics were translated to the church of St. Prassede
(Praxedes). He is honored as a saint, especially in the
Greek Orthodox Church.
In art, Celestine is a pope with a dove, dragon and
flame.

Feast: April 6 (formerly July 27 and/or August 1);
April 8 (Eastern Church)
Celestine V (ca. 1210–1296) Hermit, founder of the
Celestines, pope
Also known as: Peter Celestine V, Peter of Morone (or
Morrone), Pietro di Murrone
Celestine was born to a peasant family in the Neapolitan
province of Moline about 1211, the 11th of 12 children.
When he was between 17 and 20, he became a
hermit, though he later studied for the priesthood and
was ordained in Rome. He joined the Benedictines at
Faizola in 1246. Five years later, he retired to Mt.
Morone (Morrone) in the Abruzzi (hence his surname),
though he spent some time also on the even
more remote Mt. Majella.
Taking St. John the Baptist as his model, he wore a
haircloth roughened with knots, draped himself with
an iron chain, and fasted every day except Sunday.
Each year he kept four Lents, passing three of them on
bread and water, devoting entire days and the better
parts of nights to prayer, reading, copying books or
even hard labor, busying himself so that he would not
be found and tempted by the devil. His austerities and
penances attracted many imitators, leading to the
establishment of a Benedictine suborder, the Celestines,
approved by Pope Urban IV (r. 1261–64) in
1264.
At first Peter led the Celestines, but in 1284, tired
of governance, he appointed a vicar, and once again
departed for the wilderness. His peace was not to last,
however. After the death of Pope Nicholas IV (r.
1288–92) in April 1292, the Sacred College of Cardinals
was unable to agree on a successor. They had
wrestled with the problem for over two years when
Cardinal Latino Orisini told the assembly that God had
revealed to a saintly hermit (whom they understood to
be Peter) that if they did not fill the see of Rome within
four months, there would be severe repercussions. This
was enough for the cardinals to elect Peter, which they
did on July 5, 1294. A month later a large delegation
arrived to notify him. Peter, who was then in his 80s, is
said to have been in tears, but acquiesced in what he
believed was God’s plan for him.
The cardinals asked Peter to come to Perugia,
where they had been meeting, for his coronation, but
under the influence of King Charles of Naples, he summoned
them to Aquila (a town within the kingdom of
Naples) instead. Although only three of the cardinals
had arrived by the time that Peter had arrived, Charles
ordered him to be crowned, and the ceremony had to
be repeated a few days later (on August 29, 1294),
when all were in attendance—the only instance of a
double papal coronation in history. Upon his consecration,
Peter assumed the name Celestine V.
Peter’s elevation was welcomed by the extremist
spiritual movement within the Church, which saw it as
the fulfillment of prophecies that the Holy Spirit would
soon reign on Earth through a monk. However, Cardinal
Latino was—it is said—so grief-stricken by the way
things were turning out that he fell ill and died.
Indeed, Celestine soon showed himself to be entirely
unprepared to lead the Church. He was easily swayed
by persons wishing to take advantage of him, especially
King Charles. It took only a few months before
the cardinals’ second thoughts reached the point of
investigating the possibility of papal abdication, another
unprecedented event. The possibility being
decided in the affirmative, the choice was put to Peter,
who issued his resignation to the Sacred College meeting
in Naples on December 13, 1294.
The cardinals then elected one of their own, Cardinal
Gaetani, who took the name Boniface VIII (r.
1294–1303). Fearing Celestine’s popularity would
cause a schism within the Church, Boniface had him
arrested and imprisoned in the castle of Fumone, near
Anagni, Italy. Celestine was reportedly pleased with
this latest turn. He is quoted as saying: “I wanted nothing
in the world but a cell, and a cell they have given
me.” He died in Fumone on May 19, 1296, and was
buried at Anagni. A half-century later his relics were
translated to the church of his order at Aquila, where
they remain the object of great veneration.
In art, Celestine is depicted as a pope with a dove at
his ear and the devil trying to disturb him.
Canonized: 1313 by Pope Clement V
Feast: May 19
Patronage: Bookbinders
Chad (d. 672) Bishop and founder
Also known as: Ceadda
Chad 73
Much of what is known about the life of Chad comes
from the Venerable Bede, who was one of his monks
and disciples.
Chad was probably born in Northumbria. He was
one of four brothers, all of whom entered the religious
life. Cynibill and Caelin became priests. Cedd (with
whom Chad is sometimes confused) became abbot of
Lastingham and bishop of the East Saxons.
Chad went to Lindisfarne and studied under St.
Aidan. He then went to Ireland to the Monastery of
Rathmelsige (Mefont), where he studied with St. Ecgberht
(Egbert). He returned to England, and helped
Cedd found the monastery of Laestingeau (Lasting-

74 Charles Borromeo
ham) in Yorkshire. When Cedd died, Chad became
abbot.
King Oswy made Chad archbishop of York. St.
Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, disciplined him
for impropriety, but in 669 appointed him bishop of
Mercia. Chad built a church and monastery at Litchfield.
He received a vision foretelling his death, and died
in 672. A shrine was built for him, and the miracles
reported there attracted pilgrimages. In the 12th century,
the shrine was removed to the cathedral at Litchfield.
During the Reformation, his relics were taken to
Birmingham to the cathedral dedicated to him.
In art Chad is shown dressed as a bishop and holding
a small church in his hand.
Feast: March 2
Charles Borromeo (1538–1584) Cardinal and principal
figure in the Catholic Reformation
Charles Borromeo was born on October 2, 1538, to a
noble family, Count Gilbert Borromeo and Margaret de’
Medici, sister of Pope Pius IV (r. 1559–1565). Charles,
heir to a great fortune, had a wealthy and gracious
upbringing in the family castle of Arona on Lake Maggiore.
At age 12 he was sent to the Benedictine abbey
of SS. Gratian and Felinus, and received his clerical
tonsure.
His uncle, Angelo de’ Medici, became Pope Pius V
in 1558, and in 1559 named Charles his secretary of
state and cardinal and administrator of the see of
Milan—even though he was not yet a priest.
With his access to the pope, Charles became influential
in church politics and reform efforts. He persuaded
the pope to reconvene the Council of Trent,
which had been suspended in 1552. Charles took an
active role in the council and its deliberations, and
directed the writing of its decrees in the third and last
group of sessions. In 1556, Charles began a program of
radical reforms to improve the morals of both clerics
and laity. He established seminaries, founded a Confraternity
of Christine Doctrine, increased aid to the poor,
aided the English college at Douai, and held six
provincial councils and six diocesan synods. His
reform efforts made him many enemies, one of whom
wounded him in an assassination attempt in 1559.
After the deaths of his father and older brother, Charles
declined to become the head of his family. He took
ordination as a priest in 1563 and was made bishop of
Milan. When famine and the plague struck in 1576, he
worked to aid the starving and the ill, using his own
resources and even going into debt. He had a vision
that told him when the plague would end. In 1578 he
founded the Oblates of St. Ambrose, now called the
Oblates of St. Charles.
Charles died in Milan on the night of November
3–4, 1584. He was buried in a double coffin beneath
the pavement in the middle of the cathedral of Milan,
of which he was archbishop. Throngs of pilgrims came
to his tomb over the years. By 1610, pilgrims had left
10,891 silver votive offerings and 9,618 precious gifts,
such as jewelry, gems and lamps of gold and silver.
In 1605, during the cause for his beatification, his
body was exhumed. Moisture had corroded the cover
of both lead and wood coffins, and had penetrated to
the body. His remains, however, were found intact. An
oratory was constructed, and in 1607 the remains,
revested and placed in new wood and lead coffins,
were buried there.
In 1880, the body was exhumed again and was
found to have been embalmed. It was determined that
the embalming could not account for the remarkable
preservation of his body 300 years after his death.
Over the years, the oratory has been improved, and
a jewel-like reliquary was made of rock crystal set in
silver and adorned with miniature angels and religious
figures.
When Pope Paul VI (r. 1963–78) was still archbishop
of Milan, he had the face of Charles covered in
silver. The body is clothed in pontifical garments studded
with gems.
Canonization: 1610 by Pope Paul V
Feast: November 4
Patronage: Apple orchards; boarding schools; catechists;
against colic; learning and the arts; public
libraries; secular clergy; seminarians; spiritual
directors; against stomach diseases; against
ulcers; dioceses of Lugano and Basel, Switzerland;
Salzburg University, Austria
Charles of Sezze (1613 –1670) Franciscan mystic
Charles of Sezze was born John Charles Marchioni in
Sezze, Italy, on October 19, 1613, to humble parents.
His family name may also have been Melchior. He was
raised by his grandmother, who instilled in him a love
of God.
As a boy Charles worked as a shepherd and
dreamed of becoming a priest. At age 17 he made a
vow of chastity. His priestly ambition was thwarted by
his lack of education, so instead he became a Franciscan
lay brother at Naziano. He was given various
menial jobs, such as cook, porter and gardener at different
monasteries near Rome.
Charles had numerous mystical experiences and
was given the gift of mystical knowledge. His wisdom

impressed learned theologians. Among those who
sought his advice were cardinals and Pope Clement IX
(r. 1667–69). Charles became renowned for his holiness,
simplicity and charity, and for his severe mortifications.
One day while meditating on the Eucharist, a
ray of light shot like an arrow from the host and
pierced his left side, leaving a wound that remained
even after his death.
When plague struck in 1656, Charles worked tirelessly
for the victims. He also wrote several mystical
works.
Charles died in Rome on January 6, 1670.
Canonized: 1959 by Pope John XXIII
Feast: January 6
Christopher Martyr and one of the Fourteen Holy
Helpers
Name meaning: Christ-bearer
According to lore, Christopher, called Kester, was a
large, ugly man who earned his living by ferrying
people across a river.
Christopher was popularized by William Caxton’s
version of the Golden Legend. According to Caxton,
Christopher was of the lineage of the Canaanites. Prior
to baptism, his name was Reprobus. As Christopher, he
bore Christ in four ways: on his shoulders by leading
and conveying; in his body by making it lean; in his
mind by devotion; and in his mouth by confessing and
preaching.
The legend tells that one day Christopher decided
to seek out the greatest prince in the world. He learned
about the devil, and searched until he found him. But
the devil fled at the presence of a cross, and told
Christopher about Christ. Christopher wandered,
found a hermit, and made a home for himself by a
river. One day as he slept he was awakened by a child
asking to be carried across the river. Christopher put
him on his shoulders. As he waded into the water, the
child grew heavier and heavier until Christopher
feared for his life. The child then revealed himself to be
Christ. He told Christopher to place his staff in the
earth and be rewarded with flowers and fruit. Christopher
did so, and the next day found his staff like a
palm tree.
Christopher went to Lycia in Asia Minor (modern
Turkey), where God granted him the ability to understand
the foreign tongue. There he preached and converted
8,000 men. The king sent knights to fetch him;
he converted them. The king executed the knights and
had Christopher thrown in prison. He was severely tortured
with iron rods and burning pitch but remained
unscathed and refused to renounce his faith. The king
Christopher 75
St. Christopher (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1251)
had him bound to a stake and shot with the arrows of
40 archers. The arrows stopped in the air and did not
strike him; one returned and blinded the king in one
eye. Christopher told him that upon his death on the
morrow, the king should take some of his blood, mix it
with clay and anoint the eye, and it would be healed.
The next day, Christopher was beheaded. The king did
as instructed, and his sight was restored. The king converted.
From this legend arose the belief that whoever
looks upon an image of Christopher will not be
harmed that day. In the Middle Ages, statues of him
were placed near the entrances to churches.
The legend may be based on a martyr named
Christopher and called Kester, who made his living by
ferrying people across a river, and who died ca. 251 in
Lycia in Asia Minor. His relics were taken to Paris and
Rome.

76 Clare of Assisi
As one of the Fourteen Holy Helper saints, Christopher
was especially invoked against the plague in the
Middle Ages. He appeared to St. Joan of Arc.
Feast: July 25
Patronage: against accidents; bachelors; bus drivers;
against mortal dangers; motorists; against nightmares;
against the plague; porters; sailors; against
sudden death; travelers; truck drivers; America
Clare of Assisi (1194–1253) Founder of the Franciscan
Poor Clares
Clare was born on July 11, 1194, to a noble family.
Her father was Faverone Offreducio Ortolanadi Fiumi.
During Lent in 1212, she heard St. Francis of Assisi
preach and decided to imitate him and live a poor,
humble life for Jesus. She ran away from home and
dedicated herself to God on Palm Sunday in a little
chapel outside Assisi. Francis cut off her hair and gave
her the rough brown Franciscan habit. She went to the
Benedictine convent near Bastia.
Clare’s distraught parents tried to no avail to make
her return home. Soon her sister, St. Agnes of Assisi,
joined her, as well as other young women. In 1215
Clare became the superior of the Poor Clares and
moved into a house adjoining the church of St. Damiano.
The sisters wore no shoes, ate no meat, kept no
money and kept silent most of the time. Clare’s mother
and another sister, Beatrice, joined the community. The
St. Clare of Assisi with church fathers (Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division)
Poor Clares were granted a rule of absolute poverty by
Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216).
Clare established other convents, and the order
spread throughout Italy and into France and Germany.
Many people sought her out for her wisdom, including
high-ranking clergy and secular officials.
Clare performed numerous miracles. After prayer,
her face was often lit with an unusual, dazzling radiance.
Once her prayer saved her convent from attack by
Saracens. Despite being ill, Clare had herself carried to
the wall and had the Blessed Sacrament placed where
the enemies could see it. She got down on her knees
and begged God to save the sisters. “O Lord, protect
these Sisters whom I cannot protect now,” she prayed.
A voice answered, “I will keep them always in my care.”
Suddenly the attackers fled.
On another occasion she saved the city of Assisi
from attack by the army of Emperor Frederick II.
Clare was sick throughout much of her life. Toward
the end, she had a vision of the Mass in her bed—and
for this later became the patroness of television. She
died on August 11, 1253.
Canonized: 1255 by Pope Alexander IV
Feast: August 11
Patronage: against sore eyes; Assisi; the blind;
embroiderers; gilders; glass painters; glaziers;
laundry women; television
Clare of Montefalco (ca. 1268–1308) Abbess and
mystic
Name meaning: Brilliant, bright
Also known as: Clare of the Cross
Clare was born at Montefalco, Italy, around 1268. As a
young woman she joined a convent of Franciscan tertiaries.
This group established Holy Cross Convent at
Montefalco in 1290, adopting the Rule of St. Augustine.
Clare’s sister Joan was the abbess of this community, but
when she died Clare succeeded her. Clare led an austere
life, being particularly devoted to Christ’s passion and
His cross. She became known as a miracle worker.
Clare was given an apparition of the Lord in which
He said to her, “I have sought a place in the world
where I might plant my cross, and have found no better
site than your heart.” Later, Clare told her sisters,
“If you seek the cross of Christ, take my heart; there
you will find the suffering Lord.”
When Clare was on her deathbed in 1308, she
repeatedly said, “Know that in my very heart I have
and hold Christ crucified.” Soon after her death, her
sisters were inspired to take out her heart. When they
did so, a quantity of blood rushed out and was collected
in a vial that had been washed and purified.

Her heart was larger than normal. They opened it
and found clear symbols of the passion of Christ that
were part of the cardiac tissue itself. The symbols were:
• A thumb-sized crucifix. The body of Christ was
white and his lance wound red, and his loins were
covered in white tissue.
• A scourge formed of a hard, white nerve
• The crown of thorns composed of tiny sharp nerves
• The three nails formed of a dark, sharp fibrous tissue
• The lance and sponge formed of nerve tissue
In addition, three mysterious pellets were found in
the gall. The pellets were about the size of hazel nuts,
and were judged by theologians to be symbols of the
Trinity. Any one of them was as heavy as the other two,
while at other times any one of them equaled the
weight of all three together.
The sisters locked the heart and vial of blood in a
box. The next day these items were examined by a
group of officials who included the chief magistrate,
the leading doctor in the town and a public notary,
with a representative of the Franciscan house at
Foligno in attendance. More examinations were conducted
later by other Church officials and politicians.
Clare’s body and heart remained incorrupt. At various
times the blood was seen to liquefy and also to boil
and bubble. These episodes seemed to presage political
disturbances and turmoil. Liquefactions were recorded
in 1495, 1500, 1508, 1560, 1570, 1601, 1608 and
1618. In the 17th century a commission was established
to investigate the mystery of the blood, and concluded
that no natural explanation could be found.
In 1608 the body was moved from its shrine. The
blood in the vial had dried and coagulated. The vial was
dropped and everything broke into pieces. All the pieces
were collected and placed in a crystal vessel. Over time
this vessel cracked and was placed in a third vessel.
The incorrupt body of Clare can be viewed at the
Sanctuario S. Chiara da Montefalco. Her incorrupt
heart is enclosed in a bust and can be viewed under a
crystal. The pellets are in a jeweled cross kept in the
Church of the Holy Cross in Montefalco.
In art Clare is portrayed holding a crucifix, the bottom
of which penetrates her heart.
Canonized: 1881 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: August 17
Clement I (d. ca. 99) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Clemens Romanus
The identity of Clement is uncertain, though probably
he was a freedman or the son of a freedman of Emperor
Clement of Alexandria 77
Nero’s household. It is also possible that he was of Jewish
descent. He is said to have been baptized—and
ordained a priest—by St. Peter and is accepted by most
authorities as the fourth pope, following SS. Peter,
Linus and Anaclitus.
Clement is best known from an apostolic letter he
wrote to the Church of Corinth when it faced an internal
crisis. The letter is important not only as a homily
on Christian life, but also for the example it gives of
the bishop of Rome intervening authoritatively in the
affairs of another apostolic church. On the basis of this
letter, Clement is considered the first of the Apostolic
Fathers.
It appears that Clement may have been forced into
exile from Rome, thus ending his reign. Tradition has it
that he converted Theodora, wife of Sisinnius, a
courtier of Nerva, and then—after miracles—Sisinnius
himself, together with 423 other persons of rank.
Emperor Trajan then banished him to the Crimea,
where he was made to work in the quarries. The nearest
drinking water was six miles away, but—assisted by
a miracle—Clement discovered a spring close by. Soon
he had brought in so many new converts that 75
churches were needed to serve them. His success so
enraged Trajan that he ordered him thrown into the
Black Sea with an iron anchor around his neck. Angels
came and built him a tomb under the water, but every
year, the tide receded far enough to reveal it.
This account is no older than the fourth century,
and there is no way of knowing how much of the truth
it represents. About 868, St. Cyril, in the Crimea, dug
up some bones and an anchor from a burial mound
said to be Clement’s, and carried them to Rome. The
relics were deposited by Pope Adrian II (r. 867–872)
with those of St. Ignatius of Antioch in the high altar of
the basilica of St. Clemens Church. However, they may
or may not be Clement’s in fact.
In art, Clement is represented as a pope with an
anchor and fish. Sometimes he is shown lying in a
temple in the sea. He may also be shown with a millstone;
keys; a fountain that has sprung forth at his
prayers; or a book.
Feast: November 23
Patronage: Guild, Fraternity, and Brotherhood of the
Most Glorious and Undivided Trinity of London
(responsible for lighthouses and lightships); marble
workers
Clement of Alexandria (d. ca. 215) Greek theologian
and Father of the Church
Clement of Alexandria’s date of birth is unknown; his
birthplace is likely to have been Athens. He was con-

78 Clement of Ireland
verted and traveled about in search of religious instruction
and eventually settled in Alexandria, where he
enjoyed the diversity of race, culture and religion. He
became attracted to the teachings of Pantaenus, head
of the catechetical school of Alexandria. He succeeded
Pantaenus in about 190.
In 202, persecutions began in Egypt and Clement
left Alexandria for Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he
met his friend and former pupil, Bishop Alexander,
who was converting people from prison.
Clement had a profound effect upon another
church father, Origen, who succeeded him at Alexandria.
He died around 215, probably in Cappadocia.
Clement left a large body of writings. Some of his
doctrines were found to be erroneous or suspect.
Nonetheless, his name was entered in the martyrologies
and he was venerated as a saint into the 17th century.
Pope Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605) revised the
Roman Martyrology and dropped Clement’s name from
the list. This decision was upheld by Pope Benedict
XIV (r. 1740–58) on the grounds that no cultus had
ever established itself around him. Clement’s works
have found new favor in modern times.
Feast: Formerly December 4
Clement of Ireland (ca. 750–818) Teacher and
scholar
Also known as: Clement Duns Scotus, Clemens Scotus
Clement Duns Scotus (meaning from Irish or Scottish
ancestry) and his companion Albinus, or Ailbe, traveled
to Gaul in 772 to establish a school. Charlemagne
reportedly learned of their knowledge and called them
to court to teach at his palace school.
Albinus eventually directed a monastery near
Pavia, but Clement stayed in France and became
regent of the school in 775, serving in that post until
his death. During his tenure, learning and the production
of books flourished at the school, which eventually
became the University of Paris. Legend holds that
Clement actually founded the university, but he did
not.
Clement died in Paris on March 20, 818.
Clotilde (b. ca. 474–545) Queen of the Franks
Also known as: Clothilde of France, Clotilda
Clotilde was born at Lyons, France, about 474, the
daughter of King Chilperic of Burgundy. She married
the Salian Frankish king Clovis I in 493, who
used their alliance as a means of strengthening his
position with the Romanized Celts. Clovis had
already defeated several minor Frankish kings in Gaul
and the Rhineland and established himself as the
sole Frankish king and founder of the Merovingian
Dynasty.
Although not a Christian himself, Clovis allowed
his Catholic Christian wife to baptize their children.
His tolerance of Catholic Christianity angered other
Germanic tribes, who were either pagans or Arians. In
496, while fighting the Alemanni tribes, Clovis prayed
to “Clotilde’s God” and promised to convert if victorious
in battle. On Christmas Day of 496, Bishop St.
Remigius (St. Remy) of Reims baptized Clovis I, supposedly
with about 3,000 of his followers. Clovis and
Queen Clotilde chose Paris as their capital city, where
the monarchs founded the Church of the Apostles,
later known as St. Genevieve.
Upon Clovis’s death in 511, Clotilde was extremely
wealthy but powerless to control her rebellious children.
Clovis I had divided his kingdom among his four
sons—Theodoric I, Clodomir, Childebert I and
Clothaire I—but each desired the others’ kingdoms.
Clodomir was murdered, and Clotilde took his three
sons under her care. Nevertheless, her son Clothaire
murdered two of the boys, his own nephews. Clotilde
secreted the youngest, five-year-old Clodoaldus, to a
monastery at Versailles, where he grew to become St.
Cloud.
Her daughter, also named Clotilde, was forced to
marry the Arian Visigoth king Amalaric, who treated
her cruelly. Childebert murdered Amalaric to avenge
his sister, but Clotilde II died on her way back to Paris.
Mortified at her children’s sins and unable to change
their ways, Queen Clotilde went to Tours, where she
lived the rest of her life near the tomb of St. Martin of
Tours, spending her time in prayer, penance and service
to the sick and the poor. Historians attribute the
founding of churches at Laon, Andelys and Rouen to
Clotilde. She died at Tours in 545.
Feast: June 3
Patronage: adopted children; brides; disappointing
children; exiles; parents of large families; queens;
those who have suffered the death of children;
the lame; widows; women with iniquitous husbands
Colette (1381–1447) Founder of the Colettine Poor
Clares (Clarisses), mystic
Colette was born on January 13, 1381, in Corbie,
Picardy, France. Her father, Robert Boellet, was a carpenter
at the Benedictine Abbey of Corbie. Colette was
orphaned at age 13. She joined the Bequines, Benedictines
and Urbanists Poor Clares, and lived for a time
as a hermit.

In 1406, she had a vision in which St. Francis of
Assisi and St. Clare of Assisi instructed her to reform
the Poor Clares, who had fallen into lax ways. She was
empowered to do so by Pope Benedict XIII (the
antipope recognized by France), and followed through
with reforms and the founding of 17 new convents in
France and Europe. She reformed the Franciscan friars
(the Coletani), a small order that eventually was suppressed
in 1417 by Leo X (r. 1513–21). Colette’s
reforms included extreme poverty, going barefoot, and
perpetual fasts and abstinence. Colette was a friend of
St. Vincent Ferrar, and helped him in his work to heal
the Great Western Schism.
At her convent in Ghent, Belgium, she foresaw her
own death. In February 1447, she announced that she
would die soon. She told her sisters not to wait for her
to say anything at her death, for she would say nothing.
One month later, she donned the veil given her by
Benedict XIII (r. 1724–30) in 1406 when he named her
abbess general of the Poor Clares. She wore it only for
special occasions. She laid down on her bed and said
“This is the last time I shall lie down.” She died two
days later on March 6 at age 66. About 12 hours after
her death, her worn body began to transform and
become a beautiful and fragrant white. It still looked
that way when she was buried three days later.
Colette had numerous mystical experiences and
ecstasies and is credited with many miracles. Early in
her religious life, she experienced a mystical marriage
with St. John the Apostle (also called St. John the
Divine). John appeared in a vision and placed a beautiful
gold ring upon her finger, saying as he did so, “by
my own right and on behalf of the sovereign King and
Prince of virginity and chastity.” Colette kept her ring
in a box and showed it to very few people. She shared
her experience with few as well. She remained especially
devoted to St. John.
Colette had the gift of prophecy, seeing not only her
own death, but also that of St. Vincent Ferrar. She
accurately told him that he would die in less than two
years in France.
On Fridays, Colette had 12-hour visions of the Passion
from which she suffered torments and great
bruises upon her body, in sympathy with the suffering
of Christ.
In her travels, Colette seems to have been guided by
angels who held her up on her mules and enabled her
to walk extremely fast as though her feet did not touch
the ground. Once during her reforms, she was opposed
by the head of a monastery who punished the Franciscan
friars of Dole—who had accepted her reforms—by
cutting off their food supply. For an entire year,
Colette’s convent supplied the friars with grain, despite
the fact that they did not have enough in their granary
to do so. The grain was always taken to the monastery
on a very small donkey.
Beatified: January23, 1740, by Pope Clement XII
Canonized: May 24, 1807, by Pope Pius VII
Feast: March 6
Colombian Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War
(d. 1936)
Also known as: Mártires Colombianos de la Comunidad
de San Juan de Dios
Seven Colombian members of the Comunidad de San
Juan de Dios were among the thousands of Catholics
killed by communists and anarchists during the Spanish
Civil War (1936–39) that brought Francisco
Franco to power. The Colombians were studying and
working in Spain, dedicated to helping the mentally ill,
when they were arrested, tortured and killed on August
7, 1936.
The group includes: Juan Bautista Velásquez, of
Jardín (Antioquía), age 27; Esteban Maya, of Pácora
Caldas, age 29; Melquiades Ramírez of Sonsón (Antioquía),
age 27; Eugenio Ramírez, of La Ceja (Antioquía),
age 23; Rubén de Jesús López, of Concepción
(Antioquía), age 28; Arturo Ayala, of Paipa (Boyacá),
age 27; and Gaspar Páez Perdomo, of Tello (Huila), age
23.
Beatified: 1992 by Pope John Paul II
Columba 79
FURTHER READING
“Los Mártires Colombianos de la Comunidad de San Juan de
Dios.” URL: http://www.churchforum.org. Downloaded:
December 6, 1999.
Columba (521–597) Abbot and one of the three patron
saints of Ireland, with Brigid and Patrick; also a
patron saint of Scotland, with Andrew
Also known as: Colmcille, Columcille, Columkill,
Colum, Columbus, Combs
Most of what is known about and attributed to
Columba comes from the Vita Columbae (Life of
Columba), a three-volume work composed between
688 and 692 by Adamnan, an abbot of Iona who was
regarded in his own time as “the High Scholar of the
Western world.”
Columba (the Latinized form of Colmcille) was
born on December 7, 521—or 60 years after St.
Patrick died—in Gartan, County Donegal, Ulster, to
the royal clan of Ui Neill, also known as Clan Conaill
or O’Donnell. His mother was Eithne and his father
Fedhlimidh, a descendant of the great fourth-century
king Niall of the Nine Hostages. Columba’s birth name

80 Columba
was Crimthann, “the fox,” and the boy may have had
red hair. He expressed an interest in the Church early
on, taking the name Colmcille, or “dove of the
church,” after his baptism by the priest Cruithnechan.
After learning all Cruithnechan could teach him,
Columba entered the monastic school of Moville under
St. Finian. After completing his training and ordination
as a deacon, Columba left Moville to study Irish poetry
and history under the aged bard Gemman in Leinster.
He then joined the monastery at Clonard, headed by
another Finian, a student of St. David of Wales.
Columba became one of 12 disciples at Clonard known
as the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. He also received
priestly orders from Bishop Etchen of Clonfad. Legend
tells that the bishop meant to consecrate Columba as a
bishop but mistakenly designated him only a priest.
Leaving Clonard, Columba went to the monastery of
St. Mobhi Clarainech at Glasnevin, where he stayed
until an outbreak of disease caused the monastery’s
closing in 544. Columba returned to Ulster, where he
founded monasteries at Derry in 546, Durrow in 556
and Kells not long after. Altogether, Columba reportedly
established 27 monasteries and founded approximately
40 churches.
According to his biographer St. Adamnan, Columba’s
missionary zeal and love of Christ led him to leave
Ireland in 563 with 12 companions and settle on the
small island of Iona, off the coast of Scotland. They
established a monastery there that flourished as a center
of scholarship, art and Christianity until the Viking
raids of the ninth century.
But Columba’s desire to spread the Gospel was perhaps
not the only impetus for his travels to Iona. At
some point, Columba made an illicit copy of a psalter
owned by St. Finian (supposedly the one at Moville)
and attributed to St. Jerome. Writing surreptitiously in
the dark, with the fingers of his left hand allegedly
burning like candles so he could see, Columba made
the copy. He was found out, and Finian demanded that
the young monk return the copy. Columba refused,
and Finian referred the case to High King Diarmait
(Dermott). Diarmait, a member of a clan unfriendly to
Columba’s clan, ruled in what amounts to the first
copyright case: “Le gach buin a laogh” (“to every cow
her calf”), or to every book its copy, and Columba was
forced to relinquish the psalter.
Resentment over King Diarmait’s decision later
turned to rage, when Columba was sheltering his
kinsman, Prince Curnan, who had fatally injured
an opponent in a hurling competition. King Diarmait
ordered his men to ignore the right of sanctuary
and to seize Curnan and kill him. Columba demanded
revenge and gathered his clan’s army against Diar-
mait’s at Cuil Dremne (Cooldrevny) in 561. When the
battle was over, King Diarmait’s clan had lost 3,000
men; Columba’s clan had lost one. Columba regained
his psalter as a spoil of war, and ever after the book
was known as the Cathach, or “warrior,” and served
as the sacred Battle Book of the Clan O’Donnell. The
Cathach is preserved at the Irish Academy and is the
oldest surviving example of Irish majuscule writing.
Convening a synod at Telltown in Meath, church
fathers condemned Columba for the 3,000 deaths and
excommunicated him for a time—the standard punishment
for a monk who had taken up arms. But
Columba’s conscience supposedly pained him more
than the group’s judgment, and he turned to his confessor,
St. Molaise of Devenish, for guidance. Molaise
ordered Columba to leave Ireland and never return,
and to bring as many new souls to Christ as had been
lost at Cooldrevny. Columba and his 12 companions
left Ireland in a wicker currach covered with hide and
landed on Iona (“holy island”) in May 563—a place
just far enough north to have no view of Ireland.
Columba first ministered to the Irish in Scotland—
emigrants from the Dalriada region of Ulster—but
eventually began converting the Northern Pictish people
of Scotland. One of his first converts was King
Brude at Inverness. When Columba and his monks
arrived at the castle, the doors were shut and barred.
Columba raised his arm to make the sign of the cross,
and the bolts reportedly flew out and the doors
opened—a scene reminiscent of St. Patrick’s entrance
to King Laoghaire’s castle at Tara. Columba also reputedly
anointed King Aidan of Argyll on the famous
Stone of Scone. Even the name Scotland comes from
Columba, for in those days Scoti or Scotus meant
Irish.
Although Columba never again lived in Ireland, he
traveled there often. In 580, Columba returned to
Ulster for the assembly at Druim-Cetta, a conference to
determine the obligations of the Irish in Scotland to
the mother country. Participants decided that the Scottish-Irish
should furnish a fleet, but not an army, to the
Irish high king. Perhaps more important, Columba
convinced the assembly not to suppress the Bardic
Order—the bards and poets who sang and wrote about
Celtic history, legend and culture.
Columba retained leadership of the monasteries
and churches he founded in Ireland as well as those he
established from Iona. This situation led to the development
of a governing system unique to Celtic Christian
churches and at odds with the Roman model for
over 70 years following Columba’s death: The
abbots—and abbesses—had jurisdiction over the
monastery and environs, even superior to the bishops.

The Celtic churches finally bowed to Rome’s authority
in 664.
By spring of 597, Columba knew he was dying. On
June 8, he was copying the line from Psalms that says,
“They that love the Lord shall lack no good thing” (Ps.
34:10), when he put down his pen and said, “Here I
must stop; let Baithin [Columba’s cousin and successor]
do the rest.” When the monks returned to the
chapel for Matins prayers after midnight, they found
Columba on the floor before the altar. The saint
blessed the brethren and died on June 9 at age 77. He
was buried at Iona for 200 years, then his relics were
moved to the abbey at Down in Ireland to rest near SS.
Patrick and Brigid. According to lore, a Viking stole his
coffin from Iona and carried it onto his longship, hoping
to find treasure inside. Finding only the saint’s
remains, he threw the casket and its contents overboard.
They washed ashore at Down. Thus was fulfilled
a prophecy of both Patrick and Brigid that
Columba would rest with them.
For centuries afterward, Iona enjoyed prestige as a
great center of Celtic learning, and attracted numerous
religious exiles.
Adamnan’s Vita Columbae gives considerable attention
to the prophecies and miracles of Columba. The
saint is credited with prophetic visions of wars, battles,
deaths of kings and others, weather calamities and so
forth. His miracles included healing the sick, driving
out “armies” of disease-causing demons, taming wild
beasts, calming violent weather, causing rain to fall,
raising the dead, and turning water into wine. Columba
was often seen surrounded by a brilliant holy aura. He
enjoyed frequent visionary visits from angels. He saw
angels carry the souls of the righteous to heaven and
demons carry souls of the condemned to hell.
Feast: June 9
Patronage: bookbinders; computer hackers; Knights
of Columbus (Columba); plagiarists; poets; Ireland;
Scotland
FURTHER READING
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York:
Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995.
“Columcille: The Saint.” URL: http://www.w3.ixs.nl/~jove/
columba2.htm. Downloaded March 30, 2000.
Jones, Norm. “The Saint Columba Home Page.” URL:
http://www.usu,edu/~history/norm/columb~1.htm.
Updated on January 14, 1998.
Marsden, John. The Illustrated Life of Columba. Edinburgh:
Floris Books, 1995.
Seyfried, Seth. Introduction to “Adamnan: Life of St.
Columba.” Medieval Source Book. URL: http://www.
fordham.edu/halsall/basis/columba-e.html. Downloaded
January 18, 2000.
Conrad 81
Columban (ca. 543–615) Irish abbot in France
Also known as: Columbanus, the Younger Columba
Columban was born around 543 in Leinster, Ireland, to
a noble family. He received a good education, and
decided at a young age to enter monastic life. He went
to an island in Lough Erne, where he studied with St.
Comgall.
After his ordination in 590, Columban took 12
companions, among them St. Gall, and went to England
and France. In France they established monasteries
at Annegray, Fontaine and Luxeuil. They were
not well received and encountered many difficulties.
Columban denounced King Thierry II of Burgundy for
keeping concubines, and the king exiled him in 610.
Columban spent two years traveling, eventually
reaching Austrasia, where he and Gall parted company.
Columban and the rest of his party returned to Ireland.
They were shipwrecked en route and were taken in by
King Clotaire of Neustria and King Theodobert at
Metz, France. They stayed and evangelized in the area
around Lake Constance in parts of modern Germany
and Switzerland.
Columban died in 615 at Bobbio, Italy.
Feast: November 23
Conrad (d. 975) Bishop and companion of Emperor
Otto I
Also known as: Conrad of Constance
Conrad was born into the famous Guelph family and
was the son of Count Henry of Altdorf. He was educated
at the cathedral school of Constance, Switzerland,
and was ordained. In 934 he was made provost of
the cathedral and was elected bishop of Constance, a
post he held for 42 years. He avoided all secular matters.
Conrad gave all of his wealth to the Church and to
the poor, built three grand churches and renovated
many more in his see. In 862 he accompanied Emperor
Otto I to Italy. He also is said to have taken three pilgrimages
to Jerusalem.
According to lore, Conrad was saying mass one
Easter when a large spider dropped into the chalice. It
was commonly believed at the time that most spiders
were poisonous, but the plucky saint swallowed the
spider, anyway, and suffered no harm.
Conrad is best known for his grand vision, experienced
in 948 when he was asked to dedicate the Chapel
of Our Lady of the Hermits at Einsiedeln, Switzerland,
the spot where the murdered St. Meinrad once had his
hermit’s hut and chapel. Conrad arrived in the Dark

82 Constantine the Great
Wood on September 13 with a party of knights, princes
and the bishop of Augsburg. Near midnight, he and several
others went into the chapel to pray. Conrad prayed
to Mary to accept the shrine and help it to become a
place of pilgrimage.
At midnight, Conrad and the others heard a beautiful
chanting. The chapel was filled with dazzling light,
and the altar was illuminated. A procession of angels
came down from heaven, led by Michael the Archangel.
Some of the angels sang and others swung
censers. Then came St. Peter with a crozier, and the
apostles SS. Mark, Luke, Matthew and John, followed
by three of the greatest Doctors of the Church, SS.
Ambrose, Augustine and Gregory the Great. Then
came the martyred SS. Lawrence and Stephen, and
finally Jesus Christ, clothed magnificently as high
priest. Mary, attended by angels, installed herself over
the altar. Jesus conducted Mass in minute detail and
dedicated the chapel to his mother. The vision lasted
for more than an hour. Conrad remained in ecstatic
meditation for hours.
The next day, Conrad proclaimed to the crowd
gathered that God had already dedicated the chapel,
but he was pressed to continue with the service by others
who did not believe his story. As he began, a booming
voice heard by everyone said three times, “Stop!
Stop, Brother. The chapel has been divinely consecrated.”
In 964, Pope Leo VIII (r. 963–964) issued a bull
confirming the miraculous dedication.
The Chapel of Our Lady of the Hermits is one of
the most popular pilgrimage sites in Europe, attracting
up to 200,000 people a year; many miracles are
reported there. A basilica and monastery were built in
the first part of the 18th century.
In art Conrad usually is represented with a chalice
and a spider.
Canonized: 1123 by Pope Callistus II
Feast: November 26
Patronage: hernia sufferers
Constantine the Great (d. 337) Roman emperor and
champion of Christianity
Also known as: Flavius Valerius Constantinus, the Thirteenth
Apostle
Birth dates for Constantine range from 274 to 288. He
was born at Naissus to Constantius Chlorus, a Roman
officer who became junior emperor (r. 293–306), and
St. Helena, a woman of inferior lineage. Constantine
grew up in the court of Diocletian (r. 284–305) and
served in the military. Upon the death of his father in
battle in 306, his troops proclaimed him caesar.
Diocletian had attempted to establish a four-headed
empire, but constant struggle ensued for the supremacy
of one person as emperor. Constantine managed
to stay out of the infighting until 311, when the
emperor Galerius died. In 312 Constantine faced the
army of his rival, Maxentius, in a decisive battle at the
Milvian Bridge near Rome. He sought out pagan diviners
who told him the battle would go badly for
him. He then had first a waking vision and then a
dream that convinced him that he would win if he
invoked the name of Christ. He did and thus defeated
Maxentius.
By 325 Constantine defeated the fourth rival,
Licinius, and became sole emperor, a position he held
until 337. He was preparing to march with his troops
against a new enemy when he fell ill and died in March
of that year.
Constantine was instrumental in stoping the persecutions
of Christians, and as sole emperor made Christianity
the religion of state. Tradition holds that he did
so out of personal experience and conviction, but he
also was influenced by the political and social forces of
the times. Old ways were falling out of favor. The
empire faced barbarian invasions from the north,
which sapped resources that had been devoted to persecutions.
Constantine combined both paganism and Christianity
into his personal life and political affairs. In 330
the dedication of Constantinople, the city he made the
capital of the empire, was a mix of both pagan and
Christian rites. As he got older, Constantine became
increasingly Christian, but did not receive baptism
until he was on his deathbed.
About 20 years after the death of Constantine, the
historian Eusebius recorded an account of the visionnary
experiences in 313, saying that Constantine had
related them personally to him:
Accordingly [Constantine] called on [God] with earnest
prayer and supplications that he would reveal to him
who he was, and stretch forth his right hand to help him
in his present difficulties. And while he was thus praying
with fervent entreaty, a most marvelous sign appeared to
him from heaven . . . He said that about noon, when the
day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his
own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens,
above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER
BY THIS. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement,
and his whole army also, which followed him on
this expedition, and witnessed the miracle.
He said, moreover, that he doubted within himself
what the import of this apparition could be. And while
he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night
suddenly came on; then in his sleep the Christ of God
appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen
in the heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness

of that sign . . . and to use it as a safeguard in an engagements
with his enemies.
At dawn of day he arose, and communicated the marvel
to his friends: and then, calling together the workers
in gold and precious stones, he sat in the midst of them,
and described to them the figure of the sign he had seen,
bidding them represent it in gold and precious stones.
The sign was the two Greek letters chi (X) and ro
(P), the first two letters of Christ’s name, combined
one over the other as a monogram. Called the labarum,
it became the symbol of the Roman emperors.
Feast: May 21
FURTHER READING
Eusebius of Caesaria. The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine.
URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/vitaconstantine.html.
Downloaded Sept. 11, 2000.
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. Dreamwork for the Soul. New York:
Berkley Books, 1998.
Cornelius (d. 253) Pope and martyr
Cornelius was a priest in the Church of Rome at the
time of his elevation to bishop to replace Pope St.
Fabian, who had been killed at the beginning of persecutions
under Emperor Decius. Fabian died on January
20, 250, but the persecutions delayed the election of a
new pope for 14 months, until March 251.
The main issue facing Cornelius was the treatment
of Christians who had denied their faith during the
persecutions. He supported St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage,
whose council provided for the restoration of
Communion after various forms of penance, against
Novatian, a Roman priest who asserted that the apostates
should not be pardoned. In the summer of 251,
Novatian had himself consecrated bishop of Rome by
some dissident deacons, establishing himself as
antipope to Cornelius. This brought about a major
schism in the Church, with many eastern bishops
inclined to back Novatian. However, a synod of western
bishops in Rome in October upheld Cornelius,
condemned the teachings of Novatian and excommunicated
him and his followers.
New persecutions suddenly broke out early in 252,
and Cornelius was exiled to Centumcellæ (Civita Vecchia).
He was beheaded there in June 253, having
reigned two years, three months and 10 days. His relics
were translated to Rome where they were interred, not
in the Chapel of the Popes in the Catacomb of St. Callistus
but rather in an adjoining catacomb, perhaps
that of a branch of his noble family. The inscription on
his tomb is in Latin, whereas those of his immediate
predecessor and successor are in Greek.
Feast: September 16
Crispin and Crispinian 83
Cosmas and Damian (d. ca. 303) Arab twin brothers
and physicians who became martyrs
Cosmas and Damian were born in Arabia and studied
science and medicine in Syria. It is not known how or
when they became Christians. They lived at Aegeae on
the bay of Alexandretta in Cilicia, where their generous
practice of free medicine earned them the moniker
“the moneyless ones.”
During a persecution, they were arrested and
brought before Lysius, the governor of Cilicia, in
Cyrrhus (modern Turkey). They refused to renounce
their faith, and were tortured and beheaded. Also executed
were their brothers Anthimus, Euprepius and
Leontius. They were buried at Cyrrhus and a cult grew
up around them. Miracles of healing were claimed in
which the saints came to the afflicted in their dreams
and either cured them or told them how to be cured—
much like the Greek tradition of inviting the healing
god Aesculapius to appear in a similar fashion.
A basilica in Rome was dedicated to them about
530. They are named in the canon of the mass.
In the Middle Ages, romantic legends about their
martyrdom appeared. According to lore, the saints
defied death first by water, fire and crucifixion prior to
their beheading. While on the crosses, they were pelted
with stones and arrows, but the missiles recoiled back
on the mob.
Feast: September 27
Patronage: barbers; chemical industries; druggists;
physicians; surgeons
Crispin and Crispinian (third–fourth centuries)
Brothers and martyrs
The story of Crispin and Crispinian probably is more
legend than fact. Born to Roman nobility, the brothers,
shoemakers by trade, traveled to France with St.
Quintinus. They settled in Soissons and supported
themselves by making shoes while they preached the
Gospel and converted pagans.
Co-Emperor Maximian, a hater of Christians, ordered
the brothers brought before an official named
Rictiovarus (whose existence and position are not documented).
Rictiovarus had Crispin and Crispinian tortured,
but committed suicide when he was unable to
cause their deaths. Maximian had them beheaded.
Crispin and Crispinian were especially popular during
the Middle Ages. In art they are shown holding
shoes and shoemaker’s tools.
Feast: October 25
Patronage: cobblers; leatherworkers; saddlers; shoemakers;
tanners

84 Crispina
Crispina (d. ca. 304) Noblewoman and martyr, acclaimed
by St. Augustine
Born in Thagara to a noble family, Crispina was raised
as a Christian. During persecutions she was arrested
and brought before the proconsul Anulinus. She
refused to renounce her faith when threatened with
punishment. Anulinus had her head shaved (a sign of
degradation) and told her she would be executed if she
did not deny her faith. Crispina replied that she cared
not for this life. She was beheaded on December 5 in
about 304.
In his sermons, Augustine held Crispina as a model
for Christians: she could have lived a life of luxury and
ease, but chose eternal glory.
Feast: December 5
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Curé d’Ars See JOHN BAPTISTE MARIE VIANNEY.
Cuthbert (ca. 634–687) Monk, bishop and miracleworker
Also known as: Cuthbert of Lindisfarne
Most of what is known about Cuthbert, one of the
most famous of Celtic saints, comes from the Venerable
Bede’s account of his life, written around 716 (in
verse) and in 721 (in prose). Bede was moved to write
about the saint upon hearing of the discovery of his
incorrupt body.
Little is known about Cuthbert’s early life. He was
born probably around 634 to an Anglo-Saxon family
near the River Tweed in southern Scotland. (An Irish
hagiography claims him as one of their own, son of an
Irish princess.)
In 651 Cuthbert entered the Celtic monastery at
Melrose, where he served with his mentor, a priest
named Boisil. In 661 he accompanied St. Eata, the
abbot of Melrose, to Ripon to build a new abbey, where
he served as guestmaster. Returning to Melrose, he
became prior after the death of Boisil and held the
position for many years. He had great skill as a
preacher. He then took a group of monks to the Benedictine
abbey at Lindisfarne, where he served as prior.
Then desiring a solitary life, Cuthbert moved to Inner
Farne Island and built his hermit’s cell. However, others
sought out the popular saint, wanting to confess
and seeking his guidance. He helped all who came to
him.
In 684 he was elected bishop against his own
wishes. He refused to acknowledge all letters to the
fact, and finally King Ecgfrith sailed to the island with
a group of officials and begged him to do so. Cuthbert
was consecrated bishop of Lindisfarne in 685. He
resumed his active ministry, caring for the sick, prophesying
and working miracles. In 687, Cuthbert knew
his life was nearing its end. He resigned as bishop and
went back to his beloved Inner Farne. Two months
later he fell ill and died while praising God. He was
buried on his island in accordance with his wishes. A
year later, his body was moved to the monastery at
Lindisfarne.
Nine years after his death, Cuthbert was exhumed
for the taking of relics. The monks expected to find
nothing but dry bones and decayed clothing, and were
astonished to find his body incorrupt and fresh, as
though he were sleeping. The body was placed in new
clothing and reburied.
In 875, the Vikings raided Lindisfarne and
destroyed Cuthbert’s shrine. His incorrupt body was
moved to Northumbria. It was given several resting
places, and then finally was moved to Durham, where
it was enshrined on September 4, 999. Numerous pilgrims
visited, including St. Thomas of Canterbury, and
in 1069 William the Conqueror.
The casket was opened in 1104 and the body was
found still incorrupt and smelling sweet. In 1537,
Henry VIII ordered the tomb destroyed as part of his
dissolution of the monasteries. The jewels and ornaments
were plundered. When the casket was opened,
the body was found still intact, dressed in garments for
the Mass, and with a fortnight’s beard on the face. The
monks were allowed to bury Cuthbert in the ground
where the shrine had been. In 1827, the saint was
exhumed. This time the remains were but a skeleton in
decaying robes.
In art Cuthbert is shown in the dress of a bishop,
holding the head of St. Oswald, whose skull is preserved
in his coffin. Sometimes he is shown also with
swans and otters.
Numerous miracles and extraordinary events are
related about Cuthbert throughout his life. Bede relates
several visits by angels early in life. One angel
appeared as a man on horseback and told Cuthbert
how to heal a painful and crippling tumor on his knee.
One night while tending sheep, Cuthbert had a vision
of choirs of angels descending from heaven, inspiring
him to seek the spiritual life. When he was at Ripon,
angels frequently appeared and conversed with him,
and would bring him food.
According to Bede, he sowed a field with barley
and reaped a harvest that the birds began to eat. He
told them they had no right to the grain and to depart,
and they did, never to return. In another instance
involving birds, Cuthbert was annoyed by crows who

stole pieces of thatched roof that Cuthbert had made
for his brethren. He told the birds to depart and do no
more harm. They did. Three days later, seemingly penitent
crows returned bearing a gift of hog’s lard, which
Cuthbert gave to his brethren for the greasing of their
shoes.
Bede recounts another episode involving Cuthbert’s
rapport with animals. One night he left his monastery
and was followed by a curious brother. Cuthbert went
down to the sea and waded into the water until he was
up to his neck. He spent the night praising God. In the
morning, he waded out and fell to his knees on the
beach to continue praying. Two sea otters came out of
the water and wiped him with their bodies and
breathed upon his feet. Cuthbert blessed them and
they returned to the sea.
Cuthbert banished the devils that reputedly
haunted the island of Inner Farne, and produced a
miraculous spring from the hard and stony ground
where he built his cell. He was able to change the
course of a fire threatening to destroy the house of a
holy woman. He changed water so that it tasted like
wine. He healed people with sprinklings of holy water,
anointments with oil and consecrated bread. He healed
others by a laying on of hands, and also at a distance
with prayer. Miracles of healing continued to be
reported after his death.
Feast: March 20
FURTHER READING
Bede. Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-cuthbert.html.
Downloaded
September 2, 2000.
Sellner, Edward C. Wisdom of the Celtic Saints. Notre Dame,
Ind.: Ave Maria Press, 1993.
Cyprian of Carthage (ca. 200–258) Bishop of
Carthage, Father of the Church, martyr
Cyprian’s full Latin name was Thaschus Cæcilius
Cyprianus. Nothing is known of his early life, apart
from the fact that he was well-established and wealthy
at the time of his conversion to Christianity. He was
converted by a priest named Cæcilianus, with whom
he lived for a while, and who on his deathbed asked
him to care for his wife and family. His baptism took
place around the year 246, apparently on April 18,
Easter Eve.
Even as a catechumen Cyprian decided to observe
chastity. He sold his property, including his gardens at
Carthage, and gave most of his revenues to the poor.
He was elected bishop of Carthage in 248 or 249, with
the dissent of five priests who remained his lifelong
enemies.
Cyprian of Carthage 85
In its first centuries, the Christian Church was subjected
to a series of persecutions from Rome. One, the
Decian persecution, began in October 249 when
Emperor Decius issued an edict sentencing all bishops
to death and other believers to be punished and tortured
until they recanted. Cyprian went into hiding, an
action for which he was much criticized by his enemies.
However, he continued to shepherd his see. He
wrote panegyrics on Christians who were martyred
and provided financial aid to the faithful. When the
persecution let up early in 251, Cyprian made priests
of some who had resisted, been tortured and banished.
Nevertheless, the majority of Christians—in Carthage
as well as in Rome and elsewhere—had denied
their faith. Their lives no longer threatened, many
now clamored for forgiveness and restoration. Cyprian
convened a council in April 251, which decided to
accept the former apostates after they had done appropriate
penance, a position endorsed by Pope St.
Cornelius (r. 251–253). However, the five priests opposed
to Cyprian accepted the lapsed without penance,
while in Rome, a priest named Novatian
held that none should be accepted again under any
circumstances.
A related issue of rebaptism arose. Since heretics—
and by extension apostates—did not follow the canonical
teachings of the Church, were their baptisms
invalid? Or were baptisms performed through the
agency of God and therefore valid under any circumstance?
Since the Church held that there could be only
one baptism in a lifetime, this was not a trivial issue,
but itself the basis for declaring heresy. Cyprian and
the other Eastern bishops routinely rebaptized the
lapsed, a practice condoned by Cornelius and Pope St.
Lucius I (r. 253–254) although the Church of Rome
believed it unnecessary. Pope St. Stephen I (r.
254–257) took a stronger stand on Church orthodoxy,
declaring that the lapsed everywhere should be reconciled
only with a laying-on of hands, thus alienating
Cyprian and others.
A new round of persecutions (announced by
numerous visions, according to Cyprian) began under
Emperor Valerian, and this time Cyprian was not so
fortunate. He was arrested on August 30, 257, and
taken before the proconsul Peternus, but refused to
renounce his faith. Early in September he had a dream
foretelling his martyrdom. He awoke from the dream
in terror, but once awake, calmly awaited its fulfillment.
This came on the morning of September 14,
when he was tried, sentenced and beheaded. Before
dying, he ordered that 25 gold pieces be given to his
executioner.
Members of his flock observing his execution held
cloths and handkerchiefs before him to catch his

86 Cyril of Alexandria
blood. His dismembered body lay exposed for the rest
of the day, but that night the brethren carried him in a
funeral procession to the cemetery of Macrobius Candidianus
in the suburb of Mapalia. He was the first
bishop of Carthage to be martyred.
Feast: September 16 (in the West); August 31 (in
the East)
Patronage: Algeria; North Africa
Cyril of Alexandria (ca. 376–444) Patriarch
of Alexandria, Father of the Church, Doctor of the
Church
Cyril was born in Alexandria ca. 376. He was the
nephew of Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, and
among those who deposed St. John Chrysostom. Cyril
was raised, educated and ordained by his uncle, and
went with him to Constantinople in 403 for the deposition
of John. When Theophilus died in 412, Cyril
succeeded him as patriarch of Alexandria, but only
after a riot broke out between his supporters and those
of his rival, Timotheus.
Cyril spent much of his career embroiled in the
church politics of heresies. He closed the churches of
one heretical sect, the Novatianists, and chased the
Jews out of Alexandria. In 430 he began a battle
against the heretic Nestorius, who was preaching that
Mary was not the Mother of God, since Christ was
Divine and not human, and consequently she should
not have the word Theotokos (“God-bearer”) applied to
her.
Cyril persuaded Pope Celestine I (r. 422–432) to
convene a synod condemning Nestorius, and Cyril
convened his own synod in Alexandria to do the
same. Cyril also presided over the Third General
Council of Ephesus, at which he condemned Nestorius,
but then was deposed himself. Both Cyril
and Nestorius were arrested, but Cyril was released
upon intervention of the pope. Eventually Nestorius
was condemned and banished to the Great Oasis of
Egypt.
A brilliant scholar, Cyril left a legacy of exegetical
works, treatises, commentaries on the Gospels and the
Pentateuch, sermons, letters and an apologia against
Julian the Apostate. He is known especially for his
writing on the Holy Trinity and the Incarnation. On
Adoration in Spirit and Truth is a 17-book exposition on
the spiritual nature of the Old Law.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1882 by Pope Leo
XIII
Feast: June 27
St. Cyril of Alexandria (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Cyril of Jerusalem (ca. 315–ca. 386) Bishop of
Jerusalem, Father of the Church, Doctor of the Church
Little is known of Cyril of Jerusalem’s life. He was born
in Jerusalem about 315 and probably was raised a
Christian. He became a priest around 345–347, and
was ordained by St. Maximus.
Cyril became the bishop or patriarch of Jerusalem,
succeeding Maximus after the latter died; stories differ
as to how he obtained the position. In one version,
Cyril was promised the episcopate only if he repudiated
his ordination. Cyril declined and agreed only to
become deacon, but through fraud and manipulation
got the position. In another version, Maximus was driven
out and was succeeded by Cyril.
For the next 36 years, Cyril had to deal with the
Arian heresy, and three times was exiled as a result of
the politics involved. In 357–359 he went to Tarsus. In
360 he was driven out again, only to be restored in 361
by Emperor Julian the Apostate. In 367 Emperor
Valens banished all bishops, and Cyril was exiled until
Valens died in 378.
In 380, St. Gregory of Nyssa came to Jerusalem and
approved of Cyril but found the city corrupt in morals.

Cyril and Gregory attended the Council of Constantinople
in 381. At this council, Theodosius ordered the
Nicene Creed to be promulgated.
The exact date of Cyril’s death is unknown. He
probably died on March 18, 386.
Cyril left a body of work highly valued by the
Church. The most famous is his theological masterpiece
Catecheses, a collection of 18 instructional
addresses for baptismal candidates during Lent and
five—known as the Mystagogic—for the recently bap-
Cyril of Jerusalem 87
tized at Easter. Cyril composed numerous catechetical
lectures and sermons (including his best-known on the
pool at Bethesda). He wrote on the mystical origin of
the Septuagint, the story of the phoenix and the mystical
elements of the Mass.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1882 by Pope Leo
XIII
Feast: March 18 (in the East); March 18 or 20 (in
the West)

Damasus I (ca. 304–384) Pope
Damasus was born in Rome, the son of Antonius, a
priest of Spanish descent, and a woman named Laurentia.
He became a deacon in the Spanish church of St.
Laurence, where his father served.
In October 366, when Damasus was about 60, Pope
Liberius died, and he was elected bishop of Rome.
Though he received a substantial majority of votes, a
dissident faction, adherents of Liberius (a controversial
pontiff who became one of the few early popes to be
revered neither as a martyr nor as a saint), rejected him
and consecrated their own candidate, Ursinus. In promoting
him, they were not beyond using violence, for
which Emperor Valentinian had them exiled to
Cologne. From Cologne and later Milan, Ursinus and
his followers continued to harass Damasus. They
charged him with incontinence in the imperial court in
378, but he was exonerated by Emperor Gratian. He
was cleared also by a Church synod of 44 bishops, who
then excommunicated his accusers.
In 380, Gratian and Theodosius I recognized
Christianity as the religion of the Roman state. Damasus
did much to clarify and promote its teachings.
He argued that the supremacy of the Roman Church
was based on the words of Jesus Christ (Matthew
16:18). He was a vigorous opponent of Arianism
(supported by Liberius and Ursinus), Apollinarian-
Df
89
ism, Macedonianism and other heresies. At a synod in
374, he promulgated a canon of the Holy Scripture,
specifying the authentic books of the Bible. Most
important, he commissioned St. Jerome to revise the
Latin text of the Bible, resulting in the Vulgate version
of the Scriptures.
Like several of his immediate predecessors, Damasus
promoted the construction of ecclesiastical properties
in and around Rome. Among other projects, he
provided for the proper housing of the Vatican
archives, built a baptistery in honor of St. Peter at the
Vatican, and drained and rehabilitated the sacred catacombs.
He devoted much effort to gathering the relics
of Roman martyrs and wrote new epitaphs for the
tombs of many of them.
In the papal crypt of the Catacomb of St. Callistus
he placed a general epitaph that ends, “I, Damasus,
wished to be buried here, but I feared to offend the
ashes of these holy ones.” When he died on December
11, 384, he was buried with his mother and sister at a
small church he had built on the Via Ardeatina.
In art, Damasus is a pope holding a ring. He may
also be shown with Jerome; restoring sacred buildings;
holding a screen with “Gloria Patri” on it; or in front of
a church door.
Feast: December 11
Patronage: archaeologists

90 Damian
Damian See COSMAS AND DAMIAN.
David (d. 601) Confessor, bishop, monastic founder,
patron saint of Wales
Also known as: Degui; Dewi; the Waterman
Few facts are known about the life of David. According
to tradition, he was born at Henvynyw (Vetus-
Menevia) in Cardiganshire; some sources place his
birth at about 520. He played a prominent role at the
Synod of Brevi and in 569 presided over a synod held
at Lucus Victoriae. He was bishop of Menevia, Pembrokeshire,
also known as the Roman port of Menapia,
and later renamed St. David’s.
A longstanding tradition exists in Wales of wearing
a leek on St. David’s Day, in remembrance of a battle
against the Saxons in which David is said to have told
the Welsh to wear leeks in their hats to distinguish
themselves from the enemy.
Legends about David were recorded by medieval
writers, including Geoffrey of Monmouth. According
to lore, his birth was prophesied 30 years in advance
by an angel appearing to St. Patrick. Another story tells
how an angel appeared to his father, Sanctus, in a
dream and prophesied David’s birth.
David was born to a violated nun. He was educated
by St. Illtyd at Caerworgorn in Glamorganshire and
then studied under St. Paulinus, who was blind due to
excessive weeping. David cured him of his blindness
by making the sign of the cross. Paulinus was directed
by an angel to dispatch David to evangelize the British.
During his travels, David founded 12 monasteries
(Glastonbury and Bath are among those credited to
him), suffered the temptations of women and had fabulous
adventures. His monks tried to poison his bread,
but David was warned by St. Schuthyn who rode from
Ireland one night on the back of a sea monster. David
blessed the bread and ate it without injury. He was
credited with raising the dead and having a hill rise up
under him so that a multitude could hear him preach.
David is said to have made a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem with two other saints to be consecrated archbishop,
but the story probably is not accurate.
King Arthur allowed him to move his see from Caerleon
to Menevia, where David ruled for many years,
dying at the unlikely age of 147 on a day he predicted.
His soul was witnessed as it was borne to heaven. He
was buried at the monastery, then moved to St. David’s
Cathedral. Supposedly his remains were moved to Glastonbury
in 966, but they apparently were still at St.
David’s in 1346. That tomb is now empty.
In art David is shown standing on a small hill with
a dove on his shoulder. He was nicknamed “the Water-
man” because of his strict monastic rule prohibiting
alcohol.
Canonized: 1120 by Pope Callistus II
Feast: March 1
Patronage: doves; poets; Wales
FURTHER READING
Doble, G.H. Lives of the Welsh Saints, ed. D. Simon Evans.
Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1971.
Sellner, Edward C. Wisdom of the Celtic Saints. Notre Dame,
Ind.: Ave Maria Press, 1993.
Dionysius (d. 268) Pope
For a year after the murder of Pope St. Sixtus II in
August 258, there was a vacancy in the Holy See of
Rome as the persecutions under Emperor Valerian continued.
Finally Gallienus came to power, and Dionysius,
a priest in the Roman Church, was elected bishop
on July 22, 259.
The signal event of his pontificate was the effort to
discipline Sabellius, an Asian priest who, like Marcion,
denied the Trinity and held that Jesus was but a man
who had received supernatural powers at baptism.
Dionysius called a synod in Rome about 260 to discuss
the matter, then issued an important doctrinal letter
explaining the Church’s position.
Dionysius is also known for sending support to
help the Christians of Cappadocia when faced with
invasion by the Goths. Along with a letter he sent a
large sum of money for the ransom of enslaved believers.
Dionysius died in 268 of natural causes and was interred
in the papal crypt of the Catacomb of St. Callistus.
In art he is portrayed wearing papal vestments and
holding a book.
Feast: December 26
Dionysius of Alexandria (ca. 190–265) Bishop of
Alexandria, Father of the Church
Also known as: Dionysius the Great
Dionysius of Alexandria was one of the greatest bishops
of the third century. He lived during a time of turmoil
and persecution.
Dionysius was born in Alexandria to a distinguished
pagan family. As a youth he had a vision that
prompted him to convert to Christianity. He entered
catechetical school and studied under Origen. Origen
was banished by Demetrius in 231. After the death of
Demetrius, Dionysius took over as head of the school,
and may have retained the position even after becom-

ing bishop of Alexandria in 247 and serving through
248.
In 249, an anti-Christian riot broke out in Alexandria,
and scores of Christians, including the virgin
Apollonia, were tortured and killed. The riot was
stopped, but an official persecution was launched in
January 250 by the newly crowned emperor Decius.
Dionysius was arrested, but was rescued and taken into
the Libyan desert, where he remained until the persecutions
stopped in 251. The same year, a dispute arose
between Pope Cornelius (r. 251–253) and Novatian,
and Dionysius sided with Cornelius.
Famine and plague then descended on Alexandria
and the city remained in turmoil. Throughout these
tensions and difficulties, Dionysius sought to keep the
Eastern and Western Churches in communication, and
advocated indulgences for lapsed Christians who
wished to return to the fold. He wrote books correcting
errors in theology and went out into the villages to
preach.
In 253 Valerian became emperor and began persecutions
in 257. Dionysius was banished to Kephro in
the Libyan desert. There he remained until tolerance
was declared in 260 by Gallienus. Returning to Alexandria,
Dionysius once again found the city in the grip of
famine and plague. So difficult was travel that he had
to communicate with his churches by letter. In 264 he
regained the bishopric, which he held until his death
in 265.
Dionysius wrote numerous letters, only one of
which survives. He is cited in the works of Eusebius,
who, along with St. Basil and others, referred to Dionysius
as “the Great.”
Feast: November 17
Dismas (d. first century) The “Good Thief,” crucified
with Jesus on Calvary
The Gospel of Infancy, an Arabic text of dubious reliability,
tells how Dismas and the other crucified thief,
Gestas, actually encountered the Holy Family when
they fled to Egypt, and robbed them. Dismas supposedly
saved the family from Gestas.
The Gospels do not name the thieves, but Matthew
and Mark tell of one of them reviling Jesus on the
cross. Luke 23: 39–43 tells of one reviling Jesus and
being rebuked by the second thief, who said, “Do you
not fear God, since you are under the same sentence of
condemnation? And we indeed justly; for we are
receiving the due reward of our deeds; but this man
has done nothing wrong.” The robber asked Jesus to
remember him when Jesus came into his kingdom, and
Dominic 91
Jesus said, “Truly I say to you, today you will be with
me in paradise.”
Feast: March 25
Patronage: death row inmates; funeral directors;
prisoners; therapists; undertakers
Dominic (ca. 1170–1221) Founder of the Order of
Preachers, known as the Dominicans
Dominic was born around 1170 in Calaroga, Old
Castile, Spain, to a noble family. His mother, Joanna of
Aza, was a devout woman who was beatified in 1828
by Leo XII (r. 1823–29). Brother Antonio became a
priest, and brother Manes became a friar preacher and
was beatified by Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831–46).
From birth Dominic seemed destined for sainthood
and greatness. Tradition holds that his mother had a
vision prior to his birth of a dog with a lighted torch in
its mouth. This was a sign that she would have a son
who would set the world on fire with his ministry.
Dominic studied at the University of Valencia from
1184 to 1194, excelling in his subjects and garnering
the admiration of others for his austerity and charity.
He especially abhorred heresy. He sold his books to
give money to the poor, and twice attempted to sell
himself into slavery in order to buy captives held by
the Moors.
In 1199 Dominic was called to the cathedral of
Osma to assist in reforms of the Franciscan chapter
there. He became a Franciscan canon regular and was
appointed subprior. In 1201 he became superior and
prior. Dominic spent nine years there, spending most
of his time within the confines of the chapter.
In 1203, Don Diego, the bishop of Osma, was dispatched
by Alfonso IX, king of Castile, to negotiate the
hand of a Danish princess for his son in marriage.
Diego chose Dominic to accompany him. En route,
they were dismayed at the influence of the Albigensian
heresy in Toulouse. Dominic was inspired with the
idea of founding an order of preachers to evangelize
and combat heresy. After the marriage was arranged,
Diego and Dominic were sent to escort the princess to
Spain. She died suddenly en route. Dominic and Diego
set out to preach against the Albigenses in southern
France and went on to Rome, arriving near the end of
1204.
Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216) refused to approve
a new order, however, and sent the men to
Languedoc to aid the Cistercians in their fight against
heresy and to reform the monasteries. They found the
Cistercians to be too lax. Their preaching won many
converts, as well as threats from the Cistercians.

92 Dominic
St. Dominic (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)
Dominic also founded a convent for women in Prouille
in 1206.
In 1208, Pierre de Castelnau, one of the Cistercian
papal legates, was murdered by the Albigenses. Innocent
III responded with a crusade to stamp them out
and appointed Simon de Montfort to head the effort.
Dominic formed a close friendship with him and
assisted him. During this seven-year crusade, Dominic
played a role in the Inquisition. Simon attributed a
critical victory at Muret to the prayers of Dominic, and
erected a chapel there devoted to Our Lady of the
Rosary. De Montfort also gave Dominic a castle at
Casseneuil.
In 1214 Dominic returned to Toulouse. He turned
down several offers of bishoprics and pursued his
dream of establishing a new order. He did so with the
approval of the bishop of Toulouse, forming a small
group known as the Order of the Preachers, charged
with the mission of spreading religious truth and
stamping out heresy. The order received papal approval
on December 22, 1216, from Pope Honorius III (r.
1216–27). In 1218, Honorius III gave the order the
church of St. Sixtus in Rome.
Dominic spent the remainder of his life organizing
and expanding the order. Dominic himself preached
tirelessly; it is said that his words and miracles converted
thousands. He established a third order, the
Militia of Christ, as an organization of men and women
living in the world and protecting the rights and property
of the Church.
In June 1221 Dominic was in Bologna preparing for
a missionary journey to Venice. He foresaw his own
death, and told others that he would die before the
next feast of the Assumption (August 15). Upon his
return to Bologna, he spent several hours in prayer,
and then was stricken with a fatal illness. He died three
weeks later.
As the Inquisition gathered force in Europe,
Dominicans played a major role in the prosecution of
heretics. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX (r. 1227–41) issued
a bull declaring that all inquisitors would be Dominicans
and would be answerable only to the pope. In
1484, Pope Innocent VIII (r. 1484–92) was persuaded
by two Dominican inquisitors, Heinrich Kramer and
Jacob Sprenger, to issue a bull removing all impediments
against inquisitors. The bull opened the way for
the most extreme prosecutions of the Inquisition in the
15th and 16th centuries.
In art Dominic is shown in the black and white
robes of his order, sometimes holding a lily or accompanied
by a dog or globe of fire. A star is placed in his
halo.
Numerous miracles were attributed to Dominic.
With the help of holy water and prayer, he is said to
have raised from the dead a cardinal’s nephew who was
killed when he was thrown from a horse and mangled.
He had the gift of miraculous transport, not only of
himself but of others as well. On one occasion, he and
a Cistercian monk were traveling and stopped at a
church to spend the night in prayer. It was locked, so
they decided to spend the night on the church steps.
Suddenly they found themselves inside at the altar. On
numerous occasions he multiplied food. Once when
the friary of St. Sixtus had no food, Dominic summoned
all the brothers to the refectory and had the
tables set for a meal. He prayed, and suddenly two
angels in the guise of beautiful young men appeared
carrying a large load of bread. They gave every brother
an entire loaf, and then disappeared. It was recorded in
1528 that every year on the anniversary of this occa-

sion, a sweet perfume manifested for 40 hours at the
spot where the rectory had been.
In his preaching, Dominic was known for his accurate
prophecy. He also foretold deaths. He had the gift
of tongues; on one occasion he enabled himself and
some of his monks to converse with German monks in
their own language. He could control the elements and
tame storms.
Dominic seemed to have an immunity to fire.
Once the Albigenses challenged him to a debate in
writing, to be judged by a panel sympathetic to the
heretics. After hearing the arguments, the judges
declined to make a decision. The heretics then
requested trial by fire. The works of both sides were
tossed into the flames. The writings of the heretics
burned immediately, but Dominic’s work was not consumed,
and even rose into the air. Three times his
work was cast into the fire, with the same results each
time.
On another occasion, Dominic traveled to Segovia
and stayed at the home of a poor woman. He
exchanged his hair shirt for a coarser one. The woman
secretly kept the hair shirt. Later, after Dominic was
gone, the house caught fire. The only thing left
unburned was the hair shirt and the box containing it.
The relic was taken to the monastery at Valladolid.
On May 24, 1233, Dominic’s body was exhumed
due to repairs at the Bologna monastery where he was
buried. As soon as the flagstones were moved, a sweet
perfume filled the air. When the casket was raised, the
scent filled the entire church. Dominic’s body was
incorrupt and his countenance looked the same as in
life. His head turned spontaneously. The perfume
adhered to anyone who came near or touched the
body. Three hundred years later, his relics were still fragrant.
Canonized: July 13, 1234, by Pope Gregory IX
Feast: August 8
Patronage: astronomers
FURTHER READING
Doray, Mary J. Saint Dominic. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and
Publishers, 1993.
Drane, Augustus T. The Life of Saint Dominic. Rockford, Ill.:
TAN Books and Publishers, 1988.
Dominic Savio (1842–1857) Student of St. John
Bosco; mystic; patron of youth
Dominic Savio was spiritually advanced at a young age.
He was born in Italy in 1842. By age five, he was an
altar boy. When he was seven, he received his First
Holy Communion. On that day, he chose a motto:
“Death, but not sin!”
Dominic Savio 93
At age 12, he went with John Bosco to John’s oratory
in Turin. There Dominic created the Company of
the Immaculate Conception, in order to help John with
his work. He stood out from among the other boys,
who looked up to him. John Bosco was impressed with
his piety and purity. He had many gifts, including
prophecy and visions. One of his visions influenced
Pope Pius IX in 1850 to reestablish the Catholic hierarchy
in England.
One day Dominic began to feel sick and was sent
home. While at home he grew worse, and knew himself
that he was dying. He was only 15. He is said to
have faced death bravely, looking forward to going to
heaven. He received the last sacraments. Just before he
died, he tried to sit up. He said to his father, “Goodbye.”
He smiled and added, “I am seeing such wonderful
things!” With that, he died.
Dominic became the patron saint of the falsely
accused, due to an incident that happened while he
was alive. One time, two boys filled the school stove
with snow and garbage during the cold winter months.
When the teacher came back into the room, they
falsely accused Dominic of doing the deed. Although
disciplined in front of the entire class, Dominic refused
to tell on the two mischievous boys. When the truth
was later revealed, Dominic was asked why he didn’t
confess to his innocence. He remarked that he was imitating
Our Lord, who remained silent during His persecutions
and crucifixion.
“A teenager such as Dominic, who bravely struggled
to keep his innocence from baptism to the end of
his life, is really a saint,” said Pope St. Pius X (r.
1903–14).
On December 6, 1876, 20 years after Dominic’s
death, John Bosco—renowned for his lucid dreams—
met him in a dream. The setting was a beautiful place
of gardens, long avenues and magnificent buildings.
John was given to understand that it was not technically
“heaven.” In a brilliant light, Dominic walked forward
to greet him. Bosco described:
Dominic now walked forward on his own until he
stood close beside me. He stood there silently for a
moment, smiling and looking at me. How wonderful he
looked, how exquisitely he was clothed! The white
tunic which reached to his feet was interwoven with
golden threads and sparkling jewels. Around his waist
he had a broad red sash, also interwoven with precious
stones of every color, which sparkled and glittered in a
thousand lights. Around his neck there was a necklace
of wild flowers, but the flowers were made of precious
stones and the light they reflected lit up further still the
beauty and dignity of Dominic’s face. His hair, which
was crowned with roses, hung down to his shoulders
and completed the quite indescribable effect of his total
appearance.

94 Dunstan
Dominic told John that they were in “a place of
happiness where all that is beautiful can be enjoyed.” It
was not heaven, for “no living person can ever see or
imagine the wonders of eternity.”
Dominic told John that he had done well with the
boys under his care at his oratory, but that the Salesian
order would be many more in number if he had
“greater faith and confidence in God” and nurtured
virtues in the boys. “What helped me most and gave
me greatest joy when I was dying,” replied Dominic,
“was the loving care and help of the great Mother of God.
Tell your sons not to fail to keep close to her while
they are alive.”
Dominic then accurately predicted that John would
have many trials ahead of him. He predicted the death
of Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78) two years hence in 1878,
and the coming deaths of some of John’s charges.
His final gift was to give John three pieces of folded
paper. The first paper bore a list of boys who had never
been overcome by evil. The second had a list of boys
who had “seriously offended God,” but were trying to
redeem themselves. The third paper bore the names of
boys who had been conquered by evil. It was folded.
Dominic warned Bosco that when he opened the third
paper it would give off a terrible, unbearable stench of
evil.
John did so and was overcome by the stench. He
was saddened to see the names of some of his “best”
boys. When he awakened, the stench filled his chamber.
Dominic’s words were borne out.
Canonized: 1954 by Pope Pius XII
Feast: March 9
Patronage: choir boys; the falsely accused; youth
FURTHER READING
Forty Dreams of St. John Bosco. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and
Publishers, 1996.
Dunstan (d. 988) Confessor, archbishop of Canterbury,
abbot of Glastonbury and one of the greatest saints of the
Anglo-Saxon Church
Dunstan was born to a noble family in Glastonbury,
England, probably around 910; some sources place his
birth date as late as 925–26. According to lore, his
mother, Cynethryth, received a sign of his sanctity
while he was still in the womb. While in the church of
St. Mary on Candleday (Candlemas), all of the candles
suddenly went out. The candle she held relit, and
everyone relit their candles from hers. This was taken
as a sign that her child would be a “minister of eternal
light” to the Church of England.
Dunstan was educated by Irish scholars who frequented
the monastery at Glastonbury. He received a
tonsure and minor orders, and served in the church of
St. Mary. He devoted himself to prayer, study, the copying
of illuminated manuscripts and the making of bells
and other things for the church. So great was his devotion
that his uncle Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury,
summoned him into service.
At court, Dunstan was favored by King Aethelstan,
which earned him enemies who accused him of pagan
interests. Dunstan left court and went to Winchester,
where St. Alphege the Bald, his uncle and also the
bishop of Winchester, tried to convince him to become
a monk. Dunstan demurred, but changed his mind
after a near-fatal illness he believed to be leprosy (but
may have been blood poisoning). He returned to Glastonbury
and built himself a cell against the outside of
the church that measured five feet long by two-and-ahalf
feet wide. Here he took up the life of a hermit,
played his harp and endured temptation by the devil.
According to lore, he seized the devil’s nose with a pair
of blacksmith’s tongs.
In 940 King Aethelstan’s successor, King Eadmund,
summoned him to court at Cheddar, but Dunstan once
again was tarnished by jealous lies, and Eadmund
threw him out. One day, while the king was out hunting
a stag, his prey rushed over a cliff and Eadmund
saw he was powerless to stop his galloping horse from
doing the same. He prayed that he would make
amends to Dunstan if his life was spared. Miraculously,
the horse stopped at the edge of the cliff. Eadmund
took Dunstan to Glastonbury and made him abbot.
Thus began a revival of monastic life in England.
Dunstan established Benedictine monasticism and
worked to rebuild the Glastonbury abbey. He founded
a school for youth. Two years later, Eadmund’s successor,
Eadred, invested Dunstan with more power, and
for the next nine years the saint wielded tremendous
influence in court and in monasteries throughout England.
After Eadred died in 955, Dunstan was once more
the victim of court politics, and he was exiled to Flanders.
He was recalled in 957 and appointed to the see
of Worcester, and then to the see of London in 958. He
became archbishop of Canterbury in 960, a position
that restored his influence. In 975, he was instrumental
in the selection of King Eadward. Civil war erupted,
and Eadward was assassinated in 978. Under the next
king, Aethelred the Redeless, Dunstan lost his influence.
He retired to Canterbury and emerged only three
times, in 980, 984 and 986.
On the vigil of Ascension Day in 988, he had a
vision of angels warning him that he had three days to
live. On the feast day, he said mass and preached three
times, telling people of his impending death. He chose
the location for his tomb and went to bed to die. On

May 19 Mass was celebrated in his presence, he was
given the last rites and he died.
Dunstan was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. It
burnt down in 1074, and his relics were translated to a
tomb in the new church on the south side of the high
altar. The tomb was opened in 1508. The shrine was
destroyed during the Reformation.
Dunstan’s notable work is Regularis Concordia,
about the monastic life. In art he often is shown with a
dove near him, with a band of angels, or holding a pair
of blacksmith’s tongs.
Feast: May 19
Patronage: armorers; blacksmiths; goldsmiths; jewelers;
lighthouse keepers; locksmiths; musicians;
silversmiths; swordsmiths
Dymphna Virgin and martyr
Also known as: Dympna, Dimpna
The story of Dymphna is told in legend and has no historical
foundation. An oral tradition existed for centuries
and was set down in writing in the mid-13th
century. At that time Dymphna had been venerated for
many years in Gheel, in the province of Antwerp, Belgium,
and a church there was devoted to her. She was
invoked against insanity.
According to the legend, Dymphna was the daughter
of a pagan king in Ireland. She converted to Christianity
and was baptized in secret. After her mother
died, her father desired to marry her. With the priest
Gerebernus, she escaped to Gheel. They became hermits.
Her father found them. When he failed to persuade
Dymphna to marry him, he had the priest slain
and cut off his daughter’s head. The bodies were placed
in sarcophagi and entombed in a cave. The remains
were found, probably in the 13th century. Dymphna
was transferred to Gheel and Gerebernus to Xanten.
Fragments of the sarcophagi are in Gheel, along with a
Dymphna 95
St. Dymphna (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)
brick alleged to have been found in one of them, bearing
the word DYMPNA.
In art Dymphna is shown with a sword in her hand
and a fettered devil at her feet.
Feast: May 15
Patronage: against epilepsy; family harmony; against
insanity; nerves; against mental disorders; against
possession; runaways; against sleep disorders

Eleutherius (d. ca. 189) Pope
Also known as: Eleutheros
Eleutherius was from Nicopolis in Epirus (Greece). He
became a deacon in Rome under Pope St. Anicetus (r.
ca. 154–164), a position he held also under the pope’s
successor, Pope St. Soter. Upon Soter’s death around
the year 174, Eleutherius himself was elected pope.
Eleutherius decreed that any food fit for humans
was suitable for Christians, a response to the teachings
of the Gnostics and the Montanists (Phrygians). The
latter was a prophetic sect with origins in the east. It
was especially influential in Lyons, which sent a letter
to Eleutherius on the matter. At first Eleutherius was
inclined to be tolerant of its teachings, but after some
reflection, he came out strongly against them. Nevertheless,
Montanists continued to have followings in
Rome and other Christian cities.
There is a legend that Eleutherius sent a mission to
the British Isles (then a part of the Roman Empire) in
response to an invitation from an English king named
Lucius. However, this is now known to be due to a
misreading of Britio for Britanio. Britio (short for
Birtha-Britium) was the name of the fortress at Edessa
in Syria, under the Christian king Lucius Ælius Septimus
Megas Abgar IX, and it was he who wrote to
Eleutherius. The misinterpretation may have been a
deliberate attempt to lay a foundation for the subjugation
of Britain under the Roman Church.
Ef
97
The persecutions of Christians during his pontificate
were relatively light, and Eleutherius died a natural
death on May 24 about the year 189. He was
buried on Vatican Hill along with his predecessor
popes.
Feast: May 26
Elizabeth (first century) Mother of St. John the Baptist
and kinswoman of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Name meaning: Worshiper of God
Elizabeth is mentioned in Luke 1. She was a descendant
of Aaron and lived with her husband Zachary, a
priest of the temple in Jerusalem. She and Zachary
prayed for a son, but she was barren.
When the couple was advanced in years, Gabriel
the Archangel appeared to Zachary and told him Elizabeth
would bear a son who was to be named John.
When Elizabeth was six months pregnant, Gabriel
informed Mary that she was to bear a son who was to
be named Jesus. Mary, wishing to share her news, visited
Elizabeth, who greeted her by saying, “Blessed
are you among women, and blessed is the fruit of
your womb!” Elizabeth said that her infant “leaped for
joy” in her womb at the sound of Mary’s voice. Mary
then delivered the Magnificat (“My soul magnifies the
Lord . . .”).

98 Elizabeth Ann Seton
The last information about Elizabeth in Luke tells
of the infant John’s circumcision and naming in the
temple of Jerusalem.
Feast: November 5 (with Zachary)
Elizabeth Ann Seton (1774–1821) Founder of the
Daughters of Charity of St. Joseph and the American
parochial school system; first native-born American saint
Also known as: Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton; Mother
Seton
Elizabeth Ann Bayley was born August 28, 1774, to a
wealthy and influential Episcopalian family in New
York City. Her father, Dr. Richard Bayley, was born in
Connecticut and educated in England. He was the first
professor of anatomy at King’s College, now Columbia
University, and although he remained a Loyalist during
the American Revolution was appointed the new
nation’s inspector general in the New York Department
of Health for the Port of New York. Elizabeth’s mother,
Catherine Charlton, was the daughter of the Anglican
rector of St. Andrew’s Church on Staten Island. She
died when Elizabeth was three years old, leaving a
younger daughter, Mary, as well. Dr. Bayley remarried,
having seven children by his second wife, but took
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
responsibility for the education of his first two daughters.
Elizabeth was well read, industrious and pious.
On January 25, 1794, Elizabeth married William
Magee Seton in St. Paul’s Church, New York. William
Seton was a first-generation American and heir to a
wealthy shipping firm. Elizabeth became an active
philanthropist, and she and William’s sister Rebecca
were known in New York as the “Protestant Sisters of
Charity.” By 1797 she had helped found the Society for
the Relief of Poor Widows with Small Children. The
couple had five children: Anna Maria, William Jr.,
Richard, Catherine and Rebecca.
Then disaster struck. The Napoleonic Wars
between France and England resulted in the seizure of
many of the Setons’ ships, and the business failed. The
elder Seton died in 1798, leaving William responsible
not only for the mounting bills but also for his
orphaned siblings. In 1802, Elizabeth’s beloved father
contracted yellow fever and died. And by 1803 William
himself was seriously ill with tuberculosis.
Doctors recommended a sea voyage to sunny Italy,
so William, Elizabeth and their eldest daughter Anna
Maria left for Leghorn in late 1803 to winter with the
Filicchi family, with whom William had done business
before his marriage. After seven weeks at sea, Italian
authorities kept the ship in quarantine for another four
weeks due to a yellow fever epidemic in New York.
William’s health worsened, and he died on December
27, just nine days after being released from quarantine.
Poor health caused Elizabeth and Anna to remain
with the Filicchis throughout the winter and spring of
1803–04. During this sad period Elizabeth often
accompanied the Filicchis to Catholic services, where
she was touched by the beauty of the Mass and especially
impressed with the idea of the Presence in Communion.
When Elizabeth and Anna returned to New
York in June 1804, she began Catholic instruction,
even in the face of fierce campaigning against such a
step by her rector, Mr. Hobart, and all of her relatives.
Then her dear sister-in-law Rebecca Seton died in July,
throwing Elizabeth into total despair. Finally accepting
the call, Elizabeth was received into the faith at St.
Peter’s Church by Father Matthew O’Brien on March
14, 1805. Family financial support would have been
immediately forthcoming had Elizabeth remained
Protestant, but now she was ostracized. She endeavored
to run a boardinghouse for boys, then tried to
teach at a girls’ school, but fears that Elizabeth would
teach Catholic dogma forced the school to close.
When Elizabeth’s 15-year-old sister-in-law, Cecilia, announced
she was converting as well, threats were made
to have the New York legislature expel Elizabeth from
the state. Her sons William and Richard were in
Georgetown College, courtesy of the Filicchis, and

Elizabeth unsuccessfully sought refuge for herself and
the girls in a Canadian convent.
Desperate, Elizabeth went to hear Mass in August
1807 from Father William Valentine du Bourg, a Sulpician
father and president of the Sulpician College of St.
Mary’s, a seminary in Baltimore. Father du Bourg suggested
that Elizabeth found and head a girls’ school
near the seminary. After much prayer and consultation,
Elizabeth traveled to Baltimore in June 1808 and
opened St. Joseph’s School for Girls next to the chapel
at St. Mary’s, an event that marked the beginning of the
Catholic parochial school system in America. Other
young women seeking quiet service joined the school,
including Cecilia Conway of Philadelphia. They wore
whatever clothes they owned for everyday, and for formal
dress Elizabeth chose an outfit based on a nun’s
habit she had seen in Italy: a plain black dress with a
shoulder cape and a bonnet. In 1809, a man named
Cooper died and left the women $10,000 to found a
school for poor children. Elizabeth bought a farm
located a half-mile from Emmitsburg, Maryland, and
two miles from the school at St. Mary’s. Before establishing
her new community, Elizabeth took vows in
front of Archbishop Carroll, formally founding the Sisters
of St. Joseph and henceforth becoming Mother
Seton, and moved to Emmitsburg. Her sisters-in-law
Harriet and Cecilia joined her, but Harriet died that
December, followed by Cecilia in April 1810. That
same year, Bishop Flaget petitioned the Sisters of Charity
of St. Vincent de Paul in Paris to receive the rules of
the Sisters of St. Joseph. Three sisters were to come to
America to train the community, but Napoleon forbade
the women to leave France. Bishop Flaget modified the
rule somewhat, with Archbishop Carroll’s approval,
and in January 1812 the order officially became the
Daughters of Charity of St. Joseph, with Mother Seton
as superior. Elizabeth’s daughter Anna Maria died
March 12, 1812, during her novitiate but was allowed
to profess her vows before she died. On July 19, 1813,
Mother Seton and 18 women established the first
American religious society.
The order quickly grew, establishing free schools,
orphanages and hospitals in addition to the parochial
schools. Mother Seton divided her time between the
sisters and writing discourses, translations and hymns.
Her triumphs continued, tempered by sadness, however,
as her daughter Rebecca died in 1816. When the
community reelected Mother Seton as their superior in
1819 she was suffering from a pulmonary disease,
probably tuberculosis, which finally took her life on
January 4, 1821. The Daughters of Charity were incorporated
into the full Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de
Paul in 1850. Mother Seton’s body is enshrined in the
basilica at Emmitsburg. Only two of Elizabeth’s chil-
Elizabeth of Portugal 99
dren survived their mother very long (Richard died in
Italy in 1821 as well), and both became important to
the Church. William Jr. died in 1868 after joining the
navy, but his son Robert became the Most Reverend
Robert Seton, archbishop of Heliopolis. Her daughter
Catherine (whom Elizabeth had once offered to God in
despair over her father’s illness) became the first postulant
of the New York Sisters of Mercy and their mother
superior, dying at age 91. And one of Elizabeth’s halfnephews,
James (the son of her stepbrother Guy Charlton
Bayley), also converted and became the Most
Reverend James Roosevelt Bayley, archbishop of Baltimore.
Beatified: March 17, 1963, by Pope John XXIII
Canonized: September 14, 1975, by Pope Paul VI
Feast: January 4
Patronage: death of children; loss of parents; people
opposed to Church authorities; people ridiculed
for their piety; people with in-law problems; widows
FURTHER READING
“Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton.” Christianity-Catholicism. URL:
http://www.suite101.com. Published July 31, 1998.
Downloaded May 13, 2000.
Dirvin, Joseph I. The Soul of Elizabeth Seton: A Spiritual Portrait.
Fort Collins, Colo.: Ignatius Press, 1990.
Elizabeth of Portugal (1271–1336) Queen of Portugal,
Franciscan tertiary
Also known as: Isabella; Angel of Peace; the Peacemaker
Given the contentious nature of her royal ancestors, no
one would have predicted that Elizabeth would assume
the role of peacemaker almost from birth. Her greatgrandfather
was Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II,
leader of Germany, Italy, Sicily and Jerusalem, and
cousin to St. Thomas Aquinas. Her maternal grandfather,
King Manfred of Sicily, was one of Frederick II’s
illegitimate sons. He met an untimely end when
Charles of Anjou, son of King St. Louis IX of France,
had him murdered and his body paraded through the
streets on a donkey.
On her father’s side, her grandfather, King James I
of Aragon, banished his family from court because they
criticized his incestuous affairs. But Elizabeth’s birth at
Aragon in 1271 stopped all the squabbling, at least
temporarily; James reconciled with his son Peter in
order to see Peter’s child, named for her great-aunt St.
Elizabeth of Hungary. The king fell in love with Elizabeth
and took her to live with him.
By the time King James I died in 1276, the six-yearold
child had learned the intrigues of her grandfather’s

100 Emiliana and Tarsilla
marriages and affairs and understood the geopolitical
significance of her own wedding. Edward I of England
wanted Elizabeth to marry his son, and Charles of
Anjou desired her for his son. But her father, now Peter
III of Aragon, betrothed the girl, barely 12, to King
Denis of Portugal, supposedly to keep her sunny, pious
presence nearby.
Passion and retribution scarred the groom’s family
as well. Denis’s father was the illegitimate son of King
Alfonso III of Portugal. The father repudiated his wife
and married Beatrice Guzma, Denis’s mother—herself
illegitimate. Denis was excommunicated, and all of
Portugal was under a papal interdict for the royal family’s
refusal to conform. By her 19th birthday, Elizabeth—an
astute politician—had negotiated a peace
between her husband and Pope Nicholas IV and the
removal of the papal interdict. At 21, she called for
arbitration to settle a property dispute between Denis
and his brother. When that failed, Elizabeth avoided
war by ceding her brother-in-law a piece of her own
estates.
The Portuguese remember the reign of King Denis
and Queen Elizabeth as a golden age. The royal couple
organized agricultural villages, and Elizabeth founded
the nation’s first agricultural college, where orphan
girls learned to be good farmers’ wives. Whenever one
of the girls married, Elizabeth gave the couple a plot of
her own land. She established foundling refuges, a hospital,
travelers’ shelters and a home for penitent women
at Torres Novas. Even during their honeymoon,
Elizabeth gave parties for the poor and whatever she
had to the needy. One account says that when she had
no money for her workmen, she gave them roses,
which turned into money.
Elizabeth and Denis had two children, Constance
and Alfonso, but Denis’s infidelities brought nine more
into the royal household. Elizabeth refused to
denounce Denis or repudiate the children. It pained
her, however, that Denis preferred his illegitimate son
Alfonso Sancho over their own son. Jealous and rebellious,
Alfonso attempted to kill Alfonso Sancho, but
his plot failed. To punish her for helping Alfonso
escape, Denis banished Elizabeth from Lisbon, the
royal capital, and persuaded Pope John XXII (r.
1316–34) to issue a bull granting Portugal the right to
ignore Alfonso’s birthright in favor of the illegitimate
children.
When she was allowed to return to Lisbon, Elizabeth
again brokered peace between Denis and Alfonso
and persuaded the pope to lift the bull. In 1323, when
nothing else worked to allay war between father and
son, Elizabeth rode at full gallop on a donkey between
the opposing armies standing on the field of battle,
shaming them into reconciliation. She reportedly
averted war between Ferdinand IV of Castile and his
cousin, and between Ferdinand IV and her own
brother, James II of Aragon.
In 1324 Denis fell ill, and Elizabeth devoted herself
totally to him. Denis finally admitted his sins and died
repentant January 6, 1325. Immediately after his
death, Elizabeth gave away all her possessions and
made pilgrimage to Compostela, then left for a convent
of Poor Clares she had founded at Coimbra. Dissuaded
from joining the convent, she became a tertiary to the
order of St. Francis and lived the rest of her life as
Queen Mother in a house near the convent.
Always the peacemaker, Elizabeth attempted one
final mission to reconcile her son, now Alfonso IV, and
her nephew, Alfonso XI of Castile. Traveling to
Estremoz at age 66, in the summer heat, she died on
July 4, 1336.
Elizabeth is invoked in time of war, for peace.
Canonized: 1626 by Pope Urban VIII
Feast: July 4
Patronage: brides; charitable societies and workers;
difficult marriages and victims of unfaithfulness
or adultery; falsely accused people; widows;
queens; tertiaries; victims of jealousy
Emiliana and Tarsilla (d. ca. 580–581) Aunts of Pope
St. Gregory I and nieces of Pope St. Felix III (IV)
Also known as: Aemilianus; Tharsilla
Emiliana, a mystic, and Tarsilla lived in Rome at the
home of Gregory’s wealthy father, Gordianus, and were
revered for their severe austerities and prayer. Tarsilla
died on January 5, around 580–581, and Emiliana
died a few days later.
Feast: January 5
Ennodius of Pavia (474–521) Bishop of Pavia, Father
of the Church
Magnus Felix Ennodius is believed to have been born
at Arles, in southern Gaul, in 474. As a youth he went
to Pavia, Italy, where he was trained in rhetoric and
became engaged. Later he decided to join the priesthood,
his fiancée at the same time becoming a nun; it
does not appear that they were ever married.
In 496, his uncle Laurentius, Bishop of Milan, had
him transferred to that city. Ennodius was ordained a
deacon and began teaching in the schools. He also
became embroiled in ecclesiastical controversies
when he served as secretary to his uncle, who
weighed in on the side of Pope St. Symmachus (r.
498–514) in 498.

About 514, Ennodius was made bishop of Pavia. In
515 and 517 he was sent by Pope St. Hormisdas (r.
514–523) to Constantinople as part of his ultimately
successful campaign to bridge the long-standing schism
between the Eastern and Western churches.
Nothing further is known about Ennodius’s episcopate,
though the texts of several hymns he composed
have come down to us. He died at Pavia on July 17, 521.
Feast: July 17
Ephraem (ca. 306–373) Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Ephrem; Ephraim, Ephraem the Syrian,
the Harp of the Holy Spirit
Ephraem was born under Roman rule in Nisibis in
Mesopotamia; his father was a pagan priest. He was
raised in the Christian mysteries by St. James, bishop of
Nisibis, and was baptized either at age 18 or 28. He went
with James to the Council of Nicea in 325. Ephraem
aided James in giving religious instruction to the people
of Nisibis and was especially influential during sieges of
the city in 338, 346 and 350. According to lore, he
cursed Persian troops from the city walls, causing a
cloud of flies and mosquitoes to descend upon the
troops and drive them away.
In 363 Rome gave control of Nisibis to the Persians
and most of the Christians fled. Ephraem left and settled
finally in Edessa, the capital of Osrhoene, where
he spent the last 10 years of his life as a hermit. He
condemned heretical sects, especially the Arians and
Gnostics. According to St. Gregory of Nyssa, Ephraem
visited St. Basil in Caesarea in 370.
Ephraem died in 373 and was buried in a cemetery
for foreigners. His body is claimed to be at the Armenian
monastery of St. Sergius in Edessa.
Most of Ephraem’s prolific writings were done during
his hermit years. He composed commentaries on
the Scriptures, most of which have been lost or survive
in fragments. He wrote sermons and exhortations,
mostly in verse, and composed hymns. He is credited
with introducing hymns to the public.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1920 by Pope Benedict
XV
Feast: June 9
Epiphanius of Salamis (ca. 310–403) Bishop of Constantia
(Salamis) and Father of the Church
Also known as: the Oracle of Palestine
Epiphania of Salamis was born sometime after 310 in
Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis in Judea. He became an
expert in scriptural languages and lived as a monk and
hermit in Egypt. He returned to Besanduk, founded a
monastery and was ordained. He became bishop of
Constantia on Cyprus in 367.
As bishop, Epiphanius earned a reputation for
asceticism, scholarship and orthodoxy. His advice was
often sought. He went to Antioch in 376 to intervene
in the schism there, siding with Rome against Meletius.
He also intervened in the alleged Origenism of Bishop
John of Jerusalem and in the heresy accusations against
St. John Chrysostom. He died in 403 on his return to
Cyprus from Constantinople.
Epiphanius was a vigorous defender of the faith.
Ancoratus, or “The Well-Anchored,” is a substantial
treatment of Christian doctrine and argues especially
against Arianism and Origenism. Panarion, or “Medicine
chest,” gives the remedies against the poisons of
77 heresies. He was a primary authority of his day in
the devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Feast: May 12
Eucherius of Lyons (d. ca. 450) Bishop of Lyons,
Father of the Church
Also known as: Eucharius
Eucherius was born in the latter half of the fourth century.
A Gallo-Roman of high rank, he was married to a
woman named Galla; they had two sons, Veranius and
Salonius, both of whom became bishops and today are
numbered among the saints.
Around 422, Eucherius withdrew to the monastery
of Lérins, where his sons were living. His decision was
probably spurred by the death of his wife, although she
may have taken the veil. In any event, he did not stay
long in the monastery, but soon retired to the island of
Lerona (now Sainte-Marguerite), where he devoted
himself to study and mortification.
Wishing to join the anchorites of the eastern
deserts, he wrote to St. John Cassian, who, in reply,
sent him descriptions of the lives of these hermits.
However, this turn was not to be vouchsafed him. His
reputation for wisdom and virtue brought him to the
attention of Church officials and in 434 or 435 he was
compelled to accept the bishopric of Lyons.
Eucherius left a considerable correspondence with
Cassian, St. Hilary of Arles, and other church luminaries
of the day, and a few other writings, including an
account of the martyrs of the Theban Legion. He died
about 450.
Feast: November 16
Eugene I 101
Eugene I (d. 657) Pope
Also known as: Eugenius
Eugene, the son of Rufinianus, was a Roman from the
first ecclesiastical region of the city. He was known for

102 Eugene III
his holiness, gentleness and charity. He became a cleric
in the Church of Rome in his youth and held various
positions before his elevation to the Chair of St. Peter
to replace St. Martin I on August 10, 654. Although it
is not known whether Martin I had officially resigned,
he was being held in exile in the Crimea at the time,
and evidently approved of Eugene as his successor.
Martin died less than a month after Eugene’s consecration.
Martin had gotten into trouble by his vocal opposition
to Monothelitism (a heresy that held that Christ
had a single divine nature rather than a double human
and divine nature), and had been banished to the
Crimea by Emperor Constans II. Eugene continued to
uphold the Church’s position, and was threatened with
being roasted alive. Fortunately for him, Constans just
at this time became involved in a conflict with the
advancing Moors. They captured Rhodes in 654 and in
655 defeated Constans in a naval battle at Phoenix.
During his pontificate, Eugene consecrated 21 bishops
for different parts of the world. He died in Rome
on June 2, 657, and was interred in St. Peter’s at the
Vatican.
Feast: June 2
Eugene III (d. 1153) Cistercian monk, pope
Also known as: Bernard of Pisa
There is much uncertainty about the parentage, place
of birth, and original name of the pope known as
Eugene III. Each of his biographers gives different
information on these matters. The only thing certain is
that he was born into a noble family named Pignatelli.
He was educated at Pisa, Italy, and following his ordination
as a priest, became a canon at that city’s cathedral.
In 1135, after meeting St. Bernard, he joined the
Cistercian order at Clairvaux, apparently taking the
name Bernard (Bernardo) after his mentor. Later he
was sent by his order along with other monks to the
ancient abbey of Farfa, but Pope Innocent II (r.
1130–43) instead assigned them to St. Athanasius
(then Tre Fontane) in Rome. Thus, he was living in
Rome when he was unexpectedly elected pope on February
15, 1145, the day his predecessor, Lucius II (r.
1144–45), died.
Eugene was enthroned in St. John Lateran but then,
because the city threatened to erupt in violence
(Lucius may in fact have been stabbed to death), he
and his cardinals fled to the Farfa monastery. After
Eugene’s consecration in secret on February 18, he
and his entourage moved to Viterbo. His elevation was
soon welcomed by the entire Christian world with the
exception of Rome. There, under the instigation of
Arnold of Brescia, pilgrims who happened to be in the
city were attacked, the palaces of the cardinals and
nobles who supported Eugene were razed, monasteries
were pillaged, St. Peter’s was turned into an armory.
The violence was so extreme that it soon met resistance
from influential families of the region, and they
forced a reconciliation between the parties.
At issue was the independence of an elected Senate
from both the monarchy and the Roman Church. A
democratic party, with whom Arnold was affiliated,
wanted the Church to be beholden to the Senate.
Nonetheless, a treaty was worked out whereby the Senate
would pledge allegiance to the pope. The pope and
the Senate would have separate courts, with the right
of appeal from either court to the other. The treaty
enabled Eugene to return to Rome a few days before
Christmas, 1145. However, when the democrats
demanded the destruction of Tivoli, a town that had
been faithful to Eugene, and he refused to allow it, the
agreement broke down. With Rome again growing
restless, Eugene left the city for the Castel Saint’
Angelo, then for Viterbo, and finally, early in 1146,
crossed the Alps into France.
For the next three years Eugene remained in
France, convening councils to take action in regard to
heresies such as Manichaeanism and ecclesiastical discipline
in matters such as the dress and conduct of the
clergy. In the spring of 1148, he began making his way
back to Rome. On July 7 of that year, he excommunicated
Arnold, still a leader of the democratic movement
there. Then in the winter of 1149, Eugene
entered the city with the military assistance of Roger of
Sicily, and celebrated Christmas in the Lateran. However,
he and his court were soon forced to take to the
road again. It was not until the spring of 1153 that the
Treaty of Constance, made between the Church and
the Holy Roman Empire, caused the democratic cause
to lose support and collapse, and they were able to
return to Rome for good.
As vexing as the situation in Rome must have been
for the Catholic Church during this period, it faced a
much larger crisis in the Moslem advances in the Holy
Land. The fall of Edessa in 1144 was bad enough, but
then Christian principalities in Palestine and Syria
were threatened. A Second Crusade was in order, and
Eugene commissioned St. Bernard to preach it. The
Crusade ended unfavorably, however, with the defeat
of armies under the command of the king of the Romans
and the king of France.
In the summer of 1153, Eugene retired to Tivoli to
escape the heat. He died there on July 8 and his body
was carried back to Rome where it was interred in
front of the high altar in St. Peter’s Basilica.

Beatified: December 28, 1872, by Pope Pius IX
Feast: July 8
Eusebius (d. 309 or 310) Pope and martyr
Perhaps a physician of Greek descent, Eusebius was
elected successor to Pope St. Marcellus on April 18,
309 or 310. He reigned for only four months, until
August 17 of the same year. His brief rule was marked
by the rigorist controversy, which concerned the return
of apostates to the church.
During the four years of persecution under
Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) many Christians had
deserted their faith. They now wanted to return to the
Church, which Eusebius, following Marcellus and
longstanding Church policy, ruled they could do, so
long as they performed proper penance. In this he
charted a middle course between Anaclitus, who
believed that the lapsed were outside the Church and
could not be reconciled to it, and Heraclius, himself an
apostate, who insisted that they be allowed to return
without penance. The controversy caused such an
uproar in Rome that Emperor Maxentius charged both
Eusebius and Heraclius with disturbing the peace and
exiled them to Sicily. Eusebius died there soon after.
The relics of Eusebius were translated back to
Rome, probably in 310, and placed in their own
cubiculum in the Catacomb of St. Callistus on the
Appian Way. Although Eusebius did not die a violent
death, he is venerated as a martyr.
Feast: September 26
Eustathius (ca. 270–ca. 360, or 336–337) Bishop of
Antioch and Father of the Church
Also known as: Eustathius of Antioch
Eustathius was born in Side, Pamphylia. He was the
first bishop of Beroea in Syria and was transferred to
Antioch in 323. There he became embroiled in the
Arian heresy controversy and was a fierce opponent of
the sect. He incurred many powerful enemies, including
Eusebius of Caesarea, who succeeded in calling a
synod in Antioch in 331 and having him deposed.
Emperor Constantine exiled him to Trajanopolis. Eusathius’s
followers were enraged and ready to defend
him by force, but he calmed them down and went into
exile. Many of his clergy went with him. His followers
formed their own community in Antioch, calling
themselves the Eustathians. They refused to recognize
any of the Arian bishops.
Eustathius died probably in 360, though some
sources give 336 or 337 as the date. St. Meletius became
bishop of Antioch, but the Eustathians refused to recog-
nize him. This created the “Meletian Schism,” which
lasted into the second decade of the fifth century.
Most of Eustathius’s writings have been lost. He was
a harsh critic of Origen.
Feast: July 16
Eutychianus (d. 283) Pope
Little is known about the life or pontificate of Eutychianus,
who was elected to succeed St. Felix I in January
275. Legend has it that he personally buried 242 martyrs,
but this is unlikely, since he lived in a time of
peace. He died of natural causes on December 7, 283,
and was buried in the papal crypt of the Catacomb of
St. Callistus on the Appian Way.
Feast: December 8
Evaristus (d. ca. 105) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Aristus
Evaristus 103
St. Eustathius (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)
Evaristus was born in Bethlehem. A Hellenic Jew, he
converted to Christianity and eventually reached

104 Ewe
Rome. There he accepted the dangerous office of
bishop after the exile and death of St. Clement, around
the year 97, thus becoming the fifth pope. He ruled for
eight years. Although there are no extant accounts of
his death, he is listed in early martyrologies. He is
buried in the Vatican, near the tombs of St. Peter and
other early popes.
Feast: October 26
Ewe (sixth century) Patron saint of the Cornwall
parish of St. Ewe
Little is known about Ewe, who is believed to have
come from Wales to evangelize the area of mid-Cornwall,
England. From the 12th century on, Ewe was said
to have been a woman. It is also thought that Ewe may
be the same as St. Theo of Brittany, as Th was often
placed at the beginning of saints’ names beginning in
vowels. The latter possibility is unlikely.
A church probably built by the saint exists in the
parish of St. Ewe and is dated to the sixth century.
Ezequial Moreno (1848–1906) Augustine missionary
renowned throughout the Americas
Ezequial Moreno was born on April 9, 1848, in Alfaro,
Rioja, Spain, the child of Félix Moreno and Josefa Díaz.
He was drawn to the religious life as a child, and in
September 1864, when he was 18, he entered the
Augustine monastery in Montegudo, Navarra.
Ezequial spent much of the early part of his career
as a missionary in the Philippines, where he was sent
in 1870. He was ordained a priest the following year,
and later was named to head the Montegudo
monastery and so returned to Spain.
In 1888, Ezequial traveled once again, this time to
Colombia in command of a group of Augustinian missionaries.
His success as an administrator led to his being
named bishop of Pinar in 1893 and bishop of Pasto in
1895.
In 1905, Ezequial was diagnosed with cancer. The
following year he returned to Spain for an operation,
which turned out unsuccessfully, and he died in the
monastery at Montegudo on August 19, 1906.
After his death, his fame grew rapidly, especially in
Colombia. He is considered to have been one of the
greatest evangelists of the Americas.
Beatified: 1975 by Pope Paul VI
Canonized: October 11, 1992, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: August 19
Patronage: cancer victims
FURTHER READING
“San Ezequiel Moreno.” Santos y Biatos de America Latina:
Colombia website. URL: http://www/aciprensa.com/santcolo.
htm. Downloaded: November 26, 1999.

Fabian (d. 250) Pope and martyr
Fabian was a farmer who happened to be in Rome
when the election to replace Pope St. Anterus began.
Several important persons were under consideration,
when a dove suddenly appeared and alighted on his
head. The dove recalled the settling of the Holy Spirit
on Christ, as described in the Scriptures. It was taken
as a sign, and although he was a complete unknown,
Fabian received unanimous approval on the
first ballot.
During his 14-year reign, Emperor Philip was in
power, and there was a lull in the persecution of Christians.
Fabian was responsible for several important
actions. He divided Rome into seven districts, each
supervised by a deacon, and appointed seven subdeacons
to collect the acta of the martyrs (that is, the proceedings
of their trials). (A similar order had brought
about the death of his predecessor.) He also made considerable
improvements to the Catacombs of St. Callistus
and had the body of Pope St. Pontian (r. 230–235)
brought from Sardinia and interred there. He may also
have sent St. Dionysius (Denis) and other preachers to
Gaul, but this is uncertain.
Fabian died a martyr on January 20, 250, when
upon the death of Philip and the accession of Decius
the persecutions began anew. Decius ordered all Christians
to deny Christ by offering incense to idols or
Ff
105
through some other pagan ritual; those who refused to
obey were killed. Fabian’s body was interred in the
Crypt of the Popes in the Catacomb of St. Callistus.
Later some of his relics were translated to the Basilica
of Saint Sebastian.
In art, Fabian is shown with a dove by his side; with
a tiara and a dove; with a sword or club; or kneeling at
a block (about to be beheaded). Sometimes he is
shown with St. Sebastian, who was martyred on his
feast day, or with a palm and cross. Fabian’s image is
included in a painting attributed to Diamante (ca.
1430–98) in the Vatican’s Sistine Chapel.
Feast: January 20
Patronage: lead-founders; potters
Faith (d. third century) Virgin martyr
Faith was born in Agen, Aquitania (southwestern
France), to a prominent Christian family. Tradition
held that at a young age she dedicated herself to Christ
and longed to become a martyr. Her wish was granted
during the persecutions.
Many of the Christians of Agen took to the forests
and hills to escape, but Faith remained in the city to
face the arrival of Dacian, the prefect of Rome. She was
arrested and brought before Dacian. He ordered her to
sacrifice to the goddess Diana, upon which she would

106 Faustina Kowalska
be rewarded. She refused, and was sentenced to be
roasted alive on a gridiron. The spectators were so horrified
at her suffering that they protested, and so Faith
and several other martyrs were beheaded. Christians
buried their bodies in secret.
After the persecutions ended, the bishop of Agen,
Dulcitius, built a church in honor of Faith and placed
the relics of the martyrs in it. The relics of Faith later
were translated to the abbey of Conques, which was a
popular pilgrimage site in the Middle Ages. Some of
her relics also reportedly were taken to Glastonbury,
and churches in England were dedicated to her.
Feast: October 6
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Faustina Kowalska (1905–1938) Nun and mystic,
originator of the Divine Mercy movement
Also known as: Maria Faustina of the Most Blessed
Sacrament
Faustina Kowalska was born Elena Kowalska in Glogowiec,
a small village west of Lodz, Poland, on August
25, 1905. She was the third of 10 children.
When she was seven, during the celebration of Vespers,
at the time of the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament,
God called her to the religious life. After her
First Communion, she went to confession every week
and never missed Sunday Mass with her family. Her
extraordinary holiness was manifest in the miraculous
obedience the family cattle paid to her.
From the ages of 12 to 14, Elena attended public
school. At 16, she began to work as a housemaid in
Lodz. Then a few weeks before her 20th birthday, in
the summer of 1924, she had a vision of Jesus in his
Passion. He chastised her for her spiritual sloth and
ordered her to join a convent. After being rejected by
several religious orders, she entered the Congregation
of the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy in Warsaw on
August 1, 1925.
In her year as postulant, Elena’s guardian angel
showed her purgatory in order to excite her devotion
to the poor souls waiting there. On April 30, 1926, she
entered her novitiate; she took the veil and was given
the religious name Maria Faustina, to which she added,
“of the Most Blessed Sacrament,” as was her congregation’s
custom. On that occasion, Jesus revealed to her
all that she would suffer for his name. The following
year, he gave her a vision of potatoes changed into
roses to teach her how pleasing was a lowly work done
for His love. During the last six months of the novi-
tiate, Faustina passed through a dark night of the soul.
At the end of that mystical experience, St. Thérèse of
the Child Jesus appeared to her in a dream and foretold
her final perseverance, her future heroic sanctity, and
her canonization. On April 30, 1928, she took her first
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
Faustina spent the next 10 years in various houses
of her order, working as cook, gardener and porter. She
had a special devotion to Mary Immaculate and to the
Eucharist and reconciliation, which gave her the
strength to bear all her sufferings. She suffered in
secret, with only her confessors and some of her superiors
aware of what she was going through. Fortunately,
she kept a diary in which she recorded the
details of the visions and stigmata that began to visit
her with increasing frequency. Since she was barely literate,
she wrote phonetically, without punctuation, filling
almost 700 pages. A poor translation reached Rome
in 1958 and the work was judged heretical. However,
when Karol Wojtyla (the future Pope John Paul II)
became archbishop of Krakow, he ordered a better
translation made, and the Vatican reversed itself,
declaring that the diary proclaimed God’s love. The
diary was published as Divine Mercy in My Soul.
Despite her profession, the darkness that had come
upon Faustina during her novitiate did not leave her.
So challenging were some of her experiences that her
confessors and superiors could not at first believe God
was treating her in such a manner. On one occasion,
Jesus commanded her to adore him in the Blessed
Sacrament for one hour on nine successive days, praying
in union with Mary and all the while attempting to
make the Stations of the Cross. On the seventh day, she
had a vision of Mary, standing between heaven and
earth, dressed in a bright garment. Fiery rays issued
from her heart, some ascending heavenward, others
falling upon Poland.
Faustina received several striking communications
from Jesus in the 1930s. In the most important of these,
He sent her a message of Divine Mercy and asked her to
spread it throughout the world. She was to be an instrument
for emphasizing God’s plan of mercy for all of
humankind and a model of how to be merciful to others,
living her entire life in imitation of Jesus, as a sacrifice.
To assist in this project, Jesus asked that a picture
be painted of Himself with an inscription reading,
“Jesus, I Trust in You.” Faustina commissioned this
painting in 1935. It shows a red and white light shining
from Christ’s Sacred Heart.
Faustina died October 5, 1938, in Krakow, Poland,
of tuberculosis, but her work was picked up by others,
thanks especially to Divine Mercy in My Soul. A movement
of priests, religious and lay people inspired by

her experiences was organized under the name, Apostles
of Divine Mercy. The movement was approved in
1996 by the archdiocese of Krakow, and has since
spread to 29 other countries.
Faustina’s congregation, the Sisters of Our Lady of
Mercy, operates the Shrine of the Divine Mercy in
Lagiewniki, Poland. The order opened its first house
outside Poland—in Boston, Massachusetts—in 1988.
In Eden Hill, Massachusetts, there is a National Shrine
of the Divine Mercy, run by the Marians of the Immaculate
Conception.
Faustina is credited with interceding in two miraculous
cures that led to her beatification in 1993 and canonization
in 2000. In the former, she caused a cure of a
woman who suffered Milroy’s disease, a hereditary
form of lymphedema; in the latter, she caused the cure
of a priest’s heart condition.
Beatified: 1993 by Pope John Paul II
Canonized: April 30, 2000, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: October 5
Patronage: Warsaw, Plock, and Krakow, Poland; Vilnius,
Lithuania
FURTHER READING
“Bl. Maria Faustina Kowalska, Apostle of the Divine Mercy.”
Apostolate Alliance of the Two Hearts website. URL:
http://home.ici.net/~aath/alliance/apostles/faustina/life1.h
tml. Downloaded: September 10, 2000.
Kreitzberg, Paul. “St. Faustina Kowalska, Nun.” URL: http://
www.smart.net/~tak/Patrons/faustina.html. Downloaded:
September 10, 2000.
Pope John Paul II. “Canonization of Sister Faustina, Angelus
Message.” Catholic Information Network website. URL:
http://www.cin.org/jp2/jp000430a.html. Downloaded:
May 21, 2000.
Felicity See PERPETUA AND FELICITY.
Felix I (d. 274) Pope
Nothing is known about the early life of Felix, the son
of Constantius. He was presumably a presbyter or
priest in the Church of Rome when he was elected to
succeed St. Dionysius as bishop on January 5, 269.
Felix is remembered for his condemnation of the
heresy of Paul of Samosata, for a time bishop of Antioch.
Paul had already been deposed by the Synod of
Antioch when Felix became aware of the matter, but as
pope he dispatched a letter supporting the synod’s
views. Like other second- and third-century heretics,
Paul maintained that there was no unity to the Holy
Trinity and that Jesus had been a man who received
supernatural powers at his baptism.
Felix died a natural death on December 30, 274,
and was interred in the papal crypt of the Catacomb of
St. Callistus.
In art, he is shown as a pope with an anchor.
Feast: May 30
Felix III (d. 492) Pope
Felix was born to a Roman senatorial family and is said
to have been an ancestor of Pope St. Gregory I (Gregory
the Great, r. 590–604). He was a widower with
two children when he was elected bishop of Rome to
succeed St. Simplicius upon his death in 483.
The year before, at the suggestion of Acacius, the
patriarch of Constantinople, Emperor Zeno had issued
an edict known as the Hereticon, or Act of Union. This
edict was intended to bring about a reconciliation
between the Catholics in the West and the Eutychians
(or Monophysites) in the East on the issue of the
nature of Jesus, but it backfired and resulted in splitting
the Eastern Church into three or four branches.
Felix’s pontificate was largely concerned with this
schism, which was to last for 35 years. He died on
March 1, 492, having reigned eight years, 11 months
and 23 days.
Feast: March 1
Felix IV (d. 530) Pope
Felix IV 107
Felix was a cardinal in Samnium when Pope St. John I
(r. 523–526) died in prison in May 526. John I had
been arrested by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and
of Italy, who was threatened by John’s appeal to members
of the Eastern as well as Western Church.
Theodoric put forward Felix as a candidate for the
Chair of St. Peter, and the Roman clergy and laity
acquiesced to his wishes. Felix was consecrated on July
12.
On August 30, Theodoric died. The throne passed
to his grandson, Athalaric, but because he was then a
minor, the government was put in the hands of his
mother, Theodoric’s daughter, Amalasuntha. Fortunately,
she was well disposed toward the Catholics. She
allowed Felix the traditional privilege of judging clergy
who were accused of misconduct and she gave him as
gifts a pagan temple, which he had reconstructed as
the church of SS. Cosmas and Damian. This church
still exists; in its apse there is a large and magnificent
mosaic executed on Felix’s order.
In 529, Felix sent 25 pronouncements on grace and
free will to Cæsarius of Arles, who presented them
before the Synod of Orange. The synod accepted them

108 Fiacre
as a confirmation of the teachings of St. Augustine and
a condemnation of semi-Pelagianism.
Felix grew increasingly concerned about the Roman
Church. On the one hand, many believers supported
the Goths, while on the other, many leaned toward
Byzantium. When he fell fatally ill in September 530, in
the hopes of keeping peace Felix gave his pallium to his
archdeacon Boniface and let it be known that Boniface
was to be his successor. However, in the papal elections
that followed his death, his wishes were disregarded.
Felix’s relics rest in the portico of St. Peter’s Basilica in
the Vatican.
Feast: January 30
Fiacre (d. 670) Irish miracle-worker and healer who
established a cult in France
Also known as: Fiachra, Fiaker, Fiacrius, Fevre
Fiacre is not mentioned in the earlier Irish calendars.
He was born in Ireland and became a hermit at Kilfiachra.
In 630, desiring greater solitude, he went to
France and settled at Meaux. St. Faro, bishop of that
city, gave him land in a forest that was his own patrimony—called
Breuil, in the province of Brie.
According to legend, Faro offered him as much land
as he could turn up in a day. Instead of driving his furrow
with a plough, Fiacre turned the top of the soil
with the point of his staff. He cleared the ground of
trees and briers, made himself a cell, cultivated a garden,
built an oratory in honor of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, and made a hospice for travelers, which developed
into the village of Saint-Fiacre in Seine-et-Marne.
He is said to have built the first hostel for Irish pilgrims
on the Continent, and used the produce of his
vegetable garden to feed them.
Fiacre’s generosity and cheerful disposition attracted
many people, who sought him out for advice,
alms and especially healing, for he had the miraculous
touch. However, his goodwill did not extend fully to
women: He never allowed any woman to enter the
enclosure of his hermitage or his chapel. Those who
dared defy this prohibition, even centuries later, met
with punishments. According to one story, a woman
from Paris entered the oratory in 1620. She instantly
became distracted and never recovered her senses.
Anne of Austria, Queen of France, mindful of the prohibition,
offered her prayers outside the doors.
Fiacre died in 670 and was buried at Meaux.
The fame of Fiacre’s miracles of healing continued
after his death and crowds visited his shrine for centuries.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Meaux was a
major site for pilgrimages. High-ranking people and
royalty testified to the healing power of Fiacre’s relics
and shrine. Mgr. Seguier, Bishop of Meaux in 1649,
and John de Chatillon, count of Blois, gave testimony
of their own relief. Anne of Austria credited the intercession
of Fiacre with the recovery of Louis XIII at
Lyons, where he had been dangerously ill. She
expressed her thanks by making a pilgrimage on foot
to the shrine in 1641. She also sent to his shrine a
token in acknowledgment of his intervention in the
birth of her son, Louis XIV. Before Louis XIV underwent
a severe operation, Bossuet, bishop of Meaux,
began a novena of prayers at Saint-Fiacre to ask a
divine blessing.
Fiacre is invoked against all sorts of physical ills,
including venereal disease. Many miracles have been
claimed through his working the land and interceding
for others. He is especially the patron saint of the cab
drivers of Paris. French cabs are called fiacres because
the first establishment to let hackney carriages for hire
in the mid-17th century was in the Rue Saint-Martin,
near the hotel Saint-Fiacre in Paris.
In art Fiacre is often shown with a spade in his role
as patron of gardeners.
Feast: September 1
Patronage: cab and taxi drivers; all drivers; gardeners;
against hemorrhoids; against syphilis
Finbar (ca. 560–ca. 633) Founder and miracle-worker
Name meaning: Fair crest
Also known as: Findbarr, Bairre, Barr
Finbar was born in Connaught, Ireland, around 560,
the illegitimate son of a master smith or craftsman and
a slave girl in the royal court (by some accounts a
lady). His parents moved to the region of Macroom,
where he was baptized Lochan (or Loan) by Bishop
MacCuirb. At age seven he was given to three clerics of
Munster to be educated. When they had his fair hair
cut, they named him Finbar, meaning “fair crest.”
Finbar went on pilgrimage to Rome with some of
the monks, visiting St. David in Wales on the way
back. David became a mentor. Legend tells that on
another visit to Rome Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604)
wanted to consecrate him a bishop but a vision told
him that God had reserved that honor to Himself. Finbar
returned home and was consecrated from heaven.
Oil flowed up from the earth to cover the feet of him
and the elders present; it had healing properties. Finbar
preached throughout southern Ireland. He also
may have preached in Scotland.
Finbar retired to live on the small island at Lough
Eiroe, and started a school there. According to lore, an
angel guided him to the place where he built a church.
Nearby is a cave called Cuas Barrai (Finbar’s Cave),

and near that is a pool where Finbar caught a salmon
in his net every night. The angel told Finbar that the
spot would not be the place of his resurrection, however,
and he went across the river to Cell na Cluaine
(Gougane Barra) where he built a church and stayed
for a long time. He built 12 churches and then founded
a monastery that developed into the city of Cork, of
which he was the first bishop. His monastery became
famous in southern Ireland and attracted numerous
disciples.
Finbar died at Cloyne about the year 633, although
various accounts give his date of death as 610, 623 and
630. According to legend, the sun did not set for 12
days after he died. His body was taken to his church in
Cork for burial. The church became a cathedral. His
island retreat at Gougane Barra became a pilgrimage
site, his hermitage and chapel marked with a wooden
cross.
Many miracles are attributed to Finbar. He healed
many people, had visions, prophesied and foresaw the
time of his own death.
Feast: September 25
FURTHER READING
Sellner, Edward C. Wisdom of the Celtic Saints. Notre Dame,
Ind.: Ave Maria Press, 1993.
Finian (d. 579) Abbot and miracle worker
Also known as: Finnio; Winin
Finian was born in Strangford Lough, Ulster, Ireland,
to a royal family. Attracted to the religious life, he
became a disciple of SS. Colman and Mochae, then
became a monk in Strathclyde and was ordained in
Rome. He returned to Ulster where he founded several
monasteries and became the abbot of Moville in
County Down. He also founded monasteries at Holywood
and Dumfries in Scotland.
Finian was a teacher to St. Columba. Once when
Columba came to see him, he saw the young man
accompanied by an angel. He had a disagreement with
Columba over possession of a copy of St. Jerome’s
psalter, and won the disagreement.
Finian also is credited with numerous miracles,
including moving a river.
Feast: September 10
Finian of Clonard (ca. 470–549) Founder and teacher
of “the Twelve Apostles of Ireland” and other Irish saints
Finian of Clonard was born about 470 in Myshall,
County Carlow, Ireland. He studied under SS. Cadoc
and Gildas in Wales, then returned to Ireland where he
founded schools, monasteries and churches. His school
at Clonard was the most famous, and attracted some of
the most famous saints of Ireland, including Columba
and Brendan of Clonfort. Finian was abbot, or by some
accounts, bishop, though he may never have been officially
consecrated in that position. He died during a
plague epidemic.
Feast: December 12
Foillan (630–655) Benedictine abbot and founder,
brother of SS. Fursey and Ulan
Also known as: Fullan
Born in Ireland, Foillan went to England in 630 with
his family and friends. There he participated in the
founding of Burghcastle, near Yarmouth. Foillan went
to France and Belgium. In Belgium he was given land
by Blessed Ita of Nivelles, and founded a monastery
and worked as a missionary abbot. In 655, he was
killed by outlaws after celebrating Mass in the Sneffe
forest.
Feast: October 31
Fourteen Holy Helpers 109
Fourteen Holy Helpers Group of martyrs considered
especially helpful against adversity
The Fourteen Holy Helpers were especially invoked
during the Black Plague in Europe from 1346 to 1349,
when people took ill suddenly and often died violently,
within hours and without last sacraments. Symptoms
included a black tongue, parched throat, violent
headache, fever and abdominal boils.
In 1445 and 1446 a shepherd boy named Herman
Leicht, of Bamberg, Bavaria, saw apparitions first of
one child and then of 14 while he was out with his
flock. The children said they were the Fourteen
Helpers and asked for a chapel to be built in their
honor, and for Herman to serve them. The monks did
not believe the boy, but people began praying at the
spot where the apparitions appeared. When remarkable
favors happened to them, the monks constructed
a chapel in 1447–48. The site attracted pilgrims. In
1743, work was begun on a grand cathedral to replace
the little chapel; work was completed in 1772.
Churches and altars to the Fourteen Holy Helpers have
been built elsewhere in Europe and around the world.
The 14 martyrs and their special patronages are:
Achatius against death agony
Barbara against fever and sudden death
Blase against throat problems
Catherine against tongue problems and
sudden death

110 Frances of Rome
Christopher against plague and sudden death
Cyriacus against temptations, especially at
death
Dionysius against headache
Erasmus against abdominal problems;
protection of domestic animals
Eustachius against family troubles
George protection of domestic animals
Giles making a good confession
Pantaleon physicians; protection of domestic
animals
Vitus against epilepsy; protection of
domestic animals
Giles plague
FURTHER READING
Hammer, Fr. Bonaventure. The Fourteen Holy Helpers. Rockford,
Ill.: TAN Books, 1995.
Frances of Rome (1384–1440) Mystic, founder of the
Oblates of Mary (Oblates of Tor de Specchi)
Name meaning: Free one
Frances was born in 1384 at Trastevere in Rome to
noble parents, Paul Bosco and Jacobella dei Roffredeschi.
At the age of seven she began to mortify her
body and express interest in being a nun, a decision
she declared at age 11. Her father opposed it as he
wished to marry her to another wealthy family. At 13
she was married to Lorenzo de Ponziani, a union that
lasted 40 years.
Early in the marriage, however, Frances collapsed
from strain. During her illness, she had a vision of St.
Alexis, patron saint of beggars and the sick, who asked
her if she wanted to live. She replied that she wanted
only what God willed; the saint healed her, saying the
Lord wished her to remain in the world to glorify Him.
Frances discovered that her sister-in-law, Vannozza,
also would have preferred the religious life. The two
became close friends, and went out into Rome together
to minister to the poor and sick. They especially
sought out those whom others refused or were reluctant
to treat.
In 1400 her first child was born: John Baptist (Battista),
followed by a second son, Evangelista, and a
daughter, Agnes.
In 1408 Rome was seized by the troops of Ladislaus
of Naples, an ally of the antipope. Frances’s family
home was looted and burned. Lorenzo was stabbed;
Frances nursed him back to health. In 1410, Lorenzo’s
home and lands were seized and pillaged, and Battista
was taken hostage. He was later released. The story
goes that Frances refused to surrender her boy and
fled. Her confessor told her to give him over. She did
so and went to the Ara Coeli Shrine of the Sorrowful
Mother to pray. There Mary appeared to her and comforted
her, and told her not to despair. The boy was
returned to her when the soldier carrying him could
not get his horse to budge.
Lorenzo was separated from the rest of his family.
Frances lived in the ruined house with her children
and Vannozza. Three years later, nine-year-old Evangelista
died during a plague. According to lore, Frances
was rewarded by God with the gift of healing, and she
turned her home into a hospital. Agnes died two years
after Evangelista.
In 1414 the Ponziani family regained their property,
but Lorenzo’s health was broken. At about this time,
Frances brought to fruition a plan she had been developing
for some time: the establishment of a lay order of
women who would serve God and the poor. She had
been inspired by a heavenly voice that told her Mary
wished her to do so. She received permission for this
order to be affiliated with the Benedictines of Mount
Oliveto. The order first was called the Oblates of Mary
and then the Oblates of Tor de Specchi. After seven or
eight years, the order acquired its own facility. Frances
spent as much time as possible with the order, but
refused to be acknowledged as foundress. She dictated
to her confessor the words of their Rule, which she
said had been given to her by St. Paul, in the presence
of Mary, St. Benedict and St. Mary Magdalen, who were
the patrons of her community.
Lorenzo died in 1436, and Frances retired to the
order. The superioress, Agnes de Lillis, resigned and
Frances assumed the post.
In the spring of 1440, she went to visit Battista and
his wife, and became ill on the way home. Her director
met her en route and ordered her back to her son’s
home. She spent seven days on her deathbed and died
on March 9. Her last act was to read her Little Office of
the Virgin Mary. She was buried in Santa Maria Nuova,
in the chapel of the church of her oblates. The church
is now known as the church of Santa Francesca
Romana. Her relics are on display there.
Frances had numerous mystical experiences of
Mary, who invited her to attend various feasts in
heaven. There she contemplated Mary in all her mysteries,
and also was with the infant Jesus. At Christmas
in 1432, she spent 48 hours in ecstasy after Mary gave
her baby Jesus to hold. Thereafter, she proclaimed herself
servant, subject and slave of Mary.
Frances also had numerous experiences involving
angels. According to lore, she was given two guardian
angels at birth. Frequent angelic visits began with the
death of Evangelista. Just before dying, he exclaimed
that angels had arrived to take him to heaven. On the

one-year anniversary of his death, Frances had an
extraordinary hour-long vision. Her oratory was filled
with a brilliant light at dawn, and she beheld her son
accompanied by a beautiful boy. Evangelista said he
now resided in the second choir of the first hierarchy of
angels, and introduced his companion as an archangel
who had a place above his. He told his mother that God
was sending her this archangel, who would not leave
her day or night, and whom she would be blessed with
seeing with her “bodily eyes.” Evangelista then said he
had to return to heaven, but the sight of the angel
would always remind his mother of him.
Evangelista disappeared, never to manifest to
Frances again. The angel remained, standing with arms
folded across his chest. Frances fell to her knees and
begged for his help in guiding her spiritual growth,
and in defending against the devil. When she finally
left the oratory, the angel followed her, enveloping her
in a halo of light. The angel, and this halo around
Frances, could not be perceived by other people.
Frances could not look upon the angel’s brightness
without hurting her eyes; so, she looked upon the glow
around him. Over time, she was able to more directly
see his features while she was at prayer; it seemed that
the angel purposefully dimmed his own light to help
her. He looked like a boy of nine, with sparkling eyes
and an ever-present sweet expression upon his face and
his eyes turned constantly toward heaven. He wore a
white robe covered by a tunic that reached his feet, was
clear as light and had an ethereal color like sky-blue
and flaming red. His hair, like spun gold, fell across his
shoulders. The light coming from his hair was so
bright that Frances frequently did not need a candle,
even at night.
She wrote that the angel was never soiled by dirt or
mud when he walked beside her. If she committed
even the slightest fault, however, he disappeared from
her sight, and would reappear only after she had confessed
her faults. If she was plagued by doubts, he gave
her a kind look that immediately made her feel better.
When he talked, she could see his lips move; his voice
was incredibly sweet.
Much of the angel’s guidance centered around
Frances’s worries as head of a family. The angel assured
her that she was not lost in God’s sight. He also
enabled her to supernaturally discern the thoughts of
others. Thus she reportedly was able to short-circuit
evil intent, reconcile enemies, and help wandering
souls return to the fold.
Frances also was engaged in a constant struggle
against evil spirits. Whenever the devil would particularly
plague her, she would appeal to the archangel for
help. In the fashion of Samson, the angel’s power was
in his hair, for when Frances asked him for protection,
the angel shook his hair and frightened the evil spirits
away.
The archangel—who never announced a name—
stayed with Frances for 24 years. In 1436, she joined
her own community, and was granted a vision in which
she saw God seated on a high throne and surrounded
by myriad angels. God appointed one of the high-ranking
powers to replace the archangel. In his human
form, the power was even more beautiful than the
archangel, and exhibited greater power and courage.
He did not have to shake his hair to scare away evil
spirits; his mere presence accomplished that. He carried
in his left hand three golden palm branches, which
symbolized three virtues that he helped Frances to cultivate:
charity, firmness and prudence.
The power stayed with Frances for four years until
she died. At the moment of her death, her face shone
with a bright light and she uttered, “The angel has finished
his task: he beckons me to follow him.”
Miraculous events attributed to Frances include the
multiplication of food: She increased corn and wine for
the sick, needy and prisoners. She experienced frequent
ecstasies and shone with a supernatural radiance.
When Frances died, her face lit with youth and
beauty, and her body exuded a sweet perfume. A sister
who had a withered arm washed her body; her arm was
restored to health. The perfume was still present when
the saint’s remains were moved to a larger tomb.
Canonized: 1608 by Pope Paul V
Feast: March 9
Frances Xavier Cabrini 111
FURTHER READING
O’Sullivan, Fr. Paul. All about the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1990; first published, 1945.
Parente, Fr. Pascal P. The Angels: The Catholic Teaching on the
Angels. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1973; first published,
1961.
Frances Xavier Cabrini (1850–1917) First U.S. citizen
to be canonized
Also known as: Francesca Saverio Cabrini
Frances Xavier Cabrini was born on July 15, 1850, in
the village of Sant’Angelo Lodigiano, in the diocese of
Lodi, in the Lombardy region of Italy. She was the 13th
child of Augustine Cabrini, a farmer, and his wife,
Stella Oldini. Stella was then 52, and Frances seemed
so fragile that she was carried to the church and baptized
at once. She was given the name Maria Francesca
Saverio, after the missionary St. Francis Xavier.
On the day of Frances’s birth, a flock of white
doves flew by her father’s farm and circled the house,

112 Frances Xavier Cabrini
St. Frances Xavier Cabrini (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
one of them dropping down to alight in the vines that
covered the walls. Flocks of white birds were to
appear several more times in her life. She compared
them to angels or souls she would help save, or to
new sisters who would join the religious community
she founded.
In 1863, at the age of 13, Frances entered the convent
of the Daughters of the Sacred Heart at Arluna,
where she made a vow of virginity, and took courses
that led to a teacher’s certificate. When she graduated
with honors in 1868, she was fully qualified as a
teacher. She applied for admission to the convent, hoping
that she might be sent as a missionary teacher to
China. Her health was not good, however, and she was
turned down.
Two years later, she lost both parents and 10 of her
siblings to smallpox. She herself was stricken the following
year, but an older sister nursed her back to
health, and in 1872 she began to teach in a public
school. After reapplying and once more being rejected
by the Daughters of the Sacred Heart, she was offered
the job of managing a small orphanage at Codogno in
the Lodi diocese, then encouraged to turn it into a religious
community. She took her first vows there in 1877
and was made the superior by the bishop of Lodi.
When he closed the institution three years later, the
bishop counseled her to found a congregation of missionary
nuns, since he knew of none. Frances then
moved to an abandoned Franciscan friary in Codogno
and drew up the rules for the Missionary Sisters of the
Sacred Heart, whose object was to be the education of
girls in Catholic schismatic or pagan countries. The
Missionary Sisters received episcopal approval at the
end of 1880 and the decree of papal approbation in
1888.
Bishop Scalabrini of Piacenza, who had established
the Society of Saint Charles to work among Italian
immigrants in the United States, suggested that Frances
go there to support his priests. Archbishop Corrigan of
New York sent her a formal invitation; Pope Leo XIII (r.
1878–1903) gave his blessing to the enterprise, and she
arrived in New York on March 31, 1889, with six of
her nuns. Although Frances was to return to Italy
annually in search of new missionary sisters, she was to
make the United States her home from then on, eventually,
in 1909, taking U.S. citizenship.
Besides schools and charitable institutions, she
founded four great hospitals, with nurses’ homes
attached, one each in New York and Seattle, and two in
Chicago. Her Columbus Hospital in New York was
opened in 1892, the 400th anniversary of Christopher
Columbus’s arrival in the New World. The work of the
Missionary Sisters was by no means confined to the
United States, however. Frances traveled to, and established
orphanages, schools and hospitals, in Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Italy, Spain,
France and England as well. By the time of her death,
her order had grown to include 67 houses with over
4,000 nuns.
Frances’s health, which had always been precarious,
began to decline in 1911. She was visiting one of her
schools in Chicago when, on December 21, 1918, she
died of a heart attack, at age 67. At first her relics were
placed at the Sacred Heart Orphanage in West Park,
New York, her official home, but they have since been
moved to a chapel in the Mother Cabrini High School
in the Bronx.
Beatified: August 6, 1938, by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: July 7, 1946, by Pope Pius XII
Feast: November 13 (formerly December 22)
Patronage: displaced persons, emigrants and immigrants

FURTHER READING
“Francis Xavier Cabrini.” Catholic Information Network
website. URL: http://www.cin.org/kc87-2.html. Downloaded:
November 12, 1999.
“Frances Xavier Cabrini 1850–1917.” Catholic Information
Network website. URL: http://www.cin.org/cabrinsd.
html. Downloaded: November 12, 1999.
“Santa Francisca Javier Cabrini.” Church Forum website.
URL: http://www.churchforum.org.mx/santoral/Febrero/
2002.htm. Downloaded: November 12, 1999.
Francis de Sales (1567–1622) Bishop of Geneva, Doctor
of the Church, founder and popular preacher
Also known as: the Gentle Christ of Geneva
Frances de Sales was born on August 21, 1567, to a
noble Savoy family in Thorens in the duchy of Savoy.
His parents were François de Sales de Boisy and
Françoise de Sionnaz, and he was the oldest of five
boys. He was brought up a strict Catholic and followed
his father’s ambition for him to become a magistrate.
Francis was well schooled at the colleges of La
Roche and Annecy. From 1583 to 1588 he studied
under the Jesuits at the college of Clermont, Paris.
While there, he studied theology, which had a profound
effect on him. He made a vow of chastity and
consecrated himself to the Blessed Virgin Mary. He
then went to law school at the University of Padua,
Italy. He excelled in studies, was eloquent and gentlemanly
and was well liked.
In 1592 Francis received his doctorate of law and
was appointed a lawyer before the senate of Chambéry,
France. His father arranged for him to be appointed
senator and to marry a noble heiress. But Francis
refused, creating a serious rift with his father. Claude
de Granier, bishop of Geneva, arranged for Francis to
be appointed provost of the Chapter of Geneva, a position
under the patronage of the pope. Francis’s father
relented, and Francis received his holy orders in 1593.
In Geneva, Francis threw himself with great energy
into preaching and evangelizing. In 1594 he began
work in Le Chablais, a district just restored to the
duchy of Savoy. He traveled extensively, sometimes at
risk to his life, and converted many from Calvinism.
Francis had several conferences with Theodore Beza,
the “Patriarch of the Reformation,” but nothing came
of them.
In 1599, Claude de Granier appointed him coadjutor
and sent him—despite his refusal—to Rome. There
Pope Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605) approved of him,
and prophesied that he would have a great impact
upon the world.
Francis returned to France and became friends with
King Henry IV, who wished him to stay and preach in
Francis de Sales 113
France. In 1602, de Granier died, and Francis was
appointed bishop of Geneva. The next 20 years were
the most productive of his life. He devoted himself to
visiting the parishes, instituting reforms and religious
instruction, and performing his ministerial duties. He
did not care for the Calvinist influences in Geneva, and
so worked primarily from Annecy, where he lived like a
poor priest. His sermons were eloquent, and people
loved to hear him preach. On at least one occasion he
was witnessed illuminated by supernatural light as he
preached.
During this period, Francis found the time to write
innumerable letters and treatises, many of which are
still popular. In 1607, he founded the Institute of the
Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary for young girls
and widows.
In 1622, Francis accompanied the court of Savoy to
France. In Lyons, he suffered a sudden apoplexy on
December 27. He was given last rites and constantly
repeated, “God’s will be done! Jesus, my God and my
all!” He died the following day.
Huge crowds came to see his body. Lyons wished to
keep his remains, but kept only his heart, with everything
else going back to Annecy. He was entombed at
the Visitation Convent, and miracles were claimed
there. During the French Revolution, nuns carried his
heart to Venice for safety, where it still remains.
His beatification in 1661 was the first beatification
held at St. Peter’s Basilica.
Francis’s heart was placed in a silver coffer. At intervals
over the years, it exuded a clear oil, or manna. The
coffer was not hermetically sealed, and in 1948 the dry
heart was wrapped in a new piece of linen and a layer
of tissue paper the same color as the heart. In 1952
white salt-like spots appeared between the heart and
the container. The heart was unwrapped for examination,
and the linen cloth had bloodstains. The heart
was rewrapped in fresh linen and placed in a hermetically
sealed container, which was then placed inside
the original reliquary. In 1953 the heart was again
examined, by doctors and Church officials. No satisfactory
explanation could be given for the bloodstains.
One rather mystical explanation proposed that the
heart had bled to express the saint’s unhappiness with
a decision following World War II to reorganize the
independent Visitation into a confederation under the
jurisdiction of Rome. The confederation was eventually
dissolved.
In his sermons and writings, Francis showed a deep
insight into human nature and psychology. He did not
address himself to peers, as did many other great writers
of the Church, but to the people. He was gifted in
inspiring and motivating others to a higher spiritual
life. Probably his best-known and loved work is

114 Francis of Assisi
Philothea, better known as An Introduction to the Devout
Life, published in 1608. In a warm and personal fashion,
the book lays out the requirements for a devout
life of prayer, practicing virtues, resisting temptation,
maintaining a good marriage, and worshiping God.
Francis’s style translates easily for modern times, and
Philothea remains a widely read and followed work.
Another of Francis’s principal works is Controversies,
which addresses the fundamentals of Catholic
faith. It originally appeared in separate handbills and
leaflets passed out to those whom Francis sought to
evangelize in Le Chablais.
Other important works are: Treatise on the Love of
God, a 12-book examination of the history and theory
of Divine love; Spiritual Conferences, conversations on
religious virtues, which Francis wrote for the Sisters of
the Visitation; and Defense of the Standard of the Cross,
a discussion of Catholic doctrine on the veneration of
the cross. Francis wrote numerous sermons, especially
for Lent—also still popular reading—and other treatises.
Various religious congregations have been formed
under his patronage, among them the Missionaries of
St. Francis de Sales, of Annecy; the Salesians, founded
by St. John Bosco in Turin for underprivileged boys;
and the Oblates of St. Francis de Sales, of Troyes,
France.
Beatified: 1661 by Pope Alexander VII
Canonized: 1665 by Pope Alexander VII
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1877 by Pope Pius IX
Feast: January 24
Patronage: attorneys; authors; Catholic press; confessors;
the deaf; journalists; teachers; writers
FURTHER READING
Francis de Sales. Philothea, or An Introduction to the Devout
Life. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1994.
Francis de Sales, Jane de Chantal: Letters of Spiritual Direction.
Tr. Peronne Marie Thiebert. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press,
1988.
Francis of Assisi (1181?–1226) Stigmatist, considered
to be the founder of all Franciscan orders
Name meaning: Free one
Also known as: Little Poor Man, Il Poverello
Francis of Assisi was born in either 1181 or 1182 in
the town of Assisi in Umbria, Italy, at a time when his
wealthy father, Pietro Bernardone, was away. His
mother, Pica, baptized him as Giovanni after John the
Baptist. His father had the name changed to Francesco,
“the Frenchman,” in honor of the time he spent in
France conducting his successful silk cloth trade.
Francis spent his early years in song, drink and
extravagance, going through his father’s money but
showing no interest in his father’s business. His companions
were youths who loved the wild life. In 1201,
war broke out between Assisi and neighboring Perugia,
and Francis was captured. He languished for a year in
prison, was ransomed and then suffered a long illness
after his release. During his convalescence he kept
receiving signs that he should change his ways.
After his recovery, a call was issued for knights for
the Fourth Crusade. Francis outfitted himself in the
finest of armor and garments with the intention of joining
the forces of Walter de Brienne, who was fighting in
southern Italy. Francis bragged that he would return a
prince. But a day’s journey out of Assisi, he met a poor
gentleman or former knight and traded his fine clothes
and armor for the man’s rags. At Spoleto, he became ill,
and either had a dream or an audition (direct voice
experience) in which God told him that what he was
doing was wrong, and that he should “serve the master
and not the man” and go home. He did so.
At home, he began visiting the sick and poor, giving
them whatever he had. He spent more time in
prayer, even removing himself to a cave, where he
wept and prayed about his sins. One day in prayer in
the church of San Damiano (St. Damian), a voice
emanated from the crucifix and told him three times,
“Francis, go and repair my house, which you see is
falling down.” Francis took one of his father’s horses
and a large amount of cloth, both of which he sold to
rebuild the ruined church.
His enraged father came to the church, but Francis
hid. Several days later, Francis emerged in public after
fasting and praying; crowds pelted him. His father took
him home and tried everything to dissuade Francis
from his “mad” ideas, including beatings and shackles,
but Francis was immovable. He returned to the church,
whereupon his father demanded that he either come
home or renounce his inheritance and repay the cost of
the horse and cloth. Francis responded by stripping off
all his clothing and giving them to his father. He
renounced his patrimony and took a vow of absolute
poverty. He was given the dress of a laborer, marked it
with a cross in chalk, and wore it. The white cross on
an undyed woolen tunic was to become the trademark
of Franciscan monks.
Francis soon attracted a band of 12 followers, all of
whom wore long, rough tunics of undyed wool, shaved
the tops of their heads and preached as itinerants
among the poor and sick, depending solely on the generosity
of strangers. He composed a rule based on the
gospel’s words about perfection, and in 1210 sought
approval from Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216).

St. Francis of Assisi receiving the stigmata (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
According to lore, the pope had two dreams that
prompted him to grant approval. In one, a palm tree
grew at his feet. In another, Francis propped up the
Francis of Assisi 115
Lateran church, which seemed about to fall. Innocent
gave Francis approval for spreading his rule only by
word of mouth.

116 Francis of Assisi
Francis made two attempts to preach among the
Moslems. In 1212 his journey was ended by shipwreck,
and a later journey was ended by his own illness.
He did, however, travel to Egypt and Syria
beginning in 1219.
A revision of his rule was approved in 1223 by Pope
Honorius III (r.1216–27). The same year, Francis introduced
a crèche at a Nativity Mass in Greccio in 1223
as a memorial of Jesus’ humble birth—a practice that
has become a central part of Christmas celebrations.
Perhaps his most unusual achievement was the
acquisition of stigmata after an ecstatic vision in 1224.
During the summer of that year, close to the Feast of the
Assumption (August 15), Francis retired in seclusion
to a tiny hut on Monte La Verna, part of the property of
Orlando, count of Chiusi. He intended to suffer a long
fast in honor of the archangel Michael, requesting that
he be left alone until the angel’s feast day on September
29. Francis was then 42 years old, racked with disease
and fevers, and quite thin from self-mortification.
On September 14, the Feast of the Exaltation of the
Holy Cross, Francis continued his fasting and prayer
by concentrating on Christ’s sufferings on the cross. As
described in the Little Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi, he
was contemplating the Passion so fervently that he
believed himself transformed into Jesus. While in such
an ecstatic state, his vision continued with the appearance
of a seraph. The angel’s six fiery wings descended
from heaven, drawing closer to Francis, and revealed
the crucified Jesus within their folds. Francis was filled
with fear, joy and sorrow. When the vision ended, the
saint found to his amazement that his hands and feet
were marked with black excrescences in the form of
nail heads and bent nails, and that a wound on his
side—like the sword wounds suffered by Jesus—oozed
blood frequently.
Francis was embarrassed and frightened by these
stigmata, and for the remaining two years of his life
kept his hands within his habit and wore shoes and
stockings. He told none of his followers about the miracle,
but they deduced the situation after finding blood
on his clothing and noting Francis’s inability to walk
without hobbling. Sweet smells issued from cloths
stained by the blood of the stigmata.
Several surviving accounts from various of Francis’s
followers refer to his bleeding wounds, the saint’s inability
to walk and the blackness of the marks. St. Francis’s
biographer, Thomas of Celano, reported that black
marks resembling nails appeared on Francis’s flesh even
after death. And two paintings of Francis, painted
within 10 years of his death, both show the stigmata.
There were no verified reports of stigmata before Francis’s
designation in 1224, and very few since.
In 1225, suffering greatly from ill health, Francis
composed his famous “Canticle of Brother Sun” poem
and set it to music.
When doctors could do no more for him, he went
to Assisi to die. On his last day, Saturday, October 3,
1226, he asked for the singing of that part of his Canticle
that honors death. He broke bread with his brothers
and was laid on the ground. He preached to them and
blessed them, and died that evening.
Familiar with court poetry and the songs of the
troubadours, Francis introduced a love of nature and
creation, of song and praise, and of higher chivalric
love into medieval worship.
There are many stories about his rapport with birds
and animals, who tamely gathered around him to listen
to him preach. Birds especially seemed fond of him.
Francis would preach to them the same as he did to
people. In one village, he subdued a ferocious wolf that
was attacking humans and animals. He ordered the
wolf to desist, and told the townspeople that the wolf
would do them no more harm if they fed him every day.
For the next two years until the wolf died, the townspeople
fed the docile wolf as it went from door to door.
Francis multiplied food on more than one occasion.
Once, when a priest complained that followers of Francis
were eating too many of the church’s grapes, Francis
said that they should be allowed to do so, and the
vineyard would produce more wine than normal. He
also multiplied food when his ship was wrecked.
He is said to have influenced the weather, once ending
frequent hailstorms that were destroying crops.
Francis told the people to confess their sins and
repent. The hailstorms ended. The people, however,
eventually went back to their old ways, and were
struck by pestilence and a fire that destroyed their
town.
Francis was never ordained because he believed
himself to be unworthy of the priesthood, yet he had
a profound and lasting impact on the Church and
on charity; there are Franciscans the world over carrying
on his work. The “Canticle of Brother Sun” is still
sung in Christian churches all over the world. Francis’s
simple appeal and total devotion —as well as the stories
of his prophecies and miracle healings—continue
to attract followers today.
Canonized: 1228 by Pope Gregory IX
Feast: October 4
Patronage: animals; birds; Catholic action; ecologists;
merchants; zoos
FURTHER READING
Chambers, R., ed. The Book of Days: A Miscellany of Popular
Antiquities in Connection with the Calenda., Vol. 2. Detroit:
Gale Research Co., 1967.

The Little Flowers of St. Francis. Tr. Raphael Brown. Garden
City, N.Y.: Doubleday/Image Books, 1985.
Wilson, Ian. Stigmata: An Investigation into the Mysterious
Appearance of Christ’s Wounds in Hundreds of People from
Medieval Italy to Modern America. San Francisco: Harper
and Row, 1989.
Francis of Paola (ca. 1416–1507) Founder of the
Minim Friars
Known as “The Miracle Worker” and “God’s Miracle-
Worker Supreme”
St. Francis of Paola was born around 1416 in Paola,
Italy, to a humble family. Childless for years, the parents
had prayed earnestly to St. Francis of Assisi for a
son. When Francis was conceived, tongues of fire were
seen dancing harmlessly over the family roof. At birth
the boy was named after the saint. When he was 13,
they sent him to the Franciscan friary at San Marco to
be educated. The austere lifestyle appealed to Francis.
After a year, he took a pilgrimage with his parents
to Assisi, Rome and other places. When they returned,
Francis went into seclusion, first slightly outside Paola
and then in a remote location in a cave by the sea. By
1436 he was joined by two companions. Neighbors
built them cells and a chapel. A story is told that one
day a goat rushed into Francis’s cave, seeking refuge
from hunters. Francis took it as a sign from God that
he was to leave his hermitage and work for the
Church.
Thus began Francis’s order. The date of foundation
is considered to be 1452. Seventeen years later a
church and monastery were built, and Francis established
a discipline for the order based on penance,
charity and humility, and also on a perpetual Lent that
required a strict vegetarian diet.
Pope Sixtus IV (r. 1471–84) approved the new
order in 1474. Initially, they were called the Hermits
of St. Francis of Assisi. Francis had this changed in
1492 to the Minim Friars, as he desired that they be
recognized as the least (minimi) in the household of
God.
In 1481 the dying King Louis XI of France sent for
Francis and asked him to heal him in exchange for
assistance to his order. Francis replied that the lives of
kings are in the hands of God. The two men shared
numerous meetings, and Louis died in Francis’s arms.
His successor, Charles VIII, relied upon Francis for
much advice. He built for Francis three monasteries:
two in France at Plessias and Amboise, and one at
Rome.
Francis remained in France for the last 25 years of
his life. He became ill on Palm Sunday, 1507, and died
the following Good Friday, at age 91.
Francis was renowned as a miracle-worker. He was
reported to bilocate, and was seen simultaneously in
prayer in the chapel and out on the street talking to
people, or working in the kitchens while he also attended
the altar. He had the gift of miraculous transport,
and took companions across water using his
cloak for a boat. In 1483 he was observed by the king
of Naples to levitate in an ecstasy and to be bathed in
supernatural light in the middle of the night. The saint
also levitated objects. During the building of his first
church and monastery, he raised a large boulder that
was in the way.
On numerous occasions, Francis multiplied food
and wine, sometimes for large crowds of several hundred.
Though portions were small, each person felt
fully satisfied.
Throughout his life, Francis was very popular and
was often mobbed by enthusiastic crowds when he
ventured out in public. He was said to make himself
invisible whenever he wished to travel undetected, or
to have quiet moments for prayer and meditation. He
also had the gifts of prophesy, clairvoyance, supernatural
knowledge and control of the elements.
Once Francis had a confrontation with the Neapolitan
king Ferrantes, a corrupt man who sought to curry
favor with the saint by giving a large quantity of gold
coins for the building of a monastery. Francis lectured
the king on his corruption. He took a gold coin and
broke it in two; blood dripped from the halves. Francis
told him it was the blood that had been squeezed out
of his subjects. He refused the money. Reportedly, the
shocked king reformed.
Francis reportedly could produce sweet, often healing
water by striking the ground with his staff. One
such spring, called the Fountain of Seven Canals, is
near the Church of the Holy Rosary in Paola. Its waters
are given to the sick.
When the wall of a furnace in his monastery was
near collapse, Francis entered the fire several times to
repair the damage, and was unharmed by the flames,
according to eight witnesses. The saint was unharmed
by fire on other occasions. When he was on his
deathbed and about to give his brothers his final instructions
and blessings, a brazier in his room suddenly
burst into flames. Francis got up, walked to it
and picked it up, saying, “Be assured, my brothers, that
it is not difficult for one who truly loves God to carry
out what He wishes, which for me is holding in my
hands this fire.” He was unharmed.
Canonization: 1519 by Pope Leo X
Feast: April 2
Patronage: naval officers; seafarers
Francis of Paola 117

118 Francis of Paola
Scenes from the life of St. Francis of Paola (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

FURTHER READING
Simi, Gino J., and Mario M. Segreti. St. Francis of Paola.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1977.
Francis Solanus (Francisco Solano) (1549–1610)
Franciscan missionary in Peru
Also known as: the Miracle-Worker of the New World
Francis Solanus was born in Montilla in the Andalusia
region of Spain on March 10, 1549. From an early age
he demonstrated spiritual inclinations and talents,
such as his ability to make peace between those who
were fighting. It was enough for Francis merely to run
to the combatants and ask them to desist in order to
get them to stop.
After studying with the Jesuits, in 1569, at the age
of 20, Francis entered a Franciscan monastery, drawn
to the poverty and the life of sanctity of St Francis of
Assisi. He was ordained a priest in 1576, and a few
years later, when an epidemic of black typhus arrived
in Andalusia, dedicated himself to attending the sickest.
He himself contracted the disease and believed
himself about to die, but then, unexpectedly, recovered.
From this he understood that God was saving
him for still greater challenges. He asked his superiors
to send him as a missionary to Africa, but they denied
his request. However, in 1589 King Philip II asked the
Franciscans to send missionaries to South America,
and they assigned him there.
Francis arrived in Lima, Peru, in May 1589, having
survived a shipwreck off Panama. From Lima he was
sent to Argentina, where the Franciscans had several
missions. He had a great facility in learning the native
languages, considered by his peers to be a divine gift.
Even the most warlike tribes attended his sermons.
One Good Thursday while Francis was preaching in La
Rioja, the sound of thousands of Indians attacking the
village was heard. Francis went out to meet them with
crucifix in hand and placed himself in front of the
attackers, who not only desisted, but soon thereafter
also allowed themselves to be evangelized and baptized
in the Catholic religion.
Like his namesake and patron, St. Francis of Assisi,
Francis felt great compassion for animals. Birds frequently
surrounded him and then rose in the air,
singing happily. One day during a bullfight in the town
of San Miguel a bull escaped the corral and took to the
streets. Francis was called and he calmly approached
the animal. People watched in admiration as the bull
allowed Francis to take hold of him and lead him back
to the corral.
In 1601, Francis was ordered back to Lima, where
he spent his last years preaching to and converting sinners.
He went to gambling houses and to theaters,
where he interrupted plays he deemed immoral, delivering
spirited sermons from the stage. In the town
square he preached that God would bring terrible punishments
if people did not desist from their sinful
ways. Inevitably, these acts brought in many converts.
One day Francis announced in a sermon that
thanks to the sins of the people, everything around
him would be destroyed, leaving nothing but the site
from which he was preaching. The following year an
earthquake destroyed the church and its surroundings,
sparing only the site where Francis had made his prediction.
In May 1610, the Miracle-worker of the New
World (as he had come to be called) began to feel very
weak. On July 14 a flock of birds flew into his room
in the San Francisco Monastery, singing; Francis
exclaimed, “Glory be to God,” and died. His room was
lit all that night by an unusual illumination visible
from far away.
Beatified: 1675 by Pope Clement X
Canonized: 1726 by Pope Benedict XIII
Feast: July 14
Francis Xavier 119
FURTHER READING
“San Francisco Solano, Misionero.” Church Forum Santoral
website. URL: http://www.churchforum.org.mx/santoral.
Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
“San Francisco Solano.” Santos Peruanos website. URL:
http://ekeko.rcp.net.pe/IAL/cep/santpapa/santoslos.htm.
Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
“San Francisco Solano.” Santos y Beatos de America Latina:
Perú website. URL: http://www/aciprensa.com/santperu.htm.
Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
Francis Xavier (Francisco Javier) (1506–1552) First
Jesuit missionary, considered the greatest missionary since
St. Paul
Francis was born in the castle of Javier (Xavier) near
Sanguesa, in the Spanish kingdom of Navarre, on April
7, 1506. His father, Juan de Jasso, was the king’s counselor,
and his mother was heiress to the houses of
Azupilqueta and Javier. They were Basques, like St.
Ignatius of Loyola, who was born not far away. Also
like Ignatius, Francis was the youngest of a large family,
though unlike him, he early showed an aptitude for
study, and at 19 was sent to Paris for his higher education.
Francis enrolled in the Collège de Sainte-Barbe
(College of St. Barbara) of the University of Paris. He
received his M.A. degree in 1530 and began teaching
Aristotelian philosophy in the university. It was there
that he first met Ignatius, who in 1529 resided in the
college for a time as a guest. Together with five other

120 Francis Xavier
St. Francis Xavier
students, Francis and Ignatius formed a group to practice
Ignatius’s spiritual exercises. The group of seven
took vows of chastity together at Montmartre on
August 15, 1534.
Francis was ordained to the priesthood in Venice on
June 24, 1537, and went to teach in Bologna. However,
when Ignatius called his Paris companions
together during Lent in 1539, he went to Rome to join
them. The group decided to form a new religious order,
the Society of Jesus, placing themselves at the disposal
of the pope to be sent wherever he wished and for
whatever duties. Pope Paul III gave verbal approval to
the order on September 3, the written approbation
coming a year later, on September 27, 1540.
By the time written approbation was promulgated,
Francis had left Rome. When King John III of Portugal
asked the Vatican to send two Jesuits to Goa, India,
where a colony had been established 30 years earlier,
Francis was assigned the mission. He reached Lisbon
about June and quickly became busy assisting in hospi-
tals and schools. The following year he received four
briefs from Pope Paul III, constituting him papal nuncio
and recommending him to the princes of the East.
He sailed for Goa on April 7, 1541, his 35th birthday,
and landed there on May 6, 1542.
Francis spent five months in Goa, preaching and
ministering to the sick in the hospitals, and teaching
the catechism to children. He would walk through the
streets ringing a bell to call the children to their studies.
Then in October he moved to Travancore on the
Pearl Fishery Coast to minister to the Paravas, a lowcaste
people who had been introduced to Christianity
by the Portuguese. Twice while in Travancore he was
credited with the miracle of bringing the dead to life.
Word of the miracles spread, and he soon received
invitations to minister elsewhere in southern India.
Leaving India in 1545, Francis took his ministry to
areas of the western Pacific, though it is improbable
that he ever reached the Philippines, as is sometimes
claimed. He did, however, reach Japan and the Chinese
coast.
In Malacca in July 1547, Francis met a Japanese
called Anger (Han-Sir), whom he baptized with the
name Pablo de Santa Fe. From Anger he learned about
Japan, and the two left for the islands toward the end
of June 1549, arriving at the city of Kagoshima on
August 15. Francis spent a year learning the language
and translating the principal church documents, then,
about August 1550, he left Kagoshima and went
inland, preaching the Gospel in some of the cities of
southern Japan. At the beginning of 1551 he returned
briefly to Goa, intent on converting China, about
which he had heard much while in Japan.
Francis left Goa for the last time in April 1552, and
arrived at the small island of Sancian off the coast of
China that fall. He was planning how best to reach the
mainland when he fell ill. Since the movement of his
ship seemed to be aggravating his condition, he was
taken ashore to a crude hut that was built for him. He
died there on December 3, 1552, without the last
sacraments or a Christian burial. His corpse was covered
in lime so that the flesh would be quickly consumed
in the grave. However, when his body was dug
up on February 17, 1553, it was found to be incorrupt
and in a remarkable state of preservation. His
body was taken to Goa, where it was met with much
devotion, displayed for four days and entombed in the
former Jesuit church. Prior to entombment, it was
examined by doctors to verify that no embalming had
been done on it. The corpse gave off a sweet fragrance.
In 1614, by order of the general of the Society of
Jesus, Claudius Acquaviva, the right arm was severed

at the elbow and conveyed to Rome, where an altar was
erected to receive it in the Church of the Gesu. The
body was exhumed and examined again in 1694 and
found to be remarkably lifelike, as though the saint
were merely sleeping. The body since has dried and
shrunk, but remains incorrupt. Numerous parts of it
have been removed for relics.
In 1949 the severed arm was toured throughout
Japan and the United States to commemorate the
400th anniversary of Francis’s arrival in Japan. The
body was placed on exhibition in Goa from November
1974 to January 5, 1975.
During his life Francis was credited with many miracles,
besides raising the dead, among whom was a
man whose entombed body had started to putrefy.
Francis’s bilocations were recorded so frequently that
one biographer termed them “of quite an ordinary
occurrence.” He is said to have possessed the gift of
prophecy and of tongues, to have healed the sick and
wounded, and to have calmed storms. In one such
storm near the Molucca Islands, the winds snatched
his crucifix, which he was holding high above his
head, and tossed it into the sea. When the saint’s ship
arrived safely at its destination, a great crab came out
of the sea carrying the crucifix in its claws in an
upright position. The grateful saint prostrated himself
on the beach in prayer for half an hour.
No doubt this reputation aided in his ministry. It
is estimated that in India alone he baptized 30,000
people.
Francis was canonized in 1622 along with SS.
Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Avila and Isidore the
Farmer.
In art, he is represented by a bell, crucifix, vessel or
globe. He is also depicted as a young bearded Jesuit
with a torch, flame, cross and lily; as a young bearded
Jesuit in the company of Ignatius of Loyola; and as a
preacher carrying a flaming heart.
Beatified: 1619 by Pope Paul V
Canonized: March 12, 1622, by Pope Gregory XV
Feast: December 3
Patronage: apostleship of prayer; Borneo; East
Indies; foreign missions; Goa, India; immigrants;
Japan; wineries and winegrowers
FURTHER READING
“San Francisco Javier.” Church Forum website. URL:
http://www.churchforum.org/santoral/Diciembre/0312.ht
m. Downloaded: January 12, 2000.
Schurhammer, Georg. Francis Xavier His Life, His Times:
Europe, 1506–1541. Vol. 1. Tr. M. Joseph Costelloe. Chicago:
Loyola Press, 1977.
———. Francis Xavier His Life, His Times: India, 1541–1545.
Vol. 2. Tr. M. Joseph Costelloe. Chicago: Loyola Press,
1977.
Fulgentius of Ruspe 121
Fulgentius of Ruspe (468–533) Bishop of Ruspe,
Father of the Church
Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius was born at
Telepte (Thelepte), in the North African province of
Byzacena, in 468. His grandfather, Gordianus, had
been a senator in Carthage who had been exiled to
Italy by the Vandals; but the family still owned property
and had status in the region. Fulgentius’s father,
Claudius, died soon after his birth, and he was brought
up by his mother, Mariana. He was well educated and
when he came of age helped Mariana manage the family
estate. Proving himself in his abilities, he was
appointed procurator of Telepte and tax receiver of
Byzacena.
However, he was drawn to the religious life. After
practicing austerities privately for a time, he entered a
local monastery when he was 22. There he became ill
from excessive abstinence, but recovered. When
renewed persecutions forced the abbot to flee, Fulgentius
also left, going to another monastery, this run by a
friend of his named Felix. Felix tried to abdicate in
favor of Fulgentius, but the two finally agreed on a corule,
Felix caring for the house while Fulgentius
instructed the brethren.
Felix and Fulgentius ruled together for six years
until in 499 they were forced to flee invading Numidians.
They went to Sicca Veneria, where they were
arrested on the demand of an Arian priest, scourged,
and tortured, but finally released when they refused to
deny their faith. The two monks then split up, Fulgentius
intending to visit the anchorites in the Egyptian
desert, though he instead went to Rome where in 500
he visited the tombs of the Apostles. When he returned
to Byzacena, he built his own monastery, though he
chose to live apart as a hermit.
During this period, the Vandals did not allow orthodox
Catholic bishops to be elected in Africa, and several
sees fell vacant. Finally, in 508, the remaining
North African bishops decided to get new bishops in
place before the Vandals could stop them. Fearing he
would be elected, Fulgentius went into hiding. He
returned when he thought all of the vacancies had
been filled, but unfortunately for him landed at the
seaport of Ruspe (now Kudiat Rosfa, Tunisia), where
the election had been delayed. He was promptly
elected and consecrated bishop of a town he had never
before seen.
He quickly erected a new monastery, placing Felix
in charge. However, it was not long before he and the
60 other new bishops were exiled to Sardinia. Fulgentius
quickly emerged as spokesman of this community,
and in Cagliari founded yet another monastery. There
he began writing an important series of theological

122 Fursey
works addressing the Arian heresy, some of which
came to the attention of the Vandal king Thrasimund.
In 515, Thrasimund had Fulgentius taken to Carthage
for discussions with the Arian clergy.
In Carthage, Fulgentius found a receptive audience
among the city folk. His presence became a threat to
the Arians, who insisted that he be deported. He was
put aboard ship one night but contrary winds kept it in
port for the next several days and many were able to
take his leave and to receive Holy Communion from
his hands. To one weeping religious man, he prophesied
his speedy return and the liberty of the African
Church. This came with the death of Thrasimund in
523. Fulgentius returned to his monastery outside
Ruspe, where he continued to rule for the remaining
years of his life, insisting on austerity for himself and
his priests.
Perhaps sensing his end was near, in 532 Fulgentius
suddenly left Ruspe and retired to a small monastery
he had caused to be built on the island of Circinia
(Circe). His flock did not permit him to remain there
long, however, and shortly after his return to Ruspe, he
fell ill. He was sick for 70 days before expiring on January
1, 533. He was 65, and in the 25th year of his
episcopate. So beloved was he for his gifts of oratory
that he was buried within his church, contrary to the
law and custom of his age.
Feast: January 1 (formerly January 3)
Fursey (d. 648) Irish abbot, monastery founder, visionary
and miracle-worker
Fursey was born to a noble family on the island of Inisguia
en Lough Carrie, Ireland, and was the brother of
SS. Foillan and Ulan. He founded a monastery at
Lagny-en-Brie, France, and became its abbot. Desiring
a good source of water, he prayed to God and then
struck the ground with his staff. A fountain of water
issued forth that served not only the monastery but
also the entire town. The water was said to have healing
properties, and it attracted many pilgrims, especially
on Ascension Day.
In 630 he went to England with family and friends.
According to the Venerable Bede, Fursey experienced
intense ecstasies, many of which occurred during illnesses.
After arriving in England, he fell ill and had a
vision in which God urged him to proceed with his
ministry and continue his prayers. With great speed,
he built a monastery near Ugremouth on land donated
by King Sigebert.
During a subsequent illness, Fursey fell into a
trance one evening and left his body until dawn. He
saw and heard choirs of angels and was told, “The
saints shall advance from one virtue to another.” Three
days later, another trance journey took him to visions
of the joys of the blessed and the extraordinary efforts
of evil spirits who attempted to obstruct his journey to
heaven but were restrained by angels.
The angels had him look down upon the Earth,
where he saw four fires that would consume the world:
falsehood, covetousness, discord and iniquity. The
flames increased in intensity and joined into one, and
devils flew through the fire. The angels told Fursey he
would not be burned by anything he did not kindle.
There followed accusations hurled by the devils at
Fursey, and defenses provided by the angels. Fursey
also was shown more of heaven, and the holy men of
his nation.
Upon the departure of Fursey and the angels, the
flames opened and a devil tossed out a man, striking
Fursey on the shoulder and jaw and burning him. An
angel tossed the man back into the fire. Fursey had
known the man and had accepted his garment after he
died. A devil said that since he accepted the clothing of
a damned man, he had to share in the man’s punishment.
The angel told the devil that Fursey had not
accepted the garment in avarice, but to save his soul.
The fire ceased. The angel said, “that which you kindled
burned in you; for had you not received the
money of this person that died in his sins, his punishment
would not burn in you.” The angel then gave him
advice for salvation.
For the rest of his life, Fursey bore burn marks
on his shoulder and jaw. He also was perpetually hot,
and even in winter sweated in the thinnest of garments.
Fursey preached the practice of virtues, but talked
about his visions with only a select few. After a time, he
could no longer bear the crowds who came to the
monastery. He resolved to end his life as a hermit, and
went off to live with his brother, Ulan, also a hermit.
But after a year he reentered the world, traveling to
France where he was welcomed by King Clovis and the
patrician Erconwald. He built another monastery near
Paris.
In 648 Fursey fell ill again and died. Erconwald
took his body to a church under construction in
Perrone. Fursey’s body remained on the porch incorrupt
for 27 days until the church was dedicated.
His remains were buried near the altar; four years
later the still-incorrupt body was translated to a
chapel. Many miracles were claimed at his burial
site. For many years some of his relics, sent back
to Ireland, were paraded to the fountain he had

found every Ascension Day for a special ceremony.
Thanks to Bede, he is one of the best known early
Irish saints.
Feast: January 16
Fursey 123
FURTHER READING
Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. URL:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html.
Downloaded: February 10, 2000.

Gabriel the Archangel
Name meaning: “Hero of God,” “the mighty one” or
“God has shown himself mighty” in Hebrew
The angel Gabriel—given the rank of archangel in
post-biblical lore—is one of the three principal angels
of Christianity, and figures prominently in Judaic,
Christian and Islamic angelology. In Christianity, the
cult of Gabriel began early in Rome.
Gabriel is the angel of revelation, wisdom, mercy,
redemption and promise. He sits at the left hand of
God. Gabriel is mentioned four times in the Bible, and
always in connection with important news. In the Old
Testament, he first appears as Daniel’s frequent visitor,
bringing prophetic visions of apocalyptic proportion
(Daniel 8:16, 9:21). In the New Testament, Gabriel
gives his name to Zechariah—“I am Gabriel who stand
in God’s presence” —when he announces the coming
birth of John the Baptist (Luke 1:19). He is cited in the
Annunciation to Mary of the coming birth of Jesus
(Luke 1:26).
It is in his role as annunciator of the coming of the
birth of Christ to Mary that Gabriel is best known and
best depicted in art. He is the most painted of angels,
for the Incarnation is the most common subject in
Western art. He is often shown holding one or more
lilies, the symbol of purity, or holding a scroll inscribed
with the Ave Maria.
Gf
125
Luke 1:26–38 describes the encounter between
Gabriel and Mary. He appears to her, tells her she has
found favor with God, and she will become pregnant
with a son who is to be named Jesus. When Mary wonders
how this can happen, since she is a virgin, Gabriel
tells her the Holy Spirit will come upon her, and the
child will be holy. When she consents (“Behold, I am
the handmaid of the Lord; let it be done unto me
according to your word”) the angel departs. Though
the angel who announces the birth of Jesus to the
shepherds (Luke 2:8–14) is called only an “angel of the
Lord,” Catholic tradition credits this to Gabriel.
In Catholic devotion to angels, Gabriel has a prominent
place because of his role in the Annunciation.
Gabriel’s salutation, “Hail, full of grace, the Lord is
with thee, blessed art thou among women” is reiterated
in the Hail Mary. Because of his role in the Annunciation,
other lore about Gabriel holds that he guides the
soul from paradise to the womb and there instructs it
for the nine months prior to birth.
Gabriel also is credited with other major acts of
unnamed angels concerning Jesus: as the angel who
appears in a dream to Joseph, warning him to take his
family and flee to Egypt to avoid Herod’s hunt for the
baby Jesus (Matthew 2:13); as the angel who appears
in the Garden of Gethsemane to provide strength and
support to Jesus in his agony (Luke 22:43); and as the

126 Gabriel the Archangel
Archangel Gabriel announcing the birth of Jesus to Mary (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

“angel of the Lord” who has a countenance as lightning
and a raiment as snow, who rolls back the stone
from the tomb of Jesus and sits upon it (Matthew
28:2). In addition, Gabriel is said to be the unnamed
archangel in 1 Thessalonians 4:15 who sounds the
trumpet of judgment and resurrection. Thus, he is
shown in art blowing a trumpet. Gabriel’s symbols are
a spear and a shield emblazoned with a lily.
Devotion to Gabriel and other angels is fostered as a
way of becoming closer to God.
Feast: September 29
Patronage: clerics; diplomats; messengers; postal
workers; radio broadcasters; stamp collectors;
telecommunication workers
FURTHER READING
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Angels. New
York: Facts On File, 1996.
O’Sullivan, Fr. Paul. All about the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1990; first published, 1945.
St. Michael and the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1983;
first published, 1977.
Gabriel Francis of Our Lady of Sorrows (1838–
1862) Passionist monk who advised St. Gemma Galgani
Gabriel Francis of Our Lady of Sorrows was born Francis
Possenti in Assisi, Italy, in 1838. He joined the Passionist
monks in Morovalle in 1856. He died of
consumption in 1862 in Isola.
Gabriel Francis’s cult was confined to local calendars
in 1969.
Canonized: 1920 by Pope Benedict XV
Feast: February 27
Gall (ca. 550–630) Irish missionary, companion of St.
Columban, patron saint of Sweden and Switzerland
Gall was born ca. 550 in Ireland and studied under SS.
Columban and Comgall. He was a priest and biblical
scholar, and one of the 12 companions who accompanied
Columban to France, where they founded the
abbeys of Annegray, Fontaine and Luxeuil; Gall lived at
the latter for 20 years. When Columban was forced
into exile in 610, Gall went with him, and they eventually
went to Austrasia. There they preached for two
years amidst opposition from the pagans.
In 612 Columban decided to retire to Italy, but Gall
said he could not go along due to illness. Columban
did not think him that ill, but merely unwilling, and so
sentenced him to a penance of never celebrating the
mass for the rest of his life. Gall obeyed, and went off
to Arbon, where he stayed with a priest, Willimar, who
had given them shelter during Columban’s exile. The
deacon Hiltibod instructed him to live as a hermit, and
so he chose a spot by the river Steinach to live. Disciples
gathered around him, and they followed the rule
of Columban.
Gall learned of Columban’s death at Bobbio in 615
in a vision. St. Eustace, whom Columban had left in
charge of the abbey at Luxeuil, died in 625. The monks
asked Gall to succeed him as abbot, but Gall preferred
to remain a hermit, leaving his cell only to teach and
preach. He undertook missionary activities in Switzerland.
King Sigebert twice offered Gall a bishopric, but he
declined these as well. He died around 630 in Bregenz,
Austria.
The Saint Gall monastery grew up on the site of his
hermitage, as did the town of Saint Gall. During the
Middle Ages, it was a prominent center of arts and
learning. The library was secularized and is now part
of the cathedral of Saint Gall.
According to legend, Gall had miraculous gifts,
including the ability to communicate with animals.
Once he is said to have dispatched a bear to fetch firewood
for the monks.
Feast: October 16
Patronage: birds; geese; poultry; Sweden; Switzerland
Gelasius I (d. 496) Pope
Gelasius I 127
Gelasius, the son of an African named Valerius, was
born in Rome. He served as secretary to Pope St. Simplicius
(r. 468–483) and Pope St. Felix III (r. 483–
492), holding the position of archdeacon under the latter.
He was elected Felix’s successor in the Chair of St.
Peter on March 1, 492.
During his pontificate, Gelasius made little attempt
to breach the schism between the Western and Eastern
Churches that had arisen at the end of Simplicius’s
reign. His more modest aim was to assert papal authority
over the Church of Constantinople, which had
emerged as a see second only to Rome and as leader of
the Eastern Church. Although he meet with little success
in this regard, he did exercise a deep influence on
the development of Catholic ecclesiastical discipline
and liturgy. A considerable number of his decrees were
incorporated into canon law. He also composed many
hymns, prefaces and collects, and arranged a standard
missal, although the Sacramentarium Gelasianum actually
belongs to the next century and it is not known
how much of Gelasius’s work it contains.
In his private life, Gelasius was much devoted to
prayer, penance and study. He delighted in the com-

128 Gemma Galgani
pany of monks and gave freely to the poor, dying penniless
as a result of his lavish charity.
Gelasius died in Rome on November 19, 496, and
was buried in St. Peter’s on November 21.
Feast: November 21
Gemma Galgani (1878–1903) Mystic, stigmatist
Also known as: the Passion Flower of Lucca
Gemma Galgani was born on March 12, 1878, in
Camigliano, a small town near Lucca in Tuscany, Italy.
She was the oldest daughter of eight children. Her
mother died when she was seven, and her childhood
was fraught with hardships. She was chronically ill.
Her relatives, burdened with caring for her, treated her
poorly.
From an early age, she exhibited supernatural gifts:
visitations, visits by Christ, assaults by the devil, and
stigmata.
Gemma took her First Communion on June 17,
1887. She had an intense desire to become a Passionist
nun, but was turned away because of her ill health.
At age 19, Gemma turned down two marriage proposals
and then fell seriously ill with meningitis. She
felt herself tempted by the devil, and prayed for help to
the Venerable Francis Possenti (a Passionist later canonized
as St. Gabriel Francis of Our Lady of Sorrows).
She was miraculously cured, and credited the intercession
of Possenti.
The stigmata appeared on her wrists, feet and side
from 1899 to 1901. The first episode occurred on June
8, 1899. Gemma felt an intense sorrow for her sins and
a willingness to suffer. She had a vision of her guardian
angel and the Blessed Virgin Mary. Mary opened her
mantle and covered her, and told her she was much
loved by Jesus, who was giving her a special grace.
Then Jesus appeared with his wounds open; flames,
not blood, issued forth. The flames touched Gemma’s
hand, feet and heart, and she felt as though she were
dying. Mary supported her for several hours. The
vision ended, and Gemma found herself on her knees,
a sharp pain in her hands, feet and heart. Her guardian
angel helped her into bed, and blood began to flow
from her wounds.
Thereafter, every Thursday evening to Friday afternoon,
Gemma would fall into a rapture and the five
wounds would open and issue a bright red blood. She
would utter the words of Jesus and Mary. The wounds
would abruptly stop bleeding, close and leave only
white marks. Sometimes the obliteration took until
Saturday or Sunday to complete. When the ecstasies
ended, Gemma would serenely go about her normal
business. However, she suffered great inner torments
and trials from the devil. Throughout these difficult
experiences, she maintained a great serenity and peace.
A Passionist, Father Germano, took an interest in
Gemma and became her spiritual director and confessor.
An expert on fraudulent mystical phenomena, he
had Gemma thoroughly tested and was convinced her
experiences were genuine. He recorded her utterances
and later became her biographer. With Germano’s help,
Gemma went to live with a family as a mother’s helper,
where she was shielded from unfriendly attention and
had the freedom to experience her ecstasies.
In 1901, Germano forbade her to accept the stigmata.
She prayed and the phenomenon ceased, though
the white marks remained.
Gemma sought to help the poor, and especially
prayed for the conversion of souls.
In 1903, she was diagnosed with tuberculosis of
the spine. She died peacefully with a smile on her lips
in the company of her parish priest on Holy Saturday,
April 11, 1903.
Gemma’s rich visionary life was recorded in detail
in her diaries and letters, as well as in Germano’s writings.
She was especially known for her angelic visions.
She saw her guardian angel and heard his voice. Her
conversations with her angel were observed and
recorded by others who could hear only one side of the
conversation—hers. Germano commented that whenever
she saw or listened to her angel, she entered into
an ecstatic state of consciousness, lost in another
world; as soon as she turned her eyes away, she
resumed her usual personality.
Gemma’s angel was her constant companion, so
familiar that she often treated him like a brother. She
was once admonished by Germano—who overheard
one of her one-way conversations—that she should
treat him with more respect. She agreed, and vowed to
remain 100 steps behind the angel whenever she saw
him coming.
Whenever Gemma was plagued by evil spirits, she
called upon her angel. In 1900 she recorded an episode
in which she was harassed for hours by the devil in the
form of a horrible “little fellow.” She was assaulted by
blows upon her shoulders while she prayed. Her angel
appeared and, curiously, attempted to beg off her
request to stay with her all night. He told her he had to
sleep. When she replied that the “Angels of Jesus do
not need to sleep,” he said he still needed to rest.
Nonetheless, he remained, and spread his wings over
her while she slept.
Sometimes the angel was severe with her, in word
or expression, as a way of trying to keep her on the
straight and narrow spiritual path. He would find fault
with her, and tell her he was ashamed of her. If she

strayed from the path, he would depart from her presence
for awhile.
Perhaps the most remarkable trademark of Gemma’s
angel was his couriership. She would send him off
on errands to deliver verbal messages to people in distant
places, and return with their replies. Gemma considered
this angelic postal service to be a natural thing,
and did not like asking for stamps. Others reportedly
received the messages. Sometimes replies were delivered
back to her by the guardian angel of Father Germano.
When some suggested this was the work of the
devil, Germano subjected Gemma to various spiritual
tests, asking for irrefutable signs, and got them.
For one test, Germano told Gemma to give her aunt
Cecilia a letter addressed to him; she was to lock it in a
place unknown to Gemma. Cecilia gave the letter to a
priest who locked it in a chest in his room and pocketed
the key. The next day Gemma sensed the angel
passing with her letter. She notified the surprised
priest, who found the letter missing from the chest.
The letter was received by Germano—apparently by
angelic post. This test was successfully repeated a second
time under different circumstances.
Gemma was visited by other angels, and often by
Germano’s guardian angel, who, she said, had a brilliant
star over his head. No thought or deed of hers
ever escaped angelic attention. If she was distracted in
prayer, her angel would punish her. If she did not feel
well, or if she would not eat enough, the angel exhibited
a tender side, inquiring after her welfare and urging
her to eat.
Many other marvels were ascribed to her. Like St.
Martin de Porres, she was seen levitating and kissing a
crucifix on a wall in her home. She also could “smell”
the purity of a person’s soul. If she was in the company
of a wicked person, she found they gave off such a
stench that she became physically ill. She reportedly
undertook a mystical fast of extraordinary length at the
end of her life, from Whitsunday on June 1, 1902,
until the day she died. She would eat only the Blessed
Sacrament.
Though she never officially was a Passionist,
Gemma‘s remains are interred at the Passionist
monastery at Lucca. She had accurately predicted it
would be built two years after her death.
Beatified: 1933 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: May 2, 1940, by Pope Pius XII
Feast: April 11
Patronage: pharmacists; tuberculosis sufferers
FURTHER READING
O’Sullivan, Fr. Paul. All about the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: Tan
Books and Publishers, 1990; first published, 1945.
St. Gemma Galgani
George 129
George (d. ca. 303) Martyr, one of the Fourteen Holy
Helpers, patron saint of many countries
St. George is considered to be one of the most illustrious
martyrs in the Church, though most of what is
known about him in various “Acts of St. George” is
probably more legend than fact.
However, George was an historical figure. According
to an account by Metaphrastes, he was born in
Cappadocia (in modern Turkey) to a noble Christian
family; his mother was Palestinian. After his father
died, he went to live in Palestine with his mother.
George became a soldier and was promoted to high
rank by Emperor Diocletian. But when Diocletian
began persecuting Christians, George went to him and
protested. He was jailed and tortured at or near Lydda,
also known as Diospolis. On the following day (April
23, probably the year 303), he was paraded through
the streets and then beheaded. He was buried at Lydda.
George immediately became an important martyr in
the churches of both East and West, and altars and

130 Gerard Majella
St. George with slain dragon (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer,
n.d.)
churches were built in his honor. The early pilgrims of
the sixth to eighth centuries knew of Lydda as the seat
of his veneration. Some Acts of St. George were in existence
by the end of the fifth century.
During the Middle Ages, George became a patron of
arms and chivalry in England, and the best-known
image of George, as a dragon-slaying knight, was born.
By the 11th century, his Acts had been translated into
Anglo-Saxon, and churches were dedicated to him. He
was invoked as a champion of the Crusades. The arms
of St. George, a red cross on a white background, were
carried into battle, and by the 14th century were used
as an insignia on the uniforms of English soldiers and
sailors. The red cross was incorporated into the Union
Jack. In 1347, King Edward III founded the chivalric
Order of the Garter, of which George was the principal
patron. Edmund Spenser wrote of George in his Faerie
Queen as the “Red Cross Knight.”
The Golden Legend, translated into English by
William Caxton, tells of St. George and the dragon, a
story that probably dates to the 12th century. A
monstrous dragon lived in the swamp near Silena,
Lybia, and terrorized the countryside by bringing
pestilence with its breath. To placate it, the townsfolk
fed it two sheep every day. The dragon grew weary of
sheep and started demanding human victims. Lots
were drawn and no substitutes were allowed. One day
the king’s little daughter was marked as the next sacrifice.
She was taken to the swamp. George came by,
and when the dragon appeared he made the sign of
the cross and stabbed it with his lance. He asked the
maiden for her girdle and put it around the beast’s
neck. They led the dragon back to town. George
exhorted the people to be baptized and have no fear;
then he cut off the dragon’s head. All the people were
converted. George declined the king’s offer of half his
kingdom, saying he must ride on. He told the king to
take care of the churches, honor the clergy and have
pity on the poor.
Numerous religious and secular orders of St.
George have existed throughout Europe and in Russia
and England (despite the fact that the saint’s cult was
suppressed in Protestant England). As a Holy Helper,
he was invoked for the protection of domestic animals
during the plague.
In art, George is most often depicted as a knight on
a horse lancing a dragon, the medieval symbol of evil.
Feast: April 23
Patronage: Boy Scouts; cavalry; farmers; soldiers;
Aragón; England; Genoa; Germany; Portugal;
Spain; Venice
FURTHER READING
Hammer, Fr. Bonaventure. The Fourteen Holy Helpers. Rockford,
Ill.: TAN Books, 1995.
Gerard Majella (1726–1755) Disciple of St. Alphonsus
Liguori and Redemptorist lay brother
Also known as: the Wonder-Worker
Gerard Majella was born in April 1726 in Muro, south
of Naples. His father, Dominic Majella, was a tailor,
and died while Gerard was a child. Gerard’s mother
was forced to apprentice the child to a tailor, who
treated him cruelly.
Gerard was attracted both to the priesthood and to
suffering. He became the servant of a bishop. When
the bishop died, he resumed work as a tailor. In 1745
he opened his own shop, and divided his earnings
between his mother and the poor, and offerings for the
souls in purgatory.

Gerard unsuccessfully tried to become a Franciscan,
and then a hermit. In 1749 he became a Redemptorist
and was professed by Alphonsus Liguori in 1752.
In his vows, he promised to always do that which
seemed to him to be more perfect. Though sickly, he
obeyed all orders, performed his duties and was a
model of virtue, much to the appreciation of Alphonsus.
He also seemed to know the needs of others even
when absent. Alphonsus declared him a saint.
Gerard accompanied the fathers on missions, and
converted many to the faith. He desired to spend so
much time in church that he had to do violence to
himself to keep himself away. When a woman falsely
accused him, he was defended by Alphonsus, and was
sent to Naples and then Caposele. The woman then
admitted she had lied. Gerard remained in Caposele
raising funds. He died there of tuberculosis on October
15, 1755, at age 29. After his death, Gerard became a
powerful intercessor, especially for expectant mothers.
During his short life, Gerard experienced many
miracles and mystical experiences. He bilocated, and
used his gift to spend more time in prayer, sometimes
in ecstatic prayer. He fell into raptures and levitated
before witnesses. On one occasion, he was seen to fly
rapidly about one-quarter of a mile. He also could
make himself invisible. He was often attacked and
annoyed by demons, who left him bruised; he used
holy water to heal the bruises.
Sometimes when he fell into ecstasy, rays of light
shot from him, so bright that the very room he was in
seemed to be on fire. His face and body glowed until he
became like a sun.
He was often permeated with a heavenly odor.
When he was dying, even his vomit smelled sweet.
One day while traveling along the Neapolitan
seashore, he saw a ship in danger of capsizing in a sudden
squall. While onlookers screamed, he made the
sign of the cross and ordered the boat to pause in the
name of the Most Holy. He took off his mantle, laid it
on the water, walked to the ship and took hold of it
and pulled it to safety. Gerard’s explanation was that
when God wills, all things are possible. He also controlled
the elements and stopped torrential rain.
He had an amazing rapport with animals, and birds
were attracted to him. On one occasion he slew mice.
He met a poor farmer whose field was being ravaged by
mice. Gerard asked him if he would like the mice to
move or to die. The farmer said he wanted them to die.
Gerard made the sign of the cross, and in moments the
field was covered with dead and dying mice.
On numerous occasions, Gerard manifested money—after
intense periods of prayer—for the poor and
for church projects. He also multiplied food for the
poor and for his brethren. He healed people, some-
St. Gerard Majella
Gerard Majella 131
times using dust from the tomb of St. Teresa of Avila to
cure illness and prevent accidents.
He had the gift of prophecy, and knew when others
would die. He predicted his own death six months in
advance. He said he had prayed to die of tuberculosis,
knowing that few would want to attend him, and he
would die virtually abandoned. He predicted the day
and hour of his death.
Gerard had the gift of mystical knowledge, and
spontaneously said profound things at the right time.
He knew the sins of others and could read souls and
hearts. He knew when people had not confessed all
they should, and sent them back to the confessional.
Posthumous miracles are recorded as well. In 1855,
during his cause of beatification, Gerard’s remains were
exhumed. The head and bones oozed a perfumed oil or
manna in such abundance that a basin overran with it.
The manna was collected on handkerchiefs and linens
and given to the sick, many of whom were healed. In
1892, the remains were exhumed again. The bones,
found to be humid, were dried and placed in a casket.

132 Germanus I
Four hours later, they were found to be oozing a sweet,
white oil. The oil never appeared again.
In 1895, two years after Gerard’s beatification, people
gathered at Caposele to celebrate his feast day. After
delivery of a panegyric and prayer, three flashes like
lightning illuminated the chapel containing the saint’s
tomb, the basilica of Materdomini.
Beatified: January 29, 1893, by Pope Leo XIII
Canonized: December 1904 by Pope Pius X
Feast: October 16
Patronage: childbirth; expectant mothers; the falsely
accused
FURTHER READING
Gerard Majella: The Mother’s Saint. League of Saint Gerard
Staff. Liguori, Mo.: Liguori Publications.
Saint-Omer, Edward. St. Gerard Majella. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books and Publishers, 1999.
Germanus I (d. 733 or 740) Patriarch of Constantinople,
Father of the Church
Germanus was born to a patrician family; his father,
Justinianus, held various high-level positions in the
government. Germanus became a cleric at the cathedral,
and some time after the death of his father was
made bishop of Cyzicus.
Germanus opposed Monothelitism, which rejected
the two wills of Christ, but was forced to accept it by
Emperor Philippicus. Philippicus was dethroned in
713, and his successor, Anastasius, restored orthodoxy.
In 715, Germanus was recognized as patriach by Pope
Constantine (r. 708–715).
Germanus opposed Emperor Leo III the Isaurian in
his support of Iconoclasm, and Leo sought to depose
him. Germanus appealed to Pope Gregory II (r.
715–731). In 730 the pope summoned Germanus to a
council and he was instructed to support the prohibition
of the use of images in worship. Germanus refused
and was forced to resign. He returned to the home of
his family, where he died either in 733 or 740. In 787
the Council of Nicaea praised Germanus.
Feast: May 12
Gertrude the Great (ca. 1256–1302) Benedictine
mystic
Name meaning: Spear-strength
Gertrude was born on January 6, 1256, near Eisleben
in Saxony, Germany. Nothing is known of her parents,
except that they were well-to-do. Gertrude was orphaned
and at age five was placed in the Benedictine
convent at Rodalsdorf, where she became a student of
St. Mechtilde. She became a nun in the same monastery,
and was elected abbess in 1251. The following
year she took charge of the monastery at Helfta, to
which she moved with her nuns.
Gertrude was such a devoted student that later she
repented for neglecting her prayers in order to study
more. She wrote and composed in Latin. She was especially
devoted to the Sacred Heart, and wrote prayers
with Mechtilde.
On January 27, 1281, Gertrude had her first vision
of Christ, who appeared to her as a 16-year-old youth.
The vision appeared as she raised her head from prayer
at twilight. Christ told her that her salvation was near
at hand, and he would welcome her tenderly. Thereafter
for 20 years, Gertrude had at least one vision of
Christ a day. He often urged her to come to him
through his mother, the Blessed Virgin Mary, who
would be her protector. Only once did the visions
cease—during an 11-day period when he punished
Gertrude for a “worldly” conversation.
Gertrude was so humble that she wished no outward
manifestation of these visions, as she did not
want to appear special.
After Mechtilde’s death in 1298, one of the nuns
received this revelation from Jesus: “I have done great
things in Mechtilde, but I will accomplish still greater
things in Gertrude.”
Jesus bestowed seven graces upon her, and confirmed
his promises by revealing his heart and telling
her to extend her hands. When she withdrew them,
she saw on one hand seven gold ringlets, one on each
finger and three on the signet finger.
In visions, Gertrude saw Jesus also give his mother
his Sacred Heart, and also kneel down before her. She
also had numerous visions of Mary. Once Gertrude
prayed to Mary, asking her to fill her heart with virtues.
In a vision, Mary came and planted in Gertrude’s heart
symbolic flowers: the rose of chastity, the lily of purity,
the violet of humility, the sunflower of obedience, and
others.
Gertrude also saw Mary appear in the presence of
the Holy Trinity. In another vision on the Feast of the
Assumption, she saw Mary invite her to take her place
on the heavenly throne, explaining that she could offer
Gertrude’s merits to God for the privilege. Mary
ascended to heaven, conducted by Jesus and amidst
rejoicing saints and angels.
Gertrude died in Hefta on November 17, 1302.
According to lore, Mary came and supported her during
her dying, and helped her soul to heaven. She was
buried alongside Mechtilde. In 1342, the monastery
was transferred to New Helfta inside the city walls of
Eisleben, but there is no record of any translation of
the relics and remains of the two saints.

The death of Gertrude the Great (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Many of Gertrude’s writings are lost. Extant are
Legatus Divinae Pietatis (Herald of divine love), Exercises
of St. Gertrude, and the Liber Specialis Gratiae
(Book of special grace) of St. Mechtilde, all written in
Latin. Her mysticism is that of all the great contemplative
workers of the Benedictine Order.
Legatus Divinae Pietatis comprises five books containing
her life story and accounts of many of the
favors granted her by God. Only book two of the five is
her work, with the remainder being compiled by members
of the Helfta community. The seven “Exercises”
range from the work of the reception of baptismal
grace to the preparation for death. Gertrude exhibits a
profound knowledge and understanding of liturgy and
Scripture, and uses rich symbolism and allegory to
convey her message. Central to her work is her devotion
to the Sacred Heart.
The superiors of Helfta appointed renowned
Dominican and Franciscan theologians to examine the
works of Gertrude. Her writings were approved and
Gertrude the Great 133
propagated. St. Teresa of Avila chose Gertrude as her
mentor and guide, and Gertrude’s works were favorably
viewed and recommended by SS. John of the
Cross and Francis de Sales.
Gertrude never was canonized, but in 1677 her
name was inscribed in the Roman Martyrology, and
Pope Clement XII (r. 1730–40) decreed that her feast
should be observed by the entire Church. In art she is
depicted as an abbess, sometimes with a mouse and
sometimes holding a flaming heart. She is considered
to be the forerunner of St. Margaret Mary Alacoque in
devotion to the Sacred Heart and is the only woman
saint to be called “Great.”
The seven mystical rings are commemorated by the
Church in St. Gertrude’s Office, in the third antiphon
at Lauds: “My Lord Jesus has espoused me to Him with
seven rings, and crowned me as a bride.”
Gertrude is especially invoked for living sinners
and souls in purgatory. In a vision, Jesus had told her
that a certain prayer would release 1,000 souls from

134 Gleb
purgatory each time it is said. The prayer was extended
to include living sinners as well:
“Eternal Father, I offer Thee the Most Precious
Blood of Thy Divine Son, Jesus, in union with the
Masses said throughout the world today, for all the
Holy Souls in Purgatory, for sinners everywhere, for
sinners in the universal church, those in my own home
and within my family. Amen.”
Feast: November 16
Patronage: against rats; West Indies
FURTHER READING
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
Gertrude of Helfta: The Herald of Divine Love. Margaret
Winkworth, ed. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1993.
Gleb See BORIS AND GLEB.
Gorgonia (d. ca. 370–373) Daughter of SS. Gregory
of Nazianzus and Nonna, sister of SS. Gregory of
Nazianzus the Younger and Caesarius
Most of what is known about Gorgonia comes from the
eloquent funeral oration for her delivered by Gregory
of Nazianzus the Younger. Gregory described her as a
model of piety and morals who was generous to the
poor. She was married and had children, and the sole
wealth she left them was “the imitation of her example,
and emulation of her merits.”
Gregory described how on more than one occasion
she was remarkably healed by her intense faith. Once
her mules went wild with her carriage and overturned it.
She was dragged and so badly injured that others
thought she would die. She refused all medical help and
relied upon the will of God. On another occasion, she
fell seriously ill with “an extraordinary and malignant
disease” that left her fevered, paralyzed and even comatose.
From this she seemingly miraculously recovered.
Gorgonia was told by God when she would die. She
made her preparations, went to bed, and passed away,
surrounded by her family and friends. Her last words
were, “I will lay me down in peace, and take my rest.”
Feast: December 9
FURTHER READING
“Gregory Nazianzus: On His Sister Gorgonia.” URL: http://
www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregnaz-gornogia.html.
Downloaded: September 24, 2000.
Gregory I (540–604) Pope, Father of the Church, Doctor
of the Church
Also known as: Gregory the Great
Gregory I is one of only two popes called “the Great”;
the other is Pope Leo I (r. 440–461). Gregory was the
first monk to become pope. His reign is distinguished
by his statesmanship, his writings, and his encouragement
of the monasteries, as well as his miracles. He is
considered one of the four great Latin fathers of the
Church.
Gregory was born in 540 in Rome to a patrician
family. His father, Gordianus, owned large estates in
Sicily. His mother, Silvia, is recognized as a saint, and
two of his aunts, Tarsilla and Aemilians (Emiliana),
were canonized.
Little is known of his early years. He was drawn to
the religious life and spent long hours meditating on
the Scriptures. In 573 he became the prefect of Rome,
but a year later abandoned the job to become a monk.
He turned his home into a monastery under the
patronage of St. Andrew, and turned his six Sicilian
estates into monasteries. For about three years, Gregory
lived in happy retirement from the world, probably
following the Rule of Benedict, and practicing
severe austerities that weakened his health for the rest
of his life. He suffered chronic gastrointestinal problems
and a “slow fever.”
In 579, with the Lombards threatening Rome, Pope
Pelagius II (r. 579–590) sent Gregory to Constantinople
to be permanent ambassador to the court of Byzantium.
Several of Gregory’s brothers from St. Andrew’s
went with him. Gregory disliked court life and, with
his fellow monks, adhered to monastic life as much as
possible. During the six years he was in Constantinople,
Gregory played the key role in suppressing a
heresy by Eutychius, the patriarch of Constantinople,
that held that Christ’s risen body had no substance, but
would be “more light than air.” Gregory and Eutychius
engaged in such a battle that the health of both was
impaired. The emperor supported Gregory and ordered
Eutychius’s book to be burned. Crushed and in failing
health, Eutychius took to his deathbed, recanting his
error just before he expired.
Gregory was recalled to Rome in 585 or 586. He
returned to St. Andrew’s and became abbot. He wrote
and preached, and his reputation grew. After meeting
some pagan Englishmen (or boys), Gregory was
inspired to evangelize in Britain. The English were
either men visiting Rome, or, according to the Venerable
Bede, young boys being sold in Rome as slaves.
Pope Pelagius II granted Gregory permission to go
to Britain, but the Roman people, with whom he was
supremely popular, demanded his return. Gregory was
stopped in mid-journey and recalled. Back in Rome, he
served as the pope’s chief adviser and assistant.
In 590, Pelagius II died on the heels of two years of
flood, famine and disease. Gregory was immediately

St. Gregory the Great (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
elected his successor. He attempted to demur, but
Emperor Maurice confirmed the election. Gregory
thought about fleeing, but he was seized and brought
to St. Peter’s Basilica and was confirmed on September
3, 590.
For the next 14 years, Gregory kept an exhausting
schedule of administrative duties and writing. He
preached to huge crowds. He expanded the power and
authority of his office and established it on an equal
footing with the imperial government. He expanded
the Church’s missionary efforts throughout the world,
including Britain; he is recorded in the Venerable
Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People. He
supported the monasteries, enforced discipline, and
encouraged the wealthy to establish more monasteries.
Personally, he lived as simply as possible.
During his last years, Gregory suffered deteriorating
health and depression. He died on March 12, 604, and
was buried the same day in St. Peter’s Basilica. He was
canonized by popular acclaim immediately. His relics
were moved several times, the last occurring in 1606
when Pope Paul V (r. 1605–21) moved them to the
chapel of Pope Clement V (r. 1305–14).
In art he is shown dressed as a pope with tiara, carrying
the double-barred cross. Sometimes he is shown
Gregory II 135
seated at a desk or at an altar; a dove also is sometimes
shown with him.
Among Gregory’s most important works are the
Liber Regulae Pastoralis (Book of pastoral rules), guidelines
of religious practice; four Dialogues, collections of
saints’ lives and their miracles; the Magna Moralis, a
mystical commentary on the Book of Job; and homilies.
Of his letters, 850 are extant.
Gregory is credited with creating Gregorian chant, a
form of musical worship with Jewish, Palestinian and
Syrian roots. Gregory ordered this music to be collected
and preserved. Gregorian chant grew over the
centuries and now numbers about 3,000 chants.
Numerous miracles are attributed to Gregory. Best
known is the story of his writing of his homilies on
Ezekiel, around 593. He dictated to a secretary, who
was seated on the other side of a veil. He would
remain silent for long periods of time. Once during
one of these silences, the curious secretary made a
hole in the veil and peeked through. He saw a white
dove seated upon the pope’s head with its beak
between his lips. When the dove withdrew its beak,
the pope began to speak. During another silence, the
secretary again saw the dove with its beak between
the pope’s lips.
Another story from tradition involves a woman at
Communion who did not believe in the host as the
true body of Christ, for she had made the bread herself.
Gregory placed the bread upon the altar, and it began
to bleed.
Feast: September 3
Patronage: musicians; popes; singers; teachers
FURTHER READING
Bede. “Gregory the Great” in Ecclesiastical History of the English
Nation. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/
bede-greggrea.html. Downloaded: September 23, 2000.
“The Earliest Life of St. Gregory the Great by a Monk or
Nun at Whitby, A.D. 713.” URL: http://www.umilta.net/
gregory.html. Downloaded: September 23, 2000.
Gregory II (ca. 669–731) Pope
Also known as: Dialogus, Gregory the Lesser, Gregory
Junior
Gregory was born about 669 to Marcellus and Honesta,
Roman nobles. While very young he showed an interest
in the Church and was placed by the pope in the
schola cantorum, the choir school. He became a Benedictine
monk. Pope St. Sergius I (r. 687–701) made
him a subdeacon and appointed him sacellarius
(almoner and treasurer) of the Roman Church. Later
he also became its librarian, and has the distinction of
being the first known papal almoner or librarian.

136 Gregory III
In 710, Gregory, now a deacon, accompanied Pope
Constantine (r. 708–715) to Constantinople to protest
the anti-Western canons of the Second Quintisext
(Trullan) Council. He distinguished himself in his
replies to Emperor Justinian II and helped to secure
Justinian’s acceptance of papal supremacy. The two
returned to Rome in 711.
Constantine died in 715, and on May 19 of that
year, Gregory was elected his successor. One of his first
official actions was to repair the walls of Rome as a
defense against the Muslims, who were then in control
of much of the Mediterranean. In 716, Gregory peacefully
regained papal territory from the Lombards, and
when their king Liutprand threatened to invade Rome
in 729, Gregory dissuaded him.
Although Gregory acknowledged allegiance to the
Greek emperor Leo III the Isuarian (Leo the Iconoclast),
he opposed Leo’s illegal taxation of the Italians,
and demanded that Leo stop interfering in Church
matters. He rebuked Leo severely at a synod in Rome
in 727, proclaiming the true doctrine on the matter of
the worship of images. In return, Leo plotted (unsuccessfully)
to have him killed.
During his pontificate, Gregory received several distinguished
pilgrims—including the Anglo-Saxons,
Abbot Ceolfrid and King Ina, the latter of whom
became a monk in Rome in 726—and in 719 sent SS.
Corbibian and Winfrid (or Boniface) as missionaries to
Germany. In 722, he consecrated St. Winfrid bishop
and interested the great Frankish chief Charles Martel
in his work. Gregory also assisted St. Nothelm in his
researches in the papal archives to provide material for
St. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History.
Gregory was a great supporter of the monastic
order. On his mother’s death, he followed his papal
namesake, Gregory I (Gregory the Great, r. 590–604),
in converting his family mansion into a monastery. He
also founded or restored many others monasteries,
including the abbey of Monte Cassino, which had been
destroyed by Lombards 150 years before.
Gregory is regarded as the greatest of the great eighthcentury
popes. His Western contemporaries called him
Gregory the Younger or Gregory Junior, while those in
the East, who confused him with Gregory I, author of
the “Dialogues,” knew him as “Dialogus.”
Gregory died of natural causes on February 11,
731, and was buried in St. Peter’s. He is honored as a
saint in the Roman and other martyrologies.
Feast: February 11 (sometimes February 13)
Gregory III (d. 741) Pope
Gregory’s date of birth is not known. The son of a Syrian
named John, he became a priest in Rome, earning a
reputation for holiness and learning. So great was his
following that he was elected pope by acclamation, as
he was accompanying the funeral procession of his
predecessor, St. Gregory II (r. 715–731), on February
11, 731. He was not consecrated for another month,
however, as he awaited confirmation from the exarch
at Ravenna.
Gregory continued his predecessor’s opposition to
Iconoclasm and in 731 convened two councils in
Rome, both of which condemned the image-breaking
heresy. He paid particular attention to images and
relics, especially those of St. Peter the Apostle, and
built a special oratory in the Vatican basilica of St.
Peter’s to honor them. In response, Emperor Leo the
Iconoclast seized papal properties in Calabria and
Sicily and transferred ecclesiastical jurisdiction over
those two provinces (and Illyrium) to the patriarch of
Constantinople, long a rival to the pope in Rome.
Gregory also followed his predecessor in supporting
the missionary activities of St. Boniface in Germany,
sending St. Willibald to assist him.
The end of Gregory’s pontificate was largely concerned
with preventing the Lombards from once again
sacking Rome. He completed the rebuilding of the city
walls, a task begun by Gregory II, and took other precautions,
including enlisting the assistance of the
Frankish king Charles Martel. This last decision was to
have far-reaching consequences for the meddling of the
state in church affairs.
Gregory died in November or December 741, in the
midst of the Lombard campaign. He was buried in the
oratory of Our Lady which he had had built in St.
Peter’s.
Feast: December 10 (formerly November 28)
Gregory VII (ca. 1021–1085) Pope
Also known as: Hildebrand, Holy Satan
Gregory was highly influential in the Roman Church
even before his elevation to the papacy. He was largely
responsible for changing the rules for selecting popes
from election by all the Christians of Rome to election
by the College of Cardinals. The widespread reforms
he instituted during his own reign won him the perverse
epithet, “Holy Satan.” However, he is recognized
today as one of the greatest popes of the Middle Ages.
Gregory was born in Ravaco, near Saona, in Tuscany,
Italy, around 1021. His father was a poor peasant,
perhaps a carpenter, named Bonizo. He was baptized
Hildebrand (Hellebrand). While still a youth, he was
placed in the care of his uncle Laurentius, superior of
the monastery of Santa Maria in Rome. He joined the
Benedictine order and was educated at the Lateran
Palace school, where one of his teachers was John Gra-

tian, the future pope (or antipope) Gregory VI (r.
1045–46).
When Gratian was elected pope in May 1045, he
made Hildebrand his secretary, and when he was
deposed the following December, Hildebrand followed
him into exile in Cologne, Germany. After Gratian died
in 1047, Hildebrand moved to Cluny, where he
resumed the monastic life. It was there, in January
1049, that he met Bruno, Bishop of Toul, then recently
elected Pope St. Leo IX (r. 1049–54), who took him
back to Rome.
Leo created Hildebrand a cardinal-subdeacon and
made him administrator of the Patrimony of St. Peter’s.
Under Hildebrand’s leadership, much Church property
was recovered and the revenues of the Holy See
increased. Leo then appointed him propositus of the
monastery of St. Paul-Outside-the-Walls, which had
lost much of its monastic discipline. Women attended
the monks in its refectory, and sheep and cattle roamed
freely through the broken doors of its sacred buildings.
Under Hildebrand’s direction, the monastery’s austerity
was restored.
In 1054, Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to the
Council of Sens. He was still in France when news
came of Leo’s death, and he hurried back to Rome.
There was talk of electing him pope, but he worked to
secure the election of Victor II (r. 1055–57) instead.
Under Victor, Hildebrand continued to work behind
the scenes. After Victor, he was instrumental in the elevation
of Popes Stephen (r. 1057–58) and Nicholas II
(r. 1058–61). During Nicholas’s reign, he engineered
the papal decree overturning the traditional manner of
electing popes and mandating the College of Cardinals
as the electoral body. He was also responsible for negotiating
the 1059 Treaty of Melfi, which allied the
Roman Church with the Normans. Alexander made
him archdeacon and appointed him chancellor of the
Apostolic See.
When Alexander died in June 1073, Hildebrand
himself was elected pope by an overwhelming majority.
He was consecrated on June 30, took the name Gregory
VII, and immediately set about his widest reforms
to date. He convened councils in Rome in 1074 and
1075 at which he enacted decrees against married
clergy, simony and the royal investiture of bishops and
abbeys. A council convened in Paris in response
declared the decrees to be intolerable, but Gregory
enforced them through depositions and excommunications.
Gregory’s reforms made him many enemies and
found a varied response in Europe. The most
intractable region turned out to be Germany, then
under the rule of Henry IV. Henry had Gregory kidnapped
by Roman nobles while he was celebrating a
Gregory X 137
Christmas Eve midnight Mass in St. Mary Major’s, and
he was held for several hours before being rescued by
parishioners.
This was only the beginning, however, for Henry
tried to have Gregory deposed, whereupon Gregory
excommunicated Henry. Gregory lifted the excommunication
when Henry repented, but reinstated it in
1080 when Henry reneged on his promises. Henry
then invaded Italy and attacked Rome, taking it in
1084 and forcing Gregory to take refuge in the Castle
Sant’ Angelo. Henry demanded that Gregory crown
him emperor, but when the pope refused, Henry thew
his support behind Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna.
Guibert was duly consecrated as antipope Clement III,
and in turn crowned Henry.
Gregory remained at Sant’ Angelo until he was
rescued by Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke of Calabria,
whom he had summoned to his aid. Unfortunately,
in retaking Rome from Henry, the Normans
sacked the city, which added to Gregory’s growing
unpopularity, since he was seen as responsible for the
pillaging. He fled to Monte Cassino and then to
Salerno, having been abandoned by 13 of his cardinals.
Gregory’s health began to decline and he died in
Salerno on May 25, 1085. On his deathbed, he forgave
his enemies and withdrew all his censures and excommunications
except those against Henry and Guibert.
His body was interred in the church of St. Matthew at
Salerno.
In art, Gregory is shown as a pope holding a book
and ring or with the Virgin and Child, from whom a
ray of light shines and pierces his heart, while a dove
rests on his shoulder. He has also been depicted being
driven from Rome by soldiers.
Canonized: 1606 by Pope Paul V
Feast: May 25
Gregory X (1201–1276) Pope
Gregory was born in 1201 in Piacenza, Italy, as
Theobald Visconti. He was archdeacon of Liège,
though not yet ordained a priest, when he was elected
to succeed Pope Clement IV (r. 1265–68) on September
1, 1271. The Holy See had then been vacant three
years due to disagreements among French and Italian
cardinals, and Theobald was a compromise candidate
who did not even know that he was in the running. He
was on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land when news came
of his election, and he hurried to Viterbo, where the
cardinals were meeting, arriving there in February
1271. He made his entrance into Rome on March 13.
On March 19 he was ordained a priest and on March
27 he was consecrated in the Chair of St. Peter, assuming
the name Gregory X.

138 Gregory of Elvira
Gregory is best remembered for convoking the 14th
General Council at Lyons in 1274, which approved a
new crusade to retake possession of Christian sites in
the Holy Land from the Muslims, a decision that prepared
the way for reconciliation between the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Churches. However, although
money was raised for the crusade, it proved impossible
to bring it off, and the schism between East and West in
the end went unbridged.
Gregory died in Arezzo (Rezzo) on January 10,
1276, on his way back from Lyons. He is honored as a
saint in Rome and in several dioceses. Pope Benedict
XIV (r. 1740–58) added his name to the Roman Martyrology.
Beatified: 1713 by Pope Clement XI
Feast: January 10 (formerly February 16)
Gregory of Elvira (d. ca. 392) Bishop of Elvira; Father
of the Church
Gregory Bæticus was born in the Spanish province of
Baetica (hence his surname). He supported the Nicene
Creed at the Council of Rimini in 359, and was then
and later a strong supporter of Roman Catholic Christianity
in its battle with the Arian heresy. He was considered
the head of the anti-Arian movement in Spain.
By 375, he ruled as bishop of Elvira (Illibrius), now in
the diocese of Granada.
Feast: April 24
Gregory the Illuminator (257?–337?) National saint
and patron of Armenia, the first Christian state
Also known as: the Apostle of Armenia
Gregory was brought up in a Christian family in Caesarea,
Cappadocia (in modern Turkey). He married and
had two sons. According to tradition, Christianity had
been brought to Armenia by the apostles Bartholomew
and Thaddeus. The Persians overtook the country and
destroyed the churches, but eventually were driven out
by King Trdat.
Trdat, a defender of the old Armenian religion, persecuted
Gregory but was converted by him. The two
evangelized the country and Trdat made Christianity
the national religion. Gregory returned to Caesarea to
be ordained, and was made bishop of the Armenians.
He went to Ashishat to live, and there preached to the
masses. Toward the end of his life, he retired and was
succeeded by his son, Aristakes. The date of his death
is uncertain, but probably was around 337. His relics
were deposed in Thortan.
An embellished legend of his life and trials tells of
Gregory being thrown into a poisonous pit by Trdat,
and coming out alive thanks to prayer. He fasted 70
days, and had many adventures defeating the pagans
throughout the land.
Feast: October 1
Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. 325–389 or 390) Father
of the Church; Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Gregory the Theologian, Gregory the
Divine
Gregory Nazianzus was born ca. 325 in Arianzus, Asia
Minor, to a wealthy family. His father, St. Gregory of
Nazianzus the Elder, and his mother, St. Nonna, were
converts to Christianity; his father was bishop of
Nazianzus and his sister was St. Gorgonia. Gregory and
his brother Caesarius were sent to a school in Caesarea
in Cappadocia (in modern Turkey) headed by Carterius,
later a tutor to St. John Chrysostom. At school
Gregory met Basil and formed a lasting and influential
friendship with him. Gregory continued his studies in
Palestine, where he learned rhetoric under Thespesius,
and in Alexandria, where St. Athanasius was bishop in
exile. Going on to Athens, Gregory reunited with Basil,
and the two studied rhetoric under Himerius and
Proaeresius, two famous teachers. Gregory remained in
Athens for about 10 years, and left at age 30 to return
home via Constantinople.
In Nazianzus, Gregory was undecided whether to
pursue a career in law or rhetoric, or to enter a monastic
life. He consulted Basil, and for two or three years
joined his friend in a monastic community that Basil
established at Neocaesarea in Pontus. He helped Basil
to compile his rule.
In 361 Gregory returned home to find a heretical
father. He steered him back to orthodoxy, but was
ordained a priest only at the behest of his father and
against his own wishes. During the next several years,
Basil was embroiled in political maneuverings with
Emperor Valens, and established a new see at Sasima.
He asked Gregory to become his first bishop there.
Gregory agreed, but disliked the job and soon left it to
return to Nazianzus and become coadjutor to his
father. As a result, a permanent rift was created in his
friendship with Basil.
Gregory’s parents died in 374. He gave away most of
his inheritance to the poor, keeping for himself only a
small plot of land. He declined to succeed his father as
bishop, and in 375 withdrew to a monastery in Seleuci
to live in solitude for three years. Basil died in 379, but
Gregory’s poor health prevented him from going to his
friend or attending the funeral. He wrote poems commemorating
the saint.

The same year, Gregory found his monastic peace
shattered by politics. Theodosius was named the Eastern
emperor, and he prevailed upon Gregory to come
to Constantinople and campaign against the heretics
there. Gregory established the Anatasia, a chapel in a
private home, where he developed and delivered some
of his greatest oratorical works in the face of hostile
persecution.
In 380, Theodosius banished the Arian bishop of
Constantinople and placed Gregory in his stead. But a
few months later in 381, Gregory was opposed by a
general council of bishops. He resigned in June 381
and returned to Nazianzus. There he found the Church
in poor condition, and reluctantly took over its administration.
Poor health forced him to leave, and he went
to Arianzus to spend the rest of his life in retirement at
the tiny piece of land he had retained from his inheritance.
During his last years, Gregory produced most of his
poetical works. The date of his death is not known, but
probably falls in 389 or 390. He was buried in his family
vault; his body is said to have given off a sweet
odor.
St. Jerome, who was influenced by Gregory, said
that the saint wrote 30,000 verses of poetry. If the figure
is accurate, only about one-third have survived.
Gregory also composed numerous epistles, sermons
and orations. Of his orations, best-known are his five
“Theological Discourses” written while in Constantinople.
He is called one of the three “Cappadocian
Fathers,” with SS. Basil the Great and Gregory of
Nyssa.
FURTHER READING
The Fathers Speak: St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory Nazianzus,
St. Gregory of Nyssa. Tr. Georges Barrois. Crestwood,
N.Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1986.
Gregory of Nazianzus the Elder (276–374) Bishop of
Nazianzus and father of St. Gregory of Nazianzus
Gregory the Elder was born in 276 in Nazianzus, Cappadocia
(in modern Turkey), and was a contemporary
of SS. Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa. He was a
member of the Hypsistarri (or Hypsistiani) heretical
sect. His wife, St. Nonna, converted him to Christianity.
All three of the couple’s children—sons Gregory
and Caesarius and daughter Gorgonia—became saints.
The family was wealthy and owned much land.
Gregory was consecrated bishop in 328. He fell
under the influence of the heretical creed of Rimini,
and was brought back into orthodoxy by son Gregory
in 361. He died in 374.
Feast: January 1
Gregory of Nyssa (d. after 385 or 386) Bishop of
Nyssa; Father of the Church; brother of SS. Basil the
Great, Macrina the Younger and Peter of Sebaste
Gregory was born in Caesaria, Cappadocia (in modern
Turkey); some sources place his birth ca. 335. He was
influenced by his older brother Basil, who steered him
toward the religious life. As a youth Gregory served as
rector. He met with Basil’s strong disapproval when he
began studying for a career in rhetoric. At some point
he married a woman named Theosebia. After his
appointment as bishop, Gregory continued to live with
her but as a sister; at an unknown time she died.
Basil at last prevailed with Gregory and consecrated
him bishop of Nyssa, near Caesarea, around 371. But
he was disappointed in his younger brother’s administrative
ability, which was not as good as his own.
Gregory had enemies in Nyssa, and was accused of
wasting church property and other crimes. He was
arrested, and in 376 a synod of Nyssa deposed him. In
378, the new emperor, Gratian, restored him to his
bishopric and issued an edict of tolerance for the
Christians.
Gregory’s reputation as one of the greatest theologians
in the Eastern Church was earned for his opposition
to the Arian heresy, and for his orthodoxy. He was
named bishop of Sebaste in 380 (against his wishes)
and in 381 he was among the orthodox leaders at the
Council of Constantinople. He also distinguished himself
as an orator.
Gregory died sometime after 385 or 386; some
sources place his death at 395.
Gregory wrote numerous treatises on the Scriptures,
and produced works on theology and the ascetic
life. His Catechesis defends Catholic teaching. He
defended Basil against the heretic Eunomius, and
defended the Nicene Creed against Arianism. His De
anima et ressurectione (Life and resurrection) is a dialogue
between Gregory and his dead sister Macrina
about death and resurrection. He is called one of the
three “Cappodocian Fathers,” with Basil and St. Gregory
of Nazianzus.
Among Gregory’s ascetic works on Christian life are
On Perfection, On Virginity and On the Meaning of the
Christian Name or Profession. Many of his sermons and
homilies, and 22 of his letters, are extant.
Feast: May 9
Gregory of Nazianzus the Elder 139
FURTHER READING
The Fathers Speak: St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory Nazianzus,
St. Gregory of Nyssa. Tr. Georges Barrois. Crestwood,
N.Y.: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1986.
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2: Gregory of Nyssa.
Vol. 5. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. Grand Rapids,
Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1994.

140 Gregory Palamas
Gregory Palamas (ca. 1296–1359) Athonite monk
and archbishop of Thessalonica
Gregory of Palamas was born ca. 1296 to a noble Anatolian
family, probably in Constantinople. After his
father died, he and two of his brothers became monks,
and his mother, two of his sisters and several servants
became nuns. Gregory entered a monastery on Mt.
Athos and followed the Rule of St. Basil, living in solitude
for most of the next 20 years.
In the 1330s, he began to defend the hesychast practice,
centered on a method of prayer used by monks in
Byzantine monasticism—possibly linked to Buddhist
techniques—that involved controlled breathing and
posture to induce a vision of light, often compared to
the light seen at Jesus’ transfiguration on Mt. Tabor.
Hesychast comes from hesychia, which means “stillness”
or “light.” Opponents of hesychasm denied that
the light of Tabor, which hesychasts experienced, was
the uncreated light of the Godhead.
The breathing techniques to experience this uncreated
light were dangerous, and if done improperly or
done to excess, could cause physical and mental damage.
Gregory’s defense of the reality of the monk’s prayer
experience was called Palamism. He maintained that
though God had an unknowable essence, the energies
of God’s grace—a part of God—were knowable. Thus
God could be experienced through sacraments and
mystical experience. This was made possible by the
incarnation of Christ. Palamism contrasted with
Catholic theology, which maintains that God is ineffable
and cannot truly be experienced.
Hesychast, prayer, or Palamism, created controversy
and conflict that drew in lay people and became quite
political. A hesychasm party formed. The 1341 Council
of Constantinople upheld Gregory’s teachings, and
Palamism was officially adopted by the Orthodox
Church.
Gregory, however, was excommunicated in 1344. In
1347, he was consecrated bishop of Thessalonica, an
appointment that required the aid of the Byzantine
emperor, due to the controversy over Palamism. Gregory
worked diligently to reconcile deep social and
political divisions.
In 1354, invading Turks captured Gregory and held
him prisoner for a year. He died in 1359.
Gregory left behind a large body of works, several
of which are included in The Philokalia compilation.
He is considered one of the great spiritual masters of
Orthodox Christianity.
FURTHER READING
“Hesychasm: Selected Readings.” Introduction by Paul Halsall.
URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hesychasm1.
html. Downloaded: September 24, 2000.
St. Gregory Palamas, “A Homily on the Dormition of
Our Supremely Pure Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin
Mary.” URL: http://www.ocf.org/OrthodoxPage/reading/
dormition.html. Downloaded: September 24, 2000.
The Philokalia: The Complete Text Compiled by St. Nikodimos
of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. Vol. 4.
Tr. G.E.H. Palmer, Philip Sherrard and Kallistos Ware.
London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1995.
Gregory Thaumaturgus (213–270 or 275) Bishop of
Neocaesarea renowned for his miracles, Father of the
Church
Also known as: Gregory Thaumaturgos; Gregory the
Wonder-Worker; Gregory of Neocaesarea
Much of what is known about Gregory Thaumaturgus
comes from a Life written by St. Gregory of Nyssa and
delivered on the saint’s feast day, November 17, in 380.
Gregory of Nyssa obtained much of the information
from his grandmother, St. Macrina the Elder, who was
schooled in the tradition of Gregory Thaumaturgus.
Gregory was born at Neocaesarea, Pontus (also
Pontos), now in modern Turkey, to a distinguished
pagan family in 213. He was named Theodore (“the
gift of God”). His father died when he was about 14.
About 233, he and his brother Athenodorus set out for
Beirut to study law there. They were accompanied by
their sister, who was joining her husband in Caesarea,
Palestine.
In Caesarea they met Origen, head of a famous catechetical
school there, and decided to enter it to pursue
the study of theology instead of law. Origen converted
them, and they became his disciples. Gregory received
his Christian name at his baptism by Origen.
Origen encouraged his pupils to study all the great
philosophical works, including pagan, but not atheist.
The broad teachings created the foundation of Gregory’s
religious and philosophical life.
The brothers returned to Neocaesarea in 238 or
239. According to Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory spent
some time in solitude. He was elected bishop by the 17
Christians of the city (interestingly, by the time of Gregory’s
death there were but 17 pagans remaining in
Neocaesarea).
After his election, Gregory had the first recorded
dream or vision of St. John, who appeared in the form
of an old man accompanied by the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Gregory was told that Mary had requested John to
reveal the mystery of truth. The radiance around the
figures was so brilliant that Gregory could not look
upon them. He heard the voices of other learned men
speaking to him about truth. Mary told him to immediately
write down the revelation and proclaim it in the
church. St. John then dictated a creed of Christian faith
pertaining to the eternal existence of the Trinity.

Gregory took a great deal of inspiration and
courage from this vision. He proved to be a charismatic
and eloquent figure, and also gifted with miraculous
powers. He became known as Gregory Thaumaturgus
(“the wonderworker”). His words, wisdom and miracles
won over many converts. He built a church and
dispensed advice to many.
In 250, during the Decian persecution, Gregory and
his flock fled to the desert. Upon their return, they had
to deal with plague and attacks by the Goths in
252–254. In 264–265 Gregory participated in the
synod of Antioch, Turkey. He argued against Sabellianism
and Tritheism.
Among Gregory’s important writings are Oratio
Panegyrica, an enthusiastic and admiring homage to
Origen; Exposition of the Faith, in which he asserts his
orthodox views about the Trinity; Epostola Canonica;
and a dissertation addressed to Theopompus concerning
the passibility and impassibility of God.
Gregory died in Neocaesarea in 270 or 275. He is
invoked against floods and earthquakes. In 1969 his
feast was confined to specific calendars.
In his Life of Gregory Thaumaturgus, Gregory of
Nyssa gives accounts of some of the saint’s miracles.
Some undoubtedly are of a legendary nature, intended
to enhance the saint’s reputation. Nonetheless, Gregory
did possess remarkable abilities. He healed the sick
and vanquished demons. He converted a pagan temple
keeper by moving, through the power of faith, a huge
stone. When flood waters threatened Neocaesarea, he
struck his staff into the river banks; it turned into a
tree and checked the flow of flood waters. When a
heckler accused him of being under demonic influence,
Gregory blew upon him and caused the heckler
to become temporarily possessed. He then healed the
young man.
Gregory’s miracles continued after death. According
to Gregory of Nyssa, an earthquake damaged most of
the city but left Gregory Thaumaturgus’s church
untouched. It is likely that the saint was buried there.
Feast: November 17
Patronage: against earthquakes; against floods
FURTHER READING
Gregory of Nyssa. Life of Gregory Thaumaturgus. URL: http://
www.sp/uconn.edu/~salomon/nyssa/thaum.html. Downloaded:
September 26, 2000.
Gregory of Tours 141
Origen, “On Classical Learning.” Letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus.
URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/
origen1.html. Downloaded: September 24, 2000.
Gregory of Tours (538 or 539–593 or 594) Bishop
and historian
Gregory was born in Tours in 538 or 539 to an illustrious
family with ties to the great houses of Gaul. He
was named Georgius Florentius, but later took the
name Gregory in memory of his maternal great-grandfather,
who was the bishop of Langres.
Gregory’s father died when he was young, and he
was sent to be educated by his uncle Gallus, bishop of
Clermont. A serious illness convinced him to serve the
Church. After Gallus died in 554, he was turned over
to Avitus, a priest who later became the bishop of Clermont.
In 573 Gregory was named bishop of Tours by King
Sigebert I, and he went to Rome to be consecrated. In
his role as bishop, Gregory was faced with almost constant
civil war. He increased the number of churches
and attended to the suffering of the people, all the
while managing to stay out of politics.
Gregory began his career as an historian during his
episcopate. He was fascinated by the lives and miracles
and intercession of the fathers, saints and martyrs,
subjects on which he wrote numerous books. He is
perhaps best-known for his 10-volume Historia Francorum,
an early Frankish history beginning with Adam,
and for his three books on the life and miracles of St.
Martin of Tours. A fourth book was never completed.
Other notable works are De Vitae Patribus (Lives of the
fathers) and Gloriam Martyrum (Book of the glories of
the martyrs), about the miracles of the martyrs in Gaul
during Roman persecutions. Gregory put his theology
into the introductions of his books, and wrote only one
purely theological work, De cursu stellarum ratio (On
the courses of the stars), which discusses using the
stars to set the proper time for the singing of the night
office.
Gregory died in Tours on November 17, 593, or
594.
Feast: November 17

Helena (d. ca. 326–328) Empress, mother of Constantine
the Great
Also known as: Helen of the Cross
Helena, a native of Turkey, married Constantius I Chlorus,
a Roman general who reigned as junior emperor
from 293 to 306. The marriage took place in 270, and a
son, Constantine, was born soon thereafter. After his
elevation to caesar, Constantius was required to
divorce Helena, a woman of a lower class than he, and
marry Theodora, the stepdaughter of co-emperor Maximian
(r. 286–305).
Son Constantine became a junior emperor upon the
death of his father in 306. In 312, he won a major military
victory over Maximian and became emperor.
Helena was named empress.
Helena converted to Christianity and was renowned
for her charity and building of churches. She went on a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land—by some accounts when
she was nearly 80 years old—in search of the holy
cross. In excavations, three crosses were discovered,
including one that seemed to be the “true cross.”
Hence in art she is often shown holding a cross.
Helena died probably in Nicomedia (in modern
Turkey). Her sarcophagus is in the Vatican Museum.
Feast: August 18
Patronage: converts; against divorce; empresses
Hf
143
Henry Suso, Blessed (ca. 1295–1366) Dominican
mystic, preacher, poet and author
Also known as: Amandus
Henry Suso was born Heinrich von Berg in Constance,
Swabia, to a noble family on March 21, about 1295.
He took his name from his mother’s family, Sus or Süs.
He was creative, quick, highly imaginative and restless.
He was of frail health and often ill. Perhaps because of
this, his parents took him at age 13 to the Dominican
convent at Constance, where he would spend a large
part of his life. He was professed at age 14.
At age 18, he had a mystical experience that propelled
him to become “the Servant of the Eternal Wisdom.”
He was flooded with divine light and joy and
felt transported out of the world. This experience
changed his thinking and opened the way for frequent
visions and ecstasies throughout his life. He initiated a
practice of severe austerities.
Henry excelled in his studies, and in 1324 he was
sent to Cologne to the Dominican house of advanced
studies. There he had the privilege of studying with the
great and controversial German mystic, Johann Eckhart,
or Meister Eckhart, for three years, becoming his
ardent supporter. He also studied the works of SS.
Thomas Aquinas, Peter Lombard and Dionysius.
After his return to Constance, he was named lector
and pursued his writing. In 1329, Pope John XXII (r.

144 Hilarion
St. Helena (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)
1316–34) condemned Meister Eckhart. Henry
defended him, earning censure from his superiors and
suffering the loss of his teaching job.
In 1334 Henry began his apostolic career, earning
an outstanding reputation for his preaching throughout
Europe. In particular he worked with the Friends
of God, whom he called the Brotherhood of Eternal
Wisdom, helping to restore religious practices. He
especially influenced Dominican convents of women,
including the famous Katherinenthal, a home to mystics
in the 13th and 14th centuries, and Toss, where
Elsbeth Stagel preserved some of his writings and most
of his letters.
Throughout his life, Henry suffered the persecutions
and ill will of others, despite his brilliance as a preacher.
A woman accused him of fathering her child, and the
gossip destroyed his reputation for a time. Henry was
crushed by this defamation. At the height of the scandal,
another woman came to him in secret and offered
to destroy the child. She argued that unless the child
were eliminated, he would be forced to accept it. Henry,
of course, could do no such thing. He accepted the
child as his and gave it to the care of the woman. This
damaged his reputation even further. Friends deserted
him and he was nearly expelled from the religious life.
Henry was devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary and
venerated the holy name of Jesus. He took a stiletto
and carved the name into his chest above his heart, so
that the name moved with every beat of his heart. He
never revealed the carving to anyone, but once while
in ecstasy, a brilliant radiance streamed from his heart.
Henry died on January 25, 1366, in Ulm.
Henry began writing while he was a student in Cologne.
His early works, heavily influenced by Eckhart,
were The Little Book of Truth and The Little Book of
Eternal Wisdom. The latter is considered a classic, and
was the most widely read meditation book in German
until Thomas à Kempis produced Imitation of Christ.
Kempis was influenced by Suso.
Henry also wrote his autobiography, The Life of the
Servant, which discusses his inner life. Extant are 28
letters and five sermons.
Beatified: 1831 by Pope Gregory XVI
Feast: March 2 (in the Dominican Order)
FURTHER READING
Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism. New York: New American
Library, 1974.
Henry Suso: The Exemplar, with Two German Sermons. Tr.
Frank Tobin. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989.
Hilarion (ca. 291–ca. 371) Ascetic and hermit, founder
of the anchorite life in Palestine, miracle-worker
Most of what is known about Hilarion comes from a
biography written by St. Jerome in 390 and containing
much legend. Hilarion desired the life of a hermit, but
his fame and public adoration kept him moving from
one place to another.
Hilarion was born in Palestine, in Tabatha, south of
Gaza, to pagan parents. He was sent to Alexandria to
be educated. He was a quick student and an excellent
speaker. While in Alexandria he sought out St.
Anthony and desired to follow his example and retire
to the desert. He stayed with Anthony for two months,
greatly admiring the anchorite’s discipline and mortifications.
Thus inspired, the 16-year-old Hilarion returned
home, gave away his money and possessions to the
poor, and built a tiny hut of reeds and sedge for himself
in the desert of Majuma near Gaza. It was a dan-

gerous area, full of robbers, but Hilarion was unconcerned.
He spent most of his time in prayer and meditation,
and wove baskets to support himself. He wore a
hair shirt that he never washed, and wore it to rags
before he acquired a new one. He restricted himself to
one meal a day, 15 dried figs eaten after sunset. He
slept on a bed of rushes and shaved his hair once a year
on Easter Day. He endured all the temptations of devils.
After two years, he built himself a cell—Jerome
described it as more like a tomb—that was five feet in
height and about five feet long.
Hilarion was 18 when he was assaulted by robbers,
according to Jerome. He showed no fear, and they went
away pledging to reform themselves to a better life.
Jerome described in detail Hilarion’s eating habits,
which imitated those of Anthony. At age 20, Hilarion
began to alter his strict diet somewhat. For three years
he ate a half-pint of moistened lentils each day, and for
the next three years he ate dry bread with salt and
water. From age 27 to 30 he ate wild herbs and raw
roots, and from 31 to 35 ate six ounces of barley bread
and vegetables cooked without oil. By then he was suffering
severely from malnutrition. His body shriveled,
his eyesight grew dim, and his skin erupted in scabs
and mange. He added only oil to his diet. At age 64, he
thought he was going to die, so he cut bread out of his
diet. But at age 80, he modified his diet once again,
making a daily six-ounce broth from meal and bruised
herbs.
During his early desert life, Hilarion became famous
for his miracles. He was known for curing the sick and
the dying, and for expelling demons. He brought
needed rain. By 329 he had attracted a band of disciples,
and people sought out his counsel, and converted
because of him.
Desiring solitude, Hilarion left and journeyed to
Egypt, visiting the places where Anthony had lived and
died. He then went to Bruchium near Alexandria.
When news reached him that Emperor Julian the
Apostate had ordered his arrest, he withdrew to an
oasis in the Libyan desert. After a time he went to
Sicily, and took up the hermit’s life near the promontory
of Pachinum. But his devoted disciple, Hesychius,
who had been searching around the ancient world for
him, discovered him there, and soon Hilarion once
again was surrounded by disciples and admirers.
He left Sicily and went to Epidaurus to seek solitude,
but his fame went before him, and he was
besieged by people. He was there when the great earthquake
of 366 struck. Fearful of a tidal wave, the people
begged him for help. He knelt in the sand and made
three crosses, and the turbulent sea calmed itself. He
also aided the injured and destitute.
Hilarion left Epidaurus and went to Cyprus. He
found the most remote place possible—a cave 12 miles
inland amidst rugged mountains—and there he
remained for the rest of his life. While there, he met St.
Epiphanius, the archbishop of Salamis.
Hilarion died at age 80. He bequeathed to Hesychius
his sole possessions of his hair shirt, cowl and
cloak, and a copy of the Gospels; he was buried immediately
in the same clothes near the town of Paphos.
Hesychius arrived, ostensibly to take up residence
there, but after a few month’s stay secretly stole the
body. He found Hilarion’s corpse incorrupt and sweetsmelling,
and his clothing intact. Hesychius took the
body back to Majuma.
Feast: October 21
FURTHER READING
St. Jerome. The Life of St. Hilarion. URL: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3003.htm.
Downloaded: September 21,
2000.
Hilarus (d. 468) Pope
Also known as: Hilary
Hilarus 145
A native of Sardinia, Hilarus became archdeacon of the
Church of Rome under Pope St. Leo I (r. 440–461),
who in 449 sent him as representative to the so-called
Robber Council of Ephesus. The Robber Council
considered statements made by Eutyches to the effect
that Jesus was possessed of but a single nature, his
human nature being subsumed by his divine nature.
The orthodox view of the Church was that Jesus possessed
a dual nature; the outcome of the Robber
Council, however, favored Eutyches. It was followed
with much violence, and Hilarus escaped with his life
only by hiding out in a crypt dedicated to St. John the
Apostle.
Hilarus succeeded Leo as bishop of Rome on
November 19, 461. His pontificate was typical for his
era, being concerned with fighting heresies, upholding
Church discipline, and otherwise conducting Rome’s
leadership role in the universal church. In 465, he convened
a synod to condemn the practice of bishops
naming their own successors. When in 476 a favorite
of Emperor Anthemius embraced the Macedonian
heresy, Hilarus exhorted the emperor from the grave of
St. Peter to come out against the false views.
Hilarus erected several churches and other ecclesiastical
buildings in Rome, and added two oratories—
one to St. John the Apostle and one to the Lateran
baptistry. The following inscription can still be seen
above the baptistry doors: “To St. John the Evangelist,
the liberator of Bishop Hilarus, a Servant of Christ.”

146 Hilary of Poitiers
Hilarus died on February 28, 468, and was buried
in the Church of St. Laurence-Outside-the-Walls, one
of the churches he had built.
Feast: November 17
Hilary of Poitiers (ca. 315–368) Bishop of Poitiers,
Father of the Church and Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Athanasius of the West, the Doctor of
Divinity of Christ
One of the most esteemed theologians of his day,
Hilary was born in Poitiers, Aquitaine, in what is now
southwestern France. His family was noble and
wealthy, though pagan. After studying rhetoric and
philosophy, he married and had a daughter. He was
already in middle life when he was converted to Christianity
through his reading of the Bible. His daughter
Abra (Abram, Afra, Apra) also is counted among the
saints.
Hilary was elected bishop of Poitiers around 350
(when he was 35) and thereafter he and his wife lived
apart in perpetual continence. Soon after his consecration,
he wrote a commentary on the Gospel of Saint
Matthew, which, together with his commentaries on
the Psalms, St. Jerome recommended for reading especially
by virgins and the devout.
Hilary quickly became embroiled in the controversy
over Arianism, a heresy that denied the divinity
of Jesus. Arianism had been embraced by Emperor
Constantine (Constantius) II, who had compelled
the Eastern churches to embrace the creed. In 355,
Constantine II called a synod in Milan to further
its spread in the West as well. In response, Hilary
wrote his First Book to Constantius, begging Constantine
II to restore peace to the Church. However, the
following year, he was condemned by a synod at Béziers
(Bitterae), and Constantine II banished him to
Phrygia.
Hilary used his exile for study and writing. To this
period belongs his most celebrated work, De Trinitate,
12 books arguing the consubstantiality of the Father,
Son and Holy Spirit, intended to refute Arianism. He
proved to be such an effective apologist for orthodox
Christianity that Arian bishops, fearing his influence in
the East, pressured Constantine to return him to his
see in 360.
On his way back to Gaul, Hilary traveled through
Illyricum and Italy, preaching against Arianism. He was
received enthusiastically by the people of Poitiers, and
once returned to his see set about more formal condemnation
of the heresy, both in the senate and in a
synod he convened. With Constantine II’s death in
361, the Arian persecutions came to an end, though
the heresy was still strong. In 364, therefore, Hilary
traveled to Milan to engage in public debate with one
of its exponents. His oratorical skills proved so strong
that the man, Bishop Auxentius, lost his imperial support
and was sent into exile.
In his battle against Arianism, Hilary turned against
the heresy one of its own innovations and strengths—
hymns. During his exile, he had realized that Arian
hymns were used to spread the false views, and he
wrote some of his own. Three have survived—one
about Jesus’ temptations in the wilderness; a second
about Easter; and a third, 70 verses long, about the
Trinity.
Hilary died in Poitiers in 368, on either November
1 or January 13. His remains were initially laid to rest
there, though some were burned by Huguenots. Others
were translated to the abbey of St. Denys, near Paris,
while yet others appear to have been taken to Limousin.
Miracles reported at his tomb were recorded by St.
Gregory of Tours, among others.
So renowned was Hilary that the spring term at
English courts of law and at Oxford University is
named the “Hilary term” in his honor.
In art, Hilary is portrayed as a bishop holding an
open book of the Gospel; with three books; with a pen
or stick; or with a child (sometimes in a cradle at his
feet, raised to life by him). Sometimes he is shown
with his friend St. Martin of Tours, or with a snake and
dragon.
Declared Doctor of the Divinity of Christ: 1851 by
Pope Pius IX
Feast: January 13 (formerly January 14)
Patronage: retarded children; against snakebite
Hilda (614–680) Benedictine abbess
Most of what is known about Hilda comes from the
Venerable Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English
People.
Hilda was nobly born in 614, the daughter of
Hereric, nephew of King Edwin of Northumbria. Bede
tells the story that Hilda’s mother, Bregusuit, had a
dream during the child’s infancy. Bregusuit’s husband
was in exile. In the dream, she looked everywhere for
him, but could not find him. Instead, she found a precious
jewel under her garment, which cast a light that
spread throughout all Britain. The jewel would prove
to be Hilda.
At age 13 Hilda became a Christian after hearing
the preaching of St. Paulinus, the first bishop of the
Northumbrians. When her sister, Hereswith, became a
nun in Gaul, Hilda decided to follow in her footsteps.
After a year she was recalled by St. Aidan, who gave

her land on the River Wear, where she led a monastic
life with a small group of companions.
Hilda then was made abbess at Hartlepool, a double
monastery of men and women. Hilda set the place in
order, and received extensive religious instruction from
Aidan and others. After a few years, she undertook to
build or improve a monastery at Streaneshalch (later
renamed Whitby). Hilda became famous for her wisdom,
and kings and princes were among those who
came to seek her advice. Whitby was known especially
for the study of the Scriptures. Under her administration,
Whitby produced five distinguished bishops:
Bosa, Hedda, Oftfor, John (Bishop of Haexham) and
Wilfrid (Bishop of York).
In 664 an important synod was held at Whitby at
which King Oswy set the observance of Easter. Hilda’s
work was instrumental in the spread of Christianity
during a crucial period of struggle against paganism.
In 663, Hilda was stricken with a serious fever that
lasted until her death seven years later. During that
time, she neglected none of her duties. According to
Bede, she died at dawn after receiving Communion
and admonishing her disciples to preserve evangelical
peace. When the bell was tolled to announce her passing,
it was miraculously heard by a nun, Begu, in a
monastery 13 miles away. Begu had a vision in which
she saw the soul of Hilda borne up to heaven by angels
in a radiance of light. She reported the vision to her
abbess, Frigyth, who assembled all the nuns to pray
and sing psalms for Hilda’s soul. When monks came
the next day to announce the news of Hilda’s death, the
sisters said they already knew.
Legend has it that Hilda’s body was translated to
Glastonbury or Gloucester by King Edmund, but these
stories are doubtful.
Feast: November 17
FURTHER READING
St. Bede, “Of the Life and Death of the Abbess Hilda,” in
Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. URL: http://
www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book4.html. Downloaded:
September 27, 2000.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) Benedictine abbess
and acclaimed prophet, mystic, theologian, writer, poet,
composer and early feminist
Also known as: Hildegarde
The first major German mystic, Hildegard of Bingen is
best known for a series of mystical illuminations, or
visions, which she experienced and chronicled in midlife
and which were far in advance of the religious outlooks
of her day. Her power and influence made her
one of the most important women of her time. Her
Hildegard of Bingen 147
work has enjoyed renewed and serious interest in contemporary
times.
Hildegard was born to parents of high nobility in
the summer of 1098 in the German village of Bickelheim
(also given as Bockelheim), located on the Nahe
River, a tributary of the Rhine. The village was near
Bingen, an important river town about 50 miles southwest
of Frankfurt. Hildegard’s father, Hildebert, was a
knight of the Castle Bickelheim. The area had been
heavily settled by Celts, and Celtic mystical beliefs
strongly influenced her religious development.
The youngest of 10 children, Hildegard was sickly
as a child and was sent to an aunt, Blessed Jutta, a
recluse, to be raised in a hermitage near Spanheim. She
had religious visions from the earliest times she could
remember. Because of this and her upbringing, she was
drawn to the Church. When she was eight, her parents
took her to the Benedictine cloister in Disabodenberg,
where she began her religious studies under Jutta von
Spanheim. She became a nun at 18 and advanced to
prioress at age 38.
Hildegard believed in the equality of men and
women, but sometimes doubted herself because of criticism
from men and their oppression of women. She
was often ill, and she blamed it on her frustrated passivity.
Though she had had visions since the age of five,
Hildegard’s great spiritual awakening came in 1141
when she was 42. She began to experience particularly
intense illuminations and clairaudient messages about
the nature of God, the human soul and all being, and
the interconnectivity among all things in the universe.
She also experienced visions on sin, redemption and
the nature of the cosmos.
At the onset of these visions, Hildegard said that “a
burning light coming from heaven poured into my
mind. Like a flame which does not burn but rather
enkindles, it inflamed my heart and my breast, just as
the sun warms something with its rays. And I was able
to understand books suddenly, the psaltery clearly, the
evangelists and the volumes of the Old and New Testament,
but I did not have the interpretation of the
words of their texts nor the division of their syllables
nor the knowledge of their grammar.”
Though a voice instructed her to write and speak of
her supernormal insights and tell others “how to enter
the kingdom of salvation,” Hildegard initially refused
to do so, out of humility. She became ill, “pressed
down by the scourge of God,” and remained ill for a
long time, until she relented and started recording her
visions. She then returned to strength. It took her at
least 10 years to write down and explain her “hidden
mysteries of God.”

148 Hildegard of Bingen
The visions galvanized Hildegard to shake off her
doubts about her “proper place” as a woman. Still, she
had to work within the system. She consulted her confessor,
who in turn consulted the archbishop of Mainz.
A committee of theologians validated her visions.
Hildegard’s first book, written in collaboration
with a monk, was Scivias (Know the ways), a record
of 26 illuminations. Composed in Latin, Scivias concerns
prophecy, denunciation of vice and the universe
as egg or sphere. Central to the work is the idea of
God as the Living Light: “All living creatures are, so to
speak, sparks from the radiance of God’s brilliance,
and these sparks emerge from God like rays of the
sun.” Hildegard worked on Scivias for a decade, finishing
it sometime between 1152 and 1158. St. Bernard
of Clairvaux recommended it to the archbishop of
Mainz and Pope Eugenius III (r. 1145–53), who both
approved of it.
With Scivias, Hildegard’s fame spread, and she
became known as “the Sybil of the Rhine.” Pope Eugenius
III encouraged her to keep writing. She appreciated
his approval, but that didn’t stop her from
scolding the pope to work harder for reform in the
Church.
Around 1147, while Hildegard was still at work on
Scivias, she and her sister nuns left Mount St. Disabodenberg
for another monastery in Rupertsberg, Germany,
where they could have more room to live and
work. She was consecrated an abbess.
From 1158 to 1163, Hildegard composed her second
visionary work, The Book of Life’s Merits, or The
Book of the Rewards of Life, which juxtaposes virtues
and sins. In 1163 she began work on her third book,
Book of Divine Works, completing it in 1173. This third
work presents a complex cosmology on the origin of
life, the nature of heaven and the history of salvation.
In 1165, Hildegard founded another monastery in
Eibingen, across the river from Bingen, and commuted
between there and Rupertsberg every week.
Hildegard kept up an active, work-filled schedule to
the end of her life. She traveled widely throughout
Europe, preaching to clergy, nobility, scholars and the
lay public. Her views influenced many of her powerful
contemporaries, such as Frederick I Barbarossa. She
drew much opposition as well as support.
She denounced corruption in the Church, and criticized
the Christian, Jewish and Muslim faiths for being
“dried up” and lacking care and compassion.
Hildegard challenged the Church time and time
again. She downplayed the role of Eve in the fall of
Adam, saying Eve was not at fault. Instead, she said the
devil had used Eve as an instrument to influence
Adam. She celebrated human sexuality as the beauti-
ful, spiritual union of two human beings, not just the
means for procreation.
Hildegard had a tremendous interest in science and
medicine, and between 1150 and 1157 wrote two medical
books far advanced for her time. Physical Things,
about nature, and Causes and Cures, about medicine.
Her approach to medicine was holistic, integrating the
four-element, four-humor natural healing system of the
ancient Greeks with spiritual wisdom. She prescribed
numerous herbal and dietary remedies, all inspired by
her spiritual visions.
She considered music to be the ultimate celebration
of God. She composed 77 songs, perhaps divinely
inspired, that were more complex than most 12th-century
songs. She considered music to be a better
medium than words for the expression of wisdom; wisdom,
she said, dwells in the heart of God, is part of all
creative effort and is the “elusive treasure” sought by
the strong and virtuous soul.
Her other books include two works on the lives of
SS. Rupert and Disibod, an explanation of the Rule of
St. Benedict, an explanation of the Athanasian Creed,
and a commentary on theology and Scriptures called
Answers to Thirty-eight Questions.
She also wrote a morality play set to music, Ordo
Vitutum, which is included in Scivias; more than 70
poems; 50 allegorical homilies; and 300 letters. She
even invented her own language, composed of an
alphabet of 23 letters and with 900 words, which she
used to describe scientific terms. She said all of her
writings were dictated by the Holy Ghost.
During the last year of her life, Hildegard opposed
the vicar general of Mainz in a dispute over the body of
a young man buried at the cemetery of St. Rupert’s. He
had been excommunicated at one time, but Hildegard
had provided for him to have last sacraments. The
vicar general ordered the body removed, but Hildegard
refused, saying she had been told in a vision that her
actions were appropriate. The vicar general placed the
church under interdict. Hildegard appealed to the archbishop,
succeeding in getting the interdict removed.
This sort of dispute was typical of the pluck she
demonstrated throughout life. She was never afraid to
challenge authority.
In her last days, Hildegard was quite infirm, due to
a long history of illnesses and to her mortifications.
She could not stand upright and had to be carried
about. Nonetheless, she continued her duties with as
much vigor as possible. She died peacefully on September
17, 1179. Two beams of light were witnessed
crossing in the skies over the room in which she lay.
Miracles were reported after her death, and people
declared her a saint.

Hildegard is included in the Roman Martyrology,
though she never was formally canonized as a saint.
Three attempts were made to canonize her, under Pope
Gregory IX, Pope Innocent IV and Pope John XXII.
After 1317, she gradually slipped into obscurity,
though Benedictine sisters carefully preserved and
copied her texts. Since World War II, her works have
been rediscovered, published and analyzed. In 1979,
on the 800th anniversary of her death, Pope John Paul
II called her an “outstanding saint.”
Feast: September 17
FURTHER READING
Flanagan, Sabina. Hildegard of Bingen: A Visionary Life. London:
Routledge, 1998.
Hildegard of Bingen. Book of the Rewards of Life. Tr. Bruce
Hozeski. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Hildegard of Bingen’s Scivias. Tr. Bruce Hozeski. Santa Fe:
Bear and Co., 1986.
Hildegard of Bingen’s Book of Divine Works with Letters and
Songs. Matthew Fox, ed. Santa Fe: Bear and Co., 1987.
Hippolytus (d. ca. 236) Martyr, priest, antipope, Father
of the Church
Little was known about Hippolytus until the 19th century,
when Philosophumena, a manuscript apparently
written by the saint, was discovered. Hippolytus was a
Christian priest in Rome at the beginning of the third
century. (SS. Eusebius and Jerome referred to him as a
bishop, but his name was not on any of the lists of
bishops.) He may have been a disciple of St. Irenaeus.
During the reign of Pope Zephyrinus (198–217),
Hippolytus became embroiled in controversies over
heresies. When the pope declined to rule on whether
or not the Modalists were heretics, the incensed Hippolytus
castigated him as unfit for his office. Pope
Zephyrinus died in 217 and was succeeded by Callistus
(r. 217–222), of whom Hippolytus disapproved and
called a heretic. Hippolytus left the Church and had
himself elected antipope by a small group of followers.
He remained antipope during the reigns of two more
popes, Urban (r. 222–230) and Pontian (r. 230–235). It
may have been during this period that he wrote
Philosophumena.
Pontian resigned in 235 in the face of persecutions
from Emperor Maximus the Thracian. Both he and
Hippolytus were banished to the island of Sardinia.
Both of them died there, probably in 236. Prior to
death, Hippolytus reconciled with the Church and
ended the schism. Their remains were returned
together to Rome during the reign of Pope Fabian
(236–250). Pontian was buried in the papal vault in
the Catacomb of Callistus, and Hippolytus was
interred on the Via Tiburtina.
Hippolytus was considered an important theologian
of his day, and he was a prolific writer. Sadly, most of
his work has been lost. He wrote in Greek rather than
Latin and thus became better known in the Eastern
Church. He wrote numerous commentaries on books
of the Bible, some of which survive in fragments, and
numerous treatises against heresies.
According to legend, Hippolytus did not die in exile
but had himself secretly consecrated bishop after leaving
the Church. He was arrested and executed by being
dragged to death by wild horses. His relics were returned
to Rome.
Feast: August 13
Hormisdas (d. 523) Pope
Hugh of Lincoln 149
Hormisdas was born at Frosinone (Frusino) in the
Campagna di Roma (Italy). He married and had at least
one son, but after his wife died he entered the Roman
clergy. He served as archdeacon under Pope St. Symmachus,
succeeding him in the Chair of St. Peter on
July 21, 514.
The signal event of his pontificate was the healing
of the schism that had existed between the Eastern
Church and Western Church since 484. This was
accomplished on March 28, 519, with the signing of
the Formula of Hormisdas in Constantinople. Hormisdas’s
formula condemned the heretical beliefs that had
brought about the schism and affirmed unequivocally
the primacy and infallibility of the Roman see. The
document was signed by Patriarch John of Constantinople
along with some 250 Eastern bishops.
The healing of the schism with the East was not the
only important event of Hormisdas’s pontificate.
Shortly before his death he received word that
Thrasamund, king of the Vandals, had died, ending the
persecution of Christians in northern Africa.
Hormisdas died in Rome on August 6, 523, and
was buried at St. Peter’s.
In art, he is portrayed as a young man with a camel.
Feast: August 6
Patronage: grooms; stable-boys
Hugh of Lincoln (1140–1200) Missionary to England,
Carthusian bishop
Hugh was born in a castle at Avalon in Burgundy,
France. His father, William, was a knight and lord of
Burgundy. Hugh was eight when his mother died. His
father joined the Canons Regular of St. Augustine and
took Hugh with him.
Hugh, however, was more attracted to the contemplative
Carthusian order, and joined them at age 23. At

150 Hyacinth
age 33 he was ordained a priest and made procurator of
the Grand Chartreuse. In 1179, King Henry II made
him prior of Witham, a Carthusian monastery the king
had built as penance for his role in the murder of St.
Thomas Becket. The monastery was in decline, and
Hugh worked to improve it and attract new recruits.
His work impressed the king, and in 1181 Henry
named him bishop of Lincoln, the largest diocese in
England. Hugh expanded and restored the grand cathedral
there, which was the highest structure in Europe
until the building of the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Hugh was
able to maintain the respect of Henry, his son Richard I
(the Lion-Heart) and Richard’s brother, John Lackland,
though he often disagreed with them. Hugh also
defended the Jews against angry mobs, visited lepers
and gave funerals for the abandoned dead.
In 1200 Hugh visited his home castle at Avalon and
the Grand Chartreuse while traveling in France as
ambassador of King John. He returned to England seriously
ill, and died in London on November 16, 1200.
He was embalmed and his body was taken to Lincoln
where he was given a grand burial attended by many
officials of church and state. His coffin was carried by
three kings and three archbishops.
His relics were translated to a shrine on October 6,
1280. His body was found to be incorrupt, and his
Carthusian habit, in which he had died, was in excellent
condition. When the archbishop of Canterbury
laid his hand on the saint’s head, it separated from the
shoulder, leaving the neck fresh and red as if death had
been recent. This was taken as a miracle, for the new
reliquary was not long enough for both body and head.
When the body was taken out, observers saw that a
pure, clear oil, or manna, had collected at the bottom
of the tomb.
The body and head were washed and dried. The
next day, the head exuded a flow of fresh oil when handled.
The flow ceased when the head was placed on a
silver dish to be carried through the crowd in a procession
to the new shrine.
Hugh’s relics were encased in a coffer of gold, silver
and gems, and the shrine itself was embellished with
the same. The coffer was placed beside the altar of St.
John the Baptist in the church not far from John’s
shrine.
In 1364 vandals stole the head and other treasures
from the shrine and abandoned the head in a field.
According to lore, a raven watched over it until it was
found and returned to the church. The vandals gave
themselves up and were hanged.
In 1540 King Henry VIII, in his closure of churches
and monasteries, ordered the shrine dismantled and
the valuables—some 2,621 ounces of gold and 4,215
ounces of silver, plus jewels—transported to the Tower
of London. Hugh’s relics were destroyed. A legend
holds that somehow the relics were saved and hidden
away, but no evidence exists to support the story. The
only relic remaining is a fragment of bone kept at the
Grande Chartreuse.
Feast: November 16
Hyacinth (1185–1257) Dominican missionary and
wonder-worker
Also known as: the Apostle of Poland; the Apostle of
the North; the Polish St. Dominic
Hyacinth was born in Oppeln, Silesia, which belonged
to Poland. He studied at Cracow, Prague and Bologna,
earning the degrees of doctor of laws and divinity.
Returning home, he went to work as an administrative
assistant to the bishop of Cracow.
In 1218 he went to Rome with his uncle, Yvo, who
had been appointed bishop, and his brother, Ceslas. In
Rome they met St. Dominic, and Yvo asked the saint to
send friars to Poland. None of the Dominicans knew
Polish, however. Hyacinth and Ceslas were inspired to
join Dominic’s order, and received the habit from
Dominic himself. Hyacinth was appointed superior of
the Dominican mission in Poland. They preached
along their way home and attracted new members.
Hyacinth was an effective preacher and was devoted
especially to Mary. He was hugely popular in Cracow.
He traveled throughout northern Europe, the Baltic,
Scandinavia, Lithuania, Russia, China and Tibet. He
was known as a wonder-worker and his sermons and
miracles attracted many converts.
On three occasions he reportedly was witnessed
walking on water. Once in Moravia, Hyacinth was traveling
with three companions to Wisgrade. They
reached the Vistula River; on the other side were about
400 persons waiting for them. Hyacinth made the sign
of the cross and walked across the water. Another such
incident took place in Russia.
On another occasion Hyacinth was at a convent
that was being threatened by invading Tartars, who set
the building on fire. Hyacinth hurried to hide the
Blessed Sacrament, when he heard the Blessed Virgin
Mary telling him not to leave her statue behind to be
desecrated. The statue was quite heavy and Hyacinth
doubted he could move it himself. Mary told him she
would lighten the load. He then picked up the statue
with one hand, held the Blessed Sacrament in the
other, and fled the convent. He walked across the
Dnieper River to safety.
Hyacinth died in Cracow on August 15, 1257.
Canonized: 1594 by Pope Clement VIII
Feast: August 17

St. Hyacinth
Hyginus (d. ca. 140) Pope
Hyginus 151
Hyginus was Greek. He may have been a philosopher
before his conversion to Christianity. He was the ninth
bishop of Rome, thus the ninth pope, following St.
Telesphorus in about 136. His rule lasted only four
years, until ca. 140.
Gnostics began to preach their heresy during Hyginus’s
rule, and two (Valentinus and Cerdo) are thought
to have been resident in Rome for at least part of that
time. However, it is not known what action, if any, he
took against them.
Hyginus does not appear in the ancient lists of martyrs,
such as the Roman Martyrology, and nothing is
known about how he died. He was buried on Vatican
Hill, near the tomb of St. Peter.
Feast: January 11

Ignatius of Antioch (ca. 50–ca. 107) Martyr
Also known as: Theophoros, or God-Bearer
Little is known for certain about the early life of
Ignatius, who probably was born in Syria around the
year 50. Legend identifies him as the child Jesus set
down among his disciples, as described in the Bible
(Matthew 18:1–6; Mark 9:36–37). Some sources say
that he was a persecutor of Christians who became a
convert and a disciple of St. John the Evangelist or of
St. Peter or St. Paul. He called himself both a disciple
and a “bearer of God” (theophoros). At about age 17, he
became the second or third bishop of Antioch, Syria.
He is said to have been appointed and consecrated by
St. Peter after he left the deathbed of St. Evodius, the
previous bishop.
Ignatius longed to give his life in martyrdom during
the persecution of Christians under the Roman
emperor Domitian, but did not have the opportunity.
However, he received his wish when a later emperor,
Trajan, visited Antioch about 107. Trajan had decreed
that Christians should unite with their pagan neighbors
in the worship of the gods, under penalty of
death. Ignatius went out of his way to disobey, with the
predicable effect that he was taken before Trajan and
sentenced to die in the Roman Coliseum.
The last months of Ignatius’s life are relatively well
known, thanks to a series of pastoral letters he wrote,
If
153
and to contemporary accounts of those who traveled
with him on his last voyage to Rome. Their ship
stopped at various ports around the Mediterranean,
and at each stop Ignatius was greeted by crowds of
Christians. They docked for an extended stay at
Smyrna, where Ignatius met St. Polycarp of Smyrna,
then a young man, and received delegations from Magnesia
and Tralles. Two of his first four letters were written
to the faithful in these places, a third was addressed
to the Ephesians and the fourth to the Christians of
Rome, whom he asked not to interfere with his martyrdom.
In these letters, Ignatius became the first to use
the term “the Catholic Church.”
Ignatius’s ship arrived in Rome on December 20,
the final day of the public games in the Coliseum, and
he was rushed to the amphitheater. Of his imminent
fate, he wrote, “I pray that they will be prompt with
me. I shall entice them to eat me speedily.” Legend has
it that as he was offered to the lions, he called himself
“the wheat of Christ,” exclaiming: “May I become
agreeable bread to the Lord.”
After his death, the image of Jesus is said to have
been found engraved on Ignatius’s heart. His relics
were carried back to Antioch and buried outside the
gates. Later, Emperor Theodosius II had them moved
to the Tychaeum (Temple of Fortune), which was converted
into a Christian church under Ignatius’s patron-

154 Ignatius of Loyola
age. In 637, his relics were again translated, this time
to St. Clement’s in Rome, where they now rest.
Ignatius is highly venerated in the Eastern Orthodox
as well as Roman Catholic Church. A Greek icon
with his likeness can be seen at the Saint Isaac of Syria
Skete site.
In art, Ignatius is shown looking at a crucifix, a lion
at his side; standing between two lions; in chains;
holding a heart with “IHS” on it; or holding a heart
with “IHS” torn out by lions. He may also be depicted
with the image of Jesus on his breast; holding a fiery
globe; or in an arena with lions.
Feast: October 17 (formerly February 1)
Patronage: Church in the eastern Mediterranean;
throat diseases
Ignatius of Loyola (Ignacio de Loyola) (1491–1556)
Founder of the Society of Jesus
Also known as: Ignatius Loyola, Ignatius de Loyola
Ignatius was born in Loyola Castle near Azpeitia, in
the Basque province of Guipúzcoa, Spain, on Christmas
Eve, 1491. The youngest child of Beltrán Yañez
de Oñez y Loyola and Marina Saenz de Lieona y Balda,
he was baptized Iñigo, after St. Enecus (Innicus),
Abbot of Oña. He assumed the name Ignacio (Ignatius)
in middle life, when he was living in Rome.
At the age of 16, Ignatius was sent by his father to
live and work with Juan Velásquez de Cuellar, treasurer
to the king of Castile, in Arevalo. As a member of
the Velásquez household, he had easy access to the
court, and developed a taste for the decadent life. He
dressed in a coat of mail with a breastplate and carried
a sword and other arms. He was enamored of the
ladies, was much addicted to gambling, and on occasion
engaged in swordplay. However, he also learned to
be an accomplished horseman and courtier and practiced
the soldierly virtues of discipline, obedience and
prudence.
When Velásquez died in 1517, Ignatius joined the
army under the duke of Najera, a kinsman. Four years
later (on May 20, 1521), he was leading the defense of
the fortress of Pamplona, the capital of Navarre, under
bombardment by the French. A cannon ball passed
between his legs, tearing open his left calf and breaking
his right shin. With his wounding, the Spanish troops
surrendered. Out of respect for his courage, the French
set the bones and sent him in a litter to his father’s
castle, 50 miles away. The leg did not heal, so it was
necessary to break it again and to reset it. This second
operation involved sawing off part of a bone, leaving
one of his legs shorter than the other. In perpetual
fever, Ignatius was told to prepare for death, but on the
feast day of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29), he took an
unexpected turn for the better; he eventually recovered
fully, although he walked with a pronounced limp.
His recuperation at Loyola was a turning point for
Ignatius. The only books at hand were a life of Jesus
and a biography of St. George. He began reading these
with little interest but gradually became so immersed
in them that he spent entire days reading and rereading.
This was the beginning of his conversion and also
of his discernment of disembodied spirits and of the
practices and insights he later described in his classic
work, Spiritual Exercises. By the time he left the castle
in March 1522, he had decided to devote himself to the
religious life.
His first action was a pilgrimage to the shrine of
Our Lady of Montserrat, in the mountains above
Barcelona. After three days of self-examination, he confessed,
gave his rich man’s clothes to the poor, and
donned a sackcloth that reached to his feet. He hung
his sword and dagger by Our Lady’s altar, then spent
the night watching over them. The next morning, after
Communion, he left the shrine.
Continuing toward Barcelona he stopped along the
River Cardoner at a town called Manresa, where a
woman named Iñes Pascual showed him a cave where
he could retire for prayer and penitence. Ignatius
intended to stay in the cave only a short while, but
ended up living there for 10 months. During this time
he began making notes on what would become his
Spiritual Exercises. He also experienced several visions,
including one he regarded as the most significant of his
life. He never described this vision, but it appears to
have been more of an enlightenment, in which God
was revealed to be inherent in all things—a grace that
was to become one of the central characteristics of
Jesuit spirituality.
Ignatius left the cave in February 1523 and journeyed
to the Holy Land, where he planned to labor and
preach. He visited the scenes of Jesus’ life with such
obvious zeal that the Franciscan Guardian of the Holy
Places ordered him to leave, lest he antagonize the
fanatical Muslim Turks then in control of the area and
be kidnapped and held for ransom. Raising ransoms
for Christian prisoners had become such a problem
that the pope had granted the Franciscans oversight in
the region. Reluctantly, Ignatius returned to Europe,
arriving back in Barcelona about March 1524.
Now determined to prepare for the priesthood, he
began studying Latin in a boys’ school. After two years
he was proficient enough to enroll in the University of
Alcalá, near Madrid, newly founded by Grand Inquisitor
Jimenes (Ximenes) de Cisneros. There his evangelizing
zeal again got him into trouble. Living at a
hospice for poor students, he wore a coarse gray habit

and begged his food. He also taught children the catechism
and led adults through his spiritual exercises.
Since he had no training or authority for these things,
the vicar-general, Figueroa, accused him of presumption
and had him imprisoned for six weeks. When he
was released, Ignatius was forbidden to give religious
instruction for three years or to wear any distinguishing
dress.
Leaving Barcelona at the end of 1527, Ignatius entered
the University of Salamanca. Within two weeks,
he was back in prison. Although the Dominican inquisitors
could find no heresy in what he taught, they
told him that he could teach only children and then
only simple religious truths.
Once more he took to the road, this time heading
for Paris. He arrived there in February 1528 and
entered the Sorbonne, attending lectures in Latin
grammar and literature, philosophy and philology. He
continued promoting his spiritual exercises, gathering
the group—including St. Francis Xavier—who were to
join with him in founding the Jesuit order. The six of
them took vows of chastity and poverty in a chapel on
Montmartre on the feast of the Assumption in August
1534. They agreed to travel together to the Holy Land,
or if that proved impossible, to go to Rome and place
themselves at the disposal of the pope.
Ignatius was ordained a priest in 1534, and received
his M.A. degree in March 1535. Ill health then forced
him to leave Paris rather than staying to complete his
doctorate. He returned to his native Guipúzcoa, but
instead of staying in his family’s castle, he took up
quarters in a nearby hospital, where he continued
teaching his special brand of Christianity. He remained
there until the winter of 1537, when he and two of his
Paris companions decided it was time to go to Rome.
At a chapel in La Storta, a few miles outside the city,
Ignatius had the second most significant of his mystical
experiences. He seemed to see Father and Son
together, the latter speaking the words: Ego vobis
Romae propitius ero, “I will be favorable to you in
Rome.” Ignatius was unsure what this meant, since
Jesus had experienced persecution as well as success.
However, in Rome, Pope Paul III received the men graciously
and put them to work teaching Scripture and
theology and preaching. Also in Rome, on Christmas
morning of 1538, Ignatius celebrated his first Mass, in
the Chapel of the Manger in the church of Santa Maria
Maggiore (St. Mary Major). It was believed that this
chapel had the actual manger of Bethlehem, so since
Ignatius was not able to say his first Mass in Jerusalem
as he had hoped, this was thought to be the best substitute.
The group disbanded again, but during Lent in
1539, Ignatius asked all to join him in Rome to discuss
Ignatius of Loyola 155
St. Ignatius of Loyola (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
their future. Going to the Holy Land was still out of the
question. They had not previously thought of founding
a religious order, though they had for some time been
calling themselves the “Company of Jesus”—company
to be understood in its military sense. Now they agreed
to take the next step, and found a new religious community.
Following the military model, they would vow
obedience to a superior general who would hold office
for life. They would place themselves at the disposal of
the pope to travel wherever he should wish to send
them for whatever duties. A vow to this effect was
added to the ordinary vows of poverty, chastity and
obedience. Pope Paul III issued a bull approving of the
new order—which came to be known in English as the
Society of Jesus—on September 27, 1540.
On April 7, 1541, Ignatius was unanimously
elected superior general, and on April 22, at the
church of St. Paul Outside-the-Walls, the friends pronounced
their vows in the new order. Some headed
overseas immediately, in time to become superiors of
provincial branches. Meanwhile, Ignatius remained in

156 Innocent I
Rome, where he directed all the overseas missions, and
worked on the rules of the order. In 1547, he was
joined by a secretary, Father Palaneo, who helped him
with his correspondence and in drafting the constitution,
which was completed, approved and published in
1552. Spiritual Exercises was published in 1548, with
papal approval.
Besides the Society of Jesus, Ignatius established
several foundations, including one for Jewish converts
to Catholicism and another for loose women who were
anxious to reform but felt no call to the religious life.
However, it is with the Jesuits that he will forever be
associated.
Ever since his student days in Paris, Ignatius had
suffered from gallstones, and must often have been in
considerable pain. His condition became increasingly
troublesome in Rome. Then, in the summer of 1556,
he contracted Roman fever. On July 30 he asked for
the last sacraments and the papal blessing, but because
his doctors believed him to be in no imminent danger,
his staff did nothing. The next morning he was found
near death. The last blessing was given but he died
without the pope’s blessing and before the holy oils
could be brought. His relics lie beneath an altar
designed by Pozzi in the Gesù.
Miraculous phenomena were recorded about Ignatius.
Once after severe illness he was witnessed in a
rapture, levitating in a kneeling position while he
prayed aloud. On other occasions in prayer, he was
seen surrounded by a brilliant supernatural light. During
an ecstasy, a flame of fire was seen hovering over
his head.
His emblems are a book, a chasuble, the Holy Communion,
and the apparition of the Lord. In art, Ignatius
is a bearded Jesuit, often with a book of the Jesuit Rule,
kneeling before Christ. He may also be shown: with
Christ bringing him a Cross; with Christ as the Good
Shepherd; with Christ and Saint Peter before him;
holding the Rule, with Saint Francis Xavier or other
Jesuit saints (IHS on his breast); in Mass vestments, his
hand resting upon his Rule, light in the heavens; with a
dragon under his feet; holding the Rule, IHS, and Heart
pierced by three nails.
Beatified: July 27, 1609, by Pope Paul V
Canonized: March 12, 1622, by Pope Gregory XV
Feast: July 31
Patronage: Jesuit Order; soldiers; spiritual retreats
and exercises
FURTHER READING
Ignatius of Loyola: The Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works.
George E. Gauss, Paramanda Divalcar and Edward J.
Malatesta, eds. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1991.
Meissner, William W. Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a
Saint. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994.
O’Neal, Norman. “The Life of St. Ignatius of Loyola.” Le
Moyne University website. URL: http://maple.lemoyne.
edu/~bucko/V_ignat.html. Downloaded: October 27,
1999.
Innocent I (d. 417) Pope
Innocent, son of Innocentius, was born in Albano, a
town near Rome. He grew up among Roman clergy and
in the service of the Roman Church, succeeding Pope
St. Anastasius I as bishop on December 22, 401.
In 410, the Goths began a siege of Rome. Their
leader, Alaric, declared that he would withdraw if a
peace favorable to him could be negotiated, and Innocent
was one of the delegation that went to meet with
him. The negotiations failed, however, and the Goths
resumed their siege. They had entered and sacked the
city before Innocent and the rest of the Roman party
were able to return to it.
Innocent was zealous about the purity of Church
doctrine and discipline, took actions against heretical
sects, and was a strong proponent of clerical celibacy.
Moreover, he believed strongly in Rome as the leader
of the universal Church. He intervened in the affairs of
churches outside Rome and advised all to send decisions
to him for confirmation. When the Church of
Constantinople removed St. John Chrysostom, Innocent
stepped in and reinstated him. He commended
the bishops of Carthage and Mileve for sending their
condemnations of Pelagianism to him in a letter that
caused St. Augustine to remark: “Roma locuta, causa
finita est” (“Rome has spoken, the matter is closed”).
Innocent died in Rome on March 12, 417, and was
buried in the basilica above the Catacomb of Pontianus.
Afterward he was venerated as a saint.
Feast: July 28
Innocent V (ca. 1225–1276) Dominican monk and
pope
Also known as: Peter of Tarentaise
Innocent was born around 1225 in the Tarentaise
region of Burgundy, France, probably in the town of
Champagny. He was barely 10 when he was admitted
to the Dominican order, took the religious name Peter
and was sent to Paris to study. In 1259 he graduated
from the University of Paris with a master’s degree in
sacred theology and began teaching at the university,
where he became known as Doctor famosissimus, “the
most famous doctor.” He wrote a number of commentaries
on Scripture and a Commentary on the Sentences

of Peter Lombard and worked with Thomas Aquinas on
a plan of study that is still the basis of Dominican
teaching.
Peter was made provincial of the Dominicans in
France and traveled on foot to visit all the houses
under his care. In 1272 he became archbishop of Lyons
and in 1273 was created cardinal-bishop of Ostia
(Italy) as well. In these capacities, he played a prominent
role in the Second Ecumenical Council of Lyons
in 1274, where he and Franciscan friar St. Bonaventure
devoted much attention to ongoing clerical reforms
and to healing the schism with the Greek Church.
Bonaventure died before the council was over, and
Peter pronounced his funeral oration.
Peter became an adviser to Bl. Pope Gregory X (r.
1271–76) and was with him in Arezzo (Rezzo) when
he died in January 1276. The College of Cardinals subsequently
met in Arezzo to decide on a successor, and
on January 21 elected Peter, who received every vote
save his own. The first Dominican pope, he assumed
the name Innocent V.
Peter restored the custom of personally assisting at
choral functions with the canons of the Lateran and
initiated other reforms in the matter of religious observance.
He also instigated a new crusade against the
Muslim Saracens—as mandated by the Council of
Lyons—and succeeded in settling many of the issues
involved with the schism between the Greek and
Roman churches and actually brought about a temporary
truce. However, his unexpected death on July 22,
1276—after a reign of only six months—cut short his
efforts.
Cultus approved: 1898 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: June 22
Irenaeus of Lyons (ca. 130–202) Bishop of Lyons,
Father of the Church
Name meaning: Lover of peace
The writings of Irenaeus rank him among the greatest
of the fathers of the church; he is considered the first
great Christian theologian. His work—much of it still
extant—helped to lay the Gnostic heresy to rest and
laid the foundations of Christian theology. Although he
wrote in Greek, he was quickly translated into Latin,
and was highly influential in his day.
Irenaeus was born in Asia Minor, probably around
the year 130 (between 125 and 142), although some
scholars believe earlier, between 115 and 125. This
area had been heavily worked by the Apostles, and
their memory would have been strong. While still very
young, he heard St. Polycarp preach at Smyrna.
Isidore the Farmer 157
Irenaeus joined the Christian priesthood and was
sent as a missionary to the Church of Lyons in Gaul
during the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius’s bloody
persecution of Christians. In 177 or 178 he was sent to
Rome to deliver a letter asking for mercy on Montanism,
a heretical sect, to Pope St. Eleutherius (r.
175–189), and thus escaped the persecutions in Lyons
that resulted in the martyrdom of Bishop St. Pothinus.
When he returned to Lyons, he was elected to the
vacant bishopric, and remained in that capacity for the
rest of his life. He spent his time preaching and traveling
in missionary work, especially targeting pockets of
Gnosticism in Gaul.
The persecutions having subsided, Irenaeus found
the greatest challenge to the Christian Church in
Gnosticism, and set about clarifying the errors of the
various sects in relation to the true teachings of the
Apostles. He also took a stand on the Quartodeciman
controversy concerning the celebration of Easter, interceding
with Pope St. Victor (r. 189–199) in 190 or 191
to lift the sentence of excommunication upon the
Christian communities of Asia Minor.
Irenaeus is believed to have died in 202, although
this is not certain. Probably he died a natural death.
His remains were interred in a crypt under the altar of
what was then known as the Church of St. John, but
later called after him. The tomb became a shrine and
was destroyed by Calvinists in 1562; all trace of his
relics has been lost.
Irenaeus wrote numerous treatises and letters and
has been quoted by numerous church theologians
since. He was vigorous in his defense of orthodoxy and
in his opposition to heresy. Composed in Greek, none
have survived in their original editions, but are extant
in Latin or Armenian translations. His best known
work is Adversus haereses, considered an excellent
exposition of the Gnostic heresy as well as other
heretical philosophies. A second treatise, Proof of the
Apostolic Preaching, expounds on the Gospels as interpreted
through Old Testament prophecies. Only fragments
exist of Irenaeus’s other works.
Feast: June 28 (West); August 23 (East)
Isidore the Farmer (1082?–1130) Confessor
Also known as: Isadore the Farmer, Isidro Labrador,
Isidoro Labrador
Isidore Merlo Quintana was born in or about 1082 in
Madrid, Castile (now part of Spain), to a poor peasant
family. He was named after St. Isidore, Archbishop of
Seville (560–638). Since he was an obscure person in
his day, the details of his life are not well known, and
accounts vary.

158 Isidore of Pelusium
Isidore married Maria Toribia (or Torriba, the future
St. Maria de la Cabeza). The couple had a child who
died as a baby, which they took as a sign that God
wanted them to remain childless. Although they continued
to live together, they took vows of chastity and
remained celibate for the rest of their lives.
Isidore was orphaned at the age of 10 and was
employed as a day laborer by a wealthy landowner,
Juan (or perhaps Ivan) de Vargas, on his estate at Torrelaguna,
outside Madrid. He and Maria were very
pious. Although he worked hard and diligently, Isidore
went to Mass each morning, before going to work in
the fields, and took time out during the day for
prayers.
These habits caused some resentment from his fellow
peasants, who complained to Vargas. He went and
spoke to Isidore, who defended himself. Still, Vargas
followed him to the fields one morning. As he
approached Isidore and his plow, he fancied he saw a
second plow at work, but as he gained on it, this second
plow disappeared. Isidore denied there was anybody
there but himself. “Sir, I work alone and know of
none save God to whom I look for strength,” he told
his master. The incident gave rise to the story that
Isidore’s sanctity was so great that angels even helped
with his plowing.
Another story has it that one snowy day, on his way
to the mill with corn to be ground, Isidore passed a
flock of hungry pigeons, vainly scratching for food on
the frosty earth. As people watched and mocked him,
he poured half of his sack out for the birds. By the time
he reached the mill, however, the bag was once again
full, and when ground, the corn produced twice the
usual amount of flour.
Isidore always made sure that the oxen and other
animals he worked with were treated well, and although
he and Maria were themselves poor, they
gave freely to the needy. Isidore divided his earnings
into thirds, giving one to the church, a second to the
poor and keeping only one portion for himself and
Maria. One day he was invited to a luncheon, but
when he arrived with a group of beggars, his host
protested in disgust that only he was invited; Isidore
nevertheless divided his meal with those whom he had
brought.
According to another story, Isidore pricked the
ground with his staff and a spring issued forth. The
spring, near Madrid, is considered to have healing
powers and its waters are bottled as a remedy against
sudden illness.
Some accounts say that Isidore had to leave Madrid
for a time when it was attacked by Moors, but this is
dubious because Madrid had been captured from the
Moors in 1083, about the time of his birth.
Isidore died on May 15, 1130, and was buried in
the cemetery. Miracles and cures were reported at his
grave, and when his body was transferred to a shrine in
the church 43 years later, it was found to be incorrupt,
as if he only recently had died.
Isidore has enjoyed the support of Spanish royalty.
He is said to have appeared as an apparition to King
Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1211, and to have shown the
king a previously unknown path that he used to surprise
and defeat the Moors, who were still holding
onto much of what later became a unified Spain. In the
1500s, Charles, king of Spain and Holy Roman
Emperor, built the Hermitage of the Patron of Madrid
after his son Philip was healed by water from a fountain
that by tradition had been opened by Isidore to
slake the thirst of his master, Juan de Vargas. Isidore’s
canonization came at the insistence of King Philip III
of Spain (r. 1598–1621), who attributed his recovery
from a serious illness (perhaps that which had so
impressed his father) to Isidore’s intercession.
Isidore’s cult quickly spread beyond Spain, although
it is still in Spain that he is most revered. His feast is
celebrated in Madrid with ringing church bells, street
fairs and a parade.
In Spanish art, his emblems are a spade or a plough.
He has also been depicted as a peasant holding a sickle
and a sheaf of corn; with a sickle and staff; with an
angel who ploughs for him; giving a rosary to children
by a well; striking water from dry earth with an angel
plowing in the background; before a cross; and with an
angel and white oxen near him.
Beatified: ca. 1460 by Pope Pius XII
Canonized: March 12, 1622, by Pope Gregory XV
Feast: May 15 (formerly March 22 in United
States, and May 10 and October 25 elsewhere)
Patronage: death of children; farmers and farm
laborers; for rain; husbandmen; livestock;
Madrid, Spain; U.S. National Rural Life Conference
FURTHER READING
“San Isidro, labrador: Patrón de la villa de Madrid.” http://
www.fplanet.es/castizos/Agrup004.htm. Downloaded: January
30, 2000.
“St. Isidore the Farmer, Confessor.” Mater Dei website. URL:
http://web2.airmail.net/~carlsch/MaterDei/Saints/isidoref.
htm. Downloaded: January 30, 2000.
Isidore of Pelusium (d. ca. 449–450) Monk and perhaps
abbot of Pelusium, Egypt; Father of the Church
Isidore of Pelusium was born in Alexandria in the last
half of the fourth century. At some point he was
inspired to leave his family and belongings and become

a monk at the monastery of Lychnos on a mountain
near Pelusium. He may have become abbot there. He
was renowned for his strict observance of the rule and
his austerities. He wore only skins and subsisted on
herbs. He said that monks should eat nothing more
unless a superior ordered it on account of physical
weakness, and they should always obey their superiors.
He believed strongly in practicing what one taught
and preached.
Isidore was devoted to the teachings of St. John
Chrysostom and was a contemporary of St. Cyril of
Alexandria. He argued against heresy, especially that of
the Nestorians.
Isidore wrote two treatises, Adversus Gentiles and
De Fato, but they are lost. The only surviving writings
of the saint are 2,182 of his estimated 10,000 letters.
Some of the extant letters deal with dogma, Scripture,
heresy, and ecclesiastical and monastic discipline.
Feast: February 4
Isidore of Seville (ca. 560–636) Archbishop of Seville,
Doctor of the Church, Father of the Church
Also known as: Isidore the Bishop; Schoolmaster of the
Middle Ages
The last of the great Latin Fathers, Isidore was born at
Cartagena, Spain, about 560, into a noble Hispano-
Roman family. His elder brother Leander, younger
brother Fulgentius and sister Florentina also came to
hold senior positions within the Christian Church.
Isidore received his elementary education in the
cathedral school of Seville, the first of its kind in Spain.
His brother Leander, then archbishop of Seville, was
one of his teachers. As he matured, Isidore most likely
assisted Leander in governing the archdiocese, because
he succeeded him as archbishop in 601.
As archbishop, Isidore devoted himself to strengthening
the Spanish Church. He worked hard to turn the
Visigoths away from the Arian heresy, rewriting liturgies
and breviaries for their use. He convened councils
Isidore of Seville 159
at Seville in 613 and Toledo in 633. At the latter,
attended by all the bishops of Spain, he was given
precedence over the local archbishop on the basis of
his exceptional merit as the greatest teacher in the
country. Indeed, it was in the area of education that
Isidore made his greatest mark, earning him his sobriquet,
“Schoolmaster of the Middle Ages.” At the Toledo
council, he introduced and saw passed a decree commanding
all dioceses to establish cathedral schools
along the lines of that school he himself had attended
in Seville. He compiled a 20-volume encyclopedia of
knowledge (containing information on everything that
was known in seventh-century Europe), a chronicle of
events from the Creation to his own time, and a history
of the Goths and Vandals. He completed and updated
St. Jerome’s biographies of the great men and women of
the Bible. He also wrote books on theology, astronomy
and geography, as well as new rules for monasteries.
As he felt his death approaching, he invited two
bishops to visit him. On April 4, 636, they accompanied
him to the church, where one covered him with a
sackcloth while the other put ashes on his head. Thus
dressed in the habit of a penitent, Isidore raised his
hands to heaven and prayed for forgiveness. After
receiving the viaticum, he asked for the prayers of
those present, forgave those who had sinned against
him, exhorted all to charity, bequeathed his earthly
possessions to the poor and gave up his soul to God.
In art, Isidore is depicted as an elderly bishop with
a pen and a book, or with his encyclopedia. Sometimes
he is shown with his brothers and sisters, SS. Leander,
Fulgentius and Florentina. More rarely, he is a bishop
standing near a beehive, or surrounded by bees—bees
symbolizing oratorical eloquence.
Canonized: 1598 by Pope Clement VIII
Declared Doctor of the Divinity of Christ: 1722 by
Pope Innocent XIII
Feast: April 4
Patronage: computer technicians; computer users;
computers; the Internet; savants; students

Jacinta and Francisco Marto (1910–1920 and
1908–1919) Sister and brother, the youngest of the three
visionaries who saw the Virgin Mary in Fatima, Portugal,
in 1917
Jacinta and Francisco were the sixth and seventh children
of Manuel Pedro Marto and Olimpia dos Santos,
humble farmers and pious Christians. They were born
in the village of Aljustrel, near Fatima, not far from
Leiria, Portugal—Francisco on June 11, 1908, and Jacinta
on March 11, 1910. Since there was no school in
their village, they were educated at home and took catechism
lessons from the parish priest and a maternal
aunt.
From a young age, Jacinta and Francisco worked as
shepherds together with their cousin Lucia. The three
children thus developed a close bond. All were of a
religious bent. In 1916, they announced that they had
thrice seen an angel who had urged them to pray and
do penance for the remission of sins and to obtain the
conversion of sinners. They followed these instructions
to the best of their ability.
Then on May 13, 1917, Jacinta, Francisco and
Lucia dos Santos, their elder cousin, were granted the
privilege of seeing the Virgin Mary. She appeared to
them thereafter on the 13th of each month until October
13, when a crowd (estimated at 70,000) witnessed
a “miraculous solar phenomenon” immediately after-
Jf
161
ward. On June 13 she communicated to the children a
premonitory vision in three parts, which she ordered
them not to divulge. This vision became known as the
Secret of Fatima. Its substance was not revealed for
many years.
Municipal and Church authorities were initially
skeptical of the apparitions and visions. The children
were prevented from entering the parish church, were
beaten and briefly jailed, but refused to recant. They
refused also to divulge the secrets entrusted to them by
Our Lady, even under the threat of death. “If they kill
us we’ll soon be in heaven! Nothing else matters!”
Francisco exclaimed. After the spectacle on October
13, the bishop finally accepted the truth of the visions,
and the harassment changed to adulation.
The children were even more affected by the
visions of Mary than they had been by the earlier
apparitions of angels. Francisco developed a special
devotion to the Eucharist and spent much time in
church, adoring the Sacrament of the Altar, which he
called the “Hidden Jesus.” He assisted at Mass on
feasts and whenever possible on weekends. He recited
the 15 mysteries of the Rosary at least once daily. Jacinta
began to seek silence and solitude, and at night
would get out of bed to pray. She loved to contemplate
Christ Crucified and was moved to tears by the Passion.
She also venerated Mary, honoring her with
recitation of the Rosary and with pious exclamations.

162 James the Greater, Apostle
More than Francisco, she was also given to penance.
She wore a rope around her waist, deprived herself of
food, in order to give it to the poor, and refused water,
especially in the summer heat.
During her June 13 visit, Our Lady told the children
that she would soon be taking Jacinta and Francisco
to heaven. Indeed, in October 1918, they caught
influenza during an epidemic. Once confined to bed,
Francisco was never able to leave it again, and died on
April 4, 1919. Realizing she had only a short time to
live, Jacinta stepped up her sacrifices, penances and
privations. She was sent to a hospital in Lisbon, where
she died alone and in the midst of great suffering on
February 20, 1920.
Jacinta’s body was buried first in Vila Nova de
Ourem in Lisbon but subsequently was translated to
the cemetery of Fatima, where Francisco’s body was
interred. After the basilica was built in Fatima, the
relics of both were moved there. Near to their tombs is
a third, reserved for the mortal remains of their cousin
Lucia dos Santos, now Sister Lucia of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary. Born on March 30, 1907, Lucia, a
Carmelite nun at a convent in Portugal, was 93 years
old in 2000.
Pilgrims began to visit Fatima even before the
deaths of Jacinta and Francisco. The first national pilgrimage
took place in 1927. The basilica was begun in
1928 and consecrated in 1953. It faces a large square
in which stands the little Chapel of the Apparitions.
Many cures have been reported at this shrine, one of
the greatest Marian shrines in the world. On May 13,
1967, the 50th anniversary of the first vision, an estimated
1,000,000 pilgrims gathered at Fatima to hear
Pope Paul VI (r. 1963–78) say Mass and pray for
peace.
Lucia was induced by the bishop of Leiria (but
with Our Lady’s permission) to write down the Secret
of Fatima in 1941, although the third part was not
recorded until 1944. The first two parts were revealed
in 1942. The first part was a brief vision of hell, while
the second was interpreted as a prediction of World
War II, later as World War II and the fall of communism.
The third part was widely rumored to foretell
the Apocalypse, but during the beatification
ceremony for Jacinta and Francisco in 2000 it was
revealed to be a prediction of the attempt to assassinate
Pope John Paul II (r. 1978– ) on May 13,
1981 (the 64th anniversary of the children’s first visit
from Our Lady).
When the full text of the third part was published
on June 26, 2000, however, the vision turned out to
have only vague reference to the assassination attempt.
It depicted a bishop (said to be the bishop of Rome)
and all those around him being shot by army troops,
whereas only John Paul II was shot, by a lone gunman,
the Turk Mehmet Ali Agca. Yet John Paul II had no
doubts. He credited Our Lady with saving his life, by
deflecting Mehmet Ali Agca’s bullets away from his
vital organs, and has donated one of the bullets to the
Shrine at Fatima, where it has been set into the crown
of the statue of Our Lady.
The process of beatifying Jacinta and Francisco
began in 1946. The Vatican committee on canonization
decided that the children had lived lives of intense
holiness, especially after the appearance of Our Lady,
when they had become models of prayer and penance,
notwithstanding the young age at which they died. The
beatification was clinched in 1999 with the acceptance
of a healing miracle. A woman paralyzed from the
waist down by a spinal injury had been treated by doctors
for 22 years without success when she made a
novena to Jacinta and Francisco. Soon thereafter she
heard a voice telling her, “Now you can sit up.” She
discovered that not only could she do this, but moreover
she could stand and walk around unaided. Jacinta
and Francisco are the youngest persons ever beatified
without dying as martyrs.
Beatified: May 13, 2000, by Pope John Paul II in
Fatima, Portugal
Feast: February 25
Patronage: bodily ills; captives; people ridiculed for
their piety; prisoners; sick people
FURTHER READING
“Blessed Jacinta and Francisco Marto.” Shrine of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary website. URL: http://www.immaculate.force9.co.uk/children.htm.
Downloaded: September
10, 2000.
James the Greater, Apostle (d. 44) One of Jesus’
Twelve Disciples; martyr
Also known as: Giacomo; Iago; Iakob; Jacobo; Jacques;
Jacobus Major; James Boanerges; Santiago; Yakob
James was the son of Zebedee and Salomone and the
elder brother of St. John the Divine. Zebedee and his
family were prosperous fishermen, and James and John
were followers of St. John the Baptist before they met
Jesus. When Jesus called them to become “fishers of
men,” they left their occupation to become his fulltime
disciples. James is referred to as James the Greater
because he was taller than another of the apostles, St.
James the Lesser. James and his brother were given the
surname “Boanerges,” meaning “Sons of Thunder,” by
Jesus, in recognition of their fiery personalities and
evangelizing zeal.
Little is known for certain about James’s apostolate.
There is a tradition that he preached the Gospel in

Spain, but this is suspect both because St. Paul, who
definitely did evangelize Spain, wrote in his Epistle to
the Romans that he was not building “upon another
man’s foundation,” and because contemporary Spanish
writers do not mention him. According to this tradition,
which was current by the year 700, James
returned to Jerusalem, where he was killed by King
Herod Agrippa I (r. 42–44), grandson of Herod the
Great. Of greater credence is another tradition, which
holds that James had not left Jerusalem by the time of
his martyrdom.
Herod Agrippa, a great defender of the Jewish faith,
was concerned with the rapid spread of Christianity.
He chose Passover of the year 44 to launch a persecution
against the Christian community in Jerusalem,
and James became his first victim. Agrippa is said to
have beheaded James together with his accuser, who
had been so moved by James’s confession that he had
converted to Christianity. James’s martyrdom fulfilled a
prophecy of Jesus that those who shared his chalice
would share in his sufferings.
The tradition that has James evangelizing Spain
holds also that his relics were miraculously translated
to Iria Flavia in the northwest of that country,
whence they were transported to Compostela. During
the Middle Ages, the latter town was one of the most
famous pilgrimage places in the world, inspiring the
creation of the Order of Knights of St. James of Compostela
in the 12th century. The authenticity of the
sacred relics of Compostela is vouched for in a Bull of
Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903). However, they are also
claimed by the Church of St.-Saturnin at Toulouse,
France, so they may have been divided.
In art, James is represented by a cockleshell; a key;
a pilgrim’s staff; and a sword. He is depicted as an
elderly, bearded man wearing a hat with a scallop shell;
as a man with shells around him; and as a pilgrim with
wallet and staff.
Feast: July 25
Patronage: apothecaries; arthritis; blacksmiths;
druggists; funeral directors; furriers; knights;
laborers; pharmacists; pilgrims; rheumatism;
rheumatoid sufferers; Chile; Guatemala; Nicaragua;
Spain; Spanish conquistadores
James the Less, Apostle (d. ca. 62) One of the Twelve
Disciples of Jesus; first bishop of Jerusalem; martyr
Also known as: Giacomo; Jacobo; Jacques; Jacobus
Minor; James the Younger; James the Just; James the
Lesser
James should not be confused with another of Jesus’
disciples, James the Greater, who evidently was of
James the Less, Apostle 163
greater physical stature than he. The son of Alpheus
and Mary, he was a brother of St. Jude and most likely
a first cousin of Jesus. The biblical reference to James
as “the brother of our Lord” seems best understood
in an extended sense, although some scholars interpret
it to mean that James was Jesus’ actual brother.
Another interpretation is that there were two men
named James, one of them Jesus’ disciple, the other his
brother.
Jesus called James to the apostolate together with
Jude, though we know little about his membership in
the group of 12 until after the Crucifixion. In I
Corinthians (15:5–7), St. Paul tells us that Jesus
appeared to James before the Ascension. James was
among those who later met in the Upper Room.
St. Peter was treated by Jesus as head of the apostles,
and he was the recognized leader of the early
Christian community. He was imprisoned under King
Herod Agrippa I sometime between 42 and 44, and
though he escaped miraculously, was forced to flee
Jerusalem, leaving the Church there in James’s care. As
bishop of Jerusalem before the Church of Rome
gained ascendancy, James was consulted by evangelists
such as Paul, who sought his approval on several
occasions. He also presided over a meeting of the
apostles around the year 51, in which he supported
Peter in his attempt to define Christian customs in
contrast to Jewish law, as in the controversy over circumcision.
This was a Jewish practice, unknown to
Gentiles, and James ruled with Peter that Christians
should not be held to it.
James was called the “Just” because he abstained
from wine and animal flesh, refused to shave, anoint
himself or bathe in a tub. He died in Jerusalem around
the year 62 after being thrown from a pinnacle of the
Temple by the Pharisees. He died on the ground below,
while praying for his attackers. According to some
accounts, he was stoned to death, whereas The Golden
Legend says he was killed by the blow of a fuller’s club.
Catastrophes that subsequently struck Jerusalem were
believed by the Greek historian Eusebius to be a divine
punishment for this act.
In art, James often bears a close resemblance to
Jesus. He is shown with a club or large mallet; holding
his epistle, either as a book or scroll; as a child with a
toy mill; or as flung from the pulpit or pinnacle of the
Temple in Jerusalem. He especially is known as the
patron of the dying because of his deathbed forgiveness
of his murderers.
Feast (celebrated with St. Philip): May 3 (formerly
May 1 and May 11; in the East, November 14)
Patronage: apothecaries; dying people; fullers; hatters;
milliners; pharmacists; Uruguay

164 Januarius
Januarius (d. ca. 304–305) Martyred bishop
Also known as: Gennaro
Few facts are known about Januarius, who is famous
for the miraculous liquefaction of his dried blood several
times a year. The bishop of Benevento, Italy, he
was caught up in the persecutions of Emperor Diocletian.
According to one account, Januarius was
denounced under torture by Socias, deacon of the
church of Miseno, Proculus, deacon of Pozzuoli, and
laymen Eutychetes and Acutius, who had been imprisoned
in Nola by Timothy, governor of the province of
Campania. Timothy had Januarius arrested and
brought to him. When Januarius would not deny his
faith, Timothy had a fire stoked in a furnace for three
days and threw the saint into it. The flames would not
touch him. He was sent back to prison.
Hearing of his travail, his deacon, Festus, and lector,
Desiderius, traveled to Nola and were arrested.
They were bound in chains and dragged by chariot to
Pozzuoli, where Timothy had decreed that all seven
men would be thrown to the lions. The beasts, however,
ran to Januarius and laid down at his feet.
Enraged, Timothy declared this to be magic and ordered
them beheaded. Januarius prayed for God to punish
him with blindness, and Timothy was struck blind.
He suffered such great pain that he summoned Januarius
and begged for his vision back. Januarius prayed
and the man’s vision was restored. So amazed was the
crowd of 5,000 that they converted. The execution was
still carried out, and Januarius and his companions
were beheaded on September 19. Three days beforehand,
Januarius’s mother had a dream of him flying to
heaven. Upon hearing of his imprisonment, she became
so distraught that she died. After the executions, Timothy
suffered great torments and pain and died.
The relics of Januarius were buried near the town of
Marciano between Pozzuoli and Naples. In 402, the
bishop of Naples had the body taken to Naples, where
it was interred in the catacombs. Ceremonies were
observed in April and September.
In 831 a Benevento nobleman managed to take possession
of all the relics save for the skull. For several
hundred years, the saint’s bones toured Italy, finally
returning to Naples at the end of the 13th century.
Charles II, king of Naples, had a cathedral built for the
enshrinement of the skull.
Two vials of dried blood also appeared. According
to legend, the blood had been collected by a serving
woman from the stone upon which Januarius had been
beheaded. The vials had been buried with his body in
Naples. It is not known whether the vials of blood
toured with the rest of the relics, or if they were added
after their return to Naples. Most likely, they were
added. The two feasts in honor of Januarius were formalized
in 1337, and records make no mention of the
vials of blood.
The first miracle of the liquefying blood was recorded
in 1389, while a priest was holding the vials in a
procession. On the Mass of St. Januarius, a vial of dried
blood was set upon the altar and shortly seen to soften
and change color, as though taken from a living man.
From 1608 to 1646, a special chapel was constructed
next to the cathedral solely for the skull.
Beginning in 1659, the Church has documented the
ritual liquefaction of the blood. More than 1,000
books, articles and studies, in Italian alone, have been
written on this miracle. Some limited scientific tests
have been done. No natural explanation has ever been
found.
The hermetically sealed vials are enclosed in a
cylindrical silver and glass case, which is attached to a
large silver monstrance that has a handle. One vial is
larger than the other, and is about two-thirds filled
with dried blood. The second, smaller vial has only a
few drops. Only the blood in the larger vial undergoes
the liquefaction.
The vials are kept in a vault in Naples Cathedral
and brought out for certain occasions: the first Sunday
in May, which commemorates the translation of the
relics to Naples; September 19, the feast day of the
saint; and December 16, the commemoration of the
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 1631, when the blood liquefied
for 30 days.
In the ceremonies, the blood is brought out by procession
to the altar, where rests a silver bust containing
the skull of Januarius. A key part of the ceremony is
the presence of the “relatives of Januarius” or “aunts of
Januarius,” a group of elderly women who have inherited
their status down through the generations. As
soon as the blood is taken out of the vault, they begin
to scream and beg Januarius to liquefy his blood. The
entire event becomes one of increasing hysteria as
onlookers join the shouting and screaming.
Sometimes the blood liquefies quickly, within minutes,
and sometimes takes several hours to change. A
red cloth is waved at the first sign of liquefaction,
which adds to the hysteria. The dignitaries are allowed
to kiss the container. The blood is then paraded
through the cathedral while a Te Deum is sung.
On rare occasions, the blood does not liquefy. This
is considered an ill omen for the city. In May 1976, the
blood did not change, and an earthquake soon struck
Naples. Other failures have been associated with
famine, disease and political upheaval.
The blood does not simply change from solid to liquid,
but goes through several stages. It first changes

color from dark brown to yellow-red to scarlet. The
dried substance becomes pasty and finally more viscous
than normal blood. Usually a small lump remains
unchanged and floats in the liquid. Sometimes the
liquid bubbles and froths. The volume of the dried
blood changes dramatically, as does its weight. During
the May ceremonies, the larger vial often fills with
liquid, but during the September ceremonies, the volume
of the vial decreases. Strangely, the volume
increases when liquefaction occurs slowly and decreases
when it occurs quickly—the opposite of what
might be expected. Furthermore, the weight of the
vials increases when the volume decreases, and vice
versa.
The liquefaction does not seem to be the result of
temperature, for it happens regardless of the temperature
inside the cathedral. The container is held only by
the handle and the crystal sides are not touched. It is
not shaken, though it is turned upside down by officials
to check for the beginning of liquefaction.
In 1902, a spectroscopic analysis determined that
the vials did contain real blood. Unfortunately, the
vials are permanently sealed by hardened putty and
cannot be opened for further testing of the contents.
Opening them would break them and some or much of
their contents would be lost. And even if the vials
could be safely opened, tests would still require the
sacrifice of some of the contents.
As early as the beginning of the 20th century, it was
hypothesized that the psychic hysteria of the onlookers
and the “aunts” created the conditions that made the
liquefaction possible. However, the blood has been
known to liquefy spontaneously when it has been
moved for cleaning.
Another mysterious phenomenon involving Januarius
has occurred when his ceremonies are observed. In
Pozzuoli, a Capuchin monastery has the marble block
upon which Januarius was beheaded. When the ceremonies
are held in Naples, the stone has turned deep
red. On rare occasions it also has dripped blood. Samples
of the blood have been laboratory tested and
determined to be genuine human blood. Besides some
feast ceremonies, the stone bled on February 22, 1860,
when a church in Naples dedicated to the saint caught
fire.
Feast: September 19
Patronage: blood banks
FURTHER READING
“The Life of St. Januarius.” Tr. Edward P. Graham. URL:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/januarius.html.
Downloaded February 13, 2000.
Rogo, D. Scott. Miracles: A Scientific Exploration of Wondrous
Phenomena. London: Aquarian Press, 1991.
Jerome 165
Jerome (347–419) Scholar, Doctor of the Church,
translator of the Latin Vulgate Bible
Name meaning: “Sacred name”
Jerome was one of the greatest thinkers of the early
Church, and also one of the most controversial. He was
born Eusebius Hieronymous Sophronius at Stridonium
near Aquileia, Italy, to an affluent Christian family. He
was baptized at age 18 by Pope Liberius. His father
sent him to Rome to be schooled, and he was tutored
by a well-known pagan scholar, Donatus. He learned
Greek and Latin and oratorical skills.
Despite his Christian upbringing—and perhaps
because of his education—Jerome devoted himself to
an intense study of the pagan classics. After three years
in Rome, he went traveling with a friend. During this
time, he experienced a conversion back to his religious
roots. On his return to Aquileia, he was on good terms
with the clergy.
In 374, he was inspired to travel to Antioch. There,
he suffered a great illness that killed some of his
friends and traveling companions. While delirious, he
had either a dream or a vision in which he was rebuked
for his pagan interests. In his own account, he said:
Suddenly I was caught up in the spirit and dragged
before the judgment seat of the Judge; and here the light
was so bright, and those who stood around were so radiant,
that I cast myself upon the ground and did not dare
to look up. Asked who and what I was I replied: “I am a
Christian.” But he who presided said: “Thou liest, thou
art a follower of Cicero and not of Christ. For ‘where thy
treasure is, there will thy heart be also.’” Instantly I
became dumb, and amid the strokes of the lash—for He
had ordered me to be scourged—I was tortured more
severely still by the fire of conscience, considering with
myself that verse, “In the grave who shall give thee
thanks?” Yet for all that I began to cry and to bewail
myself, saying: “Have mercy upon me, O Lord: have
mercy upon me.” Amid the sound of the scourges this
cry still made itself heard. At last the bystanders, falling
down before the knees of Him who presided, prayed that
He would have pity on my youth, and that He would
give me space to repent of my error. He might still, they
urged, inflict torture on me, should I ever again read the
works of the Gentiles. . . .
Accordingly I made an oath and called upon His
name, saying “Lord, if ever again I possess worldly
books, or if ever again I read such, I have denied Thee.”
Dismissed, then, on taking this oath, I returned to the
upper world, and, to the surprise of all, I opened upon
them eyes so drenched with tears that my distress served
to convince even the credulous. And that this was no
sleep nor idle dream, such as those by which we are
often mocked, I call to witness the tribunal before which
I lay, and the terrible judgment which I feared. . . . I profess
that my shoulders were black and blue, that I felt

166 Jerome
St. Jerome dying alone (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

the bruises long after I awoke from my sleep, and that
thenceforth I read the books of God with a zeal greater
than I had previously given to the books of men.
This event proved to be life-changing, and Jerome
retired to the desert at Chalcis, southwest of Antioch,
to live as a hermit for four years. He learned Hebrew. It
was a time of suffering for him, both of health and
from temptations.
He then resumed his career as scholar and biblical
consultant. He consented to ordination only if he
could remain a monk or a recluse. Jerome went to
Constantinople to study under St. Gregory Nazianzus.
In 382, he went to Rome, where he won the favorable
attention of Pope Damasus (r. 366–383), who named
him papal secretary. When Damasus died, Jerome
found himself out of favor. He had alienated many
people, not only pagans, but also those whom he had
attacked with his sarcasm and barbed wit. Rumors
began to circulate that his relationship with St. Paula
was not appropriate.
Jerome, St. Paula and Eustochium (Paula’s third
daughter), and others exiled themselves to Jerusalem
and then toured Egypt and Palestine. At Bethlehem,
they established monastic communities for men and
women, a free school and a hospice.
Jerome vigorously fought anything he considered a
heresy. From 405 until his death, he attacked the Pelagian
heresy. He defended attacks on the perpetual virginity
of Mary, nonsecular celibacy and the veneration
of relics. He opposed the teachings of Origen and
argued with St. Augustine.
In 404 Paula died. Several years later, Rome was
sacked by barbarians, who pursued refugees east.
Jerome’s life and work were interrupted with violence,
beatings, killings and arson. Eustochium’s convent was
destroyed; she never recovered, and died in 419.
Jerome died in 420, his health, voice and eyesight
failing from work and penance. He was buried beside
Paula and Eustochium at the church of the Nativity in
Bethlehem. Later his remains were moved to St. Major’s
in Rome.
Jerome’s ecclesiastical writings include a continuation
of the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius of Caesarea,
to 378, and De Viris Illustribus (392), about
leading ecclesiastical writers. He also translated Origen
and wrote controversial treatises. A large number of his
letters survive.
Jerome’s greatest accomplishment was his translation
of the Bible, including the Apocrypha, from Greek
and Hebrew into Latin. The Latin Vulgate Bible was the
primary authority until about the mid-20th century.
Jerome spent years working on the translation.
He believed that a guardian angel is assigned to
each soul at birth. Even the souls of sinners receive a
guardian angel, he said, though mortal sin will put
them “into flight.” He organized angels into ranks of
seven, eliminating the principalities and virtues in the
rankings of other Church theologians. He questioned
the distinctions between ranks of angels.
Despite his own dream experience, Jerome sided
with the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah in skepticism
about dreams. He agreed that dreams can be a vehicle
of revelation to a soul, but also held that the impure
and unrighteous could twist dreams for their own selfserving
ends. He declared that the word of God could
not be sought through pagan practices of dream incubation,
such as offered in the Aesculapian temples.
According to the Christian scholar Morton Kelsey,
Jerome may have deliberately mistranslated a Hebrew
word so as to condemn dreams as witchcraft or soothsaying.
According to Kelsey, Jerome’s mistranslation
was of the Hebrew term anan, which means
witchcraft or soothsaying. Anan appears 10 times in
the Old Testament. Seven times Jerome correctly
translated it as “witchcraft.” Three times he translated
it as “observing dreams.” For example, Leviticus 19:26
was changed from “You shall not practice augury or
witchcraft” (soothsaying) into “You shall not practice
augury nor observe dreams.” Another reference
against soothsaying that he changed is found in
Deuteronomy 18:10–11: “There shall not be found
among you . . . any one who practices divination, a
soothsayer, or an augur, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, or
a medium, or a wizard, or a necromancer.” These passages
are part of the body of rules, regulations and
laws laid down to govern Hebrew society. The mistranslation
is curious, says Kelsey, in light of the fact
that Jerome was an excellent scholar and correctly
translated the term seven other times. Kelsey concludes
that the mistranslation may have been deliberate,
perhaps because of Jerome’s frightening dream.
The New Oxford, New Jerusalem and other modern
editions of the Bible have restored the original meaning
of anan.
Feast: September 30
Patronage: libraries and librarians
Joachim 167
FURTHER READING
Kelsey, Morton. God, Dreams and Revelation: A Christian
Interpretation of Dreams. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing
House, 1968, 1974, 1991.
St. Jerome: Selected Letters. Tr. F. A. Wright. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Joachim (d. first century) By tradition, the father of
the Blessed Virgin Mary
Also known as: Cleophas, Eliacim, Heli, Jonachir, Sadoc

168 Joan of Arc
St. Joachim and the Angel (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
No historical information about the names or lives of
the parents of Mary exists. What is known comes from
The Golden Legend and the aprochryphal Book of James,
or Protoevangelicum Jacobi. Joachim is said to have
been born in Nazareth, and wed Anne when both were
very young. Their childlessness was the cause of much
humiliation. Joachim withdrew to the desert, where he
fasted and prayed for 40 days. An angel appeared to
him and told him that Anne would bear a child. (Legend
also tells that an angel appeared to Anne with the
same news.)
Joachim was said to have died some time after witnessing
the presentation of Jesus in the Temple at
Jerusalem. He is venerated in both the Western and
Eastern churches.
Feast: July 26
Joan of Arc (1412–1431)
Name meaning: God is gracious
Also known as: Jeanne d’Arc, Jean D’arc, Jehanne d’Arc,
the Maid of Orleans, la Pucelle (the Flea)
Joan was born in January 1412 to Jacques and Isabelle
Darc (allegedly, a French poet changed the surname to
d’Arc) in the village of Greux-Domremy in the Lorraine
region of France, near the province of Champagne.
Although peasants, the family was not poor,
and young Joan spent her childhood tending the animals,
learning domestic skills and in pious devotion
and prayer. She never learned to read or write.
But she and her neighbors were affected by politics.
Since 1337, France and England had been at war, with
some periods of peace, over the disputed ownership of
several large provinces, including Aquitaine, Gascony,
Poitiers, Normandy and Brittany. These regions had
been fiefdoms of English kings for over 300 years,
especially after the marriage of Henry II and Eleanor of
Aquitaine, but did not accept English rule graciously.
Nor did these regions desire absorption into France.
Fiercely independent, the provinces continually fought
with their English overlords, first allying themselves
with one king, then another, to further their own
agenda.
By the time Joan was three, the French had suffered
defeat after defeat, first at the hands of England’s
King Edward III and his son Edward, the Black
Prince, then through the loss of Aquitaine and the
port city of Calais in the Treaty of Bretigny in 1360,
and most recently at the disastrous battle of Agincourt
in 1415, in which the heavily outnumbered
English (skilled at longbow) under Henry V routed
the French: 6,000 French soldiers killed in battle as
against English losses of 300. Even more horrible was
Henry V’s order to massacre the French prisoners to
prevent their rebellion—an act contrary to all
accepted conventions of warfare and chivalry. Charles
VI of France sued for peace, signing the Treaty of
Troyes in 1420, in which Henry V won the right to
rule his conquered French territories; was recognized
as the heir to the French throne, disinheriting the
dauphin, Charles VII; and received Charles VI’s
daughter in marriage.
The loss at Agincourt hardened French resolve, but
men and supplies were few. And many French nobles,
most important, those of the House of Burgundy, allied
themselves with the English. Further complicating the
situation was that both Henry V and Charles VI died
within two years after signing the Treaty of Troyes,
leaving the infant Henry VI the legal heir but unable to
rule, providing an opportunity for the dauphin’s supporters
to reinstate him as king. In Joan’s little village
of Domremy, sympathies were with the Armagnacs, or
the French party supporting the cause of the dauphin.
And the villagers believed stories of a prophecy—perhaps
spoken by King Arthur’s wizard, the great Merlin—that
a virgin maiden would come from the oak

forests of Lorraine to lead the king to victory and
restore all of France to the French.
When she was 13, Joan began hearing voices
accompanied by great blazes of light. At first the
unidentified voices exhorted her to go to church and
be good, but gradually Joan understood that the speakers
were St. Michael the Archangel and the virgin martyrs
SS. Catherine of Alexandria and Margaret of
Antioch (extremely popular in the Middle Ages, these
two saints have been dropped from the calendar and
their cults suppressed). They spoke to Joan often,
eventually becoming visible to her as well. Soon they
began to give Joan commands: She was to lead an army
against the English and raise the siege at Orleans, then
see the dauphin, Charles VII, crowned king of France
at Reims. Joan protested that she was merely a young
girl, unschooled in warfare and unable to lead an army.
But her voices insisted the mission was God’s will, so
in 1428 Joan persuaded an uncle to take her to Vaucouleurs,
where Robert Baudricourt, commander of the
dauphin’s forces, was headquartered. She explained her
mission and asked to be taken to the dauphin, but Baudricourt
rudely dismissed her, suggesting to her uncle
that he have Joan’s father whip the girl for such impudence.
Joan returned to Domremy, but her voices gave her
no rest, insisting she return to Vaucouleurs. She
arrived in Vaucouleurs in January 1429 and demanded
to see the dauphin. Although again dismissed by Baudricourt
she remained in the village, where in February
she told Baudricourt of a terrible French defeat at the
battle of the Herrings outside Orleans. When Baudricourt
learned confirmation of the loss days later, he
finally conceded. With an escort of three armed men
and dressed as a man, Joan traveled to the village of
Chinon in March to meet the dauphin. Charles kept
the little party waiting for two days, fearing a trick, but
finally agreed to an audience. He disguised himself so
that Joan would not recognize him. But with the help
of her voices Joan knew Charles immediately and gave
him a secret sign known only to him, assuring him of
the authenticity and supernatural power of her mission.
Historians have speculated on this secret sign,
believing it to be a confirmation of Charles’s questionable
legitimate birth.
Charles still dithered about Joan’s motives, and
finally decided to have her examined by a committee of
bishops and doctors in Poitiers—the churchmen to
assess her strength of faith, and the doctors (at
Charles’s mother’s instigation) to verify her gender and
the state of her virginity. All found Joan to be sincere,
ardent and pure, so she returned to Chinon to lead an
expedition. She wore white armor and carried a special
Joan of Arc 169
standard bearing the words “Jesus: Maria” with a representation
of God receiving the French fleur-de-lis from
two kneeling angels. But instead of using the sword
Charles presented her, Joan’s voices told her to look for
an ancient sword buried behind the altar in the chapel
of Ste. Catherine-de-Fierbois. It lay right where they
described.
Joan audaciously called upon England to withdraw
from France, and when the English refused she and her
troops entered Orleans on April 29–30, 1429. The city
had been under siege since the previous October. Such
a bold maneuver and Joan’s inspiring presence invigorated
the French soldiers, who captured all the surrounding
English forts by May 8, liberating Orleans.
Joan was wounded by an arrow, an act that she had
foretold. Joan begged to continue her successful campaign,
but Charles’s advisers cautioned against proceeding.
They did allow Joan a sortie on the Loire
River in June, joined by troops of her friend the Duc
d’Alençon, which resulted in a crushing defeat of the
English forces led by Sir John Fastolf at Patay. Joan
Joan of Arc (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)

170 Joan of Arc
pressed for the dauphin’s coronation. On June 17,
1429, Charles VII was crowned king of France at
Reims Cathedral. Joan stood next to the king, in full
armor, holding her standard aloft.
The mission from the voices complete, Joan may
have wished to return to Domremy, or, taking heed of
the voices’ warning that she had only a short time left,
to press her military advantage. An abortive attempt to
take Paris in late August failed, damaging Joan’s prestige,
and when Charles signed a truce with the duke of
Burgundy for the winter, Joan was left inactive and
miserable at court. Perhaps to cheer her, Charles ennobled
Joan and her family in late December 1429, allowing
them to add the name Du Lis (of the lily). When
hostilities resumed in April, her voices told Joan that
she would be taken prisoner before midsummer. This
prophecy was soon fulfilled. While fighting to defend
Compiègne from the Burgundians on May 24, she and
some of her soldiers were unfortunately left on the
other side of the river when the drawbridge was raised,
and Joan, pulled from her horse, became the prisoner
of John of Luxembourg. No attempt was made by
Charles to rescue Joan or bargain for her ransom, even
though the French had the earl of Suffolk prisoner, and
the two could have been exchanged. Instead, John of
Luxembourg sold Joan to the duke of Burgundy in
November for 10,000 francs, and he turned her over to
his English allies, an event foretold by the voices.
The English, enraged and terrified over Joan’s military
success and her supernatural powers, couldn’t
execute her for her fighting abilities but instead sought
to prove her a witch and a heretic. They had a willing
prosecutor in Peter Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais
(Compiègne was in his diocese), who hoped the English
would install him as archbishop of Rouen. He set
up a tribunal composed mainly of theologians and doctors
from the University of Paris, most of whom were
English supporters, and began interrogating Joan on
February 21, 1431, not long after her 19th birthday.
Joan complained bitterly about her incarceration in the
secular Rouen prison, and she declared that since she
had been judged orthodox in Poitiers in 1429, the trial
should take place in an ecclesiastical council. All her
pleas were ignored; she was harassed by the guards and
even kept in chains in an iron cage after she attempted
to escape.
The 37-member tribunal questioned her mercilessly
about her visions, her voices and her choice to wear
men’s clothing. With no advocate to defend her, Joan
spoke honestly and forthrightly about the truth of her
visions and her mission from God. She was charged
with 70 counts of sorcery, heresy, prophesying, conjuring
and divining, but that number was reduced to 12.
The tribunal denounced Joan and threatened torture if
she did not recant her heresy, but Joan stood fast. In
March she even told her English accusers that within
seven years they would suffer a defeat much worse
than Orleans, and this also came true when Henry VI
lost the battle for Paris in November 1437.
On May 22 Joan was again urged to recant, and
when she did not, the authorities erected a stake in St.
Ouen cemetery. Admonished and sentenced before a
large crowd, Joan’s courage failed, and she signed a
retraction agreeing that her voices were lies and that
she would wear only women’s clothing. She was led
back to prison, ostensibly with female guards. But
whether the jailers took her clothes, leaving her only
men’s apparel, or whether she despaired of her voices’
rejection, Joan resumed wearing men’s clothes, a clear
violation of her retraction, and declared the truth of
her voices. She was condemned as a relapsed heretic
on May 29 and sentenced to burn at the stake.
The next morning at 8:00 A.M. Joan was led out to
the stake in the marketplace of Rouen dressed in a long
white garment and wearing a mitre cap that bore the
words “Heretic, Relapsed, Apostate, Idolator.” She
asked for a cross to hold, standing on a pyre so high
that the executioner could not administer the coup de
grace to save her from pain. She called out “Jesus”
until the end, and legend says her heart did not burn
but was found whole in the ashes. An English soldier
swore he saw a white bird rise out of the pyre. Afterward
the authorities threw her ashes into the River
Seine. Joan was 19 years old.
In 1454, Joan’s mother and two brothers appealed
to the Vatican to reopen the case, and Pope Callistus III
appointed a commission to reexamine the episode.
Popular opinion in France had swung back to veneration
of Joan, and the pope’s appellate panel reversed
and annulled the sentence on July 7, 1456—only 25
years too late.
The question of whether Joan’s voices were divinely
inspired or manifestations of modern schizophrenia
was examined by the English psychical researcher
Frederic W. H. Myers. Myers believed that the visions
and voices came from Joan’s own subconscious, her
“subliminal self.” Anthropologist Margaret A. Murray
even speculated that Joan was indeed a witch. But
author Andrew Lang asserted that Joan’s lack of hysteria,
her steadfast belief in the truth of the voices and
the absence of other miraculous events connected to
the voices and visions proved their veracity. As C. S.
Lewis once said, “If anything extraordinary seems to
have happened, we can always say we have been the
victims of an illusion.”
Beatified: 1909 by Pope Saint Pius X
Canonized: 1920 by Pope Benedict XV

Feast: May 30
Patronage: captives; martyrs; people opposed to
Church authorities; people ridiculed for piety;
prisoners; rape victims; service women; soldiers;
virgins; women in the air and naval services;
women in Women Appointed for Voluntary
Emergency Service (WAVES); women in the
Women’s Army Corps (WACs); France
FURTHER READING
Gordon, Mary. Joan of Arc: A Penguin Life. New York: Viking
Penguin, 2000.
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Witches and
Witchcraft, 2nd ed. New York: Facts On File, 1999.
Lang, Andrew, “The Voices of Jeanne d’Arc,” Proceedings of
the Society for Psychical Research, Part XXVIII, Vol. XI
(July 1895), pp. 198–212.
Nash-Marshall, Siobhan. Joan of Arc: A Spiritual Biography,
New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1999.
Joaquina de Vedruna (1783–1854) Founder
Name meaning: God will order
Also known as: Joaquina Vedruna de Mas
Joaquina de Vedruna was born on April 16, 1783, in
Barcelona, Spain, the daughter of Lorenzo de Vedruna,
a government functionary, and Teresa Vidal. Her family
was very religious and, even as a child, so was
Joaquina. She paid particular devotion to the infant
Jesus. She was also obsessively clean, not letting even a
speck of dirt mar her clothes. At 12, she wished fervently
to become a Carmelite nun, but the order
wouldn’t accept her because they considered her too
young to make such an important decision.
In 1799, at the age of 16, Joaquina married Teodoro
de Mas, a friend of her father and like him an employee
of the government. Undecided about which of
Lorenzo’s three daughters to wed, Teodoro had given
them a box of candy. The older girls had rejected it as a
childish gift, but Joaquina had accepted it with joy,
exclaiming: “I love almonds.”
Joaquina bore Teodoro nine children before Spain
came under French domination in 1808 and Teodoro
went to fight in the wars of liberation. Joaquina fled
Barcelona with her children, and on their way out of
town met an old woman who conducted them to Vich,
where she took them into her home. Joaquina always
believed that the Virgin Mary had had a hand in helping
them. Then one day she heard a voice that told her
that she would soon be a widow. Indeed, news soon
came that Teodoro had been killed.
Leaving all her clothes with the woman who
had befriended her, Joaquina dedicated herself to
helping the poor and attending the sick and injured
in the hospitals. At first people thought she had gone
mad from grief at her husband’s death. For the next
10 years she dedicated herself to penitence, prayer
and works of charity, asking God to let her know what
he planned for her future. When four of her daughters
entered convents and her four sons married, she
was at last free of the responsibilities of the home
and able to realize her childhood dream of becoming
a nun.
Joaquina chanced to meet a Capuchin friar, Esteban
de Olut, who advised her on founding her own order,
the Congregation of Carmelite Sisters of Charity, in
1826. With the support of the bishop of Vich, Jesús
Corcuera y Corcuera, the order began with eight sisters,
but soon spread throughout Catalonia, establishing
hospitals and schools, especially for the poor. The
Carmelite Sisters of Charity received papal approval in
1850 and has since spread worldwide.
In 1850, Joaquina began to feel the first symptoms
of a paralysis that eventually was to make her completely
immobile. She gave up all of her charges and
devoted herself to a life of prayer, dying of cholera during
an epidemic in Vich, August 28, 1854.
Beatified: May 19, 1940, by Pope Pius XII
Canonized: April 12, 1959, by Pope John XXIII
Feast: May 22
Patronage: abuse victims; death of children; exiles;
widows
FURTHER READING
López-Melús, Rafael María. “Santa Joaquina de Vedruna.”
Carmelnet website. URL: http://www.carmelnet.org/chas/
santos/joaquina.htm. Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
“Joaquina de Vedruna.” Carmelnet website. URL: http://
www.carmelnet.org/galleries/Saints/Saints_3/Joachina/joa
ch ina.htm. Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
John I (d. 526) Pope and martyr
John I 171
John was a native of Tuscany. He became archdeacon in
the Church of Rome and, after an interregnum of seven
days, succeeded Pope St. Hormisdas on August 13,
523.
John was by this time very old and frail, and
protested when Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and
of Italy, asked him to lead a delegation of Roman senators
to Constantinople. Earlier in 523, Emperor Justin
had issued a decree against the Arians in the Eastern
Empire, requiring them to return to the Catholics
churches they had seized. Although he was himself
Arian, Theodoric was concerned about the larger political
implications of this move, and wanted the delegation
to get the edict repealed. He threatened reprisals
against Western Catholics, should John fail in the
mission.

172 John XXIII
He was unexpectedly well received in Constantinople.
The common people of the city came out in
throngs to greet him, and on meeting the pope, Justin
prostrated himself at his feet. Some time later, he had
John crown him. Most of the patriarchs of the Eastern
churches came to see him and see John officiate in the
Church of Santa Sofia in the Latin Rite on Easter Day
of 526, in the place of Epiphanius, patriarch of Constantinople.
This grand reception clearly showed the respect
given John as the leader of the universal Church.
Unfortunately, it also threatened Theodoric, who
feared that it might presage a revival of ancient sentiment
for imperial unity. Upon landing in Italy on his
return trip, therefore, John was arrested and incarcerated
at Ravenna. He died there soon thereafter, on May
18 or 19, 526. His relics now lie in St. Peter’s Basilica in
Rome.
In art, he is shown looking through the bars of a
prison or imprisoned with a deacon and a subdeacon.
He is venerated especially at Ravenna and in Tuscany.
Feast: May 18 (formerly May 27)
John XXIII (1881–1963) Much-beloved pope who promoted
social reforms and interfaith communication and
convened the liberalizing Second Vatican Council
Also known as: Il Papa Buono (The Good Pope)
The man who as pope would take the name John XXIII
was born on November 25, 1881, at Sotto il Monte,
near Bergamo, in the foothills of the Alps of northern
Italy. He was baptized Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli. His
parents were farmers. As a youth, after helping out in
the fields, he went to a seminary in Bergamo to study
for the priesthood. He won a scholarship to the Pontifical
Seminary Seminario Romano (called the Apollinare)
in Rome, where he completed his studies. He
was ordained in Rome in 1904 and said his first Mass
at St. Peter’s.
Now Father Roncalli, he returned to his home diocese
with the positions of professor of Church history
and apologetics at the Bergamo seminary and secretary
to Bishop Radini-Tedeschi. Radini-Tedeschi was a socially
involved bishop with liberal views who ran afoul
of Pope St. Pius X (r. 1903–14) and his campaign to
suppress modernism. Roncalli himself came under suspicion
for a time, but survived. During this period, he
wrote scholarly works, beginning a five-volume life of
St. Charles Borromeo (published between 1936 and
1952). He also worked for a diocesan organization of
Catholic women and a residence hall for students.
During World War I, Roncalli was drafted into the
Italian army, serving first as sergeant in the medical
corps and later as lieutenant in the chaplains’ corps.
After the war ended in 1918, he returned to Bergamo
and worked there until Pope Benedict XV (r. 1914–22)
called him to Rome to reorganize the Congregation for
the Propagation of the Faith.
In 1925, Pope Pius XI (r. 1922–39) made Roncalli
an archbishop and appointed him apostolic visitor to
Bulgaria. Ten years later, Pius XI made him apostolic
delegate to Greece and Turkey, and he moved to Istanbul,
where he remained throughout World War II. He
did what he could to help the Greeks suffering from
famine and made contact with members of the Eastern
Orthodox churches, long separated from Rome by
schism. During the war, Hitler’s ambassador to Turkey,
Franz von Papen, gave him money that had been sent
to bribe the Turks to side with Germany, which he then
used to support Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis.
At the conclusion of World War II in 1945, Pope
Pius XII (r. 1939–58) sent Roncalli as nuncio to
France, where he mediated both between conservative
and liberal clergy and between church and the state.
He dissuaded Charles de Gaulle from forcing the Holy
See to remove 25 French bishops who had cooperated
with the Nazi-collaborating Vichy regime during the
war. As an unofficial observer at UNESCO, he showed
that he understood the need for international understanding.
Thanks to his ministry and diplomatic skills,
he continued to advance in the Church, Pius XII creating
him a cardinal and patriarch of Venice in 1953.
When Pius XII died in 1958, Roncalli was put forward
as a compromise candidate for the papacy. He
was elected on October 28, 1958, and took the name
John XXIII. Although he was then 77, he soon showed
himself to be an energetic man with a vision. In a 1961
encyclical, he advocated social reforms and assistance
to underdeveloped countries. He broke the tradition of
the pope as “prisoner of the Vatican,” travelling outside
Rome, and advanced cooperation with other religions
and even atheistic communist states. Among his visitors
were many Protestant leaders, the head of the
Greek Orthodox Church, and a Shinto high priest.
During the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, he helped ease
tensions between President Kennedy and the Khrushchev
regime. At the same time, he did not neglect his
pastoral duties, and his humble personality had an
effect on Catholics and non-Catholics alike.
In 1959, John announced his intention of calling an
ecumenical council to consider the renewal of the
Church in the modern world, embracing reforms that
were being promoted by ecumenical and liturgical
movements within the Church. This council, known as
the Second Vatican Council or Vatican II, was convened
on October 11, 1962. The council introduced
many important reforms, such as the Mass said in the

vernacular rather than in Latin, but John was not to
live to see its work completed. He died of cancer on
June 3, 1963.
Devotion to John began almost immediately. His
tomb in St. Peter’s Basilica has become a favorite pilgrimage
site, and letters beseeching his intercession
arrive from all over the world. He is credited with several
miraculous cures, including one in Naples in
1966, in which a nun was healed of multiple stomach
ulcers and serious intestinal disorders, and another in
Sicily in 1967, in which another woman was healed of
tubercular peritonitis and a heart condition.
Some at the Second Vatican Council wanted to canonize
John by acclamation, as had been the practice in
the early centuries of the Church. However, others
believed that this would unfairly elevate him above his
more conservative predecessor, Pius XII. In the end,
Pope Paul VI (r. 1963–78) ruled that the process would
begin for both popes simultaneously. The cause of Pius
XII has since been dropped, but John was finally beatified
in 2000 along with another conservative pope, the
controversial Pius IX.
Beatified: September 3, 2000, by John Paul II
Feast: June 3
FURTHER READING
Bursher, Joseph. “Pope John XXIII.” In Popes through the
Ages. New Advent website. URL: http://www.newadvent.org/Popes/ppjo23.htm.
Downloaded: September 10,
2000.
O’Grady, Desmond. “Almost a Saint: Pope John XXIII.”
American Catholic website. URL: http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Nov1996/feature1.asp#F1
.
Downloaded: February 1, 2000.
Woodward, Kenneth L., “When Saints Go Marching In,”
Newsweek, September 4, 2000, pp. 50–51.
John the Baptist (first century) Prophet, martyr, Precursor
or Forerunner of the Lord
Also known as: “the man sent from God”
John’s story is told in the Gospels. He was born to
Zachary, a priest of the temple at Jerusalem, and his
wife Elizabeth, a kinswoman of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. Both Zachary and Elizabeth were advanced in
years—and Elizabeth was barren—when Gabriel the
Archangel announced that a son, John, was to be born
to them. John was born about six months before Jesus.
Nothing of John’s early years is known. He probably
was about 32 when he began his spiritual mission by
withdrawing into the desert near Jordan to fast and
pray. He wore only a garment made of camel’s hair tied
with a leather girdle, and he survived on locusts and
wild honey. He then started preaching, and his intensity
appealed to many, despite his disheveled appear-
John the Baptist 173
St. John the Baptist (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
ance. He baptized people in the River Jordan as they
confessed their sins.
Many thought him to be the Messiah who was
prophesied to come, but he said he was not: “After me
comes he who is mightier than I, the thong of whose
sandals I am not worthy to stoop down and untie. I
have baptized you with water; but he will baptize you
with the Holy Spirit” (Mark 1:7–8).
When Jesus came to be baptized, the heavens split,
the Holy Spirit descended upon Jesus like a dove, and a
voice said, “Thou art my beloved Son, with thee I am
well pleased” (Mark 1:11). Jesus later said there was no
greater prophet than John.
John ran afoul of King Herod Antipas (r. 4 B.C.–A.D.
39), the provincial governor under Emperor Tiberius
Caesar of Rome. John criticized Herod’s private affairs,
including his marriage to his niece, Herodias, who had
been married to Herod’s half-brother, Philip. Herod
imprisoned John in the fortress of Machaerus on the
Dead Sea.
John continued to preach from prison. Herodias
despised him and plotted against him. On Herod’s
birthday, Herodias’s 14-year-old daughter by Philip,
Salome, pleased the king with her dancing. He swore

174 John Baptist de la Salle
an oath promising her anything in return. Coached by
her mother, Salome answered that she wanted the head
of John the Baptist brought to her on a platter. Herod
had no choice but to comply, and John was beheaded.
Salome accepted it and presented it to her mother.
Jesus’ disciples removed the body to a tomb, and
Jesus and his followers went into the desert to mourn
John’s death.
According to Patristic tradition, John was freed
from original sin and sanctified in his mother’s womb.
In art, John is depicted as an ascetic hermit, sometimes
holding a lamb. He carries a staff that ends in a cross.
His baptism of Jesus has been painted often.
Feast: June 24 (birth) and August 29 (martyrdom)
Patronage: baptism; conversion; farriers; monastic
life; tailors
John Baptist de la Salle (1651–1719) Founder of the
Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools; educational
pioneer and reformer; the father of modern pedagogy,
or the profession of teaching
Also known as: Jean-Baptiste de la Salle
John Baptist de la Salle was born on April 30, 1651, in
Reims, France, to a distinguished family. He was the
oldest of 10 children. His parents, hoping he would
continue the family tradition of a career in law, sent
him to the College des Bons Enfants, where he earned
a master of arts degree in 1669. John, however, had
been attracted to the Church from age 11. On March
11, 1662, he received his tonsure, and he became a
canon of the See of Reims on January 7, 1667.
In 1670 he was sent to the seminary of Saint-
Sulpice. He also attended theology lectures at the Sorbonne.
As a student he was noted for his brilliance and
his piety. In 1671 his mother died, followed by his
father in 1672. John was required to leave and return
home to become the head of his family. He was
ordained subdeacon on June 2, 1672, and was
ordained deacon in Paris on March 21, 1676. He
attempted to resign his canonry in favor of work in the
parish, but was refused. He was ordained a priest in
1678, and received his doctorate in theology in 1680.
John’s pioneering work in education began with his
administering of the last will and testament of Nicholas
Roland, canon and theologian of Reims. The dying
Roland had asked him to take over administration of
the newly formed Congregation of the Sisters of the
Child Jesus. He assisted in the opening of free elementary
schools.
John soon found that the teachers were disheartened
and lacked the proper training. He took them in,
first helping them in class, subsidizing their living
expenses and even feeding them at his own table. In
1681, he created a community of teachers. It failed, but
a second effort was successful. He resigned his canonry
in July 1683 and gave his money to the poor the following
winter. From then on he dedicated himself to
training young men for teaching, and the Institute of
the Brothers of the Christian Schools was born. The
teachers were prohibited from becoming priests, and
priests were prohibited from entering the institute.
John revolutionized how subjects were taught. One
of the first reforms he instituted was the teaching of
reading in the vernacular instead of in the traditional
Latin, which enabled students to learn more quickly.
He also used the “Simultaneous Method” in which students
were grouped accorded to ability so that they
could all learn the same lessons at the same pace. The
Simultaneous Method was employed in all subjects in
all levels of education.
In 1684, he opened a seminary for lay teachers for
instruction in the new methods of teaching, and an
academy for youths who were preparing to enter the
brotherhood. In 1699, he founded the Christian Academy,
a Sunday school for adults in the parish of Saint-
Sulpice. Its curriculum included geometry, architecture
and drawing, in addition to religious studies.
John endured many trials, criticisms and opposition
in his work. He was deposed in 1702 for a time. From
1702 to 1713, he was engaged in a constant struggle
for the recognition and survival of his institute. He was
strongly motivated to improve the wretched condition
of the masses under Louis XIV by providing them education.
In addition to the elementary free schools, John
established technical schools and colleges. In 1705,
John established a boarding college at Saint-Yon, the
first of its kind and a model for subsequent colleges.
He later created a technical school.
John desired to see his institute gain papal approval,
but it did not happen during his lifetime. He
spent his last years in retirement at Saint-Yon. He died
on Good Friday, April 7, 1719. Nearly six years later,
on February 26, 1725, Pope Benedict XIII (r.
1724–30) gave his approval to the institute.
John is remembered as one of the greatest educational
pioneers both of his day and of all time.
Canonized: May 24, 1900, by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: May 15
Patronage: teachers
FURTHER READING
Blain, John B. The Life of St. John Baptist de la Salle. Winona,
Minn.: Lasallian Publications, 1998.
John Baptist Marie Vianney (1786–1869) Renowned
fiery preacher and patron saint of priests

Also known as: Jean-Baptiste-Marie Vianney; St. John
Vianney; the Curé d’Ars; the Servant of God
John Baptist Marie Vianney was born on May 8, 1786,
in Dardilly, France, to modest circumstances. His
father, Matthieu Vianney, was a shepherd. As a child he
did farm work and received only two years of schooling.
At age 20, in 1806, John enrolled in a new ecclesiastical
school in Ecully. Handicapped by his lack of
education, he was an average student. When France
went to war against Spain, Emperor Napoleon rescinded
the military exemption for ecclesiastical students,
and John was drafted into the army. A reluctant
soldier, he soon fell in with some deserters and
remained in hiding for 14 months. His arrest was prevented
when his younger brother took his place in the
army.
John returned to Ecully in 1810 and resumed his
studies. In 1812 he was sent to a seminary in Verrières.
He struggled and did poorly in his courses, but succeeded
in being ordained a priest on August 13, 1815.
He was sent to Ecully, where Abbé Balley encouraged
him to persevere, and interceded on his behalf when he
failed his exams.
Balley died in 1818, and John was named curé, or
parish priest, of Ars, a village about 20 miles north of
Lyons. This remote area was lax in religious observances,
and John devoted himself to instilling a stricter
discipline. He spent from 16 to 20 hours a day in the
confessional listening to his parishioners.
John composed strong, fiery sermons intended to
wake people up from their sinful slumber. He labored
away every week, writing out his sermons in his own
hand—a necessity, since he had a poor memory. He
spent hours in prayer to receive inspiration. He sometimes
used the sermons of others as models, and also
consulted sources of the day, including sermon manuals
and the anonymous Catachiste des Peuples. His
intensity appealed to people, and they flocked to hear
him. As his reputation grew, people came even from
foreign countries to hear him preach. As many as 300
people a day arrived in Ars.
Several years after arriving at Ars, John founded the
Providence, an orphanage for girls that became popular
for the catechism teachings that he gave there. The
Providence served as a model for similar institutions
that followed throughout France.
John also became interested in the story of St.
Philomena, and built a shrine to her, which became a
popular pilgrimage site.
John endured the criticisms of his peers that he was
too uneducated to serve as parish priest. For 30 years,
he suffered diabolical attacks that encouraged more
criticism.
John Baptist Marie Vianney 175
St. John Baptist Marie Vianney ((Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs Division)
For more than 40 years, John practiced severe mortification
of food and sleep that probably would have
proved fatal to many others. But he kept going with
constant energy and drive, reclaiming lapsed Catholics
and converting others.
John died at Ars on August 4, 1869. He refused all
honors due him.
Numerous miracles were recorded of John. He was
witnessed levitating while deep in prayer, his face
transfigured and surrounded by a brilliant aura. He
manifested money. Once, when in need of funds for the
foundation of a mission, he prayed to Our Lady of
Salette, to whom he was devoted, and subsequently
found the sum he needed. When food ran short at the
Providence orphanage, John took a relic of St. Francis
Regis and placed it in a small pile of corn and prayed
with the children. The attic was then found to be full
of corn heaped into a pyramid shape, and of a different
color than the other corn. John also healed people,
especially children.

176 John Berchmans
John had numerous mystical experiences, including
the mystical marriage, in which he received a gold ring
of extraordinary brilliance, which he wore on the
fourth finger of his left hand. Many who came to confession
reported that an unearthly radiance emanated
from his side of the booth, and that fiery rays shot from
his face. He also spoke in tongues and entered a rapturous
state in the confessional. He possessed mystical
knowledge; he could read the thoughts of others and
could discern the future.
During his beatification process, John’s body was
exhumed and found to be dried and darkened, but perfectly
intact. His heart was removed and placed in a reliquary
in a separate building called the Shrine of the
Curé’s Heart. His face was covered with a wax mask, and
his body was placed in a golden reliquary open to view.
Unfortunately, some of John’s sermons are lost. In
1845, Canon Perrodin, the superior of the seminary at
Brou, borrowed 20 copies of sermons to use in the
preparation of a spiritual book. He returned them to
the Abbé Raymond, John’s assistant. Raymond respected
John but considered him no great speaker, and
so he put the sermons in a drawer. After he was
appointed pastor at Jayat in 1853, he tossed the sermons
and other papers away.
Other sermons were given away or even sold by
John in order to raise money for the poor. Some he
sent to the Abbé Colomb, forbidding them to be published
without examination by Rome. The sermons
were forgotten. After John’s death, interest in his work,
believed to be saved only in letters, caused the sermons,
about 85 in number, to be sent to Rome. They
were soon published. All but three of the originals
remain in Rome in the motherhouse of the Canons of
the Immaculate Conception. Two were made into reliquaries
and presented to Pope Pius X in 1905 and to
Cardinal Coullie, archbishop of Lyons. The third was
sent to Ars, where it was framed in gilded bronze and
double crystal.
Proclaimed Venerable: October 3, 1874, by Pope
Pius IX
Beatified: January 8, 1905, by Pope Pius X
Canonized: 1925 by Pope Pius XI
Patronage: parish priests
FURTHER READING
Trochu, Abbe Francis. The Curé D’Ars: St. Jean-Marie-Baptiste
Vianney. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1977.
Vianney, John. Sermons of the Curé d’Ars. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books and Publishers, 1995.
John Berchmans (1599–1621) Jesuit confessor renowned
for his intense piety
John Berchmans was born on March 13, 1599, in
Diest, Brabant. His father was a shoemaker. Even as a
child he displayed great piety, attending Mass and Sunday
sermons and making pilgrimages to the sanctuary
of Montaigu near Diest. He also spent much time caring
for his sick mother.
John decided to become a Jesuit after reading the
life of St. Aloysius Gonzaga. Against the wishes of his
family, he entered the Society of Jesus in September
1616 and studied for two years at their college in
Malines. He was sent to Antwerp to study philosophy,
but after only a few weeks set out for Rome. He continued
his philosophy studies at the Roman College. Early
in his third year, he was selected to participate in a
philosophical disputation at the Dominicans’ Greek
College. Upon his return, he was suddenly taken with
a severe fever and died on August 13, 1621, clutching
his rosary, crucifix and rules. He had not yet been
ordained.
Numerous miracles were reported after his death.
His relics are in the Church of St. Ignatius.
John was a model of piety for many and strove for
perfection. He was noted for his fidelity, kindness,
courtesy and obedience. He told others that if he did
not become a saint when he was young he would never
become one.
In art he is shown standing with his hands clasped,
holding his rosary, crucifix and rules book.
Beatified: 1865 by Pope Pius IX
Canonized: 1888 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: August 13
Patronage: altar boys and girls; altar servers; youths
John Bosco (1815–1888) Founder of the Society of St.
Francis de Sales, known as the Salesians
Name meaning: “God is gracious”
John Bosco, mentor to St. Dominic Savio, was renowned
for his work with boys. He could well be
called the “Dreaming Saint,” for he used his frequent
and vivid, lucid dreams not only for his own guidance
but also as teaching tools to his young charges. At the
request of Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78), he kept detailed
records of his dreams.
John Melchior Bosco was born in Becchi, Piedmont,
to a peasant family. His father died when he was two,
and he was raised by his mother. He had his first lucid
dream when he was about nine years old, which left an
impression on him for the rest of his life. In it he
learned of his spiritual mission, which he undertook
with great seriousness and from which he never
wavered.

In the dream, John was in a field with a crowd of
children. They began cursing and misbehaving.
Shocked, John jumped into their midst and shouted at
them to stop. John wrote of his dream:
At that moment a Man appeared, nobly attired, with a
manly and imposing bearing. He was clad with a white
flowing mantle, and His face radiated such light that I
could not look directly at Him. He called me by name
and told me to place myself as leader of those boys,
adding these words:
“You will have to win these friends of yours not with
blows but with gentleness and kindness. So begin right
now to show them that sin is ugly and virtue beautiful.”
Confused and afraid, I replied that I was only a boy
and unable to talk to these youngsters about religion. At
that moment the fighting, shouting and cursing stopped,
and the crowd of boys gathered around the Man who
was talking. Almost unconsciously, I asked:
“But how can you order me to do something that
looks so impossible?”
“What seems so impossible you must achieve by
being obedient and by acquiring knowledge.”
The Man (perhaps Jesus), said he would give John a
teacher. Then appeared a Lady (perhaps Mary) of
majestic appearance, wearing a beautiful mantle, glowing
as if bedecked with stars. The children all vanished
and were replaced by wild animals. The Lady told John
this was his field where he must work, and to make
himself humble, steadfast and strong. The animals
then turned into gentle lambs. The Lady said to the
confused John, “In due time everything will be clear to
you.”
John shared his dream with his family the next
morning. His brothers laughed, and predicted that he
would become a shepherd of animals or the leader of a
gang of robbers. His mother said, “Who knows? Maybe
you will become a priest.” And his grandmother said,
“You mustn’t pay attention to dreams.”
John was inclined to agree with his grandmother,
but his lucid dreams only increased as he got older.
At age 16 he began studying for the priesthood and
was ordained on June 5, 1841, at age 26. He was so
poor that all of his clothes came from charity. He went
to Turin and enrolled at the Convitto Ecclesiastico, a
theological college that trained young priests for the
pastoral life. There he began a Sunday catechism for
poor boys, a sort of wandering oratory that changed
locations several times in Turin. This proved to be
quite successful, and soon John was taking in and
housing destitute boys. In 1853 he opened workshops
for tailors and shoemakers. He succeeded in constructing
a church, placing it under the patronage of his
favorite saint, Francis de Sales. By 1856 he had 150
resident boys, plus four workshops and some 500 chil-
St. John Bosco
John Bosco 177
dren in the oratories. This effort became the Society of
St. Francis de Sales in 1859, when John received permission
to establish a religious congregation from Pope
Pius IX.
In 1872 John established an order of women called
Daughters of Our Lady, Help of Christians, which also
grew rapidly.
John was adept at building churches, and raised
funds for a large basilica in Turin, dedicated to St. John
the Evangelist. In Rome he undertook a project to
build a church in honor of the Sacred Heart. But funds
were not forthcoming, so he went to France, where he
was hailed as a miracle worker. The church was built
and consecrated in 1887.
By then, John’s health was failing due to overwork.
He deteriorated and died on January 31, 1888. Forty
thousand people came to see his body prior to burial.
Today the Salesians extend around the world.
John’s unusual dream life attracted the interest of
Pope Piux IX who instructed him to write his dreams

178 John Cassian
down for the pope. More than 150 of John’s unusual
dreams were collected and recorded by his followers.
Many of the dreams were prophetic and concerned his
boys and the Salesian Order. Other dreams were pedagogical
and still others were parables. These dreams
were in harmony with his religious training and
beliefs, couched in symbols of his religious life, and
concerned the need to follow Catholic doctrine in
order to attain salvation.
John’s lucid dreams were quite long and involved
much specific detail. Unlike most ordinary dreams,
they were logical and followed a complete story line
from beginning to end. He was usually accompanied
by a guide figure, variously an angel, St. Francis de
Sales, St. Dominic Savio, or a man he referred to as
“the man with the cap.” He would carry on long conversations
with others in his dreams, which he was
able to remember. The dreams seemed more like real
experiences than dreams. His sensory impressions
were so strong that sometimes he would clap his hands
or touch himself in the dream to try to ascertain
whether he was dreaming or was awake. This is a technique
used today by lucid dreamers to verify that their
experience is real.
Sometimes physical phenomena followed him out
of the dream and into waking consciousness. He would
awaken exhausted. In one dramatic dream where he
was shown the horrors of hell, the putrid smell of evil
remained after he awakened. This bleed-through
between worlds is characteristic of shamanistic journeys,
and belongs to Jung’s “psychoid unconscious,” a
level in the unconscious that is not accessible to consciousness,
but has properties in common with the
physical world. Similarly, St. Jerome was beaten in a
dream and awakened bruised and sore.
John derived a great deal of guidance from his lucid
dreams. He was intensely devoted to his young
charges, and his prophetic dreams seem to have had
the purpose of learning about certain boys’ spiritual
misconduct so that he could try to set them on the
right course again. His dreams were uncannily accurate
in revealing the secrets of others, and also in matters
concerning impending deaths.
John would recount his dreams in lectures to his
young audience. He would sometimes say that “it was
a dream in which one can know what one does; can
hear what is said, can ask and answer questions.” He
cautioned his boys not to speak of his dreams in the
outside community, for others would consider them
fables. When peers and superiors questioned his
dreams, he would gravely reply, “It was a great deal
more than a dream.” If he did not wish to answer probing
questions, he said that he could remember so much
detail “by means of Otis Botis Pia Tutis.” This was a
meaningless phrase that served to deflect further questioning.
If not for the papal interest, John’s dreams may have
been lost to history. They remain interesting to researchers
who study dreams and prophecy.
In addition to his unusual dreams and powers of
prophecy and clairvoyance, John is credited with multiplying
food—some nuts—for his boys, levitating during
Mass, and influencing the weather. In 1864, John
was invited to preach at the feast of the Assumption in
Montemagno, which was suffering a severe drought.
He promised rain if the people would make good confessions,
attend three nights of prayer and receive
Communion, and if farmers would invoke the intercession
of Mary when in a state of grace. On the night of
the feast, a great storm broke and pelted the town with
rain.
John was protected by a mysterious dog who suddenly
appeared whenever he was in danger. The dog
looked like a large and ferocious Alsatian. John named
it Grigio because it was gray in color. In the 1850s,
religious factions were opposed to his teachings and
threatened him. Once someone even shot at him; the
bullet passed under his arm, making a hole in the cassock
but leaving his flesh untouched. John also was
accosted as he walked about, especially in lonely
places. Grigio would suddenly appear and attack anyone
who assaulted him or seemed threatening. The dog
would mysteriously disappear when he returned safely
to his oratory. Grigio refused offers of food; however,
others could see him and touch him. Grigio’s vigilance
lasted far longer than the typical lifespan of a dog.
Some people suggested he was an angel in animal
form.
John’s scapular was found in perfect condition
when the saint’s body was exhumed the first time. All
other fabric in the coffin had deteriorated.
Canonized: 1934 by Pope Pius XI
Feast: January 31
Patronage: apprentices; editors
FURTHER READING
Forty Dreams of St. John Bosco. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and
Publishers, 1996.
John Cassian (ca. 360–433) Abbot, Father of the
Church
There is general agreement among authorities that
John was born around the year 360—but not about
where. Among the possibilities suggested are Gaul,
Syria, Palestine and Scythia. Nothing is known about
his childhood and youth. He is first met in history in
380, when he and his friend Germanus became monks

at Bethlehem, in a monastery near the place of the
Nativity.
They stayed there until about 385, when John was
25, then left for Egypt. For the next several years (until
about 400) they traveled throughout Lower Egypt and
the Nile delta, staying with the most famous monks
and anchorites of the region and absorbing their Origenist
ideas. John kept a journal, recording everything
he saw with a vivid style and minute accuracy, a sense
of humor and an eye for the picturesque.
John and Germanus left Egypt to go to Constantinople,
where Bishop St. John Chrysostom ordained
Germanus a priest and John a deacon. In 405, after
John Chrysostom was deposed, they went to Rome,
carrying a letter to Pope St. Innocent I (r. 401–417)
from the clergy of Constantinople protesting this act.
In Rome, John was ordained a priest. Ten years later he
was in Marseilles (Germanus having disappeared in the
interim), where he founded (and served as abbot of)
the monastery of St. Victor for men and the convent of
St. Savior for women.
Asked by a neighboring bishop, Castor of Apt, to
compile a summary of all he had observed and learned
during his travels, John set about writing his 12-volume
work, Remedies for the Eight Deadly Sins, that
describes the rules and organization of communities in
Egypt and Palestine, and of the means used by the
monks in their spiritual combat with the eight chief
hindrances to a monk’s perfection. It appears that John
was not unduly impressed by their extreme asceticism,
because he did not recommend it for the monasteries
of the West. Instead, he held that perfection was to be
achieved through the charity and love that makes man
most like God.
John’s next work was Conferences on the Egyptian
Monks, in which he relates discussions he and Germanus
had with the monks. John emphasized continual
prayer as the purpose of the monk. He found great
results in a prayer technique, which became part of the
hesychast practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church, of
the continual repetition of a prayer, especially the
“Jesus Prayer”: “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have
mercy on me.” John found that the constant repetition
infused the prayer with intense energy. Many others,
however, found it only monotonous. The idea of repetition
of a prayer became established in Western practice
about 800 years later with the development of the
rosary. Unfortunately, the doctrine he expressed was
unorthodox, giving too much importance to free will
and not enough to divine grace. His position was in
line with the heresy of “semi-Pelagianism” and was
publicly criticized. The criticism did not keep the work
from being highly popular and influential, however,
and no less than St. Benedict prescribed it as one of the
books to be read aloud by his monks after their
evening meal.
About 430, John was commissioned by the future
pope St. Leo to write a seven-volume critique of the
Nestorian heresy, On the Incarnation of the Lord. This
hastily written book assisted in the condemnation of
Nestorius by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Ironically,
after his death, John’s Conferences was declared apocryphal,
by a decree attributed to Pope St. Gelasius I (r.
492–496), and in 529 he too was condemned by a
church council.
John died at Marseilles on July 23, about the year
433.
Feast: July 23
John Chrysostom 179
FURTHER READING
Funk, Mary Margaret. Thoughts Matter: The Practice of the
Spiritual Life. New York: Continuum International Publishing
Group, 1999.
John Cassian: Conferences. Tr. Colm huib heid. Mahwah, N.J.:
Paulist Press, 1985.
John Chrysostom (ca. 347–407) Doctor of the Church,
Greek Father of the Church, bishop of Constantinople, esteemed
theologian
Also known as: “the golden-mouthed” for his eloquence
as a speaker
John Chrysostom is considered to be the greatest of
the Greek fathers of the church and one of the greatest
of all preachers of the faith. More writings of his
are extant than of any other Doctor of the Church.
His exact surname is not known. Chrysostom, which
comes from the Greek chrysostomos (“golden-mouthed”)
was first used in 553 in the Constitution of Pope Vigilius
(r. 537–555). The chronology of John’s life is
incomplete. He lived during a time of great political
and religious unrest and intrigue.
John was born ca. 347 in Antioch. His father,
Secundus, was a high-ranking officer in the Syrian
army. Secundus died shortly after John’s birth, leaving
his young wife, Anthusa, to raise John and his older
sister. Anthusa sent John to the best schools in Antioch,
where he attained considerable Greek scholarship
and classical learning.
Around 367 John met Bishop Meletius, patriarch of
Antioch and a key figure in a schism between bishops.
Under Meletius’s influence, John was drawn into an
ascetic and religious life. After three years, he was baptized
and ordained lector. He entered one of the ascetic
societies near Antioch—under the spiritual direction
of Carterius—and devoted himself to prayer, study of
the Scriptures and manual labor. He began to write on
ascetic and monastic subjects.

180 John Chrysostom
After four years, John went off to live in a cave near
Antioch. He spent two years there, but his fasts and
exposure to harsh elements nearly ruined his health.
He returned to Antioch and his post as lector.
Around 381 Meletius made John deacon and left for
Constantinople. The new bishop, Flavian, ordained
John a priest in 386. During this period and until 397,
John enjoyed the golden age of his life. He was a prolific
writer and a popular, charismatic preacher. His
fame spread throughout the Byzantine Empire.
In 397 or 398 he was abruptly sent to Constantinople
to replace Bishop Nectarius, who had died. John
found himself thrust into a difficult role. Constant
intrigue and a lavish lifestyle prevailed at court, and
intrigue and a lax lifestyle abounded in secular quarters
as well. John was scandalized by the dress of
women. He set about asserting discipline and reform.
Initially, Empress Eudoxia was a supporter.
John achieved great popularity with the people but
was not able to establish order for long. Disputes and
intrigues earned Eudoxia’s alienation. She took many
of his sermons—such as the one against the vanity of
women—as personal affronts. Rivals and malcontents,
under the leadership of Theophilus, patriarch of
Alexandria, also made trouble for John. When
Theophilus was ordered in 402 to apologize for his
actions to a synod presided over by John, he managed
to twist his situation around. In 403 he assembled a
synod of 36 bishops and archbishops, called the Oak,
and made charges against John, including one that he
had called Eudoxia a “Jezebel.” John was ordered to
appear before the synod, comprised chiefly of his enemies,
and apologize.
John refused and was exiled by Emperor Arcadius.
This agitated the people, and after three days of public
uproar Eudoxia recalled him to Constantinople.
Theophilus and his supporters were obliged to flee the
city.
The victory for John did not last long. In 404 a silver
statue of Eudoxia went up before the great church
of the Holy Wisdom. The public celebrations were
loud and scandalous, and John spoke out against them.
Eudoxia, affronted, recalled Theophilus and had John
exiled for a second time.
Soon after John left the city, a huge fire broke out
and destroyed the cathedral, senate house and other
buildings. John’s followers were accused and prosecuted.
John was sent to Caucasus, a rugged area on the
eastern frontier of Armenia continually under invasion
by Isaurians. It took him 70 days to walk there. In 405
John was forced to flee in order to escape the barbarians.
Meanwhile, he continued to write to his supporters
and to maintain hope for his restoration to
Constantinople.
John appealed to Rome for help. Emperor Honorius
and Pope Innocent I (r. 401–417) attempted to intercede
on his behalf, but their legates were jailed and
then sent home. The pope broke off contact with the
patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch.
In the summer of 407 John was marched toward
Pithyus, located near the Caucasus Mountains at the
extreme edge of the empire. As his enemies hoped, he
did not survive the journey. His health already was
impaired by previous illnesses, and the soldiers who
accompanied him made the conditions as cruel as possible.
He was made to walk for long periods regardless
of scorching heat, freezing cold and downpours of rain.
On September 14, he asked to rest at Comana in Cappadocia
but was forced to continue his march. When
he was too weak to continue, the party returned to the
chapel of St. Basiliscus near Comana, where John died
within hours. His final words were “Doxa to theo panton
eneken” (“Glory be to God for all things”).
John was buried at Comana, and his remains were
translated to Constantinople on January 27, 438, with
great pomp and fanfare. He was entombed in the
Church of the Apostles, where Eudoxia, who had died
in 404, also was buried.
John Chrysostom’s most famous work is his book
On the Priesthood, written as a dialogue between himself
and St. Basil. His 21 sermons (he may not have
written the 19th) from his Antioch days are full of
moral, dogmatic and historical knowledge. He wrote
hundreds of homilies on the Scriptures. Some 238 of
his letters survive; most are from his days in exile. He
was quoted as an authority as early as 415 by Pelagius
and 421 by St. Jerome, one of the great Doctors of the
Church himself. John also was invoked at the Council
of Ephesus in 431. During the Reformation, debate
arose as to whether John had been a Catholic or a
Protestant, in part because he did not clearly advocate
confession and the primacy of the pope. However, his
writings do assert the authoritative teaching of the
Church as the one Bride of Christ.
John is called the Doctor of the Eucharist for his
witness to the Real Presence. In art he is portrayed as a
cardinal attended by a lion, or as a hermit.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 451 by Pope Leo I
Feast: September 13 (in the West); November 13
(in the East)
Patronage: orators; preachers
FURTHER READING
Kelly, J. N. D. Golden Month: The Story of John Chrysostom-
Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1998.
Mayer, Wendy, and Pauline Allen. John Chrysostom. London:
Routledge, 2000.

John Climacus (ca. 570–ca. 649) Abbot of Sinai, mystic,
Father of the Church
Also known as: John the Scholastic, the Sinaita
Little is known about the details of John Climacus’s
life, and the estimated dates of his life vary considerably.
The prevailing view is that he was born in or
shortly before 579 and died around 649. Some scholars
have placed his life at ca. 525–600 or 605. Others have
fixed his date of death as late as 670–680.
John was born in Syria sometime around 525, and
had at least one brother, named George. At the time,
Mount Sinai was famous for its hermits, and at age 16
John decided to withdraw from the world and study
under Abba Martyrius. He joined the Mount Sinai monastery
built on the site of the burning bush where
Moses had spoken to God. He received his tonsure at
age 19 or 20.
Soon thereafter Martyrius died, and John withdrew
to a hermitage called Tholas at the foot of the mountain.
There he lived in near isolation in a cave for about
20 years, studying the lives of the saints. He practiced
stringent mortifications and austerities, reducing sleep
to an absolute minimum. He received the grace of continual
prayer and the gift of tears, a sign of the presence
of God and the purification of body and soul. His
spiritual depth gained him recognition as a spiritual
father among his fellow monks.
At some point during his stay at Tholas, John visited
monks in Egypt, staying at a large monastery outside
of Alexandria. He was impressed by the unity he
witnessed there. He even spent time in “the Prison,” a
place about a mile from the monastery where erring
monks were sent to do penance.
In 600 he was persuaded to become abbot of the
central monastery at Sinai. On the day of his installation,
a large group of 600 pilgrims arrived and had to
be fed. During the meal, John saw what he described as
“a man with short hair, dressed like a Jew in a white
tunic, going round with an air of authority and giving
orders to the cooks, cellarers, stewards and other servants.”
As soon as the meal was finished, the man mysteriously
disappeared. John said the stranger was
Moses, and his monks took this as a sign that they had
found in him another Moses.
John attracted many disciples. Pope St. Gregory the
Great (r. 590–604) wrote to him asking for his recommendation
in prayers, and sent him money for the hospital
at Sinai that took care of pilgrims. Toward the end
of his years, he turned his responsibilities over to his
brother, George, and retired again to solitude. He died
at Mount Sinai, probably around 649.
John is best-known for his important work, The
Ladder of Divine Ascent, from which he later earned his
John of the Cross 181
surname. Klimakis is “ladder,” and John Climacus
means “John of the Ladder.” He composed the book
during his years as abbot.
The Ladder of Divine Ascent is composed in 30 chapters,
intended to correspond to the age of Jesus at the
time of his baptism by St. John the Baptist. The 30 chapters
are 30 steps, or logoi, of the spiritual life. Each step
describes a certain virtue or passion, and the path that
can lead from it. The book offers no formulae, but
instructs that “the life you have is hidden with Christ in
God.” The stages of the spiritual life set forth in the book
are the break with the world; the practice of asceticism;
the struggle against the passions; the practice of simplicity,
humility and discernment; and union with God.
The union with God is achieved through heyschia,
an Eastern Orthodox method of mystical prayer in
which one arrives at a deep interior peace and stillness
“at the very center of the mysteries” through the constant
remembrance of God. Hesychast prayer featured
breathing techniques and constant repetition of a
prayer, especially the “Jesus Prayer”: “Lord Jesus
Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me.”
Other ways to achieve union with God are apatheia
or detachment, in which the soul stretches out toward
God; and charity.
Ladder became one of the most important texts in
the Eastern Orthodox Church. Through his years of
intense study, John was able to synthesize the traditional
teachings of the Fathers of the Church, including
the Desert Fathers. It was written at a significant
time of transition. Arab invaders were destroying the
monasteries of Egypt and Palestine, and monasticism
withdrew to Mount Athos. John’s work served as a significant
bridge.
Because of his stature, John is celebrated in feasts
twice a year in the Eastern Church. His book continues
to inspire monastics and people interested in the spiritual
life. The Trappist monk Thomas Merton was
inspired by it and wrote a review of it.
The monastery where John lived, first dedicated to
Our Lord’s Holy Transfiguration, is now dedicated to
St. Catherine.
Feasts: March 30 and the fourth Sunday of the
Great Lent
FURTHER READING
Climacus, John. The Ladder of Divine Ascent. Mahwah, N.J.:
Paulist Press, 1982.
John of the Cross (1542–1591) Spanish mystic, Renaissance
poet, a founder of the Discalced Carmelite
Order, and Doctor of the Church
Name meaning: “God is gracious”
Also known as: San Juan de la Cruz

182 John of the Cross
At five-feet-two, John of the Cross was small in stature
but “great in the eyes of God,” as his friend St. Teresa
of Avila described him. He was especially devoted to
the Blessed Virgin Mary, and had numerous experiences
of her during his life.
John was born Juan de Yepes y Alvarez in
Fontiveros, Old Castile, Spain. He was the youngest of
three children. His father had been disinherited for
marrying beneath his station, and died when he was an
infant. John was raised by his mother, Catalina
Alvarez. He studied at the Jesuit school of Medina, but
was attracted to the Carmelites, a Roman Catholic
order founded in the 12th century by a group of hermits
on Mount Carmel, Israel, and devoted to the
ancient prophets Elijah and Elisha, who once lived on
the mount. At 21, John entered the Carmelite
monastery of Medina del Campo, where he was given
the name of John of St. Matthias. After profession, he
wanted to be a lay brother, but instead was sent to the
Carmelite monastery near the University of Salamanca.
He was ordained a priest at age 25.
He became unhappy with the laxity he saw in the
order, and worked toward reform with his confidante
and friend, Teresa of Avila, who was in her fifties when
they met and formed their friendship. Together they
founded Carmelite monasteries and advocated disciplinary
reforms. They enjoyed a deep and mystical correspondence.
Teresa had been given permission to establish a
stricter order of Carmelites, and to found two reformed
houses of men. She told John he should be the first to
carry this out. He founded the first Discalced Carmelite
monastery at Duruelo and adopted the name John of
the Cross. (The term “discalced” literally refers to
being barefoot; however, discalced monks in modern
times may wear sandals, rather than shoes, as symbolic
of their stricter observance.) The Discalced Carmelites
were strongly opposed by the original Carmelites.
From 1571 to 1572 John served as rector of a new
Carmelite college at Baeza. He then became confessor
at the convent of the Incarnation at Avila, serving until
1577. He was ordered by the provincial of Castile to
return to Medina but refused. He was kidnapped by
unreformed Carmelites, who imprisoned him in a
nearly lightless cell in Toledo when he refused to abandon
his reforms. He spent nine months in his cell,
which had a tiny, high window. John stood on a stool
in order to be able to read his offices. He was severely
beaten. The beatings at first took place every evening,
then three times a week, then on Fridays only. John
would be led to the refectory and forced to sit on the
floor to eat his meager meal of bread and water. Then
he would be made to bare his shoulders. The monks
would file by and scourge him with whips. The scars
remained for years. The story goes that on two occasions
his jailers saw brilliant light shining from his cell,
which vanished when they entered. It was believed
that Jesus and Mary visited him.
According to lore, Mary helped him to escape. She
appeared in a radiant vision on the night of her feast
and told him his trials would soon be at an end. Several
days later, she showed him a window by which he
would make his escape. John unscrewed the lock of his
door (said to be loosened by Mary) and quietly walked
past the guard. He took only the mystical poetry he
had written. He tore a blanket into strips and made a
rope, which he used to climb down out of the window
shown to him by Mary. John hid in a convent infirmary,
entertaining the nuns by reading his poetry.
One of John’s fervent prayers was to be granted
three things: not to die as a superior; to die where he
was not known; and to die after having suffered a great
deal. His prayer was realized.
In 1579 John became head of the college at Baeza.
In 1581, he became prior of Los Martires, near
Granada. In 1582, Teresa died and dissension broke
out among the Discalced Carmelites. John, who
favored a moderate policy, became vicar provincial of
Andalusia. He did not get along with the vicar general,
who removed him from authority and had him disgraced.
He was sent to the remote friary of La Peñuela,
where he spent his time in prayer and meditation.
Meanwhile, efforts were under way by his opponents
to have him expelled from the order. John became ill
and was sent to Ubeda in 1591. He suffered dreadful
treatment for three months, and died on December 14.
John wrote his famous mystical work The Spiritual
Canticle, while in prison. Shortly after his escape, he
wrote The Ascent of Mount Carmel, The Living Flame of
Love and his most famous work, The Dark Night of the
Soul, a continuation of The Ascent of Mount Carmel.
These works describe the soul’s mystical journey
toward God, and detail three stages of mystical union:
purgation, illumination and union. Detachment and
suffering are presented as requirements for the purification
and illumination of the soul. John describes the
“dark night of the soul” as “an inflowing of God into
the soul, which purges it from its ignorances and
imperfections, habitual, natural and spiritual, and
which is called by contemplatives “infused contemplation,
or mystical theology.” The phrase “dark night of
the soul” has become a reference to the state of intense
personal spiritual struggle, including the experience of
utter hopelessness and isolation.
Trained by Jesuits and thoroughly familiar with the
teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas, John brought Scholastic
theology and philosophy to his poetic genius. He is
critically acclaimed as one of the greatest poets of the

Spanish Renaissance, as well as one of the greatest
Western authorities on mysticism.
Numerous miracles and marvels are recorded concerning
John, whom Teresa of Avila called “one of the
purest souls in the Church of God.” When John was on
his deathbed, he predicted he would be with God by
midnight—and he died at that hour, holding his crucifix
and saying, “Into Thy hands, Lord, I commend my
spirit.” The room was filled with a sweet perfume, and
a sparkling sphere of light “like that of the sun, moon
and stars together” shone above the bed. A triple
crown of light seemed to encircle the dead saint’s head.
John once reportedly was found levitating in the
chapel with his head touching the ceiling, having been
lifted up during prayer.
Two stories are told of his miraculous rescues from
drowning. Both incidents occurred in boyhood. When
he was five, he fell into a lagoon while playing and
sank to the bottom. There he saw a beautiful lady who
stretched out her hand, but he was afraid to grasp it
because his own hand was muddy. He floated to the
surface and was rescued by a peasant with a pole. In
the second incident, he fell into a well but did not sink.
He remained calm and held onto a rope, and was
pulled to safety. Throughout his life, he credited both
rescues to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Mary rescued him on another occasion in his
monk’s cell. Construction work caused a wall of the
monastery to fall on his cell. John was assumed to be
crushed to death, but he was found standing in a corner
unharmed. He said Mary had covered him with her
white mantle to protect him from the falling debris.
After his death, he was entombed beneath the floor
of the church at Ubeda. Several nights later, a bright
light was seen radiating from the spot. Nine months
later, his tomb was opened upon a legal order obtained
by Dona Ana de Pensacola, who wished to remove his
bones to a house she had established for John in
Segovia. The saint’s body was found incorrupt and
smelling of a sweet fragrance. The body was covered
with lime and reburied. The tomb was opened again
nine months later, but the body was still incorrupt.
Three fingers of the right hand were cut off, and blood
issued forth as though from a living person. The body
was taken to Segovia, and en route smelled so strongly
of perfume that it drew the attention of passersby. In
Segovia, thousands flocked to see it for eight days,
before its enshrinement in a reliquary of marble and
bronze. The incorrupt body was examined in 1859,
1909, 1926 and 1955.
Beatified: 1675 by Pope Clement X
Canonized: 1726 by Pope Benedict XIII
Named Doctor of the Church: 1926 by Pope Pius XI
St. John of the Cross levitating
Feast: December 14
Patronage: mystics
John Damascene 183
FURTHER READING
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
The Collected Works of St. John of the Cross. Tr. Kieran
Kavanaugh and Otilio Rodriguez. Washington, D.C.: ICS
Publications, 1991.
Frost, Bede. Saint John of the Cross: Doctor of Divine Love, an
Introduction to His Philosophy, Theology and Spirituality.
New York: Vantage, 1980.
John of the Cross. Dark Night of the Soul, 3rd rev. ed. Tr. E.
Allison Peers from the critical ed. of P. Silverio de Santa
Teresa, C.D. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Image Books,
1959.
John Damascene (ca. 676–754 to 787) Patriarch of
Jerusalem, last Eastern Father of the Church, Doctor of
the Church, poet
Also known as: John of Damascus; the Doctor of Christian
Art

184 John the Divine
Only one account of the life of John Damascene exists.
It was written by John of Jerusalem about 200 years
after the death of the saint, and contains both fact and
legend.
John was born about 676 in Damascus to a wealthy
family. His father, a Christian, enjoyed high rank in
judicial offices serving the Muslim caliph. When John
was 22, his father searched for a suitable tutor for him.
He happened upon a learned monk named Cosmas,
who had been captured by Saracen pirates and was
being sold as a slave. The father either bought Cosmas
or begged his life, and gave him his freedom and set
him up as tutor. When the schooling was finished,
Cosmas retired to the monastery of St. Sabas and then
became the bishop of Majuma.
When John’s father died, he reluctantly took his
position. He resigned in 719 and became a monk at the
monastery of St. Sabas near Jerusalem.
John became involved in the Iconoclast heresy over
the veneration of religious images, a well-established
practice in the Eastern Church. In 726 Emperor Leo III
prohibited the veneration of religious images. Around
730, John wrote his famous defense of the use of icons,
On Holy Images. The fact that he lived in Muslim territory
gave him a freedom of expression that he might
not have had otherwise. Legend has it that the irate
emperor forged a letter, purportedly from John to him,
offering to betray the city of Damascus, and had it sent
to the caliph. The caliph ordered John’s hand to be cut
off in punishment. John prayed to the Blessed Virgin
Mary that his hand might be restored. He fell asleep by
her image, and when he awoke his hand had been
miraculously restored. The caliph sought to reinstate
him, but John went to the monastery of St. Sabas
instead. The story, however, is indeed legend, for John
was already at the monastery, and not in the service of
the caliph, at the time he wrote the treatise.
At the monastery, John spent his time writing and
in prayer. He wrote more than 150 works on philosophy,
religious education, theology and hagiographies.
His friends called him Chrysoorhoas (“golden stream”)
for his oratorical gifts. His legacy is noted not so much
for original theology as for his ability to compile the
works of others in encyclopedic fashion.
His most famous work is The Fountain of Wisdom,
which is divided into three parts: “Philosophical Chapters,”
“Concerning Heresy” and “An Exact Exposition
of the Orthodox Faith.” The book was the first summary
of connected theological opinions and basic
truths of the faith, drawing on such eminent theologians
as SS. Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa,
Basil the Great, Cyril of Alexandria, Leo the Great,
Athanasius, John Chrysostom and Epiphanius. It
became a standard work for the Scholastics, among
them the great St. Thomas Aquinas.
John also wrote numerous sermons and treatises,
including a defense of the Blessed Virgin Mary’s title as
Theotokos (“God-bearer”), and three great hymns or
canons on Easter, the Ascension and St. Thomas’s Sunday.
John’s defense of icons earned him the undying
hatred of the Iconoclasts, who anathematized him
posthumously at a pseudo-synod of Constantinople in
754. This was rectified in 787 by the Seventh General
Council of Nicaea. The Iconoclastic controversy finally
ended in 843 when Empress Theodora restored the use
of icons.
An Arabic romance, Barlaam and Josaphat, popular
in the Middle Ages, is sometimes attributed to John,
but it is doubtful that he authored it.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1890 by Pope Leo
XIII
Feast: December 4
FURTHER READING
“Saint John of Damascus.” URL: http://www.balamand.
edu.lb/theology/WritingsSJD.htm. Downloaded: October
1, 2000.
John the Divine (ca. 6–ca. 100) Youngest of Jesus’
Twelve Disciples; author of the fourth gospel and the book
of Revelation of the New Testament
Name meaning: God is gracious
Also known as: Apostle of Charity; Beloved Apostle;
Beloved Disciple; Fourth Apostle; John Boanerges;
John the Evangelist
John was born in Galilee about the year 6 to Zebedee
and Salome. He was the younger brother of St. James
the Greater. The brothers earned their livelihood as
fishermen on Lake Genesareth and, like many of those
who became disciples of Jesus, were first followers of
St. John the Baptist. Jesus gave them the surname
“Boanerges,” meaning “Sons of Thunder,” apparently
in recognition of their passionate natures.
John held a prominent position among the disciples,
and was present for several important events.
Only John and Peter were sent into the city to prepare
for the Last Supper, at which John was seated next to
Jesus. After Jesus’ arrest, John and Peter followed
Christ into the palace of the high priest, and of the
apostles only John remained near Christ on the cross,
and took Mary into his care. After the Resurrection,
John and Peter were the first apostles to go to his
tomb, and John was the first to accept that Christ had
risen. Later, when Jesus appeared at Lake Genesareth,

John was the first to recognize him standing on the
shore. There Jesus apparently prophesied that John
would outlive the other apostles, and it was believed
by many that he was immune to death.
After Christ’s Ascension and the Descent of the
Holy Spirit, John took a leading role in the founding of
the Christian Church. He often acted together with
Peter, whom he accompanied on an evangelizing expedition
to Samaria, and with whom he was briefly
imprisoned by Herod Agrippa I sometime between 42
and 44. After their miraculous escape, he and Peter
were forced to flee Jerusalem. By tradition, John began
his apostolic work among the Jews in the provinces of
Parthia. He may also have gone to Ephaseus (Ephesus)
in what is now Turkey, where he founded the Christian
community. In any event, he was back in Jerusalem
about the year 51 to join the other disciples for the first
Apostolic Council. He also attended the Council of 62,
after which he definitely went to Ephesus, where he
established churches and governed the congregation.
In the year 95, during the second general persecution
under Emperor Domitian (r. 81–96), John was
arrested and carried to Rome as a prisoner. He was
thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil before the Porta
Latina, but emerged unharmed. His persecutors attributed
this miracle to sorcery and exiled him to the
island of Patmos.
According to legend, John also escaped death when
he drank from a chalice of wine poisoned by the high
priest of Diana. At his blessing, the poison is said to
have risen from the chalice in the form of a serpent.
This event is taken by some as fulfillment of Jesus’
prophecy as given in Mark 16 that his apostles who
drank poisoned drinks would not be harmed by them.
On Patmos, John reputedly experienced the vision
that inspired his Book of Revelation, written at that
time. After Domitian’s death in 96, he was released and
returned to Ephesus, where he is believed to have written
his gospel. The book of Revelation and the Gospel
of John are so different in tone that some scholars have
questioned whether John could have authored both,
but the present consensus is that he did.
John died at Ephesus around 100, when he was well
into his 90s. He is the only apostle who did not die a
martyr. A church, later converted into a mosque, was
built over his tomb.
John originally shared his December 27 feast day
with St. James the Greater, though at an early date it
became his alone. He was venerated also at the Feast of
St. John Before the Latin Gate, supposed to honor his
experience in the cauldron, and marking the dedication
of the church near the Porta Latina, first mentioned
in the Sacramentary of Pope Adrian I (r.
772–785).
St. John the Divine (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
John Eudes 185
John’s symbols are an eagle; a book; a chalice, sometimes
in association with a serpent. Generally he is
portrayed as a young and handsome man in various
scenes from his life. When he is portrayed in later life,
he is usually reading, writing or holding his epistle.
Feast: December 27 (September 26 in Eastern
Church; May 8 in Greek Orthodox)
Patronage: art dealers; bookbinders; booksellers;
against burns; compositors; engravers; lithographers;
painters; against poison; printers; publishers;
papermakers; sculptors; tanners; theologians;
writers; Asiatic Turkey; Taos, New Mexico
John Eudes (1601–1670) Initiator (with St. Margaret
Mary Alacoque) of the devotion to the Sacred Heart
John Eudes was born at Ri in Normandy, France, on
November 14, 1601, to a farming family. At age 14 he
attended the Jesuit college at Caen. Although his parents
wanted him to marry, he joined the Congregation
of the Oratory of France in 1623. He studied at Paris
and at Aubervilliers and was ordained in 1625.
John helped victims of the plagues that struck Normandy
in 1625 and 1631, and spent the next decade
giving missions. He earned a reputation as an outstanding
preacher and confessor, and was esteemed for

186 John of God
his opposition to the heresy of Jansenism. He became
interested in helping fallen women. In 1641, with
Madeleine Lamy, he founded a refuge for them in Caen
under the direction of the Visitandines.
He resigned from the Oratorians in 1643 and
founded the Congregation of Jesus and Mary (the Eudists)
at Caen, composed of secular priests not bound by
vows but dedicated to upgrading the clergy by establishing
effective seminaries and to preaching missions.
His foundation was opposed by the Oratorians and the
Jansenists, and he was unable to obtain papal approval
for it. But in 1650 the bishop of Coutances invited him
to establish a seminary in that diocese. The same year
the sisters at his refuge in Caen left the Visitandines
and were recognized by the bishop of Bayeux as a new
congregation, the Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of the
Refuge.
John founded seminaries at Lisieux in 1653 and
Rouen in 1659 and was unsuccessful in another
attempt to secure papal approval of his congregation.
In 1666 the Refuge sisters received Pope Alexander III’s
approval as an institute to reclaim and care for penitent
wayward women. John continued giving missions and
established new seminaries at Evreux in 1666 and
Rennes in 1670.
He shared with Margaret Mary Alacoque the honor
of initiating devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus (he
composed the Mass for the Sacred Heart in 1668) and
the Holy Heart of Mary, popularizing the devotions
with his “The Devotion to the Adorable Heart of Jesus”
(1670) and “The Admirable Heart of the Most Holy
Mother of God,” which he finished a month before his
death at Caen on August 19, 1670.
Canonized: 1925 by Pius XI
Feast: August 19
John of God (1495–1550) Founder of the Brothers
Hospitallers (Brothers of St. John of God)
John of God was born March 8, 1495, in Montemor o
Novo, Portugal, to devout Christian parents. Tradition
holds that at the time of his birth, the church bells in
town rang of their own accord, heralding the arrival of
a saint.
His early life was checkered, however. He ran away
from home at age eight or nine, following a Spanish
priest to Spain, and never saw his parents again. He
and the priest subsisted by begging. John fell ill, and
was taken in by the manager of a large estate. After he
regained his health, John worked for the man as a
shepherd tending cattle and sheep. He was obedient,
pious and good-natured. When he grew up, his boss
tried to press him into marrying his daughter. At age
27 John escaped by joining the Spanish army, and then
a regiment that went to Austria to fight the Turks. As a
soldier, John fell into immoral and dissolute ways. One
day he was thrown from a stolen horse near the French
lines, and feared capture. The experience shook him
up, and he resolved to mend his ways.
He returned to his birthplace and sought to atone
for his sins. He went to Africa to aid Moorish captives,
and fully expected to be martyred. A confessor told
him that martyrdom was not God’s plan for him. John
went to Gibraltar, selling religious books and pictures
at barely above cost.
John had a vision of the infant Jesus, who gave him
his name of John of God and told him to go to
Granada. There he continued his activities of selling
religious books and pictures, making scant profit. He
became impressed with the preaching of Blessed John
of Avila, but also was plunged into deep remorse over
his sinful past. John went about the streets beating his
breast and crying out to God for mercy. His behavior
was so extreme that he was placed in an insane asylum
for a time, and was subjected to the standard
treatment of daily whippings and being tied down to a
bed. John of Avila counseled him to stop the lamentations
and find a more productive way to atone for his
past.
John made a pilgrimage to the shrine of Our Lady
of Guadeloupe, where he had a vision of what he was
to do with himself. Returning to Granada, he rented a
house and began to nurse the sick and care for the
poor. If the sick did not come to him, he searched
them out, even carrying them to the house. He was
aided in this work not only by charitable people but
also by angels, including the archangel Raphael.
It was John’s custom to impulsively help people,
including giving his cloak to any beggar he met. Don
Sebastian Ramirez, bishop of Tuy, wisely ensured that
the saint would retain his own clothing by designing
for him a habit. This habit was adopted by those who
became followers of John.
John did not intend to found an order, but one grew
up around his work. It became known as the Brothers
Hospitallers, and also the Brothers of St. John of God.
After John’s death, the order was given approval by
Pope Pius V (r. 1566–72) in 1572.
John’s death resulted from his impulsiveness to help
others. He was ill in bed when he heard that a flood
was bringing driftwood near town. Impulsively, he got
up and gathered friends and went to the swollen river
to gather pieces for firewood. One of the companions
fell in, and John immediately dove into the water in an
effort to save him. He was unable to do so, and caught
fatal pneumonia. He died on Saturday March 8, 1550,
in Granada in an unusual manner, kneeling before the

St. John of God (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
altar in the sickroom in his rented house. His body
remained in that position for some time and exuded a
sweet perfume that filled the entire house. When the
archbishop called to pay his respects, church bells
tolled once again of their own accord. For a short time,
the kneeling body was placed on a platform in front of
the house so that others could pay their respects as
well.
John was buried in the vault in the church of Minims,
Our Lady of Victory, in a ceremony befitting a
prince. A large procession followed him to his resting
place—the homeless and poor whom he had helped,
and the rich who had aided him. His body was left
exposed for veneration for nine days, and it exuded the
perfume throughout the entire time.
The room where John had died was converted into
a chapel. Every anniversary of his death for at least 50
years, the same perfume filled the house from Friday
through Saturday evening.
In 1570 John was exhumed and his body was found
to be incorrupt, save for the tip of his nose. At a later
date, only bones remained. These were distributed as
relics to churches around the world, and especially to
churches and hospitals of the order. The skull and
major bones were sent to the Basilica of St. John of
God in Granada, where they are housed in a wooden
chest inside a silver urn, atop a golden altar.
It is interesting that John died in the same year that
St. Camillus de Lellis was born in Italy. Camillus also
was devoted to caring for the sick, and founded an
order, the Ministers of the Sick, which became known
as the Camillians.
Beatified: September 21, 1638, by Pope Urban VIII
Canonized: October 16, 1690, by Pope Alexander
VIII
Feast: March 8
Patronage: alcoholics; booksellers; the dying; firefighters;
heart patients; hospitals; nurses; printers;
the sick
John Massias (1585–1645)
Name meaning: “God is gracious”
Also known as: Juan Masías, Juan Macías
John Massias 187
John Massias was born in Rivera de Fresno, Badajoz,
Spain, on March 2, 1585. His parents died when he
was young, leaving him in the care of an uncle. He got
to know a merchant from Seville who planned to go to
America and enter a religious order, and with him left
for the New World in 1619. They landed at Cartagena,
in what is now Colombia, and John traveled to Quito,
Ecuador, and then by mule and on foot to Lima, Peru,
the country in which he was to spend the remainder of
his life. He arrived in Lima in February 1620, just
before his 35th birthday.
For two years John worked on a cattle ranch on the
outskirts of Lima, then moved into the city. After distributing
his earnings to the needy, he was admitted as a
brother to the Dominican monastery of Santa María
Magdalena (La Recolecta), taking the habit on January
23, 1622.
John was a man of elevated sensitivity, one of the
purest mystics of his century. His life in the monastery
was marked by profound prayer, penitence and charity.
He acted as doorman, a position that placed him at the
center of meetings with the poor, the sick and the disadvantaged
of Lima. He also walked about the city in
search of alms to share with the poor, never missing
the opportunity to give advice and to speak about the
Christian life and the love of God. His council was
wise, and even the Spanish viceroy and Lima’s nobility
sought him out on occasion.

188 John Nepomucene
John Massias died on September 16, 1645, at 60
years of age. Many miracles have since been attributed
to his intervention.
Beatified: October 22, 1837, by Pope Gregory XVI
Canonized: September 28, 1975, by Pope Paul VI
Feast: September 18
FURTHER READING
San Juan Macías. Santos Peruanos. URL: http://ekeko.rcp.net.
pe/IAL/cep/santpapa/sanjuan.htm. Downloaded: November
20, 1999.
San Juan Macías. Santos y Biatos de America Latina: Peru.
Available online: URL: http://www.aciprensa.com/santperu.htm.
Downloaded: November 20, 1999.
John Nepomucene (ca. 1330–1383) Martyr and
patron saint of Bohemia
John was born at Nepomuc, Bohemia, near Prague in
what is now the Czech Republic (then a part of the
Holy Roman Empire). His family name was Woelflein
or Welflin, but he used and has come to be known by
the name of his native town instead.
Soon after his birth John became very ill and his
parents were afraid they would lose him, but they
prayed to the Virgin Mary for his recovery, and she
intervened on his behalf. His parents were so grateful
for the miracle that they decided to consecrate John to
the service of God. When he was still a child, they sent
him to the local monastery, where he spent his mornings
listening to Mass after Mass. He proved to be a
fine student and after completing his early studies in
Nepomuc was sent to Staaze to learn Latin. Later he
attended the University of Prague (founded in 1356),
where he studied philosophy, divinity and canon law,
eventually taking a doctorate in the latter subjects.
When he completed his studies, John, true to his parents’
wishes, spent a month in fasting, prayer and
penance, preparing himself to enter the priesthood.
Upon his ordination, he became vicar general of
Archbishop John of Genzenstein at Prague and was
sent to preach in the parish of Our Lady of Tein, where
he was very popular. When Charles IV of the Holy
Roman Empire died in 1377, the throne passed to his
son, Wenceslas IV, then only 16. Wenceslas, like
Charles, lived in Prague, and hearing about John,
invited him to preach the Masses of Lent to his court.
These were so successful that Wenceslas offered him
the first vacant bishopric, that of Leitomeritz, but John
declined. He declined also the provostship of Wischeradt,
finally accepting the position of almoner of the
court. As almoner, he could better minister to the
needy, the job he loved, and many sought him out for
advice and the settlement of disputes.
John became the confessor of Queen Sophie, the
second wife of Wenceslas, who had turned out to be a
mercurial and intemperate drunkard, given to fits of
jealousy. When he noticed Sophie becoming more
pious under John’s influence, he demanded that John
reveal Sophie’s confessions, and when he refused, had
him thrown in a dungeon. It is said that the pretense
for the imprisonment was John’s appeal on behalf of
the king’s cook, whom Wenceslas had ordered to be
put on a spit and roasted when he prepared a meal not
to his liking. Wenceslas sent the message that John
would stay in the dungeon until he revealed Sophie’s
confessions, but after a few days, he relented, and John
was let go. When he still refused to reveal the confessions,
however, he was returned to the dungeon and
tortured on the rack, over a slow fire. He was released
finally only when Sophie intervened with Wenceslas.
John resumed his preaching with new fervor, not at
all defeated but full of joy and courage. In one of his
sermons, he is said to have predicted not only his own
imminent death but also the political crisis that
engulfed Bohemia soon thereafter.
In 1383 (or perhaps 1393) Wenceslas sentenced
John to death, but accounts of the reason vary. One has
it that Wenceslas demanded once again that John
reveal Sophie’s confessions, and when he again refused,
had him killed. Another account states that John
became involved in a dispute between Wenceslas and
the archbishop when the king sought to convert a
Benedictine abbey into a cathedral for a new diocese
(to be given to a friend) when the abbot died. The
archbishop thwarted him by approving the election of
a new abbot immediately upon the death of the old
abbot. In any event, on the night of May 16, John was
cruelly tortured, then murdered and his body flung
head-first into the Moldau River at Prague.
According to legend, a heavenly light appeared over
John’s body as it floated in the river, attracting many to
the banks, and drawing the attention even of Sophie in
the castle. She ran to Wenceslas to ask what he knew
about the lights on the river, whereupon he fled to his
estate in Zebrac, a few miles from Prague. In the morning,
John’s body was rescued from the river and carried
to the nearby church of the Holy Cross of the Penitents.
People rushed to kiss his hands and feet and to
tear off pieces of his clothes or other possessions.
Wenceslas had the relics secretly removed, but their
hiding place was discovered, and they were translated
to the Prague cathedral, where they were interred in a
stone tomb.
Fearing an uprising in Prague, Wenceslas stayed in
Zebrac until he felt it was safe to return. However, his
empire soon came under immense strain, and in 1400
the princes of its various states banded together at

Mentz to depose him from the throne. He was imprisoned
twice, but managed to escape both times, eventually
dying of an apoplexy, without repentance. Sophie,
meanwhile, had died a holy death in 1387.
Miraculous healings at John’s intercession began to
be received during the translation and interment of his
relics and at his tomb. Indeed, the tomb itself was
miraculously protected from destruction by Protestant
Hussites, and in 1618 by Calvinists who had invaded
Prague. Several officers and workmen attempting to
demolish the tomb were deterred by various adverse
events, some of them dropping dead on the spot. John
also is credited with helping to save Prague (and
Bavaria) in 1620, his apparition appearing to imperial
troops on the eve of battle, in response to their pleas
for his assistance. In 1680, his intercessions helped to
preserve Nepomuc from the bubonic plague. When the
count of Althan, later archbishop of Bari, fell from a
balcony in Rome, he called aloud to John, who saved
his life, and Cardinal Michael Frederic Althan, viceroy
of Naples, was cured of a paralytic disorder, which had
caused him to lose the use of one arm, the moment he
began to address his prayer to John on his feast day in
the Minims church.
On April 14, 1719, John’s tomb was opened. The
flesh was gone from his body but his bones were perfectly
joined together, showing the marks of his fall
into the river behind his head and on his shoulders.
More astonishingly, his tongue was found to be fresh
and incorrupt, as if he had only just died.
In art, John is portrayed as an Augustinian canon
with a bridge nearby. Sometimes he is shown holding a
finger to his lips, with seven stars around his head; in
Bohemia and Austria, his lips may be padlocked.
Beatified: by Pope Innocent XIII (r. 1721–24)
Canonized: 1729, by Pope Benedict XIII
Feast: May 16
Patronage: bridges; confessors; against detraction
John Nepomucene Neumann (1811–1860) First
American bishop to be canonized
Also known as: John Henry Cardinal Neumann
John Nepomucene Neumann was born in Prachititz,
Bohemia (in what is now the Czech Republic), on
March 28, 1811, the third of six children of a German
father and Czech mother. He was named after the
14th-century Bohemian martyr St. John Nepomucene.
John began his studies at the diocesan seminary in
Budweis in 1831, but two years latter transferred to the
Charles Ferdinand University in Prague. When he had
completed his studies but found his ordination postponed
due to an overabundance of clergy in his dio-
John Nepomucene Neumann 189
cese, he decided to go to America as a missionary. He
arrived in New York City in June 1836, was ordained by
Bishop James Dubois on June 28, then sent to work
among German-speaking Catholics clearing forests in
upstate New York. After four years of this work, he
entered the novitiate of the newly established branch of
the Redemptorists at Saint Philomena’s in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. He made his vows in Baltimore, Maryland,
in 1841, becoming the first Redemptorist to do so
in the United States.
John continued his missionary activities as a
preacher in Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia,
but he was destined for greater things. In 1844, he became
rector of Saint Philomena’s; in 1847, he was named
vice regent and superior of the American Redemptorists;
and then in 1852, Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78) appointed
him the fourth bishop of Philadelphia.
As bishop, John reorganized his diocese, establishing
new parishes and inaugurating a widespread pro-
St. John Nepomucene Neumann

190 Josemaria Escriva
gram of new construction, including 100 new churches
and 80 new parochial schools. He also began work on a
cathedral. To staff the schools and an orphanage, he
founded the School Sisters of Notre Dame, who observe
the rule of the “active” Franciscan Third Order, and
attracted a number of other teaching orders. John also
introduced the devotion of 40 hours, wrote extensively
and produced two catechisms that were endorsed by
American bishops at their first plenary council in 1852
and were very popular in their day.
John died of a stroke while walking on Vine Street
in Philadelphia on January 5, 1860. A little more than
a century later, he became America’s first male saint.
Beatified: 1963 by Pope Paul VI
Canonized: June 19, 1977, by Pope Paul VI
Feast: January 5 (United States); May 16 (elsewhere)
FURTHER READING
The Autobiography of St. John Neumann, C.SS.R. Tr. Alfred C.
Rush, C.SS.R. Boston: St. Paul Media and Books, 1977.
Josemaria Escriva (José María Escrivá) (1902–1975)
Founder of Opus Dei and the Priestly Society of the Holy
Cross
Josemaria was born in Barbastro, Aragón, Spain, on January
9, 1902. In 1915, his father’s business failed, and
the family moved to Logrono, where he found other
work. It was in Logrono also that Josemaria first conceived
of entering the priesthood. When he saw a
monk’s bare footprints in the snow, he felt God was calling
him. He entered the Logrono seminary and continued
at the seminary in Saragossa, where he was
ordained on March 28, 1925.
In 1927, Josemaria moved to Madrid to study law.
He still felt God wanted something particular from
him, but did not know what. Then while on a retreat,
on October 2, 1928, he realized that God wanted him
to found Opus Dei, with the mission of encouraging all
baptized Christians throughout the world, and in any
station of life, to spread the word of God and to evangelize
for the Catholic faith. Two years later, on February
14, 1930, he realized that Opus Dei was meant to
develop its apostolate among women as well as men.
Josemaria was forced into hiding by the religious
persecution during the Spanish Civil War; he continued
to practice his ministry clandestinely and finally
was able to leave Madrid. Escaping through the Pyrenees
Mountains, he took up residence in Burgos. When
the war ended in 1939, he returned to Madrid, where
he finally received his law degree.
On February 14, 1943, Josemaria founded the
Priestly Society of the Holy Cross as a complement to
Opus Dei. This new society provided for the priestly
ordination of lay members of Opus Dei and allowed
priests from diverse dioceses to share in the spirituality
and ascetic life of Opus Dei, while remaining dependent
on their own bishops.
In 1946, Josemaria moved to Rome. There he
obtained a doctorate in theology from the Lateran University
and was named consultor to two Vatican Congregations,
as well as an honorary member of the
Pontifical Academy of Theology and Prelate of Honor,
by Pope Pius XII (r. 1939–58).
Josemaria made frequent trips to various countries
in Europe in order to develop the organization. In
1970, he traveled to Mexico, and in 1974 and 1975 he
made long trips to Central and South America, where
he held large gatherings. Everywhere he fostered vocations
to the priesthood and to the religious life. At his
death, Opus Dei had more than 60,000 members of 80
nationalities. On November 18, 1982, Opus Dei was
erected by John Paul II as a personal prelature of international
scope, and renamed the Prelature of the Holy
Cross and Opus Dei.
Josemaria died in Rome on June 26, 1975. Many
miracles have been attributed to his intercession since
then. In one, Carmelite sister Concepcion Boullon
Rubio was at the point of death in 1976 when she was
suddenly and completely cured of a rare disease called
lipomatosis after family members prayed to God for a
cure through Josemaria. The miracle was unanimously
approved by the Board of Physicians for the Congregation
of the Causes of Saints, by a meeting of the Theological
Consultors, by the Congregation of Cardinals
and Bishops, and finally, by Pope John Paul II.
Beatified: May 17, 1992, by John Paul II
FURTHER READING
“About Opus Dei.” Opus Dei website. URL: http://www.
opusdei.org/about/home.html. Downloaded: January 27,
2000.
“Blessed Josemaria.” Opus Dei website. URL: http://www.
opusdei.org/blessed/home.html. Downloaded: November
12, 1999.
“Decree Cause of Canonization of the Servant of God Josemaria
Escriva, Priest, Founder of the Priestly Society of
the Holy Cross and Opus Dei (1902–1975).” Eternal
Word Television website. URL: http://www.ewtn.com/
library/CURIA/CCSESCRI.HTM. Downloaded: November
12, 1999.
Joseph (d. first century) Husband of the Blessed Virgin
Mary and father of Jesus
According to the Gospels, Joseph was a descendant of
the royal house of David, and worked as a carpenter.
After his betrothal to Mary, he learned she was preg-

nant, and planned to divorce her quietly after marriage
so as not to bring shame and punishment down upon
her. An angel then informed him in a dream that Mary
was pregnant by the Holy Spirit. He married Mary. It is
not certain whether the marriage took place before or
after the Incarnation.
Jesus was born in Bethlehem. Joseph was warned by
an angel in a dream to take Mary and Jesus to Egypt to
avoid the deadly search by King Herod for the Messiah
child. The family stayed in Egypt until Herod died and
Joseph was told by an angel that it was safe to return to
Nazareth. Joseph apparently raised Jesus as his own
son. The last reference to him in the context of Jesus’
life is the time when Jesus stayed in the Temple and
Joseph and Mary searched for him with great anxiety
for three days (Luke 2:48).
Joseph is not mentioned in scriptural descriptions
of Jesus’ ministry, or his Crucifixion, passion, Resurrection
or Ascension. Many historians conclude that
perhaps he died before these events took place.
Veneration of Joseph is widespread throughout the
Eastern Church as well as the Western from about the
St. Joseph with the child (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Joseph of Arimathea 191
15th century. He was commemorated as early as the
ninth century in the Eastern Church.
SS. Teresa of Avila and Francis of Assisi helped to
spread devotion to him, and in the early 20th century
Bl. André Bessette had built and dedicated St. Joseph’s
Oratory in Montreal, the world’s largest shrine devoted
to Joseph.
In 1870 Joseph was declared patron of the Universal
Church by Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78). In 1899,
Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903) gave him the same rank
as Mary. Pope Benedict XV (r. 1914–22) named him
protector of workers; Pope Pius XI (r. 1922–39) named
him patron of social justice. Pope Pius XII (r. 1939–58)
declared the Feast of Joseph the Worker on May 1.
In art Joseph is depicted as a man with a lily, or
holding the baby Jesus. Sometimes he is shown with
the symbol of the carpenter’s trade.
Feast: March 19 (Joseph the Husband of Mary) and
May 1 (Joseph the Worker)
Patronage: carpenters; against doubt; dying; engineers;
families; fathers; happy death; against hesitation;
married couples; social justice; social
workers; working men; the Universal Church
Joseph of Arimathea (d. first century) Figure in the
story of Jesus and in Christian lore
Joseph was a wealthy Israelite born in Arimathea. The
Gospels of Mark and Luke refer to him as “senator”; he
may have been a member of the Sanhedrin, or supreme
council, of the Jews. He was a disciple of Jesus but did
not declare himself out of fear. He opposed the Sanhedrin’s
condemnation of Jesus.
After the Crucifixion, Joseph boldly asked Pontius
Pilate for Jesus’ body and was granted it. He and
Nicodemus treated the body with spices, wrapped it in
linen and grave bands, and placed it in the tomb. Historians
place little reliance on stories about what happened
to Joseph after that. According to apocryphal
texts, such as the Acts Pilati and Gospel of Nicodemus,
he helped to establish the Christian community of
Lydda.
In the Middle Ages, Joseph was a popular figure in
legends of the Holy Grail. He appears in William of
Malmesbury’s 12th-century De Antiquitate Glastoniensis
Ecclesiae, Thomas Malory’s 15th-century Morte
d’Arthur, and Robert de Barron’s Joseph d’Arimathea, an
early-13th-century romance. Joseph actually was
added to William of Malmesbury’s work in the 13th
century.
According to medieval lore, Joseph held the cup
that caught the blood of Jesus as it spurted from the
spear wounds during the Crucifixion. Joseph was

192 Joseph of Copertino
St. Joseph of Arimathea taking the body of Jesus from the cross
(Engraving by Gustave Doré, c. 1875)
arrested and accused of stealing Jesus’ body. He
languished in prison, and was nourished by a dove
who visited him daily, depositing a wafer in the cup.
After his release, he and his sister and a band of followers
brought the cup to England, landing on the
St.-Just-in-Roseland peninsula near St. Mawes in
Cornwall. They journeyed to Glastonbury, where
Joseph established the first Christian church in England,
and hid the cup at the Chalice Well. The waters
at the Chalice Well at the Glastonbury Tor are reddish
from iron and have long been believed to have healing
properties.
Feast: March 17
Joseph of Copertino (1603–1663) Franciscan mystic
Also known as: Joseph of Cupertino
Joseph of Copertino was born Joseph Desa in 1603 in
Cupertino, Italy, the town that later gave him his surname.
His father, a poor carpenter, died before his
birth. Creditors drove his mother out of her home, and
she was forced to give birth to Joseph in a stable. He
had deformed feet.
As a child, Joseph exhibited mental dullness and an
irascible temper. At age eight he had his first ecstatic
vision. He was a poor student, and was nicknamed
“Bocca Apertura” (“the Gaper”) because of his incessant
staring and going about with his mouth open—
characteristics of his trance states.
At age 17 he applied for admission to the Friars
Minor Conventuals, but was rejected because of his
lack of education. The Capuchins at Martino near Tarento
took him in as a lay brother, but then dismissed
him because his continual ecstasies made him unable
to work. Finally the Franciscans at La Grotella near
Cupertino admitted him as an oblate, or lay brother,
and assigned him to work in the stables. There his disposition
improved and in 1628 he was ordained as a
priest.
Joseph’s life was comprised of visions and mystical
experiences. Almost anything holy would trigger an
ecstatic experience: the name of God, Mary or a saint;
the tolling of a church bell; church music; sacred
images; and even thoughts about sacred things would
send Joseph into another state of consciousness. He
was especially prone to mystical experience during
Mass. During his trances, he did not respond to any
stimuli, even the piercing of his flesh with needles or
the dragging about of his body, except for the voice of
his superior.
Joseph especially became famous for his spectacular
levitations and aerial flights. He would rise several
feet into the air, sometimes enraptured by the sound
of heavenly music that only he could hear. He would
fly about over the heads of others and remain suspended
in the air for long periods of time. He flew up
to holy statues and to altars. Whenever he rose into
the air, he would give out a shriek of ecstasy. The total
number of his levitations is not known; more than 70
were recorded during his early years at La Grotella
alone.
His flights happened both indoors and outdoors.
Once he saw a lamb in the garden of the Capuchins at
Fossombrone, and went into a rapture over the Lamb
of God, rising into the air with the lamb in his arms.
After hearing a priest say, “Father Joseph, how beautiful
God has made heaven,” he flew up to a branch on
an olive tree and kneeled on the branch for half an
hour, bending it no more than would a small bird.
In 1644 he amazed the Spanish ambassador to the
Papal Court, his wife and attendants, by flying over
their heads to a statue of Mary in church. The ambassador’s
wife fainted and had to be revived with smelling
salts.
When he visited Pope Urban VIII (r. 1623–44) in
Rome, he kissed the pontiff’s feet and rose spontaneously
into the air. The amazed pope said that if
Joseph died before he, he would attest to the miracle
himself.

Joseph’s ecstasies and aerial flights—and the crowds
who came to witness them—were so disruptive that for
more than 35 years he was not allowed to say Mass,
take part in any processions or choir exercise, or even
eat meals with the other friars. He was ordered to
remain in his room, where a private chapel was built
for him.
In 1653 Joseph was brought before the Inquisition.
Asked by the inquisitors to say Mass, he began doing
so and suddenly rose in the air with a joyous shriek.
He remained suspended in the air over flowers and
lighted candles with his arms out like a cross, unaffected
by the flames.
For the last 10 years of his life, he was shuttled
from one remote Capuchin or Franciscan monastery to
another, a virtual prisoner. Whenever people discovered
him, crowds would gather to see him. Throughout
this banishment, Joseph remained in remarkably
good humor. He maintained his rigorous fasting and
mortifications. He kept seven Lents of 40 days every
year, eating nothing except on Thursday and Saturdays.
Joseph’s last monastery was the conventual house in
Osimo. There he flew eight feet into the air to kiss a
statue of Jesus, and then carried it to his cell, where he
floated about with it. He also carried another friar into
the air. On one occasion he had a vision of angels
ascending to and descending from heaven, and flew
into an almond tree. The tree became known as “the
almond tree of St. Joseph.”
Other miraculous powers and abilities were attributed
to Joseph. He could bilocate. He was prophetic
and had numerous accurate visions of the future. He
could read the minds and hearts of others, and knew
their secret, unconfessed sins. He could control the
elements and stop storms. He had command over animals,
even greater than that of St. Francis of Assisi.
Once he sent a bird to the nuns of St. Clare at Cupertino
to accompany them in their singing. Another time
he summoned sheep to gather around him and began
recitation of the Litany of Loreto. The sheep bleated
the responses.
He exuded a sweet perfume that clung to everything
he used, and permeated the rooms he entered.
He could detect the stench of sin. Once he was overcome
with stench, and asked permission to go to
town. There he went straight to a home wherein dwelt
sorcerers. Furious, he broke all their vessels with his
cane.
When Joseph had arrived at Osimo, he predicted he
would die there, and his death would come on a day
when he would not receive the Eucharist. On August
10, 1663, he was stricken with fever. For five days he
was able to get up and say Mass in his private oratory.
St. Joseph of Copertino levitating
Joseph of Copertino 193
Then he was confined to bed and could receive only
the Eucharist. Once, he heard the sound of the bell
announcing the approach of the Eucharist, and went
into a rapture, rising up from his bed and flying to the
stairs above the chapel, his face suffused with radiance.
He had numerous other levitations and ecstasies during
this period. On September 17, he received his last
Eucharist. As he lay dying the following day, Joseph
asked God to burn and rive (tear) his heart. The
embalmers were shocked to find his heart withered
and dry, and the ventricles without blood. Joseph is
entombed in the basilica at Osimo.
Pope Clement XIV (r. 1769–74) extended his office
to the entire Church, but his cult now is confined to
local calendars.
Beatified: 1753 by Pope Benedict XIV
Canonized: July 16, 1767, by Pope Clement XIII
Feast: September 18
Patronage: air travelers; astronauts; aviators; fliers;
pilots

194 Juan Diego
FURTHER READING
Charles, Rodney, and Anna Jordan. Lighter Than Air: Miracles
of Human Flight from Christian Saints to Native American
Spirits. Fairfield, Iowa: Sunstar Publishing, 1995.
Pastrovicchi, Angelo. St. Joseph of Copertino. Tr. Francis S.
Laing. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1994.
Juan Diego (1474–1548) Aztec Indian who saw one of
the few accepted apparitions of the Virgin Mary
Juan Diego was born in 1474 in a Nahua village established
in 1168 and conquered in 1467 by the Aztec
chief Axayacatl. He was named Cuauhtlatoatzin, meaning
“one who talks like an eagle.” He belonged to the
largest and lowest-ranking class of the Aztecs, but
owned some land, which he farmed and on which he
built a small house. He made a living weaving mats
and selling produce from his farm. He was married, but
had no children.
When Cortez conquered the Aztecs in 1521, he
brought Catholic Christianity with him. The Aztecs at
that time revered Tonantzin (meaning “mother”) as the
goddess of earth and corn. They prayed to her at an
ancient hilltop shrine, imploring her blessings for
themselves and their crops. Franciscan priests, however,
told them that their practice had no religious
value and was no longer acceptable.
Cuauhtlatoatzin converted to Christianity and in
1525 was baptized Juan Diego (a double name); his
wife converted also and was baptized María Lucía. Juan
Diego had a reserved and mystical character and was
very religious. He enjoyed silence and was given to frequent
penance. Every Saturday and Sunday he walked
the 14 miles from his village to Tenochtitlán, now
Mexico City, to attend Mass and receive religious
instruction. When María Lucía died in 1529, he went
to live with his uncle, Juan Bernardino, in Tolpetlac,
which was nine miles from Tenochtitlán.
Before dawn on the morning of December 9, 1531,
he set off as usual for Tenochtitlán. Day was breaking
as he reached the bottom of a hill known as Tepeyacac,
on whose summit had once stood the shrine to
Tonantzin. Suddenly he heard a beautiful chorus of
birdsong and a voice calling to him in Nahuatl. Filled
with joy, he went toward the voice, and when he
reached the hilltop saw a beautiful dark-skinned
woman in Aztec dress, her face and garments radiant
like the sun. He knew instantly who she was. He
bowed before her, and she asked him where he was
going. “My Lady and Child, I have to reach your
church in Mexico,” he replied. She then acknowledged
herself as the Virgin Mary, and told him that she
wished that a church be erected at the spot where she
stood. He was to go to the bishop of Mexico, in
Tenochtitlán, describe what he had seen and ask for
the church to be built.
Juan Diego had to wait a long time to see the Franciscan
bishop, Father Juan de Zumarraga, who politely
heard him out, but said only that he would take the
petition under advisement. Juan Diego left, disheartened,
and returned to Tepeyacac Hill. There he again
found the Virgin and related what had occurred. She
told him to return to the bishop the next day and petition
anew. Juan Diego agreed to do so, and went home.
The next morning, Sunday, he went again to see Father
de Zumarraga, who questioned him intently, but, still
unbelieving, asked for a sign. Juan Diego returned to
the hilltop and again saw the Virgin, who promised she
would give him a sign to take to the bishop the next
day.
He returned home, only to find his uncle gravely ill
with the plague. Juan Bernardino asked that a priest
be summoned to receive his last confession and confer
his last rites. The next morning, therefore, Juan Diego
tried to bypass Tepeyacac Hill and go directly to
Tenochtitlán. He was in a hurry, and wanted to avoid
another encounter with the Virgin, but she appeared
before him anyway. He explained about his uncle, but
the Virgin told him that he had been cured and not to
worry further about him. Relieved, Juan Diego then
asked for the sign to take to the bishop. The Virgin
instructed him to climb to the top of the hill, where he
would find flowers, which he was to cut, gather and
bring to her. He ascended to the summit and was
astonished to find there many types of Castilian roses
blooming on the rocky outcrops. Not only were they
of a species unknown in Mexico, they grew at a place
where nothing should grow, especially considering
that it was December. He placed the roses in his tilma
(a type of cloak) and returned to the Virgin. She held
the flowers briefly, then replaced them in the tilma,
saying that they were the sign he would take to the
bishop.
When he was again admitted into Father de Zumarraga’s
presence, Juan Diego opened his tilma, letting
the roses fall to the floor, and was shocked when the
bishop dropped to his knees before him. Looking
down, Juan Diego himself saw the glowing image of
the beautiful dark-skinned woman imprinted on the
white cloth inside the tilma. Her hands were clasped,
her eyes cast downward, her black hair held back in
the Aztec style. The bishop begged his forgiveness,
then untied the tilma and carried it to his chapel. He
invited Juan Diego to spend the night with him so that
in the morning he could show him where the church
was to be erected.
The next day, after pointing out the spot, Juan
Diego excused himself to go home to his uncle. He

arrived to find him well and happy. Juan Bernardino
then related that he himself had seen the Virgin, and
that through her he had understood that Juan Diego
had gone once more to Tenochtitlán to see the bishop.
Moreover, she had given him his own mission, to
instruct that she be called Holy Mary of Guadalupe. It
is believed that Our Lady actually used the Nahuatl
word coatlexopeuh, pronounced quatlasupe—meaning,
“he who crushes the serpent,” referring to the native
religion—and that this was translated into Spanish as
Guadalupe. In any event, she has come to be called
Our Lady of Guadalupe, and is typically depicted with
her foot on a snake.
At the time of his encounter with Our Lady, Juan
Diego was 57, already elderly in a place and time
where the life expectancy for men was about 40. The
first of several churches on Tepeyacac Hill was completed
in 1533 and Father Zumarraga moved Juan
Diego’s tilma with the image into it. Juan Diego gave
his business and property to his uncle and went to live
in a small room attached to the chapel that housed the
sacred image. He spent the rest of his life spreading
word of the apparitions among the people of the town
and died on May 30, 1548, at the age of 74. What is
known about Juan Diego and this miracle comes from
a document called the Nican Mopohua, written in Nahuatl
in the mid-16th century and first published in
Spanish in 1649.
The image of the Virgin on the tilma remains visible
to this day. Investigations were conducted in 1555 and
1723, then again in the early 20th century. No natural
explanation for the image has ever been found. In
1921, at the start of the Mexican Civil War, a bomb
placed beneath the image exploded, causing great damage
to the chapel, but the tilma survived unaffected.
Beatified: May 1990 by Pope John Paul II in Mexico
City
Feast: December 9
FURTHER READING
“Beato Juan Diego.” Aci Digital website. Santos y Beatos de
America Latina: Mexico. URL: http://www.aciprensa.com/
Maria/juandiego.htm. Downloaded: March 1, 2000.
Elizondo, Virgil P. Guadalupe: Mother of the New Creation.
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997.
“The Story of Juan Diego.” Mississippi State University website.
URL: http://www.msstate.edu/fineart_online/Gallery/
Trophies/story/diego.htm. Downloaded: September 10,
2000.
Our Lady of Guadalupe website. URL: http://ng.netgate.net/
~norberto/materdei.html.
Jude (first century) One of Jesus’ Twelve Disciples,
author of the Epistle of Jude, martyr
Jude 195
Name meaning: sweetness or gentleness of character
(Thaddeus)
Also known as: Judas Jaccobi; Jude Thaddeus; Judas
Lebbeus; Lebbeus; Thaddeus
Jude was born in Galilee, the son of Alpheus and Mary,
and was a fisherman by trade. He was a brother of St.
James the Less and a first cousin of Jesus, who called
him to be one of his disciples or apostles. Very little
more is known about Jude apart from his brief epistle,
which is concerned with the purity of the Christian
faith and the good reputation and perseverance of the
faithful. Although placed after the Second Epistle of
Peter, it is believed to have been the major inspiration
for that book. The Epistle of Jude probably was written
around A.D. 80 for converts in an unknown location.
Tradition affirms Jude as the actual author of the epistle.
Some historians say that a pseudonymous author probably
would have chosen a more prominent pen name.
St. Jude (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
Division)

196 Juliana of Cumae
Jude appears again in the apocryphal Passion of
Simon and Jude, which serves as the basis for traditions
about his later life. According to this source,
Jude was a healer and an exorcist who could expel demons
from pagan idols, leaving the statues crumbling.
With St. Simon, he left Palestine to evangelize Persia.
Since the sixth century, there have been legends about
their martyrdom there, though the manner of death
varies. Some accounts say they were killed with a
saw or falchion (a short sickle-shaped sword). Others
say they were beaten to death with a club, then beheaded.
By tradition, this occurred on July 1, the day the
Feast of Simon and Jude is celebrated by the Eastern
Church. The Western Church celebrates the feast on
October 28, the day the saints’ relics were translated to
St. Peter’s in Rome in the seventh or eighth century.
In art, Jude typically is represented as a young or
middle-aged, bearded man holding a carpenter’s rule or
a club, saw, axe or halberd. He is sometimes confused
with his fellow apostles St. Matthew (who may also
hold an axe or halberd) and St. Thomas (who may also
hold a carpenter’s rule). He may also be shown with
books or scrolls in commemoration of his epistle.
When he is pictured with Simon, one holds a saw and
the other a falchion. Fish, boats and oars that sometimes
appear in his images symbolize his putative profession
as a fisherman.
Feast (together with Simon): October 28 (in the
East, July 1; without Simon, in the East, June
19)
Patronage: desperate situations; forgotten, hopeless,
lost and impossible causes; hospital workers; hospitals
Juliana of Cumae (d. ca. 305) Virgin and martyr of
Cumae, Italy
According to one story, Juliana was martyred when she
refused to marry a Roman prefect. She was tortured
and beheaded. In another story, she was martyred at
Nicomedia and her relics were taken to Cumae. In
art she is often shown surrounded by flames or binding
the devil.
Feast: February 16
Julian the Hospitaller (ca. 13th century) Legendary
saint popular in the Middle Ages
Also known as: the Poor Man
The story of Julian the Hospitaller is told in William
Caxton’s version of The Golden Legend; a French manu-
script dated circa 1286 is the only surviving version in
verse. The story was spread by troubadours.
Julian was the only child of Geoffrey, duke of
Angers, France, and Duchess Emma. As a youth he
loved to hunt. One day at age 16, he went off into the
woods with a band of men and became separated from
them and lost. He came upon a beast lying in rest and
fatally shot it with an arrow. Before it died, the beast
spoke to him, and foretold a terrible and unavoidable
fate, that one day he would slay his mother and father
with a single blow.
Julian vowed to run away to avoid the fate. He rode
his horse into Brittany, where he sold it and his belongings.
He set off wandering, praying intensely for God
to deliver him from the cruel fate predicted by the
beast. Eventually he found himself in Rome, where he
had an audience with the pope. The pope ordered him
to spend two years across the sea.
Julian obeyed, going to Syria. He joined the Order
of the Knights Hospitallers and fought in the Crusades
against the Turks. He distinguished himself in battle
and was made a knight. One day he heard from pilgrims
that his father was dead. Thinking himself free of
the curse, he resolved to return home to his mother.
He crossed the sea, but could not find his way home.
He wandered again and eventually found himself in
Spain.
There he found lodging in a castle that was fortified
against attack by the Turks, but the king of the Turks
was intent on capturing the countess there. The Turks
attacked and Julian fought bravely, succeeding in taking
the king hostage. He was made a count, and he and the
countess married. For two years they lived in great happiness.
Meanwhile, Duke Geoffrey was still very much
alive, and he and Emma had spent four years searching
in vain for their son. At last they heard news about him
and his whereabouts, and they journeyed to the castle
disguised as pilgrims. They arrived on a day when
Julian was out hunting. The countess welcomed them
and bade them bathe and rest in the bed she shared
with Julian. They did so, and everyone went to sleep,
including the countess in another room.
Julian returned and thought it strange that his wife
did not come to meet him as was her custom. The hall
was empty. Going to their chamber, he perceived two
sleeping forms in the bed in the dark. He immediately
concluded that his wife was having an affair. Enraged,
he cut them both in two, and the bed in half, with a
single blow.
The countess awakened from the noise and rushed
into the chamber. The horror of his crime—the
unavoidable destiny—was too much for Julian. He
attempted to kill himself with his own sword, but was

stopped by his wife. He vowed to do penance in exile,
and the countess pledged to join him.
After the burial of his parents, Julian and his wife
dressed in the clothing of beggars and left the castle.
They wandered and begged for food. They suffered
hardships and insults. They went to Rome and confessed
to the pope, and professed their desire to live in
poverty. The pope’s penance was that they should find
themselves in a place of perilous passage and there
establish a hostel for sheltering travelers and the poor.
After more wandering and many hardships and trials,
they at last came to a place by a stream where
many had died trying to cross the water. The area was
full of thieves. There they constructed a humble hostel
with beds made from grass, and devoted themselves to
serving those who came for shelter. Julian was able to
barter for a boat, and ferried people safely across the
stream. For a long time they lived this way.
One night they were awakened by a man’s voice
from the opposite bank asking to be ferried over and
given shelter. The traveler was an exhausted leper.
Julian and his wife showed him every courtesy. When
the stranger asked Julian to lend him his wife to sleep
with him for the night, Julian protested but his wife
did not, and agreed to comply. But when she went to
the leper’s bed, he had vanished. From outside came
his voice, telling them that they had been tested, and
were now expiated of their sins.
For seven more years, Julian and his wife lived at
the hostel, serving others. One night thieves came and
killed them the same way in which Julian had slain his
parents. Afterward, miracles without end occurred
there. The bodies of Julian and his wife were placed in
a gold and silver reliquary.
Feast: February 12
Patronage: boatmen; circus people; ferrymen; hotel
employees; innkeepers; travelers
FURTHER READING
The Life of Saint Julian Hospitaller. Tr. Tony Devaney Morinell.
URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/julian.
html. Downloaded: July 21, 2000.
Julian of Norwich (1342 or 1343–ca. 1423) Mystic
Also known as: Julian; Juliana of Norwich
Little is known about the life of this Benedictine
recluse, whose mystical revelations on the love of God,
redemption, prayer, the Incarnation and divine consolation
made her one of the most important writers of
her day in England. She was born in 1342 or 1343; no
records exist to show location, family, upbringing
or education. She probably entered a religious order at
a young age. At the time of her mystical experience,
Julian of Norwich 197
she was a solitary anchoress living in a cell adjoining
the Church of St. Julian in Conisford, Norwich. The
church was opposite an Augustinian friary that no
longer exists. This church belonged to the Benedictines
of Carrow, and so it is possible that she had spent some
time as a Benedictine nun before embarking on the
solitary life of an anchoress, but the evidence is insufficient.
Evidence also is lacking of the date of her reclusion,
whether before or after the revelations, and of the
exact date of her death.
Julian evidently was well-educated, for her writing
rivals that of Chaucer, and she demonstrated an extensive
knowledge of the Latin Vulgate Bible. She also
seemed to be familiar with other Latin manuscripts circulated
among the monasteries.
Julian’s 16 revelations occurred during an apparent
near-death experience. She left a detailed record of
these revelations and a small amount of information
about her life in her only book, Showings, also called
Revelations of Divine Love.
According to Julian, early in life she yearned to
show her devotion to God through her own suffering.
She desired three graces: to recollect the Passion, to
have a bodily sickness, and to be given three wounds
of contrition, compassion and “longing with my will
for God.” She prayed ardently to God that in her 30th
year, she would be stricken with a bodily sickness so
severe it would seem mortal to her and all around her.
She would be given the last rites and experience every
kind of physical and spiritual pain, and assault by devils
(believed to happen during dying). However, she
asked that God not let her actually die. Rather, she
would be miraculously saved at the last moment, purified
through her suffering and thus better able to serve
God in the rest of her life.
On May 30, 1373, when she was halfway through
her 30th year, Julian was stricken with a severe illness.
She lay in bed suffering for three days and three nights.
On the fourth night she was given last rites. She lingered
on for another three days and nights. On the
third night, she felt she truly was going to die, and was
reluctant to do so. By daybreak, the lower portion of
her body felt “dead.”
She was propped up in bed with her mother, curate
and parson present. The curate had brought a cross,
which the parson placed so that Julian could gaze
upon it in her last moments. By then her eyes were
fixed in a stare and she could not speak. As she looked
at the cross, her sight began to fail. The entire room
became dark and full of devils—but a mysterious light
shone upon the cross.
Julian then felt her upper body die away. She lost
control of her arms and had great difficulty breathing.
Just as she felt herself on the point of death, all pain

198 Julian of Norwich
left her, and her revelations began. She shouted out,
“Blessed be the Lord!”
Julian was granted her desire to experience the
Passion, which she did in vivid detail. She beheld the
bleeding and dying Christ. She saw the crown of
thorns upon the head of the crucified Jesus, and a
shower of dark red pellets of blood running down
from it like a summer rain, until the entire chamber
was filled with blood. The 16 visions and their teachings
sprang from Jesus crowned by thorns. They
occurred as she followed the blood, which first rushed
to hell, where she felt the devil clutching her throat,
smelled his breath and saw his face and claws. The
realm of the damned was dark with devils all around.
Then the blood rushed upward to a high mountain
cathedral (the heart), where Christ sat on a throne
(coming to live in the heart). This cosmos was filled
with light.
Her visions took three forms: “bodily,” which probably
meant perceived with the physical senses; “bodily
and yet more spiritual,” which probably meant a combination
of sensory and inner perception; and “spiritual,”
which probably referred to an inner visioning
seen with the spiritual eye only.
The visions dealt with God’s creation of, and love
for, humanity, how the relationship with God persists
despite the shortcomings and sins of humanity, and
how redemption is achieved through Christ. Julian
perceived the feminine, nurturing side of God: “And so
I saw that God rejoices that he is our Father, and God
rejoices that he is our Mother, and God rejoices that he
is our true spouse, and that our soul is his beloved
wife.”
Julian saw three properties of God, life, love and
light: “in life is wonderful familiarity, in love is gentle
courtesy, and in light is endless nature.”
Some of her most penetrating insights deal with
prayer. For Julian, the most sublime expression of the
relationship between humanity and God is contemplative
prayer, in which there is a complete surrender and
trust. She said that prayer “one-eths,” or unites, the
soul with God. What we pray for in “rightful prayer”
springs not from us but from God: first he makes us to
wish it, then he makes us to beseech it. Thus, how
could we not obtain that for which we pray? In other
words, God motivates us to pray for that which he
wishes to manifest in the world. The fruit and end of
all prayer is to be “united and like to the Lord in all
things.” The prayer of thanksgiving enables the power
of the Lord’s word to enter the soul and enliven the
heart.
Two versions of her book exist: a short text, usually
called Showings, which sets forth the fundamentals of
her experience, and a long text, usually called Revela-
tions of Divine Love, which evidently was written much
later, for it has more detail, allegories and insights. It is
evident that Julian reached a full understanding of her
experience by 1388. She continued to receive “inward
instructions” about its meaning. She was led to move
deeper into her religious life, from contemplation to
solitude within her cell.
In her writings, she does not present her revelations
systematically; images and ideas recur and lead
to one another in a way that has its own inner order.
She interprets all her images in terms of the Scriptures
and Christian theology. Certain themes are typically
hers: Though she acknowledges the insignificance
of everything else compared to God (“all that is made”
is shown to her like “a little thing, the size of a hazelnut”),
yet she also maintains, with Genesis, the goodness
of all He has made. His works “are wholly good,”
and all that is made “exists . . . because God loves it.”
Julian’s revelations are shamanic in nature, involving
such hallmarks as the “initiatory” illness, descent
to the underworld, exposure to horror and suffering,
and spiritual rebirth. After her experience, people from
all over were drawn to her, though she confined herself
to a cell. She had a great reputation as a healer and
counselor. Margery Kempe, who was born in 1373, the
year of the revelations, recorded her visit to Julian in
about 1403 for spiritual counsel. Julian, however, did
not confide her revelations to Kempe.
Her handwritten manuscript received scant circulation
prior to the mid-17th century. It was her own
intent that this be so. She recognized her revelations as
of “exalted divinity and wisdom,” and prayed that they
would come into the hands only of those who desired
to be the faithful lovers of God, dedicated to the virtuous
life and wholesome understanding of the depths of
the mystery of God. The long text was rescued from
obscurity by the Augustine Baker school of exiled English
Benedictine monks in France and the Netherlands.
The lack of biographical data on Julian has prevented
her beatification; nonetheless, she is called
Blessed.
Feast: May 13
FURTHER READING
Chambers, P. Franklin. Juliana of Norwich: An Introductory
Appreciation and an Interpretive Anthology. London: Victor
Gollancz, 1955.
Julian of Norwich. Showings. New York: Paulist Press, 1978.
Julian of Norwich. Revelations of Divine Love. Tr. James
Walsh. New York: Harper and Row, 1961.
Molinari, Paul, S.J. Julian of Norwich: The Teaching of a
14th Century English Mystic. New York: Longmans,
Green, 1958.

Julitta (d. 304) Noblewoman and martyr with her son,
Quiricus
Julitta was a noblewoman of Iconium, Lycaonia
(Turkey), who converted to Christianity. At the time,
under the reigns of the Roman emperors Diocletian
and Maximian, severe persecutions were conducted.
Julitta took her three-year-old son and several servants
and fled to Seleucia, Tarsus, attempting to find safety.
However, she was recognized and arrested and was
taken with her son before the proconsul, Alexander.
Ordered to renounce her faith and sacrifice to the
pagan gods, Julitta refused. Infuriated, Alexander took
Quiricus away from her and ordered her scourged.
Julitta did not relent. Quiricus, meanwhile, struggled
in the grip of Alexander. Tradition holds that he
declared, “I also am a Christian.” Alexander either beat
him to death or dashed his head against the stone steps
of the throne, killing him.
Julitta thanked God for having taken her son before
her. Alexander ordered her sides to be torn with iron
hooks, and boiling pitch to be poured on her feet. She
was then beheaded. The remains of her and her son
were thrown out of the city.
Julitta’s servants, who were in hiding, secretly
recovered the remains and buried them in a field. They
were rediscovered during the reign of Emperor Constantine.
St. Amator, bishop of Auxerre from 388 to
418, is said to have carried the remains to France,
where they were dispersed to Nevers, Toulouse, St.
Amand in Flanders, and other locations. Churches and
monasteries were dedicated to Julitta and Quiricus.
Some scholars believe that all or part of the story is
fictitious.
Feast: June 16
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Julius I (d. 352) Pope
Julius was a native of Rome. For unknown reasons, the
see of Rome was vacant for four months following the
death of Pope St. Marcus in October 336. Julius was
elected to the post on February 6, 337.
Much of his pontificate was concerned with the situation
of St. Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria who
for a while was forced into exile and took up residence
in Rome. Through Athanasius, the Egyptian monastic
life became well known in Rome, and the example of
the hermits of the Egyptian deserts became very influential
there. Julius supported Athanasius against rivals
and eventually helped to return him to Alexandria. His
Justin Martyr 199
letter on the matter is considered one of the most
important pronouncements of the Roman see, asserting
as it did the Roman primate’s role in the universal
Church.
Under Julius, the Roman Christian community
grew rapidly. He raised two new basilicas, the titular
Church of Julius (now the Santa Maria in Trastevere)
and the Basilica Julia (now Church of the Twelve Apostles).
He built three churches over catacombs outside
the walls of the city as well. During his time, also, catalogs
of saints’ feast days came into use.
Julius died on April 12, 352, and was buried in the
Catacombs of Calepodius on the Aurelian Way. His
cultus began to be celebrated soon after his death.
Later his relics were translated to Santa Maria in
Trastevere.
Feast: April 12
Justin Martyr (d. ca. 167 or 168) Martyr, philosopher
and defender of Christianity
Justin Martyr was born about the beginning of the second
century in Neopolis, the capital of Samaria, to heathen
parents. As a young man, he was attracted to
philosophy. The story is told that one day he was out
in a solitary place to meditate when a mysterious old
man appeared and told him that if he wished to have
knowledge of the true God, he should cease studying
philosophy and turn to the prophets of the Bible, who
had announced the coming of Jesus, Son of God. In
addition, the old man told him, pray to God to illuminate
his mind. With that, the man disappeared.
Inspired, Justin followed the old man’s guidance,
and was baptized a Christian at about age 30. He was
especially impressed with the sufferings and sacrifices
of the martyrs. According to some accounts, Justin was
ordained a priest; this is disputed by some historians.
He preached extensively and worked to convert
pagans.
Justin went to Rome where he continued his
preaching. Around the year 150, he wrote and presented
to Emperor Antoninus Pius and the Roman
Senate his first apology in defense of the Christian
faith. The apology favorably impressed the emperor,
but did not stop the persecution of Christians. When
Marcus Aurelius succeeded Pius, the persecutions
intensified. Justin did not hesitate to engage in public
debates and controversy.
Shortly after Justin issued a second apology to the
emperor, he was arrested with several other Christians
and brought before Rusticus, the prefect of Rome. Rusticus
placed the six on trial and ordered them to obey
the imperial edicts to recognize the pagan gods and

200 Justin Martyr
St. Justin Martyr (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
submit to the emperors. Justin and the others stood up
in defense of Christianity. They were questioned at
length about their beliefs and practices.
Rusticus asked them whether, if they were scourged
and beheaded, they believed that they would ascend
to heaven. Justin said, “I hope that, if I endure these
things, I shall have His gifts. For I know that, to all
who have thus lived, there abides the divine favor until
the completion of the whole world.” Rusticus ordered
them to “offer sacrifice with one accord to the gods,”
which they declined.
The martyrs were sentenced to be scourged and
beheaded. The bodies were carried away by other
Christians for burial.
Besides his first and second apologies, Justin’s other
extant works include Dialogue with Trypho, Hortatory
Address to the Greeks, On the Sole Government of God
and Discourse to the Greeks, plus fragments of a work
on the Resurrection, and other fragments.
Feast: June 1
Patronage: apologists; philosophers
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
“The Martyrdom of the Holy Martyrs Justin, Chariton, Charites,
Paeon and Liberianus, Who Suffered at Rome.”
URL: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0133.htm. Downloaded:
February 11, 2000.

Kateri Tekakwitha, Blessed (1656–1680) Indian
mystic and convert
Also known as: Catherine Tegakwitha, Catherine Takwita,
Kateri Tekawitha, Lily of the Mohawks,
Genevieve of New France
Kateri Tekakwitha was born in the Mohawk village of
Gandahouhague (Ossernenon, now Auriesville, New
York), in 1656, the daughter of a captive Christian Algonquin
woman and a non-Christian Mohawk warrior.
Her parents and brother died of smallpox when she was
four; the disease permanently disfigured her face and
impaired her eyesight. She was converted to Catholicism
and baptized by a Jesuit missionary, Father Jacques de
Lamberville, on Easter of 1676, when she was 20. In
1679, she took a vow of chastity. Shunned by her tribe
because of her beliefs, she walked over 200 miles to the
mission village of St. Francis Xavier de Sault, or Caughnawaga,
near Montreal, Quebec. There she dedicated
herself to prayer and penitence and care for the sick and
aged; she was allowed to open a convent in 1679.
Kateri died at Caughnawaga, on April 7, 1680, at
the age of 24. Her grave became a pilgrimage site for
Christian Indians and French colonists, and the place
of many miracles. In 1884, the Rev. Clarence Walworth
raised a monument there.
Devotion to Kateri has been responsible for establishing
Native American ministries in Catholic chur-
Kf
201
ches throughout the United States and Canada. The
Tekakwitha Conference, an international association of
Native American Catholics and those in ministry with
them, was named for her.
Kateri was the first Native American proposed for
canonization. Her cause was started in 1884–85 under
Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903), and she was declared
venerable by Pope Pius XII (r. 1939–58) on January 3,
1943.
Beatified: June 22, 1980, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: July 14 (formerly April 17)
Patronage: environment and ecology
FURTHER READING
“Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha.” http://www.pitt.edu/~eflst4/
Kateri.html. Downloaded: January 25, 2000.
Blessed Saint Kateri Takakwitha Honoring Page. URL: http://
pw1.netcom.com/~rnroybal/kateri.html. Downloaded: January
25, 2000.
The Cross in the Woods website. URL: http://www.rc.net/
gaylord/crossinwoods/blessed.htm. Downloaded: January
25, 2000.
Kateri On-line. URL: http://home.earthlink.net/~paula74/
Kateri/indexx.html. Downloaded: January 25, 2000.
Katharine Drexel (1858–1955) Founder of the Sisters
of the Blessed Sacrament, missionary

202 Katherine Drexel
St. Katharine Drexel (Archives of the Sisters of the Blessed
Sacrament)
Katharine Drexel was born November 26, 1848, in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the second child of Francis
and Hanna Drexel. Francis Drexel was a wealthy railroad
tycoon and founder of a Philadelphia bank. A
month after her birth, her mother died, and Katharine
and her sister, Elizabeth, were cared for by their aunt
and uncle. In 1860, their father married Emma Bouvier.
A third daughter, Louise, was born in 1863.
The girls were well-educated and traveled throughout
the United States and Europe. They assisted their
stepmother in charitable service for the poor. Even at a
young age, Katharine was drawn to the religious life,
and at age 14 took a vow to remain chaste. By her late
teens she was mortifying herself at Lent; she practiced
self-flagellation throughout her life.
Katharine was 21 when Emma developed cancer,
and she nursed her stepmother for three years of
intense suffering until she died. During this time,
Katharine was further inspired to become a religious.
Katharine’s father died of pleurisy in 1885, and she
and her sisters inherited large fortunes: $14 million in
trust each, generating annual incomes of $400,000.
Katharine used her money to build and support schools
and missions for Native and African Americans.
When Katharine asked Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–
1903) to send more missionaries to Wyoming for her
friend Bishop James O’Connor, the pope suggested that
she herself become a missionary. In 1889, she made her
novitiate with the Sisters of Mercy in Pittsburgh. She
visited the Dakotas, met the chief, and in 1891,
founded the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament for Indians
and Colored People, now known as the Sisters of the
Blessed Sacrament. St. Frances Xavier Cabrini advised
her on getting the order recognized by the Vatican.
Katharine pursued her ministry, receiving requests
for sisters from throughout the South and Southwest.
She built and maintained missions and schools and
sent her nuns to staff them. In 1894, she helped to
open the first mission school for Indians, in Santa Fe,
New Mexico. In 1917, she founded a school to prepare
teachers in New Orleans, which in 1925 became chartered
as Xavier University. It is the only predominantly
black Catholic university in the United States.
Katharine suffered a heart attack in 1935 but continued
to travel to her missions, taking an active interest
in the work of each one. By 1942 she had a system
of 40 mission centers, 50 Indian missions, black
Catholic schools in 13 states, and 23 rural schools, in
addition to Xavier University. She kept up continual
correspondence with all of them, usually including in
her letters a generous check.
During the last years of her life, Katharine was an
invalid, spending much time in prayer and meditation.
By the time of her death in 1955, she had spent $20
million of her inheritance for the American Indian and
black American missions. She died March 3, 1955, at
the age of 96, of natural causes. She is interred in a
crypt at the motherhouse in Bensalem, Pennsylvania.
More than 4,000 people have attributed miraculous
cures and favors to her intercession. In 2000 Katharine
became the second American-born person to be canonized;
the first was St. Elizabeth Ann Seton, in 1975.
The two miracles accepted by the Vatican that were
attributed to her intercession were the curing of deafness
in two persons, a 17-month-old boy who had
been born with nerve deafness, and a seven-year-old
deaf girl.
Beatified: November 20, 1988, by Pope John Paul II
Canonized: October 1, 2000, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: March 3
FURTHER READING
O’Reilly, David. “The Saving Mission of Katharine Drexel.”
URL: http://inq.philly.com/content/inquirer/2000/10/01/
sunmag/ drexel01 htm. Downloaded: October 24, 2000.
“Saint Katharine Drexel.” Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
website. URL: http://wwwkatharinedrexel.org. Downloaded:
October 24, 2000.

Laura Vicuña, Blessed (1891–1904) Popular saint
Laura Vicuña was born April 5, 1891, in Santiago,
Chile, the first child of José Domingo Vicuña and Mercedes
del Pino. Her father was a well-connected member
of the Chilean aristocracy, though her mother came
from a poor family. Due to the difference in social
class, Laura’s mother was never accepted by the Vicuña
family. The difficulties worsened when Laura’s father
found himself on the losing side in a civil war and was
forced to flee the capital for the small town of Temulco.
He died there in 1895, two days after the birth of his
second child.
Laura’s mother moved with Laura and her younger
sister to the pampas of neighboring Argentina, where
she was struggling to make ends meet when she met
Manuel Mora, the owner of a ranch outside the town
of Junin. Soon the family moved to the ranch, and
Laura was well provided for with food and clothing.
Mora even arranged to send the girls to a school run by
the Salesian Sisters of María Auxiliadora in Junin.
Laura started attending this school in 1900, when she
was nine.
At the school, Laura heard how a couple are bound
above all by love; she also heard one of the nuns
inveighing against couples living in sin. The first time
she heard this, she fainted. When the nun returned to
the same theme in the following lecture, she blanched.
Lf
203
But the strength of her growing faith led her to conceive
a plan. She would offer her life to God if he
would release her mother from the sinful life she was
leading with Mora. When she mentioned her plan to
her confessor, he cautioned that if she made such an
offer, God might accept and could take her life quickly.
Nevertheless, on the occasion of her First Communion,
Laura tendered her offer.
When Laura went to the ranch on vacations, Mora
treated her badly, striking her and apparently even trying
to take sexual advantage of her, but Laura is said to
have held him off. She prayed regularly—although her
mother told her not to let Mora know—and suffered
her trials as penance.
Back at school, when the building flooded in winter,
Laura braved frigid water for hours to bring
younger children to safety. In the process, one of her
kidneys became infected, and her health began to deteriorate.
As Laura grew steadily worse, her mother brought
her back to the ranch and sought medical help for her,
but she did not improve. Laura was sure that she was
going to die, and believed that this stemmed from the
pact that she had made with God. On her deathbed,
she told her mother about this pact, and pleaded with
her to leave Mora, which she promised to do. Laura
died happy and smiling on January 22, 1904, at the
age of 13. True to her word, her mother changed

204 Lawrence
her name and moved away, never again choosing a life
of sin.
Laura’s remains were buried in a chapel of the
Church of María Auxiliadora. She is held up as a model
for young people.
Beatified: September 3, 1988, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: January 10 or 22
Patronage: young people; Argentina; Chile
FURTHER READING
“Beata Laura Vicuña.” Santos y Biatos de America Latina:
Argentina. URL: http://www.aciprensa.com/santarge.htm.
Downloaded: November 15, 1999.
“Beata Laura Vicuña: Un regalo de Dios a la Juventud
de América.” Santos y Biatos. URL: http://www.geocities.
com/~catolicos/santose.htm. Downloaded: November
15, 1999.
“¿Quién fue Laura Vicuña?” Red Informática de la Iglesia
Católica en Chile: Testigos de Christo. URL: http://
www.iglesia.cl. Downloaded: November 15, 1999.
Lawrence (d. 258) Deacon and martyr
Lawrence was one of seven deacons of the Church in
Rome under Pope Sixtus II (r. 257–258). He was martyred
following the execution of Sixtus II. Little else is
known about Lawrence, but tradition has built up a
story around him.
In 257 Emperor Valerian issued an edict against
Christians, forbidding them to assemble and requiring
them to participate in pagan rites. In August 258,
Valerian ordered all bishops, priests and deacons
killed. On August 6, Sixtus II defied the order and
assembled his followers in the Catacomb of Prætextatus
(on the Appian Way across from the Catacomb of
St. Callistus). He and several church officials were
beheaded.
According to lore, Lawrence was told by Sixtus that
he would follow in martyrdom in three days’ time.
Lawrence gladly awaited his fate. He gave away all his
money to the poor. The prefect of Rome heard about
The roasting of St. Lawrence over the gridiron (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

this and ordered Lawrence to produce the Church’s
wealth. Lawrence said he would in three days’ time. He
gathered up the sick, beggars, the lame and the poor—
all the cast-offs of society—and summoned the prefect.
The prefect was not amused at the sight of this sorry
lot and demanded to see the treasures. Lawrence is said
to have replied, “What are you displeased at? These are
the Church treasures!”
The enraged prefect ordered Lawrence to be executed
by slow death over a gridiron. He was stripped
and tied to an iron bed over a slow fire. His flesh
roasted little by little and gave off a sweet smell. He
was surrounded by a beautiful light. After a long time,
he said to the judge, “Let my body be turned; one side
is broiled enough.” When his body was turned, he
said, “It is cooked enough; you may eat.” Lawrence
then prayed for the conversion of Rome, and expired.
Noblemen gave him an honorable burial in the cemetery
of Cyriaca on the Via Tiburtina.
The martyrdom of Lawrence was cited by SS.
Augustine, Maximus and Jerome, and by the poet Prudentius,
who said his death marked the end of idolatry
in Rome. Lawrence became one of the most venerated
of the Roman martyrs, and miracles were ascribed to
his intercession. At the spot where Lawrence was
buried, Emperor Constantine the Great (Blessed) built
the first chapel of what became St. Lawrence-Outsidethe-Walls
Church, the fifth patriarchal basilica of
Rome.
For many years, a small quantity of Lawrence’s
blood, kept in a reliquary, would liquefy for eight days
every August.
Feast: August 10
Patronage: cooks; cutlers; glaziers; against lumbago;
the poor; Sri Lanka
Lawrence of Brindisi (1559–1619) Capuchin Friar,
Doctor of the Church
Lawrence of Brindisi was born Julius Caesar de Rossi
in Brindisi, Italy, in 1559. From an early age he was
precocious in his studies, and exhibited a natural gift
for oratory. His father died when he was 12, and he
went to Venice to study with the clerics of St. Mark’s.
In 1575 he joined the Capuchin Friars Minor, a strict
offshoot of the Franciscans, and took the name of
Brother Lawrence. He studied at the University of
Padua. He was a quick study in foreign languages and
learned the principal ones of Europe as well as Semitic
ones. He was reputed to know the entire original text
of the Bible.
Lawrence preached and evangelized throughout
Europe. His skill and gifts enabled him to hold all the
Lawrence of Canterbury 205
offices of his order. From 1596 to 1602 he lived in
Rome and evangelized the Jews at the behest of Pope
Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605). He traveled about evangelizing
Jews, and establishing houses of his order. He
was popular because of his speaking ability and his
miracles.
In 1601, while establishing a house in Prague,
Lawrence was made chaplain of Emperor Rudolf II’s
army, which was fighting the Turks. Lawrence galvanized
the troops with inspiring speeches and even led
the army in spite of his feebleness, mounted on horseback
and crucifix in hand. Miraculously he was never
wounded.
In 1605 Lawrence was sent to evangelize Germany,
where he served as papal nuncio to the court of Bavaria
and became involved in the politics that preceded the
Thirty Years’ War.
In 1618 he retired to a monastery in Caserta, Italy,
but was recalled and sent on a mission to Spain to
advise King Philip III. The journey exhausted him, and
he never returned home. He died in Lisbon on July 22,
1619.
Lawrence’s writings include hundreds of sermons,
commentaries on books of the Bible (he is especially
noted for his commentary on Genesis), various treatises
and religious polemics.
Beatified: 1783 by Pope Pius VI
Canonized: 1881 by Pope Leo XIII
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1959 by Pope John
XXIII
Feast: July 21
Lawrence of Canterbury (d. 619) Benedictine and
second archbishop of Canterbury
According to the Venerable St. Bede, Lawrence of Canterbury
was one of the original missionaries who left
Rome with St. Augustine in 595 and arrived in Thanet
(Canterbury) in 597. After Augustine was consecrated,
he sent Lawrence back to Rome to deliver to Pope St.
Gregory I the Great (r. 590–604) the news of the conversion
of King Ethelbert and his people, to announce
his consecration and to ask for direction on certain
questions. Lawrence returned with the pope’s responses.
Augustine consecrated Lawrence as bishop, and
Lawrence succeeded him as archbishop upon Augustine’s
death in 604. According to Bede, Lawrence
worked diligently to strengthen the Church, and urged
Celtic bishops to agree to peace and unity with Rome.
But Lawrence’s efforts were undone in the turmoil that
followed the death of King Ethelbert in 616, and the
reestablishment of pagan kings, including Edbald, son
of Ethelbert.

206 Lazarus
SS. Mellitus and Justus, bishops of the newly
founded sees of London and Rochester, took refuge
with Lawrence at Canterbury and urged him to flee to
Gaul with them. The two men left. The discouraged
Lawrence was preparing to follow them when he had a
dream in which St. Peter appeared to him and rebuked
him for abandoning his flock and beat him. In the
morning Lawrence found wounds on his back and
showed them to King Edbald. Impressed by the dream,
the king converted. Mellitus and Justus were recalled
to England, and evangelized throughout Kent and the
surrounding areas.
Shortly after these events, Lawrence died on February
2, 619, in Canterbury and was buried near Augustine
in the north porch of St. Peter’s Abbey church,
afterward known as St. Augustine’s. Lawrence is commemorated
in the Irish Stowe Missal.
His dream of the beating by St. Peter resembles the
dream of St. Jerome, in which that saint was beaten by
God for his pagan interests.
Feast: February 2
Lazarus (d. first century) Brother of Martha and Mary
of Bethany, friend of Jesus who was raised from the dead
The story of the resurrection of Lazarus is given in
John 11:1–44. Lazarus fell ill and Jesus was notified.
St. Lazarus being raised from the dead by Jesus (Engraving,
19th century)
He said the illness was not unto death, and stayed two
days longer in the place where he was at. He told his
disciples, “Our friend Lazarus has fallen asleep, but I
go to awaken him out of sleep.” Then he explained
more clearly, “Lazarus is dead; and for your sake I am
glad that I was not there, so that you may believe. But
let us go to him.”
By the time Jesus arrived in Bethany, about two
miles from Jerusalem, Lazarus had been dead four days
and entombed. Jesus was met by Martha, who told him
Lazarus would not have died had he come earlier, but
she acknowledged that God would grant whatever
Jesus asked. Jesus promised that Lazarus would rise
again, and Martha thought he meant in the resurrection
at the last day. Mary, weeping, also told Jesus that
Lazarus would not have died had he come earlier.
Jesus went to the tomb and ordered the stone rolled
away. Martha protested that there would be an odor,
but the stone was taken away. Jesus called out, “Father,
I thank thee and thou hast heard me. I knew that thou
hearest me always, but I have said this on account of
the people standing by, that they may believe that thou
didst send me.” Then he cried out in a loud voice,
“Lazarus, come out.” Lazarus, his hands and feet
bound in bandages, came out of the tomb. Jesus commanded,
“Unbind him and let him go.”
Word of this feat reached the Pharisees, who began
plotting how to put Jesus to death. After this, Jesus no
longer went openly among the Jews. Soon thereafter,
he was betrayed, arrested and crucified.
The Gospels do not relate what happened to
Lazarus after his resurrection. Tradition holds that
after the Crucifixion, Lazarus and his sisters went to
the south of France, where Lazarus became the first
bishop of Marseilles and then was martyred. Other legends
purport that they went to Cyprus, where he
became the bishop of Kition, or they went to Syria.
Tradition also holds that the relics of Lazarus were
translated to Constantinople. His cultus was popular in
the early Church.
Feast: July 29
Leo I (d. 461) Pope and Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Leo the Great
Leo was born in Tuscany, or perhaps in Rome of Tuscan
parents. He entered the Roman Church and became a
deacon under Pope St. Celestine I (r. 422–432). During
the pontificate of St. Sixtus III (r. 422–440), Emperor Valentinian
III sent him to Gaul to settle a dispute between
the chief military commander, Aëtius, and the chief magistrate,
Albinus, whose quarrels were leaving the province
open to attack. While he was with the two men, a

deputation arrived to announce the death of Sixtus and
his own election to the Chair of St. Peter. Leo returned
to Rome and was consecrated on September 29, 440.
He began his pastoral duties with a series of 96 stillextant
sermons on faith, encouraging various acts of
charity, elaborating on Christian doctrine, defending
papal primacy in the jurisdiction of the Church, and
strenuously opposing the heresies of Manichaeanism,
Pelagianism, Priscillianism and Nestorianism. Later in
his papacy he argued against the teachings of Eutyches,
who held that Jesus had but a single nature, his human
nature being subsumed by his divine nature; the orthodox
view was that Jesus had a dual nature. The Council
of Chalcedon in 451 not only agreed with him but
also recognized his ruling as “the voice of St. Peter,”
thus affirming Rome’s leading role in the universal
Church. However, the council also gave the Church of
Constantinople a dignity second only to Rome and
thus above those of Alexandria and Antioch (both of
which had been founded by apostles of Jesus), something
Leo refused to accept.
After Attila the Hun plundered Milan and destroyed
Pavia in 452, the emperor sent Leo as part of a delegation
to meet him and offer an annual tribute if he
would withdraw from Italy; Attila accepted, and so
Rome was saved. Unfortunately, Leo could not stop the
North African Vandals from sacking the city in 455,
though he did manage to get them to desist before they
had burned it and killed its inhabitants. The Vandals
took captives, however, and after their departure, Leo
dispatched missionary priests with money to minister
to the captives and to purchase their freedom.
Leo died in Rome on November 10, 461, and was
buried in the vestibule of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. In
688, Pope St. Sergius I (r. 687–701) had his relics
translated to the basilica itself and a special altar
erected over them.
In art, Leo is depicted as a pope with a dragon near
him. He is also shown with SS. Peter and Paul; with St.
Peter giving him the pallium; with angels surrounding
him; meeting Attila the Hun at the gates of Rome; on
horseback, with Attila and his soldiers kneeling before
him; and praying at the tomb of St. Peter.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1754 by Pope Benedict
XIV
Feast: November 10 (formerly April 11); February
18 (Eastern Church)
Patronage: choristers; musicians
Leo II (d. 683) Pope
Leo was born in Sicily, the son of Paul. Although he
was elected to the Chair of St. Peter to succeed Pope St.
Agatho (r. 678–681) a few days after the latter’s death
in June 681, he was not consecrated until August 17
of the following year, after Emperor Constantine IV
Pognatus confirmed his nomination. Leo was known
as a fine preacher with an interest in music (he was
trained in the papal choir school). He had a profound
concern for the poor.
Leo’s most important act as pope was to confirm the
acts of the Sixth Ecumenical Council of 680–681,
which condemned the heresy of Monothelitism and
censured Pope Honorius I (r. 625–638) for his failure
to do likewise.
Fearing that the Lombards, who had sacked Rome,
might again ravage the catacombs, Leo had many of
the relics of the martyrs removed and translated to a
church he had built to receive them.
Leo died on June 28, 683, after a reign of only 10
months. He is commemorated as a saint in the Roman
Martyrology.
Feast: June 28 (formerly July 3)
Leo III (d. 816) Pope
Leo III 207
Leo was the son of Atyuppius and Elizabeth, Romans
of the lower class. He joined the priesthood and served
as cardinal-priest of the church of Santa Susanna as
well as vestiarius (chief of the pontifical wardrobe and
treasury).
Leo was elected to the Chair of St. Peter on the day
that his predecessor, Hadrian (Adrian) I (r. 772–795),
was buried, December 26, 795, and consecrated the
next day. This unusual haste may have been due to the
Romans’ wish to forestall any influence from the
Franks in the election. However, Leo was quick to
inform the Frankish king, Charlemagne, sending along
the keys to the confessional in St. Peter’s basilica and
the flag of Rome. Charlemagne in return sent Leo a
considerable part of the treasure he had captured from
the Avars. This unexpected wealth allowed Leo to be
an especially generous benefactor of Roman churches
and charitable institutions.
Leo was not without his enemies, however. Two of
Pope Hadrian’s nephews had hoped to succeed him,
and on St. Mark’s Day (April 25), 799, they hired a
gang of young nobles to attack Leo as he was riding in
a procession. The youths dragged the pope from his
horse and attempted to blind him and cut out his
tongue, defects that would have made him unable to
rule. With the help of a supporter, Leo managed to
escape to the monastery of St. Erasmus, where he
recovered quickly, some believe miraculously.
Charlemagne was then in Paderborn, Germany, and
Leo crossed the Alps to see him. He returned to Rome

208 Leo IV
a few months later, accompanied by an armed escort
assigned by the king, to be met by rejoicing crowds.
Hadrian’s nephews, however, were not through with
him. They accused him of adultery and perjury.
Charlemagne convened a council to consider the
charges, but when the accusers could not prove them,
they were arrested and carried as prisoners to Frankland
(France). They were condemned to die, but at
Leo’s request, the sentence was commuted to life in
exile.
Charlemagne visited Rome in 800, and in a special
Christmas Day ceremony in St. Peter’s, Leo crowned
him Holy Roman Emperor. This was the beginning of
the Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to realize St.
Augustine’s ideal of the City of God and an alliance
intended to halt the spread of Islam in Europe. In
effect, the Holy Roman Empire revived the ancient
Western Roman Empire and pitted it against the Eastern
Empire, with its capital in Constantinople. In 801,
Leo attempted to bring about a marriage between
Charlemagne and the Eastern empress Irene, hoping
thereby to resurrect the original, unified Roman
Empire and ensure the supremacy of Christianity
throughout its domain, but the match did not come
about.
In the ensuing years, Leo and Charlemagne worked
closely together to combat the heresy of Adoptionism
in Spain, to settle disputes in Germany and England,
and to protect the northern Mediterranean against
incursions from Islamic Saracens. In 804, Leo gave his
blessing to Charlemagne’s plan to divide his empire
between his two sons.
When Charlemagne died in January 814, Leo lost
his protector, and new conspiracies were launched
against him. He managed to put these down, but his
life was coming to an end. Leo died on June 12, 816,
and was interred in St. Peter’s, where his relics are to be
found today alongside those of Popes SS. Leo I (Leo
the Great, r. 440–461), Leo II (r. 682–683) and Leo IV
(r. 847–855).
In art, Leo is generally shown crowning Charlemagne.
A restored, near-contemporary mosaic depicting
St. Peter giving the pallium to Leo and a standard
to Charlemagne survives in the Lateran Palace.
Another image from the Grandes Chroniques de France
depicts the “Torture of Leo III.”
Canonized: 1673 by Pope Clement X
Feast: June 12
Leo IV (d. 855) Pope
Leo was born into a Lombard family in Rome. He studied
at Saint Martin’s monastery in that city and became
a Benedictine monk. He was made subdeacon of the
Lateran Basilica by Pope Gregory IV (r. 827–844) and
soon thereafter was named cardinal-priest of the
church of the Quatuor Coronati by Pope Sergius II (r.
844–847). He was unanimously elected to the Chair of
St. Peter to succeed Sergius and was consecrated on
April 10, 847.
One of Leo’s first official actions was to repair the
walls of Rome, which had been destroyed in the Saracen
attack of the previous year. He also solicited the
help of the Holy Roman Emperor, and of all the cities
and agricultural colonies of the duchy of Rome, to
build a wall around the Vatican, a project that required
four years to complete. The newly fortified area
became known as the Leonine City in his honor.
In addition to these fortifications, Leo also restored
many Roman churches, including parts of St. Peter’s
Basilica, which had suffered especially heavy damage.
The list of his benefactions to churches takes up 28
pages in the Liber pontificalis.
In 849, Leo entered into an alliance with several
Greek cities. Thanks to his prayers and exhortations to
the soldiers and sailors, and to a fierce storm at sea, the
alliance soundly defeated the Moslem Saracens at the
Roman port of Ostia.
The latter part of Leo’s reign was largely concerned
with enforcing Church discipline. He died in the midst
of these endeavors and was buried in St. Peter’s on July
17, 855. He is credited with miracles and his name
appears in the Roman Martyrology.
Feast: July 17
Leo IX (1002–1054) Pope
Also known as: Bruno of Toul, Peregrinus Apostolicus
A reputed miracle-worker whose travels earned him
the nickname “Peregrinus Apostolicus,” Leo was at
home with the army as well as the court. Disagreements
and possibly miscommunication during his
reign led to the Great Schism between Constantinople
and Rome in 1054.
Leo was born at Egisheim, near Colmar, in Alsace,
on June 21, 1002, and christened Bruno. His father
Hugh was a first cousin of the future emperor Conrad.
It is said that once he refused to look at an exceptionally
beautiful book that his mother, Heilewide, had
bought and given to him. Eventually it was discovered
that the book had been stolen from the Abbey of St.
Hubert in the Ardennes. When Heilewide returned the
book to the abbey, Bruno was once again able to study.
At the age of 5, Hugh and Heilewide sent Bruno to
live with Berthold, bishop of Toul, who ran a school for
the sons of the nobility. At home one summer vacation,

Bruno was attacked in his sleep by an animal. His
wounds were so serious that for a time he was on the
brink of death. He survived, however, and afterward
said that he had had a vision of a visit by St. Benedict,
who had cured him by touching his wounds with a
cross.
In 1017, Bruno became a canon at St. Stephen’s of
Toul, and in 1024, when Conrad succeeded Emperor
Henry I, he transferred to the chapel of the king’s
court. He quickly became known as “the good Bruno,”
in contrast to others of the same name.
When Conrad set out for Italy in 1026, he asked
Bruno to lead his troops in place of the elderly Herimann,
the then-bishop of Toul; when Herimann died
shortly thereafter, Bruno was elected his successor. He
was consecrated bishop in 1027, and served for the
next two decades during a period of extreme stress,
proving to be an exceptional political as well as spiritual
leader.
When the German pope Damasus II (r. 1048) died
in 1048, the Roman Church asked Henry III (Conrad’s
successor) to let them have either Bruno or Halinard,
archbishop of Lyons, as the new pope. Henry decided
on Bruno, who went to Rome barefoot and dressed as a
pilgrim, and was elected by acclamation. Assuming the
name Leo, he was enthroned in the Chair of St. Peter
on February 12, 1049.
Leo quickly set about pushing through various
needed ecclesiastical reforms. In April 1049, he convened
a council in Rome that condemned clerical
incontinence and simony. After that he spent several
months traveling throughout Europe, convening councils
and issuing excommunications as required.
He returned to Rome in January 1050, and for the
next few years was concerned with the Normans in
southern Italy. More than once he led troops into
action, bringing criticism from St. Peter Damian,
among others. The military campaigns, moreover,
proved disastrous when Leo and his army were
defeated at Civitella in June 1053, and the pope surrendered
to his conquerors. He was imprisoned at Benevento
for nine months before being released.
During this same period, relations between the
Churches of Rome and Constantinople—strained for
centuries—were reaching a breaking point. Michael
Cærularius, patriarch of Constantinople, attacked the
Roman Church because it used unfermented bread in
the sacrifice of the Mass, struck the name of the pope
from the sacred diptychs, and closed Roman churches
in Constantinople. Leo protested and (evidently while
in prison) began to study Greek to better understand
the issues, but his efforts failed. The end came with
Michael’s excommunication by the cardinals Humbert
and Frederick on July 16, 1054, effectively separating
the Greek and Roman churches.
By the time this occurred, however, Leo had died.
Upon his return to Rome in March 1054, he ordered
his bed carried to St. Peter’s Basilica and placed next to
a coffin. There he died on April 19. His name was
entered in the Roman Martyrology.
Canonized: 1087 by Pope Victor III
Feast: April 19
Leontius Byzantinus (d. sixth century) Monk, theologian,
Father of the Church
Little is known about the life of Leontius Byzantinus.
He may have been born around 485 in Constantinople.
He joined the heretical Nestorians, but converted and
became one of their opponents. He was a monk in
Jerusalem and at Constantinople, where he died, possibly
around 543.
Despite the lack of information about his life, Leontius
was an important theologian. He wrote books
against heresies, notably those of the Nestorians,
Monophysites and Appollinarists, as well as all the
known heresies of the time, even the Jews and Samaritans.
He defended the title of Theotokos (“God-bearer”)
for the Blessed Virgin Mary. He is considered one of the
first of the Scholastics.
Linus (d. ca. 79) Pope
Very little is known about Linus. By tradition, he was
the son of Herculanus, from Tuscany. Apparently he is
the Linus mentioned by St. Paul in II Timothy 4:21. SS.
Peter and Paul are said to have turned the governance
of the Church of Rome over to him, and he is considered
to have followed Peter in the office of bishop of
Rome, making him the second in the roster of popes.
His reign lasted 12 years, from A.D. 64–67 to 76–79. He
was probably buried at the foot of Vatican Hill, possibly
beside Peter.
Feast: September 23
Louis IX 209
Louis IX (1214–1270) King of France, Crusader, confessor
Name meaning: Famous warrior
Also known as: Louis Capet
Louis IX represented the ideal medieval monarch: a
devout Christian, a Crusader, a willing warrior but an
eager peacemaker, just, fair, chaste, intelligent, capable.
He was born in Poissy on April 25, 1214, the eldest
son of King Louis VIII and Queen Blanche of Castile.

210 Louis IX
St. King Louis IX in prayer (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Blanche was the granddaughter of King Henry II of
England and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine, while Louis
VIII was the grandson of King Louis VII of France,
Eleanor of Aquitaine’s first husband. Louis was only
eight when his grandfather, Philip II, died, elevating
his father, Louis VIII, to the throne, and 12 when his
father died in November 1226, making the young boy
king. His mother, Queen Blanche, pressed for an
immediate coronation to forestall an uprising by the
restless nobles, and Louis IX was crowned at Reims by
the end of November.
Queen Blanche acted as regent for the next eight
years during her son’s minority and was an extremely
capable ruler. In her son’s name she quashed several
revolts by the nobility, including a campaign in
Languedoc by Raymond VII of Toulouse, an uprising
by Pierre Mauclerc, known as Peter I of Brittany,
another by Philip Hurepel in the Île de France (the
only land really designated the nation of France,
encompassing the city of Paris and environs) and various
campaigns by King Henry III of England, who supported
the activities of the warring French nobles.
England still claimed huge territories of what is now
France, based on the inheritances of Eleanor of
Aquitaine. Blanche skillfully won the sympathies of
Pope Gregory IX, who had earlier supported Henry III,
due to the efforts of her friend and papal legate Frangipani.
Frangipani personally accepted the surrender of
Raymond VII in front of Notre Dame Cathedral, paving
the way for annexation of the southern provinces to
France in the Treaty of Paris, 1229. When Louis IX
began ruling on his own behalf in 1235, his nation was
stronger and at peace.
In May 1234, Louis married Margaret, a noble woman
of Provence, France. Margaret’s younger sister,
Eleanor, was the wife of King Henry III of England (making
the two kings brothers-in-law), and the next sister,
Sanchia, was the wife of Henry III’s brother, Richard of
Cornwall. Louis IX’s brother Charles was married to
another of Margaret’s sisters, Beatrice. Louis and Margaret
had 11 children: five sons and six daughters.
Louis’s reign was marked by peace, diplomacy and
Christian virtue. One of his first royal acts was building
the Royaumont monastery with funds left by Louis
VIII for that purpose. He gave great sums from the
treasury and personal support to various religious
orders, including the establishment of the Carthusians
at Vauvert in Paris and the founding, along with Queen
Blanche, of the convent of Maubuisson. The king promoted
a codification of the laws and worked to eliminate
trial by combat in favor of jury trials. Louis
protected the weak from oppressive nobles, reformed
taxation, outlawed usury and even ordered branding as
punishment for blasphemy, an edict lessened to fines
on the advice of Pope Clement IV.
The king also sent money to the Latin princes ruling
the Crusader kingdoms in the Holy Land. In gratitude,
in 1239 King Baldwin I of Jerusalem offered to
sell Louis—an avid collector of sacred relics—a piece
of what Baldwin claimed was Christ’s Crown of Thorns
from the Crucifixion. Unfortunately, Baldwin had
pawned the relic to Venetian moneylenders, but Louis
delightedly paid an exorbitant sum for the relic and
sent two Dominican friars to Venice to retrieve it. He
and his entire court met the Dominican delegation at
Sens and accompanied the treasure to France. In 1241,
Louis purchased pieces reported to be from the True
Cross. To house these divine objects Louis demolished
the chapel of St. Nicholas in Paris and built Sainte-
Chapelle, one of the most beautiful examples of Gothic
architecture still standing. The walls of the second
floor, which was used for worship and veneration of
the relics, are made almost entirely of stained glass
panels illustrating Bible stories and events from Louis’s
reign. In one, Louis and Margaret are depicted holding
the Crown of Thorns on a pillow. Interestingly, several
of the windows illustrate stories of women from the
Bible as an homage to the king’s mother. The relics
were lost during the French Revolution.

In 1242, Louis quelled a rebellion led by Hugh of
Lusignan, count de la Marche. The count was married
to Isabel, the widow of King John I of England and the
mother of Henry III. Louis defeated Henry III at Taillebourg,
establishing the Peace of Bordeaux and the
annexation of a part of the province of Saintonge to
France. In 1259, Louis settled with Henry III by signing
the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry agreed to relinquish
claims to the provinces of Normandy, Anjou,
Maine, Touraine and Poitou, and Louis ceded the Limousin,
Quercy and Perigord to Henry III along with
compensation. Most historians believe that if Louis
had pressed his advantage with Henry III the later
Hundred Years’ War between the two nations might
have been averted. Nevertheless, peace lasted for 24
years.
After surviving a deadly fever in 1244, Louis
declared his intention to lead a Crusade upon learning
that the Turcoman Muslims had invaded Jerusalem.
Before he could leave, however, affairs of state delayed
his departure for three years; during that time all
benefices were taxed a 20th of their income to finance
the Crusade. Louis, Queen Margaret and three of the
king’s brothers finally left for Cyprus in June 1248,
where they spent the winter accompanied by William
Longsword, earl of Salisbury, and 200 English knights.
The Crusaders’ objective was Egypt, whose sultan,
Melek Selah, had been attacking Palestine. Louis’s
troops easily took the port city of Damietta, in the Nile
Delta, in early 1249, but could not continue their success.
To the king’s horror, the soldiers engaged in
debauchery and looting, occasionally interrupted by
desultory fighting, for about a year until, weak from
dysentery, Louis himself was captured in April 1250.
Queen Blanche, again serving as regent for her son,
began raising a huge ransom. Upon learning of the
king’s capture, peasants, called the “Pastoureaux” and
led by someone called the Hungarian Master, banded
together in the “crusade of the shepherds” to try to rescue
Louis. But when the peasants took up arms against
the clergy, Blanche engaged them in battle near Villeneuve
in June 1251, routing the rebellion. By late
1250, the Mamluk emirs had overthrown Sultan
Melek, and the emirs accepted the city of Damietta as
ransom for Louis and a million bezants for the other
prisoners. Louis and the remnant of his forces sailed
for Palestine, where he remained, visiting holy places,
until 1254, when he learned of Blanche’s death two
years before.
For the next 13 years, Louis pursued philanthropy
and diplomacy. He arranged the above-mentioned
Treaty of Paris with Henry III in 1259, and in 1263
arbitrated on behalf of Henry against the English
barons who sought to limit Henry’s authority. In 1258,
Louis IX 211
Louis imposed the Treaty of Corbeil upon the king of
Aragon, who agreed to relinquish all claims to
Provence and Languedoc, except Montpellier, in return
for French concessions to claims for Roussillon and
Barcelona. A patron of architecture and academics, he
helped his friend and confessor, Robert de Sorbon,
establish the College de la Sorbonne as the theological
school of the University of Paris in 1257. In 1254,
Louis established the House of the Felles-Dieu for
reformed prostitutes and the Hospital Quinze-Vingt
for 300 blind men (“quinze-vingt”: 15 score, or 300).
He personally tended the poor and sick. Eschewing
royal raiment for plain clothing, he often met with
churchmen, including St. Thomas Aquinas, and continued
to wear the Crusader’s cross as a pledge. He
became a Franciscan tertiary. Consequently, no one
was surprised—nor were they pleased—when Louis
announced his second crusade in 1267.
Organizing the Crusade again took three years, during
which time the pope granted Louis one-tenth of all
Church revenues. In addition, the king levied a toll tax
on his French subjects. After naming the abbot of St.
Denis and Simon de Clermont as co-regents, Louis and
his three eldest sons—Philip, John and Peter—sailed
from Aigues-Mortes at the mouth of the Rhone in
southern France on July 1, 1270. He landed at Tunis
in North Africa, awaiting reinforcements from his
brother Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, and was
crushed to learn that rumors of the Mamluk emir’s
conversion to Christianity were false. Shortly thereafter
typhus and dysentery broke out; Louis’s second son,
John, died, and the king and his eldest son, Philip,
came down with typhus.
Louis declined rapidly, and he gave detailed instructions
to his children about ruling the kingdom
and remaining faithful to God. On August 24, the
king received the last rites and then called for the
Greek ambassadors, whom he urged to reunite with
the Roman Church. The next day Louis lay unable to
speak until noon, then repeated Psalm 5:7. Speaking
again at 3:00 in the afternoon, he commended his soul
to God and died. Louis’s bones and heart were returned
to France and enshrined in the Abbey of St.
Denis until they were vandalized and scattered during
the Revolution.
Canonized: 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII
Feast: August 25
Patronage: barbers; builders; buttonmakers; construction
workers; Crusaders; death of children;
difficult marriages; distillers; embroiderers;
French monarchs; grooms; haberdashers; hairdressers;
kings; masons; needleworkers; parents
of large families; prisoners; sculptors; the sick;

212 Lucius I
soldiers; stonemasons; tertiaries ; Archdiocese of
St. Louis, Missouri
FURTHER READING
“Biography of Louis IX, King of France.” URL: http://elvis.
rowan.edu/~kilroy/JEK/08/25.html. Downloaded July
11, 2000.
Weir, Alison. Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life. New York: Ballantine
Books, 1999.
Wilding, Eloise. “Saint Louis, King of France 1214–1270.”
URL: http://stlouis.baltimore.md.us/html/king.htm. Updated
April 27, 2000.
Lucius I (d. 254) Pope
Lucius was born in Rome, the son of Porphyrius. After
Pope St. Cornelius died in exile in June 253, Lucius
was elected to his place. He himself was exiled soon
after his consecration, but when Emperor Valerian
assumed the throne, was allowed to return to Rome.
St. Cyprian declared that the banishment and
return were miraculous, God’s plan to shame the
heretics and bring Lucius greater authority against
those “whom the Devil protects as his own”—the
Novatians, whose schism had begun under Cornelius
and continued under Lucius. The Novatians wanted no
pardons for Christians who had forsaken their faith in
the face of persecution. Lucius agreed with Cornelius
and Cyprian, who held that with proper penance apostates
could once again receive Communion.
Lucius died in Rome on March 4, 254, after only
nine months in office. The cause of his death is not
known, but it is unlikely that he died a martyr. He died
during a period of relative calm, the inscription on his
tomb in the Catacombs of St. Callistus does not indicate
martyrdom, and his name does not appear in early
martyrologies. His relics were moved either by Pope
Paul I (r. 757–767) to the church of San Silvestro de
Capite or by Pope Paschal I (r. 817–824) to the basilica
of St. Praxedes, whence they were translated once
again by Pope Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605) to the
church of St. Cecelia, where they now lie.
Feast: March 4
Lucy of Syracuse (d. 304) Virgin and martyr
Name meaning: Light; bringer of light
Also known as: Lucia
Although venerated as one of the holy virgin martyrs,
little truth is known about Lucy. The accepted story, as
told by the English bishop St. Aldhelm of Sherborne in
the seventh century, says that Lucy was born in Syracuse,
on the island of Sicily, to wealthy parents, perhaps
Christians. Her father died when she was an
St. Lucy of Syracuse (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
infant. Lucy consecrated herself to God and vowed to
remain a virgin at a young age. Her mother Eutychia,
however, pledged her in marriage to a young pagan
named Paschasius. To convince her mother of the seriousness
of her resolve, Lucy accompanied Eutychia to
the tomb of St. Agatha at Catania, where Eutychia’s
long suffering from a hemorrhagic illness was cured.
Eutychia agreed to let Lucy remain a virgin.
But the rejected bridegroom denounced Lucy as a
Christian to the authorities under Emperor Diocletian.
The judge first sentenced Lucy to serve as a prostitute,
but supposedly her body became immobile, and neither
guards nor even teams of oxen could move her.
Next the judge tortured her, perhaps putting her eyes
out, but her sight was restored. He then tried burning
her, but the fires went out. Finally Lucy died from a
sword thrust to her throat. Another story says Lucy put
out her own eyes and carried them on a tray to dissuade
a suitor from looking at her.
Whether any of the acts attributed to Lucy are true,
she has a large following. In the Scandinavian countries,
the feast day of Lucia is the Festival of Lights. In
some Swedish farming communities, a young girl
dressed in white with a red sash and a crown of lingonberry
twigs and candles goes from house to house,
carrying a torch and leaving baked goods. In most Norwegian
and Swedish families, usually the youngest
daughter dresses in white as the “Lussibrud” (Lucy

ide) on Lucy’s Day, December 13, and wakes the rest
of the family with a song and a tray of coffee and saffron
buns called “Lussikattor” (Lucy cats). Both celebrations
can be traced to her role as “bringer of light.”
Under the old Julian calendar, the winter solstice
occurred on December 13 rather than on the later
Gregorian December 21, meaning the long northern
nights of darkness would turn into the long days of
light. Lucy’s Day also ushered in the Yuletide, with
Lucy candles in the house and Lucy fires in the fields
to welcome the birth of the True Light of the World.
All preparations for Christmas were completed by
Lucy’s Day.
The Church did not always venerate Lucy. Because
of the meaning of her name in Latin, Lucy was originally
associated with the fallen angel Lucifer. The saffron
buns that the Lucy bride delivers represented the
devil’s cats. Indeed, the buns are made in a crossed
shape where the front rolls, or arms, are turned inward,
much as a cat often sits.
Lucy’s remains supposedly went to Constantinople
and then to Venice during the Crusades, where they
are buried in the Church of Santa Lucia. Venetian gondoliers
honor her by singing the famous song “Santa
Lucia” as they row visitors through the canals.
Canonized: Added to the Canon of the Mass by
Pope Gregory in the seventh century
Feast: December 13
Patronage: Authors, blind people and blindness,
cutlers, sufferers of eye diseases, sufferers of hemorrhagic
illnesses, glaziers and glass workers,
laborers, peasants, salesmen, writers, sufferers of
throat infections, Venetian gondoliers
Luis Beltrán (1526–1581) Patron saint of Colombia
who evangelized throughout the Americas
Luis Beltrán was born in Valencia, Spain, in 1526. At
18 he joined the Order of St. Dominic and in 1547 was
ordained a priest. Five years later he was put in charge
of instructing the novitiates. As a teacher he was very
strict and severe, concerned that his students sincerely
renounce the world and unite perfectly with God.
In 1562, Luis was sent to Cartagena, Colombia, to
evangelize the natives of the New World. He worked in
missions throughout Colombia, Panama and the
islands of the Caribbean. Although he spoke only
Spanish, God gave him the gifts of tongues, prophecy
and miracles.
Luis returned to Spain in 1569 and dedicated himself
to training new missionaries to continue with the
evangelization of the Americas. He died on October 9,
1581, after a debilitating illness.
Canonized: 1571 by Pope Pius V
Feast: October 9
Patronage: Colombia
Luke the Evangelist 213
FURTHER READING
“San Luis Beltrán, Patrono de Colombia.” Santos y Biatos de
America Latina: Colombia. URL: http://www/aciprensa.
com/santcolo.htm. Downloaded: November 15, 1999.
Luke the Evangelist (first century) Author of the third
gospel and of the Acts of the Apostles
Name meaning: Bringer of light
Also known as: Luca; Lucas; Lucanus; Luke the Apostle
Luke is mentioned often in the Holy Scriptures, and
himself authored two of its longest books. He was from
Antioch, of Greek descent, perhaps a slave. He was one
of the earliest converts to Christianity following Jesus’
death and Resurrection. Although he never met Jesus
or heard him preach, he worked closely with St. Paul
and would have known other of the apostles.
At the time of his conversion, Luke was a physician.
He may have studied medicine at Tarsus, and there met
St. Paul and been converted by him. In any event, following
Paul’s vision of the Macedonian, Luke was one
of those who traveled with him on his second missionary
journey to Macedonia. He stayed behind at Philippi
to continue the evangelical work there (around A.D.
51–57). When Paul came back to Philippi on his third
journey, Luke left with him and returned to Jerusalem.
He was with Paul in Jerusalem when Paul was arrested,
beaten and imprisoned, though he himself escaped,
probably because he did not look Jewish. However,
over the next two years (about 57–59), while Paul was
in prison in Caesarea, Luke visited him frequently.
After Paul was released, Luke again traveled with him,
and he was in Rome when Paul was arrested for the
second and then for the third and final time. He would
have been present when Paul was martyred, about the
year 67.
Luke may have written his Gospel between Paul’s
first and second imprisonment, although it is possible
that he wrote it later, at the end of his life. His writing
style is the most literary of any of the Gospels; he has
been called “a painter in words.” The Gospel is based
largely on Paul’s writings and teachings, together with
Luke’s own experiences. It was intended for Gentile
Christian converts like himself and emphasizes Jesus’
reaching out to Gentiles. It is the Gospel of the poor
and of social justice, and gives special prominence to
women, especially the Virgin Mary. Interestingly, Luke
frequently juxtaposes accounts of miracles involving a
man with another involving a woman. For example,
the demoniac is cured (4:31–37), then Peter’s mother-

214 Luke the Evangelist
St. Luke the Evangelist (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
in-law is cured (4:38–39); the centurion’s slave is
healed (7:1–10), then the widow of Nain’s son is raised
from the dead (7:11–17); the Gerasene demoniac is
healed (8:26–39), then Jairus’s daughter is raised and
the woman with the hemorrhage is healed (8:40–56).
Luke also recounts several of Jesus’ parables not related
elsewhere, including those of the lost sheep, the Good
Samaritan, the prodigal son, the Pharisee and the publican,
the barren fig tree, and Lazarus.
Luke’s Acts of the Apostles is in a way a continuation
of his Gospel, although it may have been written
before it. The earliest Christian writers contradict
themselves on this point, as they do on when his
Gospel was written. Acts is a history of the early
Church, based in part on Luke’s own experiences. It
might been have better titled as Acts of the Holy Spirit,
because of its emphasis on God working through the
apostles.
Tradition has it that Luke was a painter as well as a
physician and a fine writer. Without doubt he was “a
painter in words,” and his descriptions of events such
as the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, the
Presentation and the shepherd and lost sheep have
inspired countless artists. He is said to have carried a
painting of the Virgin Mary with him wherever he
went, and this is said to have been the source of many
conversions. However, all the extant paintings attributed
to him have been shown to be the work of other,
later artists. The legend that he was a painter arose first
in Greece, but was confirmed in the popular mind by a
rough drawing found in the catacombs and inscribed
as “one of seven painted by Luca.”
It is not known when and how Luke died. According
to tradition, he died in Boeotia (in present-day
Greece) at the age of 74 (possibly, 84). Although he is
said to have been martyred, this is doubtful, given the
place and time. The churches of Constantinople (now
in Turkey) and Padua (now in Italy) claim to have
translations of his relics.
Luke’s emblem is the winged ox—the ox being the
Jewish sacrificial animal—because his Gospel begins
with the sacrifice in the temple by Zachary, the priest,
father of St. John the Baptist. It may also allude to
Luke’s emphasis on the atonement made by Christ’s
suffering and death. In art, he appears as a physician or
bishop with a book or scroll; painting the virgin; in a
doctor’s cap and gown, holding a book; giving his book
to St. Theophilus.
Feast: October 18
Patronage: art guilds; art schools; artists; bookbinders;
brewers; butchers; butlers; doctors; glass
makers; goldsmiths; lacemakers; notaries; painters;
physicians; sculptors; stained-glass workers;
surgeons

Macrina the Elder (d. ca. 340–350) Grandmother of
SS. Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Macrina the
Younger and Peter of Sebaste
Macrina the Elder was born in Neocaesarea in Pontus,
Cappadocia (in modern Turkey), probably before 270.
She received her religious training from St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus, the first bishop of her native town. She
married a Christian man. During persecutions she and
her husband were forced to live in the Pontus wilderness
for several years. Macrina had a great deal of influence
upon the religious upbringing of her famous
grandchildren.
Feast: January 14
Mf
Macrina the Younger (ca. 330–379) Granddaughter
of Macrina the Elder and sister of SS. Basil the Great,
Gregory of Nyssa and Peter Sebaste
Macrina the Younger was named after her grandmother.
Her parents were Basil the Elder and Emmelia,
both Christians. At birth she was given another, secret
name because of a dream or vision experienced by her
mother. According to an account by Gregory of Nyssa,
Emmelia fell asleep during her labor and beheld a man
“in form and raiment more splendid than a human
being” who addressed the child she was carrying by
215
the name of Thecla, the virgin martyr in the apocryphal
work, Acts of Paul and Thecla. The apparent
angel did this three times and then gave her easy delivery.
When Emmelia awakened, she saw that she had
given birth to a girl. The child was called Thecla in private
and Macrina in public.
Macrina received a strong religious upbringing and
education from her Christian parents and her grandmother.
She was engaged to be married at age 12, but
her fiancé died, and she decided to pursue a religious
life, and to never leave her mother.
When Basil returned home from his studies in
Athens, she influenced him toward the life of Christian
perfection. After the death of her father, Macrina
persuaded her mother to help her form a contemplative
religious community on the family estate in Pontus
on the River Iris. Within the community everyone
was equal and shared equally in food and housing.
They were assisted by Macrina’s brother, St. Peter of
Sebaste, who presided over the men in the community.
Basil established his own monastery across the
river.
Macrina and Emmelina remained in the monastery
for the rest of their lives. Macrina became head of the
community when her mother died. In 379, after the
death of Basil, brother Gregory of Nyssa visited Macrina
and found her seriously ill. They had a discourse

216 Madeleine Sophie Barat
about life after death and meeting in heaven, which
inspired Gregory to write his Dialogue on the Soul and
Resurrection. Macrina died soon after their meeting.
Feast: July 19
FURTHER READING
Gregory of Nyssa. Life of Macrina. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/macrina.html.
Downloaded September
11, 2000.
Madeleine Sophie Barat (1779–1865) Founder of the
Society of the Sacred Heart
Madeleine Sophie Barat was born on December 12,
1779, in Joigny, Burgundy, France. She was educated
by her brother Louis, who took her to Paris. There
Abbé Joseph Varin d’Ainville persuaded her to reorganize
a group of women living under a religious rule;
this group became her congregation in 1800.
Madeleine and the group went to Amiens and
formed a school in 1802 with Madeleine as superior
general and principal. In 1804 Madeleine founded the
Society of the Sacred Heart in Grenoble. She admitted
to the order Blessed Rose Philippine Duchesne, who
took the society to America in 1818. In 1826, the order
received formal approval from Pope Leo XII (r.
1823–29).
The society spread quickly through Europe and
America—hundreds of institutions existed by the time
of Madeleine’s death—but the organization was fraught
with internal dissension. Madeleine maintained control,
and in 1830 moved the headquarters to Switzerland
to escape the political instability in France.
Madeleine foretold her own death and died on
Ascension Thursday, May 25, 1865, at the society’s
motherhouse in Paris.
In 1893 she was exhumed. Though the coffin was
damp and her garments were mildewed, her body was
incorrupt and even her tongue was flexible. She was
reclothed and reinterred in a tomb in the chapel of Our
Lady of Dolours above the crypt where she previously
had been buried.
From 1901 to 1908, religious suppression was
widespread in France, and 46 of the society’s convents
were closed. Madeleine’s body was removed to Jette,
Belgium, where it remains enshrined. The body was
exhumed again in 1908, the year of her beatification,
and was found still incorrupt. So well preserved was
the body that no relics were taken; the face and hands
were covered with silver.
A special shrine in the Sacred Heart Convent in
Jette was built in 1934, and the body was placed in a
reliquary beneath the altar. The shrine is popular with
pilgrims, especially on the first Sunday of the month.
Beatified: 1908 by Pope St. Pius X
Canonized: May 24, 1925, by Pope Pius XI
Feast: May 25
Marcellinus (d. 304) Pope
Marcellinus, son of Projectus, was born in Rome. He
was elected bishop of Rome to replace St. Caius on
June 30, 296. Almost nothing has come down to us
concerning his pontificate, which came at the beginning
of the persecution of Emperor Diocletian.
For centuries, Marcellinus was believed to have
apostatized when the persecution’s first edict appeared,
surrendered the Vatican’s sacred books, and offered
incense to the pagan gods of Rome, then repented, for
which he was put to death. However, St. Augustine,
among others, gave no credence to these rumors,
which have since been largely discredited. Probably
they constituted disinformation put forward by Diocletian
or his henchman, Maximianus Herculeus.
There is little reason to believe that Marcellinus’s
death on October 25, 304, was not natural. His name
does not appear in early martyrologies. The Catacomb
of St. Callistus on the Via Appia (which for the last two
centuries had served as the final resting place of the
popes) having been confiscated, his body was interred
in the Catacomb of Priscilla on the Via Salaria. His
tomb was venerated from a very early date by Roman
Christians, and the site appears on the itineraries of
seventh-century pilgrimages.
Feast: April 26 or October 25
Marcellus I (d. 309) Pope and martyr
St. Marcellinus, the predecessor of Marcellus, died in
October 304, but the continuing persecutions of
Emperor Diocletian made it impossible to hold a new
election to the papacy at that time. It was only after
Diocletian’s abdication to Maxentius in October 306
that it could be contemplated. However, Marcellus was
not elected bishop of Rome until May or June of 308.
The Roman Church was then in considerable disarray,
most of its meeting and burial places having been
confiscated during the persecution, and Marcellus took
immediate steps to return order. He reorganized the
church into parishes, appointing at the head of each
parish presbyters who were given responsibilities to
prepare catechumens for baptism, direct the performance
of penances, oversee burials of the dead, and
perform celebrations commemorating the deaths of
martyrs.
Marcellus also was faced with a large number of
lapsed Christians, who had denied their faith in the

face of the persecutions and now wanted to return to
the Church. He ruled that they could do so, though
only after having made appropriate penance. Although
this decision followed longstanding Church practice, it
did not sit well with many. Serious conflicts, some
resulting even in bloodshed, arose, causing Emperor
Maxentius to exile Marcellus from Rome.
Marcellus probably died in exile, although there is a
tradition that he was made a slave by Maxentius and
forced to work in his stables (or in the stables of a station
on a public highway). Although celebrated as a
martyr, it appears that his death was not violent. He
was buried in the Catacombs of St. Priscilla on the Via
Salaria on January 16, 309, but 300 years later his
relics were translated to their present resting place
under the high altar of the church of San Marcello al
Corso.
In art, Marcellus is depicted as a pope with a donkey
and a crib near him, sometimes in a stable.
Feast: January 16
Marcus (d. 336) Pope
Also known as: Mark
Nothing has come down to us concerning the early life
of Marcus. He was a Roman priest and may have
served as first deacon under Pope St. Sylvester, whom
he succeeded in the Chair of St. Peter on January 18,
336.
Marcus is said to have invested the bishop of Ostia
with the pallium and ordained that he consecrate the
pope upon taking office, though this is historically
uncertain. Marcus certainly enjoyed the continuing
support of Emperor Constantine the Great, who provided
land and liturgical furniture for two new
churches—San Marco in Rome and another, which was
constructed over the Catacombs of St. Balbina.
Marcus died on October 7, 336, after only 10
months in office, and was buried in the Catacomb of
St. Balbina. His grave was on the itinerary of seventhcentury
pilgrimages.
Feast: October 7
Margaret of Antioch (d. ca. 304) One of the Fourteen
Holy Helpers
Also known as: Margaritha, Margaretha, Marina, Marine
Margaret of Antioch was one of the most popular virgin
martyrs in the canon of the Church during the
Middle Ages, but later scholars believe that while she
may have been martyred, anything else attributed to
her was purely legend and attributable to a forgery
Margaret of Castello, Blessed 217
written in the 10th century, allegedly by Theotimus,
Margaret’s servant. She is no longer a part of the
Catholic calendar.
Her story is as follows: Margaret was the daughter
of a pagan priest in Antioch, Pisidia, and was nursed
by a Christian woman who became her guardian after
Margaret’s own conversion. One day, while tending her
guardian’s flocks, Margaret came to the unfortunate
notice of the prefect Olybrius, who lusted for her. Margaret
spurned his advances, and Olybrius vindictively
turned her in to the tribunal as a Christian. She was
imprisoned, where the devil appeared to her as a
dragon and swallowed her. But brave Margaret, holding
a cross, so irritated the devil-dragon that he either
disgorged her or exploded. The next day the authorities
tried to torture Margaret, first by fire then by
immersion in a cauldron of boiling water. Neither
worked, and the thousands who witnessed her ordeal
were so moved that they converted to Christianity
en masse, then were promptly executed. Finally, the
prefect ordered her beheading, and she died. Her
executioner fell dead at her feet so he could join the
virgin in heaven, and a noble widow buried her body
in Antioch.
Margaret was one of the voices heard by St. Joan of
Arc, along with SS. Catherine of Alexandria and
Michael the Archangel. Pregnant women often pray for
Margaret’s intercession, believing that her disgorgement
from the dragon is a sign of safe delivery during
childbirth. Her supposed relics were stolen from Antioch
in 980 and brought to San Pietro della Valle, then
translated to Montefiascone in 1145. Some relics were
moved to Venice in 1213, and others are claimed in
churches throughout Europe.
Feast: July 20 in the West; July 13 in the Eastern
Church
Patronage: against death; against sterility; childbirth;
escape from devils; exiles; kidney disease;
loss of milk by nursing mothers; martyrs; nurses;
peasants; people falsely accused; pregnant
women; women; women in labor; Queen’s College,
Cambridge
Margaret of Castello, Blessed (1287–1320) Dominican
tertiary
Also known as: Margaret of Citta-de-Castello; Margaret
of Metola
Margaret of Castello was born in 1287 as a blind, lame,
hunchbacked dwarf. Because of her deformities, her
parents kept her hidden from sight. In 1293 they took
her to a healing shrine in Citta-de-Castello, Italy, and
when a miraculous cure was not forthcoming, they

218 Margaret of Cortona
abandoned her. She was found in a parish church.
Sympathy poured out to her, and she was cared for by
a succession of families in the village. Nuns at a local
convent gave her a home, but the arrangement was not
mutually satisfying. Margaret found the convent too
lax, and the nuns did not care for her religious fervor;
nor did she bring them any profit.
Margaret then settled in a permanent foster home.
At age 15 she became a Dominican tertiary. She cared
for the sick and the dying, and also cared for the village
children and gave them religious instruction. She
helped prisoners.
Margaret also had miraculous gifts. She prophesied
and healed. Though blind, she had many visions. During
periods of intense prayer, she was known to levitate
up to 20 inches off the floor and remain suspended
for a long time.
Margaret often exclaimed, “Oh, if you only knew
what I have in my heart!” When she died in 1320 at
age 33, her heart was cut open. In it were three pearllike
pellets carved with images of Jesus, the Blessed
Virgin Mary and St. Joseph. After her death, more than
200 miracles occurred that were attributed to her intercession.
In June 1558 Margaret’s coffin was observed to be
rotting, and it was opened in order to transfer her
remains to a new one. Her clothing had turned to
dust, but her body was incorrupt. It was determined
to be free of embalming chemicals. Margaret’s body
was reclothed and buried in a new coffin. It now lies
in a glass reliquary beneath the high altar of the
Church of St. Domenico in Citta-de-Castello. The
body still has its eyelashes and fingernails and toenails,
and the arms are flexible. It is dressed in a Dominican
habit.
One of Margaret’s most notable miracles took place
when she was living in a private home. One day fire
swept through the area, and the house burned. Margaret
was trapped upstairs. She calmly went to the top
of the stairs, took off her mantle, rolled it up and threw
it down to the firefighters, telling them to throw it on
the fire. They did so, and the fire immediately went
out.
Beatified: 1609 by Pope Paul V
Feast: April 13
FURTHER READING
Bonniwell, William. The Story of Margaret of Metola. New
York: P.J. Kennedy and Sons, 1952.
Margaret of Cortona (1247–1297) Franciscan tertiary
and mystic
Also known as: Magdalen of the Seraphic Order
Margaret of Cortona was born in Laviano, Tuscany,
Italy, in 1247. Her mother died when she was seven.
Her father remarried, but the stepmother mistreated
the girl. Margaret grew to be a great beauty. At age
17, she ran off with a cavalier and lived with him as
his mistress in his luxurious castle in Montepulciano
for nine years, during which she bore a son. She
desired to be married, but her lover always reneged on
his promises to do so. Her arrangement scandalized
people, but according to lore, Margaret asserted she
would die a saint and pilgrims would visit her shrine.
One day her lover set out on a journey with his dog.
The dog returned without him and led Margaret to his
mangled body in a shallow grave—he had been brutally
murdered. She gave up all her possessions to his
family. Her family refused to accept her, and so she and
her son set out for Cortona to seek entry with the
Franciscan Friars there. They were taken in.
Margaret struggled to adjust to life as a religious.
She publicly repented for her life of sin. She once tried
to mutilate her beautiful face, but was prevented from
doing so by Father Giunta. She earned her living nursing
women. After three years she was admitted to the
Third Order of St. Francis. She took a vow of strict
poverty, and subsisted on alms and ministered to the
sick and poor.
In 1277 she had the first of her mystical experiences.
While praying in the church of the Franciscan
Friars, she heard these words: “What is thy wish,
poverella?” She responded, “I neither seek nor wish for
aught but thee, my Lord Jesus.” From then on she
experienced a continuing and intense communion
with Christ. Initially, He called her “poverella” (“poor
one”) and then “my child.” In her frequent ecstasies
she received many messages from Him, some for her
and some for others, which she delivered. Father
Giunta recorded some of the divine messages.
Margaret was instrumental in the establishment of a
hospital in Cortona for the sick and poor. She established
a congregation of Tertiary Sisters, called le
poverelle (“poor ones”), to serve as nurses to the sick
and poor, and she also established a confraternity of
Our Lady of Mercy to support the hospital and the
needy in the community.
She also did not hesitate to speak up, and twice criticized
the bishop of Cortona for his lavish lifestyle.
Margaret lived in the hospital and then moved to
the ruined church of St. Basil, which she had repaired.
She lived the remainder of her life in the church, working
miracles of healing. She knew the date of her death
in advance, and died on February 22, 1729. She was
buried at the church, which later was rebuilt in a
grander style and dedicated to her.

The body of Margaret remains incorrupt, with all of
the nails on her hands and feet intact. The body is
exposed in a glass-sided reliquary decorated with precious
gems and ornaments that have been donated by
pilgrims.
Canonized: 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII
Feast: February 22
Patronage: homeless; midwives; single mothers; tertiaries
Margaret Mary Alacoque (1647–1690) Mystic and
leader of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus
Also known as: Margaret Mary
Margaret Mary Alacoque was born at L’ Hautecour,
France, on July 22, 1647, to Claude Alacoque and
Philiberte Lamyn. As a child she preferred to sit in
silence and prayer. Her father died when she was eight,
and she was sent to the Poor Clare school at Charolles.
She took her First Communion at age nine, and
secretly practiced such severe mortifications that she
contracted rheumatic fever and spent four years paralyzed
in bed. She is said to have healed instantly when
she vowed to the Blessed Virgin Mary that she would
consecrate herself to a religious life. She was 15.
Margaret Mary’s family suffered great poverty, but
recovered its property when she was 17. Her mother
felt that Margaret Mary could serve God at home by
penance and charity to the poor. Though she still bled
from her mortifications, she engaged in worldly activities.
But one night after returning home from a carnival
ball, she had a vision of Christ as he was during the
scourging, reproaching her for infidelity to him. She
spent the rest of her life regretting two faults committed
at this time: the wearing of some ornaments and a
mask at the carnival to please her brothers.
On May 25, 1671, Margaret Mary entered the Visitation
Convent at Paray, where she was subjected to
many trials to prove herself. She was professed in
November 1652.
On December 27, 1672, she had the first of a series
of revelations that would last a year and a half. In these
visions Christ told her that he had chosen her to
spread devotion to his Sacred Heart. He told of his
ardent desire to be loved by humanity and his design
of manifesting his Heart with all its treasures of love,
mercy, sanctification and salvation. He called Margaret
Mary “the Beloved Disciple of the Sacred Heart” and
the heiress of its treasures.
Christ instructed her in a devotion that became
known as the Nine Fridays and the Holy Hour, and he
asked her to establish the feast of the Sacred Heart on
the Friday after the octave of the feast of Corpus
Margaret Mary Alacoque 219
Christi. Margaret Mary was inspired to pray lying prostrate
with her face to the ground from 11 until midnight
on the eve of the first Friday of each month, to
share Jesus’ sadness at being abandoned by his apostles.
She also was inspired to receive Holy Communion
on the first Friday of every month.
Margaret Mary later recorded in her Autobiography
that during these visions she felt intense, burning and
all-consuming heat from the Sacred Heart of Jesus:
The Sacred Heart was represented to me as a resplendent
sun, the burning rays of which fell vertically upon my
heart, which was inflamed with a fire so fervid that it
seemed as if it would reduce me to ashes . . . His Five
Wounds shining [sic] like so many sounds. Flames
issued from every part of his Sacred Humanity, especially
from his Adorable Bosom, which resembled an open furnace
and disclosed to me His most loving and most amiable
Heart, which was the living source of these flames.
Margaret Mary’s visions earned her scorn and criticism
from her peers; her mother superior rebuffed her.
Eventually Margaret Mary won over her superior, but
she failed to convince members of her own community
and a group of investigating theologians that her
apparitions were real. Bl. Claude La Colombière, who
served as the community’s confessor for a time, supported
her and declared that her visions were genuine.
A breakthrough came in 1683 when a new mother
superior was elected and Margaret Mary was named
her assistant. She later became novice mistress. The
convent began to observe the feast of the Sacred Heart
privately in 1686. In 1688 a chapel was built at Paray
to honor the Sacred Heart, and the feast spread to other
Visitation convents.
In her final illness she refused all treatment, repeating
frequently: “What have I in heaven and what do I
desire on earth, but Thee alone, O my God?” She died
pronouncing the Holy Name of Jesus on October 17,
1690, at Paray-le-Monial.
Her body rests under the altar in the chapel at
Paray, and attracts many pilgrims, who obtain favors
through her intercession. When her tomb was canonically
opened in July 1830, two instantaneous cures
took place.
Margaret Mary’s intense devotion to the Sacred
Heart, and to the need to suffer, permeated all of her
writings, including her autobiography and her letters.
For her, the only glory was in complete annihilation of
the self and surrender to God. There was no “middle
course” for ensuring salvation for eternity. “Our falls
are the continual revolt of our passions,” she wrote.
“But we need not be troubled, cast down or discouraged
by them: we must do violence to ourselves and
draw profit from them.”

220 Margaret of Scotland
Margaret Mary, St. John Eudes and Bl. Claude La
Colombière are called the “Saints of the Sacred Heart,”
a devotion officially recognized and approved by Pope
Clement XIII (r. 1758–69) in 1765.
Declared Venerable: March 1824 by Pope Leo XII
Beatified: September 18, 1864, by Pope Pius IX
Canonized: 1920 by Pope Benedict XV
Feast: October 17
Patronage: against polio
FURTHER READING
Bougaud, Emile. The Life of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1994.
Margaret Mary Alacoque. The Autobiography of Saint Margaret
Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers,
1995.
Margaret of Scotland (ca. 1045–1093) Queen of
Scotland
Margaret of Scotland probably was born around 1045,
though the date is not reliable. She was the granddaughter
of King Edmund Ironside of England and
daughter of Edward the Aethling. Her mother, Agatha,
was related to Gisela, the wife of St. Stephen of Hungary.
According to tradition, Margaret and her family
were exiled to Hungary when Canute and the Danes
controlled England. Her father became known as
“Edward the Exile.” They returned to England in 1057,
but when the Norman Conquest came, Agatha went
back to Europe and Margaret and other members of
her family went north to Scotland to the court of King
Malcolm III. In 1069 Margaret married Malcolm,
despite her original desire for a life of piety.
Margaret devoted herself to piety as much as
possible. She was well educated and had a keen intellect.
She convened a synod, at which various
reforms were instituted. She persuaded Malcolm to
romanize the Celtic Church, substitute Saxon for
Gaelic as the court language, and replace the clan system
with a feudal system. Such reforms earned her
much criticism.
Margaret founded several churches, including the
abbey of Dunfermline, where she placed a true relic of
the Cross, as well as many objects made of gold. She
built a chapel at Edinburgh Castle. She worked to
improve the literacy at court and among the people.
Tradition holds that Margaret did not hesitate to
help the poor, and even washed their feet and fed children
from her own dish.
According to legend, Margaret and Malcolm enjoyed
a true love relationship. Malcolm could not read
or write, but bought for her a book of the Gospels and
had it encrusted with jewels. One day the book fell
into a river and was miraculously recovered. The book
now is housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
Margaret severely impaired her health by following
strict austerities. By the time she was 40, her health
was permanently damaged from fasting and abstinence,
and also from the rigors of birthing seven children.
Malcolm tried to expand his kingdom into England,
but was met with resistance by William the Conqueror.
There was much fighting. Margaret foretold the day of
her death, November 16, 1093. Prior to that she was
severely ill and preparing for her death. She passed
away upon hearing the news that her husband and oldest
son had been killed several days earlier in England,
where they had gone on a raid. Ambushed, they had
surrendered, but the king was then murdered in
treachery and his body dumped on the battlefield. Son
Edward was killed soon thereafter.
Margaret died in Edinburgh Castle, which was
under siege. A thick mist arose, enabling the transport
of her body to the abbey of Dunfermline, where she
was buried before the high altar. Her body exuded a
sweet perfume. Malcolm’s body, which had been buried
at Tynemouth after his murder, was moved to the
abbey 20 years later. In 1250 her remains were translated
to the shrine of the Lady Chapel at the abbey.
Legend has it that her coffin became too heavy to
move, until the coffin of her husband was moved as
well. Both repose beneath the high altar. Margaret
became the only Scots monarch ever to be canonized.
Three of her sons became kings of Scotland: Edgar,
Alexander and David.
After 1560, during the Protestant Reformation,
Margaret’s relics were moved for safety. The torso of
Margaret and body of Malcolm were sent to Madrid.
Margaret’s head went to Edinburgh Castle, where Mary
Queen of Scots thought it would aid the birth of her
child, James, the future king James VI of Scotland and
king James I of England. In 1567 Mary fled to England,
and the head was given to a Benedictine monk to keep
in the castle of the laird of Durie. In 1597 the head was
taken to Antwerp by a Jesuit. In 1627 it went to the
Jesuits of the Scots College at Douai in northern
France, where it was placed in a silver case. The college
was destroyed in the French Revolution, and Margaret’s
head disappeared.
Meanwhile, the remains sent to Spain mysteriously
disappeared by 1863, save for one six-inch piece of
bone, now kept in the Ursuline Convent of St. Margaret
in Edinburgh. Bone splinters were sent to two
churches in Hungary. In 1991 a set of teeth identified
as Margaret’s were found in Spain.
Margaret’s holy rood, which she requested as she lay
dying, disappeared sometime during the Protestant

Reformation. It was a gold cross set in diamonds with a
figure of Christ carved out of ivory. It was taken to
England, then returned to Scotland. In 1346, King
David II took it into battle with him and lost it to the
English.
Canonized: 1250 by Pope Innocent IV
Feast: June 10
Patronage: learning
FURTHER READING
Wilson, Alan J. St. Margaret Queen of Scotland. Edinburgh:
John Donald Publishers, 1993.
Marguerite Bourgeoys (1620–1700) Founder of the
Sisters of Notre Dame
Also known as: Margaret Bourgeoys, Marguerite Bourgeous,
Marguerite Bourjeoys
Marguerite Bourgeoys was born in Troyes, France, on
April 17, 1620, the sixth of 12 children of devout
Catholic parents. Her mother died when she was 19,
her father when she was 27. Marguerite applied for
admission to the Carmelites and Poor Clares, but was
refused entry by both orders. She joined an uncloistered
community, but was not happy with this decision.
Then in 1652 when the governor of Ville-Marie,
New France (now Montreal, Canada), came to Troyes
to recruit teachers, she decided to go with him.
Marguerite arrived in Ville-Marie for the first time
in 1653 and set about teaching children and caring for
the sick. In 1658, she helped to organize the first
school in the community, and was appointed headmistress.
She went back to France in 1659 and
returned the following year with four new assistants; in
1670 she went to France again.
Upon her return to Ville-Marie in 1672, Marguerite
decided to found a religious congregation, called the
Sisters of Notre Dame, and after some discussion, was
given approval by her bishop in 1676. Before the new
order was approved by the Vatican in 1688, it had
established missions to the Indians and admitted 18
sisters, seven of them French Canadian and two Native
American. Marguerite passed the role of superior on to
her successor—Marie Barbier, the first Canadian to
join the order—in 1693.
The Sisters of Notre Dame obtained the right from
King Louis XIV of France to teach throughout
Canada, and the apostolate increased in spite of
the difficulties the sisters encountered, such as
fires and massacres by the Iroquois to the south.
Marguerite established schools for Indian children as
well as schools for the French at Quebec and Trois
Rivières. When the King sent untrained orphans to
Canada as colonists, she set up a school for the
Marguerite Bourgeoys 221
The only authentic portrait of St. Marguerite Bourgeoys,
painted on January 2, 1700, by Pierre LeBer immediately
after her death (Courtesy Chapelle Notre-Dame-de-Bon-
Secours, Montreal)
women to teach them how to survive in the new,
harsh environment.
In 1889, the congregation received papal approval
to spread into the United States. Today Marguerite’s
congregation has 200 convents.
Marguerite spent her last years praying and writing
her autobiography. On December 31, 1699, she asked
the Lord to take her life in exchange for a young sister
who was then near death. By the morning of January
1, the sister was completely well, but Marguerite had a
raging fever. She suffered another 12 days, then died,
on January 12, 1700, at the age of 79.
Beatified: 1950 by Pope Pius XII
Canonized: April 2, 1982, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: January 19
Patronage: against poverty; impoverishment; loss of
parents; people rejected by religious orders
FURTHER READING
Simpson, Patricia. Marguerite Bourgeoys and Montreal,
1640–1665. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press,
1997.

222 Marguerite d’Youville
Marguerite d’Youville (1701–1771) Superior of the
Sisters of Charity
Also known as: Mary Margaret Dufrost de la Jemmarais
d’Youville
Marguerite D’Youville was born at Varennes, Quebec,
Canada, on October 15, 1701, the daughter of Christophe
Dufrost de la Jemmerais and Renée de Varennes.
Her father, a French soldier, died in her youth. After
studying with the Ursulines, she married François D’
Youville in 1722, when she was 21. The marriage was
unhappy, but the couple produced three children, one
of whom died young. When François died in 1730,
Margeurite had to work to support herself and her two
surviving children. However, she also devoted much
time to charitable activities. Herself a battered wife, she
opened a shelter for other battered women, prostitutes
and Indian women.
In 1737, Marguerite and three companions took
their initial vows in a new religious congregation, the
Sisters of Charity (the Grey Nuns); a formal declaration
of the new order followed in 1745. Two years later,
Marguerite was appointed director of the General Hospital
in Montreal, thenceforth under the management
of the Grey Nuns. In 1755, the bishop of Pontbriand of
Quebec gave his approval to the order, acknowledging
Marguerite as superior.
From 1756 to 1763, Canadians fought the Seven
Years’ War, which brought Quebec under British rule.
After the war, Marguerite was involved with the politics
of society, church and government, as the predominantly
French Quebecois struggled to find their
place in a new reality. They were made to feel unwelcome
in a land they had always called home, living
under the ominous threat that England would not
long tolerate the practice of Catholicism. The Grey
Nuns, however, persevered and have survived. Since
Marguerite’s death in Montreal on December 23,
1771, the order has established schools, hospitals
and orphanages throughout Canada, the United
States, Africa and South America. They are known
especially for their work among the Canadian Inuit
(Eskimos).
Declared Venerable: April 28, 1890, by Pope Leo
XIII
Beatified: 1959 by Pope John XXIII
Canonized: December 9, 1990, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: April 11
Patronage: death of children; difficult marriages; inlaw
problems; loss of parents; opposition of
Church authorities; people ridiculed for their
piety; victims of adultery; victims of unfaithfulness;
widows
FURTHER READING
Fitts, Mary Pauline. Hands to the Needy: Marguerite d’Youville
Apostle to the Poor. Yardley, Pa.: Grey Nuns of the Sacred
Heart, 2000.
McGuire, Rita. “St. Marguerite d’Youville.” URL: http://
www.renc.igs.net/~marguerite/D%27YOUVIL.htm.
Downloaded: January 27, 2000.
Mariana of Quito (Mariana de Jesús de Quito)
(1618–1645)
Also known as: Lily of Quito; Mariana de Paredes y Flores
of Quito; Mariana of Jesus
Mariana of Quito was born Mariana Paredes y Flores in
Quito, Ecuador, then part of Peru, in 1618. She led a
life of sanctity remarkably similar to that of Rose of
Lima, with whom she is often compared.
Her parents died when she was four and she went
to live with her elder sister and her husband. From
childhood she showed an extraordinary piety. She was
much concerned with poverty and the plight of the
poor. She spent hours on end counting her rosary and
took her First Communion when she was seven or
eight, an unusually young age for her time. When she
was 12, she wanted to go and evangelize Japan.
From childhood, she mortified herself in food,
drink and sleep. She hid a basket under the table,
served herself the same amount as others, but secretly
put most of the food in the basket and distributed it to
the poor. On especially hot days she refused all liquid
while she contemplated the thirst of Jesus on the cross.
Her favorite meditation was on the Passion and the
death of Jesus, and she often wore a crown of thorns
while counting the rosary. She allowed herself only a
few hours of sleep a night.
Mariana at first wanted to enter a convent, but
twice things occurred that prevented her from doing
so. She concluded that God wanted her to remain in
the world and built a hut for herself in her sister’s
house in which she stayed, except to go out to the
church or to help people in need. She is said to have
acquired a coffin and slept in it several nights a week,
during the day stuffing it with cushions to resemble a
corpse, in order to remind herself of her mortality.
Mariana was quite musical and played the guitar
and piano wonderfully. She also sang, preferring religious
songs, which helped her to meditate. Like Rose
of Lima, she also enjoyed sewing and embroidery, and
spent much of her time alone on these activities. Also
like Rose, she ministered to the needy and taught
Indian children in her home.
Many pictures of Mariana show her holding a lily.
She became known as the “Lily of Quito” following an
illness during which she was bled. A nurse who assisted

at her bedside drained her blood into a spittoon, from
which a lily subsequently bloomed. This supernatural
event was not the only one with which Mariana is credited.
She had the gift of prophecy, predicting events that
subsequently occurred as she had said they would. One
of these prophecies was a foretelling of the date of her
own death on a Friday the 26th.
In 1645, when Mariana was 27 years old, Quito was
shaken by a series of earthquakes accompanied by an
epidemic of disease that took the lives of many. Mariana
heard a priest say in a sermon that he would willingly
give his life to have the earthquakes stop and
responded that the priest’s life was too valuable and she
would sacrifice hers instead. A short while later the
earthquakes stopped and the epidemic ended, but Mariana
herself became sick and died. The day was Friday
the 26th of May.
Mariana’s burial was met with an ovation from the
entire city of Quito. In 1946, the Congress of Ecuador
acknowledged her sacrifice by bestowing on her the
title of “Heroína de la Patria” (Heroine of the Fatherland).
She is credited with a continuous series of miracles
after her death.
Beatified: by Pope Pius IX (r. 1846–78)
Canonized: 1950 by Pope Pius XII
Feast: May 26
FURTHER READING
“Santa Mariana de Jesús, Azucena de Quito.” Church Forum
Santoral. URL: http://www.churchforum.org.mx/santoral.
Downloaded: November 30, 1999.
“Santa Mariana de Jesús de Quito.” Santos y Biatos de America
Latina: Ecuador. URL: http://www.aciprensa.com/
santecua.htm. Downloaded: November 30, 1999.
Maria Soledad (1826–1887) Founder of the Handmaids
of Mary Serving the Sick
Also known as: Emanuela Torres; Vibiana Torres;
Maria-Desolata Torres Acosta; Maria Soledad Torres
Acosta; Mary Soledad
Maria Soledad was born December 2, 1862, in Madrid,
the daughter of Francis Torres and Antonia Acosta. She
was baptized with the name Emanuela.
When Emanuela was old enough to leave home she
applied to the Dominican convent in Madrid, but was
refused entry due to poor health. She spent much time
in prayer asking God for guidance. Then in 1848, when
she was 22, a Servite tertiary priest named Michael
Martinez y Sanz recruited her and six other women for
a new religious community to serve the poor and sick
of Madrid; the religious had become concerned that so
many were dying without receiving the Last Sacraments.
This community was formally established on
August 15, 1851, as the Handmaids of Mary Serving
the Sick. When she donned the habit, Emanuela took
the name Maria-Desolata, or Maria Soledad.
In 1856, Father Martinez took half of the members
of the order with him to found a new house overseas,
leaving Maria-Desolata behind as superior of the motherhouse
in Madrid. Maria was to devote the rest of her
life to running the convent. The Handmaids of Mary
received diocesan approval in 1861 and papal approval
in 1876.
Maria contracted pneumonia on October 11, 1887,
at age 60. She died quietly at the motherhouse after
receiving the Last Sacraments. She was buried in the
sisters’ plot at the cemetery, but then on January 18,
1893, her remains were exhumed and transferred to
the motherhouse. Her body was found to be intact,
though it exuded a bloody liquid, and a sweet odor
was noticed by everyone there. A few years later, however,
nothing remained but her bones.
Beatified: 1950 by Pope Pius XII
Canonized: 1970 by Pope Paul VI
FURTHER READING
“Santa María Soledad Torres.” Church Forum website. URL:
http://www.churchforum.org/santoral/Octubre/1110.htm.
Last modified: May 17, 1999. Downloaded: November
20, 1999.
Marie of the Incarnation, Blessed (1599–1672) Missionary
to Indians in Canada
Also known as: Marie of the Ursulines
Marie was born in Tours, France, on October 28, 1599,
the daughter of a baker named Guyard. In 1616, she
married a silk manufacturer, Claude Martin, and they
had one son. When Claude died in 1618, she became a
bookkeeper for her brother-in-law. However, in 1629
she decided to become a nun, and joined the Ursulines
at Tours, taking the name Marie of the Incarnation.
In 1639, Marie was sent as a missionary to Canada.
She laid the cornerstone of the first Ursuline convent
in Quebec in 1641, rebuilding it when it was destroyed
by fire in 1650. She taught the Indians of the region
and compiled dictionaries in the Algonquin and Iroquois
languages. Although she suffered periods of spiritual
aridity, she also experienced mystical visions. She
died in Quebec on April 30, 1672.
Beatified: 1980 by Pope John Paul II
Mark the Evangelist 223
Mark the Evangelist (d. ca. 70) Author of the second
book of the New Testament; by tradition, founder and first
bishop of the Church of Alexandria
Also known as: John Mark; Marcos; Marcus; Markus

224 Mark the Evangelist
St. Mark the Evangelist (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Mark is mentioned several times in the New Testament,
sometimes with variations of his name, but most
biblical authorities today consider them to refer to the
same person. If so, then he was the son of Mary, a
friend of the Apostle St. Peter, and a cousin of the
evangelist St. Barnabas. Like Barnabas, he may have
held a position in the Jewish clergy before his conversion
to Christianity. His Jewish name was John, to
which was added the Roman Marcus; thus he is sometimes
known as John Marcus or John Mark. It is not
certain that he ever met Jesus; his Gospel is based on
the teachings of Peter.
Mark’s mother was evidently a person of some
wealth and position. She was a member of the early
Christian community in Jerusalem. Her home was a
gathering place for the Christians and it was there that
St. Peter went after miraculously escaping from prison,
about the year 44.
At the time of the famine of 45–46, Mark accompanied
Barnabas and St. Paul from Jerusalem to Antioch.
From there he started with them on Paul’s first missionary
journey, but soon left and returned to
Jerusalem. Why he returned alone is not known, but
he was in Salamis on Cyprus about 47 and at Antioch
again about 49. When Paul refused to take Mark along
on his second journey, around the year 50, Barnabas
split with Paul and he and Mark sailed together to
Cyprus.
Mark’s activities for the next 10 years are unknown,
but by the year 60 he was in Rome with Paul, with
whom he had apparently mended his quarrel, and was
about to make a trip to Asia Minor. It appears that he
did go, but later, at Paul’s request, returned to Rome
and was there when Paul was martyred in about 67.
After this, he began to work with Peter, who was then
also in Rome.
According to tradition, Mark wrote his Gospel from
Peter’s teachings around this time, in response to
requests from Roman Christians. Mark stresses Jesus’
miracles rather than his prophecies, perhaps because
he himself was most impressed by them, or perhaps
because he thought they would most impress his audience.
His was probably the first Gospel written,
although it is positioned second in the New Testament.
Another tradition credits Mark with founding the
Church of Alexandria. The date when he first arrived
in Alexandria is uncertain, though it may have been
about the year 50, after the trip to Cyprus. The Bible is
silent on his activities of this period. Afterward, he
went to Rome to assist Paul and Peter, and later
returned to Alexandria. There he is also said to have
founded a Christian school.
Mark died in Alexandria, although when is unclear.
It may have been as late as the year 75, although an
uncertain tradition dating from the fourth century says
that he was martyred by strangulation on April 25,
A.D. 68. His relics were interred first in Alexandria, but
in the ninth century were translated to Venice, Italy,
where a cult had arisen. The original Church of St.
Mark in Venice was destroyed in 976, but the rebuilt
basilica contains Mark’s relics. The basilica is decorated
by a magnificent series of mosaics on Mark’s life, death
and translation dating from the 12th and 13th centuries.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Mark the Evangelist
and John Mark are believed to be different people.
Mark’s emblem is a winged lion. The winged lion
was originally a Jewish symbol for one of the four
archangels, and later for one of the four major
prophets. By the fourth century, Christians had transferred
the emblem to the four evangelists. The traditional
explanation for the winged lion as Mark’s
symbol is that his gospel speaks to the rural dignity of
Christ and he begins his account of Saint John the Baptist
with the “voice crying in the desert.”
In art, Mark sometimes appears with a book or
scroll along with the lion. He has also been depicted as

a bishop with his throne decorated with lions; as aiding
Venetian sailors; as a man with a halter around his
neck; or as rescuing Christian slaves from the Saracens.
Feast: April 25 (in the West); September 23 (in the
East). The translation of his relics to Venice is
celebrated on January 31.
Patronage: attorneys; barristers; captives; glaziers;
against impenitence; against insect bites; lions;
notaries; against scrofulous diseases; secretaries;
Spanish cattle breeders; stained glass workers;
against struma; Egypt; Venice, Italy
Martha (d. first century) Sister of SS. Lazarus and
Mary of Bethany, Israel
St. Martha at the feet of Jesus with her sister, Mary (Engraving, 19th century)
Martha 225
The Gospels mention Martha in connection with a visit
by Jesus and also his resurrection of Lazarus from the
dead. Luke 10:38–42 tells how Jesus and his disciples
were received into Martha’s home. While Martha
waited on the men, her sister Mary sat at Jesus’ feet to
listen to his teaching. Martha complained and asked
Jesus to instruct Mary to help her. He replied, “Martha,
Martha, you are anxious and troubled about many
things; one thing is needful. Mary has chosen the good
portion, which shall not be taken away from her.” John
11:2 identifies Mary as the one who anointed Jesus’
feet with oil and wiped them with her long hair.
John 11 recounts the raising of Lazarus. Martha
went out to meet Jesus, and told him she knew her
dead brother will “rise in the resurrection on the last
day.” Jesus said, “I am the resurrection and the life; he
who believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live,

226 Martin I
and whoever lives and believes in me shall never die.
Do you believe this?” Martha answered, “Yes, Lord; I
believe that you are the Christ, the Son of God, he who
is coming into the world.” At the tomb, Jesus commanded
the stone to be rolled away, but Martha
protested, saying, “Lord, by this time there will be an
odor, for he has been dead four days.” The stone was
taken away and Lazarus rose from the dead.
Feast: July 29
Patronage: cooks; dieticians; domestic help; housekeepers;
servants; waitpersons
Martin I (d. 655) Pope and martyr
Martin was born at Todi on the Tiber River in Umbria
(Italy), the son of Frabricius. He was of noble birth, of
commanding intelligence and profound learning, and
was noted for his charity to the poor. A member of the
order of St. Basil, he became a deacon in the Roman
Church, and on July 21, 649, was elected successor to
Pope Theodore I (r. 642–649).
Martin had himself consecrated without waiting for
the imperial confirmation, as was the custom, and
almost immediately called a council to consider
Monothelitism. This heresy asserted that Christ had
only divine will and was lacking in human will. One
hundred and five bishops from Europe and Africa met
in five sessions; they issued several proclamations,
excommunicated some Church leaders, and condemned
the Typus, the edict of the reigning emperor
Constans II, which favored Monothelitism. They then
sent Constans a copy of the acts in Latin along with a
Greek translation.
The response must have been predictable. Martin
was sick when the emperor’s soldiers arrived to arrest
him, and he grew sicker aboard ship on his way to
the island of Naxos. He was held on Naxos for as long
as a year in abominable conditions, then taken to
Constantinople. Arriving there on September 17,
653, he was left on the ship’s deck for several hours,
exposed to the insults of crowds of spectators, then
carried to prison on a stretcher. After another 90
days of confinement, he was put on trial for treason
and convicted. He was paraded through the city in
chains, publicly flogged and again imprisoned. Three
months later he was taken before the Senate, where
the imperial treasurer acted as judge, and he was
asked to sign the Typus. When he refused, he was
condemned to death, but thanks to the intercession of
the dying Paul, patriarch of Constantinople, was
exiled to Cherson (Kherson) in the Crimea instead.
He left for Cherson on March 26 and arrived there on
May 15, 654.
Martin’s letters from Cherson describe how he was
deserted by his Church and his friends, though he nevertheless
continued to pray that their faith would
remain intact. He suffered for 18 months before dying
on September 16, 655. It is likely that he died of starvation,
as Cherson was suffering from famine at the
time. He was buried in the church of Our Lady near
Cherson, though the greater part of his relics were later
translated to Rome, where they are now to be found in
the church of San Martino ai Monti.
Many miracles were credited to Martin’s intercession
after his death. He was the last pope to die a martyr.
In art, he is portrayed as pope and with geese
around him, or as seen through prison bars (the last,
possibly a confusion with St. Martin of Tours).
Feast: April 13 (formerly November 12; November
10 in York; April 13 in Greek Orthodox Church;
April 14 in Russian Orthodox Church; September
20 in Eastern Orthodox Church generally)
Martin de Porres (1579–1639) Dominican known for
his charitable works
Also known as: Martin of Charity, Martin of Porres, the
Saint of the Broom
The first black South American saint, Martin de Porres
was born on November 9, 1579, in Lima, Peru, one of
two illegitimate children of Juan de Porres, a Spanish
knight, and Ana Velásquez, a freed slave of African
descent from Panama. He was a contemporary of Rose
of Lima and was baptized in the same basin and by the
same priest as she.
Martin had a difficult childhood, partly because he
was looked down upon for being a dark-skinned
mulatto. Although Martin’s father acknowledged his
paternity later, his name does not appear on Martin’s
birth certificate, which states “father unknown.” Juan
de Porres took little interest in his children in their
early years, leaving Martin and his sister to grow up in
the care of their mother alone. However, he later took
them to live with him in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and provided
them with private tutors. Martin returned to
Lima when his father was named governor of Panama,
and at age 12 was apprenticed to become a barber, at
that time a well-paying profession that included not
only hairdressing but also surgery and herbal healing.
He is said to have planted a lemon tree that bore fruit
all year round and was still doing so for at least 50
years after his death.
From his youth, Martin was devoutly religious,
continually praying to God for guidance. At 15, he
decided to dedicate himself to the religious life, and
joined the Third Order of Dominic, the same order

Rose of Lima joined a few years later. He entered the
Dominican Friary of Rosario in Lima, though due to
his color, he was admitted only as a lay servant of the
community, and assigned the most menial of chores.
These he performed well and without resentment,
earning him the nickname “Saint of the Broom.”
After nine years, the monastery bent its rules of
admittance to allow Martin to become a brother. He
was given the responsibilities of barber and healer, and
was able to dedicate himself fully to charitable endeavors.
Yet he continued to be humble, wearing the oldest,
most patched garments he could find, and spending
hours each night in prayer and penitence. He lived in
great austerity, never eating meat and fasting continuously,
and often had himself flogged until he bled.
Martin collected alms in astonishing numbers
(some said that he caused them to be increased miraculously)
and returned all to the poor and needy. He
raised his sister’s dowry in three days. He administered
to everyone, rich and poor alike, including prisoners,
plague victims and African slaves, healing and counseling
people on a variety of personal problems. He went
so far in tending the sick that the other friars complained
that he wanted to make the monastery into a
hospital. With the help of the Spanish viceroy, the
archbishop and Lima’s moneyed class, he established
an orphanage and a foundling hospital. On the hills
above the city, he planted fruit orchards for the disadvantaged.
Martin grew herbal plants in his cell, though he
cured as much through prayer as through his knowledge
of medicine. When the archbishop of Lima once
became very sick he called for Martin to heal him.
Placing his hands on the most painful spot, Martin
prayed, and the archbishop was cured. Among the
many other cures attributed to him are those of a priest
dying from a badly infected leg and a young student
whose fingers had been mangled in an accident.
Martin’s ministrations extended to animals, with
whom he seemed able to communicate in some way.
Animals came to him for healing and he ran a hospital
for cats and dogs in his sister’s house. The story is told
that when the prior ordered him to set out poison for
mice that were devouring the cloth of the sacristy, Martin
did as instructed, but then went out into the yard
and called the mice. They came out and he reprimanded
them for their bad manners, explained about
the poison, and offered a deal—if they stayed out of
the buildings, he would set food out for them in the
yard. The mice agreed, and from that time on none
were seen in the church.
Martin was widely known also for a variety of
supernatural feats, including not only prophecy and
clairvoyance, but also levitation and bilocation.
St. Martin de Porres
Martin de Porres 227
When he prayed devoutly he sometimes became
entranced and rose in the air, where he would be seen
by his fellow friars, suspended several feet above the
church floor. Martin wanted deeply to go off on a foreign
mission so he could give his life as a martyr. This
was not possible for him, but traveling Peruvian merchants
and missionaries reportedly saw him in Central
America, Mexico, China, Japan and the Philippines,
earning him the title of the “flying brother.” Martin
sometimes bilocated in Lima also; he is said to have
been seen at deathbeds counseling people at the same
time that he was in the monastery.
Martin often put his abilities to work in practical
ways. He could enter and exit the closed monastery
door without a key. Once when he was on a picnic
with some novices, the group lost track of time and
suddenly realized that they would be late for their
prayers. Martin had all join hands and before they
knew what had happened, they were standing again in

228 Martin of Tours
the monastery yard. When enemies once arrived in his
room to harm him, he turned invisible.
Three times he was visited by the devil who tried to
deflect him from the path of his faith, but each time he
managed to defeat him. The first time the devil took
the form of a man who accosted him at the bottom of a
flight of stairs. The second time the devil appeared in
his cell one night while Martin was sharing it with a
friend. The door came open on its own, but Martin recognized
the devil and other demons. They hit and
shook him and set the cell on fire, frightening Martin’s
friend immensely, but when it was all over, the cell
appeared as if nothing had happened. The third time
was shortly before Martin’s death. The devil came not
to strike him but with reverence, telling him how
saintly he was, making Martin suffer by making him
feel vain and superior. The Virgin Mary, St. Dominic
and St. Vincent Ferrer joined him, and together they
pushed the devil away again.
Martin contracted quatrain fever and accurately
predicted the date and hour of his death. While waiting
to die, he had visions of saints and Mary. He was
visited by the viceroy, who came to ask his blessing. He
died on November 3, 1639, while praying and kissing
a crucifix.
While Martin’s body lay on display, mourners tore
so many pieces from his habit that it had to be changed
three times. Miracles began almost immediately to be
credited to his intervention. His cause was so strong
that the long process of canonization began as early as
1660.
In 1664, his casket was opened so that his remains
could be moved to a better tomb. A sweet smell of
roses emanated from it. His body was found to be
incorrupt, though the bones were easily disjointed.
Permission had not yet been granted for the taking of
relics; however, one friar secretly removed a rib and
hid it under his habit. The bone immediately began to
radiate intense heat. The friar removed the bone inside
his cell, but during the night the heat increased to the
point where the friar decided to confess and surrender
the bone. He detached a small fragment for his own
veneration. The fragment emanated intense heat as
well, and the friar was once again forced to confess and
surrender what he had taken.
Many accounts of his supernatural feats in life are
well documented. Martin’s companions called him the
“Flying Brother.” His bilocations were reported in
Mexico, China, Japan, Africa, the Philippines and
perhaps even France. Martin especially bilocated to
help the sick. On one occasion, he persuaded a sick
man to try a remedy that he said he had seen successfully
used in a hospital in Bayonne, France—which he
could have visited only through extraordinary means.
In Africa, he appeared to help people imprisoned as
captives in Barbary.
Martin was seen levitating three to four feet off the
ground on numerous occasions; one such ecstasy was
reported to have lasted an hour. On another occasion,
he was seen to be level with a crucifix on a wall with
his lips pressed against it. Oddly, his own body was
somehow smaller in size so as to be similar to the body
on the cross. No one ever seemed to witness him rising
into the air, but rather witnesses would come upon
him already floating as he prayed. When done, he
would descend and walk calmly away.
Martin also helped others by cloaking them with
invisibility. Once two escaped criminals took refuge in
his monastery cell. He had them kneel and pray. When
authorities came to search the monastery, including
Martin’s cell, the criminals could not be found. Martin
told them they must mend their ways.
Martin was observed surrounded by, or even emanating,
rays of supernatural light, especially during his
ecstasies in which he levitated. He also had gifts of
prophecy and clairvoyance, and knew instantly where
he would be needed, and what were the specific needs
of others. He healed people and animals by touch.
Martin has many devotees in the United States as
well as Latin America and elsewhere around the world.
The government of Peru declared him to be the patron
of social justice.
Beatified: 1837 by Pope Gregory XVI
Canonized: May 5, 1962, by Pope John XXIII
Feast: November 3
Patronage: barbers; hairdressers; innkeepers; people
of mixed race; public education; public health;
racial harmony; social justice; state schools; television
FURTHER READING
Cavallini, Giuliana. St. Martin de Porres-Apostle of Charity. Tr.
Caroline Holland. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers,
1999.
“Martín de Porres, religioso (1579–1639).” Archidiócis de
Madrid. URL: http://www.archimadrid.es. Downloaded:
November 4, 1999.
“San Martín de Porres.” Santos Peruanos. URL: http://
ekeko.rcp.net.pe/IAL/cep/santpapa/santoslos.htm. Downloaded:
November 4, 1999.
Martin of Tours (ca. 316–ca. 397) Bishop and pioneer
of Western monasticism
Martin of Tours was born around 316 in Sabaria, Pannonia
(now Hungary), to pagan parents. His father was
a military tribune. The family was transferred to Pavia,

Italy, when Martin was a child. At age 10, he went to
church and begged to become a catechumen. At age
12, he would have retired to live as a hermit had he
been old enough to do so. When he was 15, however,
he was drafted into the Roman army. Though not formally
a Christian, Martin was attracted to Christian
ways and lived more as a monk than a soldier.
The most famous incident of his early life occurred
in 337. Martin was in Amiens, Gaul, with his unit. One
extremely cold day, he met a half-naked beggarman
shivering and begging for alms at the city gates.
Moved, Martin took off his cloak, cut it in half with his
sword, and gave one piece to the man. That night he
had a dream in which Jesus appeared with a multitude
of angels and said, “Martin, yet a catechumen, clothed
me with this robe.” (Martin’s half of the cloak became a
relic after his death.) After this, Martin was inspired to
be baptized. At the entreaties of his tribune, he
remained in the army for nearly two more years.
When barbarians invaded Gaul and Julian Caesar
needed an army, Martin declined the soldier’s bounty
and asked to be released to the service of Christ. Julian
Caesar had him imprisoned, but soon released him.
Martin went to Poitiers, where he was taken in by
the bishop, St. Hilary (later a Doctor of the Church),
who ordained him an exorcist. Not long thereafter,
Martin was urged in a dream to return home and
attend to his parents. He converted his mother but
failed with his father. His opposition to the Arians
resulted in his public scourging and banishment.
Hilary, meanwhile, was suffering his own problems and
had been forced from Poitiers. Martin retired with a
priest to the island of Gallinaria in the Gulf of Genoa
until 360, when Hilary returned to Poitiers.
Hilary gave Martin some land about two miles outside
the city, now called Liguge, where Martin became
a hermit in a wooden hut. He soon attracted other hermits,
thus creating the first monastic community in
Gaul. He probably would have stayed there indefinitely
had not the bishop of Tours died around 371–372.
Asked to take the office, Martin declined. His supporters
tricked him into coming to Tours, where he was
persuaded to stay as bishop. The monastic community
of Liguge grew to a great monastery that continued
until 1607 and was revived in 1859 by the Solesmes
Benedictines.
As bishop, Martin was loathe to give up his hermit
ways. He lived first in a cell near the church and then
moved to Marmoutier, in a desert-like location enclosed
by a steep cliff and a tributary of the Loire. He
founded an abbey and was joined by about 80 hermits.
Many lived in caves carved out of the cliff. They
wore camelhair shirts and spent their time in prayer.
Martin of Tours 229
St. Martin of Tours splitting his cloak for a beggar (Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Martin preached about the countryside, and many
miracles were attributed to him. He is credited with
converting many persons throughout a wide area surrounding
the abbey, and even as far as Chartres and
Paris.
One of his most difficult situations occurred around
384, when a Gnostic-Manichaean sect known as the
Priscillianists, in Spain and Gaul, were condemned as
heretics and excommunicated. Martin initially persuaded
Emperor Maximus not to execute them, but the
emperor reneged and had the heretics beheaded. Martin
interceded on behalf of the Spanish Priscillianists,
who were threatened with persecution.
Martin went to Rome and then to Candes, where he
established a religious center. He fell ill and died there
on November 9, 397 (some accounts give 400 as the
year). His successor, St. Britius, built a chapel over his
grave. A basilica was later built, and remains one of the
most important pilgrimage sites in Europe.
Martin’s chief biographer was his friend Sulpitius
Severus, who wrote his biography about one year
before Martin’s death. Sulpitius compared Martin to the
apostles and attributed numerous miraculous feats to
him, including healing, exorcisms, visions of angels
and temptations by devils. He is said to have raised the
dead on three occasions: a monk who was about to be
buried; a slave who had hanged himself; and a child
brought to Martin by his mother. Most of these events
are dismissed by many historians as fiction or greatly
embroidered fact. However, it is likely that he performed
healings and exorcisms, as these skills would

230 Martyrs of Japan
have been expected from a religious of his repute. He
likely had visionary experiences as well.
Feast: November 11
Patronage: horsemen; the impoverished; soldiers;
tailors
FURTHER READING
Sulpitius Severus on the Life of St. Martin. URL: http://www.
users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.tx t.
Downloaded: February 9, 2000.
Martyrs of Japan (d. 1597) A group of 26 priests and
lay brethren who were killed in Nagasaki
Christianity had been introduced into Japan by St.
Francis Xavier, beginning in 1549. By 1587 there were
some 200,000 Christians in Japan, greatly unsettling a
feudal lord, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was ruling Japan
in the name of the emperor; he ordered all missionaries
to leave the country within six months. Some did so,
but many donned disguises and stayed, setting the
stage for confrontation. This came when a Spanish
ship’s pilot bragged to Hideyoshi that Japan would
soon be a Christian country, thus easing the way for
conquest by Spain and Portugal.
Hideyoshi had 24 of the martyrs rounded up beginning
in December 1596. Their left ears were cut off and
they were paraded from town to town for a month,
until they reached the hill in Nagasaki where they were
sentenced to die on February 5, 1597. The last two of
the 26 were taken from the crowd that came to watch
the executions. All were permitted to confess to two
Jesuits, then tied to crosses with ropes or chains, iron
collars around their necks. The crosses were raised and
spaced about four feet apart in a long row, and each
martyr was stabbed twice with a spear by his own executioner.
The martyrs are said to have died happily, with
smiles on their faces, many crying out: “Jesus, Joseph
and Mary, unto you I commend my heart and spirit.”
The crucifixion was watched by many Christian converts
who later collected the martyrs’ blood and garments.
Miracles began to be attributed to the martyrs
almost immediately.
The group included six first-order Franciscans and
three Jesuits as well as 17 Japanese laymen, among
them 12 Franciscan tertiaries and three young acolytes.
The martyrs are:
Philip de las Casas (b. 1571 or 1572). Also known as:
Felipe de las Casas; Felipe de Jesus; Philip of Jesus.
Philip was born in Mexico City, Mexico, a son of
Spanish immigrants. He studied for a while at the
Reformed Franciscan Convent of Santa Barbara at
Puebla, Mexico, but wasn’t happy there, and left.
His father sent him on a business trip to the
Philippines, where in 1590 he joined the convent
of Our Lady of the Angels in Manila, taking his
vows in 1594. He was on his way back to Mexico
with other Franciscans in 1596 when a storm
caused his ship, the Saint Philip, to be wrecked
off Japan. Amid the storm, Philip saw over the
islands a white cross, which after a while became
blood-red, an omen of his fate. The captain sent
Philip and two others to the emperor to gain permission
for them to continue their voyage, but
they were denied an audience. They continued to
the Franciscan house in Macao to see if their
brethren could help. In the meantime, the pilot of
the Saint Philip got in to see Hideyoshi, setting off
the persecution. Philip was the first of the martyrs
to die. He is the patron saint of Mexico City
and its archbishopric.
Diego Kisai (b. 1534). Also called: Diego Kizayemon,
Santiago Kisai. A Japanese layman who was a
temporal coadjutor of the Jesuits and a catechist
in Osaka. He was admitted to the Society of Jesus
while in prison, awaiting execution.
Francis Blanco (Francisco Blanco). Born in Monterey,
Galicia, Spain, Francis studied in Salamanca,
then joined the Franciscan order at Vallalpando.
He first worked as a missionary at Churubusco,
Mexico, then in Manila, the Philippines, before
going to Japan in 1594.
Francis of Saint Michael (Francisco de San Miguel).
Born at Parilla, near Valladolid, Spain, Francis
joined the Franciscans as a lay brother, and was
sent first to the Philippines and then to Japan as a
missionary. He was arrested in Osaka along with
Peter Baptist in 1596.
Gundisalvus Garcia (b. 1556). Also known as: Gonsalo
Garcia. Gundisalvus was born at Bassein near
Bombay, India, of Portuguese parents, though
they may have been Indian converts who had
taken Portuguese names. He first served the
Jesuits as a catechist, but joined the Franciscans
in the Philippines in 1591. He worked in Japan as
an interpreter to Peter Baptist.
John Soan de Goto. A 19-year-old Japanese native,
arrested for being a Jesuit temporal coadjutor
and catechist at Osaka. Like Diego Kisai, he was
admitted to the order in prison as he awaited execution.
Martin Loynaz (de Aguirre). Born in Vergara, near
Pamplona, Spain, Martin studied in Alcala, joining
the Franciscan order in 1586. He first worked
as a missionary in Mexico and the Philippines
before Japan.

Paul Miki (b. 1562). Paul was born the son of a
Japanese military leader at Tounucumada and
educated at the Jesuit college at Anziquiama,
Japan, joining the Jesuits in 1580. He became
famous for his eloquent preaching, and in fact
delivered one last sermon from the cross on
which he died.
Peter Baptist (Pedro Bautista) (b. 1545). A native of
Avila, Spain, Peter joined the Franciscans in
1567. Like other of his fellow martyrs, he served
as a missionary in Mexico and the Philippines
before arriving in Japan in 1593. He was credited
as a miracle worker and considered the leader
of the Franciscans in Japan. In 1596 he was
arrested in Osaka, along with Francis of Saint
Michael.
Antony Deynan, born at Nagasaki, was a 13-year-old
altar boy and a Franciscan tertiary when he died.
When he heard the names Jesus, Joseph and
Mary, he began to sing psalms he had learned in
his catechism classes.
Caius Francis was a Japanese soldier who had only
just been baptized and received as a Franciscan
tertiary. He insisted on being arrested along with
the friars.
Cosmas Takeya, from Owari, Japan, was a Franciscan
tertiary who preached in Osaka and also
served as an interpreter.
Francis of Miyako, from Miyako, Nagasaki, was a
physician who converted to Catholicism and
became a Franciscan tertiary and lay catechist.
Gabriel de Duisco was the 19-year-old son of the
Franciscans’ native porter.
Joachim Sakakibara (or Saccachibara) was the
Japanese-born cook for the Franciscans at Osaka.
He also was a tertiary and catechist.
John Kisaka (or Kimoia), born at Miyako, was baptized
and received as a Franciscan tertiary shortly
before his death.
Leo Karasumaru (or Carasuma), a native of Korea
living in Japan, was baptized by the Jesuits in
1589. He became the first Korean Franciscan tertiary
and was the Franciscans’ chief catechist.
Louis Ibaraki (or Ibarki) was the 12-year-old
nephew of Leo Karasumaru and Paul Ibaraki. He
served the Franciscans as acolyte.
Matthias of Miyako, a Japanese native, was a Franciscan
tertiary.
Michael Cozaki, a Japanese native, was a hospital
nurse to the Franciscans. He was killed along
with his son, Thomas.
Paul Ibaraki (Yuanki or Yuaniqui) was Leo Karasumaru’s
brother and Louis Ibaraki’s uncle. He
Martyrs of Mexico 231
was a Franciscan tertiary, catechist and interpreter.
Paul Suzuki, from Owari, Japan, was baptized by the
Jesuits in 1584. He later became a Franciscan tertiary
and was an outstanding catechist.
Peter Sukejiro (or Xukexico), a native of Japan, was a
Franciscan tertiary who served as a catechist,
house servant and sacristan. He was arrested
when he was sent by a Jesuit priest to help the
Franciscans.
Thomas Cozaki (or Kasaki), a Japanese native,
served the Franciscans as an acolyte. He was 15
when he was executed along with his father,
Michael.
Thomas Xico (Dauki) was a Japanese Franciscan tertiary,
catechist and interpreter.
Ventura, from Miyako, had been baptized by the
Jesuits, but gave up his Catholicism when his
father died. He was brought back into the Church
by the Franciscans, with whom he died.
From their canonization in 1862 until the revision
of the Roman calendar in 1970, the feast day of the
Martyrs of Japan was celebrated on February 5 in
Japan and by the Franciscans and Jesuits. With the calendar
revision, their feast was moved to February 6,
and today they are remembered universally as the first
martyrs of the Far East.
Beatified: September 14, 1627, by Pope Urban VIII
Canonized: June 8, 1862, by Pope Pius IX
Feast: February 6 (formerly February 5)
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.
Martyrs of Mexico (20th century) A group of 25
priests and lay religious leaders murdered in Mexico in
20th-century religious persecutions
The first martyr, killed in 1915, was caught up in the
series of revolutions and counterrevolutions of the
1910s; the last died under a left-wing government in
1937. The rest were victims of the regime of Plutarco
Calles, elected to the presidency in 1924. Strongly anticlerical,
Calles closed Church institutions and began
deporting priests. The Catholic clergy first protested
these actions through nonviolent organizations such as
the Acción Católica and the National League for the
Defense of Religious Freedom. When these efforts
failed, some supported the more militant Cristeros,
who mounted a civil war against the government,
attacking federal forces and destroying federal property
such as schools. A settlement was not reached until

232 Martyrs of Mexico
1929, by which time several priests had been killed.
The martyrs are:
David Galván (1881–1915). Born in Guadalajara on
January 29, 1881, David entered the Guadalajara
seminary in 1895 and was ordained a priest in
1909. During uprisings in 1913–14 he was
arrested for being a priest and taken to Guadalajara,
where he was eventually set free. However,
on January 30, 1915, an altercation erupted in
the city between rival rebel forces, leaving many
wounded and dead in the streets. When he set
about taking the dead for burial, David was
stopped by federal troops and was shot.
Luis Batis (1870–1926). Born in San Miguel del
Mezquital on September 13, 1870, Luis entered
the seminary in Durango in 1882. He was
ordained a priest in January 1894, and from then
until his death worked as spiritual director of the
seminary and parish of Chalchihuites. He
founded a workshop and a school for children,
yet he yearned to do more with his life. He
prayed before a statue of Jesus that he might spill
his blood in his name. His prayers were answered
when he became the first of the martyrs of the
1920s. He was arrested on August 14, 1926, and
executed the following day along with three
members of the Acción Católica who had come
out on his behalf.
Manuel Morales (1898–1926). Manuel was born in
Mesillas on February 8, 1898. He studied in the
Durango seminary for a time but had to leave to
help support his family. He remained active in
religious affairs, was a member of the Acción
Católica and president of the National League for
the Defense of Religious Freedom. He died with
Luis Batis on August 15, 1926.
David Roldán (1907–1926). David was born in
Chalchihuites on March 2, 1907. He entered the
Durango seminary, but later left to help support
his family. He joined the Acción Católica and in
1925 was named its president. He also served as
vice president of the National League for the
Defense of Religious Freedom. He died with Luis
Batis on August 15, 1926.
Salvador Lara (1905–1926). Born in Súchil on
August 13, 1905, Salvador entered the Durango
seminary, but his family’s precarious economic
situation forced him to drop out. Nevertheless, he
continued to be active in religious affairs, helping
out with pastoral work in his parish, and serving
as secretary of the National League for the
Defense of Religious Freedom and president of
the Acción Católica. He too died with Luis Batis
on August 15, 1926. As he was going before the
firing squad, he cried: “Long live Christ the King
and the Virgin of Guadelupe!”
Jenaro Sánchez (1886–1927). Jenaro was born in
Zapopán on September 19, 1886. He attended
the Guadalajara seminary and was ordained a
priest in 1911. He was shot by federal troops on
January 17, 1927. His body remained where it
was thrown until it was recognized, and townspeople
buried him in the cemetery. In 1934 his
relics were moved to the parish church in Cocula.
Julio Alvarez (1866–1927). Born in Guadalajara on
December 20, 1866, Julio studied at the
Guadalajara seminary and was ordained a priest
in 1894. When the persecutions under Calles
began, he left his parish and hid with the help of
followers, but was discovered. He was shot at
dawn on March 30, 1927. His relics were thrown
in a dumpster close to the church, where a monument
has since been raised in his honor.
David Uribe (1888–1927). David was born in Buenavista
de Cuéllar on December 29, 1888. He
studied at the Chilapa and Tabasco seminaries
and was ordained in 1913. On the night of April
11, 1927, he was taken out of his cell and shot in
the back. His relics are venerated today in the
parish of his natal town.
Sabás Reyes (1879–1927). Born in Cocula on
December 5, 1879, of a poor family, Sabás studied
at seminaries in Guadalajara and Tamaulipas;
he was ordained a priest in 1911. The persecutions
of the 1920s found him working in
Tototlán. On April 11, 1927, he was taken before
a military assembly where he was thrown on the
ground between two fires, one at his feet, the
other before his face, and asked to reveal the hiding
places of two other priests. He refused, and
on the night of April 13 was taken to the local
cemetery and shot against the wall. His relics
reside today in the parish church of Tototlán.
Cristóbal Magallanes (1869–1927). Cristóbal was
born in Totalice on July 30, 1869. He entered
Guadalajara seminary in 1888 and was ordained a
priest in September 1899. He was chaplain and
subdirector of the school of arts and trades in
Guadalajara and served as parish priest in Totalice
for 17 years. On May 25, 1927, he was conducting
a religious ceremony at a ranch when a
shootout began between Cristeros members and
federal troops. Cristóbal was arrested and taken
to Colotitlán, where he was shot along with
Agustín Caloca.
Agustín Caloca (1898–1927). Agustín was born in
San Juan Bautista del Teúl on May 5, 1898. He

enrolled in the Guadalajara seminary, but had to
return home when it was closed in the early
1910s. When the seminary reopened in 1919, he
resumed his studies, and was ordained a priest in
August 1923. In May 1927, he was arrested and
taken to the jail in Totalice where Cristóbal Magallanes
was being held. The two priests were carried
to Colotitlán, where they were shot in the
burned-out city hall, their bodies subsequently
being used in the reconstruction of the walls.
When Agustín’s relics were exhumed and moved
back to the Totalice parish hall in 1933, his heart
was found to be incorrupt.
José Isabel Flores (1866–1927). Born in San Juan
Bautista del Teúl on November 20, 1866, José
Isabel began his studies in the Guadalajara seminary
in 1887. He was ordained a priest in 1896.
When the 1920s persecutions began, he was
denounced; he was arrested but offered his freedom
if he agreed to support Calles. When he
refused, he was taken to the cemetery in Zapotalnejo
and shot, June 21, 1927.
José María Robles (1888–1927). José María was born
in Mascotaon on May 3, 1888. In 1900, at the
age of 12, he entered the Guadalajara seminary,
and was ordained a priest there in 1913. In 1918
he founded a religious society, the Brothers of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus. He was celebrating the
Eucharist in a private home in June 1927, when
federal troops arrived and took him prisoner. He
was taken out of town and shot. His relics lie
today in the novitiate of the Brothers of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Rodrigo Aguilar (1875–1927). Rodrigo was born in
Sayula on March 13, 1875. He attended a seminary
and was ordained a priest in 1905 and
worked in various parishes. In October 1927, he
was taken to the town square for execution where
he pardoned everyone concerned and gave his
rosary to one of the soldiers about to kill him,
shouting out as he died, “Long live Christ the
King and the Virgin of Guadelupe!”
Margarito Flores (1899–1927). Margarito was born
in Taxco on February 22, 1899. He entered the
seminary in 1913, when he was 14, and was
ordained a priest in 1924. He was soon named a
professor in the seminary, where he remained
until forced to take refuge in Mexico City. He was
captured there, but set free, and decided to return
to Chilapa. Upon his arrival he was arrested and
taken to Tulimán tied to a horse, semi-nude and
barefoot. He was executed on November 12,
1927.
Martyrs of Mexico 233
Pedro Esqueda (1887–1927). Born in San Juan de los
Lagos on April 26, 1887, Pedro began his education
in a private school at the age of four. At 15
he entered the seminary in Guadalajara, but in
1914 it was closed and confiscated. He later
returned to the seminary and was ordained a
priest in 1916. He was named vicar of his natal
parish, the job he held for the 10 years of his
ministry. In 1926 he went into hiding, but federal
troops found him on November 18, 1927. They
took him to the abbey where they held him
incommunicado and tortured him daily. He was
shot on November 22.
Mateo Correa (1866–1927). Mateo was born in
Tepechitlán on July 22, 1866. He attended the
Zacatecas seminary and was ordained in 1893,
after which he served in various parishes. He was
caught and arrested in 1927, taken to Durango
and imprisoned in the military headquarters. The
general in command ordered him to hear confessions
from a group of persons who were to be
shot and then demanded that he reveal the confessions.
When the priest refused, he was killed.
His relics now lie in the Durango cathedral.
Miguel de la Mora (1874–1927). Miguel was born in
Tecalitlán on June 19, 1874. He was ordained a
priest in 1906 and preached in the Colima diocese.
In 1927 he was captured and imprisoned in
the army headquarters, then taken to the stable
where he was shot as he counted his rosary.
Today his relics are venerated in the Colima
cathedral.
Román Adame (1859–1927). Born in Teocaltiche on
February 27, 1859, Román studied in the
Guadalajara seminary and was ordained a priest
in November 1890. He was characterized by a
profound devotion to the Virgin Mary and
founded a religious order, the Daughters of Mary
and the Nocturnal Adoration. When religious
practices were banned in the 1920s he was captured
and taken to Yahualica, where he spent several
days tied up, denied food and water. Later he
was moved to the cemetery and shot by his open
grave, together with a soldier who refused to execute
him.
Toribio Romo (1900–1928). Born in Jalostotitlán on
April 16, 1900, Toribio studied at the Guadalajara
seminary and was ordained a priest in 1922.
He joined the Acción Católica, in which he distinguished
himself in social works. The persecution
forced him into a nomadic life together with
his parish priest, Justino Orona. At dawn on February
25, 1928, a detachment of soldiers burst

234 Martyrs of Paraguay
into his house and room. They riddled him with
bullets, pulled off his night dress, and carried his
body to Tequila, where they threw it in front of
the city hall. Twenty years later his relics were
returned to his natal town and were interred in a
chapel constructed for him.
Justino Orona (1877–1928). Born in Atoyac on April
14, 1877, Justino completed his early studies in
Zapotlán, then in 1894 entered the seminary in
Guadalajara. He was ordained in 1904 and
assigned to various parishes. He founded a society
to help poor orphaned girls in Cuquío. On
June 28, 1928, he took refuge in a ranch with
Atilano Cruz. Government troops learned of the
hiding place, however, and stormed the building
the following morning, shooting Justino when he
answered the door.
Atilano Cruz (1901–1928). Atilano was born in Teocaltiche
on October 5, 1901, to a Catholic Indian
family. He entered a local seminary in 1918 and
two years later transferred to Guadalajara where
he was ordained in June 1927. A year later he was
sent to Cuquío. He went immediately to the ranch
where Justino Orona was hiding. The soldiers shot
Atilano as he knelt on his bed, threw his body on
the patio along with Orona’s, then took them to
Cuquío, where they were dumped in the town
square. The faithful buried them that day in the
cemetery, but their relics have since been moved
to the parish church of San Felipe de Cuquío.
Tranquilino Ubiarco (1899–1928). Born in Zapotlán
el Grande on July 8, 1899, Tranquilino entered a
seminary in his youth, only to have it closed.
Later he was able to resume his studies in the
Guadalajara seminary and was ordained a priest
in August 1923. In the midst of the persecution
under Calles he was named vicar of the parish of
Tepatitlán, where for 15 months he exercised his
ministry in various homes and established a public
dining hall. On October 5, 1928, he was finishing
celebrating Mass in a house when several
soldiers arrived and arrested him. He was executed
a short while later.
Jesús Méndez (1880–1928). Born in Tarímbaro on
June 10, 1880, Jesús entered the seminary in
Michoacán in 1894, when he was 14. He was
ordained in 1906 and conducted his ministry in
various parishes. One day in 1928, Jesús had just
finished celebrating Mass when federal troops
arrived. He tried to escape carrying the pyx under
his cloak. The soldiers stopped and searched him
and on finding the pyx recognized him and took
him prisoner. The first shots they fired were
blanks; Jesús was searched again, his crucifix and
medallions removed, and then shot to death. The
soldiers placed his body on train tracks, but the
officers’ wives removed his relics and allowed
them to be buried in Cortázar.
Pedro de Jesús (1892–1937). Born in Sacramento on
June 8, 1892, Pedro entered the Chihuahua seminary
in 1909 and was ordained a priest in El
Paso, Texas, in 1918. He managed to avoid the
persecutions of the 1920s, perhaps by fleeing to
the United States, but when they resumed the following
decade, he was not so fortunate. In Mexico
in 1934, he was arrested and banished to El
Paso, but he immediately returned to his native
country and resumed his ministry. Three years
later, on Ash Wednesday, a group of armed men
appeared at his house. He was made to walk barefoot
behind horses to Santa Isabel, where he was
imprisoned in the courthouse and beaten unconscious.
Later he was taken to the civil hospital of
Chihuahua where he died on the morning of February
11, 1937.
Another martyr of this period, Bl. Miguel Pro, was
beatified in a separate ceremony and given a different
feast day.
Beatified: November 22, 1992, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: May 25
FURTHER READING
Mabry, Donald J., “Mexican Anticlerics, Bishops, Cristeros,
and the Devout during the 1920’s: A Scholarly Debate,”
Journal of Church and State 20 (1978): 81–92.
“Santos y Beatos de América Latina: México.” Aciprensa
website. URL: http://www.aciprensa.com/santmexi.htm.
Downloaded on November 13, 1999.
Ratliff, Chris. “20th Century Mexico.” Historical Text Archive.URL:http://www.msstate.edu/Archives/History/text/
ratliff.html. Downloaded on January 19, 2000.
Martyrs of Paraguay Three Jesuits who died seeking to
convert native people to the Christian faith.
Roque Gonzalez, Alphonsus Rodriguez and John of
Castillo helped to found the system of Jesuit “reductions”—missions
to which Indians of various tribes
were brought—in the interior of South America.
Besides serving as missions, the reductions were centers
of education in construction techniques, architecture,
crafts, farming, animal husbandry, printing and
other skills. The reductions in greater Paraguay
(encompassing territories that today form parts of
Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and Bolivia) provided a
refuge for Tupi- and Guarani-speaking Indians fleeing
the predations of slave traders as well. Unfortunately,
they were also death camps for many natives, who did

not carry immunities to the European diseases that
swept easily through them. These challenges to the traditional
way of life were not welcomed by all, and in
the end the three Jesuits were killed, at the behest of a
Guarani chief, in reductions they had built. More
about the martyrs:
Roque Gonzalez (1576–1628). Also known as: Roch
Gonzalez; Rocco Ganzalez; Roque Gonzáles de
Santa Cruz. Roque Gonzales was born in the city
of Asunción, Paraguay, to a well-connected family.
He was the son of Bartolomé Gonzáles
Villaverde and María de Santa Cruz, Spaniards,
but perhaps of mixed blood. He was raised in a
religious atmosphere, and at the age of five, motivated
by the numerous biographies of saints he
had heard, decided to devote his life to prayer
and penitence.
Roque was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in
1599, when he was 24. He preached at the cathedral in
Asunción and soon found himself tapped for administrative
roles—the bishop of Asunción named him assistant
superior of the dioceses. In 1603, he participated in
a local synod, during which he joined in condemning
the enslavement of the Indians. Then in May 1609, his
desire to be of service to the natives of the region led
him to resign his posts and join the Jesuit order.
In 1611 Roque was sent to head the reduction of
San Ignacio (St. Ignatius). After three years there, he
left to found other reductions, a half-dozen in all in the
Parana and Uruguay river regions.
In 1628, Roque, together with Alphonsus Rodriquez
and John of Castillo, founded a reduction on the
Ijuji (Yhui) River, named Asunción de Yhui (Our
Lady’s Assumption). Father Castillo was left in charge
there, while Roque and Alphonsus pressed on to
Caaro, in what is now Brazil, to build yet another
reduction, this named Todos Santos (All Saints). The
All Saints reduction was in an area controlled by a
chief called Nezu, who opposed the Jesuit efforts, and
instigated an attack on the new settlement. Roque had
just said Mass on November 15, and was preparing to
hang a small church bell, when he was struck on the
head from behind and killed. Alphonsus was killed in a
similar manner when he went to investigate the noise.
The wooden chapel they had constructed was set on
fire and their bodies thrown into the blaze.
Roque Gonzalez had devoted his life to helping the
Guarani. It is said that the Indians who killed him did
not know who he was, and when they learned who
they had killed, bitterly regretted their involvement.
Alphonsus Rodriguez (Alonso Rodríguez) (1598–1628).
Alphonsus Rodríguez was born in Zamora, Spain,
Mary, Blessed Virgin 235
on March 10, 1598, the son of Gonzalo Rodríguez
y Maria Obnel, both devout Christians. He
entered the Jesuit order as a novitiate at Villagarcía
and was ordained a priest in 1624. In 1626 he
traveled to Paraguay to work in the reductions
there.
In 1628 Alphonsus began to work with Roque Gonzalez,
founding first the reduction of Our Lady’s
Assumption and then the reduction of All Saints. He
died along with Roque at the latter, on November 15.
John of Castillo (Juan del Castillo) (1596–1628). Also
known as: Juan de Castillo. John of Castillo was
born in Belmonte, Spain, on September 14, 1596.
He entered the Jesuit novitiate at Madrid on
March 21, 1614, at the age of 17. After being
ordained as a priest, he went to the mission of
San Nicolás where he dedicated himself to
Catholic education.
In 1628 he helped Roque Gonzalez and Alphonsus
Rodriquez found the reduction of Our Lady’s
Assumption, where he stayed in charge while they
went on to found All Saints. On November 17, two
days after Roque and Alphonsus were killed, he was
working in the reduction when it was attacked and
he was seized, bound and beaten, before being stoned
to death.
The three Jesuit martyrs were beatified and canonized
as a group. The first steps toward their beatification
were made within six months of their deaths.
However, the records were misplaced for over three
centuries; the process was revived in 1934, when the
originals unexpectedly turned up in Argentina.
Beatified: January 28, 1934, by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: May 16, 1988, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: November 16
Patronage: native traditions; Paraguay
FURTHER READING
“San Roque Gonzales de Santa Cruz.” Santos y Beatos de
America Latina: Paraguay. URL: http://www/aciprensa.
com/santpara.htm. Downloaded: December 12, 1999.
“El Padre Alonso Rodríguez.” Santos y Beatos de America
Latina: Paraguay. URL: http://www/aciprensa.com/santpara.htm.
Downloaded: December 12, 1999.
“El Padre Juan del Castillo.” Santos y Beatos de America
Latina: Paraguay. URL: http://www/aciprensa.com/santpara.htm.
Downloaded: December 12, 1999.
Mary, Blessed Virgin (d. first century) The mother of
Jesus Christ
Also known as: Mother of God, Our Lady of the Angels,
Queen of the Angels, Queen of Martyrs, Our Lady and
other titles

236 Mary, Blessed Virgin
Little is known about Mary’s life. According to tradition,
she was born in Jerusalem to SS. Anne and
Joachim. She was presented to the temple and took a
vow of virginity. Her Immaculate Conception was
announced by the Archangel Gabriel (Luke 1:26–38).
Gabriel told her that the Holy Spirit would come upon
her in order to conceive her son. Mary became betrothed
to St. Joseph. Her cousin Elizabeth—whom
Gabriel announced would bear St. John the Baptist—
called her the Mother of God. Mary replied with the
Magnificat, “My soul magnifies the Lord . . .” (Luke
1:46–55).
Mary and Joseph went to Bethlehem, seat of Joseph’s
family, to comply with a census. There Jesus was
born and visited by the Three Kings, or Magi. The baby
was presented to the temple. Warned that King Herod
was searching for an infant boy destined to become
King of the Jews, the family fled to Egypt, returning to
Nazareth after Herod died.
Little is said in the Bible about the further activities
of Mary. She visited the Temple of Jerusalem and was
instrumental in Jesus’ first recorded miracle of turning
water into wine at a wedding feast in Cana (John
2:1–5). She was present at the Crucifixion and given
into St. John’s care (John 19:25–27). She was with the
disciples before Pentecost (Acts 1:14). Tradition holds
that she was present at the Resurrection and Ascension
of Christ, though no records state so. The Bible does
not tell of her last years. According to one tradition,
she remained in Jerusalem; another holds that she
went to Ephesus.
Tradition also has long held that Mary did not die a
physical death, but was assumed into heaven. Her
Assumption was made an article of faith in 1950 by
Pope Pius XII (r. 1939–58).
According to Catholic doctrine, Mary’s Immaculate
Conception makes her the one exception to the state of
Original Sin (the state in which all humankind is born,
due to the fall of Adam and Eve). Because Mary was
destined to be the mother of Christ, God infused her
soul with grace at the moment of her conception in the
womb of her mother, St. Anne, which freed her from
lust, slavery to the devil, depraved nature, darkness of
intellect and other consequences of Original Sin. The
Immaculate Conception was proclaimed in 1854 by
Pope Pius IX (r. 1848–78).
The idea of the Immaculate Conception was rejected
by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century.
Many modern theologians, challenging doctrines, consider
the Immaculate Conception to be symbolic and
not literal. The Bible makes references to Jesus’ brothers
and sisters.
Mary and her place in Christian theology have
been the subject of much controversy over the cen-
turies. She absorbed characteristics of previous pagan
goddesses, thus fulfilling the universal need for worship
of a mother-figure. Some early Church fathers
attempted to discourage worship of her by saying that
God would never be born of a woman. For the first
five centuries after Christ, she was depicted as lower
in status than even the Magi, who were graced by
haloes in sacred art. The Marianite sect, which considered
her divine, was persecuted for heresy. In the early
fourth century, Constantine I ordered all goddess temples
destroyed and forbade the worship of Mary, so
that she would not overshadow her Son. The people,
however, refused to accept Christianity without worship
of Mary. She was prayed to as a mother who intercedes
for her children. In the fifth century, she was
given the title Theotokos (“God-bearer”) at the Church
councils at Ephesus in 431 and at Chalcedon in 451.
By the sixth century she was given a halo in art, and
by the ninth century she was named Queen of Heaven.
By the 11th century, great Gothic cathedrals were built
for her.
Mary has a special role in salvation; Pope Benedict
XV (r. 1914–22) wrote in 1918 that she “redeemed the
human race together with Christ.” She is seen as the
Mediatrix of All Graces, ever present at the side of
every person from baptism to death, ready to give support,
hope, encouragement and strength.
She reigns in the splendor of heaven, where angels
behold her glory and are ravished at the sight of her.
She is second only to Jesus in suffering, and so commands
the obedience of the angelic host. It may be the
archangel Michael who leads the good angels in the
celestial war against evil, but he is under the command
of Mary. The Queen of Paradise may even be considered
the mother of angels, since she loves them and
treats them as her own children. The Precious Blood
shed by Jesus is the song of angels, the light of Mary
and the jubilee of her woes.
The theological, philosophical and other academic
studies of Mary are collectively called “Mariology,” a
distinct discipline that includes biblical references to
her, doctrines and devotions associated with her, and
her role in religious history and thought. There is a
Mariological Society of America and several centers of
Mariological research, including the Marianum, the
theological faculty directed in Rome by the Servite
Fathers. There is also the Marian Library at the University
of Dayton, Ohio, one of several schools owned and
operated by the Society of Mary (Marianists), a Roman
Catholic religious order devoted especially to “filial
piety,” a devotion to Mary similar to that which they
believe is accorded Christ.
Countless visions of Mary have been reported
worldwide; the numbers rose dramatically beginning

in the latter part of the 20th century, spurred by the
Catholic Church’s acceptance of Mary’s assumption
into heaven as an article of faith in 1950, by a general
increase in desire for spiritual experience, and by apocalyptic
thinking concerning the change of millennia.
The Catholic Church, which conducts rigorous investigations
into such reports where it deems warranted,
has authenticated eight of them. Some popular sites
of Marian apparition pilgrimages, such as those in
Zeitoun, Egypt, from 1968 to 1969, and those in Medjugorge,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, beginning in 1981, have
been neither investigated nor authenticated by the
Church.
Numerous saints have seen visions of Mary, often
accompanied by angels. Mary appears when she is
needed in order to give comfort and important messages.
Frequently, she exhorts people to pray to
counter the evil at loose in the world.
In Catholic tradition, an unnamed Benedictine sister
had a vision in which she saw the desolation
wrought by evil. She heard Mary tell her that the time
had come to pray to her as the Queen of the Angels, to
ask her for the assistance of the angels in fighting the
foes of God and men. The sister asked why could not
Mary, who is so kind, send the angels without being
asked. Mary responded that she could not, because
prayer is one of the conditions God requires for the
obtaining of favors. Mary then communicated the following
prayer, which is part of the many devotions to
Mary:
“August Queen of Heaven! Sovereign Mistress of the
angels! Thou who from the beginning hast received from
God the power and mission to crush the head of Satan,
we humbly beseech thee to send thy holy Legions, that,
under thy command and by thy power, they may pursue
the evil spirits, encounter them on every side, resist their
bold attacks and drive them hence into the abyss of eternal
woe. Amen.”
The major events of Mary’s life are observed as feast
days throughout the year, among them the Immaculate
Conception, the Nativity, Purification, Annunciation
and Assumption. The most popular devotion to Mary
is the rosary, which is the saying of 50 “Hail Marys,”
five “Our Fathers” and five doxologies (“Glory be to
the Father. . . .”) while meditating on specific traditional
mysteries. This association with the rosary stems
from apparitions of Mary seen at Fatima, Portugal, in
1917, in which she identified herself as the Lady of the
Rosary, and asked that believers say the rosary every
day. Devotion to Mary is a vital part of Catholic liturgical
life.
Ex-canonical works such as the Book of John
the Evangelist refer to Mary as an angel herself. The
Mary, Blessed Virgin 237
The Blessed Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus (Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division)
Apocryphal New Testament says she is the angel sent
by God to receive the Lord, who enters her through
the ear.
Among the saints who have had mystical visions of
and encounters with Mary are Bernard of Clairvaux,
Bernadine of Siena, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine
Labouré, Catherine of Siena, Frances of Rome, Francis
of Assisi, Gertrude, Gregory the Great, Ignatius of Loyola,
John of the Cross, Mechtilde, Nicholas of Flue,
Simon Stock and Teresa of Avila.
FURTHER READING
Arintero, Juan. Mystical Evolution in the Development and
Vitality of the Church, vol. I. St. Louis: B. Herder, 1949.

238 Mary of Agreda, Venerable
Attwater, Donald. A Dictionary of Mary. New York: P.J.
Kennedy, 1960.
St. Michael and the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: Tan Books and Publishers,
1983; first published, 1977.
Mary of Agreda, Venerable (1602–1665) Abbess;
mystic
Also known as: Mary of Jesus
Mary of Agreda was born in Agreda, Spain, to religious
parents. Her father, Francis Coronel, and her mother,
Catharine de Arana, founded the Convent of the
Immaculate Conception for discalced nuns in Agreda
in 1619, in accordance with a revelation from God had
by Catharine. Catharine, Mary and another daughter
entered the convent, and Catharine and Mary were
professed in February 1620. Francis entered the order
of St. Francis of Assisi. After eight years, Mary was
named abbess at age 25.
After entering the convent, Mary began to experience
numerous ecstasies, levitations, bilocations and
other mystical phenomena. During her ecstasies, her
body was raised off the ground and could be moved as
weightlessly as a feather. Her face was enraptured in
beauty. She would remain in trances for two to three
hours at a time.
Mary bilocated and traveled mystically throughout
Spain and Portugal. From 1620 to 1631, she traveled to
America to teach the Indians. She made more than 500
visits, sometimes as often as four times a day. The
natives called her the Lady in Blue because of her blue
mantle. Mary said she was commanded to travel to
America by Jesus. She appeared in New Mexico and
reached isolated tribes. She spoke in her native Spanish,
but was understood by the Indians. She gave them
Christian instruction and also directions for where to
go in New Mexico and Texas to find Christian missions.
In 1665 she received divine notification of her
impending death. She informed her community, and
died peacefully in her sickbed while surrounded by
weeping and praying people. At the moment of her
death, a heavenly voice was heard repeating the words,
“Come, come, come” three times.
Mary is best-known as the author of The Mystical
City of God. From 1627 to 1637 she received many
graces from the Blessed Virgin Mary, who appeared to
her while she was in ecstasies and commanded her to
write the Blessed Virgin’s life. Mary resisted until 1637,
when she began to set down what became The Mystical
City of God. After completing it, a confessor (not her
regular one), told her that women should not write in
the Church and ordered her to destroy the work. Mary
burned it all, not only the history that the Blessed Vir-
gin had dictated, but also “other grave and mysterious
matters.” Her horrified confessor and superiors
ordered her to rewrite the work under threat of censures.
The Blessed Virgin also commanded her to
rewrite it. Mary began the rewriting on December 8,
1655, the day of the Immaculate Conception.
Mary described how the Blessed Virgin appeared to
her as she did to St. John the Divine in the Apocalypse,
crowned with stars and clothed with the sun, and the
moon at her feet. Mary also saw a ladder, which God
told her was the ladder of Jacob and a portal to heaven,
and signified the life of the most Holy Virgin and its
virtues and sacraments. Mary ascended the ladder and
at the top saw the Lord of Hosts and the Queen of all
creation. The Blessed Virgin told her that she was
unhappy with the wretched and sinful state of
humankind, and would offer them a way of mercy in
the mystical city of refuge.
The Mystical City of God is a four-volume, 2,676page
history of the Blessed Virgin’s life, and also contains
information on Jesus and his hidden life, the
creation of the world, the Apocalypse, heaven and hell,
and other Christian topics. It created quite a stir in
Europe in ecclesiastical and academic circles. In 1686
Pope Innocent XI (r. 1676–89) declared that the book
could be read by all the faithful.
FURTHER READING
Venerable Mary of Agreda. The Mystical City of God. Tr. Rev.
George J. Blatter. Abridged version. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books and Publishers, 1978.
Mary of Egypt (d. fifth or sixth century) Egyptian
hermit
Much of the life of Mary of Egypt is legend. According
to the Life of St. Cyracus by Cyril of Scythopolos, Cyracus
was traveling in the Jordanian desert with companions
when he found a woman who said her name was
Mary, and that she was a famous singer and actress
who had sinned and was atoning for her sins by living
as a hermit. On their way back, they found the woman
dead. From this was spun a legend that became popular
during the Middle Ages.
According to a version written by St. Andrew of
Crete (d. 740), who quotes St. Sophronius, patriarch of
Jerusalem (ca. 560–638), an elder of a monastery in
Palestine, Zosimus, went out into the Jordanian desert
to fast and pray during Lent. After 20 days he came
upon a naked woman with long white hair. He gave
her his cloak. She addressed him by name and told him
her story.
The woman said she was from Egypt. She ran away
from her parents at age 12 and went to Alexandria,

where she lead a life of sin and debauchery, seducing
every man she could find. She rarely took money, and
lived by begging and spinning flax. One day she
encountered Libyans and Egyptians going to Jerusalem
and decided to go with them, though she had no
money to pay for her passage across the sea. She paid
her way with sexual favors, even forcing youths against
their will.
In Jerusalem, on the day of the Exaltation of the
Cross, she experienced a conversion before an icon of
the Blessed Virgin Mary. She heard a voice tell her that
if she crossed the River Jordan she would find glorious
rest. A stranger gave her money, with which she
bought three loaves of bread. She washed in the river,
crossed it and took up life as a hermit.
The three loaves of bread dried and lasted her several
years. For 17 years she went through a dark night
of the soul, fighting temptation and despair. She lived
on herbs and whatever she could find. Another 30
went by before she was found by Zosimus.
Zosimus wanted to become her disciple, but she
demurred. Instead, she asked him to bring her Communion
on the next anniversary of the Last Supper. He
agreed, but told his story to no one. The following
year, he returned to the desert with the body and
blood, and a small amount of food. He waited by the
banks of the river. Mary appeared and walked across
the water. She took Communion, and told him to come
again the next year, and to pray for her.
Zosimus returned again as requested, but found her
lying dead on the opposite shore of the river. She had
written in the sand that he should bury her on the
spot. He was having little success digging in the earth
when a lion appeared and licked Mary’s feet. It dug a
hole, and Zosimus buried Mary in the cloak he had
given her. Zosimus lived to age 100 and died in his
monastery.
Various dates are given for Mary. Zosimus is said to
have found her in 430. Her date of death also is given
as 522.
Feast: April 2
FURTHER READING
“The Life of Our Holy Mother Mary of Egypt.” From The
Great Canon, the Work of Saint Andrew of Crete. URL:
http://www.ofc.org/OrthodoxPage/reading/st.mary.html.
Downloaded September 24, 2000.
Mary of the Incarnation (1566–1618) Widow and
founder of Discalced Carmelite convents in France
Also known as: Barbara Acarie, Barbara Avrillot,
Madame Barbé Acarie, Marie de l’ Incarnation, Marie of
the Incarnation
Mary of the Incarnation 239
St. Mary of the Incarnation was born February 1,
1566, in Paris, France, as Barbé (Barbara) Avrillot. Her
father, Sieur Nicholas Avrillot, was accountant general
in the Chamber of Paris; her mother, Marie L’ huillier,
was a descendant of Etienne Marcel, the famous chief
magistrate of the city. Her parents sent Mary to the
Poor Clares at Longchamp for her early education, and
in 1584 arranged for her marriage to Pierre (Peter)
Acarie de Villemor, a wealthy young man of high
standing.
Mary and Peter had six children together, though
Peter turned out to be something of a male chauvinist.
He censored Mary’s reading and, being very religious,
asked her confessor to recommend books for her to
read. These books opened her to a new mystical reality
and transformed her whole being. She found it impossible
to read spiritual books without immediately
falling into ecstatic trances, so had someone read them
to her. While in trance, she sometimes received stigmata,
the marks of Christ on the cross. As she
advanced spiritually, she became better able to control
her reveries, though she continued to receive stigmata.
Happily, Mary’s ecstasies did not interfere with her
everyday life. Indeed, she became more decisive and
efficient in managing her household, skills that stood
her well when Peter was forced to leave Paris in 1590.
He was involved in the Catholic League, which
opposed the Protestant Huguenot Henry of Navarre
(Henry IV), heir to the French throne, and was one of
the Committee of Sixteen, which organized the resistance
in Paris after Henry had taken other French cities
in the War of the Three Henrys. Peter fled as Henry’s
forces closed in on Paris, but the Spanish intervened
on the side of the Catholics, and Paris was saved. In
1593, Henry adjured Protestantism, paving the way for
his peaceful entrance into Paris in 1594. Peter returned
from exile later that year.
During this time, Mary suffered a riding accident,
sustaining a severe fracture that botched surgery made
worse rather than better. She remained an invalid for
the rest of her life. This did not prevent her from giving
freely to the poor and to the hospitals, however.
Mary and Peter’s house became the central meeting
place for French Catholics. Their regular visitors
included St. Francis de Sales and a host of other religious
and political dignitaries, as well as common
people. Mary had a reputation for being in touch with
the spirit world, and many were drawn to her because
of her supernatural gifts.
In 1601, a biography of St. Teresa of Avila appeared
in French translation. A few days later, Teresa’s apparition
appeared to Mary and informed her that God
wished to make use of her to found Discalced Carmelite
convents in France. When Teresa appeared a

240 Mary MacKillop
second time, Mary sought advice and help. The visions
being judged genuine, an underwriter was found for
the first convent, to be erected in Paris’s rue St-Jacques.
Letters of patent were granted by Henry IV on July 18,
1602. A meeting in which Francis de Sales, among others,
took part decided on the foundation of the
Reformed Carmel in France on July 27. The bishop of
Geneva wrote to Rome to obtain papal authorization,
and Clement VIII (r. 1592–1605) granted the bull of
institution on November 23, 1603. The Discalced
Carmelite order spread rapidly in France after its establishment
and profoundly influenced French society of
the time.
While continuing to support the Discalced
Carmelites, Mary had a hand in bringing two other
orders to Paris. When her Jesuit friend, Père Coton,
spoke of the Oratorians as “necessary to France,” Mary
understood what she had to do. She urged the introduction
of the Congregation of St. Philip Neri, and on
November 11, 1611, had the pleasure of seeing the
order formally installed in Paris.
The third order she helped bring to Paris was that
of the Ursulines. The French Carmelite convents
received applications from many young women
believed unsuited to the order. There was at that time
no place in Paris where young women could get a
good Catholic education, so Mary and a friend
brought the would-be Carmelites together as teachers
for young girls. They appropriated the Hotel Saint-
André, then near Paris, as a high school, bringing in
an experienced teacher as director. Mary defrayed the
expenses for the building and another benefactor
funded a boarding school and a residence for the
teachers. The new school was placed under the jurisdiction
of Ursulines, who were already established in
Marseilles, and was intended to do double duty as a
convent for them. On June 13, 1612, Pope Paul V (r.
1605–21) issued a bull raising the Community of
Saint-André into a cloistered convent of the Ursuline
order.
Peter supported Mary in her various endeavors.
When he died in 1613, Mary herself joined the
Carmelites as a lay sister. Her three daughters had
already become Carmelites and two sons had become
priests. Mary began her novitiate at the convent of
Amiens, where one of her daughters was subprioress,
in 1614, taking the name Mary of the Incarnation. In
1616, by order of her superiors, she moved to Pontoise,
where she died a holy death on April 18, 1618.
Her relics reside in a chapel in the church there.
The cause of her beatification was introduced at
Rome as early as 1627, though it was not approved for
another 164 years.
Beatified: June 5, 1791, by Pope Pius VI
Feast: April 30 (in Paris and formerly April 18)
Patronage: against poverty; loss of parents; parents
separated from children; widows
Mary MacKillop (1842–1909) First native Australian
to be beatified
Also known as: Mary of the Cross
Mary Helen MacKillop was born in 1842 in Melbourne
to a family of Scottish ancestry. She founded the Sisters
of St. Joseph and of the Sacred Heart, dedicated to educating
children. She took the name Mary of the Cross
in 1873. In 1875 she was elected mother general of her
congregation. She had difficulty obtaining papal
approval, but finally secured it from Pope Leo XIII (r.
1878–1903) in 1888. By the time of Mary’s death on
August 8, 1909, there were 1,000 women in the congregation.
Beatified: January 19, 1995, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: August 8
Mary Magdalen (first century)
Also known as: Mary Magdalene, the Penitent, Apostle
to the Apostles
Little is known of the life of Mary Magdalen beyond
the brief mention in the Gospels of her role in the Crucifixion
and its aftermath. “Magdalen” refers to the city
of Magdala near Tiberius on the western shore of the
Sea of Galilee, presumably Mary’s home. Latin Church
tradition merged the stories of Mary Magdalen with
those of the woman sinner who bathed Jesus’ feet with
her tears and the accounts of Mary of Bethany, sister of
Martha and Lazarus, turning “Mary Magdalen” into the
epitome of the penitent sinner who renounced sin for a
life in Christ, thereby becoming the symbol of hope for
all sinners. Eastern tradition—and St. Ambrose of
Milan—taught that these three women were not the
same person at all, and there is no Gospel evidence
that they were. Although the depictions of Mary Magdalen
as a saint encompass these three personalities in
one, the Church officially adopted the Eastern position
in 1969.
All four Gospels mention Mary Magdalen. The first
three—Matthew, Mark and Luke—tell nearly the same
story. In fact, the accounts in these three Gospels
(called the Synoptics after the Greek synopikos, meaning
“from the same point of view”) are so similar that
scholars believe the oldest of them, Mark, tells the
story of Mary Magdalen as it was passed down orally to
the earliest Christians and then repeated in Matthew
and Luke. In all three, Mary Magdalen is one of Jesus’

St. Mary Magdalen in prayer (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Mary Magdalen 241

242 Mary Magdalen
women followers who observes the Crucifixion from
afar and who watches Joseph of Arimathea place the
body in the tomb. On Sunday morning, Mary Magdalen
and one or more of the other women come to the
sepulchre to anoint the body, but instead are met by an
angel (two in Luke) who reveals that Christ has risen
and that they must run and tell the disciples the good
news. In both Mark and Luke the disciples do not
believe Mary Magdalen (Mark 15:40–41, 16:1–11;
Matthew 27:55–56, 28:1–8; Luke 23:49, 24:1–12).
Both Mark and Luke identify Mary Magdalen as one
from whom Jesus had cast out seven demons (Mark
16:9; Luke 8:1–3). Luke also describes Mary Magdalen
as one of the women who supported Jesus.
The account in John differs in several respects.
Instead of placing the women away from the Crucifixion,
John states that Jesus’ mother Mary, her sister
Mary and Mary Magdalen stood by the cross (19:25).
On Sunday, Mary Magdalen went alone to the tomb
and, finding the stone rolled away and the body gone,
ran for Peter and another disciple (probably John) to
report this distressing news. The men returned with
her and saw the burial linen left inside, but then
returned home (20:1–10). Mary Magdalen, however,
remained behind, weeping, eventually seeing two
angels in white sitting in the tomb. When they asked
why she wept, she replied that someone had taken her
Lord’s body, and she did not know where. Turning
around, she saw another man who asked her why she
wept. Thinking he might be a gardener, Mary Magdalen
asked if he knew where the body had been laid
so she could take it. The man said only one word,
Mary, then she knew she was in her Lord’s presence
and replied, Rabboni (which means “teacher” in
Hebrew). Jesus asked her not to embrace him, for he
had not yet ascended to the Father, but to tell the disciples
what she had seen. She told them she had seen the
Lord, and no mention is made of any disbelief on their
part (20:11–18).
So although the three earlier Gospels report that
Mary Magdalen learned of the Resurrection along
with other women, John is the only one to assert that
Mary Magdalen was the first to see the risen Christ
and tell of the miracle—the great gift that distinguished
her as the “apostle to the apostles” (apostola
apostolorum). It is in this guise that Mary Magdalen is
portrayed in the Gnostic manuscript The Gospel of
Mary, discovered in an Egyptian archaeological dig
and published at the end of the 19th century. Mary
Magdalen also appears in another Gnostic text, Pistis
Sophia, owned by the British Museum and published
about the same time. Her position as the imparter of
gnosis—the secret knowledge of redemption to those
capable of salvation—also appears in the Gospel of
Philip and the Gospel of Thomas. She was called
“Mariam, the woman who knew the All,” the “inheritor
of the Light,” the bringer of Sophia or the Wisdom
of God, the chief disciple, witness and herald of the
New Life.
In the Gospel of Mary, the risen Christ appears to
his disciples and exhorts them to evangelize throughout
the world. But the disciples fear for their lives and
do not see how they can follow the Lord’s command.
Mary Magdalen then becomes the leader, consoling the
disciples and assuring them that the Lord is with them,
making them “men.” Peter acknowledges that Jesus
loved Mary Magdalen more than the other women and
begs to hear whatever wisdom he imparted to her
alone. She tells of a vision in which Christ deems her
blessed because she did not waver at the sight of him at
the tomb. By stressing perception by the mind, Mary
Magdalen represented the Gnostic ideal of individual
experience—inner vision—which the established
Church considered threatening and heretical. Peter,
who had asked for her wisdom, refuses to believe her
and cannot accept that Jesus would have given his
knowledge to a woman rather than to the male disciples.
Matthew reproves him, noting that the Savior
found her worthy and loved her more than the others—man
or woman.
In the Gospel of Philip Mary Magdalen is described
as one of the “three who always walked with the Lord:
Mary his mother, her sister and Magdalen . . . his companion.”
The Greek word for “companion,” koinonos,
translates more accurately as “partner” or “consort,” a
woman with whom a man has had sexual intercourse.
In the same text the disciples complain jealously
because Christ often kisses Mary Magdalen on the
mouth, and they resent her special relationship to him.
Unfortunately there is no way to prove either whether
Jesus had a sexual relationship with Mary Magdalen or
whether the text’s author relied on erotic imagery to
vividly explain the love of Christ and the Church.
There is no supporting evidence for Mary’s favored
position in the New Testament.
By the time Paul wrote his first letter to the
Corinthians, Mary Magdalen’s role as the “apostle to
the apostles” had changed into her more popular persona
as the penitent whore. Although no Gospel identifies
the sinner who washed Jesus’ feet with her tears
(Luke 7:37–39), dried them with her long hair and
then anointed them with nard (a very expensive ointment
from the Himalayas) as Mary Magdalen, the
faithful associated the two. According to some Church
authorities she might be the adulterous woman about
to be stoned (John 8:3–11) or the Samaritan woman at
the well who was living with a man not her husband

(John 4:7–26). If Jesus had cast out seven demons from
her she could certainly be a sinner—although demonically
inspired sin in the New Testament was not necessarily
equated with carnality. Mary Magdalen might
also be Mary of Bethany, another Mary who anointed
Jesus’ feet.
Pope St. Gregory the Great (r. 590–604) officially
declared Mary Magdalen, Mary of Bethany and the
unnamed sinner one and the same in the sixth century.
From the “herald of the New Life” Mary had become
the redeemed prostitute, a model of repentance, the
embodiment of Eve and the evils of female, predatory
sexuality. In an age and Church environment where
celibacy and abstention were celebrated, her rejection
of fornication served as encouragement for all sinners
to return to God.
According to St. Gregory of Tours, after Christ’s
death and Ascension Mary Magdalen accompanied
Mary, the mother of Jesus, and John to Ephesus. Christ
had reportedly commended Mary Magdalen to John’s
keeping; some accounts even say that Mary and John
were affianced before John answered Jesus’ call. She
allegedly died a martyr there, and St. Willibald saw her
tomb in the eighth century. Her relics were transferred
to Constantinople in 896.
Another tradition says that the Jews put Mary Magdalen,
her sister St. Martha and brother St. Lazarus, her
maid, SS. Maximin and Sidonius, and the body of St.
Anne into a boat without sails or oars and set it adrift.
After many days the ship landed at Marseilles, where
the holy passengers converted all of Provence. No
longer able to cope with life, Mary Magdalen retired to
the desert and lived in a cave known as Sainte-Baume
for 30 years. Eschewing clothing and food, she covered
herself with only her long hair and subsisted on the
Eucharist, administered by angels. When she was near
death, at age 72, the angels transported her to the
Church of St. Maximinus at Aix, thereafter known as
St. Maximin, where she received the last rites. Her
relics were supposedly moved to Vézelay in 745 to
escape the Saracens, then moved back to La Sainte-
Baume. Mary Magdalen’s head supposedly lies in the
grotto of the restored church.
England converted to Christianity under the pontificate
of Pope St. Gregory the Great, and there were
many churches and convents dedicated to Mary
“Mawdleyn” in that country. Mary’s common depiction
in art as weeping or red-eyed from crying—along with
the Old English spelling and pronunciation—led to the
word “maudlin,” meaning “effusively or tearfully sentimental.”
Both Magdalen College at Oxford and Magdalene
College at Cambridge are pronounced “maudlin.”
Feast: July 22
Matthew the Apostle 243
Patronage: contemplative life; contemplatives; glove
makers; hairdressers; penitent sinners; penitent
women; people ridiculed for their piety; perfumers;
reformed prostitutes; against sexual
temptation; sinners; tanners
FURTHER READING
Haskins, Susan. Mary Magdalen: Myth and Metaphor. New
York: Harcourt Brace, 1993.
“Mary Magdalene, First Witness of the Resurrection.” URL:
http://elvis.rowan.edu/~kilroy/JEK/07/22.html. Downloaded
July 11, 2000.
Matthew the Apostle One of Jesus’ Twelve Disciples,
author of the first book of the New Testament, martyr
Name meaning: Gift of God
Also known as: Apostle of Ethiopia; Levi; Matthias of
Jerusalem
Matthew was born in Capernaum on Lake Genesareth
(the Sea of Galilee), the son of Alphaeus (Alpheus). He
was named Levi, or perhaps Levi Matthew, although it is
more probable that Jesus conferred the name Matthew
on him when he called him to join his apostolate.
At the time of his call, Matthew was working as a
Roman tax collector, a job regarded by his fellow Jews
as selling out to the enemy. He hosted a feast for Jesus
and the other disciples to which he also invited other
tax collectors. When this drew criticism from the Pharisees,
Jesus replied: “I came not to call only the just,
but sinners also.”
Apart from his inclusion in the lists of apostles, the
Bible contains little further mention of Matthew,
although according to St. Peter he was with the group
the entire time. He was a witness to the Resurrection,
and, after the Ascension, he was selected by lot to
replace Judas Iscariot.
Accounts of Matthew’s later life are conflicting.
Ancient sources agree that he spent some time preaching
among the Hebrews, but differ in the amount of
time. There is agreement that he later left Palestine, but
not as to where he went. By tradition, he evangelized
in Ethiopia to the south of the Caspian Sea (not the
Ethiopia in Africa), hence his title as the Apostle of
Ethiopia. However, he may also have preached in Persia,
Macedonia and Syria.
Matthew was the author of the First Gospel of the
New Testament, a work intended to convince Jewish
readers that their anticipated Messiah had indeed
arrived in the person of Jesus Christ. Other writings,
now considered apocryphal, are also attributed to him.
There is no certainty about how, when or where
Matthew died, but he is widely (though not universally)
believed to have been martyred. By tradition, he
was tortured before death, though there is no agree-

244 Maximilian Kolbe
St. Matthew with an angel (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
ment about whether he was burned, stoned or
beheaded. The places most often given for his martyrdom
are Colchis and Jerusalem. The date is sometimes
given as ca. 120, but this seems much too late to be
accurate. Relics alleged to be his were removed from
Colchis by Empress St. Helena and are now venerated
at St. Matthias’s abbey in Trier, Germany.
In art, Matthew is represented as an elderly apostle
or winged man holding or being pierced with an axe
(German images), lance (Italian images), halberd,
scimitar or sword.
Feast: September 21 (in the West), November 16
(in Greece)
Patronage: accountants; bankers; bookkeepers; customs
officers; financial officers; guards; money
managers; security forces; security guards; stock
brokers; tax collectors
Maximilian Kolbe (1894–1941) Founder of the Knights
of the Immaculata, Franciscan martyr of World War II
Maximilian Kolbe was born Raymond Kolbe on January
7, 1894, in Zdunska–Wola, then located in Russian
Poland, to a poor family. At age 10 he had a vision
that changed his life. One day when he was misbehaving,
his mother said, “Raymond, what is to become of
you?” The boy went to church asking the same question
and prayed about it. The Blessed Virgin Mary
appeared in a vision and held out two crowns to him.
One was white for purity, the other red for martyrdom.
She asked him which would he choose, and he
answered, “I choose both.”
Raymond attended a trade school and entered secondary
school in 1907. He had a special love for the
sciences, and even designed a rocket ship and applied
for a patent on it. When the Conventual Franciscans
opened a minor seminary, both he and his brother,
Leopoli, applied. Raymond took the habit on September
4, 1910, and adopted the name Maximilian.
He endured inner trials and was sent to Rome to
study. He earned a doctorate in philosophy and later a
doctorate in theology. He saw indifference as the most
deadly poison, and in 1917 founded an order, the
Knights of the Immaculata, to counteract it. Members
dedicated themselves to Mary Immaculate and pledged
to work for the salvation of souls, particularly among
the enemies of the Church, through prayer and apostolic
work. The order was made a Primary Union by
Pope Pius XI (r. 1922–39) in 1926.
Maximilian contracted tuberculosis in 1920, and
his health was severely weakened for the rest of his life.
He spent two years in a sanatorium. For the remainder
of the 1920s and into the 1930s, Maximilian worked to
build his order, and even went to Japan. He was
recalled to Poland in 1939 to head the provincial chapter,
the City of the Immaculata.
World War II brought attacks by the Nazis. Maximilian
was arrested by the Gestapo in 1939, then
released. He was arrested again in 1941 and jailed in
Warsaw. On May 28, 1941, Maximilian was among
about 320 prisoners who were transported to the
Auschwitz concentration camp.
His openness as a Catholic priest brought him
severe treatment. He was regularly beaten, attacked by
dogs, given the worst job details and made to carry
corpses. Once he was beaten and left for dead; his fellow
prisoners carried him back to camp, where he
recovered. His chronic lung inflammation required him
to spend time in the infirmary. Throughout the brutalities,
Maximilian maintained a positive outlook and was
a source of strength to many prisoners. He heard confessions,
gave conditional absolution to the dead and
counseled people. He always made himself last for any
medical treatment.

In July 1941, a prisoner escaped. Camp rules were
that if a missing prisoner was not caught and returned,
10 people in the cell block would be killed in reprisal.
The commandant went through the ranks selecting the
10 victims at random. One was a Polish soldier,
Sergeant Francis Gajowniczek, who cried out in distress,
“What will happen to my family?” Immediately
Maximilian stepped forward and volunteered himself
as a replacement. The commandant accepted.
The 10 men were herded into a starvation cell,
stripped of their clothing and left to die. They received
no food or water. One by one they died; some were
kicked to death by the guards. Maximilian led the survivors
in prayer and hymns, reminding them that their
souls could not be killed.
After two weeks four men remained, including
Maximilian. The impatient commandant wanted the
cell for more victims, and so he ordered the four executed
by injection of lethal carbolic acid. When his
turn came, Maximilian calmly raised his arm to the
executioner. He died on August 14, 1941, and was cremated
the following day.
The Knights of the Immaculata have spread around
the world. The order is now known as the Militia of
the Immaculata.
Beatified: October 17, 1971, by Pope Paul VI
Canonized: October 10, 1982, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: August 14
FURTHER READING
Mary, Francis. The Hero of Auschwitz. Kenosha, Wis.: Prow
Books, 1970.
Maximus of Constantinople (ca. 580–662) Abbot,
mystic and Father of the Church
Also known as: the Theologian; Maximus the Confessor
Maximus was born in Constantinople to a noble family
around 580. He served as the first secretary to
Emperor Heraclius, but left the post and went to the
monastery at Chrysopolis near Constantinople. He
studied a time with St. Sophronius. He defended Pope
Honorius (r. 625–638) in a controversy over Monothelitism,
but then was charged with treason at the
Lateran Council convened in 649 by Pope St. Martin I
(r. 649–655). Maximus was exiled for six years to Perberis
(Perbera).
In 662 he was recalled to Constantinople with two
companions, both named Anastasius. They were anathematized
along with SS. Martin and Sophronius.
They were beaten, had their tongues cut out and their
right hands cut off. They were then sent into perpetual
exile and imprisonment. Maximus died in 662 after
having a vision foretelling his death. Tradition holds
that miraculous lights appeared every night at his
tomb.
Maximus is considered one of the leading theologians
of the Greek Church, particularly for his work on
the union of God with humanity in the Incarnation. He
wrote more than 90 theological, mystical and dogmatic
works. His leading mystical works are Mystagogia,
which explains ecclesiastical symbolism; Scholia, an
examination of the work of Pseudo-Dionysius; and
Ambigua, on St. Gregory of Nazianzus.
Feast: August 13 (in the West); January 21 and
August 12 and 13 (in the East)
Mechtilde (ca. 1240–1298) Benedictine nun, mystic
and mentor of St. Gertrude the Great
Also known as: Mechtilde of Helfta
Little is known about Mechtilde’s life. She was born in
Helfta, Saxony, to a noble family; according to some
accounts she was a countess and cousin of the emperor.
At age seven she was placed in a Benedictine convent
at Rodalsdorf. She was an excellent student and
learned to write fluidly in Latin. In 1261, she took
charge of the five-year-old Gertrude and became her
confidante and mentor.
Gertrude recorded Mechtilde’s revelations and
ecstasies in the Liber Specialis Gratiae (Book of special
grace) of St. Mechtilde, and Legatus Divinae Pietatis
(Herald of divine love), the story of Gertrude’s life.
Mechtilde received the heart of Jesus. When she
asked Him how to greet Mary, He told her to hail
Mary’s “virginal heart.” Mary appeared numerous times
to the saint, including one time when she revealed her
heart inscribed with letters of gold, “Hail Mary, full of
grace! The Lord is with thee!”
Mechtilde died on November 19, 1298, with Gertrude
in attendance. As she lay dying, she prayed
earnestly to Mary for the nuns of her convent. Mary
and Jesus are said to have appeared to her, and Jesus
placed about her neck a necklace of sparkling gems.
Feast: November 19
Meinrad 245
Meinrad (d. 861) Benedictine hermit and martyr
Also known as: Meginratus
Meinrad was born in Solgen, Swabia, to the Hohenzollern
nobility. He entered the Benedictine order and
went to teach at a small monastery in Bollingen near
Zurich. He had a special devotion to the Blessed Virgin
Mary. He decided he wished to become a hermit, and
received permission to do so in 828. He moved to a hut

246 Melito
in the Dark Wood on the slopes of Mt. Etzel. According
to legend, he adopted and tamed two ravens (by
some accounts, crows). For seven years, he lived there
and attracted many pilgrims.
The crowds became too much, and so Meinrad
went deeper into the woods. He found a spring and
built a hut and a chapel, in which he placed a cherished
statue of Mary. He would pray there, joined by
his two ravens. He was again discovered, and pilgrims
made their way to him.
On January 21, 861, while Meinrad was saying
Mass for the feast of St. Agnes, he received a divine revelation
that this was to be his last Mass. He had no
sooner finished than two strangers appeared. They had
heard about the crowds of pilgrims and had come
looking for jewels and valuables to steal.
Meinrad welcomed them and set out food and wine
for them. When they discovered no treasures, the men
clubbed Meinrad to death while the ravens attacked
them in vain. They dragged his body to the bed of
leaves in his hut. Two candles mysteriously lit by
themselves, and a wonderful smell permeated the hut.
Terrified, the murderers fled to Zurich. The ravens followed
relentlessly, screeching until at last the murderers
were apprehended and confessed. According to
lore, the birds hovered over the scaffolding when the
men were hanged.
Meinrad’s remains were taken to the abbey of
Reichenau near Constance, but were returned to the
site of his hut in 1039.
The abbey of Einsiedeln was built at the spot where
Meinrad built his hut and chapel, and remains a popular
pilgrimage site. In 948, St. Conrad had a remarkable
vision there.
Canonized: 1039 by Pope Benedict IX
Feast: January 21
Melito (d. ca. 180) Bishop of Sardis, Father of the
Church
Few facts are known about the life of Melito. He was
regarded in his day as one of the leading authorities in
the Eastern Church. St. Eusebius praised him, Tertullian
wrote favorably of him and St. Jerome noted that
he was a highly respected prophet. Melito taught the
dual nature of Jesus. He became bishop of Sardis, died
there and was buried there.
Almost all of Melito’s works have been lost. Eusebius
gave accounts of most of them, along with some
extracts. Best known is his An Apology for the Christian
Faith written for Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Feast: April 1
Methodius of Olympus (d. ca. 311) Bishop, ecclesiastical
author, martyr and Father of the Church
Methodius’s was bishop of Olympus in Lycia. Educated
in philosophy, he gained stature as a theologian and
writer. He was the first to mount a formidable attack
on Origen. Methodius died a martyr in Tyre during the
Diocletian persecution.
Methodius was a prolific author. In On the Resurrection
he refuted Origen’s argument that the resurrection
body was not the same as the physical body during life.
Symposium on Virginity is a dialogue extolling Christian
virginity.
Feast: June 14
Michael the Archangel The most prominent and greatest
angel in Christian, Hebrew and Islamic lore
Name meaning: “Who is like God” or “who is as God”
in Hebrew.
Michael is warrior, protector, healer and guardian. He
holds numerous offices in heaven: He is chief of the
virtues and archangels, a prince of the presence, prince
of the seraphim, and the angel of repentance, righteousness,
mercy and salvation. Some of his roles overlap
with those of the two other great archangels of
Christianity—Gabriel and Raphael.
Michael is mentioned by name in Daniel, Jude and
Revelation. In Daniel, he is the guardian angel of the
people of God [Israel]. In 10:13, Michael is named and
described as “one of the chief princes,” and in 10:21,
“one having the appearance of a man” tells Daniel
“there is none who contends by my side except
Michael, your prince.” In Daniel 12:1, the prophecy of
“the time of the end” states that “At that time shall
arise Michael, the great prince who has charge of your
people. And there shall be a time of trouble, such as
never has been since there was a nation till that time;
but at that time your people shall be delivered, every
one whose name shall be found written in the book.”
(This is a reference to the Israelites’ departure from
Egypt, led by Moses and guided by a pillar of cloud
during the day and a pillar of fire at night [Exodus
33ff]. In Exodus 23:20, God promises to send His
angel before them. Though Michael is not named here,
it is widely interpreted that he is that angel.)
In Jude 9, the archangel Michael contends with
Satan over the body of Moses (according to Jewish
lore, Satan wishes to reveal the tomb of the prophet in
order to seduce the Israelites into the sin of idolatry;
Michael, obeying God, concealed the tomb).
In Revelation 12:7–12, Michael and his legions battle
Satan and his forces in heaven, and Satan is thrown
down.

Numerous other biblical references to “the angel of
Yahweh” and “the angel of the Lord” are interpreted as
meaning Michael. Besides Exodus, another example is
found in Zechariah 3:1–2, which tells of an angel of
the Lord who confronts Satan before God and the high
priest Joshua.
In Catholic devotion, there is no greater angel than
Michael; the Catholic Church refers to him as “Prince
of the heavenly hosts.” Churches were built and dedicated
to him from the fifth century on. So intense was
adoration of Michael that many devotional cults
sprang up all over Europe, peaking in popularity in the
late Middle Ages. Devotion to Michael (as well as to
Gabriel and Raphael) is still encouraged by the
Catholic Church through devotional cults, prayer and
Mass.
Michael wages ceaseless war against the forces of
Satan. He is the special defender of Christians (and
particularly Catholics) and the Church. Satan trembles
at the mere mention of his name, and all the angels of
heaven bow down before him in obedience. Michael
inspires fidelity to God. St. Francis de Sales wrote that
veneration of Michael is the greatest remedy against
despising the rights of God, insubordination, skepticism
and infidelity.
At Mass, Michael presides over the worship and
adoration to the Most High, and sends to God the
prayers of the faithful, symbolized by the smoke from
incense. The prayer to St. Michael asking him to
defend Christians in battle is a condensed form of the
general exorcism against Satan and evil spirits composed
by Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903).
One of his important duties is as psychopomp to
the dead, guiding the souls of the newly departed to
the afterlife. In this capacity, he resembles the
Greek/Roman god Hermes/Mercury and the Egyptian
god Thoth. Michael weighs the souls for righteousness.
He is associated with benevolent aspects of the Angel
of Death and has the ability to shapeshift when he
comes to take a soul away. Michael was the angel designated
to appear to Mary to announce her death.
In Catholicism, Michael guards the gates of purgatory
and has pity on the souls therein. Legends tell of
prayers made to Michael for souls in purgatory; he
appears and takes them into heaven.
Michael shares with Raphael special healing duties,
a function naturally associated with him as protector of
the general welfare. Catholic tradition holds that
Michael caused a medicinal spring to appear at Chairotopa
near Colossae; anyone who bathed there and
invoked the Blessed Trinity and Michael was said to be
cured. Michael also dreamed a healing spring from a
rock at Colossae. Pagans attempted to destroy it by
directing a stream against it, but Michael split the rock
Michael the Archangel 247
St. Michael vanquishing the serpent (Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division)
with lightning, giving a new bed to the stream, and
sanctifying the waters forever.
Michael was considered the great heavenly physician
at Constantinople, and is credited with banishing
a pestilence in Rome during the days of Pope St. Gregory
I (r. 590–604).
There have been numerous apparitions of Michael
reported over the centuries, usually on or near mountaintops.
One of the most famous sites is the Michaelion
church near Constantinople, erected in the fourth
century by Emperor Constantine the Great. At the
command of Mary, Queen of the Angels, Michael came
to the aid of Constantine in his battle against Emperor
Maxentius. Constantine built the church for Michael in
gratitude. After its completion, Michael appeared there
to the emperor and said, “I am Michael, the chief of the
angelic legions of the Lord of hosts, the protector of
the Christian religion, who while you were battling
against godless tyrants, placed the weapons in your
hands.” Miracles attributed to Michael have been
reported at the Michaelion over the centuries.
Another famous apparition of Michael appeared to
the bishop of Siponto on Mount Gargano in Apulia,
near Naples, Italy, during the reign of Pope St. Gelasius
(r. 492–496). A shrine erected in the cave of the
apparition attracted hordes of pilgrims. In the seventh
century, the shrine was at a peak of popularity, due in
part to a Lombard victory over the Saracens in 663 that
was attributed to the help of Michael. According to
lore, the Lombards, who went to the shrine to pay
thanks for their victory, found the imprint of Michael’s
foot near the south door of the temple.
In 495 in Cornwall, England, fishermen saw
Michael standing on a ledge of rock atop a small

248 Michael the Archangel
mount off the coast near Mousehole. St. Michael’s
Mount, as it became known, was already an important
trading market and port, and took on new significance
with its association with Michael, and became a hallowed
place. In the sixth century it was visited by St.
Cadoc, one of the principal saints of Wales. According
to legend, the saint needed water for his traveling
party, and struck his staff into the rock, whereupon
water sprang forth.
A Benedictine priory was built atop St. Michael’s
Mount in 1135 by Bernard Le Bec. The community was
enriched by the earls of Cornwall. But on September
11, 1275, an earthquake destroyed the church. It was
rebuilt in the 14th century. Between 1349 and 1362,
the religious community was nearly wiped out by the
Black Plague. In 1649, the property passed into private
hands, the St. Aubyn family.
From the Middle Ages, St. Michael’s Mount was a
favorite pilgrimage. Pilgrims came to seek answers to
prayer, discharge vows, do penance and seek healing.
Many were spurred by the incentive that all those who
came to St. Michael’s Mount with alms and oblations
would receive an indulgence of one-third of their
penance. The indulgence was credited to Pope Gregory
VII (r. 1073–85), though probably it was a tradition
started by the monks and over time believed to be true.
A goal of many pilgrims was to prove their faith by
sitting on “St. Michael’s chair,” a craggy spot with a
precipitous drop to the sea. Monks built a stone lantern
chair atop the church tower, to serve not only as a
lighthouse but also perhaps as a more suitable substitute
for the unsafe outcropping. According to lore, if a
married couple visit, the first one to sit on the chair
will gain mastery in their married life.
Pilgrims also were attracted to the jawbone relic of
St. Apollonia, a martyr and patron against toothaches.
Many miracles of healing were reported at St.
Michael’s Mount and credited to the intercession of
Michael.
Today the former priory is a private residence,
much of it open to public tours. The church is active
and is free from episcopal jurisdiction. A stone pillar
marks the spot where Michael appeared. When the tide
is low, St. Michael’s Mount can be accessed on foot
across a sandbar.
In France, a similar but grander Benedictine abbey
was built on Mont St. Michel, a rock off the Normandy
coast. In 708, Michael appeared three times in visions
to St. Aubert, Bishop of Avranches, and instructed him
to build a sanctuary there. The abbey was founded in
966 by Richard I, duke of Normandy. Construction of
the church began in 1023 and was finished in 1136. By
the 12th century, Mont St. Michel was called the “City
of Books” and was a great center of learning. Many of
the manuscripts kept by the monks were lost during
the French Revolution when the monks were expelled.
Between 1155 and 1424, Mont St. Michel had jurisdiction
over St. Michael’s Mount in Cornwall.
In Spain, where the cult of Michael peaked in popularity
in about the 13th century, one of the best-known
apparitions is the 1455 appearance to a shepherd about
halfway between Navagamella and Fresnedillas, in the
foothills of the Sierra de Guadarrama. The sighting was
investigated in 1520, when some of the witnesses were
still alive, and also in 1617.
According to testimony, Michael appeared late one
afternoon in 1455 on a holm-oak tree and a rockrose
plant to shepherd Miguel Sanchez. Michael told the
shepherd not to be frightened, but to tell others that a
shrine should be erected on the site and a brotherhood
founded, both in honor of angels. Sanchez protested
that no one would believe him, but Michael insisted
that he tell his employer. “I will make them believe you
so they build a shrine here to the holy angels,” he said.
He then made an imprint of his hand on the tree.
However, Sanchez did not tell the story. A few days
passed, and one morning he awakened crippled. His
legs were folded in a bizarre manner, so that the backs
of his calves touched his thighs and his heels touched
his buttocks. His employer, Pedro Garcia de Ayuso,
tried unsuccessfully to cure him with herbs and oils. At
last Sanchez told of his vision. Garcia de Ayuso consulted
with authorities, and they carried the shepherd
to the site of the apparition. There they found the
handprint on the tree trunk. It was considered proof,
and plans were made immediately for construction of a
chapel. A Mass was said there for the shepherd’s health;
when it was completed, he was cured and he stood up.
Sanchez was named keeper of the shrine.
Today Michael is revered by millions who pray to
him for intercession. He is particularly considered the
champion of justice and righteousness. In Christian
art, Michael is usually portrayed in warrior garb, holding
a sword and scales and trampling Satan.
Feast: May 8, which commemorates the dedication
of a basilica in honor of him on the Salarian Way
about six miles outside of Rome, and September
29, known as Michaelmas
Patronage: Brussels, Belgium; grocers; mariners;
paratroopers; police; sickness
FURTHER READING
Christian, William C., Jr. Apparitions in Late Medieval and
Renaissance Spain. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1981.
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Angels. New
York: Facts On File, 1996.

Steiner, Rudolph. The Archangel Michael: His Mission and
Ours. Hudson, N.Y.: Anthroposophic Press, 1994.
Michael of Ecuador (Miguel de Ecuador)
(1854–1910) Teacher and De LaSalle Brother
Also known as: Michael Cordero, Francisco Febles Cordero
Muñoz, Miguel Febres Cordero, Miguel of
Ecuador
Michael of Ecuador was born in Cuenca, Ecuador, on
November 7, 1854, and baptized with the name Francisco
Febles Cordero Muñoz. His was a well-to-do and
influential family. His grandfather, León Febles (or
Febres) Cordero, was a general who had fought in
Ecuador’s war of independence from Spain. His father,
Francisco Febres Cordero Montoya, was a cultured
man who was teaching English and French at a seminary
in Cuenca at the time of Francisco’s birth. His
mother, Ana Muñoz, was one of 19 children, five of
whom became nuns and one a Jesuit priest.
Francisco (who took the name Michael when he
joined a religious order at 14) was born with a deformity
of the feet that made him unable to walk until he
was five. His first steps, in fact, are said to be due to a
miracle. One day he happened to see a rose blooming
in the garden of his house. He commented to his family
on the beautiful woman above the flowers, saying
that she was wearing a white dress with a blue cloak
and was calling his name. The others could see nothing
out of the ordinary, and they were astonished when
he proceeded to get up and walk. From his childhood
he had other visions of the Virgin Mary and of Jesus,
with whom he conversed on a regular basis. However,
he was never able to walk well, a factor contributing to
his becoming a man of letters.
When the De LaSalle Brothers arrived in Ecuador in
1863 and set up a seminary, Francisco enrolled. He was
attracted to the way of life and decided to join the
order, though his parents objected to his plans to
become a lay brother rather than a priest, since the
economic status of brothers was so much lower. They
placed him in the seminary where his father taught
instead, but within a few months he became seriously
ill and had to return home. His mother finally agreed
to let him become a lay brother. On March 24, 1868,
Francisco took the habit of the De LaSalle Brothers and
changed his name to Michael.
Following in his father’s footsteps, Brother Michael
taught languages (Spanish, French and English) at the
seminary in Cuenca and a year later was assigned to
the Beaterio at Quito. There he specialized in preparing
children for their First Communion, a job he loved and
performed for the next 26 years.
Miguel Agustin Pro, Blessed 249
Michael’s talents as an educator were recognized
with his appointment as a public examiner and inspector
of Quito’s schools. He also was a prodigious writer,
producing his first book—a textbook—at the age of 17.
Besides textbooks, he produced works of Christian
spirituality, a catechism, poetry, and linguistic studies
of Castilian Spanish. The latter were adopted as
required texts for all schools in Ecuador. In 1892,
Michael was elected to the National Academy of
Ecuador (which included membership in the Royal
Academy of Spain); in 1900, to the Académie
Française; and in 1906, to the Academy of Venezuela.
In 1888 Michael traveled to Rome to attend the
beatification ceremony of the founder of his order,
John Baptist de la Salle. In March 1907, he was called
to Europe again, this time to help translate religious
documents from French into Spanish. The civil unrest
in France during this period made it imperative that
these works be translated in order to ensure the continuation
of the order’s work outside that country. He
was in Spain in July 1909, when problems broke out in
Barcelona. There were attacks on Church property,
placing emotional stress on all the Brothers. A few
months later Michael caught a cold that progressed to
pneumonia, and he died on February 9, 1910.
Miracles credited to Michael’s intercession began to
be reported immediately after his death, and he became
the center of a cult, especially strong in Spanish-speaking
countries. During the Spanish Civil War, his body
was returned to Ecuador, arriving there on February 4,
1937. His new tomb in Quito soon became a pilgrimage
shrine. The Ecuadorian government issued postage
stamps bearing his likeness and erected a bronze and
marble monument to him in Quito’s central park.
Upon the statue’s dedication in June 1965, there was a
huge parade, in which 30,000 school children participated.
Beatified: October 30, 1977, by Pope Paul VI
Canonized: April 7 or October 21, 1984, by Pope
John Paul II
Feast: February 9 or June 2
Patronage: Ecuador
FURTHER READING
“Beato Hermano Miguel.” Santos y Beatos de America Latina:
Ecuador. URL: http://www/aciprensa.com/santecua.htm.
Downloaded: November 12, 1999.
“San Miguel Febres Cordero.” Church Forum Santoral. URL:
http://www.churchforum.org.mx/santoral. Downloaded:
November 12, 1999.
Miguel Agustin Pro, Blessed (1891–1927) Jesuit
priest; martyr
Also known as: Miguel Agustin Pro Juarez

250 Miltiades
St. Miguel Pro
Miguel Pro was born at Guadalupe, Zacatecas, Mexico,
on January 13, 1891. His father was a mining engineer
and Miguel retained a special affinity for the working
class all his life. From childhood he had a notably
cheerful personality, though he displayed little interest
in religion. When two of his brothers entered the
priesthood, however, Miguel began to consider such a
career for himself.
In August 1911, at age 20, he entered a Jesuit seminary.
However, the Mexican Revolution, which had
begun the year before, turned out to be a time of persecution
for the Church, and in 1914 the rector decided
to evacuate all members of the community from the
country. The brothers dispersed, Miguel going to study
and teach in the United States, Spain and finally Belgium,
where he was ordained on August 31, 1925.
Soon thereafter he began to be afflicted by a severe
stomach problem and when several operations failed to
return him to health, his superiors allowed him to
return to Mexico to recuperate.
A few days after his arrival in Mexico City in 1926,
Catholicism was officially suppressed, and Miguel was
forced to don disguises and to conduct his ministry in
secret. It was not long before he was arrested. He was
released with a warning, but far from stifling him, the
experience spurred him to greater efforts. He traveled
throughout Mexico City on a bicycle, conducting communions
and baptisms, hearing confessions, administering
last rites, performing marriages and distributing
food to the poor. In November 1927, he was arrested
again, along with his brothers, and accused of plotting
against President Plutarco Calles. Their execution by
firing squad was ordered without trial.
On November 23, Miguel was the first of the three
to leave the prison. He asked to be allowed to pray one
last time. He was put on his feet and extended his arms
so that his body formed a cross. As he was shot, he
cried out, “Long live Christ the King!” echoing the cry
of earlier Mexican martyrs of this period.
Thinking that he could use the occasion to celebrate
the cowardliness of Mexican Catholics, Calles
had invited the press to attend. The pictures of
Miguel’s heroic death had the opposite effect. Although
the government prohibited a public funeral, thousands
of the faithful lined the streets to see his body carried
to its resting place.
Beatified: September 26, 1988, by Pope John Paul II
in Mexico City
Feast: November 23
FURTHER READING
“Beato Miguel Pro, sacerdote.” website. Aci Digital website.
Santos y Beatos de America Latina: Mexico. URL: http://
www.aciprensa.com/Maria/migpro.htm.Downloaded: October
30, 1999.
Ball, Ann. Blessed Miguel Pro: 20th Century Mexican Martyr.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1996.
Miltiades (d. 314) Pope
Also known as: Melchiades
The Roman see was vacant for some time after the banishment
of Pope St. Eusebius, probably due to the
ongoing controversy over whether Christians who had
lapsed under persecutions should be allowed to return
to the Church without doing penitence. Miltiades, a
Roman priest of African descent, was elevated to the
papacy on July 2, 311.
In October 312, Emperor Maxentius was defeated
by Constantine the Great, who had experienced a
vision that told him he would conquer in the sign of
the Christ. Although he was not to accept baptism
until his deathbed, Constantine thereafter supported
the Christians in any way he could. In 313, he signed
the Edict of Milan with Emperors Galerius and
Licinius, putting an end to the persecution of Chris-

tians in the Roman Empire. He gave Miltiades the right
to receive back all buildings and possessions that had
been confiscated during the persecutions, and granted
to the Church tracts of land in and around Rome on
which to build new houses of worship. Either to Miltiades
or to his successor, Pope St. Sylvester I, he also
gave the Lateran Palace, which then became the pope’s
residence and the seat of the central administration of
the Roman Church.
Miltiades died on January 10 or 11, 314, and was
buried in the Catacomb of St. Callistus, afterward
being venerated as a saint.
Feast: December 10 (January 10 in fourth century)
Monica (332–387) Mother of St. Augustine of Hippo
Name meaning: Advise
Monica was born in Tagaste, Africa. By her family’s
arrangement, she married Patricius, a violent-tempered
but generous pagan official. The marriage was made
even more difficult by his mother, who lived with the
couple.
Monica had three children: Augustine, Navigius
and Perpetua. She succeeded in converting her husband
and his mother to the Catholic faith; Patricius
died a year later in 370. Perpetua and Navigius entered
the religious life. Augustine, however, lived a dissolute
life, causing Monica to pray fervently for him for 17
years. She begged the prayers of priests, some of whom
tried to avoid her because of her persistence. Her
dream was realized in 387, when Augustine was baptized
a Christian by St. Ambrose in Italy. Later that
same year, en route back to Africa, Monica died in the
Italian port of Ostia. Her relics are in the church of St.
Augustine in Rome.
Monica is considered a model for Christian mothers.
Feast: August 27
Patronage: alcoholics; housewives; against infidelity;
married women; mothers
Moses the Black (b. ca. 332–d. ca. 407) Former
slave and robber turned desert hermit and martyr
Also known as: Moses the Ethiopian
Moses the Black was born around 332 in Nubia. He
became enslaved to a government official in Egypt,
who dismissed him for theft and suspected murder. He
became the leader of a gang of outlaws that roamed
around the Nile Valley, terrorizing people. Moses was
large, imposing, ferocious and strong, and became
notorious for his crimes. When local authorities pursued
him, he hid among monks at the Petra monastery
in Skete, in the western desert near Alexandria. The
monks had a positive influence on him. Over the
course of time, he gave up his life of crime and became
a monk himself.
Moses was a zealous perfectionist and became a
prophetic spiritual leader. Some credit him with establishing
the paschal fast that developed in the fourth
century and later became the Lenten fast. According to
lore, the abbot ordered all the monks to fast during a
particular week. When some brothers came to visit
Moses, he cooked a meal for them. But when other
monks confronted Moses about breaking the commandment,
they told him that though he had not kept
the commandment of men, he had kept the commandment
of God.
Another story told of Moses concerns a brother
who committed a fault. A council was convened to
judge the brother; Moses was invited but he refused to
attend. He was summoned, and so went to the meeting
carrying a leaking jug filled with water (or, by other
accounts, a basket of sand with a hole in it). Asked for
the meaning of this, Moses said, “My sins run out
behind me and I do not see them, but today I am coming
to judge the errors of another.” Shamed, the council
forgave the brother.
Moses was ordained a priest by Theophilus of
Alexandria, which was uncommon at that time for
desert monks. He became the spiritual leader of a
colony of hermits near Skete.
Around 407, when Moses was about 75 years old,
the colony learned that a group of Bedouins planned to
attack them. Moses forbade the brothers to defend
themselves, telling them to retreat rather than to fight.
All but seven monks and Moses left the colony. When
the Bedouins arrived, they were welcomed by the hermits,
but turned on them and murdered them.
Moses was buried at Dair al-Baramus, the
Monastery of the Romans, in the Valley of Natron. His
relics are now in the Church of Al Adra (the Virgin).
He is regarded as the apostle of nonviolence. His wisdom
is included in the Sayings of the Fathers, a collection
of wisdom of the desert monks.
Feast: August 28
Moses the Black 251
FURTHER READING
“Life of St. Moses the Black.” URL: htt://www.premontre.
org/SubPages/Loci/ZZZLocalSites/LSJackson/StMoses-
Bio.htm. Downloaded: February 6, 2000.

Neot (d. 877) Monk of Glastonbury, England
Nf
Neot was revered especially in Cornwall, where his
name is preserved in the town of St. Neot (pronounced
Need). Several accounts of the life of Neot exist, dating
from the 12th to 19th centuries. The conflicting information
in them has led some historians to think that
there may have been two Neots, one Cornish and
another Saxon. This, however, cannot be proved from
existing records.
Perhaps the most consistent and reliable accounts
come from Latin versions dating to the 12th century.
Even these accounts likely contain the fictions attributed
to many saints, in terms of their virtues and holy
deeds.
Neot was said to have been born in East England,
and was a scion of the royal house of East Anglia.
Drawn to religion early in life, he became a monk at
Glastonbury and was a model of behavior. Visited often
by angels, he was informed by them not to hide his
light under a bushel but to preach God’s word far and
wide. Neot did as instructed, and became famous;
people flocked to him. He was then instructed by a
heavenly oracle (probably an angel) to go elsewhere to
practice a life of virtue. He became a hermit on the
Bodmin Moor, where the town of St. Neot is now. A
well is dedicated to him.
The well supplied Neot with fish every day. Three
fish always swam in it. God instructed Neot to take
253
one fish a day for his food. He would express his gratitude
by standing in the well waters with naked limbs
reciting the Psalter.
One day Neot felt sick and could eat nothing at all.
His alarmed companion and servant caught two fishes
(one account says three fishes) and cooked them in
different ways. Neot was so upset that he jumped up
from his sickbed, threw the dishes into the well and
prayed until three fishes again swam in the well.
For seven years Neot lived as a hermit, and then
went to Rome, where he visited the tombs of SS. Peter
and Paul. He was honored by an unnamed pope. He
returned to Cornwall, where he continued his devotional
life and healed many people. He was visited
often by angels.
King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) heard of Neot’s
fame and sought him out for his blessing. Neot
rebuked him for his wickedness. In one or perhaps two
dreams, Neot appeared to the king and prophesied correctly
that Alfred would have much travail and would
even temporarily lose his kingdom. He also said that
he himself would soon die, and God would then bless
the king.
Neot soon fell ill. According to legend, he died
while praying and preaching to his flock. Great multitudes
attended his funeral, where many were healed of
sickness. His body was buried in the church, which
became filled with sweet smells of flowers and spices.

254 Nicholas
Those who breathed in these odors were healed. Dust
from his tomb was taken to be swallowed for the healing
of humans and animals alike. His remains were
removed to a shrine north of the altar.
Neot appeared to the custodian and asked for his
relics to be removed to an unnamed resting place. This
the custodian did, which upset the townspeople.
When men tried to take Neot’s body back to the
church, it could not be moved. An unnamed English
king ordered the relics to be left where they were.
There are conflicting accounts as to whether relics remained
in St. Neot, or were taken elsewhere, perhaps
to St. Ives.
Neot’s date of death is 877; some place it nearer to
880. One hundred years later, his relics were taken
from Cornwall and sent to the monastery founded by
the Saxon Leofric at Eynesbury, near St. Ives, Cambridgeshire.
Stories associated with Neot appear in the lore of
other Celtic saints of the area. Similar stories of magic
fishes are told about SS. Corentin and Petroc. Neot also
is said to have saved a doe from hunters (a story also
told about Petroc) and had his plough pulled by stags
(a story told about St. Kea).
The 16th-century church of St. Neot has preserved
the story of its patron saint in its stained-glass windows.
Feast: July 31; in Cornwall, the last Sunday in July
Patronage: St. Neot, Cornwall
FURTHER READING
Doble, Gilbert H. The Saints of Cornwall: Part Six, Saints of
North Cornwall. Felinfach, Cornwall, England: Llanerch
Publishers, 1997.
Nicholas (d. ca. 345–352) Bishop of Myra; identified
with Santa Claus
Also known as: Nicholas of Myra, Nicholas of Bari
The only certainty about Nicholas’s life is that he lived
in the fourth century and was bishop of Myra in Lycia.
Legends grew up around him, making him one of the
most popular saints in both Western and Eastern
churches. Tradition holds that he was born in Parara,
Asia Minor, and went to Egypt and Palestine on pilgrimages
when young. After he became bishop of
Myra, he was jailed during the Diocletian persecutions,
and was released after Constantine the Great became
emperor in 324. Nicholas died sometime between 345
and 352 and was buried in Myra. Saracens took Myra
in 1034, and several Italian cities competed for securing
the saint’s relics. On May 9, 1087, they were translated
to Bari and enshrined. Immediately many
miracles of healing were reported.
St. Nicholas of Myra (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
While still in Myra, Nicholas’s bones were discovered
to exude an oil or manna. According to an anonymous
13th-century account of the translation to Bari, a
considerable quantity of this oil was found with the
relics. The oil has been observed to exude from the
pores of the bone and to collect and drip. It is collected
in ampules.
The oil has stopped four times: in 887, when a
legitimate successor to Nicholas was expelled from
office; in 1086, the year before the relics were moved;
from 1916 to 1917, during World War I; and from

1953 to 1957, when the basilica was being restored. It
started again when the relics were restored to the
basilica, then stopped and then resumed on April 10,
1961.
The oil has been examined scientifically, and has
been determined not to come from water or humidity.
Nicholas became the progenitor of Santa Claus, perhaps
from the legend about his generosity in gift-giving.
Tradition holds that he secretly provided the
dowries of three young women by throwing bags of
gold through their father’s open window (another version
says that he saved three young women from prostitution
by throwing bags of gold through their
windows). Much later, Nicholas became identified
with Father Christmas and Santa Claus. Gift-giving on
his feast day, December 6, is still a tradition is some
countries.
Feast: December 6
Patronage: bakers; boys; brewers; brides; children;
coopers; dockworkers; mariners; merchants;
pawnbrokers; spinsters; travelers; Greece; Russia;
Naples; Sicily; Lorraine, France; the diocese of
Liege; Campen, Netherlands; Corfu, Greece; Freiburg,
Switzerland; Moscow, Russia; and many
other cities in Italy, Germany, Austria and Belgium
FURTHER READING
Anonymous. The Translation of St. Nicholas. Tr. J. M. McGinley
and H. Mursurillo. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/
halsall/basis/nicholas-bari.html. Downloaded: September
10, 2000.
Nicholas I (ca. 820–867) Pope
Also known as: Nicholas the Great
Nicholas is one of three popes to be honored with the
appellation “the Great” (the others are St. Leo I [r.
440–461] and St. Gregory I [r. 590–604]). A tireless
defender of Christian morality, he insisted upon the
supremacy of the Church over the state. His personal
life was guided by a spirit of earnest Christian asceticism
and profound piety.
Nicholas was born between 819 and 822 to Roman
Defensor Theodore. He joined the priesthood of the
Roman Church in his youth, was made subdeacon by
Pope Sergius II (r. 844–847) and deacon by Pope St.
Leo IV (r. 847–855). He was a trusted adviser of Pope
Benedict III (r. 855–858).
At Benedict’s death on April 7, 858, the Frankish
emperor Louis II, who was then near Rome, came into
the city, hoping to influence the election of a successor.
On April 22, Nicholas was elected and enthroned in
St. Peter’s basilica, with the emperor in the audience.
Nicholas I 255
Nicholas’s elevation came at a time of turmoil in
Western Europe, both within and without the Church.
Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire lay in ruins, and
Christian lands were threatened from both the north
and east. Ecclesiastical discipline, meanwhile, had
largely broken down. Nicholas issued letters and decisions
against bishops who were negligent in their
duties. He was especially active in regard to the
Church’s marriage laws. When the wife of Count Boso
left her husband for a lover, Nicholas commanded her
bishops to excommunicate her unless she returned to
her husband. When the woman ignored the summons
to appear before the Synod of Milan in 860, the sentence
was carried out. Nicholas also forced Charles the
Bald to accept the marriage of his daughter Judith to
Baldwin of Flanders, made without his consent, and
compelled the Frankish bishops to withdraw the
excommunication they had imposed on her.
Nicholas ran into trouble, however, when he
opposed King Lothair II of Lorraine, who had left his
wife Theutberga for another woman. In April 862, the
bishops of Lorraine at the Synod of Aachen approved
of the new union. Then in June 863, at the Synod of
Metz, papal legates were bribed by Lothair to assent to
the Aachen decision. This was enough for Nicholas,
who brought the matter before his own council at the
Lateran Palace that October. He condemned Lothair’s
new marriage and deposed two of the bishops who had
approved it. Lothair then advanced on Rome with his
army and held the city under siege, so that the pope
was confined in St. Peter’s for two days without food.
Nicholas and Lothair eventually reconciled, and
Lothair withdrew; although Nicholas never ceased trying
to bring about a reconciliation between Lothair and
Theutberga, he never succeeded.
Nicholas not only endeavored to enforce the
Church’s teachings, he sought to spread them through
missionary work as well. He sent St. Anskar as a missionary
to Scandinavia and when, in August 863,
Prince Boris of Bulgaria—who had been converted to
Christianity by Greek missionaries—sent him a delegation
carrying 106 questions on the teaching and discipline
of the Roman Church, Nicholas took the time to
answer them exhaustively in a now-celebrated document,
the “Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum.”
His return delegation was instructed to do what they
could to win over Boris. Nevertheless, in the end he
joined the Eastern Church.
This could not have pleased Nicholas, since he was
also involved throughout his pontificate in a controversy
with the Greek emperor Michael III over his illegal
deposition of Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople
and the appointment of Photius in his place. In 863,
Nicholas excommunicated Michael, and Photius ex-

256 Nicholas II and Companions
communicated Nicholas. The matter was resolved only
when the newly crowned emperor Basil I expelled
Photius on November 13, 867, the day Nicholas died.
Feast: November 13
Nicholas II and Companions (d. 1918) Last czar of
Russia and his family
Also known as: Imperial Martyrs of Holy Russia, Royal
Russian Martyrs
Nicholas II was the last ruler of the Russian royal family
of the Romanovs. He was born on May 6, 1868, in
Tsarskoye Selo, near St. Petersburg, Russia. As the
eldest son of Czar Alexander III, he was next in line for
the throne. He received a military education from a private
tutor but had little interest in ruling and was
unprepared for it when his father’s sudden death on
November 1, 1894, thrust it upon him. At the time, he
was engaged to Alix of Hesse, a minor German
princess descended from the British royal family. The
two were married on November 26, 1894. Alix converted
to Russian Orthodoxy and changed her name to
Alexandra. Nicholas was crowned czar in Moscow on
May 26, 1896.
Nicholas’s lack of preparation for the throne showed
itself on the day of his coronation. The ceremony was a
lavish affair, accompanied by a huge celebration for the
Czar Nicholas II and wife, Alexandra (Library of Congress
Prints and Photographs Division)
Photographs Division)
Russian peasants in a field outside the city. Gift baskets
and beer were given to all attendees. Suddenly, a rumor
that there were not enough gifts and beer for everyone
rushed through the crowd. They stampeded, and thousands
were trampled to death. Nicholas’s first inclination
was to visit the hospital with Alexandra, but he
allowed himself to be swayed by his uncles, who
advised against it because Alexandra and he were
expected to host a ball at the palace. His apparent callousness
earned him the nickname “Bloody Nicholas.”
Nicholas’s reign was marred by a series of other
missteps. In 1905, believing that a successful war
would boost the sagging Russian morale, he went to
war with Japan over a disputed piece of land in
Manchuria. Unfortunately, not only did Russia lose the
war, it was also dealt a humiliating blow with the loss
of its entire Eastern Fleet. Also in 1905 came the
Bloody Sunday massacre, so called because peasants
bringing Nicholas petitions about conditions in St.
Petersburg were fired upon by palace guards. Although
Nicholas had not ordered the shootings, the outcry
afterward forced him to concede to the formation of a
parliament (duma), an important step in the decline of
the Russian monarchy.
Yet another disastrous turn came in the person of
Rasputin, a self-proclaimed psychic from Siberia who
arrived in St. Petersburg in 1903. Rasputin’s claim to be
able to heal the czarevitch Alexis from hemophilia
endeared him to Alexandra and he came to play a
major role in running the government. Whatever his
powers may have been, Rasputin was a drunkard and a
womanizer and the Russian people came to distrust his
influence. He finally was killed by a member of the
royal family in December 1916. By this time, World
War I was in progress, and so was the downfall of
Nicholas. The war brought with it shortages, which led
to strikes in St. Petersburg. Dissatisfaction with his
leadership mounted, and Nicholas was forced to abdicate
in favor of his brother Michael on March 2, 1917.
When the Bolsheviks came to power that October,
they killed Grand Duke Michael. Then in 1918,
Nicholas and his family, who had been exiled to
Siberia, were arrested and transported to Ekaterinburg,
a town in the Ural Mountains. It was there, in Ipatiev
House, sometimes called the House of Special Purposes,
that Nicholas and his family were murdered by
firing squad on the night of July 16/17, 1918. Their
bodies were dumped into a mine shaft, then, as word
spread, they were burned or doused with sulfuric acid,
transported into the woods outside town and buried in
a shallow grave.
The burial place remained unknown until 1979,
when it was discovered by two local men. Fearing official
reaction, they continued to keep the secret for

another decade, until changing political conditions
made it possible for them to reveal it. The bodies were
exhumed in 1991. DNA testing subsequently determined
that they represented a family group, with 99
percent certainty that of Nicholas. The father was
related to several Romanovs, while the mother was
related to the British royal family. However, not all of
Nicholas and Alexandra’s children were accounted for.
Their son, the czarevitch Alexei, was missing, as was
one of their daughters, either Maria or Anastasia. This
finding helped fuel speculation that the two children
had escaped, though their fate is not known. DNA tests
of a woman who claimed to be Anastasia found her
more likely to have been a Polish factory worker.
In July 1998, following a three-hour farewell ceremony
in the Church of the Ascension in Ekaterinburg,
across the street from the former site of Ipatiev House,
the bodies were transported to St. Petersburg. On July
16, they were buried in a chapel in the Cathedral of
Peter and Paul, where most of the Romanov lineage
were interred. The reburial was intended by the state to
be an atonement for the sins of the past. The Russian
Orthodox Church, however, regarded it as sacrilege,
since, as sacred relics, the remains should be buried
separately. The patriarch refused to participate in the
reburial ceremony and held a separate service at the
Church of the Holy Trinity at St. Sergius Monastery, 80
kilometers northeast of Moscow.
The reburial came just at a time when the Church
was glorifying (canonizing) Nicholas and his family.
The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, which had
split from the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia in
1927 and was composed of strongly anti-Soviet émigrés,
held them to be martyrs, arguing that they
defended the faith against communism. The Church
Abroad glorified Nicholas and his family in 1981, and
made their glorification by the Church in Russia a precondition
of reunification. The Church in Russia took
up the problem in 1992 and considered it for five years
before concluding that Nicholas II was not qualified
for sainthood based on the way he had lived and ruled.
Nor was he strictly speaking a martyr, because a martyr
is one who dies upholding his faith, and the question
had never been put to him. However, he and his family
could justifiably be glorified as passion bearers, a special
category of Orthodox sainthood applied to those
who were not strictly martyrs yet nevertheless might
be revered for the humble ways in which they met
their deaths. Russia’s first saints, Boris and Gleb, had
been glorified as passion bearers in 1015.
The Church looked upon Nicholas as a divinely
anointed ruler. Anointing was a practice traced back to
the time of Moses, and Nicholas was regarded as the
Nicholas of Flüe 257
last of an unbroken line of Russian sovereigns to have
been anointed since the Russian conversion to Christianity.
Nicholas himself appears to have accepted his
religious position, because during his coronation, he
took Communion directly from the chalice, a right
reserved for the clergy. Although he abdicated, this was
spiritually ineffective, it was argued, because a divinely
ordained position cannot be resigned.
Whatever the position of their church, the Russian
people had long regarded Nicholas as a saint. Even
during the Soviet era, his photograph might be seen in
homes alongside icons. Bright lights and church music
were reported in the basement of Ipatiev House, before
it was demolished in 1977. A cross was set up on the
site on October 5, 1990. As it was erected, dark clouds
moved in and snow began to fall, but then the clouds
suddenly parted, allowing a ray of light to fall directly
on the cross. The light then circumscribed a circle
around the cross, and in this area no snow fell for the
next 40 minutes, while the installation was completed.
Canonized: November 1, 1981 (by the Russian Orthodox
Church Abroad); August 20, 2000 (by
the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia)
Feast: July 17
FURTHER READING
Massie, Robert K. Nicholas and Alexandra. New York:
Atheneum, 1967.
“Report of the Holy Synod Commission on the Canonization
of Saints with Respect to the Martyrdom of the Royal
Family.” Holy Trinity Cathedral website. URL: http://
www.holy-trinity.org/feasts/nicholas.html. Downloaded:
September 14, 2000.
Serfes, Father Demetrios. “Recent Miracle of the Myrrh-
Streaming Icon of Tsar-Martyr Nicholas II.” Royal Martyrs
of Russia website. URL: http://www.fr-d-serfes.org/
royal/newmiracle.htm. Downloaded: September 14,
2000.
———. “The Holy Canonization of the Royal Martyrs Tsar
Nicholas II and Family of Russia on August 20, 2000.”
Royal Martyrs of Russia website. URL: http://www.fr-dserfes.org/royal/Holycanonization.htm.
Downloaded: September
14, 2000.
Nicholas of Flüe (1417–1487) Extraordinary hermit
and civic leader in Switzerland
Name meaning: Victory of the people
Also known as: Brother Klaus
Nicholas of Flüe was born on March 21, 1417, to a
peasant farmer family near Sachseln, Canton Obwalden,
Switzerland. He took his surname from the River
Flueli nearby. As a boy, Nicholas was drawn to a life of
self-denial and prayer, yet knew he was not destined to
become a monk or priest.

258 Nicholas of Tolentino
He married Dorothy Wissling and had 10 children.
The Flüe family prospered, and Nicholas was widely
respected. He served as a soldier and was elected to
public office. He was magistrate and counselor, but
declined several times to serve as governor.
In 1465 he had a vision in which he was visited by
Three Strangers who told him he would die at age 70
and to persevere in his devotion to God until then. Nicholas
felt that the strangers were representatives of the
Blessed Trinity, and he had been summoned to devote
the remainder of his life to God. For two years, he spent
much time in meditation on the passion of Christ.
More visions confirmed his conviction, and Nicholas
informed his wife that he would leave the family,
which by then was able to support itself. On October
16, 1467, Nicholas left home as a pilgrim wearing only
a robe, with no hat or shoes, and carrying no money.
He took only a staff and a rosary, and set out toward
Alsace. A vision convinced him to remain close to
home, and he went into the woods to pray and fast and
live as a hermit.
Nicholas became known as Brother Klaus and “the
living saint.” He was revered by many and had frequent
visitors. He was called upon to help settle political disputes;
he played an instrumental role in preventing
civil war in 1481.
According to legend Nicholas did not eat, but subsisted
only on the holy Eucharist. This mystical fast
lasted for 20 years. His neighbors built him a hut and a
chapel, the latter of which he dedicated to the Virgin
Mother of God, his special patron. Mary appeared
often to him and conversed with him.
Nicholas left his hermitage only once a year, to participate
in the procession of the Feast of the Annunciation
in Lucerne.
Toward the end of his life, he had a glorious vision
in which he was in a castle with people dressed in
white robes. The Holy Trinity each personally thanked
him for his love and devotion, and for teaching others
to love and serve God.
Nicholas died on his 70th birthday, March 21,
1487. His beatification and canonization were championed
by SS. Charles Borromeo, Peter Canisius and
Robert Bellarmine.
Many credit the intercession of Nicholas with helping
to keep Switzerland out of World Wars I and II. In
1917, the celebration of the 500th anniversary of his
birth inspired people anew with his messages of peace
and love. In 1940, when Hitler’s forces threatened to
invade the country, hundreds of people saw a great
hand in the sky protecting the land.
Beatified: 1669 by Pope Clement IX
Canonized: 1947 by Pope Pius XII
Feast: March 21
Patronage: Switzerland
Nicholas of Tolentino (ca. 1246–1306) Augustinian
preacher, miracle-worker, Patron of the Holy Souls
Nicholas of Tolentino was born in Sant’ Angelo near
Fermo, Italy, around 1246 to pious parents of small
means. He entered the Augustinian order in his hometown,
where he distinguished himself for his devotion
and piety. He was ordained in 1271 at Cinguli and
spent four years in various houses of the order. He
then was assigned to the monastery at Tolentino,
where he spent the rest of his life.
Nicholas preached, spent many hours in the confessional
and aided the poor and sick. He quickly gained a
reputation as a miracle-worker, for which he gave all
credit to God. His followers believed him to have great
intercessory powers for the souls in purgatory; after his
death he was proclaimed “Patron of the Holy Souls.”
St. Nicholas of Tolentino

Once while suffering a prolonged illness, Nicholas
was urged by his superiors to eat more food. One night
the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to him in a vision
and told him to take a small piece of bread, dip it in
water and eat it. She promised that he would then be
cured by his obedience. Nicholas did as instructed and
was cured immediately. He then began the practice of
blessing pieces of bread and giving them to the sick.
Many miracle cures were reported. This evolved into
the custom of “St. Nicholas Breads” after his death, in
which blessed pieces of bread were given out at his
shrine.
In 1305 Nicholas became ill and never recovered.
He died on September 10, 1306, and was buried
beneath the Cappellone, a chapel next to the church.
Forty years later, his body was found to be incorrupt in
its wooden urn and was exposed to the faithful in an
exhibition. Someone—believed to be a German monk,
Teodoro—attempted to sever the saint’s arms and take
them away. When the arms were detached, they bled
profusely, and the monk was arrested.
One hundred years later, the detached arms were
found to be incorrupt, but the rest of the body had
decomposed. The arms were placed in silver cases and
the rest of the remains were reburied. The arms were
seen to bleed 20 times throughout the years; the most
significant episode occurred in 1699 when the arms
bled continuously from May 29 to September 1.
Nicholas’s bones mysteriously disappeared in the
mid-15th century and were not found until 1926,
when they were discovered buried deep beneath the
Cappellone.
The Chapel of the Holy Arms, built in the 16th century,
contains relics of Nicholas’s blood, including a silver
chalice holding a quantity of blood, and a silver
urn holding blood-stained linen said to be the cloth
used at the amputation of the arms.
Nicholas’s remains were placed in a crypt built
between 1926 and 1932. An artificial figure wearing an
Augustinian habit bears his silvered skull and incorrupt
arms, still in their silver casings. The reliquary
was personally blessed by Pope Pius XI (r. 1922–39).
In 1969 Nicholas’s cult was confined to local calendars.
Canonized: 1446 by Pope Eugene IV
Feast: September 10
Nicodemus (d. first century) Defender of Jesus
Nicodemus is mentioned in the Gospel of John as a
Pharisee and member of the ruling Sanhedrin. In John
7:50–51, he advocates giving Jesus a fair hearing while
others seek to immediately condemn him. In John
St. Nicodemus, left, with Jesus
19:39 he attends to the burial of Jesus’ body with
Joseph of Arimathea, providing about 100 pounds of
myrrh and aloes. Nicodemus is mentioned in apocryphal
writings, including the Acts of Pilate.
Feast: August 3
Nilus 259
Nilus (d. ca. 430) Bishop, scholar, author and Father of
the Church
Also known as: Nilus the Elder
Nilus was among the leading ascetic writers of his day.
He was married and had two sons, and worked as an
officer in the court of Constantinople. He was a Praetorian
prefect. Nilus was drawn to St. John Chrysostom
and became one of his fervent admirers and disciples.
Around 404, Nilus left his wife and one son and
took the second son, Theodolus, to Mount Sinai,
where they became monks. Invading Saracens from the
desert took Theodolus prisoner and sold him as a

260 Nonna
slave. He eventually was taken in by the bishop of
Eleusa in Palestine. Nilus found him, and both were
ordained priests by the bishop. Nilus is believed to
have died around 430.
Nilus authored numerous works on virtues and
vices, the monastic life and maxims for his disciples.
He also wrote numerous letters, of which 1,061 survive.
Feast: November 12
Nonna (d. 374) Wife of St. Gregory of Nazianzus
Nonna was a Christian and converted her husband.
They had three children: two sons, Caesarius and Gregory
of Nazianzus the Younger, and a daughter, Gorgonia.
All three became saints.
Feast: August 5
North American Martyrs (d. 1642–1649) A group
of seven French-born Jesuits who were missionaries to the
Huron, Mohawk and Tobacco Indians in what is now
upstate New York
Also known as: Isaac Jogues and Companions
The Jesuits were killed by the Mohawk, bitter enemies
of the Huron and Tobacco, between 1642 and 1649,
making them the first Catholic martyrs in North America.
The Mohawk, one of the five nations of the Iroquois
(there are now six nations), all but succeeded in driving
the Huron and Tobacco to extinction, and the Jesuit
missions were closed shortly after the last martyr died.
There is a shrine to the North American Martyrs in
Auriesville, New York, in the diocese of Albany. It is on
the site of the death of the first three martyrs and the
birthplace (in 1656) of the Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha,
the “Lily of the Mohawks.” The shrine is also a center
of devotion to the Virgin Mary, for it was here that the
first recorded recitation of the rosary in what is now
New York State took place, on September 29, 1642.
The shrine was initiated on August 15, 1885, as a
wooden cross and a tiny chapel, but operated only that
one day. It was re-created in 1985 as a pilgrimage center
on 600 acres of land, with buildings and facilities
capable of serving thousands of people.
In the order of their deaths, the martyrs are:
René Goupil (1606–1642). Also known as: Renatus
Goupil. Born at Anjou, France, René was a successful
surgeon when, in 1638, he went to Quebec,
Canada, to work at the Jesuit mission
hospital. In 1640 he became a lay assistant to the
Huron mission. In 1642, while on a journey with
Isaac Jogues, he was captured by a group of
Mohawk. He was tomahawked to death on September
29 at Ossernenon (now Auriesville) for
making the sign of the cross on the brows of
some children.
Isaac Jogues (1607–1646). Isaac was born at
Orléans, France, on January 1, 1607. He studied
at the Jesuit school in Orléans, joined the order at
Rouen in 1624, and continued his education at
La Flèche, where he was ordained in 1636. He
asked to be sent as a missionary to Quebec, from
where he set out to minister to the Huron. He
was captured by the Mohawk along with René
Goupil and endured 13 months of slavery during
which he was tortured so severely that he lost the
use of both hands. (He was given a special dispensation
by Pope Urban VIII [r. 1623–44] to
continue to say Mass despite this deformity.)
Dutch Calvinists from Fort Orange (now Albany,
New York) eventually helped him escape and he
went back to France. However, in 1644 he
returned to Quebec. In the three years since his
captivity, a peace treaty had been signed with the
Iroquois federation, and Isaac and John de
Lalande undertook a mission to the Mohawk. On
their second visit, they left behind a box of religious
objects. When an epidemic of disease swept
the people and crops failed shortly after their
departure, the Jesuits were blamed, and on their
third visit, they were killed. Isaac died on October
18, 1646.
John de Lalande (Jean de Lalande) (d. 1646). Born at
Dieppe, France, John was a lay assistant to the
Jesuit missionaries in Quebec. In 1646, he
accompanied Isaac Jogues on his trips to the
Mohawk, and was taken captive along with him
in October. He was killed on October 19, the day
after Isaac. Their heads were impaled on the settlement
palisades and their bodies thrown into
the Mohawk River.
Antony Daniel (1601–1648). Born at Dieppe, France,
on March 27, 1601, Antony studied law, but gave
up his career to join the Jesuits at Rouen in 1621.
He was ordained in 1630, and in 1632 was sent as
a missionary to Cape Breton Island, Acadia, New
France (now Canada). The following year he
went to Quebec, from which he launched expeditions
to the Huron. In 1636, he founded a school
for Native American boys in Quebec. Antony was
killed by a party of Mohawk at the Huron village
of Teanustaye (near Hillsdale, Ontario) on July
4, 1648.
John de Brébeuf (Jean de Brébeuf) (1593–1649). Born
at Condé-sur-Vire, Normandy, France, on March

25, 1593, John attended the university in Caen
and worked on his parents’ farm before joining
the Jesuits at Rouen in 1617. He was ordained in
1622, and in 1625 asked to be sent to Quebec as
a missionary. For the next 24 years he worked
with the Huron, founding schools and producing
a catechism in Huron and a dictionary of the language.
Responsible for some 7,000 conversions,
he was captured by Mohawk warriors on March
16, 1649. Following the Iroquois practice with
captives, he was cruelly tortured for hours, mutilated,
burned to death and finally eaten.
Gabriel Lalement (1610–1649). Born in Paris,
Gabriel joined the Jesuits in 1630. He taught at
Moulins for three years, and after further study at
Bourges, was ordained in 1638. After teaching at
La Flèche and Moulins, he was sent to Canada at
his request in 1646 as a missionary. He, too,
worked among the Hurons, became assistant to
John de Brébeuf at Saint Ignace in 1649, and was
with him in the village when the Iroquois
attacked and destroyed it on March 16, killing all
the inhabitants except the two priests. After torturing
them, the Iroquois tomahawked them to
death the next day.
Charles Garnier (1606–1649). Charles was born in
Paris in 1606, son of the treasurer of Normandy.
After studying at the Jesuit Louis-le-Grand College
in Clermont, he joined the order in 1624 and
North American Martyrs 261
was ordained in 1635. He asked to go to Quebec,
from which he was sent to the Hurons. When the
neighboring Tobacco asked for a mission in 1646,
he began to work with them, and was in one of
their villages when the Mohawk attacked on
December 7, 1649. Charles ran about giving
absolutions and baptisms until he was killed by a
hatchet blow. Some of his Indian converts buried
him on the spot where the church had stood.
Noël Chabanel (1613–1649). Born near Mende,
France, on February 2, 1613, Noël joined the
Jesuit order in 1630. In 1643 he was sent to the
Quebec mission, and from there to the Hurons.
He joined Charles Garnier in establishing a mission
to the Tobacco. Noel was visiting another
village when Charles was killed. He himself was
murdered by a Huron apostate on December 8,
1649, the day after Charles’s death.
The cultus of the North American Martyrs was
extended universally in 1969 as the protomartyrs of
North America.
Canonized: June 29, 1930, by Pope Pius XI
Feast: October 19 (formerly March 16)
Patronage: Americas
FURTHER READING
National Shrine of the North American Martyrs website.
URL: http://klink.net/~jesuit/auries.html. Downloaded:
December 2, 1999.

Olaf of Norway (995–1030) Martyred king and
patron saint of Norway
Also known as: Olaf Haraldsson; Olav
The son of King Harold Grenske, Olaf joined a band of
Vikings as a youth and fought battles for Richard of
Normandy and Ethelred II of England. He was baptized
a Christian. At age 20, he succeeded his father on
the throne, and set about converting his kingdom,
more by force than persuasion.
Olaf’s subjects revolted, and he was forced from
the throne by Canute the Great, the king of England
and Denmark. Olaf tried to regain his kingdom. On
July 29, 1030, he was killed in a battle at Stiklestad,
Norway. He was buried in deep sand on the spot
where he fell, on a bank of the river Nid. A spring
miraculously appeared there, and miracles were reported
at the shrine built over his tomb. Although he
was not considered much of a holy man because of his
use of force against his own subjects, he nevertheless
was respected for his championing of Norwegian
independence and he was regarded as having died for
his faith. The miracles enhanced his stature as a martyr.
The cathedral of Trondheim was built over his
shrine, and was a popular pilgrimage site during the
Middle Ages.
Canonized: 1164 by Pope Alexander II
Patronage: Norway
Of
263
Optatus of Milevis (d. 387) Bishop of Milevis, Father
of the Church
Little is known about Optatus, though it appears he
was raised a pagan and was a late convert to Christianity.
He survived fourth-century persecutions and rose
in the Church to become bishop of Milevis, Numidia
(now Algeria), in North Africa. In a series of six treatises,
he defended the orthodox doctrine of the Church
in its battle with the Donatist heresy.
Optatus died about 387. Although there is no sign
that he ever received a cultus, and early martyrologies
and calendars do not mention him, his name was later
inserted in the Roman Martyrology under June 4.
In art, Optatus is depicted as an early Christian
bishop trampling heretics.
Feast: June 4
Oswald (d. 642) Martyred king of Northumbria
The story of Oswald is related by the Venerable Bede.
He was the son of King Aethelfrith, who took the
throne in 592 and was murdered in 617. Oswald was
forced by his enemies to flee to Scotland, where he
converted to Christianity and was baptized. In 633 he
returned to Northumbria and took the throne after his
uncle, King St. Edwin, was killed in battle. Oswald
engaged the British king Caedwalla in battle in 635,

264 Oswald
defeating him. According to Bede, Oswald saw a vision
of St. Columba prior to battle, and also carried with
him a wooden cross.
Oswald strove to convert people, and enlisted the
help of St. Aidan to do so, giving him the island of
Lindisfarne. During his reign, he helped the poor and
was popular with his subjects. He built churches and
monasteries.
On August 5, 642, Oswald was killed in battle at
Maserfield as he fought the forces of the pagan king
Penda of Mercia. His niece, Queen Osthrida of the
Mercians, had his bones taken by wagon to the
monastery in Lindsey, where she wished them to be
buried. But the monks there were reluctant to take
them, since the king had been from another province.
The bones were left out at night with a tent over them
while the issue was discussed. During the night, a pillar
of light was seen reaching from the wagon to the
heavens. It was taken as a sign that the monks were
meant to accept the relics, which they did.
Oswald’s skull is preserved in St. Cuthbert’s coffin
in Durham. During the Middle Ages, he was widely
revered as a martyr.
In art Oswald is shown with a raven holding a ring
in its beak.
Feast: August 5

Pachomius (ca. 290–346) Egyptian Copt and a founder
of communal (cenobitic) monasticism
Pachomius was the first monk to organize hermits
into groups and compose a rule for them, thus preceding
St. Anthony, who is regarded as the founder of
monasticism.
He was born about 290 near Thebes, Egypt, and
was inducted into the Roman legions at age 20. In 313
he was discharged from the military and converted to
Christianity. After being baptized, he became a disciple
of a famous hermit, Palemon, and took the habit. The
two of them led a life of extreme austerity and total
dedication to God. They combined manual labor with
unceasing prayer both day and night.
Pachomius was praying alone in the desert of
Tabenna when an angelic figure spoke to him and told
him to found a monastery according to the rule the
angel would give. In 318, Palemon helped him to build
what would become the first Christian cloister on the
banks of the Nile at Tabennisi. Palemon stayed himself
for a while. A wall surrounded the humble structure as
a symbol of the monks’ separation from the world, and
no stranger was allowed beyond a certain point, leaving
“the inner sanctum” unsullied. Soon some 100
monks joined Pachomius, and he organized them on
principles of community living.
Pf
265
Pachomius’s “Angelic Rule,” one of the major monuments
of early Christian literature, was innovative in
one major fact: It was a binding commandment, akin
to a law. After living as a novice for a number of years,
each monk accepted the rule as an unalterable canon
of life.
Pachomius established 10 other monasteries for
men and two nunneries for women. By the time of his
death in 346, there were 7,000 monks in his houses.
His order lasted in the East until the 11th century.
SS. Basil and Benedict drew from his Rule in composing
their own more famous ones. Pachomius is venerated
in the Western, Eastern and Coptic Churches.
Feast: May 9 or May 14
Pacianus of Barcelona (d. ca. 390) Bishop of Barcelona,
Father of the Church
Also known as: Pacian
The date and place of birth of Pacianus are unknown.
He married and had a son, Dexter, who became high
chamberlain to Emperor Theodosius, and in 365 (or
perhaps 373) he was elected bishop of Barcelona,
Spain. He was renowned for his eloquence and learning
and wrote much about ecclesiastical discipline; his
Exhortation on Penance is considered a classic. In a letter
on the Novatian heresy, he made the famous state-

266 Padre Pio, Blessed
ment, “My name is Christian, my surname is Catholic.”
Pacianus died in Barcelona around 390.
Feast: March 9
Padre Pio, Blessed (1887–1968) Capuchin friar, stigmatist,
miracle-worker
Padre Pio was born Francesco Forgione on May 25,
1887, in Pietrelcina, southern Italy. He was named after
St. Francis of Assisi. His father was a farmer, and from
an early age the boy worked in the fields. Drawn to the
priesthood, he became a Capuchin novice at age 16 in
Morcone and took the habit in 1902 or 1903, becoming
known as Padre Pio. Despite bad health that
required him to convalesce in his hometown—he had
tuberculosis—he was ordained on August 10, 1910.
Due to his poor health, he was ordered to remain in
Pietrelcina and spend short visits in the monastery.
From 1915 to 1916 he was called into the army, but
was eventually sent home because of his health. He
St. Padre Pio after receiving the stigmata
went to the monastery of San Giovanni Rotondo,
where he stayed for the rest of his life.
On September 7, 1910, Padre Pio experienced bloodless,
half-inch wounds appearing in the middle of his
hands. They remained after several days and then disappeared
after prayer. The wounds appeared intermittently
for the next eight years.
On August 5, 1918, he experienced a transverberation,
or mystical wounding, during a vision. He was
hearing the confession of a boy when suddenly an
angel appeared in his intellectual (interior) vision
holding a long, sharp-pointed steel blade that spewed
fire. The angel hurled the blade into his soul with all
its might. So intense was the pain that Padre Pio
thought he was dying. He felt as though his internal
organs had ruptured. He remained in agony until
morning. From then on he felt he had been mortally
wounded in the depths of his soul, and the wound
remained open and caused him continual agony. His
experience was similar to the transverberation of St.
Teresa of Avila, who perceived an angel pierce her heart
with a flaming arrow.
On September 20, 1918, Padre Pio was kneeling in
front of a large crucifix in the church when he received
the stigmata. He was the first priest in the history of
the Church to receive the five wounds of Christ. Doctors
examined him but could find no natural causes.
His tuberculosis disappeared at this time.
Padre Pio had the stigmata throughout his life. The
wounds bled constantly and the blood was sweetly perfumed
with the scent of roses and violets. He was
unable to close his hands because of the wounds, and
was required to wear gloves at all times except during
Mass. He wore special shoes to cover the wounds on
his feet. Padre Pio’s stigmata lasted the longest on
record. Other stigmatists experienced their wounds on
certain days, or for certain durations. He accurately
predicted that upon his death the wounds would completely
heal.
The stigmata ignited Padre Pio’s popularity and
people flocked to see him. In 1923 the Church silenced
him. He was forbidden to write letters and to preach,
but could say Mass and hear confessions. The silencing
failed to dampen public ardor, and appointments for
confessions had to be made far in advance.
On January 9, 1940, he established the Home for
the Relief of Suffering, which finally was dedicated on
May 5, 1956. With donations he created a hospital
open to anyone who appealed for assistance and love
in the name of Christ.
Padre Pio died on January 23, 1968. He was considered
a saint long before he died. Thousands came to
pay their respects, and more than 100,000 people
attended his burial on September 26. Tradition holds

that he gave off a sweet fragrance as he was placed in
his tomb.
Padre Pio had the gift of many miraculous abilities
and acts, which attracted to him many devotees. His
prophecies were accurate. He was known to bilocate
on numerous occasions. The first time occurred on
January 18, 1905, when he was a divinity student at
San’ Elia a Piansisi. Around 11 P.M. he was in the choir,
when suddenly he found himself in a distant wealthy
home where the father was dying while a child was
being born. The Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to him
and said she was entrusting the child to him. He was
not to worry about how he would care for her, but he
would meet her at St. Peter’s in Rome. During this
experience, the wife of the dying man looked up and
saw Padre Pio, dressed in his Capuchin habit. He
turned and left the room, and was nowhere to be
found. The woman went into labor and gave birth to a
daughter shortly before her husband died. Seventeen
years later, Padre Pio heard the daughter’s confession at
St. Peter’s, and then simply disappeared from the confessional.
She then found him at San Giovanni Rotondo,
and became a devoted disciple of his.
Many of his bilocations were to perform miraculous
healing, in response to the numerous prayers made to
him for his intercession. He apparently bilocated all
over the world.
He often experienced supernatural fevers that could
not be explained except as the product of the divine
fire of love. The fevers always broke naturally and he
suffered no ill effects from them.
Padre Pio had a constant and close relationship
with his guardian angel. He believed that God used the
angel to make it possible for him to understand foreign
languages he had not learned, and to have clairvoyant
knowledge of secrets within the heart (especially useful
to him during confessions). Padre Pio would tell
people, whenever they were in need of his prayer, to
address his guardian angel through their guardian
angels. Once a busload of pilgrims, en route to San
Giovanni Rotondo, got caught at night in a violent
lightning storm in the Apennine Mountains. They followed
his advice, and weathered the storm unscathed.
When they arrived the next day, and before they could
tell their story, Pio announced that he had been awakened
by his guardian angel during the night, and had
prayed for them.
Beatified: May 2, 1999, by Pope John Paul II
FURTHER READING
Allegri, Renzo. Padre Pio. Man of Hope. Ann Arbor, Mich.:
Servant Publications, 1999.
Carty, Rev. Charles Mortimer. Padre Pio the Stigmatist. Rockford,
Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1973.
Ruffin, C. Bernard. Padre Pio: The True Story. Huntington,
Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1995.
Pamphilus of Caesarea (d. 309) Father of the Church,
martyr
Pamphilus was born in Berytus (now Beirut, Lebanon)
to a noble family. He studied at Alexandria before selling
his property and giving the proceeds to the poor.
Going to Caesarea, he took over and built up the library
founded by Origen. In Caesarea, also, he was ordained a
priest and established a theology school. He made faithful
copies of the Holy Scriptures and of the works of
Origen (which had not yet been declared anathema).
His home became famous as a place where domestic
servants and slaves were treated as sons and brothers.
The Diocletian persecution began in 303, and the
deacon and 10 other members of Pamphilus’s church
were martyred. Then, in November 307, Pamphilus
himself was taken before the governor and when he
refused to make pagan sacrifices, was cruelly tortured
and imprisoned. While in prison, he continued copying
and correcting manuscripts. At this time also he
collaborated with Eusebius on the five-volume Apology
for Origen. He was put to death in February 309.
In art, Pamphilus is usually dressed in a philosopher’s
gown and holds a book. Sometimes he is shown
holding a razor, sword or knife.
Feast: June 1
Pancras 267
Pancras (d. ca. 304) Roman martyr popular in England
Also known as: Pancritas, Pancratius
Church historians know little about the 14-year-old
orphan boy who was martyred with SS. Nereus, Achilleus
and Domitilla. His uncle brought him to Rome,
where he apparently joined the Praetorian Guard, the
elite soldiers who guarded the emperor, or at least was
connected to a guard member, perhaps Nereus or
Achilleus. When Emperor Domitian discovered that
his grandniece, Flavia Domitilla, was Christian, she,
her family and any servants who were Christian were
banished to the island of Ponza. Nereus, Achilleus and
Pancras were part of that group.
Under the reign of Emperor Trajan, Domitilla and
her guards were taken to the island of Terracina.
Nereus and Achilleus had been ordered to kill Domitilla,
but moved by her faith they converted instead and
refused to carry out the emperor’s orders. All four were
beheaded and their bodies placed in the Domitilla family
vault in Rome. Pope St. Siricius (r. 384–399) built a
church over the cemetery vault in 390.

268 Paschal I
Although Pancras was the least known of the four,
Pope St. Vitalian (r. 657–672) sent the young martyr’s
relics to England so that England would have holy
relics for the establishment of churches and be better
able to promote evangelization. The relics were presented
to the king of Northumberland.
Pope St. Gregory I (r. 590–604) honored Pancras
along with the other three in a homily delivered at the
church in St. Domitilla Cemetery when he claimed,
“These saints despised the world and trampled it under
their feet.” More important, St. Augustine of Canterbury—Pope
Gregory’s emissary to England and
founder of the see at Canterbury—dedicated the first
church in England to Pancras. A district in London
was later named after him as well.
Pope Leo III (r. 795–816) built a new church to the
four saints’ honor in 800, which was rebuilt by Cardinal
Baronius in the 16th century. In 1874, the underground
tomb at the location of Siricius’s original
church was discovered. It was empty.
Feast: May 12 (with Nereus, Achilleus and Domitilla)
Patronage: children; cramps; against false witness
and perjury; headaches; oaths; treaties
Paschal I (d. 824) Pope
The date of Paschal’s birth is not known. His father was
a Roman named Bonosus. He entered the priesthood
while still a youth and studied at the Lateran Palace.
Pope St. Leo III (r. 795–816) appointed him abbot of
St. Stephen’s monastery, where he oversaw pilgrims to
Rome.
When Pope Stephen V (r. 816–817) died on January
24 or 25, 817, Paschal was elected to succeed him.
He was consecrated and enthroned the following day,
an apparent attempt to bypass confirmation by the
Frankish emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. Paschal
justified this action to Louis I the Pious by saying that
he had not sought the office but accepted it as an
unwanted task. In return, Louis declared papal elections
to be free of the requirement of imperial approval
and in general recognized papal sovereignty.
When Lothair I, Louis’s son, married, Paschal sent a
special delegation bearing rich gifts. In the spring of
823, Lothair went to Rome, and on April 5 Paschal
crowned him emperor. Lothair did not share his
father’s position on papal sovereignty, however, nor did
all in the Roman Church agree with Paschal. After
Lothair left Rome, two papal officers opposed to
Paschal were found blinded and beheaded. Paschal was
accused of ordering the murders, which had been carried
out by two members of his household. Although
he denied any complicity, he refused to surrender the
murderers, declaring that the dead men were traitors to
the Church and that secular authorities had no jurisdiction
in the matter. The upshot was the Constitution
of Lothair, which instituted severe restrictions on papal
jurisdiction and powers.
During Paschal’s pontificate, Iconoclasm—the Islamic-inspired
movement that forbade the worship of
images—raged in the Byzantine Empire to the east.
Paschal did what he could to uphold the position of the
Roman Church. He sent his aides to try to secure the
release of Abbot Theodore of Studites, who had been
imprisoned for defending sacred icons. He received several
Greek monks fleeing the persecutions and found
places for them in newly erected monasteries such as
those of St. Praxedis, St. Cecilia, and SS. Sergius and
Bacchus, near the Lateran Palace. He also erected new
churches and chapels and had the relics of martyrs
translated from the ancient catacombs to these places.
Paschal was not a popular pope. He was so unpopular,
indeed, that when he died in 824, throngs prevented
his funeral procession from entering St. Peter’s.
His relics were interred instead in the church of St.
Praxedis.
Feast: February 11 (formerly May 14)
Patrick (ca. 389–461) Archbishop of Armagh, Apostle
of Ireland, one of the three patron saints of Ireland (with
Brigid and Columba) and patron saint of Nigeria
Name meaning: warlike (Succat), noble (Patricius)
Also known as: Maewyn Succat, Magonus Sucatus;
Patricius
Ireland’s greatest saint was not Irish at all but a Roman
Briton, born ca. 389 in the little village of Bannaventa
or Bannavem Taberniae and christened Patricius. His
father Calpurnius was a Roman citizen, decurion and
municipal official. He was also a Christian deacon.
Patricius’s grandfather, Potitus, was a Christian priest.
By the fifth century, Rome paid scant attention to the
security of Britain, at the margins of the empire, leaving
the terrified citizens easy prey for Irish slavers. In
405, at age 16, Patricius was kidnapped into slavery in
a raid on several western coastal villages.
Although accounts differ as to whether Patricius
served a lord near the forest of Fochlat in Connaught
or was enslaved to a minor king, Miliucc, in Antrim,
Patricius spent the next six years tending sheep and
pigs. Although he had ignored his Christian background
as a youth, now he had no other companions
but the Lord and began praying day and night, hoping
to escape. One night he heard voices in his dreams say
that his hungers would be rewarded, and that he would

soon return home. Startled awake, Patricius heard the
voice continue, “Behold, thy ship is ready,” and he left
immediately.
Such an escape seemed impossible. Patricius was
about 200 miles inland from any seaport, he had no
money, he risked apprehension and punishment, and
he didn’t really know where he was going. But he put
his faith in God and reached the coast without incident,
finding a trading vessel ready to sail for the continent
loaded with a cargo of Irish wolfhounds. At first
the captain curtly refused his request for passage, but
when Patricius left, praying for deliverance, members
of the ship’s crew called him back, saying the captain
had relented. The Irish sailors even offered to let Patricius
suck their breast nipples (a sign of friendship),
but he demurred.
The voyage lasted only three days, but the ship
landed on a desert coast where the men and dogs wandered,
starving, for nearly a month. Although there is
no desert in Europe, if the ship arrived not long after
the barbarian German raids, the countryside would
have been devastated. The hungry crew taunted Patricius,
saying that if his God were so powerful, why were
they starving and alone? Patricius calmly answered
that they should trust in the Lord, for whom all is possible,
and He would provide. Just at that moment a
herd of pigs appeared, and both men and dogs could
eat their fill. Patricius eventually made it to Gaul, on
the coast of Provence, where he spent about three years
at the monastery on the island of Lérins, near Cannes.
Finally he returned to Britain in 412–415, where his
relatives welcomed him and implored him to remain.
But Patricius, no longer a carefree teenager, was
restless. One night he dreamed that a man of his
acquaintance, Victoricus, handed him a bundle of letters.
One was addressed to Vox Hiberionacum, the
“Voice of the Irish.” As Patricius read the letters in his
dream, he heard a multitude of voices, which he identified
as the people of the forest of Fochlat, crying, “We
pray thee, holy youth, to come and again walk
amongst us as before.” Patricius awoke, determined to
return to Ireland and bring Christianity to a people
described as living at the edge of the world. Taking the
Irish form “Patrick,” he left for Gaul to study and prepare
for his life as a missionary.
Patrick was the first real missionary since Paul. As
Christianity became synonymous with Rome, it hardly
occurred to the Roman Church to expand beyond the
reaches of the empire—anything outside was uneducated,
threatening, even monstrous. But Patrick had no
fear, just shame at his lack of education. He spent several
years studying theology under St. Germanus at
Auxerre, where he was ordained deacon. In 429, Pope
St. Celestine I (r. 422–432) became concerned about
Patrick 269
St. Patrick, by Currier and Ives (Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs Division)
the spread of the Pelagian heresy in Ireland, and he
appointed deacon Palladius—who had fought the
heresy in Britain—as bishop in 431. Palladius’s charge
was to guide the believers, not convert the pagans. But
he died within a year. Germanus consecrated Patrick as
bishop, and in 432 the former slave returned to begin
his mission in Ireland.
Patrick’s first convert was the chieftain Dichu in
Ulidia, or Ulster, who gave him a wooden barn as a
place for worship. The place came to be known as Saul,
derived from the Latin stabulum, or stable. From this
base, Patrick traveled all over Ireland, converting thousands
in Meath, Leinster and Connaught. He tried to
win the tribal leader, knowing that the chieftain’s subjects
would often follow. He founded monasteries for
both men and women and established the abbotbishop
form of church organization. Longing for solitude
himself, Patrick spent a symbolic 40 days and
nights on the promontory of Cruachan Aigli near the
place of his enslavement. In 441, Patrick traveled to
Rome, where Pope St. Leo I not only approved the

270 Patrick
establishment of a primatial see in Ireland, making
Patrick archbishop, but also legitimized the Irish
Church by giving Patrick precious relics of the apostles
Peter and Paul. Patrick founded his see in 444 on the
hill of Ardd Macha in Ulster, a community that became
the ecclesiastical city of Armagh.
Perhaps Patrick’s most formidable opponent was
High King Laoghaire, a pagan who ruled over the
lower kings of Ireland for 36 years from the ancestral
hill of Tara in Meath. Some members of Laoghaire’s
family were already Christian. Legend tells that on the
first Easter after he arrived in Ireland, Patrick wanted
to celebrate the holiday by lighting the Easter fire on
the hill of Slane not far from the high king’s castle. By
coincidence, this particular Easter eve was also the
date of a solemn pagan festival. Custom dictated that
no fires should be lit until the ritual fire in the castle
had been kindled. To Laoghaire’s surprise, Patrick’s fire
blazed from the hill of Slane. Laoghaire consulted the
druid priests, who warned that unless the king
quenched this fire it would never go out, referring to
an old prophecy of a conqueror who seduced the people
with a foreign doctrine. Laoghaire pronounced
death for such impudence, and rode out to Slane with
his queen, sorcerers and other nobles on horseback
and in chariots. Summoning Patrick to appear some
distance away from the fire, Laoghaire forbade anyone
from standing in respect. But the noble Erc was overcome,
stood and was converted.
Patrick began arguing with the sorcerers, matching
their magic with God’s. Laoghaire became angry and
ordered his nobles to seize Patrick, but the bishop
called upon God to lower a great darkness. The queen
begged mercy for her husband’s life. Laoghaire pretended
to capitulate but planned to kill Patrick. Patrick
supposedly read his thoughts and disappeared with his
followers, not as humans but as deer.
The next day, Easter, Patrick and his companions
magically appeared at Laoghaire’s feast, even though
the doors were shut. Again one man rose to greet
Patrick: the poet Dubthach, who also converted. The
Druid Lucetmael tried to poison Patrick, but Patrick
blessed the cup and froze all the liquid except the poison,
which he poured out. Then Patrick and the sorcerer
began a magic contest, which ended in an ordeal:
Patrick’s pupil Benignus, wrapped in the sorcerer’s
cloak, was placed in a hut on the side made of dry
wood, and Lucetmael stood in the half built of green
wood. The hut was set ablaze, and both the sorcerer
and his cloak were destroyed. Benignus was unhurt.
In another story involving Laoghaire, Patrick
encountered his daughters Ethne the White and
Fedelm the Red at a fountain near Rathcrochan. The
girls asked Patrick whether he and his friends were
fairies or earth-folk, and Patrick answered that they
would be better off contemplating God. Patrick then
gave the girls a brief catechism lesson, and they begged
to be baptized. He baptized them in the fountain, and
the girls asked to see the face of Christ. Patrick replied
that they could not see Christ unless they died, and
first must receive the Eucharist. He gave them the
bread, and they died together. Other legends are probably
apocryphal: Patrick may have used the shamrock to
explain the Holy Trinity, but he didn’t drive the snakes
from Ireland.
Admirers credited Patrick with converting all of Ireland,
but that would have been physically impossible.
He accomplished three great tasks, however, with
enthusiasm, wit and great energy: He organized the
Christians already in Ireland; he converted pagan kingdoms;
and he brought Christian Ireland into the universal
Church. He worked to reform harsh Irish justice
and the rule of might over law. He introduced the
Roman alphabet. In an open letter, Patrick angrily
denounced the Welsh king Coroticus for capturing his
Irish “children” and selling them into bondage. He also
railed against the slave traders and the British clerics
who condoned the system.
Patrick’s Letters to the Soldiers of Coroticus is one of
three manuscripts attributed to Patrick. He also wrote
the Confessio or Confession, justifying his life and work
and apologizing for a sin committed in his youth. The
Lorica, also called “Patrick’s Breastplate” or “The Cry
of the Deer,” is a mystical poem affirming Patrick’s conviction
that he was chosen for his great work, and that
God surrounded him always.
In 457, Patrick relinquished his post at Armagh to
his friend Benignus and retired to Saul. Legend tells
that when Patrick knew he was dying, he attempted to
go to Armagh, but an angel sent him back. In consolation,
the angel promised that the jurisdiction of the
Church would remain at Armagh, and that the posterity
of Dichu, who had given him the church at Saul,
would not die out. The angel also predicted that Patrick’s
death would send light against the darkness.
Patrick received the last rites at Saul from Bishop Tassach
of Raholp and died in March 461. Supposedly
there was no night for 12 days and less-dark nights for
a year.
Although the church at Armagh wanted the body,
Patrick was buried at Saul in Downpatrick. Throughout
the Middle Ages, Armagh cherished two relics: a
pastoral staff, or crosier, and a four-sided bell. Both the
shrine at Downpatrick and the crosier were destroyed
by English religious zealots in 1539 during the reign of
Henry VIII.
Feast: March 17

Patronage: engineers; excluded people; fear of
snakes; against snakes and snake bites; Ireland;
Nigeria
FURTHER READING
Bury, J. B. The Life of St. Patrick and His Place in History. New
York: Book-of-the-Month Club, 1999; first published,
1905.
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York:
Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995.
“The Hymn of Fiacc.” URL: http://www.ocf.org/Orthodox-
Page/reading/St.Pachomius/Western/fiac c.html. Downloaded:
September 1, 2000.
“The Confession of St. Patrick,” tr. from the Latin, Ludwig
Bieler. URL: http://www.ccel.org/p/patrick/confession/
confession.html., Downloaded: September 1, 2000.
Paul (d. ca. 67) Apostle to the Gentiles, mystic, martyr,
theologian and missionary
Name meaning: “Little”
One of the most influential figures in the establishment
of the Christian religion.
Paul’s conversion to Christianity resulted from a
profound mystical experience. The Acts of the Apostles
(generally ascribed to St. Luke, a close companion of
Paul) and his own letters form two sources from which
the facts and chronology of his life can be constructed.
More is known about his life than that of any other
principal leader of the early Church.
Paul, called Saul in Hebrew, was born a Jew of the
tribe of Benjamin in Tarsus of Cilicia (Anatolia)
between 1 and 10, and was a Roman citizen. He was
schooled in Jerusalem and supported the Pharisees. At
some time in his youth, he learned how to make tents,
which he continued to do after his conversion and
apostleship.
In his early career, Paul studied the strict observance
of Jewish law. He participated in the persecution
of Christians. However, while traveling on the road to
Damascus to arrest Christians in about 36, Paul had a
mystical encounter with the risen Christ, one of the
most dramatic visionary experiences recorded in religious
journals (Galatians 1:15–16; Acts 9, 22, 26). He
was nearly at the end of his journey when he encountered
a dazzling light and heard a voice audible only to
him say, “Why do you persecute me?” Saul fell to the
ground and answered, “Who art thou, Lord?” He was
answered, “Jesus of Nazareth, whom thou persecutest.
It is hard for thee to kick against the goad.” Christ then
told him to proceed to Damascus, where he would
learn what was expected of him. Saul discovered when
he rose up that he was blind.
In Damascus Paul went to the house of Judas.
Christ appeared to a Christian, Ananais, and instructed
St. Paul (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1514)
Paul 271
him to go to Saul and heal his blindness. This Ananais
did with great trepidation, for Paul’s reputation as a
persecutor of Christians was well known. Ananais laid
his hands on Saul and said, “Brother Saul, the Lord
Jesus, who appeared to thee on thy journey, hath sent
me that thou mayest receive thy sight, and be filled
with the Holy Ghost.” Scales fell from Saul’s eyes and
he could once again see. Saul was baptized as Paul and
immediately began to preach that Jesus was the Son of
God. He considered himself to be one of the apostles as
were those who traveled with Christ before his Resurrection.
As the first leader of the early Christian movement
beyond the Jewish community, Paul was soon known
as the “Apostle to the Gentiles.” The 14 letters (epistles)
in the New Testament attributed to him are from
those written during 10 years of missionary journeys

272 Paul
to Anatolia (now the Asian part of Turkey), Cyprus
and Greece. During that time, he changed his name
from Saul to Paul.
Paul first evangelized his native Tarsus. He was
summoned to Antioch by Barnabas. A year later, a
famine occurred in Jerusalem, and the two went there
with alms for the poor. Sometime after returning to
Antioch, Paul and Barnabas set out on the first missionary
journey, to Cyprus, Pamphylia, Pisidia and
Lycaonia, establishing churches at Pisidian Antioch,
Iconium, Lystra and Derbe.
A second missionary journey was undertaken after
the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem. With Silas, and
later Timothy and Luke, Paul returned to the churches
he had helped to established and then went into Galatia.
At Troas, Paul had a vision of a Macedonian, which
he took as a sign from God that he was to go to Macedonia.
He then went to Philippi, Thessalonica, Beroea,
Athens and Corinth. He returned to Antioch via Ephesus
and Jerusalem. At all the new churches, he gave
advice concerning proper behavior for Christians, and
preached that Jesus was the savior of all nations.
On his third missionary journey, he revisited most
of the places he had been on the second journey. He
stayed in Ephesus for three years. Plans for another
missionary journey were hampered by persecutions
from angry Jews. In Jerusalem, he was arrested and
imprisoned for two years, but continued to preach. He
appealed his case to Caesar and was sent to Rome to be
tried as a Roman citizen. There he was jailed for two
more years, but probably was acquitted and was set
free. Eventually Paul was arrested again and was martyred
ca. 67 when Nero had him beheaded.
At the Church of Santa Maria in Via Lata, Italy,
there are remnants of an ancient building and a fountain
in an underground oratory. The fountain is said to
have sprung up miraculously in answer to the prayer
of Paul when he baptized converts. The well was used
into the Middle Ages.
In the 16th century, the Roman Church of San
Paolo alle Tre Fontane was built on the spot where
Paul was beheaded. The church also has a low marble
column, to which Paul was said to have been bound,
and a marble block upon which he was executed.
According to lore, the severed head bounded down a
grassy slope, touching at three places. There, fountains
sprang up, which were then protected by marble buildings.
Paul was a pioneer in evolving the revolutionary
concepts of Christianity. He accommodated Jewish
ideas to Gentile traditions and circumstances. He was
also at the heart of controversies within the Church,
especially unresolved conflicts with Peter over the
extent to which Gentile Christians had to observe Jew-
ish law. He argued in favor of protecting Christianity
from intrusion by Jewish and Hellenistic ideas and
practices.
The Acts describes the pattern of his successful but
often radical apostolic methods, which often resulted
in the conversion of many people but also conflicted
with secular authorities. He was beaten and arrested on
more than one occasion.
The Epistles, preserved in Greek, were not meant to
be doctrinal treatises, but reflections on situations in
the particular church to which Paul was writing. The
Epistles reveal Paul’s syntheses of Christian belief, philosophy
and practice as he himself understood it
through the channel of his love of Christ and against
the backdrop of his astounding conversion, hearing
Jesus’ voice and being struck blind. He voiced his constant
sense of Christ’s leading him and urged the faithful
to follow his degree of faith inwardly and outwardly
to “new life” in spite of the Judaic, Hellenic, Roman
and other political, religious and cultural realities of
the time. The Epistles quickly became canonical and
appear in Christian liturgy along with the Gospels.
Their complexities have proved endlessly fascinating
to biblical scholars, who dispute full authorship by
Paul of several sections and whole epistles. The Epistle
to the Hebrews is thought not to have been written by
Paul himself; several of his close followers have been
suggested as authors.
The first Christology—doctrines and theories of the
meaning of the belief in Christ—was developed by
Paul. He conceived of Jesus as the Christ, a preexistent
divine being who had descended into man to save man
from the powers of law, sin and death. The resurrected
Christ was raised up to sit at the right hand of God,
and would return at some point in the future to judge
mankind.
All of Paul’s major concepts build on his analogy of
the Church as the “Body of Christ.” It is used throughout
his teaching of the relationship between Christ
and/as the Church; it is also the foundation for his theology
of justification, redemption and sacraments, and
his understanding of the general dynamic of the entire
Christian life. Therefore, the frequent use of the
phrases “in Christ” and “with Christ” by Paul is especially
significant. However, modern controversies surround
Paul’s seemingly contradictory condemnation of
the flesh while he used images of the body to praise the
soul, most notably throughout his concept of the Mystical
Body of Christ.
Paul’s concept of justification by faith has influenced
the key notions of such contrasting philosophies as
Sartre’s unconditioned human freedom, and psychologies
such as Carl G. Jung’s individuation and Abraham
H. Maslow’s self-actualization, since they each focus on

the necessity of developing resources, creative exercise
of freedom and the overcoming of self-deception in
order to achieve meaningful existence.
A significant revival of interest in Paul’s theology
began in the 1960s with the advent of worldwide
charismatic movements. Paul first introduced the word
“charisma” (from the Greek meaning “grace”) into theological
terminology and explained the charisma as
characteristic of the faithful in general, who use the
special gifts of the Holy Spirit to build up the community
in a special way and to get charismatic movements
started. However, Paul emphasized ethics over miracles,
finding the reconciliation of the different social
groups within the churches as more “miraculous” than
the miracles recorded in the Gospels.
Paul’s symbols are a sword and a book.
Feast: June 29, with St. Peter
Feast of conversion: January 25
Patronage: public relations; against snakebites; tentmakers
FURTHER READING
Breed, James L., “The Church As the ‘Body of Christ’: A Pauline
Analogy,” Theology Review 2 (1985): 9–32.
Davies, W. D. Paul & Rabbinic Judaism: Some Elements in
Pauline Theology. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1980.
Greenspann, Frederick, Earle Hilbert, and Burton Mack, eds.
Nourished with Peace: Studies in Hellenistic Judaism,
Homage Series No. 9. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1984.
Paul I (d. 767) Pope
Paul was born in Rome and along with his brother,
Pope Stephen III (r. 752–757), was trained for the
priesthood in the Vatican’s Lateran Palace. Stephen
trusted him with negotiations with the Lombards over
papal lands, an experience that stood him well when
he was elevated to the papacy upon Stephen’s death on
April 26, 757. Paul was consecrated in the Chair of St.
Peter on May 29.
Paul continued Stephen’s policy toward the Frankish
king Pepin and thereby maintained papal
supremacy over Rome and the districts of central Italy,
in opposition to the Lombards, who were aligned with
the Eastern Empire. In 758, when Pepin’s daughter was
born, he sent as a gift to the pope the cloth that was
used at her baptism.
In 761, when Emperor Constantine V embraced
Iconoclasm, the Islamic-inspired movement that forbade
the worship of images, Paul turned his paternal
home into a monastery that sheltered Greeks who fled
the persecution. Nearby he built the church of San Silvestro
in Capite and transferred to it and other Roman
churches relics of martyrs from the ancient catacombs
that had been devastated by the Lombards five years
before. Among the relics were those of St. Petronilla,
whom the Franks believed was the daughter of St.
Peter. Paul also built an oratory of the Blessed Virgin in
St. Peter’s and a church in honor of the apostles on the
Via Sacra, beyond the Roman Forum.
In 767, Pepin convened a council at Gentilly, near
Paris. The synod aligned itself with the Roman
Church’s position on the Trinity and the veneration of
images, thus pitting the Franks ideologically against
the Greeks.
Paul died in Rome on June 28, 767, shortly after
the conclusion of the Frankish synod. His death came
in the Church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, where he
had gone to escape the summer’s heat, and he was initially
buried there. Three months later, his relics were
translated to St. Peter’s.
Feast: June 28
Paula (347–404) Friend and patron of St. Jerome
Paula was born in Rome of a noble family on May 5,
347. She married a patrician, Toxotius, and had five
children: Toxotius, Blesilla, Paulina, Eustochium and
Rufina. She was 32 when her husband died in 379, and
Paula announced she would become an ascetic and
devote herself to helping the poor. In 382 she met
Jerome through St. Epiphanius and Paulinus of Antioch.
She was drawn to Jerome and became his supporter
and patron. They became close, causing rumors
to circulate that their relationship was improper.
Eustochium took the veil from Jerome in 382. In
384 Paula’s daughter Blesilla died. The following year,
Paula and Eustochium left Rome with Jerome and
went to the Holy Land. They settled in Bethlehem in
386 and established monastic communities for men
and women. Paula worked under Jerome’s direction.
She and Eustochium built a hospice, a monastery and a
convent, which Paula governed.
In her later years she provided great assistance to
Jerome with his biblical scholarship writing. She also
looked after him and assisted in the building of other
churches. The churches became a financial strain. She
died in Bethlehem on January 26, 404.
Feast: January 26
Patronage: widows
Paulinus of Nola 273
Paulinus of Nola (ca. 345–431) Bishop of Nola,
Father of the Church
Pontius Meropius (or Meropius Pontius) Anicius
Paulinus was born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine (now southwestern
France), about 354. His father was a Roman

274 Pedro de San José Betancur
patrician who was the Praetorian prefect in Gaul at the
time of his birth. He was taught by the poet Ausonius
until he was 15, then went to study Roman law, poetry,
eloquence, science and Platonic philosophy at the University
of Bordeaux. He became a prominent and successful
lawyer, and when he was 25, Emperor Gratian
nominated him to fill an unexpired term as a senator in
Rome.
At age 26, he was made governor of Campania and
took up residence in Nola in the mountains east of
Naples. It was there that he converted to Christianity,
after seeing several sick people healed at the tomb of
the patron saint of Campania, St. Felix, and being
cured of an eye disease by the future St. Martin of
Tours. He may also have been influenced by his Spanish
wife, a Christian named Teresa, and the sermons of
St. Ambrose. St. Augustine’s conversion two years prior
may have been a factor as well. In any event, he
resigned his post as governor, and he and Teresa
moved to his home to Gaul. He was baptized there,
together with his brother, by Delphinus, bishop of Bordeaux.
Paulinus sold his family estate in Gaul and gave
much of the proceeds to his slaves and the poor. Teresa
likewise sold her lands in Spain, using the money to
ransom captives and free debtors from their obligations.
They had a child, but it died shortly after baptism,
when it was but eight days old. The couple then
decided to give up living as man and wife, took vows
of chastity, and spent the remainder of their lives
together as brother and sister. Their decision won
praise from both Ambrose and Augustine.
Three years after his baptism—about 394—at
Christmas, the people of Bordeaux appealed to their
bishop to ordain Paulinus a priest. Paulinus agreed to
this, on the condition that he not be assigned to a
parish or diocese. He received instruction in his
priestly duties from Ambrose the following year, and
then he and Teresa visited Rome, where they received a
cold reception from Pope St. Siricius (r. 384–399).
Eight years previously, Siricius had taken a strong
stand against married priests, and although Paulinus
and Teresa no long had conjugal relations, they were
still married.
From Rome, they retired to Nola, where Paulinus
spent the remainder of his family fortune on public
works and charities. He built a fine avenue leading to
the church holding Felix’s tomb, and along the avenue
raised a building whose first floor was a hospital or
hospice and whose second floor was a monastery.
Teresa resided on the first floor and directed the activities
there, while Paulinus and his monks lived on the
second floor. The monastery, devoted to an ascetic lifestyle
a century before that of St. Benedict, was one of
the first in Europe. Paulinus also built an aqueduct at
Nola and constructed basilicas in that city and others.
In 409 or 410, he was elected bishop of Nola. Teresa
died about this time, but Paulinus continued to live in
his monastery and discharge his duties as bishop for
another 20 years. He proved to be one of the best
prelates of his time. In addition to his public works, he
wrote a number of Christian poems. These included an
annual poem for Felix’s feast. He also composed one of
the earliest Christian wedding songs.
Paulinus died on June 22, 431. He was looked
upon as a saint even in his lifetime. His relics were
interred in the cathedral of Nola, where they rest today,
though they were translated several times in the
interim. They were conveyed from Nola to Benevento,
then to the Church of St. Barolomeo all’Isola, in Rome.
Pope St. Pius X (r. 1903–14) ordered them returned to
Nola in September 1908.
In art, Paulinus’s emblem is the shovel. He is sometimes
depicted with one, as he gives alms. He is also
sometimes shown writing or preaching to the poor.
Feast: June 22
Pedro de San José Betancur (1626–1667) Founder of
the Hospitaller Bethlehemite (Belemite) Congregation
Also known as: Pedro de Betancourt
Pedro Betancur may have been a descendant of Juan de
Betancourt, who conquered the Canary Islands for
Spain early in the 16th century. If so, the family had
suffered a lowering of social and economic status by
the time Pedro was born in Villaflora, on the island of
Tenerife, on March 21, 1626. They were quite poor.
Pedro had a strong religious sense and zeal, which
led him to want to evangelize Japan. In 1646, at the age
of 20, he left his homeland for Cuba, going on to
Guatemala (then the capital of New Spain) four years
later. As he entered Guatemala City on February 18,
1651, the earth shook, a portent of great things to
come. He enrolled in a Jesuit college, but his lessons
proved too difficult for him to master and he dropped
out after three years, giving up his dream of going to
Japan. He turned instead to the Franciscans, joining
the Secular Franciscan Order in 1655, and devoted the
rest of his life to work in Guatemala.
From his arrival in Guatemala City, Pedro had been
struck by the great extremes of wealth and poverty. For
a while he held the position of sacristan in a church
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, where he prayed for
the poor on his knees before images of the Virgin, St.
Joseph and the Child Jesus. He rented a house and
taught reading and catechism to poor children. In
1658, with the help of benefactors, he converted this

house into a hospital. Later, benefactors provided for
the purchase of other houses in the area and a proper
hospital was built, Pedro himself working alongside
the masons. Upon its completion, the hospital was
thoroughly equipped and stocked, and placed under
the patronage of Our Lady of Bethlehem.
Pedro was concerned not only with the poor but
also with all social and economic classes. Every Thursday
he collected alms for prisoners and visited them in
their cells. Souls in purgatory also received his attention.
He had two chapels built at the principal gates to
the city, where he performed Masses to celebrate the
souls of the deceased. At night he walked through the
streets ringing a bell, asking people to pray for them as
well.
About 1665 he sent one of his religious brothers to
Spain to solicit the king’s approbation of his congregation’s
work. The favor was granted, but unfortunately,
Pedro had died before the messenger returned. Nor
did he live to see the confirmation of the congregation
and its constitution by Pope Clement X (r. 1670–76)
in 1673.
Pedro is credited with originating Christmas-eve
processions (called posadas) in which people representing
Joseph and Mary seek lodgings. The practice
caught on, and soon spread to Mexico and other Central
American countries.
Pedro died on April 15, 1667, in Guatemala City.
At the request of the Capuchin Fathers he was buried
in their church where his relics are venerated to this
day. Legend has it that petitioners need only tap gently
on his stone tomb to have their prayers answered.
Many early petitioners afterward left stone tablets
scratched with thank-you notes.
Beatified: 1980 by Pope John Paul II
Feast: April 25
Patronage: Guatemala
FURTHER READING
“Beato Pedro de Betancur, apóstol de Guatemala (1626–
1667).” Church Forum website. URL: http://www.
churchforum.org/santoral/Abril/2504.htm#. Downloaded:
January 28, 2000.
Perpetua and Felicity (d. 203) Carthaginian martyrs,
with three companions
The martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity (also Felicitas),
which took place on March 7, 203, in Carthage,
is recorded in the alleged first-person accounts of Perpetua
and one of her slave companions, and by others.
Vibia Perpetua was of noble birth to a pagan father
and Christian mother. She married and had an infant
son. Her father tried to persuade her to renounce
Perpetua and Felicity 275
Christianity, but she would not. At age 22 she was a
catechumen, and was arrested under the imperial edict
of Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) forbidding anyone
to become a Christian. She was still nursing her son at
the time. Arrested with her were the slave Felicitas and
her fellow slaves Revocatus, Saturninus and Secundulus.
Another man named Saturus, who declared himself
a Christian, also was arrested. They were all
baptized before they were imprisoned.
Perpetua’s father visited her in jail and begged her
to renounce her faith and not disgrace her name. She
refused. She was allowed to suckle her child. She had a
vision in which she and Saturus went up a bronze ladder
to heaven, where Perpetua was welcomed by a
white-headed man in shepherd’s clothing who was
milking his sheep. He gave some curd to her.
At the trial of the six, her father again appeared, this
time carrying her infant son, but she would not relent.
Her father was forcibly removed with a whip. The six
Christians were sentenced to be torn apart by wild
beasts at games.
While awaiting their fate, Perpetua and Saturus had
visions. In two visions, Perpetua saw her younger
brother, Dinocrates, who had died at age seven. In the
first vision, he was in a dark place and looking
wretched; in the second he was clean and happy. In
another vision, she saw herself led to the amphitheater,
where she was transformed into a man and did battle
with an enormous Egyptian who towered over the top
of the arena. She understood that she was not fighting
wild beasts, but the devil; she won.
Saturus saw himself and Perpetua transported by
four angels toward the east, to a beautiful garden
where they met four other North African Christians
who had died in persecutions: Jocundus, Saturninus
and Artaxius, who had been burned alive, and Quintus,
who had died in prison. Saturus and Perpetua
were taken to a building whose walls were made of
light, to the presence of a white-headed man surrounded
by many elders. They were blessed by the
man.
Secundulus died in prison. Felicitas, who was eight
months pregnant, feared she would not be martyred,
for law forbade the execution of pregnant women. For
three days the prisoners prayed, and two days before
the games, Felicity gave birth to a daughter, who was
adopted by a Christian woman.
On March 7 the five Christians were led to the
arena and were scourged. A boar, bear and a leopard
were set on the men as they were chained to a bridge,
and a wild cow was set on the women. After they were
wounded, their throats were slit by sword. The swordsman
did not strike Perpetua properly, and so she set
the blade on her neck herself.

276 Peter
They were buried at Carthage. Later a grand basilica
was built over their tomb. The names of Perpetua and
Felicity were entered onto the calendar of martyrs venerated
in the fourth century in Rome.
Feast: March 7
FURTHER READING
The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity. URL: http://
www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/perpetua.html. Downloaded:
September 3, 2000.
Peter (d. ca. 67)
Recognized chief of Jesus’ Twelve Disciples; head of the
Christian Church after the Ascension, the first pope, martyr
Name meaning: Rock
Also known as: Cephas; Prince of the Apostles; Simon
Peter; Simon-Petrus
Peter’s original name was Simon (Symeon). He was
given the name Cephas, translated as Peter, by Jesus
when the two first met, apparently to differentiate him
from St. Simon, another of the apostles.
St. Peter receiving the keys to heaven from Jesus (Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
From then on, Peter stayed close to Jesus, and Jesus
reciprocated by granting him special recognition.
When Jesus addressed the disciples collectively, it was
Peter who answered for all. It was from Peter’s boat on
Lake Genesareth that Jesus preached to the multitude
on the shore, and when he walked miraculously on the
water, it was Peter whom he called to come to him
across the lake. After Peter recognized him as Son of
God, Jesus replied that he was blessed, since God must
have revealed this to him, as no one could have told
him. He added that it was upon the rock of Peter that
he would found his church.
In spite of his firm faith in Jesus, and Jesus’ in him,
Peter had no clear knowledge of his mission and
work—or of the dangers they all faced. When Jesus told
Peter that he would deny him, Peter protested. However,
when Jesus was arrested, Peter fled with the other
disciples before turning and following the group carrying
Jesus to the high priest. As Jesus had predicted,
when he was asked, he denied that he knew him. Yet
Jesus later unambiguously confirmed Peter’s position as
the head of the apostles and of the Church. The women
who were the first to find Jesus’ tomb empty received
from an angel a special message for Peter; Jesus
appeared on the first day after the Resurrection to Peter
alone; and of special significance, when he appeared at
Lake Genesareth, he renewed to Peter his special commission
to feed and defend his flock.
Peter was thenceforth recognized as the head of the
original Christian community in Jerusalem. After the
descent of the Holy Ghost on the feast of Pentecost, he
delivered the first public sermon to proclaim the life,
death and resurrection of Jesus, winning a large number
of converts. He was the first of the apostles to work
a public miracle, when with John he went up into the
temple and cured the lame man at the Beautiful Gate,
and was the most successful of them. His reputation
grew to the point that the inhabitants of Jerusalem and
neighboring towns carried their sick in their beds into
the streets so that his shadow might fall on them and
they might be healed.
Peter preached and worked miracles not only in
Jerusalem but also in other Christian communities
in Palestine. In Lydda, he cured the palsied Eneas; in
Joppe, he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) from the dead; and at
Caesarea, instructed by a vision he had had in Joppe, he
baptized and received into the Church the first non-Jewish
converts, the centurion Cornelius and his kinsmen.
Peter’s residence in Jerusalem and Palestine was
brought to an end when Herod Agrippa I (r. 42–44)
began a new persecution of the Christians in Jerusalem.
Herod threw Peter and John into prison, intending
to have them executed. They were freed in a
miraculous manner, and, after informing the faithful

and entrusting the Church of Jerusalem to St. James
the Less, went into hiding.
What we know about Peter comes from the New
Testament of the Bible, where his later life is described
only sketchily. After (many believe) a first visit to
Rome, he traveled around the Middle East. By tradition,
he is the founder of the Church of Antioch, and
toward the end of his life, he appointed St. Evodius as
the first bishop of Antioch. He also made some return
visits to Jerusalem, and was there around the year 50
when St. Paul arrived to discuss the touchy issue of circumcision
for Christians. Many Jewish converts were
insisting on circumcision, although it had not been the
practice for non-Jewish converts, who were resisting it.
Peter took the position that Jewish practices should
not be impressed upon all Christians. His view was
endorsed by James the Less, and the council produced
an encyclical to this effect.
Peter and Paul are credited with founding the
Church of Rome, although it is not known whether
they lived in the city or only frequented there. It is certain
that Peter died in Rome, probably in the year 67.
By tradition, he was crucified, most likely in the
Neronian Gardens, since it was there that the Emperor
Nero carried out his executions.
Peter’s body was interred in the vicinity of the Via
Cornelia and at the foot of the Vatican Hills. Probably
at the start of the Valerian persecution in 258 (on June
28, the feast day for Peter and Paul), his relics were
translated to the Appian Way. There they lay for a time
with Paul’s relics, in the place where the Church of St.
Sebastian now stands. Later Peter’s remains were
returned to their former resting place and Emperor
Constantine the Great had a magnificent basilica
erected over the grave. In the 16th century, this basilica
was replaced by the present St. Peter’s.
In art, Peter is often depicted along with Paul, the
two of them flanking Jesus. Peter is also shown receiving
the law—represented by a scroll or keys—from
Christ. From the sixth century on, he is shown with a
staff or scepter as emblem of his office.
Feast: June 29 (in the West), December 27 or 28
(in the East)
Patronage: bookbinders; bridge builders; clockmakers;
fever sufferers; fishermen; against foot trouble;
longevity; masons; netmakers; the papacy;
shipbuilders; slavery victims; stationers; against
wolves
Peter of Alcantara (Pedro de Alcántara) (1499–1562)
Penitent and mystic
Name meaning: Rock
St. Peter of Alcantara levitating
Peter of Alcantara 277
Peter was born in 1499 in Alcántara, Estremadura,
Spain. His father, who was a lawyer and governor of
the province of Estremadura, died in 1513. Two years
later, having studied law at the university in Salamanca,
Peter joined the Observant Franciscans at Manjaretes.
In 1521 he was sent to Badajoz to found a
friary. He was ordained in 1524, when he was 25.
Peter served as superior of missions in Spain and
Portugal, and for a while was chaplain to the court of
King John III of Portugal. In 1538, he was elected
provincial for Saint Gabriel in Estremadura, and tried
to put into play ideas he had for the reform of the
Franciscan order. When his ideas were not well
received by the provincial chapter at Placensia in
1540, he resigned. For the next two years he lived as
a hermit with Friar Martin of Saint Mary on Arabida
Mountain near Lisbon, and was named superior
of the Palhaes community for novices when they
found numerous other friars attracted to their ascetic
way of life.

278 Peter Canisius
Peter became convinced of the need for an extensive
Catholic reform, a Counter-Reformation to oppose
the Protestant Reformation then well underway. His
plan was accepted by the bishop of Coria and finally by
Pope Julius III, and in about 1556 he founded the
Reformed Friars Minor of Spain (usually called the
Alcatrine Franciscans). Alcatrine friars lived in small
groups, in great poverty, going barefoot, abstaining
from meat and wine, and spending much time in solitude
and contemplation. However, the Alcatrines were
never really accepted by the other Franciscan orders
(called the Conventuals and the Observants), and by
the time Peter died in 1562, they had been placed
under the Conventuals.
Peter’s ideas were picked up by St. Teresa of Ávila,
whom he met in 1560, and to whom he became adviser
and confessor. At the time, many in the Church were
suspicious of the source of Teresa’s visions, but Peter
had had his own, and he argued persuasively that they
were sent by God rather than Satan. Peter helped
Teresa gain papal approval for the Discalced Carmelites,
the order she had founded on principles similar to
his own.
Peter wrote several works of mysticism, including a
Treatise on Prayer and Meditation, said by Pope Gregory
XV (r. 1621–23) to be “a shining light to lead souls to
heaven and a doctrine prompted by the Holy Spirit.”
This work was later drawn upon by St. Francis de
Sales, among others. Peter was also reputed to have
some unusual powers, such as levitation and the ability
to walk on water as though it were dry land.
Perhaps the chief reason Peter’s proposals met so
much resistance was their extreme austerity, which
harked back to the earliest days of Christian asceticism.
Peter himself did as he preached. From the time
he entered the novitiate at 16, he mortified himself so
much in the little food and drink he allowed himself
that he lost the sense of taste. He would regularly go
three days—and at times as much as a week—without
sleep, spending the time in prayer and meditation. He
remained on his knees for hours, when he was tired,
leaning his head against a nail in the wall. He went
about barefoot and even in winter never wore a hat or
hood, but only his hairshirt. For three years he never
raised his eyes from the ground. For 40 years he slept
only an hour and a half per night. Teresa described his
penances as “incomprehensible to the human mind”
and his body as so ravished that it appeared as if “he
had been made of the roots of trees.” He experienced
“great raptures and violent impulses of love toward
God,” she said. Over the years Peter became less stringent
in his penitence, as he realized the toll it was taking
on his health. He died at Arenas, Estremadura, in
1562, while on his knees, reciting a psalm. He was 63
years old.
After his death, he appeared as an apparition to
Teresa, who wrote that she “witnessed the greatness of
his glory. Far from causing me the least fear, the sight
of him filled me with joy. He always showed himself to
me in the state of a body which was glorious and radiant
with happiness; and I, seeing him, was filled with
the same happiness. I remember that when he first
appeared to me he said, to show me the extent of his
felicity, ‘Blessed be the penitence which has brought
me such a reward.”
In 1862, Peter was declared the patron of Brazil.
In art he is depicted as a Franciscan in radiance levitated
before the Cross, as angels carry a girdle of nails,
chain and scourge. He is also shown walking on water
with a companion, a star over his head; praying before
a crucifix, scourge and hair shirt; and with a dove at
his ear, near a cross and scourge.
Canonized: 1669 by Pope Clement IX
Feast: October 19
Patronage: watchmen; Brazil; Estremadura, Spain
FURTHER READING
“San Pedro de Alcántara.” Church Forum website. URL:
http://www.churchforum.org/santoral/Octubre/2010.htm.
Last updated: June 15, 1999. Downloaded: November
10, 1999.
Peter Canisius (1521–1597) Jesuit theologian, Doctor
of the Church
Also known as: the Second Apostle of Germany
Peter Canisius was born on May 8, 1521, in Nimwegen,
then under the jurisdiction of Germany and now
belonging to the Netherlands. His father was a prominent
man, elected nine times the burgomaster. Peter’s
mother died shortly after he was born. At age 15 he
was sent to the University of Cologne, and studied civil
law, theology and the arts. He received a master of arts
degree in 1540. At the university he became friends
with Nicholas van Esche, who became his spiritual
adviser. In the year of his graduation, he went against
his father’s wishes to marry a wealthy woman and
made a vow of celibacy. He met Peter Faber, one of the
first companions of St. Ignatius of Loyola, and made
the spiritual exercises under his direction.
In 1546 Peter was admitted to the Society of Jesus
in Mainz. He founded the first German house of the
order in Cologne, and lectured and taught at the university.
He was a brilliant preacher and inspired many.
He became known for his editing of the works of SS.
Cyril of Alexandria and Leo the Great.

In 1547 Peter attended the Council of Trent as
procurator for the bishop of Augsburg. He became
deeply involved in the politics of the Reformation and
Counter-Reformation. After a brief stint in Messina
teaching at a Jesuit college at the behest of St. Ignatius,
he went to Rome in 1549 for his final profession. He
was appointed a professor of theology at the University
of Ingolstadt, and soon became rector. He then was
sent to the University of Vienna to teach theology.
Peter distinguished himself with his charitable work
and his attention to abandoned parishes. People
flocked to hear him speak.
As part of the Counter-Reformation, Holy Roman
Emperor Ferdinand I asked the University of Vienna in
1551 to compose a compendium of Christian doctrine.
The job fell to Peter and a colleague, Father Lejay. Peter
deferred to Lejay as the better writer of the two, but
had to take over the entire project when Lejay died.
The result was Peter’s greatest work, his Catechism,
published in 1555. In his lifetime it was translated into
200 editions in 12 languages and was a huge success.
Peter wrote two shorter versions for students. By the
end of the 17th century, the Catechism was available in
15 languages and was published in more than 400 editions.
Despite the Catechism, Peter was at one time
accused—unsuccessfully—of being Protestant.
In 1556 Peter was named provincial of southern
Germany. In subsequent years, he established colleges
for boys in six cities and dispatched trained priests
throughout the region. He traveled and preached and
responded to the needs of the papacy. For seven years
he was the official pastor at Augsburg.
Peter spent the last years of his life in Fribourg,
Switzerland, where he founded a school in 1580, and in
1581 founded sodalities of the Blessed Virgin for citizens
and for women and students. The citizens there
would not let him leave. He died on December 21,
1597, and was buried before the high altar of the
Church of St. Nicolaus. In 1625 his remains were translated
to St. Michael, the church of the Jesuit college.
Miracles were reported immediately after his death
and his tomb was a site of pilgrimage.
Peter’s Catechism became the foundation for all catechisms
that followed. Other major works are The History
of John the Baptist and The Incomparable Virgin
Mary, which were written to refute the Protestant
attack, and Centuries of Magdeburg. Also surviving are
numerous treatises, letters and sermons on Catholic
dogma and teachings.
Beatified: November 20, 1869, by Pope Pius IX
Canonized and declared Doctor of the Church: June
21, 1925, by Pope Pius XI
Feast: December 21
Peter Claver 279
Peter Claver (Pedro Claver) (1581–1654) Missionary
Name meaning: Rock
Also known as: Slave of the Blacks
Peter Claver was born in 1581 in Verdu, Catalonia,
Spain, the son of a poor farmer. After studying at the
Jesuit college in Barcelona, he became a Jesuit novitiate,
taking his final vows on August 8, 1604.
Under the influence of St. Alphonsus Rodriguez,
Peter decided to dedicate himself to missionary work
in the New World. He landed at Cartagena, in what is
now Colombia, in 1610. Cartagena was then the center
of the South American slave trade, and Peter was
greatly disturbed by the plight of the bonded Africans
he saw arriving by the hundreds. At his ordination in
1616, he vowed “to be a slave of the slaves forever,”
and set himself to the task with uncommon zeal.
Accompanied by African interpreters, he met every
slave ship, taking them food begged in the city. Though
his main concern was in saving souls, he recognized
that bodily needs must be attended first. He washed
and tended wounds, buried the dead and ministered to
the living by use of pictures of the Trinity. During his
40-year career, he is said to have baptized over 300,000
slaves, among them many infants.
Peter was concerned not only with the slaves as
they arrived but also with their continuing welfare. He
fought for the enforcement of laws providing for the
Christian marriage of slaves and the unity of families,
and after Easter each year he journeyed into the hinterlands
to preach and hear confession.
Peter also preached to the general populace in
Cartagena, becoming its apostle. It is reported that his
person was sometimes illuminated with rays as he
passed through the hospital wards of the city. His cloak
also took on a supernatural cast. He used the cloak for
many purposes—as a covering for lepers and the
putrescent, as a pillow for the sick, as a pall to the
dead. The cloak soon became legendary. It was said
that its very touch could cure, and people sought to
come into contact with it, and if they could, to tear off
a piece for themselves, so that before long its edge was
torn ragged.
When the plague struck Cartagena in 1650, Peter
was one of the first victims. For four years he was
bedridden in his cell, unable to work and almost forgotten.
However, when he announced that his death
was near, crowds came to kiss his hands and feet and
to take away from his cell whatever they could as
relics. He died on September 8, 1654, and was given a
public burial.
In art, Peter Claver is a Jesuit with a black person.
Canonized: 1888 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: September 9

280 Peter Chrysologus
Patronage: African Americans; Colombia; missions
to black people; missions to non-European
nations; race relations
Peter Chrysologus (ca. 400–ca. 450) Bishop of Ravena,
Doctor of the Church, Father of the Church
Name meaning: Golden-tongued
Peter was born at Imola, Emilia, in what is now Italy,
around the year 400, and converted to Christianity as
an adult. He was baptized, instructed and ordained
deacon by Bishop Cornelius of Imola. According to
legend, he was made bishop of Ravenna in 433 to
replace John of Ravenna by Pope St. Sixtus III (r.
432–440) in consequence of a vision.
As bishop, John immediately set about eradicating
paganism and making needed reforms to his see. He
was an especially eloquent preacher, for which he was
surnamed Chrysologus (“golden tongued”). It is said
that at times he would get so caught up in the excitement
of his own preaching that he would become
momentarily speechless. Empress Galla Placida was so
impressed by his first sermon that she gave generous
support to his several building projects, including a
baptistry and church dedicated to St. Andrew in Classis,
the port of Ravenna. Imperial support continued
under her son, Valentinian III.
Peter was among those who received a letter from
Eutyches, leader of the Monophysite heresy, protesting
his condemnation by St. Flavian of Constantinople and
the Synod of Constantinople in 448. Peter referred him
to the authority of the bishop of Rome and advised
him to stop attempting to justify himself and dividing
the Church.
In 448, Peter received St. Germanus of Auxerre in
Ravenna. When Germanus died there on July 31,
Peter officiated at his funeral, keeping his hood and
sackcloth as relics. Soon thereafter, he had a premonition
of his own death and returned to Imola for his last
days. He died on July 31, 449 or 450.
In art, Peter is shown being presented to Pope Sixtus
III by SS. Peter and Apollinaris of Ravenna. He is
also depicted with a dish in his hand.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1729 by Pope Benedict
XIII
Feast: July 30 (formerly December 4)
Peter Damian (1007–1072) Cardinal, reformer, Doctor
of the Church
Peter Damian was born in 1007 in Ravenna, Italy, to a
large but poor, noble family. As the youngest, he was
not welcomed by everyone because of the added strain
on the family’s meager resources. An older brother was
so vehemently opposed to him that his mother stopped
nursing him and he almost died. He was rescued by a
family retainer.
Peter was orphaned early in life and was taken in by
another brother. He was set to work as a swineherd
and was treated like a slave. He remained pious and
showed intellectual ability, and so another brother,
Damian, archpriest at Ravenna, took him to be educated.
Peter apparently later adopted this brother’s
name as his own in gratitude.
Peter advanced quickly in his studies and was sent
to the University of Parma. By age 25 he was famous as
a teacher. He did not like university life, however, and
in 1035 decided to retire from the world. He met two
hermits from Fonte-Avellana who invited him to join
them. After a 40-day retreat in a cell, Peter agreed. At
Fonte-Avellana he was made a monk immediately.
Peter’s extreme austerities and mortifications impaired
his health. While recuperating, he studied the
Scriptures, and after recovery began lecturing the
monks. He also wrote the life of St. Romuald. In 1043
he became prior, a position he held until his death.
As prior Peter established a rule of moderation and
founded seven hermitages. He also introduced the regular
use of discipline, and a daily siesta to make up for
night offices.
Peter became deeply involved in the politics and
schisms of the Church, and was summoned to help settle
disputes. He was made cardinal against his objections
in 1057 by Pope Stephen X (r. 1057–58). He also
served Popes Nicholas II (r. 1058–61) and Alexander II
(r. 1061–73).
As a reformer, Peter campaigned against simony, the
buying and selling of Church offices. He reformed lax
clergy who lived with women. When Ravenna was
excommunicated for its support of an antipope, Peter
worked to reconcile the city, succeeding in 1072.
Shortly afterward, he fell ill at the monastery of Santa
Maria degl’Angeli (now Santa Maria Vecchia) and deteriorated
for a week. He died on February 22 and was
buried immediately in the monastery. His body was
translated six times, each time to a more impressive
shrine, and finally in 1898 to the chapel dedicated to
him in the church of Faenza.
Throughout his life, Peter was known as a vehement,
strident reformer, writer and speaker, and was a
forerunner of the Gregorian Revolution of the 11th
century. He was a prolific writer, authoring numerous
sermons, treatises and letters. He wrote the first Latin
treatise devoted to omnipotence, de Divina Omnipotencia.
In it, he argues that the traditional patristic God
was unknown before Scholasticism, and God can, if he

wills, annul the past. Another of his works is Liber
Gomorrhianus (Book of Gomorrah), probably written
between 1048 and 1054, in which he talks against
immorality. It is the only extensive medieval treatment
of sexual sins that includes homosexuality, which he
termed the worst sin of all.
Peter was never formally canonized. He is portrayed
in art as a cardinal holding a discipline (a copy of a system
of monastic rules), and sometimes as a pilgrim
holding a papal bull.
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1828 by Pope Leo XII
Feast: February 23
FURTHER READING
Resnick, Irven Michael. Divine Power and Possibility in St.
Peter Damians de Divina Omnipotencia. Boston: Brill Academic
Publishers, 1992.
Peter of Sebaste (ca. 340–391) Bishop; brother of SS.
Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Macrina the
Younger
Peter of Sebaste was born around 340 to Basil the Elder
and Emmelia of Caesarea, Cappadocia (in modern
Turkey). He was the youngest of 10 children. He
received religious training especially from his sister,
Macrina the Younger, who had been taught by her
grandmother, Macrina the Elder.
After his brother Basil became bishop of Caesarea,
Peter was ordained by him, and then lived the life of a
solitary ascetic. When Macrina and Emmelia set up
their monastery on the family estate on the River Iris,
Peter assisted them and presided over the men.
Around 380–381, Peter was named bishop of
Sebaste in Armenia. Like Basil and Gregory, he fought
against the Arian heresy, and proved adept at administration
of his duties. Peter was not a writer like his
brothers, but followed their writings with great interest.
He influenced Gregory to write some of his important
works, including Against Eunomius, which
defended Basil’s criticism of the works of Eunomius;
Treatise on the Work of the Six Days, also in defense of a
similar treatise by Basil; and On the Endowment of Man.
Peter died in 391 and was venerated as a saint after
his death.
Feast: January 9
Petroc (sixth century) Welsh monastery founder and
monk
Petroc is one of the best-known Cornish saints, whose
cult also extended to Devon, Wales and to Brittany in
France. Accounts of his life are mostly fiction.
St. Petroc (Truro Cathedral, Truro, Cornwell)
Petroc 281
Petroc probably was the son of a chieftain of southwestern
Wales; he likely belonged to the royal house of
Ghent. He became the namesake of what is now Padstow
in Cornwall (Petrock-stow) and established a
monastery there. He also established a community in
Bodmin, which was the religious capital of Cornwall
into the Middle Ages.
In 1177, a canon of St. Petroc’s Priory, who had a
grievance against the priory, stole the saint’s body and
took it to the Saint-Meen abbey in Brittany. The body
was returned in an ivory shrine.
The legends of Petroc say that he renounced his
royal heritage to seek the religious life and went to Ireland
to study. He returned to Cornwall and founded
the monasteries. Following the directions given by

282 Pharailidis
angels, he went on a pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem,
and lived for seven years as a hermit on an
island in the Indian Ocean, subsisting on only a single
fish placed before him at intervals according to divine
will. He produced numerous miracles, such as raising
the dead, vanquishing a dragon, healing (including
another great dragon, who had a piece of wood in its
eye) and creating springs of water.
Various towns in Cornwall, Devon, Wales and Brittany
take their names from Petroc.
Feast: June 4
Patronage: glovers; skinners; against storms at sea;
Padstow, Cornwall
FURTHER READING
Doble, Gilbert H. The Saints of Cornwall, Part Four. Felinfach:
Llanerch Publishers, 1998.
Pharailidis (d. 740) Patron saint of Ghent and miracleworker
Also known as: Vareide, Varelde, Verrle and Verylde
Pharailidis was a Belgian laywoman. She took a secret
vow of chastity, but was forced to marry against her
will. She refused to consummate the marriage, and was
abused by her husband. She made nightly visits to
church.
According to lore, Pharailidis created a fountain of
fresh springwater in the vicinity of Bruay, near Valenciennes,
by striking her staff against the ground. She
wished to quench the thirst of harvesters who were
working for her. The fountain was said to have healing
properties, especially for children’s disorders.
Feast: January 4
Patronage: Ghent, Belgium; sick children
Philip (d. ca. 80) One of Jesus’ Tewlve Disciples, apostle,
martyr
Little is known about Philip, except that he was one of
Jesus’ disciples. Like several others, he was a native of
Bethsaida, Galilee, and was a follower of St. John the
Baptist. He was called to the Apostolate by Jesus the
day after he called Peter and John. Philip was responsible
for bringing in another of the group, St.
Bartholomew.
Philip was present for the miracle of the loaves and
fishes. According to tradition, he left Palestine with the
other apostles during the persecutions of Herod
Agrippa I (r. 41–44). He preached in Greece and was
crucified head down at Hierapolis in Phrygia under
Emperor Domitian, about the year 80. His relics were
St. Philip (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1526)
later translated to Rome and placed in the basilica of
the Twelve Apostles.
The Golden Legend says that Philip drove away a
dragon to the temple of Mars with the cross. Some later
traditions concerning his supposed daughters confuse
him with Philip the Deacon.
The cross is an important feature in artistic representations
of Philip. It represents variously his
preaching on the Victory of the Cross, his weapon
against the dragon and the instrument of his martyrdom.
Typically he is depicted as an elderly apostle
holding a long cross or a staff with a small cross on
it, though sometimes he holds a basket of loaves and
a cross. He is also shown crucified on a tall cross;
with loaves and fishes; with a loaf and a book; with a
snake or dragon; and casting a devil from the idol of
Mars.

Feast (together with James the Lesser): May 3 (formerly
May 1 and May 11; in Eastern church,
November 14)
Patronage: hatters; pastry chefs; Luxembourg;
Uruguay
Philip Neri (1515–1595) Missionary and founder of
the Congregation of the Oratory
Also known as: the Second Apostle of Rome
Philip Romolo Neri was born on July 22, 1515, in Florence,
Italy. His father, Francesco Neri, was a notary
and also a friend of the Dominicans. At age eight Philip
experienced a miracle later said to presage his destiny
as a saint. He jumped onto a donkey laden with fruit.
Startled, the donkey fell down cellar stairs, landing on
top of Philip. His family feared him dead, but Philip
emerged completely unharmed.
Philip exhibited spiritual interests early in life and
received instruction from the Dominican friars at San
Marco, but was encouraged toward a career in business.
At age 16 he was sent to San Germano to assist
his father’s cousin in business. He performed well but
preferred to spend time praying with the Benedictine
monks of the nearby monastery in Monte Cassino.
In 1533 he decided to devote himself to the service
of God, left his post and went to Rome without any
money. He became a tutor to a family of boys in
exchange for room and board. He studied philosophy
and theology on his own, and wrote poetry. When he
was done with his books, he sold them and gave the
money to the poor.
After 17 years, Philip began his solitary apostolic
work, visiting hospitals, work places and public places
to assist those in need and urge others to similar service.
He attracted disciples. In 1544 he befriended St.
Ignatius of Loyola. Some of his followers joined
Ignatius’s new Society of Jesus, but most remained with
Philip to form what later became known as the Brotherhood
of the Little Oratory.
It was also in 1544 that Philip had his pivotal mystical
experience. Though he worked in the world, privately
he lived like a hermit, practicing severe
austerities and spending much time in prayer and contemplation.
His single daily meal consisted of bread
and water with a few herbs. He disciplined himself
with small chains. He successfully coped with great
temptations, including those of a diabolical nature.
One day before Pentecost in 1544, Philip was keeping
a vigil in the catacomb of San Sebastian, and in
prayer asked the Holy Spirit to reveal his gifts. Suddenly
a great globe of fire appeared and entered him
through his mouth, lodging in his heart. He was con-
Philip Neri 283
sumed with an unbearable sensation of heat and fire,
and took off his shirt and threw himself on the ground
for some time. When he felt recovered, he arose suffused
with great joy. Then his body began to shake violently.
A swelling about the size of his fist arose at the
side of his heart, painless, and remained there for the
rest of his life. His heart would beat violently whenever
he performed any spiritual action such as saying Mass,
hearing confessions or distributing Communion. At
such times, observers noticed the saint’s entire body
trembling or shaking and could hear his heart pounding
like a hammer. He also was hot for the rest of his
life, and went about in winter with an open shirt and
was hot to the touch of others. After his death, doctors
discovered that his heart had actually swelled in size,
breaking two ribs, which then formed themselves outward
into an arch.
In 1548 Philip co-founded, with his confessor Persiano
Rosa, the Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity,
devoted to assisting pilgrims and convalescents.
Though a layman, Philip preached once a month to
members at the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament
held in the church of San Salvatore.
In 1550 Philip began to wonder whether he should
retire into solitude. He had a vision of St. John the Baptist
and another vision of two souls in glory, one of
whom was eating a roll of bread. He interpreted this as
a sign that he should continue his work in Rome as
though it were his “desert” and abstain as much as possible
from meat.
In 1551 Persiano persuaded Philip to enter the
priesthood. Both men entered the Confraternity of
Charity at San Girolamo. There Philip spent much
time in the confessional. He could read the minds and
hearts of others, telling them of their secret sins without
their confessions. He once told a young man there
was not a word of truth in his confession, and the
youth confessed to lying. He converted one nobleman
by showing him a vision of hell. In his private chapel,
he entered into ecstasies so long and deep that he
seemed to others at the brink of death. Sometimes he
was seen enraptured with his face glowing with
unearthly radiance.
In 1557 Philip was inspired by the example of St.
Francis Xavier to go to India, but was advised by a
monk whose counsel he sought to make Rome his
India, and so changed his mind. He built an oratory
over the church at San Girolamo and conducted spiritual
exercises. One of his admirers was Cardinal Nicolo
Sfondrato, who later tried to make Philip a cardinal
when he became Pope Gregory XIV (r. 1590–91).
Philip successfully dissuaded him from doing so.
Philip’s popularity earned him some resentment,
and he was denounced as a “setter-up of new sects.”

284 Philomena
He was able to clear himself with only minor punishment.
In 1564 he reluctantly became the rector of the
monastery at San Giovanni, agreeing only on the condition
that he could remain at San Girolamo. The spiritual
exercises were moved to St. Giovanni in 1574.
Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–85) formally recognized
Philip’s order as the Congregation of the Oratory in
1575 and gave to it the church of Santa Maria in Vallicella,
which was in disrepair. Philip built it anew and
went to live there in 1583.
Philip was often ill during his last years. He had
severe hemorrhages in March and May of 1595 and
was given last rites during the second attack, but
recovered and resumed his duties. On May 15 he predicted
he had 10 more days to live. On May 25, he
said Mass and had a good day. But at about 1 A.M. he
was heard walking about his room, and then was found
lying in bed hemorrhaging again. He received his final
blessing and died. He was enshrined in the motherhouse
at Santa Maria. He is often portrayed in art with
a lily or with an angel with a book.
About three years before his death, Philip burned
most of his writings. Few of his sonnets survive.
Numerous miracles are attested about Philip. Once
in 1594 when he was severely ill with fever and was
feared to be dying, he suddenly cried out to the
Madonna. He was found levitating about a foot above
his bed, his arms appearing to embrace someone invisible.
He recovered, and said that the Madonna had
appeared to him and had restored his health.
Philip had the ability to smell the odor of sin on
people.
Beatified: 1615 by Pope Paul V
Canonized: 1622 by Pope Gregory XV
Feast: May 26
Patronage: orators; Rome
FURTHER READING
If God Be with Us: The Maxims of St. Philip Neri. Fredeck
William Faber, ed. Harrisburg, Pa.: Morehouse Publishing,
1995.
Türks, Paul of the Oratory. Philip Neri: The Fire of Joy. Tr.
Daniel Utrecht of the Oratory. New York: Alba House,
1995.
Philomena (second or third century) Saint whose
uncertain historical authenticity led to the suppression of
her popular cult in 1961
Philomena came to public attention in May 1802 when
some interesting remains were found in a sealed shelf
tomb in the Catacomb of St. Priscilla in Rome. The coffin
contained the remains of a girl aged 12 to 13, along
with a broken ampule containing dried blood. Her skull
was fractured at the base. The tomb had been sealed
with terra-cotta tiles in a manner usually reserved for
noble martyrs. The tiles were inscribed with the words
LUMENA PAXTE CUMFI and the symbols of virginity
and martyrdom: a lance, arrows, anchor and a palm or
lily. The words made no sense until rearranged, and
then they spelled out PAX TECUM FILUMENA, or
“Peace be with you, Philomena.”
The assumption was made that the remains were
that of a young virgin martyr. The remains were sent to
the Vatican and stored away. In 1805, a priest, Don
Francesco di Lucia of Mugnano (near Naples), visited
Rome and prayed for guidance. He was inspired to
obtain the body of a known saint to enshrine in his
chapel. He especially wanted a virgin martyr to set as
an example of purity and strength for girls. In Rome he
was taken to the Treasure House of Relics, where he
was immediately attracted to the relics of Philomena.
Don Francesco was successful in obtaining these
first-class relics, and he enshrined them in his church
in Mugnano. A papier-mâché corpus was made for the
bones. The arrival of Philomena stirred great interest.
It was not long before signal favors, graces and miracles
of healing were happening, attributed to the intercession
of Philomena. Her popularity exploded, and a
separate chapel was erected just for the relics. A statue
of her exuded manna, a miraculous oil, from the face
and neck on August 10, 1823.
Don Francesco collected stories and in 1826 published
them in a book, The Story of the Miracles of St.
Philomena. The book helped to spread her fame even
more, and a case was built for her canonization. In
addition, Philomena was championed by illustrious
people, among them SS. John Vianney, Madeleine
Sophie Barat, Peter Eymard and Peter Chanel.
John Vianney (known as the Curé d’Ars) was Philomena’s
greatest devotee. He learned about Philomena
from Pauline Jaricot, a French aristocrat whose father
had been given a piece of her relic in exchange for hospitality.
When Pauline fell seriously ill, she traveled to
Mugnano and was miraculously cured after praying to
Philomena in her chapel. So moved was Pauline by the
power of Philomena that she gained an audience with
Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831–46) to urge him to open
the cause for canonization. The pope was so moved
that he did so.
Calling her “the Wonder Worker of the Nineteenth
Century,” Gregory XVI canonized Philomena in 1837.
Vianney, who had obtained a splinter of Philomena’s
bone from Jaricot, built a chapel to honor the saint. A
miracle worker himself, he would protest, “I do not
work miracles. I am but a poor ignorant man who once
upon a time attended sheep. Address yourselves to St.

St. Philomena (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Philomena; I have never asked anything through her
without being answered.” Vianney’s own popularity
helped to establish devotion to Philomena throughout
Europe, and at the peak of her popularity, she became
known as “Powerful with God.”
Canonization had been granted solely on the
strength of the intercessory miracles that were claimed.
The historical authenticity of the remains was never
established beyond doubt, and controversy continued
into the 20th century. The argument was made that the
bones and the tiles were not related, but that the tiles
had been reused from another tomb. The girl buried in
the Catacomb of St. Priscilla may have been merely an
ordinary, unknown child.
The controversy did not dampen popular belief in
Philomena, or in the miracles attributed to her intercession.
Shrines devoted to her were built around the
world. At Mugnano, her papier-mâché corpus is said to
have miraculously shifted position several times.
On February 14, 1961, the Congregation of Sacred
Rites dropped her feast day from the calendar and her
cult was officially suppressed. Some, but not all,
shrines closed.
Though no longer officially a saint, Philomena continues
to be a popular saint and receive personal devotions.
She is venerated in the external feast and Mass
from the Common of the Martyrs. Her relics are still
enshrined at Mugnano. In art she is often portrayed
with her symbols from the tomb: a lance, arrows, lily
and anchor.
Canonized: 1837 by Pope Gregory XVI
Feast: Formerly August 11
Patronage: Children of Mary; Living Rosary
FURTHER READING
Mohr, Sr. Marie Helene. Saint Philomena: Powerful with God.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1988.
Trochu, Abbe Francis. The Cure d’Ars: St. Jean-Marie-Baptiste
Vianney. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1977.
Pius I (d. ca. 155) Pope and martyr
Little of certainty is known about Pius. He apparently
was the son of Rufinas, and may have been a native of
Aquileia. His brother Hermas, who claimed to be a former
freedman, published a Christian journal called
“The Shepard.” Pius became the 10th bishop of Rome,
or pope, succeeding St. Hyginus ca. 140 and reigning
until ca. 155.
The Roman Church was more than ever the center
of the Christian world during Pius’s rule. St. Justin and
other Christian evangelists visited Rome, and as did
certain heretics. The Gnostics Valentinus and Cerdon
continued to preach there, as did Marcion, head of the
Marcionites, a group that held that Christianity should
jettison all vestiges of its Jewish background. Pius
presided over the council that excommunicated Marcion
in 144, but it is not known whether he took any
actions against the Gnostics.
Pius is sometimes said to have founded two
churches in Rome. However, although these may have
been built on the foundations of Christian houses dating
from his day, the churches as such date from the
fourth century.
Pius died ca. 155, perhaps as a martyr like many of
his predecessors, although his martyrdom is not mentioned
until the ninth century.
Feast: July 11
Pius V 285
Pius V (1504–1572) Dominican monk, Inquisitor general,
pope
Also known as: Michael Ghisleri, Michele Ghisleri,
Pope of the Rosary

286 Pius IX, Blessed
Pius V is remembered as one of the most important
popes of the Counter-Reformation. He was born
Michael Ghisleri in Bosco (near Alessandria), Italy, on
January 17, 1504. His impoverished family could not
afford to send him to school, and he had to assist his
father as a shepherd. He was occupied with this one
day when two passing Dominican friars struck up a
conversation with him. Recognizing his virtuousness
and intelligence, they asked for permission from his
parents to take him with them. Thus, Michael left
home at the age of 12.
After two years of study, in 1518, he donned the
Dominican habit at the Voghera priory and, as a
novice, was sent to Lombardy. He was ordained a priest
in 1528, and returned home for the first time since his
departure with the friars to say his first Mass, only to
find that Bosco had been razed by the French. He
found his parents in a nearby town, however, and after
saying Mass, began his career as a lector in theology
and philosophy. He also served as master of novices
and was elected prior of several Dominican houses. He
was a model of piety and austerity: He fasted, did
penance, spent hours in meditation and prayer, and
always traveled on foot and without a cloak, speaking
to his companions only of religious matters.
Michael’s reputation for defending the faith won
him the appointment as inquisitor at Como, Italy,
where many of his brethren had died as martyrs to
Protestant heretics. Michael set out to quell the traffic
in sacrilegious books smuggled over the Alps from
Switzerland. He was ambushed on several occasions
and some complicated plots were launched against
him, but these only made him more determined to
place the situation before the pope in Rome.
In 1556, Pope Paul IV (r. 1555–59) made Michael
bishop of Nepi and Sutri and appointed him inquisitor
in Milan and Lombardy; he named him inquisitor general
for all of Christendom the following year. In 1559,
Pope Pius IV (r. 1559–65) appointed him bishop of
Mondovi. In his official capacities, Michael opposed
not only the heresies of the day but also all policies he
considered mistaken. Thus, he opposed Pius IV when
he wanted to admit Ferdinand de’ Medici to the Sacred
College at age 13 and worked to defeat German
emperor Maximilian II’s attempt to abolish ecclesiastical
celibacy. Pius IV died early in 1565 and on January
7 Michael was elected his successor and took the name
Pius V.
In the Vatican, Pius continued his religious observances,
meditating on his knees before the Blessed
Sacrament at least twice a day. He visited hospitals and
sat at the bedsides of the sick and dying. He washed
the feet of the poor and embraced lepers. It is said that
an English nobleman converted to Catholicism after he
saw Pius kiss the feet of a beggar covered with ulcers.
He forbade bull fights and relegated prostitutes to distant
parts of the city. He enforced the discipline of the
Council of Trent, reformed the Cistercian order and
supported missions to the New World, India, China
and Japan.
The signal concerns of his pontificate, however,
were combating threats from Protestantism in Europe
and Islam in Asia. After the Knights of St. John in
Malta were defeated by the Turks in 1565, he rallied
forces for what was to be the last of the Crusades. He
appointed John of Austria the leader and in 1567 collected
from all convents one-tenth of their revenues to
help pay for the war. He ordered public prayers and
increased his own supplications in support of the
endeavor. When the Christian fleet finally sailed out to
meet the enemy, all had received the sacraments, and
all were saying the rosary. Their small fleet of 200 ships
was insignificant compared to the Turkish armada. Yet
when they met at the battle of Lepanto on October 6
and 7, 1571, they won, dealing the Turks a blow from
which they were never to recover.
Pius was immediately aware of the victory. He was
working with his cardinals when he suddenly flung
open the window and, looking up at the sky, cried out:
“A truce to business; our great task at present is to
thank God for the victory He has just given the Christian
army.” In commemoration of the triumph, he instituted
the Feast of the Rosary for the first Sunday of
October and added the invocation, “Mary, Help of
Christians,” to the Litany of Loreto.
Pius was in the midst of trying to form another crusade
to march against the Turks when he died on May
1, 1572. His last words were: “O Lord, increase my sufferings
and my patience!” His relics are enshrined at
Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.
In art, Pius is shown reciting a rosary or kissing the
feet of a crucifix. He also is depicted with a fleet in the
distance.
Beatified: 1672 by Pope Clement X
Canonized: 1712 by Pope Clement XI
Feast: April 30 (formerly May 5)
Pius IX, Blessed (1792–1878) Longest reigning pope
in history, and one of the most controversial to have been
beatified
Also known as: Pio Nono
Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti was born at Sinigaglia
on May 13, 1792, the ninth child of a minor count. He
received a classical education and went to Rome to
study philosophy and theology, but political unrest
caused him to leave in 1810. He returned to Rome four

years later and applied for admission to the pope’s
Noble Guard, but was refused because he had epilepsy.
Instead, he entered the Roman Seminary to study theology.
By 1819 he was no longer having fits and was
ordained a priest on the condition that another priest
always be present when he said Mass.
Father Mastai-Ferretti was appointed spiritual
director of the Roman orphanage popularly known as
“Tata Giovanni” by Pope Pius VII (r. 1800–23). The
same pope sent him as auditor of the Apostolic Delegation
to Chile in 1823. Upon his return, Pope Leo XII (r.
1823–29) made him canon of the Church of Santa
Maria in Via Lata and director of the large hospital of
San Michele. In 1827, Leo XII appointed him archbishop
of Spoleto. In that role in 1831 he put his diplomatic
skills to work in negotiations between Italian
revolutionaries and the Austrian army, bringing a
peaceful end to the conflict. The following year he was
transferred to the more important diocese of Imola,
and in 1840 created a cardinal priest with the titular
Church of Santi Pietro e Marcellino. Meanwhile, his
continued friendship with some of the revolutionaries
earned him the reputation of being a political liberal,
liberals being those who favored some relaxation of
rule in the Italian Papal States.
When Pope Gregory XVI (r. 1831–46) died at the
end of May 1846, the cardinals who met to decide on a
successor were divided into liberal and conservative
factions. Mastai-Ferretti, the liberal candidate, won on
the fourth ballot on June 16, 1846, Cardinal Archbishop
Gaysruck of Milan arriving too late to make use
of the right of exclusion against Mastai-Ferretti’s election,
given him by the Austrian government. The new
pope took the name Pius IX, in memory of Pope Pius
VII, his former benefactor. His coronation was held at
St. Peter’s Basilica on June 21.
Pius IX at once started to live up to his liberal reputation.
He issued an amnesty for political prisoners and
made numerous reforms in the Papal States. However,
the more concessions he made, the more that were
demanded. On February 8, 1848, a street riot in Rome
forced him to concede to a lay ministry in the Papal
States and in March he reluctantly granted a constitution—the
first step to a unified and independent Italy.
However, when he refused to join in war against
Catholic Austria, he quickly lost popularity. The riots
continued; his prime minister, Rossi, was stabbed to
death; and in November, Pius himself had to flee Rome
in disguise. He appealed for help from France, Austria,
Spain and still-independent Naples, and in April 1850,
French troops made it possible for him to return to
Rome.
However, his troubles were not over. Papal forces
lost control of most of the Papal States in 1860, and in
Pope St. Pius IX (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Pius IX, Blessed 287
1870, when the French pulled out of Rome, that too
fell. Pius found himself confined to the Vatican, his
temporal empire lost. He refused to accept the situation,
and relations between the Vatican and the new
Italian state were to remain strained until 1929.
Pius’s experience with political liberalism turned
him into a thoroughgoing conservative, in both the
temporal and spiritual spheres. He had long held a personal
devotion to the Virgin Mary, and in December
1854, he declared it a dogma of the Church that Mary
was conceived without original sin—the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception. In 1864, he issued an encyclical
and a syllabus of 80 errors, which took the
strongest possible stand against modernism. The Syllabus
of Errors opposed not only pantheism, naturalism,
rationalism, socialism, communism, freemasonry
and various kinds of religious liberalism, it also pronounced
against the separation of church and state and
freedom of speech. Its final point rejected the idea that
the pope “can and should reconcile himself with
progress, liberalism, and recent civilization.” Perhaps
the greatest event of his reign, however, was the First
Vatican Council, convened in June 1869. The council
was forced to adjourn the following summer due to the
outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, but not before it
had proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility—the
idea that the pope when speaking ex cathedra can

288 Pius X
make no mistake in matters of faith and morals. This
proclamation prompted many dissenters to leave the
Church and brought about a schism that lasted until
the liberalizing decisions of the Second Vatican Council
almost a century later.
Pius’s conservatism showed up also in his kidnapping
of a six-year-old Jewish boy, Edgardo Mortara, in
1858. The Mortara family lived in Bologna, in the
Papal States, which at the time were still under the
Vatican’s jurisdiction. Word came that a 15-yearold
Catholic housemaid had baptized Edgardo when
he was seriously ill and seemed near death. Under
Church law, baptism converted one to Christianity,
and a Christian child should be raised in a Christian
home. Thus, Vatican police stormed the house
and grabbed the boy from his father’s arms. Although
the action was not unprecedented, it met with international
outrage. The New York Times ran 20 articles
on it in one month. However, Pius formally
adopted Edgardo, who grew up in the Vatican and
eventually became a priest, lecturing on the miracle
of conversion to Christianity. The kidnapping became
a major issue in 2000, as the Vatican prepared to beatify
Pius.
Pius died on February 7, 1878, at the age of 86,
after a reign of 33 years. Italian liberals tried to throw
his body into the Tiber River, but it was saved and
interred instead in the Church of San Lorenzo fuori le
Mura, now named after him. When his tomb was
opened in 2000 to verify his remains in the Rite of
Recognition, an important step in the process of beatification,
his body was found to be almost perfectly preserved.
Pius’s cultus today is largely confined to the Vatican
and certain conservative bishops there. Nevertheless,
he was put forward as an 11th-hour substitute for his
even more controversial successor, Pope Pius XII (r.
1939–58)—who came under fire for not having done
enough to oppose the Holocaust—and was beatified
along with the much-beloved liberal, Pope John XXIII
(r. 1958–63).
Beatified: September 3, 2000, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: February 7
FURTHER READING
Van Biema, David, “Not So Saintly?” Time, September 4,
2000, pp. 60–64.
Kertzer, David. The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara. New
York: Random House, 1998.
Pius X (1835–1914) Pope
Also known as: Joseph Sarto, Pope of the Blessed Sacrament
Pope St. Pius X (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
Giuseppe Mechiorre Sarto, who was to become Pope
Pius X, was born on June 2, 1835, at Riesi (Riese), Treviso,
in Austrian-controlled Venice. His was a poor
family, but Giuseppe took Latin lessons from the archpriest
of Riesi, then studied for four years at the gymnasium
of Castelfranco Veneto. In 1850, he received a
scholarship to the seminary in Padua, where he completed
his studies in classics, philosophy and theology
with distinction.
After his ordination in 1858, he spent nine years as
a chaplain at Tombolo; but the parish priest was old
and an invalid, and Giuseppe had to assume most of
his duties. He studied canon law assiduously, established
a night school for adult students and in 1867 he
was named archpriest of Salzano, a large borough of
the diocese of Treviso. In 1875, he became a canon of
the cathedral there. In 1878, upon the death of Bishop
Zanelli, he was elected vicar-capitular. An even more
prestigious position followed in November 1884, when
he was elected bishop of Mantua. Then in June 1893,
at a secret consistory, Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903) created
him cardinal under the title San Bernardo alle Terme;
in the public consistory three days later, he named him

patriarch of Venice. However, Giuseppe had to wait 19
months before taking possession of his new diocese
because the Italian government refused to recognize
his appointment.
Leo XIII died at the end of July 1903, and on
August 4, Giuseppe was elected his successor. At his
coronation on August 8, he assumed the name Pius X.
As pope, Pius continued to promote the doctrine and
method of St. Thomas and to battle against what he
considered the Modernist heresy.
Pius gave particular attention to the Eucharist, recommending
that the First Communion of children not
be delayed after they reached the age of discretion,
advising all healthy Catholics to take Communion
frequently—daily, if possible—and lifting the injunction
on the sick to fast so that they, too, could participate.
He embraced the Immaculate Conception and
enjoined Marian devotion. He promoted sacred music,
published a new catechism for the diocese of Rome
and, most important, produced a new codification of
Canon Law that separated the juridical from the
administrative.
Pius died on August 20, 1914, of natural causes
aggravated by worries over the beginning of World
War I. In his will we find the words: “I was born poor;
I lived poor; I wish to die poor.”
Canonized: May 31, 1954, by Pope Pius XII
Feast: August 21
Patronage: Pilgrims
Polycarp of Smyrna (d. ca. 155?) Martyred bishop of
Smyrna and Greek Father of the Church whose body
refused to burn in fire
Little is known about the life of Polycarp of Smyrna,
who was born about 70, but the details of his martyrdom
are preserved in a written account.
At about age 10 Polycarp was converted by St. John
the Evangelist and became his disciple. At about age 26
he was consecrated bishop of Smyrna by John before
the apostle’s banishment to the isle of Patmos.
According to accounts, Polycarp was a wise and
prudent bishop, one of the foremost in Asia; St. Irenaeus
of Lyons wrote that he was privileged to receive
instruction from him when Irenaeus was a young man.
St. Ignatius of Antioch (another martyr) called him one
of the most important figures bridging the apostolic
and patristic eras of the Church. Polycarp was a vigorous
opponent of the Marcionite heresy.
When bloody persecutions began against Christians,
Polycarp was targeted for arrest. He was persuaded
by friends to take refuge in a house outside
Smyrna, where he prayed day and night. He moved to
a second farmhouse. He was betrayed by a servant who
was threatened with torture. Polycarp was not caught
offguard. Three days prior to his arrest he had a trance
vision in which his pillow was in flames, and knew he
would be martyred by fire. He surrendered himself
willingly when the soldiers arrived, and invited them
to dinner. Upon his request, they granted him two
hours to pray.
During the journey by chariot to Smyrna, the soldiers
urged Polycarp to obey the imperial edict to sacrifice
to the pagan gods in order to save his life. When
he refused, they pushed him from the chariot, and he
bruised (or broke) his leg in the fall.
Polycarp was taken before the proconsul, Statius
Quadratus, who ordered him to blaspheme Jesus
Christ. Polycarp refused and was threatened with wild
beasts. This did not daunt him, so the proconsul
decreed that he should be burned alive.
Polycarp asked not to be nailed to the stake,
promising that he would not move. According to an
account of his execution, “the fire making the appearance
of a vault, like the sail of a vessel filled by the
wind, made a wall round the body of the martyr; and it
was there in the midst, not like flesh burning, but like
[a loaf in the oven or like] gold and silver refined in a
furnace. For we perceived such a fragrant smell, as if it
were the wafted odor of frankincense or some other
precious spice.”
Exasperated, the pagans stabbed him to death. Out
of the wound came a dove and so much blood that the
fire eventually was extinguished. Christians asked for
the body but were refused; the body was burned in
another fire. Polycarp’s supporters stole his bones for
burial.
According to Irenaeus, a “voice like a trumpet”
announced in Rome, “Polycarp is martyred” at the
exact time the deed was committed in Smyrna.
Different dates of his martyrdom have been given,
from 155–156 to 160 to 167–168. His age at death is
given as 86, which, depending on the year of death,
would affect the date of his birth.
Extant is a letter from Polycarp to the Philippians,
an inspiring message that the Philippians solicited and
that quotes from the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, the
Acts of the Apostles and the first letters of Peter and
John.
Feast: February 23
Patronage: earache sufferers
Polycarp of Smyrna 289
FURTHER READING
St. Alphonsus Liguori. Victories of the Martyrs. Brooklyn:
Redemptorist Fathers, 1954.

290 Pontian
“The Epistle of Polycarp.” URL: http://www.ccat.sas.upenn.
edu:333/00/Religious/ChurchWriters/Apostolic
Fathers/Polycarp. Downloaded on February 13, 2000.
“The Letter of the Smyrnaeans or the Martyrdom of Polycarp.”
URL: http://www.ccat.sas.upenn.edu:3333/00/Religious/ChurchWriters/Apostoli.
./Martyrdom_Polycar. Downloaded
on February 13, 2000.
Pontian (d. ca. 236) Pope and martyr
Pontian was from Rome, the son of Calpurnius. He
succeeded St. Pope Urban I as bishop of Rome on July
21, 230.
Pontian presided over the synod at Alexandria,
which condemned Origen. In 235, Emperor Maximinus
the Thracian began a persecution of Christians
aimed chiefly at the heads of the Church. One of its
first victims was Pontian, who was banished to the
mines on the island of Sardinia. In order to make possible
the election of a new pope, Pontian resigned on
September 28, 235.
St. Hippolytus was banished to Sardinia along with
Pontian. Up until this time Hippolytus had persisted in
his claim to be bishop of Rome, in other words, had
stood as an antipope. However, while in exile he
became reconciled with the recognized Church, and
his schism ended.
Pontian and Hippolytus died in Sardinia, though it
is not known when. Pope St. Fabian (r. 236–50) had
their relics brought to Rome. Pontian was buried in the
papal crypt of the Catacomb of Callistus on August
13, 354.
Feast: November 19
Proclus (d. 446 or 447) Patriarch of Constantinople,
Father of the Church
Proclus was born in Constantinople. A good student,
he became a lector at an early age and was especially
skilled in rhetoric. He studied under St. John Chrysostom,
and then became secretary to one of John’s
opponents, Atticus, who became patriarch of Constantinople
after the deposition of John. Atticus ordained
Proclus a priest. But when Atticus died, Proclus was
passed over for patriarch in favor of Sissinus. When
Sissinus died in 427, Proclus was passed over again in
favor of Nestorius. Nestorius was deposed for heresy
by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and Proclus lost out
still again to Maximian. Finally he was made patriarch
upon the death of Maximian ca. 434. In 438 Proclus
translated the body of John Chrysostom to the Church
of the Apostles in Constantinople.
Proclus died in Constantinople in 446 or 447. He
wrote important treatises and homilies and argued
against heresies. Most notable among his works is
Tome of St. Proclus, about the two natures of Christ,
aimed at the unorthodox teachings of Theodore of
Mopsuestia.
Feast: October 24 in the West; November 20 in the
East

Quentin (d. 287) Roman missionary and martyr
Also known as: Quintin, Quintinus
Quentin went to Gaul as a missionary with St. Lucian
of Beauvais. He settled at Amiens in Picardy, where he
enjoyed great success as a preacher. The prefect Rictiovarus
had him imprisoned and tortured. Quentin was
taken to Augusta Veromanduorum (which became
Saint-Quentin), where he was again tortured and then
was beheaded. He is often depicted in art as a soldier
or bishop holding two spits.
Feast: October 31
Quiricus (d. 304) Three-year-old martyr with his
mother, St. Julitta
Also known as: Cyr, in France
During Christian persecutions, Julitta attempted to
find safety with her son in Seleucia, Tarsus, but was
arrested. Quiricus was made to watch her be tortured.
Struggling, he declared himself a Christian as well, and
f
291
then was either dashed to death on stone steps or
beaten to death before his mother’s eyes. Julitta was
beheaded.
The story may be all or part fiction. In the fourth
century, the relics of Quiricus and his mother reportedly
were taken to France and distributed to several
churches and monasteries.
Feast: June 16
Quirinus (d. ca. 117) Roman tribune and martyr
According to tradition, he was the jailer of Pope St.
Alexander I (r. 105–115), and was converted with his
daughter, Balbina. He is buried with her in the Praetextatus
catacomb on the Via Appia. In 1050, Pope Leo IX
(r. 1049–54) gave his relics to his sister, Gepa, abbess
of Neuss, who placed them in the Church of St. Quirinus
there.
Feast: March 30

Raphael the Archangel One of the principal angels in
Judeo-Christian angelologies, accorded the rank of archangel
Name meaning: “The shining one who heals,” “God
heals,” or “the medicine of God” in Hebrew
Raphael’s name originates from the Hebrew “rapha,”
which means healer or doctor. He is entrusted with the
physical well-being of the earth and its human inhabitants,
and is said to be the friendliest of the angels.
Raphael has numerous titles and duties. He is
counted among the seven angels who stand before God
as mentioned in Revelation. He is the angel of the
evening winds, guardian of the Tree of Life, and the
angel of prayer, peace, joy, light and love.
Raphael is credited with being the angel who stirs
the waters of the healing pool by the sheep gate in
Bethesda. According to lore, when the angel comes
down from heaven and stirs the waters, all those who
bathe there are healed. John 5:22 refers to this pool in
the story of Jesus and the paralyzed man. The man had
been ill for 38 years. When Jesus found him lying by
the pool, he asked the man if he wanted to be healed.
The man replied he had no one to lift him into the
waters when they were troubled. Jesus told him to rise
up and walk, and the man was immediately healed.
The apocryphal Book of Enoch terms Raphael one of
the “watchers” and a guide to the underworld. In
Rf
293
Enoch, he heals the earth when it is defiled by the sins
of the fallen angels.
Raphael is not mentioned by name in the Protestant
Bible, but he does play a prominent role in the book of
Tobit, part of the Catholic canon, which establishes the
healing ministry of angels and their role as emissaries
of God. In it, Raphael teaches the arts of both healing
and exorcism. He acts as a guide and companion on a
journey, thus making him the angel of travelers and
safety.
The book of Tobit was originally written in Hebrew
or Aramaic, probably in the second century B.C. The
story concerns a pious man named Tobit and his son,
Tobias. It takes place in the late eighth century B.C. in
the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, where the people of
northern Israel have been taken captive. The storyteller
is Tobit himself, who is instructed by Raphael to write
an account of the events that happen to him, his son
and others.
Tobit was a model of piety, giving money, food and
clothing to the poor. He defied Sennacherib the king
by burying his fellow Israeli dead, whose bodies were
left in the open by their captors. One evening, the 50year-old
man was defiled by handling a corpse and so
did not return home, but slept by the wall of a courtyard.
He left his face uncovered. Sparrow droppings
fell into his eyes, rendering him blind. He sought help

294 Rita of Cascia
of various physicians, to no avail. His wife was forced
to work to earn money.
After eight years in despair, Tobit begged God to let
him die. In preparation for death, he called in his only
son, Tobias, and told him to journey to Media, where
he had left some money in trust with another man. He
instructed Tobias to find a man to accompany him on
the journey, and he would pay the man’s wages.
In Media, a young woman named Sarah was possessed
by the demon Asmodeus, “the destroyer.” Sarah
had been given to seven men in wedlock, but the
demon had killed them all on their wedding night,
before the marriages could be consummated. Sarah’s
parents feared they would never marry off their only
daughter.
God heard the prayers of both Tobit and Sarah’s parents,
and dispatched Raphael to heal Tobit’s blindness
and exorcize the demons from Sarah.
Raphael appeared to Tobit in the form of a man and
introduced himself as Azarius, the son of one of Tobit’s
relatives. Tobit hired him.
Along the way, Raphael taught Tobias healing lore.
He instructed him to use the heart and liver of a fish
for exorcizing demons, and the gall of a fish for curing
blindness. He also instructed Tobias to wed Sarah and
drive Asmodeus away with smoke from the burning
fish parts and incense.
Tobias did so, and the demon fled to “the remotest
parts of Egypt” (the traditional home of magic and
witchcraft), where Raphael bound him up.
Upon Tobias’s return home, he cured his father’s
blindness. Raphael declined a generous payment and
revealed his true self to the men. “I am Raphael, one of
the seven holy angels who present the prayers of the
Archangel Raphael with Tobias (Library of Congress Prints
and Photographs Division)
saints and enter in the presence of the glory of the
Holy One,” he said. He told Tobit that he had been ever
present with him, and had taken his prayers for healing
to God. He urged the men to praise and thank God,
and to lead righteous lives.
Tobit and Tobias were alarmed to be in the presence
of an archangel, and fell to the ground in fear. But
Raphael assured them no harm would befall them.
“For I did not come as a favor on my part, but by the
will of our God,” he said. “Therefore praise him forever.
All these days I merely appeared to you and did
not eat or drink, but you were seeing a vision. And
now give thanks to God, for I am ascending to him
who sent me. Write in a book everything that has happened.”
Raphael vanished. Tobit wrote the story.
Catholic devotional lore contains numerous stories
about the deeds of Raphael. The Roman widow Cyriaca
(also called Dominica), who was martyred in the
fourth century, was addressed by Raphael during her
tortures. The archangel, identifying himself by name,
said he had heard her prayers and congratulated her on
her courage. Because of her suffering, she would glorify
the Lord. Sister Mary Francis of the Third Order of
St. Francis, who lived during the late 18th century, was
frequently ill and was told on one occasion by the
archangel that he would heal her—and he did. She and
others were witness to a smell of sweet perfume, which
she attributed to the presence of Raphael. The
archangel also is credited with healing other afflictions,
including epilepsy, and of providing protection during
journeys.
Feast: September 29
Patronage: the blind; happy meetings; nurses; physicians;
travelers
FURTHER READING
Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Angels. New
York: Facts On File, 1996.
O’Sullivan, Fr. Paul. All about the Angels. Rockford, Ill.: Tan
Books and Publishers, 1990; first published, 1945.
Rita of Cascia (1381–1457) Augustinian nun
Also known as: Margarita
Rita was born in Roccaporena, near Spoleto, Italy, in
1381, to elderly parents. At an early age, she begged
her parents to allow her to enter a convent. Instead
they arranged a marriage for her at age 12 to a man
known for his harsh temper and cruel treatment of
others. Rita bore two sons. After nearly 18 years of
marital misery, Rita was released from her marriage
when her husband was stabbed in a fight. According to
lore, before he died, Rita prayed for him and he
repented.

Her sons sought to avenge his death, but Rita
prayed that they might die rather than commit murder.
Soon thereafter, Rita’s two sons contracted a fatal illness
and died. She turned to her original desire to be a
nun, but the Augustinian convent at Cascia, Umbria,
refused to admit her because they required novitiates
to be virgins, and she had been married and was a
widow. Three times she applied and three times she
was rejected. Finally the order admitted her in 1413.
She distinguished herself with her piety, devotion and
charity. She filled her days with prayer, fasting, good
works and penances. She undertook the most severe
austerities.
To test her obedience, the mother abbess instructed
her to plant a dry stick and water it every day until it
bloomed. Rita did so dutifully for an entire year, to the
amusement of her sister nuns. Then the stick miraculously
bloomed and grew grapes, and reportedly continues
to do so today. The leaves are ground to powder
and given to the sick.
Rita had a great devotion to the Passion of Christ.
In 1441 she heard a sermon on the suffering of Christ
from his crown of thorns, and prayed for a thorn to
experience this suffering. Immediately she felt as
though a thorn from the crucifix detached and penetrated
her forehead. It left a deep, ugly and open
wound that so revolted the nuns that Rita spent most
of her time in her cell as a recluse for the last 15 years
of her life. The wound caused her great pain. In 1450,
it healed long enough for her to accompany her sister
on a pilgrimage to Rome, but returned after she was
back at her convent.
Rita died on May 22, 1457. In death her thin and
frail body took on a radiant splendor and the ugly
wound became like a beautiful jewel. The body gave
off a sweet smell that filled first her cell and then the
entire convent. Her body was still incorrupt in contemporary
times.
For centuries after her death, her body was reported
to move and levitate inside its glass reliquary. These
events had numerous witnesses. One incident was
recorded on May 21, 1628. A large crowd had gathered
in Cascia for Rita’s feast. A dispute arose between
the Augustinians and the secular clergy concerning
who had the right to conduct the Vespers of the Office
of the Saint. The nuns prayed to Rita for a solution. To
their amazement, her eyes opened and her body levitated
to the top of the reliquary. Others were summoned
to witness the miracle. The secular clergy was
allowed to conduct vespers. The eyes remained open
for years.
Rita’s body levitated again in 1730, when earthquakes
forced people to come to the church of St.
St. Rita of Cascia
Rita of Cascia 295
Rita in Cascia for protection. Cascia was spared
damage.
On numerous occasions, witnesses reported seeing
Rita’s body move: it changed position inside the reliquary
to turn from one side to the other, and the head
would turn toward people.
Miraculous manifestations have been reported as
the result of prayer to Rita after her death. On one
occasion the superior at Cascia urgently needed money
to pay a debt; after prayer the superior found exactly
the sum needed in the alms box. On another occasion,
the nuns needed wine for their meals but had none.
Shortly after prayer, a man appeared at the door with a
barrel of wine. As soon as it was placed in the cellar,
the man and his donkey and cart vanished.
A relic—a scrap of woolen cloth that had touched
the veil of Rita—was credited for extinguishing a fire
in Narni on April 27, 1652. A fire broke out in a
house, and there was not enough water available to
extinguish it. The relic was thrown into the flames,
which immediately were extinguished.

296 Robert Bellarmine
Canonized: 1900 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: May 22
Patronage: bleeding; desperate, impossible and
hopeless causes; infertility; against marital problems;
parenthood
FURTHER READING
Sicardo, Joseph A. St. Rita of Cascia. Tr. Dan J. Murphy.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1993.
Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) Cardinal, theologian,
Doctor of the Church
Robert Bellarmine was born on October 4, 1542, in
Montepulciano, Tuscany, to a noble family. His mother,
Cinzia Cervini, a niece of Pope Marcellus II (r. 1555),
was a devout woman. In 1560 Robert joined the Jesuits
and was sent to Rome to study at the Jesuit Roman
College. In 1563 he taught classics at the Jesuit colleges
of Florence and then Mondavì in Piedmont. In
1567 he went to the University of Padua to study
Thomistic theology. Upon graduation he became the
first Jesuit professor at the University of Louvain. He
was ordained in 1570. For the next five years, he
taught Thomistic theology, Greek and Hebrew at Louvain.
He studied the Scriptures and began writing.
In 1576 Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–85) brought
him to Rome to be chair of controversial theology at
the Roman College. The lectures that Robert gave at
the college became the foundation for one of his most
significant works, Controversies of the Christian Faith
against the Heretics of This Time, a defense of Catholic
theology against Protestantism. Three volumes of Controversies
were published between 1586 and 1593. But
Pope Sixtus V (r. 1585–90) thought Robert went too
far in limiting the pope’s temporal jurisdiction, and he
intended to include Controversies on his revised Index,
a list of forbidden books. Sixtus died before the list was
published, thus sparing Robert official censure.
Despite his disapproval of Controversies, Sixtus,
prior to his death in 1590, sent Robert to Paris to serve
as theological adviser to Cardinal Enrico Gaetani during
a bitter civil war. Robert was there during a siege of
the city by Henry of Navarre, who claimed the throne
as Henry IV, and his health, delicate from childhood,
suffered.
Upon his return to Rome Robert served as spiritual
director of the Roman College, where he met Aloysius
Gonzaga, destined for sainthood himself.
In 1592 Robert was named superior of the college,
and in 1594 or 1595 was named provincial of Naples.
He was recalled to Rome in 1597 by Pope Clement
VIII (r. 1592–1605), who appointed him his own
theologian and also examiner of bishops and consul-
St. Robert Bellarmine (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
tor of the Holy Office. In 1599 Clement made him a
cardinal.
When Clement died in 1605, Robert was put forward
as a successor, but the electors did not care for
the fact that he was a Jesuit. Pope Leo XI reigned only
26 days, and Robert was again advanced as a successor,
but he lost to Pope Paul V (r. 1605–21).
Robert remained as a member of the Holy Office
and became involved in Church disputes and campaigns
against heresies. He became head of the Vatican
Library in 1605. In 1615, he warned that the heliocentric
theory of the universe was “a very dangerous
thing” because it contradicted the Scriptures, and
urged Galileo to drop his defense of it. When the Holy
Office condemned the theory, it fell to Robert to convey
the decision to Galileo and receive his submission.
He opposed severe action against Galileo.

Robert lived long enough to see Pope Gregory XV
(r. 1621–23) elected in 1621. His health failing, he
died on September 17 of that year in Rome. His relics
are in the church of St. Ignatius there.
Robert’s career was propelled by his brilliant and
prolific writings. At Louvain he authored a Hebrew
grammar and a work on the Fathers of the Church.
Besides controversies, he wrote two catechisms, one for
children and one for teachers, both of which have had
continual popularity. He also wrote numerous
catechetical and spiritual treatises, commentaries on
the Scriptures and other works. The Mind’s Ascent to
God and The Art of Dying Well remain popular in present
times.
Throughout his life, even after his appointment as
cardinal, Robert lived simply, practicing an ascetic life
and giving most of his money to the poor. He once
ripped the tapestries off his walls so that clothing
could be made for the poor, saying, “The walls will not
catch cold.”
Beatified: 1923 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized: 1930 by Pope Pius XI
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1931 by Pope Pius XI
Feast: September 17
Patronage: canonists; catechists; catechumens
St. Roch giving away his clothes to the poor (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Roch 297
FURTHER READING
Godman, Peter. The Saint As Censor: Robert Bellarmine
between Inquisition and Index. Harrisburg, Pa.: Brill Academic
Publishers, 2000.
Robert Bellarmine: Spiritual Writings. Tr. John Patrick Donnelly
and Roland J. Teske. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press,
1994.
St. Robert Bellarmine. Live Well, Die Holy: The Art of Being a
Saint, Now and Forever. Manchester, N.H.: Sophia Institute
Press, 1998.
Roch (ca. 1295–1378) Miracle healer, especially of
plague victims
Also known as: Rock, Rocco (Italy), Roque (Spain),
Rollock and Seemie-Rookie
Roch’s birthplace is said to be Montpellier, France; his
father was the governor there. At birth he had a red
cross on his chest. Roch’s parents died when he was 20.
He went on pilgrimage to Rome and in the town of
Aquapendente found many people ill of the plague. He

298 Romuald
healed them (as well as animals) through prayer and
making the sign of the cross. He performed similar
miracles of healing in Parma, Modena and Mantua. He
visited other countries.
In Piacenza, Italy, he fell ill himself, but rather than
go to a hospital, he went off into the woods, prepared
to die. According to lore, he was sustained by a dog
who brought scraps from his master’s table. Curious as
to where the dog went every day with the scraps, the
master followed it and discovered Roch. He nursed the
saint back to health, and gained faith from him.
Once recovered, Roch returned to Montpellier, but
not even his own family recognized him. He was suspected
of being a spy in pilgrim’s disguise. His uncle,
the governor, ordered him imprisoned. Roch would
not identify himself, and spent the last five years of his
life in miserable conditions in jail. He died there, and
his true identity was discovered after his death when
the cross-shaped birthmark on his chest was seen.
After his death, miracles were reported at his intercession.
He was invoked in 1414 during the Council of
Constance when plague threatened the city.
Roch’s relics were translated to Venice. The Franciscans
accept him as one of their tertiaries. In art he is
shown dressed as a pilgrim wearing a hat, cloak and
boots and carrying a staff, with a dog by his side.
Feast: August 17
Patronage: against cholera; the falsely accused;
invalids; against plagues
Romuald (952–1027) Abbot, hermit, founder of the
Camaldolese Order
Also known as: Romuald of Ravenna
Romuald of Ravenna was an important figure in the
medieval revival of eremitic monasticism. An account
of his life was written by St. Peter Damian, a Father of
the Church.
Romuald was born around 952 in Ravenna, Italy, to
a noble family. He was a young man when he saw his
father kill a relative. To atone for his father’s sin, he
entered the monastery of San Apollinare-in-Classe. He
saw Apollinaris in a vision and became a monk.
After three years Romuald departed to find a more
austere way of life. In Venice he became a disciple of
the hermit Marinus, who exacted harsh discipline. He
went to the monastery at Cuxa, where he lived for 10
years. Meanwhile, his father had become a monk in an
effort to atone for his own sins. Romuald returned to
Ravenna to encourage him.
Romuald’s reputation as a holy man attracted the
attention of Emperor Otto III. The emperor appointed
him abbot at San Apollinare-in-Classe. But after about
a year Romuald resigned in order to establish hermitages
and reform monasteries throughout northern
Italy and the Pyrenees. He founded the monastery of
Camadoli near Arezzo, which later became the motherhouse
of the Camaldolese Order. The order merged the
cenobitical, or monastic, life of the West with the
eremitical, or hermit, life of the East.
Romuald tried several times to journey to Hungary
to evangelize, but his health prevented him from doing
so. He died on June 19, 1027, at Val di Castro near
Camadoli. Miracles were reported after his death. His
hair shirt reportedly expelled a demon from the
church, and was kept as a relic.
Five years after his death, the remains of Romuald
were exhumed in order to be placed in a new coffin
beneath an altar. The monks expected to move bones
and dust and so built a small coffin. One of them was
warned in a dream by a venerable old man that the coffin
would be too small. When the saint was uncovered,
his body was found to be incorrupt, with a sheen of
liquid on some of the parts. A new coffin was constructed,
and the saint was reburied beneath the new
altar.
His body was exhumed again in 1466 and 1481 and
was found to be still incorrupt. The remains are now in
the crypt of St. Romuald at the monastery of SS. Biagio
and Romuald, in Fabriano (Ancona), Italy.
Canonized: 1595 by Pope Clement VIII
Feast: February 7
FURTHER READING
“The Relics of St. Romuald of Ravenna from Peter Damian’s
Life of St. Romuald.” URL: http://www.urban.hunter.
cuny.edu/~thead/romuald.htm. Downloaded: October 9,
2000.
Rose of Lima (Rosa de Lima) (1586–1617) First person
from the Americas to be canonized
Born in Lima, Peru, on April 20, 1586, a half-century
after the Spanish conquest of the Incas, Rose of Lima’s
parents were Gaspar de Flores, a Spaniard, and Maria
de Oliva, who was part-Inca. She was baptized Isabel,
but had such a beautiful face that after a few years her
mother took to calling her Rose instead.
Rose began to show her religious devotion at a very
early age. She spent hours each day in prayer. Once
when she was praying before an image of the Virgin
Mary, she imagined that the Infant Jesus appeared to
her and said, “Rose, consecrate all of your love to me.”
From that point on she decided to live only for the love
of Jesus Christ.
One day, her mother put a wreath of flowers on her
head to show off her beauty to friends. Rose, though,

had no desire to be admired, since she was committed
to Christ. She drove a long pin through the wreath,
piercing her head so deeply that afterward she had a
hard time getting the wreath off. Except when they
clashed over her religious devotion, Rose was obedient
to her parents and worked hard, especially at sewing,
at which she excelled.
She received confirmation from St. Turibius Mogoroveio,
then the archbishop of Lima, in 1597, when
she was 11. At this time she formally took the name
Rose. But she continued to be troubled by her beauty
and the implications her name carried, so on one occasion
she rubbed her face with pepper until it was red
and blistered. On another occasion she rubbed her
hands with quicklime, causing herself great suffering.
When her brother told her that men were drawn to
her for her long hair and fair skin, she cut her hair
short and took to wearing a veil. Nevertheless, she
attracted particularly one young man who wanted to
marry her. Her father was delighted, because this man
came from a good family, and he foresaw a brilliant
future for her. Rose, however, declared that she would
never marry.
She decided to enter an Augustinian convent, but
the day that she was to go she knelt before her image
of the Virgin to ask for guidance, and found she could
not get up. She called her brother to help, but even
with his assistance she could not rise. It came to her
then that God must have other plans for her, and she
said to Mary, “If you don’t want me to enter the
convent, I will drop the idea.” As soon as she had said
this she found herself able to stand without difficulty.
She asked for a sign of which religious denomination
she should join, and soon thereafter a black and
white butterfly began to visit her daily, flitting about
her eyes. She realized that she must look for an order
that was associated with black and white, and soon discovered
the Third Order of Dominic, whose nuns wear
white tunics covered by black cloaks. She applied to
the order in Lima and was admitted. She was then 20
years old.
Third Order Dominican nuns lived at home rather
than in a convent, and with her brother’s help Rose
built a hut in her family’s garden and there became a
virtual recluse, going out only to Mass and to help
those in need. Inspired by St. Catherine of Siena, she
also began to subject herself to severe mortification.
She wore a spiked silver crown covered by roses, a hair
shirt, gloves filled with nettles, and an iron chain
around her waist. She flogged herself three times a day,
gouged out chunks of her skin with broken glass, and
dragged a heavy wooden cross around the garden. She
never ate meat and fasted three times a week. On the
hottest days, she refused to drink, reminding herself of
Rose of Lima 299
the thirst suffered by Jesus on the cross. She slept on a
hard board with a stick for a pillow, a pile of bricks, or
a bed that she constructed of broken glass, stone, potsherds
and thorns.
Not surprisingly, Rose suffered from frequent ill
health and went through periods of self-doubt, during
which she felt revulsion toward all prayer, meditation
and penance. She was also rewarded with many
ecstasies and visions. One day she announced to the
citizens of Lima that, through her prayers, she had prevented
an earthquake from devastating the city. She
was examined by priests and physicians, who decided
that her experiences were in fact supernatural.
Rose was often ridiculed for the extreme forms of
her devotion. She was not entirely detached from the
world about her, however. When her father’s business
failed, she sold her splendid embroidery and took up
gardening, producing beautiful flowers that were sold
at the market. Rose also spoke out against the excesses
of the colonial regime of the time and for the Indians
and other common people. Sometimes she brought
sick and hungry persons into her home so that she
could care for them more easily.
Rose spent her last years in the home of a government
official, Gonzalo de Massa. She was living then in
an almost continuous mystical ecstasy. During an illness
toward the end of her life, she prayed, “Lord,
increase my sufferings, and with them increase Thy
love in my heart.” From 1614 onward, as the August
24 feast day of St. Bartholomew approached, Rose
became very happy. She explained her great happiness
by saying that she would die on a St. Bartholomew
feast day. Indeed, she did die on August 24, 1617, at
the age of 31.
Rose’s sacrifices and penitence attracted many
converts and increased the fervor of many priests, but
not until after her death was it known how deeply
she had affected the common people of Lima. Crowds
of mourners lined the streets to watch the procession
carrying her body to the cathedral, where it was to
be displayed, and so many people came to view it
that her burial had to be delayed. She was buried
first in the Dominican convent, but after a few days
moved to a special chapel in the Church of San
Domingo. A great number of miracles and cures were
at that time, and have since been, attributed to her
intervention.
Rose’s patronage extends beyond the Americas to
the West Indies, the Philippines and India. The emblems
associated with her are an anchor, a crown of
roses and a city. She continues to be a popular saint in
her native Peru, where her feast day is a national holiday.
Her family home is now a shrine with a well where
the faithful go to drop appeals for her help. The house

300 Rose of Viterbo
where she died is now a convent (the Monasterio de
Santa Rosa) named in her honor.
Beatified: 1667 by Pope Clement IX
Canonized: April 2, 1671, by Pope Clement X
Feast: August 30 (Peru); August 23 (elsewhere)
Patronage: florists; gardeners; needle workers;
people ridiculed for their piety; Americas; India;
Peru; Philippines; West Indies
FURTHER READING
Alphonsus, Mary. St. Rose of Lima. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books,
and Publishers, 1993.
“Santa Rosa de Lima.” Santos Peruanos. Available online.
URL: http://ekeko.rcp.net.pe/IAL/cep/santpapa/santoslos.htm.
Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
“Saint Rose of Lima.” Stories of the Saints. Available online.
URL: http://members.tripod.com/~dymphna/saints/stbio.
html. Downloaded: November 17, 1999.
Rose of Viterbo (1235–1252) Franciscan tertiary
Rose of Viterbo was born in 1235 in Viterbo, Italy, to a
poor but pious family. Tradition holds that she was a
miracle-worker from an early age and loved to spend
time in churches praying. She was three years old
when her aunt died. Rose is said to have prayed,
touched the corpse and called her aunt by name, thus
restoring the woman to life.
By age seven, Rose lived like a recluse and gave herself
penances. These practices damaged her health.
During a serious illness at age eight, the Blessed Virgin
Mary appeared and miraculously healed her, and
instructed her to join the Third Order of St. Francis of
Assisi and preach penance in Viterbo. The city at that
time was under the control of the anti-papal, Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick II of Germany, and was
influenced by the Ghibellines, an anti-papal party. Rose
did as instructed, inspired further by a vision of a
wounded and bloody Christ. For two years she went
about Viterbo preaching penance and denouncing the
enemies of the pope. Her father threatened her, but she
would not stop. A plot to murder her was hatched by
the Ghibellines, and Rose and her parents were banished
from the city, perhaps for her own protection. In
1250 Rose went to Sorbiano and accurately prophesied
the imminent and unexpected death of the emperor.
In Sorbiano, she campaigned against pagan heresy.
One of her miracles consisted of standing for three
hours in the flames of a burning pyre.
When papal power was restored in 1251, Rose
returned to Viterbo. She tried several times to enter the
convent of St. Mary of the Roses, but was refused
because she had no dowry. She told them, “You will
not have me now, but perhaps you will be more willing
when I am dead.” She returned to her father’s house,
where she died on March 6, 1252, at the age of 17.
Rose was buried in the Church of Santa Maria in
Podio, but six years later Pope Alexander IX (r.
1254–61) ordered her remains translated to St. Mary of
the Roses in return for her support of the papacy. In
1357 the church was destroyed by fire, but her incorrupt
body remained unharmed. It was enshrined in the
Monasterio Clarisse S. Rosa in Viterbo.
In 1921, her incorrupt heart was placed in a reliquary
and was afterward paraded through the city
every September 4, her feast day. Her incorrupt body,
now dark but still flexible, is exposed in a reliquary.
Numerous miracles were attested to Rose. She communicated
with animals, especially birds. Once while
preaching in Viterbo, she and the stone platform on
which she stood levitated into the air before spectators.
Rose remained suspended in the air while she spoke to
the crowd.
Canonized: 1457 by Pope Callistus III
Feast: September 4
Patronage: exiles; people in exile; people rejected by
religious orders; tertiaries

Scholastica (ca. 480–543) Benedictine sister, abbess
and twin sister of St. Benedict of Nursia, considered to be
the first Benedictine nun
Very little is known about Scholastica, save for a few
comments by Pope St. Gregory I (Gregory the Great, r.
590–604) in Dialogues, in which he records events of
St. Benedict’s life. In early youth, she consecrated her
life to God. After Benedict established his monastery at
Monte Cassino, Italy, she moved to nearby Plombariola,
where she founded and governed a monastery of
nuns. Benedict directed his sister and her nuns.
Scholastica visited her brother once a year, and
stayed in a house separate from the monastery, which
she was not allowed to enter. Benedict and several of
his brothers would meet her there and spend the day
discussing spiritual matters.
The best-known story about Scholastica took place
in 543 on one of these visits. Toward evening, Benedict
prepared for his return to the monastery. Scholastica
begged him to stay the night, but Benedict replied, “By
no means can I stay out of my monastery.” Scholastica
bowed her head and prayed. When she raised her
head, there was a sudden and dramatic shift in the
weather. The sky had been clear and serene; now lightning
flashed and thunder boomed. A heavy rainfall
commenced.
Sf
301
Benedict was not pleased, and said, “God Almighty
forgive you, sister. What is this you have done?”
Scholastica said, “I prayed you to stay and you
would not hear me. I prayed to Almighty God and he
heard me. Now, therefore, if you can, go forth to the
monastery and leave me.”
Benedict and his brothers were forced to spend the
night. They continued their discussions.
Benedict and his party left in the morning, never to
see Scholastica again. She died three days later. Benedict
beheld her soul in a vision as it ascended into
heaven. He had her body brought to his monastery and
laid it in the tomb he had prepared for himself. He died
within the year and, as requested, was laid to rest with
his sister.
Feast: February 10
Patronage: convulsive children; against storms
Sebastian (d. ca. 288–304) Roman martyr famed for
the manner in which he died
Little is known about Sebastian prior to his martyrdom
during the reign of Emperor Diocletian (284–305). St.
Ambrose speaks of him, and other accounts tell of his
martyrdom: the Depositio Martyrum and the Hieronymian
Martyrology.

302 Serapion the Scholastic
The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian (Engraving by Albrecht
Dürer, n.d.)
According to legend, Sebastian was born at Narbonne,
Gaul; other sources place him from Milan. He
became a soldier in the Roman army at Rome in about
283 in order to defend confessors and martyrs without
drawing attention to himself. He encouraged Marcellian
and Marcus, under sentence of death, to remain
firm in their faith. Sebastian made numerous converts,
including the master of the rolls, Nicostratus, who was
in charge of prisoners, and his wife, Zoe, a deaf mute
whom he cured; the jailer, Claudius; Chromatius, prefect
of Rome, whom he cured of gout; and Chromatius’s
son, Tiburtius. Chromatius set the prisoners
free, freed his slaves and resigned as prefect. Sebastian
also is credited with healing others of the plague.
Sebastian was named captain in the Praetorian
guards by Emperor Diocletian, and again by Emperor
Maximian when Diocletian went to the East. Neither
knew that Sebastian was a Christian. When it was discovered
during Maximian’s persecution of the Christians
that Sebastian was a Christian, he was sentenced
to be executed. He was shot with arrows by archers
from Mauretania and left for dead. Irene, the widow of
the martyr St. Castulus, went to collect his body and
discovered him still alive. She nursed him back to
health. Recovered, he went before Diocletian and
denounced him for his cruelty to Christians. The astonished
emperor ordered him to be clubbed to death. This
time the sentence was carried out successfully.
His remains were buried on the Via Appia with
other martyrs. The basilica San Sebastiano is named
after him. He was venerated in the times of Ambrose.
Sebastian is often portrayed in art—he was especially
popular with Renaissance painters and sculptors—tied
to a column and shot full of arrows. His
symbol is the arrow.
Feast: January 20
Patronage: archers, athletes; plague sufferers; soldiers
Serapion the Scholastic (d. ca. 370) Bishop, scholar
and head of the famed Catechetical School of Alexandria,
Egypt; Greek Father of the Church
Also known as: Serapion of Arsinoc
Serapion was a monk in the Egyptian desert and a
companion to St. Anthony, who left in his will the gift
of two sheepskin cloaks, one for Serapion and the
other for the patriarch St. Athanasius of Alexandria.
Serapion was a close friend of Athanasius, and gave
support to him against the heretic Arians in Egypt. His
appointment as bishop of Thmuis, on the Nile Delta in
Lower Egypt, enabled him to increase his efforts
against the heretics. These efforts, however, led to his
exile for a time by the ardent Arian emperor Constantius
II. A brilliant scholar and theologian, he was also
the author of a series of writings on the doctrine of the
divinity of the Holy Spirit (addressed to the emperor),
the Euchologium (a sacramentary) and a treatise against
Manichaeanism.
Feast: March 21
Sergius I (d. 701) Pope
Sergius, son of the Syrian merchant Tiberius, was born
at Palermo, Italy. He was educated in Rome at the

schola cantorum (church choir school). He was
ordained a priest by Pope St. Leo II (r. 682–683) and
served as the titular priest of Sta. Susanna before being
elected the successor of Pope Conon (r. 686–687) on
December 15, 687.
His elevation to the Chair of St. Peter came not without
controversy, however. As Pope Conon lay on his
deathbed, his archdeacon, Pascal, promised the exarch
John of Ravenna a considerable sum of money to bring
about his election. Upon Conon’s death, Pascal was duly
elected by one faction of the Roman Church, while
another elected the archpriest Theodosius, and the
majority of the clerics and laity went for Sergius. Theodosius
quickly bowed to Sergius, and his supporters
stormed the Lateran Palace and had him consecrated.
Pascal appealed to John of Ravenna, who came to
Rome, but approved Sergius’s election only when he had
been paid the bribe he had been promised by Pascal.
Sergius was active in promoting the interests of the
Church in England. In 689, he baptized St. Caedwalla,
king of the West Saxons. In 695, he consecrated St.
Willibroard bishop and sent him as a missionary to the
Frisians (Germans).
Sergius is also remembered for his refusal to
endorse the Quintisext (Trullanum) Council of 692, at
which the Greek Church decreed that priests and deacons
who had married before their ordinations could
keep their wives, and that also sought to place the
patriarch of Constantinople on equal footing with the
bishop of Rome. Sergius’s rejection of the council’s acts
led Emperor Justinian II to dispatch an officer to bring
him to Constantinople. The Roman people protected
the pope, but the crisis came to an end only when Justinian
II was deposed in 695.
Sergius repaired and adorned several Roman basilicas,
added the Agnus Dei to the Mass, inaugurated the
Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, and instituted processions
in feasts associated with the Theotokos. He
died in Rome on the seventh or eighth of September
701.
In art, Sergius is shown sleeping as an angel brings
him the episcopal insignia for Bishop Saint Hubert of
Liège.
Feast: September 8
Seven Holy Helpers (13th century) Seven Florenctine
businessmen led by the Blessed Virgin Mary to establish
the Servants of Mary, known as the Servite Friars or
Servite Fathers
Also known as: Seven Servites
The businessmen were members of the Confraternity
of Our Lady in Florence, Italy. They were: Bonfilio
Seven Holy Helpers 303
Monaldo; Alexis Falconieri; (Benedict) Manettus dell’
Antello; Bartholomew Amidei (or Rocovero); Uguccio
Uguccione (or Gherardino); Sostenes Sostegno; and
(John) Buonagiunta Monetti.
In 1233, the businessmen, all well-to-do, were
between the ages of 27 and 35, and had been members
of the confraternity for five years. They were quite concerned
about the lifestyles they saw around them:
excessive immorality, humanism and materialism. At
their meetings, they prayed and sang songs to Mary.
After receiving Communion at the Feast of the
Assumption, the seven shared a mutual mystical experience
that changed their lives. A supernaturally bright
light appeared, and in the center was Mary surrounded
by a host of angels. She said to them: “Leave the world
and retire together in solitude in order to fight yourselves.
Live wholly for God. You will thus experience
heavenly consolations. My protection and assistance
will never fail you.”
Thus fired, the men received the blessings of the
confraternity and the bishop of Florence. They sold
their possessions, gave the money to the poor and left
their families to live in a dilapidated farmhouse outside
of town. They intended only to live in extreme mortification
and penance. They begged for food. Many
townspeople considered them cranks. They were unofficially
dubbed “the Servants of Mary.”
In May 1234, Mary appeared in another vision and
directed them to go farther away, to Mt. Senario, and
live even more austerely. They did as instructed. Some
lived in caves on the mountainside; some subsisted
solely on herbs. They maintained silence for prolonged
periods of time. So severe was their lifestyle that once a
visiting cardinal, shocked, ordered them to be kinder
to themselves.
Despite their austerity, other young men asked to
join them. They were given a sign on February 27,
1239—the third Sunday of Lent—when they discovered
that a grapevine they had planted was blooming
and had ripe fruit, while other vines remained frostbitten.
The bishop told them that this meant others
would join the order.
On Good Friday, April 13, 1239, Mary appeared to
the seven after they had finished their night prayers.
She said, “beloved and elect Servants, I have come to
grant your prayers. Here is the habit which I wish you
to wear henceforth. It is black that it may always
remind you of the keen sorrow which I experienced
through my son’s crucifixion and death. This scroll
bearing the words ‘Servants of Mary’ indicates the
name by which you are to be known. This book contains
the Rule of St. Augustine. By following it you will
gain these palms in heaven, if you serve me faithfully
on earth!”

304 Seven Sleepers of Ephesus
Mary gave the same message to the bishop, who
approved the new Order of Servants of Mary. Six of the
original seven entered the priesthood; one remained a
lay brother. Within a few years, there were more than
100 houses. Women became Servite nuns.
The order gave the Church the Feast of the Seven
Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and greatly increased
the popularity of the Sorrowful Mother
Novena.
Canonized: 1888 by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: February 17
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (third century) Martyrs
This curious medieval legend exists in different versions
in several languages. Probably it was first
recorded in Greek, by Symeon Metaphrastes, and later
translated into Latin (by St. Gregory of Tours) and Syriac
and other Middle Eastern languages. It is also told
in an Anglo-Norman poem and in Old Norse. An Arabic
version appears in the Koran.
The story is simple, though powerful. When
Emperor Decius (r. 249–251) came to Ephesus to
enforce his persecutory decrees against Christians, he
found there seven young men—their names vary in
different versions—who were believers. He had them
put on trial and gave them a short time to decide
whether they would abrogate their faith and live or
persist in it and die. Deciding on the latter course, the
seven gave their property to the poor and, keeping
only a few coins, went into a cave on Mt. Anchilos to
pray and prepare for death. They were warned of
Decius’s return, said a final payer, then fell asleep.
Meanwhile, Decius had ordered his soldiers to find
them, and when they were discovered sleeping in the
cave, had it walled up.
A Christian came along and on the outer wall
wrote the story and the names of the martyrs. Years
passed and times changed. The Roman Empire
became Christian. Then sometime during the reign of
either Theodosius the Great (r. 379–395) or Theodosius
the Younger (r. 408–450), at a time when the doctrine
of bodily resurrection was much debated, a rich
landowner decided to have the cave opened in order
to use it as a cattle stall. The seven young men then
awoke, and, thinking they had slept only one night,
sent one of their number, Diomedes, into town to buy
food, so that they might have one last meal together.
Diomedes found Ephesus much altered, and the people
could not understand where he got the coins
minted under Decius. At length the truth came out,
and Diomedes lead the bishop and the prefect to the
cave, where his companions were found. Theodosius
was sent for, and this proof of resurrection was much
celebrated.
At this point, the seven died for good. Theodosius
wished to build golden tombs for them, but they
appeared to him in a dream and asked to be buried in
the earth in their cave. Their bodies were duly returned
to the cave and interred there, and a great church was
built over it. Every year, the feast of the Seven Sleepers
is kept.
In the Roman Martyrology, the Seven Sleepers are
commemorated individually under the names Dionysius,
Maximianus, Malchus, Martinianus, Joannes, Serapion
and Constantinus.
Feast: July 27 (in the West); August 4 and October
22 (in the East)
FURTHER READING
“Seven Sleepers.” Encyclopedia Mythica website. URL:
http://wwwntheon.org/mythica/articles/s/seven_sleepers.html.
Downloaded: September 10, 2000.
Silverius (d. ca. 537) Pope and martyr
Silverius was the son of Pope St. Hormisdas, who had
been married before becoming one of the higher clergy
in the Roman Church. Silverius followed his father
into the Church and was subdeacon at Rome when
Pope St. Agapetus (r. 535–536) died at Constantinople
on April 22, 536. Silverius was ordained his successor
on June 1 or 8, 536.
From the beginning, he was caught up in the political
intrigues of the day, as the Byzantine Empire and
the Ostrogoths struggled for control of Italy. He is
thought to have died on December 2, around the year
537, while in captivity on the island of Palmaria.
Another source says that he was buried there on June
20. By the 11th century, he was venerated as a saint.
In art, Silverius is usually portrayed as a pilgrim
pope with a small piece of bread on a plate. He is also
shown with a paten or as he sits by a table on which
there is a scroll while armed men approach.
Feast: June 20
Simeon Stylites (390–459) Ascetic; first of the stylitae,
hermits who lived on top of pillars
Simeon Stylites is worthy of note for the extremes of
his asceticism and mortification, and for establishing
the practice of pillar-living for those who found ordinary
asceticism insufficient.
Simeon was born in northern Syria and entered a
monastery at Eusebona near Antioch. His practices
were too extreme for the monks, so they persuaded

him to leave. He spent three years living in a hut. He
became renowned for fasting during Lent and his feat
of standing for as long as his body could endure.
Simeon seemed always to look for even more
extreme ways to practice asceticism, and struck upon
the idea of confining himself to a platform atop a
nine-foot pillar. Understandably, this attracted crowds,
who came not only to see the human oddity but to ask
his advice as well. Simeon remedied this by increasing
the height of the pillar to 50 (some accounts say
60) feet. On these pillars he spent the last 37 years of
his life.
Simeon ate one small meal per week and fasted
throughout the entire season of Lent. His disciples
gave him food and removed his waste with buckets and
ropes. Even this deprivation was not enough for him,
so he had himself bound to the platform so tightly that
the ropes cut into his flesh. He had maggots brought to
the platform and set upon the wounds, so that they
began eating his flesh. He wore a heavy iron chain.
People came from Persia, Ethiopia, Spain and even
Britain to see him and hear him preach. He inspired
other ascetics to live atop pillars.
According to lore, Simeon was often and visibly visited
by his guardian angel, who devoted many hours to
teaching him the mysteries of God. The angel also foretold
his death. When he developed an ulcer on his
right leg, he stood for the remaining year of his life
upon his good leg.
In 459, his disciple Anthony was unable to get a
response from him and so climbed up to the platform.
There he found the saint dead, his body exuding a perfume
that seemed made from many spices.
His remains were taken to Antioch and his body
remained well preserved until nearly the seventh century.
Some teeth were removed for relics. The head was
considered to have protective powers against invasion
from Eastern armies.
Feast: January 5
FURTHER READING
Evagrius. “St. Simeon Stylites,” from Ecclesiastical History,
I.13. Medieval Sourcebook website. URL: http://www.
fordham.edu/halsall/source/evagrius-simeon.html.
Downloaded: February 13, 2000.
Gordon, Anne. A Book of Saints. New York: Bantam Books,
1994.
Simon Stock (ca. 1185–1265) Carmelite mystic who
helped the Carmelites become a mendicant order
Simon Stock’s was born in Aylesford, Kent, England.
According to legend, the name Stock, meaning “tree
trunk,” derives from the fact that, beginning at age 12,
Simon Stock 305
he lived as a hermit in the hollow trunk of an oak tree
until he became an itinerant preacher. However, Stock
probably was added postmortem to his first name
because of his tree-living.
Legend has it that while he lived in the tree, Simon
was visited daily by a small dog who brought him
crusts of bread. He was especially devoted to Mary, and
composed poems in her honor and carved her names
on trees. He had many visions of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, who foretold that holy hermits would come from
Mt. Carmel, and he would join them.
As a young man, Simon reputedly went on a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land where he joined up with a
group of Carmelites and later returned to Europe with
them. He was one of the first Englishmen to enter the
Carmelite order. In 1245 he was elected sixth mastergeneral
and became well-known. He founded many
Carmelite communities, especially in university towns
such as Cambridge, Oxford, Paris and Bologna. He received
papal approval for changing the Carmelites
from a hermit order to one of mendicant friars, a move
that enabled them to spread rapidly throughout
Europe. In 1254 he was elected superior-general of his
Order at London.
Simon is best-known for a vision of Mary he had in
Cambridge, England, on July 16, 1251, during a time
of oppression of the Carmelites. Simon, in despair over
the trouble in the order, had withdrawn to his cell to
pray. He recited one of his youthful poems to Mary.
Suddenly his cell filled with radiant light, and he saw
Mary holding the infant Jesus, surrounded by angels.
Mary held a brown scapular in one hand and presented
it to him, saying, “Hoc erit tibi et cuntis Carmelitis
privilegium, in hoc habitu moriens salvabitur.”
(“Receive, my beloved son, this scapular of thy Order;
it is the special sign of my favor, which I have obtained
for thee and for thy children of Mount Carmel. He who
dies clothed with this habit shall be preserved from
eternal fire.”)
The following January, Pope Innocent IV (r.
1243–54) and the king of England issued an order of
protection for the Carmelites.
Simon died on May 16, 1265, in Bordeaux, France.
His relics are enshrined in Aylesford. He is said to be
the composer of the Ave Stella Matutina and Flos
Carmeli. He was never formally canonized, but is venerated
as a saint by the Carmelites and is recognized in
some dioceses.
Mary’s scapular became adopted as the regular habit
of the White Friars, and the scapular devotion spread
through Europe. The Carmelites established Scapular
Confraternities, which gave small woolen scapulars to
lay members. In 1276, Pope Gregory X (r. 1271–76)

306 Simon the Zealot
died and was buried in a such a scapular, which was
found incorrupt in his tomb when it was opened in
1830.
Mary’s brown scapular has become a popular
Catholic devotion.
Feast: May 16
Patronage: tanners
Simon the Zealot One of the Twelve Disciples of Jesus;
martyr
Also known as: Simeon, Simon the Canaanaean, Simon
the Canaanite
Simon was probably born in Galilee, although nothing
is known about his parentage. He was called by Jesus
to be one of his 12 disciples; since St. Peter’s given
name also was Simon, in order to distinguish them,
Simon was surnamed Kananaios, Kananites, or
Zelotes—all translations of the Hebrew qana (“the
Zealous”). This referred to the zeal for Jewish law he
possessed before his conversion to Christianity, not, as
sometimes has been assumed, his membership in the
party of Zealots, Jewish patriots opposed to the Roman
occupation of Israel. Similarly, the assumption that he
was a Canaanite is based on a mistranslation; had be
been from Cana, his surname would have been “Kanaios.”
Nevertheless, in the Greek Church he is identified
with Nathanael of Cana, the bridegroom recipient
of Jesus’ first public miracle, when at his mother’s
request he turned water into wine, and in English he is
sometimes called Simon the Canaanean or Canaanite.
Simon’s later life is as confused as his name, with
the various Christian churches having different traditions
about his career. He certainly left Palestine when
the apostles fanned out to evangelize the world, but
where is uncertain. The Abyssinians hold that he
preached in Samaria; the Greeks that he went to the
Black Sea, Egypt, North Africa and Britain; the Georgians
that he was in Colchis. According to the apocryphal
Passion of Simon and Jude, he served with St.
Jude in Persia.
Eastern traditions hold that Simon died peacefully
at Edessa (Mesopotamia), although in the West he is
believed to have been martyred. This may have
occurred in Jerusalem, to which Simon may have
returned from the field to succeed St. James the Less as
bishop. However, at least since the sixth century, there
have been legends about his martyrdom with Jude in
Persia, although with variations. Some hold that their
bodies were cut to pieces with a saw or falchion (a
short sickle-shaped sword), others that they were
beaten to death with a club, then beheaded. According
St. Simon (Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1523)
to The Golden Legend, Simon died when his body was
sawed in half by pagan priests.
Simon’s original burial place is unknown, and there
are widely discrepant accounts of what became of his
relics. At least some of them are believed to rest under
the altar of the Crucifixion in St. Peter’s in Rome.
Reims and Toulouse in France claim to have others.
In art, Simon is symbolized by the saw or, more
rarely, the lance, in commemoration of his death; or
fish, boats or oars, in commemoration of his putative
profession as a fisherman. Typically he is depicted as a
middle-aged man holding one of his symbolic items.
He may also be shown being sawn in two longitudinally.
When he and Jude appear together, one holds a
saw and the other a sword, though they are often confused.

Feast: October 28 (in the West, celebrated with St.
Jude), May 10 (among Greeks and Copts), July
1 (elsewhere in the East)
Patronage: curriers; sawyers; tanners
Simplicius (d. 483) Pope
Simplicius, son of Castinus, was born in Tivoli (Italy).
He succeeded St. Hilarus as bishop of Rome on March
3, 468.
During his pontificate, the Roman Empire came to
an end. In 476, Odoacer of the Heruli, a Germanic
tribe, deposed the last emperor of the West, Romulus
Augustulus, occupied Rome and proclaimed himself
king of Italy. Since Christianity had for some time been
the official religion of the empire, this could have
spelled trouble for the Church, but fortunately Odoacer
was favorably disposed toward the Vatican.
In the East, however, the Church was in greater
danger, threatened by the Monophysite heresy. Monophysitism
was popular in the Eastern Church and in
Africa and had support among the secular authorities
as well. The controversy, concerning the true nature of
Jesus, was a longstanding one. Simplicius struggled to
uphold the authority of the Roman Church, not always
successfully.
He died on March 10, 483, after a long illness, and
was buried in St. Peter’s on Vatican Hill. Afterward he
was venerated as a saint.
Simplicius was the first pope to be depicted with a
square nimbus in a contemporary mosaic.
Feast: March 10 (formerly March 2 or 3)
Siricius (ca. 334–399) Pope and martyr
Siricius, son of Tiburtius, was born in Rome about 334.
He entered the Roman Church at an early age and
served as lector and later deacon under Pope Liberius
(r. 352–366) and Pope St. Damasus (r. 366–383).
Damasus died on December 11, 384, and although the
antipope Ursinus (who had been excommunicated by
Damasus) claimed the see, Siricius was consecrated
bishop on December 17.
His pontificate was marked by his denunciation
and excommunication in 392 of the monk Jovinian,
who averred that Mary had lost her virginity
with the birth of Jesus and that she and Joseph had
had other children after Jesus. Siricius is known also
for a papal decree sent to Bishop Himerius of Tarragona
(Spain) requiring married priests to desist
from cohabitation with their wives and threatening
sanctions against those who did not obey. This
was the earliest insistence on clerical celibacy and
also the earliest decretal that has survived in its
entirety.
Siricius died on November 26, 399, and was buried
in the Catacombs of St. Priscilla on the Via Salaria. His
tomb became a popular site in seventh-century pilgrimages.
His name was inserted in the Roman Martyrology
by Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740–58).
Feast: November 26
Sixtus I (d. ca. 125) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Xystus
Sixtus was born in Rome, the son of Pastor; his name
suggests that he may have been of Greek origin. He
was the seventh pope, reigning for about 10 years,
from the death of Alexander I ca. 115 to ca. 125.
According to the Liber Pontificalis, Sixtus passed
three ordinances, decreeing that: only sacred ministers
were allowed to touch the sacred vessels; bishops who
had been summoned to the Holy See could not be
received by their dioceses without presenting Apostolic
letters; and after the Preface in the Mass the priest
should recite the Sanctus with the people. However,
this last decree is wrongly attributed to him, raising
doubts about whether he was responsible for the former
two decrees.
Like his predecessors, Sixtus is thought to have
died a martyr. He was buried in the Vatican, near St.
Peter, but his relics may have been moved later. Some
sources say that they were translated to Alatri in 1132;
in his Lives of Saints, Butler contends that Pope
Clement X (r. 1670–76) gave some of them to Cardinal
de Retz, who placed them in the abbey of St. Michael
in Lorraine. However, it is possible that they still rest
in the Vatican basilica.
Feast: April 6
Sixtus II (d. 258) Pope and martyr
Also known as: Xystus II
Sixtus II 307
Sixtus II may have been a Greek philosopher, though
more probably this impression arose from a confusion
of names. He served as a deacon in the Church of
Rome and succeeded St. Stephen I as bishop on August
30, 257.
Sixtus repaired the rift between the sees of Rome
and Carthage that had developed under Stephen over
the issues of baptism and rebaptism. Like Stephen, Sixtus
believed that a single baptism was sufficient to
bring persons into the Church but, unlike him, was
tolerant of those who disagreed.

308 Sixtus III
He is probably best remembered, however, for
the way in which he met his death. Early in his reign,
Emperor Valerian had shown compassion toward
Christians, but later he issued an edict requiring
Christians to participate in the national cult of the
pagan gods and forbade them to assemble in the cemeteries
(or catacombs), at the penalty of death. He followed
this up at the beginning of August 258, with an
order that all bishops, priests and deacons were to be
killed.
Flaunting death, Sixtus assembled his followers in
the Catacomb of Prætextatus (on the Appian Way
across from the Catacomb of St. Callistus) on August
6. He was seated in his chair addressing his flock when
a band of soldiers appeared and cut off his head. (He
may have been taken before a tribunal, which pronounced
sentence on him, then returned to the cemetery
and decapitated.) Several other church officers
with him suffered the same fate. Followers carried his
relics to the papal crypt in the St. Callistus catacomb,
placing the blood-stained chair on which he died
behind his tomb. Later an oratory (the Oratorium
Xysti) was erected over the St. Prætextatus catacomb,
becoming a pilgrimage site in the seventh and eighth
centuries.
There is a legend that on the way to his execution
Sixtus met his deacon St. Lawrence, who was to be
martyred three days later.
Sixtus was one of the most highly esteemed martyrs
of the early Church. His name is mentioned in the
canon of the Roman Mass.
In art, he is shown with Lawrence and St. John the
Baptist, holding a money-bag. He may also be shown
ordaining Lawrence, giving him a bag of money to distribute
to the poor, or with Lawrence on the way to his
death.
Feast: August 7 (formerly August 6)
Sixtus III (d. 440) Pope
Also known as: Xystus III
Not much is known about Sixtus III. He was prominent
in the Roman Church when he was elevated to
the Chair of St. Peter, succeeding St. Celestine I (r.
422–432) on July 31, 432.
Sixtus III was falsely accused of sympathy toward
Nestorianism and Pelagianism, against both of which
heresies he acted. He also defended the pope’s right of
supremacy over the ecclesiastical province of Illyricum
against Proclus of Constantinople.
In Rome, he restored the basilica of Liberius (now
St. Mary Major) and enlarged the basilica of St.
Lawrence-Outside-the-Walls. He received precious
gifts from Emperor Valentinian III for St. Peter’s and
the Lateran basilica.
Sixtus III died in 440.
Feast: March 28
Sophia (Sofia)
Name meaning: Wisdom
Also known as: Sapientia
Sophia is a legendary saint in the cult of Divine Wisdom.
She is said to be the mother of Faith, Hope and
Charity. The origins of her legend can be traced to the
Pistis Sophia, a fourth-century Coptic manuscript.
The Pistis Sophia is a Gnostic gospel professing to
contain the esoteric teachings of the risen Christ to his
disciples in response to their questions and in the form
of dialogue. It was purchased from a London bookshop
in 1733 and was given to the British Museum in 1785.
The codex is divided into four books, the first three of
which are considered the true Pistis Sophia, and probably
were written between 250 and 350.
The title, Pistis Sophia, has been translated as
“Faithful Wisdom.” According to the Epistle of Eugnostos,
a Nag Hammadi codex, Sophia is both the consort
of the Savior and the female designation of the sixth of
the emanations manifested by him.
According to the text, after Jesus rose from the dead
he taught among his disciples for 11 years. In the 12th
and final year of his sojourn, prior to his final Ascension,
Jesus revealed the “supreme mystery” to his followers
on the 15th of January. The disciples gathered
around Jesus at the Mount of Olives. As the sun came
up, a light beyond measure, coming from “the Light of
lights,” descended and enveloped Jesus. It extended
from below the earth to the heavens. Before his trembling
disciples, Jesus ascended into heaven. Angels and
archangels and the “powers of the heights” praised the
“Inmost of the Inmost” for all the world to hear.
The following day, Jesus descended from heaven in
a cloud of brilliant light. He told his disciples that he
had journeyed through the aeons (Gnostic levels of
heaven) and had met Pistis Sophia alone and in
mourning. At the request of Mary, he told of her
lamentations at having fallen from the 13th aeon into
the realm of matter. He restored her to her heavenly
place. He went on to discuss the mysteries of light, the
Ineffable, the origin of sin and evil, and the after-death
punishments of the wicked.
In Christian lore, Sophia’s daughters suffered martyrdom
during Emperor Hadrian’s (r. 117–138) persecution
of Christians. Faith, 12, was scourged and went
unharmed when boiling pitch was poured on her; she
was beheaded. Hope, 10, and Charity, nine, were

St. Sophia with the symbols of faith, hope and charity
(copyright © Robert Michael Place. Used with permission.)
tossed into a furnace and emerged unscathed; they also
were beheaded. Sophia died three days later while
praying at their graves.
In the Roman Martyrology, Sophia is a Roman
widow, and her feast is September 30.
Feast: August 1
FURTHER READING
Schneemelcher, Wilhelm, ed. New Testament Apocrypha, Volume
One: Gospels and Related Writings, rev. ed. Tr./ed. R.
McL. Wilson. Westminster, Ky.: John Knox Press, 1991.
Sophronius (560–638) Patriarch of Jerusalem, writer
and Father of the Church
Sophronius was born in Damascus around 560. In his
late teens or early twenties, he became an ascetic and
went to either Jordan or Egypt. In 605, invading Persians
forced him to go to Alexandria, and when the
invaders arrived there in 616 he went to Rome. In 619,
he returned to Palestine and lived in the Theodosius
monastery in Jerusalem.
Sophronius was an opponent of Monothelitism, and
went to Alexandria to argue unsuccessfully against
Patriarch Cyrus of Alexandria. He went to Constantinople
in 633 to argue against Patriarch Sergius of
Constantinople, again unsuccessfully.
Sophronius was elected patriarch of Jerusalem in
634. Muslims captured the city in 637, and Sophronius
died the following year.
Many of Sophronius’s works no longer exist. He wrote
on the life of St. John the Almsgiver, homilies, treatises,
sermons and poems. He wrote about the martyrs
John and Cyrus, and also an account of St. Mary of Egypt.
Feast: March 11
Soter (d. ca. 175) Pope and martyr
Soter was an Italian from the Campagna. He succeeded
St. Anicetus as pope around 166 and reigned until
about 175. During his rule, Easter became an annual
celebration.
Soter’s influence was widespread, thanks partly to
his charity, his personal kindness, and his support for
those who were persecuted for their faith by being
deported from Rome to the mines and prisons. Like SS.
Paul and Clement, he wrote a pastoral letter to the
troubled Church of Corinth, even sending gifts to the
congregation.
Soter also was called upon to discipline the Montanists,
a Christian sect that preached that the heavenly
Jerusalem would soon descend near Pepuza, a town in
Phrygia. They criticized other Christians for not fasting
enough and not prophesying enough, for want of
the gift of the Holy Spirit. Moreover, said the Montanists,
Christians should not marry again if one partner
had died. The movement was dividing the Roman
Church. Soter condemned the leaders, issuing an
encyclical outlining their errors.
No records of Soter’s death survive, though he is
listed in early martyrologies.
Feast: April 22
Stanislaus 309
Stanislaus (1030–1079) Bishop of Cracow
Also known as: Stanislaus Szcepanowski
Stanislaus was the long-awaited son of Belislaus and
Bogna Szcepanowsky, noble and devout parents, born

310 Stephen
on July 26, 1030, at Szczepanow, Poland. His parents
dedicated the boy to God’s service. He was educated at
Gnesen (also known as Gniezno) and perhaps Paris,
then ordained a priest by Lampert Zula, bishop of Cracow.
Bishop Lampert appointed the young man his
preacher and archdeacon and awarded him a canonry
benefit in the cathedral. Stanislaus’s eloquent preaching
and holy example drew converts and reformed the
morals of many who had strayed, both clergy and laity.
Bishop Lampert offered to resign the see in Stanislaus’s
favor, but Stanislaus would not accept the offer. Upon
Lampert’s death, however, Stanislaus was consecrated
bishop in 1072 under the direct orders of Pope Alexander
II.
The king of Poland at this time was Boleslaus II,
called “the Cruel” for his rapacious lust and savage
tyranny. He little resembled Boleslaus I, named “the
Brave,” who was crowned the first Christian king of
Poland in the year 1000 by Holy Roman Emperor Otto
III. Boleslaus II continually antagonized the clergy and
nobility, and Bishop Stanislaus often remonstrated with
the king for his scandalous behavior. At first Boleslaus
tried to vindicate himself, then he appeared to seek
repentance, then to relapse into his old ways. The final
straw was the abduction of a noble’s beautiful wife and
her forced imprisonment because she refused his adulterous
proposals.
Outraged, the Polish nobility called upon the archbishop
of Gnesen and other court prelates to confront
Boleslaus, but fear of reprisals kept them silent, leading
the nobles to accuse the officials of conspiracy to
commit the crime. But Stanislaus, upon hearing the
nobles’ appeal, had no reservations about rebuking
the king and reminded the monarch that if he persisted
he would bring upon himself the censure of the
Church and a sentence of excommunication. Furious,
the king threw Stanislaus out, declaring that any man
who addressed his sovereign with such effrontery was
more fit to be a swineherd. The king next tried slander
and harassment against Stanislaus, accusing the
bishop of never paying for a piece of land that had
been bought years before and suggesting to the seller’s
surviving nephews that they should sue for claim to
the property. According to one biographer, the dead
seller, a man named Peter, appeared in his grave
clothes in court and vindicated Stanislaus. Boleslaus
also accused Stanislaus of treason when the bishop
sided with a group of nobles who were unjustly
treated after being forced from their homes. Seeing no
signs of a change of heart, Stanislaus excommunicated
the king.
Boleslaus coldly ignored the ban, but when he
attempted to enter the cathedral at Cracow and the
priests suspended the services at Stanislaus’s order,
Boleslaus became enraged. He and some of his men
pursued Stanislaus to the little chapel of St. Michael
outside Cracow where the bishop was performing
Mass. Boleslaus ordered his guards to kill Stanislaus,
but the guards could not, claiming that the bishop was
surrounded by a heavenly light. Disgusted by the
guards’ weakness, Boleslaus entered the chapel and
murdered Stanislaus himself. The guards then hacked
the body to pieces and scattered them to be eaten by
animals of prey. The Lord protected the body parts,
however, and they were collected by the cathedral
canons three days later and buried at the door of St.
Michael’s chapel where the bishop had died.
Later historians have alleged that Stanislaus’s
motives were more political than spiritual, and that
Boleslaus may have had cause to kill the bishop for
treason. But this is a position hotly denied by the Polish
faithful. The murder of Stanislaus did not directly
force the overthrow of Boleslaus II, but that act certainly
added to the people’s discontent, especially after
Pope St. Gregory VII placed Poland under an interdict.
Bishop Lampert II moved Stanislaus’s relics to Cracow
Cathedral in 1088.
Canonized: 1253 by Pope Innocent IV
Feast: April 11
Patronage: Cracow, Poland; Poland
FURTHER READING
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Stephen (d. ca. 35) Revered as the first martyr, and the
most famous deacon in the early Christian Church
Name meaning: “Crown”
Also known as: Stephen the Deacon
Little is known of Stephen’s early life and conversion.
His name is Greek, but he is believed to have been of
Jewish origin. Kelil, the Aramaic equivalent of Stephen,
is inscribed upon his tomb, found in 415. He is
mentioned in Acts 6:5 as one of seven deacons chosen
by the apostles to help look after widows and the poor.
He is described as “a man full of faith and of the Holy
Ghost.” He spent his time among the Hellenists,
preaching bold sermons and performing miracles. He
attracted many followers.
Acts 6-8:2 tells of his martyrdom. His popularity
earned him many enemies among the Jews, who plotted
his downfall. He was accused of blasphemy against
Moses and God and was brought before the Sanhedrin
in Jerusalem. Acts 7:2–53 tells how eloquently he
defended himself, radiant as an angel. He spoke about
Jesus as the Savior that God had promised to send. It
was to no avail. He certainly earned no quarter by

The martyrdom of St. Stephen (Engraving by Gustave Doré, c. 1875)
Stephen 311

312 Stephen I
chastising his attackers for not believing in Jesus, and
calling them “stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in
heart and ears,” and betrayers and murderers. His
opponents only rose up in great anger and shouted at
him. Stephen looked up to heaven and said that he saw
the heavens opening and Jesus standing at the right
hand of God.
Stephen was condemned under Mosaic law and was
dragged outside of Jerusalem and stoned to death.
Saul—later to become St. Paul—approved of the execution,
and witnesses and executioners surrendered
their garments to him for safekeeping. Stephen’s last
words were “Lord, Jesus, receive my spirit,” and a
request that his killers be forgiven.
Stephen was buried in a tomb and was for the most
part forgotten until the fourth century, when St. Gregory
of Nyssa composed two homilies to him. Gregory
saw him as a key figure in a struggle against demonic
forces, and one who caused great awe and wonder
among the angels. Stephen imitated Christ by being
sweet and compliant and bearing no hatred toward his
murderers. Gregory made a play on words, comparing
Stephen’s name to the word for crown in Greek,
stephanos.
Stephen’s tomb was discovered by Lucian. Empress
Eudoxia (r. 455–460) built a church in his honor outside
the Damascus Gate.
Stephen’s blood is a relic in the Church of San Guadioso
in Naples, Italy. As late as 1624, the blood was
said to liquefy whenever the hymn Deus tuorum militum
was sung.
Feast: December 26
Patronage: bricklayers; deacons; stonemasons
Stephen I (d. 257) Pope
Stephen was born in Rome, the son of Jovius, progeny
of the clan Julia. He was an archdeacon in the Roman
Church under Popes SS. Cornelius and Lucius, and
was nominated as his successor by the latter. Stephen
was elected bishop of Rome on May 3 and consecrated
on May 12, 254.
Stephen was the first bishop of Rome to assert the
primacy of Rome over affairs of the universal Christian
Church, based on its link to the apostle St. Peter. He
also ordained that vestments worn for ecclesiastical
purposes were not to be used in daily wear, thus setting
the clergy apart from the hoi polloi in their dress.
His pontificate was largely concerned with the
Novatian controversy that had been raging since the
days of Cornelius. Cornelius had excommunicated
Novatus, whereupon Novatus had himself consecrated
bishop of Rome by some dissident deacons, bringing
about a schism in the Church. Novatus and his followers
held that Christian baptisms performed by sinners
such as heretics, apostates and murderers were invalid
because one could not receive the Holy Spirit at the
hands of one who did not possess Him. Stephen
replied that baptism by heretics was a practice that
went back to the apostles of Jesus, and since it was
Christ who actually bestowed the sacraments, their
validity and efficacy did not depend on the grace of the
human minister. On the same grounds, he argued that
it was not necessary to rebaptize apostates and heretics
who had lapsed, but that a simple laying-on of hands
was sufficient to bring them back into the Church. His
positions alienated many, including St. Cyprian, who
had supported Cornelius and Lucius.
Stephen died on August 2, 257, after a reign of a
little more than three years. He is sometimes said to
have died a martyr, beheaded while saying Mass in the
catacombs, but this idea seems to have arisen from
confusion with his successor, St. Sixtus II (r. 257–258).
The earliest liturgical documents describe Stephen as
bishop and confessor, not as martyr. He was buried in
the Catacombs of St. Callistus. Pope St. Paul I
(757–767) had his relics moved to a monastery that he
founded in Stephen’s honor. In 1682, his relics were
again translated, this time to Pisa, where they are venerated
in a church named after him. His head is
enshrined in Cologne, Germany.
In art, Stephen is depicted as beheaded in his chair
at Mass. He may also be shown stabbed at the altar or
with a sword in his breast.
Feast: August 2 (Western Church); September 7
(Eastern Church)
Stephen of Hungary (ca. 970–1038) King and patron
of Hungary
Name meaning: Vajk: rich or master
Also known as: Vajk, Vaik, Stephen the Great
Vajk was born in 970 to the Magyar leader Geza and
his wife Charlotte. That year also marked an end to the
threat of terror from the great barbarian hordes when
they suffered a crushing defeat by the Byzantines at
Arcadiopolis (located in what is now northwestern
Turkey). By 972, Otto II had married the Byzantine
princess Theophano, uniting the Holy Roman and
Eastern Empires and leaving Hungary squeezed in the
middle. In order to survive, Geza determined that his
people’s aggressive tribal and heathen culture had to be
destroyed and replaced by Christianity so that paganism
could not be used as an excuse for invasion.
So in 972, Geza announced the conversion of his
people: an act of political expediency. Bishop Pilgrim

of Passau established the first episcopal see near the
royal residence at Esztergom on the Danube River.
About 980, Bishop Pilgrim returned and baptized Geza
and about 5,000 Hungarian nobles at Pannonholma
(an event described as resembling a cattle round-up).
Although Geza ruthlessly imposed Christianity on his
people, he and Charlotte continued to worship their
pagan gods.
Young Vajk was baptized along with the rest, receiving
the name Stephen (Istvan), but legend tells that he
had been destined for Christian greatness. During her
pregnancy, his mother Charlotte supposedly saw St.
Stephen the Protomartyr in a dream. He told her that
she would bear a son who would be the greatest leader
Pannonia (which became Hungary) had ever seen, and
that the boy should be named after him. Young
Stephen received Christian instruction from the martyred
St. Adalbert of Prague.
By 995, Geza was old and ill, exhausted from 10
years of battle with Bavaria’s Prince Henry the Quarrelsome.
He named Stephen the future king, ignoring the
practice of “seniorate,” in which the next member of
the ruling family ascends the throne—in this case
Geza’s brother Koppany. In the old traditions, Koppany
also had the right to Geza’s widow, a practice called
“levirate.” To protect her son’s interests, Charlotte
arranged Stephen’s marriage to Gisela, daughter of
Prince Henry and sister of Emperor St. Henry II. Geza
died in 997, and Stephen became king after defeating
and killing his uncle. Koppany’s lands were given to
the abbey of Pannonholma for the establishment of the
great church of St. Martin, still the mother church of
the Hungarian Benedictines.
In 999, still uncrowned officially, Stephen decided
to cast Hungary’s lot with Rome and the German
princes. He also desired official recognition by the new
pope, Sylvester II, formerly the learned French cleric
Gerbert of Aurillac. So in 1000 Stephen sent St. Astrik
to Rome to ask that the pope name him King of Hungary
by the Grace of God, a designation that would
make Stephen an apostolic king and canon of the
Church. Sylvester II eagerly agreed, sending Astrik
back to Hungary with the official papers and a crown
originally made for Duke Boleslaus the Brave of
Poland. When Astrik arrived at Esztergom, Stephen
rode out to meet his envoy and stood at attention to
hear the pope’s message. On August 15, 1000, Stephen
received the papal crown in a coronation ceremony
based on the Mainz Sacramentary, including his
anointing with holy oil and reception of the ring,
sword and scepter of the Church.
The young king concentrated on the organization
of the Church and the just administration of his
nation. He established the Church’s primatial see at
Stephen of Hungary 313
Esztergom, the royal residence, and used the spoils of a
war with the Bulgarians to build the cathedral at
Szekesfehervar. Next the king divided his country into
dioceses, decreeing that every 10 villages join together
and build a church and support the local priest.
Tithing was mandatory. Any family fortunate enough
to have 10 children must dedicate the tenth as a monk
at the abbey at Pannonholma. All people except
churchmen and members of religious orders were
required to marry. To establish control, Stephen built
an extensive system of castles and royal residences that
employed about a third of the population on their
maintenance and subverted traditional clan loyalties in
favor of the king. Stephen introduced private land
ownership, wrote laws and established royal courts,
repressed murder, theft, blasphemy and adultery, and
established a security force in the Alps and along the
Danube to protect travelers.
In 1014, Stephen allied Hungary with his former
enemies, the Byzantines, against the Bulgarians, and
his success yielded not only the booty, which became
Szekesfehervar Cathedral, but a Greek princess for his
second son, Emeric. Stephen’s first son, Otto, had died
in childhood, and the king placed all his dreams for a
Christian monarchy on the young prince. Emeric’s
early spiritual adviser was St. Gellert (who was martyred
by pagans, like his predecessor St. Adalbert), and
Stephen himself trained and educated his son in the
responsibilities of a Christian king and servant. In
1030, Prince Emeric successfully led an army against
the ambitious German emperor Conrad II, and
Stephen, convinced his son was ready for kingship,
prepared to name him regent.
But a wild boar killed Emeric in a hunting accident
in 1031, and the devastated Stephen faced the prospect
of succession by his cousin Vazul, described as stupid
and half-pagan. Often sick and delirious, Stephen
began seeing parallels between his life at the millennium
and that of Christ. Fears of the apocalypse
abounded, and Queen Gisela set craftsmen and seamstresses
to work making crosses and sacred vestments,
particularly a red and gold silk mantle for the king that
portrayed St. Stephen and King Stephen together with
God. In an act establishing the cult of the Virgin in
Hungary, Szekesfehervar Cathedral was dedicated to
the Virgin Mary—a move that appealed to the stillpagan
worshipers of the goddess whose gown was the
blue sky.
Shocking even his closest followers, the dying
Stephen named his nephew Peter Orseolo as his successor,
cutting out Vazul. Such a move also curtailed
Hungarian independence since Orseolo was the son of
the Venetian doge. Vazul sent assassins to kill the king
in his bedchamber, but they were apprehended. He was

314 Sylvester I
convicted and punished by being blinded and having
hot lead poured in his ears.
King Stephen I died on August 15, 1038, exactly 38
years after his coronation. Orseolo ascended the
throne, but Vazul’s sons soon overthrew him, establishing
a 200-year dynasty. Stephen was buried next to his
son, now Blessed, in Szekesfehervar, but his relics were
eventually enshrined in a chapel of the Church of Our
Lady of Buda. Reports of miracles at his tomb circulated
almost immediately, and Hungarians—even during
the years of communist rule—still appeal to their
patron for aid in time of crisis.
Canonized: 1083 by Pope Gregory VII
Feast: August 16
Patronage: bricklayers; against death of children;
kings; masons; stonecutters; stonemasons; Hungary
FURTHER READING
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Sylvester I (d. 335) Pope
Also known as: Silvester I
Sylvester was born in Rome, the son of Rufinus and
Justa. He became a priest in the Church of Rome, serving
in the parish of Equitius, and succeeded St. Miltiades
(also Melchiades) in the Chair of St. Peter on
January 31, 314.
Sylvester became counselor and spiritual adviser to
Emperor Constantine the Great, a visionary sympathetic
to Christianity. According to legend, Constantine,
a leper, had been told that the best way to cure
his disease was to bathe in children’s blood. However,
he had a vision in which SS. Peter and Paul appeared
to him and advised him to seek baptism from
Sylvester, which he did. He was healed, and in thanks
ceded to the Church the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and
Corsica (sites of work camps to which many Christians
had been banished in the past). This dispensation
is historic fact; it became known as the Donation
of Constantine, and formed the basis of the Papal
States. Nevertheless, whatever the truth about the
miraculous cure, it is certain that Sylvester did not
baptize the emperor, for that came only on his
deathbed.
Constantine continued the support for the Church
he had shown Miltiades. It is probable that it is to
Sylvester rather than to Miltiades that he gave the Lateran
Palace, and that Sylvester had its famous basilica
built. Sylvester also either founded or restored the
churches of St. Peter, on Vatican Hill, St. Lawrence-
Outside-the-Walls and Santa Croce. His episcopal chair
and his mitre, the oldest to have survived, are on display
in the church of San Martino ai Monti, which he
had built over a house used for worship during the
persecutions of previous decades. Sylvester also had a
church raised over the Catacombs of St. Priscilla on the
Salerian Way.
He was concerned not only with building churches
but also with constructing the authority of the universal
Church. His pontificate lasted 21 years and eleven
months—the longest of any up until his time—during
which 300 laws concerned with justice, equity and an
evangelical purity were passed. In this work, also, he
enjoyed Constantine’s support.
Sylvester died before Constantine and was buried
on December 31, 335, in the church on the Salerian
Way. Unfortunately, his tomb was destroyed by the
Arian Lombards. In 761 the major part of his relics
were translated to the Church of San Silvestro in
Capito, today the national church of English Catholics
in Rome, where they now rest.
Although he did not die a martyr, Sylvester is honored
as a saint. His cultus did not arise for 150 years
after his death, however. Pope St. Symmachus (r.
498–514) had a mosaic honoring him placed behind
the episcopal throne in the titular church of Equitius.
Sylvester is especially venerated in Pisa. In the Eastern
Church, he is celebrated with the title isapostole,
“equal to the apostles.”
In art, Sylvester is depicted in various scenes with
Constantine. Generally he is represented by a chained
dragon or bull and a tiara, and the principal scene is
that of the baptism of Constantine. He is also shown
trampling a dragon or with an angel holding a cross
and olive branch.
Feast: December 31 (Western Church); January 2
and May 21 (Eastern Church)
Symmachus (d. 514) Pope
Symmachus, son of Fortunatus, was born in Sardinia.
He was baptized in Rome and joined the Roman clergy,
rising to the post of archdeacon under Pope Anastasius
II (the successor of St. Gelasius I). On November 22,
498, he was elected to the Chair of St. Peter in the Vatican’s
Lateran palace.
That same day a dissident faction of the clergy, with
Byzantine leanings, elected the archpriest of St.
Praxedes, Laurentius, bishop (and thus antipope), in
the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. When King
Theodoric of the Ostrogoths ruled in favor of Symmachus
on the grounds that he had been elected first
and by a majority of the clergy, Laurentius capitulated,

and subsequently was made bishop of Nocera in Campagna
(also Campania).
His Byzantine supporters were not so easily mollified.
They brought trumped-up charges against Symmachus
and occupied the Lateran palace, obliging him
to move to the Church of St. Peter outside the walls of
the city. They then reinstalled Laurentius and asked
Theodoric to consider their charges. They were not
above using violence. On his way to speak at a synod
considering the charges against him, Symmachus and
his entourage were ambushed; although Symmachus
himself escaped, several priests were killed or severely
wounded. However, thanks to support from clergy outside
Rome, the matter was finally decided in favor of
Symmachus at a synod on November 6, 502.
In his remaining years as pontiff, Symmachus was
concerned with more typical matters: fighting heresies,
shoring up Church discipline and undertaking new
construction. In addition to building or repairing
ecclesiastical buildings, he built three asylums for the
poor. He also sent money to Catholic bishops in Africa
to ransom Christians from their Vandal persecutors.
His generosity to the poor led to the bestowal of the
well-deserved title, “father of the poor.”
Symmachus died on July 19, 514, and was buried
in St. Peter’s the following day. He is venerated in the
Roman Church as a saint.
Feast: July 19
Symmachus 315

Tarsilla See EMILIANA AND TARSILLA.
Telesphorus (d. ca. 136) Pope and martyr
Telesphorus was Greek, probably from Calabria. The
eighth pope, he succeeded Sixtus I as bishop of Rome
ca. 125 and reigned until ca. 136. He regularly celebrated
Easter on Sunday, without abandoning fellowship
with those communities that did not follow this
custom. It is sometimes said that he instituted Lent, but
this is doubtful, as is the legend that he was a hermit.
Most of the early popes are listed in ancient martyrologies,
although historical circumstances make this
suspect in some cases. Not so with Telesphorus, who is
known from an independent source to have been martyred.
The details of his death, however, are not
known. He is commemorated in both the Greek and
Roman churches.
In art, Telesphorus is shown as a pope with a chalice,
over which three Hosts hover, sometimes with a
club nearby.
Feast: January 5 (Western Church); February 22
(Eastern Church)
Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) Mystic and authority on
mystical prayer, founder of the Discalced Carmelite Order,
the first woman declared a Doctor of the Church
Tf
317
Name meaning: “Reaper”
Also known as: Teresa de Jesus; Spouse of Christ
Teresa of Avila was born Teresa de Cepeda y Ahumada
to a noble family on March 28, 1515, in or near Avila
in Castile. As a child she exhibited an interest in saints
and martyrs, and in the monastic life. Her mother died
when she was 14, which upset her so much that her
father sent her at age 15 to an Augustinian convent in
Avila. She decided she wanted to become a nun, but
her father forbade it as long as he was living. At about
age 20 or 21, she left home secretly and entered the
Incarnation of the Carmelite nuns in Avila. Her father
dropped his opposition.
In 1538, soon after taking the habit, Teresa began to
suffer from ill health, which she attributed to the
change in her life and diet. It was through her chronic
and severe afflictions that Teresa discovered the power
of prayer, which enabled her to heal herself, and which
then became the focus of her spiritual life and her writings.
During her first year in the convent, she suffered
increasingly frequent fainting fits and heart pains so
severe that others became alarmed. She was often
semi-conscious or unconscious altogether. She opined
that these problems were sent by God, who was
offended at her innate “wickedness.” It is thought she
may have suffered from malaria.

318 Teresa of Avila
Her father sent her to Becedas, a town that had a
great healing reputation. There she stayed for nearly a
year, but failed to improve. She was given experimental
cures by a woman healer that only worsened her condition
and reduced her to misery.
The trip to this healing center was fortuitous, however,
because en route Teresa visited an uncle, who
gave her a book entitled the Third Spiritual Alphabet,
which contained lessons in the prayer of recollection
(introspection). Teresa began to use it as her guide in
prayer, and it served as her primary guide for the next
20 years.
When she failed to improve at Becedas, her father
brought her home. There she deteriorated badly over
several months, and finally she fell into a death-like
coma for three days. The sacrament of Extreme Unction
was given to her in expectation of her imminent
death. For a day and a half, a grave was left open for
her at her convent, and rites for the dead were performed
at a Carmelite friary nearby. Teresa made a
complete confession, but instead of dying, she began to
recover.
For eight months Teresa lay paralyzed in great pain.
Gradually, the paralysis improved—she began to crawl
around on her hands and knees—but it continued in
some form for three years. Teresa said that her sole
anxiety was to get well so that she could pray in solitude.
Through daily mental prayers, she healed herself
over a long and slow recovery.
She attributed her return to health to St. Joseph,
who became her patron saint. It took her three years to
recover the ability to walk. She was 40 when the principal
symptoms of her illness finally disappeared.
During the early years of slow recovery, Teresa
struggled with her spiritual life and described her
prayer life as unpleasant. She neglected her prayer
because she felt unworthy to talk to God, but after her
father died, she returned to regular prayer practice,
and stayed with it for the rest of her life.
Teresa felt a kinship with two other great penitents,
SS. Mary Magdalen and Augustine. She resigned herself
to God’s will. Her prayer life became punctuated
with mystical experiences. She spent long periods
alone in the prayer of quiet and the prayer of union,
during which she often fell into a trance, and at times
entered into mystical flights in which she felt as
though her soul were lifted out of her body. She
likened ecstasy to a “delectable death,” saying that the
soul becomes awake to God as never before when the
faculties and senses are “dead.”
Once she complained to God in prayer about her
sufferings. His answer came to her: “Teresa, so do I
treat my friends!” She understood it to mean that there
was purification in her suffering, but she nonetheless
had the pluck to retort, “That’s why you have so few
[friends]!”
Teresa exhorted others to prayer, and especially to
passive, mental prayer, though she continued to do
both vocal and mental prayer throughout the rest of
her life. She believed that vocal prayer required mental
prayer in order to be effective.
Prayer, she said, was the door to “those very great
favors” that God then conferred on her, in the form of
intellectual visions (formless, neither external or internal),
raptures, ecstasies, levitation, being engulfed in
the presence of God, and—most important—union.
Teresa likened prayer to the cultivation of a garden.
She outlined four steps for the watering of the garden
so that it would produce fruits and flowers, which are
the measure of the progress in love of the one who
prays.
The first, and simplest, step is meditation, which is
like drawing water from a deep well by hand, in that it
is slow and laborious.
The second step is through quiet, in which the
senses are stilled and the soul can then receive some
guidance; thus, the one who prays gets more water for
the energy expended. The soul begins to lose its desire
for earthly things.
The third step is through the prayer of union, in
which there is contact between the praying one and
God, and there is no stress. The garden seems to be
self-watered as though from a spring or a little stream
running through it. Teresa confessed that she had little
understanding herself of this step. The senses and
mental faculties, she said, could occupy themselves
only and wholly with God.
The fourth step is done by God himself, raining
water upon the garden drop by drop. The one who
prays is in a state of perfect receptivity, loving trust and
passive contemplation. Physically, he or she faints
away into a kind of swoon, Teresa said; her description
resembles the trance states described by many mystics
of many faiths.
Teresa often came out of deep prayer states to find
herself drenched in tears. These were tears of joy, she
attested.
She made such rapid progress in her prayer that she
was concerned that she was being deceived by the
devil, because she could not resist the favors when
they came, nor could she summon them—they came
spontaneously. Also, she considered herself to be a
weak and wicked person. Nonetheless, she was
granted many prayers of silence and union, some of
which lasted for long periods of time.
To allay her fears, Teresa sought out spiritual counsel.
Some of her advisers, including a respected priest
named Dr. Daza, could not believe that such favors

could be experienced by a weak woman, and fueled
her fears of devilish interference. One more objective
adviser told her to put the matter before God by reciting
the Veni Creator Spiritus hymn as a prayer. This she
did for the better part of a day, at which point a rapture
came over her that was so strong it nearly carried her
away. She said, “This was the first time that the Lord
had granted me this grace of ecstasy, and I heard these
words: ‘I want you to converse now not with men but
with angels.’ This absolutely amazed me, for my soul
was greatly moved and these words were spoken to me
in the depths of the spirit. They made me afraid therefore,
though on the other hand they brought me much
comfort, after the fear—which seems to have been
caused by the novelty of the experience—had
departed.”
In 1559 Teresa had her most remarkable experience
involving an angel who pierced her heart with an arrow
Teresa of Avila 319
of love. Swept into a rapture, she beheld a short, beautiful
angel whose face was aflame. The sight of the angel
was unusual in itself, for she usually perceived angels
through intellectual vision. She was given to understand
that the angel was of the highest rank, closest to
God, a cherub. She said in her autobiography:
In his hands I saw a great golden spear, and at the iron
point there appeared to be a point of fire. This he
plunged into my heart several times so that it penetrated
to my entrails. When he pulled it out, I felt that he took
them with it, and left me utterly consumed with the
great love of God. The pain was so severe that it made
me utter several moans. The sweetness caused by this
intense pain is so extreme that one cannot possibly wish
it to cease, nor is one’s soul then content with anything
but God. This is not a physical, but a spiritual pain,
though the body has some share in it—even a considerable
share. So gentle is this wooing which takes place
St. Teresa of Avila in a state of enraptured inspiration (Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

320 Teresa of Avila
between God and the soul that if anyone thinks I am
lying, I pray God, in His goodness, to grant him some
experience of it.
Teresa thus was inspired to do everything in a manner
that would be perfect and pleasing to God.
The sculptor Giovanni Bernini immortalized this
experience in his statue, “The Transverberation of St.
Teresa of Avila,” housed in the Church of Santa Maria
della Vittoria. Transverberation is the spiritual wounding
of the heart.
In 1562, despite tremendous opposition, Teresa
received permission from Rome to found an unendowed
convent in Avila with stricter rules than those
that prevailed at Carmelite convents, many of which
had become little more than relaxed social havens. She
established a small community that would follow the
Carmelite contemplative life, in particular unceasing
prayer. Her rules were strict. The nuns wore coarse
habits, sandals instead of shoes (hence their name
“Discalced Carmelites”), and lived in near-perpetual
silence and committed to perpetual abstinence. The
extreme poverty and austerity found favor, however,
and by 1567 Teresa was permitted to establish other
convents. She went on to found 16 others, and dedicated
herself to reforming the Carmelite order.
Her discipline impressed others, and she was
named prioress of the convent of the Incarnation in
Avila in order to correct its laxity. There she was
greeted with insults and hatred. She won over the nuns
by placing an image of Our Lady of Mercy in the prioress’s
seat, and sitting at the feet of it. She credited
Mary with her eventual acceptance at the convent. One
evening during choir, Teresa had a vision in which
Mary, with a multitude of angels, descended to the prioress’s
seat and sat in it herself. She told Teresa she had
done well.
At age 53, she met the 25-year-old John de Yepes y
Alvarez (later known as St. John of the Cross), who
worked to reform the male Carmelite monasteries.
After a period of turbulence within the Carmelites
from 1575 to 1580, the Discalced Reform was recognized
as separate from the original Carmelite order.
During this period, Teresa suffered much opposition
and persecution, and was on occasion comforted by
Mary.
By 1582, Teresa had founded her 17th monastery, at
Burgos. Her health was broken and she decided to
return to Avila. The rough journey proved to be too
much; food was scarce and at one point Teresa fainted
on the road. Upon arriving at the convent, Teresa went
straight to her deathbed. Three days later, on the feast
day of St. Francis of Assisi, October 4, 1582, she died.
The next day, the Gregorian calendar went into effect,
dropping 10 days and changing her death date to October
14. She was buried in Alba de Tormes and later
was moved to Avila.
During Teresa’s travels throughout Spain on her
reform mission, she wrote a number of books, some of
which have become spiritual classics. The first of those
was Life, her autobiography, written in 1565. On November
18, 1572, Teresa experienced a spiritual marriage
with Christ as bridegroom to the soul. One of the
fruits of that marriage was The Way of Perfection
(1573), about the life of prayer, and The Interior Castle
(1577), her best-known work, in which she presents a
spiritual doctrine using a castle as the symbol of the
interior life. The latter book was revealed to her in a
vision on the eve of Trinity Sunday, 1577, in which she
saw a crystal globe like a castle, which had seven
rooms; the seventh, in the center, held the King of
Glory. One approached the center, which represents
the Union with God, by going through the other rooms
of Humility, Practice of Prayer, Meditation, Quiet, Illumination
and Dark Night. She often referred to Christ
as the “heavenly bridegroom,” but her later visions became
less erotic and more religious in character.
There is a timelessness to Teresa’s writings, and elements
of feminist spirituality. Her words continue to
inspire modern audiences. As she once said to her followers,
“I will give you a living book.”
Besides her raptures, levitations and mystical experiences,
Teresa also is credited with other saintly miracles.
For workmen repairing one of her nunneries on a
hot day, she multiplied wine for them, and gave God
the credit. Like many saints, she seemed to give off a
sweet fragrance. Her face often radiated a glow of light,
which on at least one occasion was quite brilliant: The
saint sat bathed in rays of brilliant gold while writing
at her desk in her cell.
Once while holding the cross of her rosary, Teresa
had a vision of God taking it from her and replacing it
with a bejewelled cross of exquisite workmanship,
bearing four large stones, which she described as
“much more precious than diamonds.” The cross
showed the five wounds of Christ. God told her that
only she would be able to see these things. She did see,
every time she looked at the rosary for the remainder
of her life, but no one else ever saw the jewels or the
wounds. The crucifix was preserved by the Carmelites,
but was lost during religious persecutions in 1835.
Teresa banished lice from her convent of San Jose.
The lice infested the horsecloth garments of the nuns.
One night Teresa performed a ritual for the extermination
of the lice, which then vanished.
After her death, her body gave off a heavenly perfume
that permeated her tomb. Nine months later, her
body was exhumed and found to be incorrupt, though

the coffin lid was smashed, rotted and full of mildew.
Pieces of her body were amputated for relics. Her left
hand strangely exuded oil, and was sealed in a casket
at Avila. Her left arm was given to a convent at Alba de
Tormes. Three years later, her body was examined
again and was still incorrupt and sweet-smelling,
despite having never been embalmed. Her left shoulder
socket exuded an odd moisture and gave off a perfume.
Teresa’s symbols are a heart, arrow and book.
Canonized: 1662 by Pope Gregory XV
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1970 by Pope Paul VI
for her teaching on prayer
Patronage: against headaches; heart attack sufferers
FURTHER READING
Brown, Raphael. Saints Who Saw Mary. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1955.
Teresa of Avila, St. The Life of Saint Teresa of Avila by Herself.
London: Penguin Books, 1957.
———. The Interior Castle. New York: Paulist Press, 1979.
———. The Way of Perfection. New York: Doubleday/Image
Books, 1964.
Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (1891–1942) Martyr.
Also known as: Edith Stein, Teresia Benedicta
Edith Stein, who was to convert to Christianity and
take the religious name Teresa Benedicta of the Cross,
was born on October 12, 1891, in Breslau, Germany
(now Wroclaw, Poland), as her Jewish family was celebrating
Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.
Her father died when she was two, and by the time
she was 13, Edith had lost faith in God and trust in
Judaism. She entered the University of Breslau in 1911,
when matriculation was opened to women. Although
she studied German and history there, she was more
interested in philosophy and women’s issues. She
became a member of the Prussian Society for Women’s
Suffrage, and in 1913 transferred to the University of
Göttingen to study under philosopher Edmund
Husserl, the father of phenomenology. She graduated
with distinction in January 1915.
After training as a nurse, she volunteered for work
in a field hospital during World War I, receiving the
medal of valor when she completed her term of service.
In 1916, she went with Husserl to the University
of Freiburg, where she worked as his teaching assistant
while studying for her doctoral degree. She graduated
summa cum laude in 1917, and the following year left
her position with Husserl. She hoped to obtain a professorship,
a career not then generally open to women
in Germany, but was unable to find a job. Returning to
Breslau, she began writing articles about the philosophical
foundation of psychology. She also read the
Teresa Benedicta of the Cross 321
New Testament, Kierkegaard, the Spiritual Exercises of
St. Ignatius of Loyola and an autobiography of St.
Teresa of Avila. Of the last she later wrote, “When I had
finished the book, I said to myself: this is the truth.”
Edith had gradually been drawn to Catholicism,
and reading Teresa of Avila was the final push she
needed. She was baptized on January 1, 1922, and
confirmed by the bishop of Speyer in his private
chapel. She wanted to join a Carmelite convent immediately,
but was persuaded not to do so. However, she
took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and
found a position teaching German and history at the
Dominican Sisters’ school and teacher-training college
in Speyer. In 1932, she accepted a position at the University
of Münster, but a year later anti-Semitic legislation
forced her out. On October 14, 1933, she joined
the Discalced Carmelite cloister in Cologne, taking the
name Teresa Benedicta of the Cross. She donned the
habit in April 1934, took her temporary vows a year
later, and her perpetual vows on April 21, 1938.
As the anti-Semitic rhetoric and actions of the Nazis
became more strident, Edith (now Teresa) requested
transfer to a convent outside Germany. On New Year’s
Eve of 1938, the prioress of the Cologne convent
helped her get to the Discalced Carmelite convent of
Echt in the Netherlands. She and her sister Rosa, also a
convert to Christianity, remained there until they were
arrested by the Gestapo on August 2, 1942—among
200 Catholic Jews arrested in the Netherlands in
reprisal for a pastoral letter written by Dutch Catholic
bishops against the Nazi pogroms and deportations of
Jews. In a holding camp on the way to Auschwitz,
Teresa is said to have given support and solace to many.
On August 7, she and Rosa were carried to Auschwitz;
they died in the gas chambers there on August 9.
Teresa authored several books, both before and during
her Carmelite period. These include Potency and
Act, a study of the central concepts developed by
Thomas Aquinas, and Finite and Being, considered her
magnum opus. When she was removed from Echt, she
had almost completed The Science of the Cross, a study
of St. John of the Cross. She is also remembered for her
activism on behalf of women’s rights.
As a martyr, under new Church rules, Teresa was
automatically beatified, which meant that she needed
only one certified miracle to become a saint. In 1997,
the Vatican recognized the cure of an American girl as
a miracle via Teresa’s intercession, and the way for her
canonization was cleared.
Beatified: May 1, 1987, by Pope John Paul II in
Cologne
Canonized: October 11, 1998, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: August 9

322 Teresa Maria of the Cross
FURTHER READING
Thavis, John, “Edith Stein Becomes a Saint on Sunday:
Declared Miracle Cure of U.S. Girl Cleared Way for Her
Canonization,” Baltimore Catholic Review, October 8,
1998. Available online. URL: http://www.geocities.com/
Wellesley/1561/esrev2.html. Downloaded: January 28,
2000.
“Saint Edith Stein.” Holy Cross Hiatt Holocaust Collection
website. Available online. URL: http://www.holycross.
edu/departments/library/website/hiatt/estein.htm. Downloaded:
November 10, 1999.
Teresa Maria of the Cross (1846–1910) Discalced
Carmelite nun
Also known as: Teresa Maria de la Cruz
Teresa Maria de la Cruz was born March 2, 1846, in
Florence, Italy, and baptized with the name Teresa Adelaida
Cesina Manetti. Her father died when she was a
child. The loss stayed with her all her life and led her
to devote her life to helping the poor and disadvantaged,
especially orphans, whom she called her greatest
treasure.
In 1872, she and some girlfriends formed a small
circle to educate young people in the Christian doctrine.
On July 16, 1876, at the age of 30, she was
admitted to the third order of the Carmelites and
changed her name to Teresa Maria of the Cross. On
July 12, 1888, she was among the first 27 nuns to take
the habit of the Discalced Carmelites. The order was
approved by Pope Pius X on February 27, 1904, with
the name Carmelite Tertiaries of Santa Teresa.
Teresa Maria was always in poor health, physically
and spiritually, deserving of the name “of the Cross.”
She often prayed to God to make her suffer more, to
squeeze her to the last drop. Meanwhile, her caring
knew no bounds—she would give anything to anyone,
never thinking of herself.
Teresa Maria died in Florence on April 3, 1910,
while repeating: “Oh, my Jesus, if you want, make me
suffer more. . . .” Then she cried ecstatically: “It’s open
. . . I’m going!”
Beatified: October 19, 1986, by Pope John Paul II
Feast: April 23
Patronage: people ridiculed for their piety
FURTHER READING
López-Melús, P. Rafael María. “Beata Teresa María de la Cruz.”
Carmelite website. Available online. URL: http://www.
carmelnet.org/chas/santos/teresa5.htm. Downloaded: November
16, 1999.
Terese of the Andes (1900–1920)
Also known as: Juanita Fernandez Solar, Teresa de Los
Andes, Teresa of the Andes, Teresa of Jesus of the An-
des, Teresa of Jesus “de Los Andes.” Teresita de Los
Andes
The saint who has come to be known as Terese of the
Andes was born to Miguel Fernández Jara and Lucia
Solar Armstrong in Santiago, Chile, on July 13, 1900.
Two days later, on the eve of the feast day of Our Lady
of Mt. Carmel, she was baptized Juana Enriqueta Josefina
de los Sagrados Corazones. Her parents were wellto-do
and very religious, and she grew up in a
Christian home, receiving a good education in one of
the finest schools in Santiago. From a very young age
she developed a profound faith in the Eucharist. She
received her First Communion in October 1909, when
she was only nine, and her Confirmation in September
(or perhaps November) 1910.
During her adolescence she suffered from numerous
illnesses that weakened her health but helped her
to discover her religious vocation. On April 3, 1919,
she wrote a letter to her parents asking permission to
join the Carmelites, and on May 7 entered the convent
of the Discalced Carmelite Nuns of Los Andes for a
trial period. She donned the habit on October 14, taking
the name Teresa de Jesús (Teresa of Jesus), and
from that moment on submerged herself in the religious
life. According to her sisters, she always wanted
to be the last in everything.
Terese’s health gradually deteriorated, and at the
beginning of the following March she wrote that she
would soon die, but would go without fear. On Good
Friday, April 2, she contracted typhus. She received
the last sacrament on April 5 and after making her
religious profession in articulo mortis on April 6, she
died on April 12, 1920, at the age of 19. She had been
with the Carmelites only about 11 months, as a postulant
and as a novice.
Since her death many have gone to pray at her grave
and to request her intervention in miracles. On March
4, 1987, before a million people in Santiago, Pope John
Paul II (r. 1978– ) declared her Blessed. She was canonized
by the same pope on March 21, 1993.
Terese of the Andes is the first Chilean saint and is
considered a role model for youth in the Catholic
Church.
Beatified: April 3, 1987, by Pope John Paul II
Canonized: March 21, 1993, by Pope John Paul II
in Santiago, Chile
Feast: July 13
Patronage: bodily ills; illness; sick people; sickness;
young people
FURTHER READING
“Beata Teresa de Los Andes.” Los Santos Carmelitas. Available
online. URL: http://www.carmelnet.org/shas/santos/
santos.htm. Downloaded: November 18, 1999.

“Santa Teresa de los Andes” Santos y Biatos de America Latina:
Chile. Available online. URL: http://www.aciprensa.
com/santchil.htm. Downloaded: November 18, 1999.
“Teresa of Jesus ‘de Los Andes’” O.Carm. Available online.
URL: http://www.ocarm.org. Downloaded: November
18, 1999.
“Teresita de Los Andes.” Red Informática de la Iglesia
Católica en Chile: Testigos de Christo. Available online.
URL: http://www.iglesia.cl. Downloaded: November 18,
1999.
Thecla (d. first century) Virgin and martyr
The story of Thecla is told in the apocryphal Acts of
Paul and Thecla, written in the second century. Thecla
probably was a real person, a maiden of Iconium (now
in Turkey) who was so impressed by the preaching of
St. Paul that she converted, took a vow of virginity and
gave up her betrothal in marriage. Acts records her sufferings,
adventures, tortures, miraculous cures and
interactions with Paul. In Antioch she was condemned
to be thrown to wild beasts, but the lioness that was
supposed to kill her merely licked her feet. She was
then stripped naked and thrown to two lions, but the
beasts killed each other instead of her. Released, she
went to Seleucia, where she became a hermit. She died
at age 90.
Thecla’s story probably is mostly fiction. Tertullian
said that Acts had been forged by an Asian priest. Thecla’s
story was popular during the early centuries of the
Church and was considered to be genuine history. It
was cited by many Church fathers and eminent theologians,
among them Eusebius, Epiphanius, Gregory of
Nazianzus, John Chrysostom and Severus Sulpitius.
The description of Paul in Acts matches iconographic
tradition: He was “of a small stature with meeting
eyebrows, bald [or shaved] head, bow-legged,
strongly built, hollow-eyed, with a large crooked nose;
he was full of grace, for sometimes he appeared as a
man, sometimes he had the countenance of an angel.”
Because of doubts about the historical validity of
the account of her life, however, her cult was suppressed
in 1969.
Feast: September 23
FURTHER READING
The Life of the Great Martyr Thecla of Iconium, Equal to the
Apostles, As recorded in the Acts of Paul. URL: http://
www.ocf.org/OrthodoxPage/reading/St.Pachomius/Saints/
thecl a.html. Downloaded: September 24, 2000.
Theophilus (d. second century) Bishop of Antioch and
Father of the Church
Also known as: Theophilus of Antioch
Theophilus was a pagan philosopher and converted to
Christianity after studying the Scriptures. He was
active during the reign of Pope Soter (169–177) and
was alive after the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius
in 180.
Theophilus was an eloquent Christian apologist.
His only surviving work is Autolycus, which champions
Christianity over paganism and develops the doctrine
of the Word as found in the Gospel of John.
Feast: October 13
Thérèse of Lisieux 323
Thérèse of Lisieux (1873–1897) Discalced Carmelite
nun, mystic, Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Sister Teresa of the Child Jesus, the
Little Flower, the Saint of the Little Way
Thérèse of Lisieux was born on January 2, 1873, in
Alcon, Normandy, the ninth child of a middle-class,
devout French family. Her father, Louis Martin, was a
watchmaker. The parents, who had desired cloistered
lives themselves, encouraged religious interests in their
children. Thérèse was four when her mother died of
cancer, and she was placed in the care of her sisters
Marie and Pauline. She was especially close to Pauline,
and when her sister announced her intention to
become a nun, Thérèse expressed not only the same
desire but also the desire to become a saint. Later, she
wrote her autobiography as though it were a letter to
Pauline.
From an early age Thérèse exhibited a delicate constitution,
a strong desire for the religious life, and an
intense desire to suffer for God. She called herself “the
Little Flower.” She was concerned about the poor and
gave alms to them as a child. After Pauline entered the
Discalced Carmelite convent at Lisieux, nine-year-old
Thérèse went to the mother superior and expressed her
desire to join as well. She was told she would have to
wait until age 16 to become a postulate.
At age 10, Thérèse fell seriously ill. In her autobiography
she blamed the illness on the devil, who was
angry at Pauline for entering the convent and so punished
the family for the harm that would come to him
as a result. Her illness brought fits of delirium
and strange behavior, as well as great suffering. One
day she was cured when she had a vision in which a
statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary came to life and
smiled at her.
The entrance of Marie into the Carmelite convent
intensified Thérèse’s desire to become a nun herself.
Her father refused to give her his permission to do so
until she was 17. She appealed to her uncle, who gave
his consent, but Pauline told her that the superior of
Carmel would not allow her to enter until she was 21.

324 Thérèse of Lisieux
At 15 she accompanied her father on a pilgrimage
to Rome to celebrate the jubilee of Pope Leo XIII (r.
1878–1903). In an audience before the pope, Thérèse
begged him to allow her to join the Carmelites at her
young age. He told her to follow the guidance of the
appropriate authorities, and that it would happen if
God willed it so. Upon their return, Thérèse was
admitted on April 9, 1888. She chose the name
Thérèse of the Child Jesus to distinguish herself from
another nun whose name was Thérèse. She took the
veil on September 24; her ailing father was too ill to
attend. Her spiritual marriage took place on September
8, 1890.
Thérèse suffered through an initial spiritual dryness
after entering the convent, and then seemed to go
back and forth from great happiness to great sadness.
She gave instruction to novices and devoted herself to
her spiritual work. She constantly sought suffering to
purify herself, and wished to die young. Once toward
the end of her life she had a dream in which she was
walking in the convent corridor with the mother superior,
when three veiled Carmelite nuns suddenly
appeared. She knew they were from heaven. One was
the Venerable Mother Anne of Jesus, the founder of
Carmel in France. Her face was lit by an unearthly
radiance. Thérèse asked her if God would come for
her soon. She said yes, and that God was very pleased
with her.
In 1895 Thérèse, in prayer, offered herself as a victim
to “God’s merciful love.” She had begun the stations
of the cross when she felt herself wounded by a
flaming dart, and thought she would die from the
intensity of the fire of divine love. The experience was
similar to the transverberation, or the piercing of the
heart, with fiery arrows and blades, as experienced by
St. Teresa of Avila and Padre Pio.
In 1895, her sister Pauline, then prioress, and
whose religious name was Mother Agnes of Jesus,
instructed her to write an account of her early life. She
did so in the small amount of spare time she had in the
evenings. In April 1896 Thérèse showed the first symptoms
of tuberculosis. Initially her illness was not seen
as serious, but by wintertime it was evident that she
was fatally ill. She was relieved of all her duties in May
1897, and was instructed to continue her story with
her experiences at Carmel. She began that work in
June 1897. During her final illness, Mother Agnes
recorded all of her conversations, spiritual experiences
and counsels, which later were published in a small
book, Novissima Verba.
Thérèse died on September 30, 1897, at the convent,
with the cry of “My God, I love thee!” on her lips
and a radiant look upon her face. She was buried at the
cemetery of Lisieux.
Many miracles were reported through her intercession,
among them a manifestation of much-needed
money at a Discalced Carmelite convent in Gallipoli,
Italy, in 1910. The prioress, Mother Mary Carmela,
dreamed one night that Thérèse appeared to her in
heavenly raiment, bilocated the two of them to the parlor
and placed 500 francs inside a box. The money was
found there the following morning.
Thérèse’s autobiography was published in 1898 on
the anniversary of her death. Interspersed with
accounts of her life are Thérèse’s spiritual insights, profound
for such a young and relatively inexperienced
person. She called her doctrine “the little way of spiritual
childhood,” which involves an infallible trust in,
and love of, God. Its simplicity and purity have had an
enduring appeal. The Story of a Soul remains one of the
most popular of Catholic books. It has been published
in 38 languages. Mother Agnes of Jesus devoted much
time to answering the letters that poured in from
Thérèse’s devotees around the world.
Her body was exhumed on September 6, 1910. A
strong scent of violets permeated some of the boards of
the coffin that had been removed, as well as the saint’s
clothing and a palm that was still fresh in her hand.
The palm was considered a sign of her martyrdom of
self, of which she had said, “I desire at all costs to win
the palm of Agnes; if not by the shedding of blood, it
must be by Love.” The palm was kept at the convent.
Throughout her monastic life Thérèse experienced
many graces and mystical experiences in addition to
the spiritual wounding. During her novitiate, she had
transports of love, or raptures in which she felt far
removed from the earth. During her final illness, she
exhibited an unusual rapport with birds, who came to
the window of the infirmary and sang until she died.
On her deathbed, Thérèse made many prophesies,
and said she would be the instrument of much good to
many souls after her death. She had cleared clouds
from the sky, and decreed that at the moment of her
passing the sky would be cloudless. The sky was
cloudy on the day of her death, but cleared rapidly at
the time she passed, at about 7 P.M.
Pope Pius X (r. 1903–14) called her “the greatest
saint of modern times.” Pope Pius XI (r. 1922–39)
called her “the star of my pontificate.”
Canonized: May 17, 1925, by Pope Pius XI
Declared Doctor of the Church: 1997 by Pope John
Paul II
Feast: October 1
Patronage: African missions; AIDS sufferers; air
crews; aircraft pilots; aviators; Belgian air crews;
black missions; bodily ills; florists; flower growers;
foreign missions; against illness; loss of par-

ents; missionaries; parish missions; restoration of
religious freedom in Russia; against sick people;
against sickness; Spanish air crews; tuberculosis;
France; Russia
FURTHER READING
“Homily of Pope Pius XI at the Canonization of St. Thérèse
on 17 May 1925.” URL: http://www.ewtn.com/thérèse/
readings/readng2.htm. Downloaded: August 24, 2000.
Saint Thérèse of Lisieux. The Story of a Soul. Tr. John Beevers.
New York: Image Books/Doubleday, 1957.
Thomas the Apostle (d. ca. 72) One of the Twelve Disciples
of Jesus
Name meaning: Twin (Didymus)
Also known as: Apostle of India; Didymus; Doubting
Thomas; Judas Thomas; Jumeau; the Twin
Thomas was most likely born into a humble Jewish
family in Galilee, though nothing is known for certain
about his early life, or how he was called to the Apos-
St. Thomas touching the wounds of Christ (Engraving, 19th century)
Thomas the Apostle 325
tolate. An apocryphal tradition asserts that he was the
twin brother of Jesus.
Thomas’s skepticism about Christ’s Resurrection
gave rise to the phrase, “a doubting Thomas.” “Except
I see in his hands the print of the nails, and put my finger
into the print of the nails, and thrust my hand into
his side, I will not believe,” he is reported to have told
the other disciples (John 20:25). Eight days later,
Christ appeared to him and said, “Reach hither thy finger,
and behold my hands; and reach hither thy hand,
and thrust it into my side: and be not faithless, but
believing” (John 20:27). This not only satisfied
Thomas, it is also considered one of the proofs of
Christ’s Resurrection.
Thomas is widely believed to have carried the
Gospel to India. According to the apocryphal Acts of
Thomas, when this lot fell to him, he protested that he
was too ill to go; not even a vision of Jesus could
change his mind. Christ then appeared to a merchant
named Abban and sold Thomas into slavery to become

326 Thomas Aquinas
a carpenter for the Indian king Gundafor (or
Guduphara). When he learned of this, Thomas at last
submitted, and sailed for India with Abban. He is said
to have preached the Gospel, founding parishes and
churches, along the way. When he reached India,
Gundafor gave him 20 pieces of silver to finance the
construction of a castle for him, but Thomas gave the
money to the poor. When he discovered this, Gundafor
had him imprisoned, intending to have him flayed
alive. However, Gundafor’s brother died, and having
been shown the place in heaven Thomas’s good deeds
had reserved for Gundafor, the brother asked for and
received permission to return to earth to purchase the
spot for himself. Gundafor, however, not only refused
to sell it, he also released Thomas, and was at once
converted to Christianity.
How much of this story is true is impossible to
ascertain. However, it does not seem unlikely that
Thomas reached southern India and preached there.
Christians along the Malabar Coast in Kerala maintain
that they were converted by Thomas. Their tradition
holds that after building seven churches, Thomas was
speared to death on the “Big Hill” near Madras, then
was buried in nearby Mylapore. According to one
account, this occurred about the year 72 after he made
converts in the city of King Misdai. He was led out of
the city to the hill where four soldiers ran him through
with spears.
According to the Acts of Thomas, Thomas was initially
buried in the tomb of ancient Indian kings but
some of his relics were translated to Edessa (in
Mesopotamia), in the fourth century. In 1522, Portuguese
sailors found the tomb, and carried other relics
back with them; these were eventually taken to Ortona
in the Abruzzi, where they are honored even today.
Other of the relics remain in India, where they are venerated
at the Cathedral of Saint Thomas in Mylapore.
Thomas’s July 3 feast day commemorates the translation
of his relics to Edessa.
In art, Thomas typically is depicted as a young or
middle-aged man with a carpenter’s rule or builder’s
square, or as an elderly man holding a lance or pierced
by one. He is also shown touching Christ’s side, catching
the girdle dropped by the Virgin at her Assumption,
or casting out the devil from an Indian king’s
daughter.
Declared Apostle of India: 1972 by Pope Paul VI
Feast: July 3 (formerly December 21), July 1
(India)
Patronage: architects; blind people; builders; carpenters;
construction workers; against doubt;
geometricians; masons; stone cutters; theologians;
India; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1227–1274) Dominican,
scholar, Doctor of the Church
Also known as: Doctor Angelicus; Doctor Communas
Thomas Aquinas is called Doctor Angelicus and Doctor
Communas for his great teachings. The 1917 Code
of Canon Law lists only Thomas Aquinas as required
for the training of priests, “according to his method,
doctrine and principles,” and the 1983 Code states that
Thomas is to be taken “in particular as their teacher.”
Catholic children are taught to invoke St. Thomas at
the beginning of study. At a phenomenal rate, Thomas
synthesized in the light of sacra doctrina (God’s truths
revealed in Scripture): Plato, Aristotle and their interpreters;
the other classical Greek and Roman thinkers;
all preceding Fathers of the Church and contemporary
theologians; Arab and Jewish philosophers and texts.
He is regarded as the chief synthesizer of philosophy
and theology for the Catholic Church, and his early
death may have been caused by overwork. About a
thousand years following St. Augustine’s City of God,
Thomas provided the Church a second grand synthesis:
a system of sacra doctrina in the context of all
knowledge available in the West at the time, coupled
with a strong method of ordering, reason and argument.
Also, Thomistic angelology became that of the
Catholic Church and remains so.
Thomas Aquinas was born Tomasso Aquino into
the local, central Italian gentry in Roccasecca near
Aquino. At the age of six he was sent to study at the
famous Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino.
When he was 14 he entered the University of Naples, a
school known for being innovative and for being one
of the first conduits of Aristotle’s complete works,
which had only recently entered the Western world via
Arabic translations. At 18 Thomas decided to join the
Dominicans, a new order of mendicant monks especially
committed to study, teaching and preaching. His
family attempted to foil this decision by detaining him
for almost two years, but they failed to deter him.
He rejoined his Dominican brethren and soon was
sent to Paris, where he transcribed the lectures of the
Dominican scholar Albert (St. Albert the Great) on
Dionysius the Areopagite, a strong influence on
Thomas’s angelology. From 1248 to 1252 Thomas lived
at the priory of the Holy Cross in Cologne, studying
with Albert especially the works of Aristotle, impressing
his teachers and superiors. Tradition says he was called
“the dumb ox” because he was physically heavy and
had a silent, reserved manner. Albert reportedly told his
classmates: “we call this lad a dumb ox, but I tell you
that the whole world is going to hear his bellowing!”
Thomas was then sent back to Paris to prepare to
teach Dominicans. He received a license to teach in

1256 and first worked as an apprentice professor lecturing
on Scripture. Next he was promoted to teach
from the official university textbook for theological
instruction, the Sentences of Peter Lombard. Throughout
his years of official teaching and writing, Thomas
carried on a “moonlighting” project: his line by line
commentary on Aristotle’s texts.
In 1257 he was made a professor of theology and
for the next few years lectured on the Bible and
worked on a series of discussions based on classroom
debates. These became some of his earliest written
works, the so-called Disputed Questions, and On Spiritual
Creatures, his earliest comment on angels. From
1258 to 1269 Thomas taught in various cities in Italy:
Naples, as Dominican preacher general; Orvieto in the
curia of Pope Urban IV (r. 1261–64); and in 1267–68
at Viterbo with Pope Clement IV (r. 1265–68). In 1269
he returned to Paris to resume his teaching post; and
he wrote volumes. In addition to his incessant work,
he was devoted to prayer and to the life of his religious
order.
Thomas’s complete writings include biblical commentaries,
his series on Aristotle and polemical tracts.
His most famous works are two enormous treatises
covering the whole range of Christian doctrine and its
philosophical background: the Summa Contra Gentiles
(“on the truth of the Catholic faith against the unbelievers,”
supposedly commissioned as an aid to
Dominican missionaries among Muslims and Jews);
and the Summa Theologica, ranging over God, creation,
angels, human nature and happiness, grace, virtues,
Christ and sacraments. Begun in 1266, it remained
unfinished at his death. He intended it to be a simple
manual for students; it turned into the greatest theological
document ever written in the Church. Organized
into three parts, it contains 38 treatises, 612
questions, 3,120 articles and about 10,000 objections.
The Summa Theologica amazed Thomas’s own and subsequent
generations with its orderly system, unflagging
intellectual eagerness and sustained clarity. He
acquired a reputation for supernormal mental capacity.
One report said he dictated to more than one secretary
on different subjects at the same time; another insists
that he composed even in his sleep.
In December 1273 he suddenly abandoned his
usual routine and neither wrote nor dictated anything
else. When urged by his serving companion to return
to work, he reportedly replied: “No, Reginald, I cannot,
because all that I have written seems like straw to me.”
This remark has often been blown out of proportion.
Most probably, he had suffered a stroke or breakdown
from nervous exhaustion caused by overwork. Soon he
was called to attend the Second Council of Lyons as a
Dominican theologian. He set out in late December,
Thomas Aquinas 327
and became ill on the way. He lodged with his niece in
Maenza, but after two months it is said he told her “if
the Lord is coming for me, I had better be found in a
religious house than a castle.” He was taken to a
nearby Cistercian monastery, where he died in a guest
room on March 7.
When it was protested at the canonization proceedings
for Thomas Aquinas that few miracles were attributed
to him, Pope John XXII (r. 1316–34) declared that
every proposition he wrote was a miracle.
It struck Thomas in his early study of Aristotle that
philosophers had arrived at truths about God that are
equivalent to some revealed truths. The first question
that Thomas takes up in Summa Theologica is: What
need is there for any science other than those that
make up philosophy? The question makes sense only if
one knows those philosophical sciences. The answer
is: We cannot arrive at the revealed content of Christian
faith merely by philosophical argument. Philosophical
argument, however, is the most convincing way to
present all truths. Thomas’s reasoning and communication
method was firmly grounded in Aristotle’s, and his
major teacher Albert was an Aristotelian thinker as
well. He approaches theological issues like a philosopher.
Other writings include De Ente et Essentia (On
being and essence); De Regimine Principium (On kingship);
Contra Impugnantes Religionem, defending Mendicant
Orders; De Perfectae Vitae Spiritualis, on the
spiritual life; De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroistas,
against the Averroists; Quaestiones Disputatae and
Quaestiones Quodlibetales, debated questions for lecture
halls; and commentaries on Aristotle.
Thomas’s treatment of angels fits into the schematic
typical of all his thinking and writing: a synthesis of
sacra doctrina, what can be assumed true from Scripture
as revealed by God (theology), and what can be
assumed true on the basis of common experience of
the world (philosophy). He applies to angels the same
grid he applies to God, creation, the soul, etc., involving
language and distinctions common to philosophic
discourse: cause and effect, general and principle
causes, matter and form, essence and being. Thomas
organized angels into a hierarchy of triads: seraphi,
cherubim and thrones in the first order; dominations,
virtues and powers in the second order; and principalities,
archangels and angels in the third order.
Thomas had a major impact on the importance of
dreams. Siding with Aristotle, Thomas considered our
knowledge of the world to come through our senses.
Because of biblical tradition, he had to acknowledge
that some dreams could come from God. For the most
part, he said, dreams came from demons, false opinions
and natural causes such as conditions of the body.

328 Thomas Becket
It was not unlawful to divine from dreams as long as
you were certain that the dreams were from a divine
source and not from demons.
Like St. Jerome, Thomas is said to have had lifechanging
dreams or visionary experiences that altered
the course of his work. During his composition of
Summa Theologica, he struggled with completing a theological
passage. One morning he suddenly dictated it
with ease. He told his scribe that he had had a dream in
which he dialogued with the apostles SS. Peter and
Paul, and they told him what to say.
Thomas Aquinas’s symbols are the chalice, dove,
monstrance and ox. In art he is often depicted as a
Dominican, holding a book or a church, with rays of
light streaming from his chest.
Canonized: 1323 by Pope John XXII
Declared Doctor of the Church and Doctor Angelicus:
1567 by Pope Pius X
Named Patron Saint of Catholic Schools: 1880 by
Pope Leo XIII
Feast: January 28
Patronage: academics; Catholic schools, colleges
and universities; chastity; pencil makers; students
FURTHER READING
Clark, Mary T. An Aquinas Reader. New York: Fordham University
Press, 1988.
Davies, Brian. The Thought of Thomas Aquinas. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1992.
Kelsey, Morton. God, Dreams and Revelation: A Christian
Interpretation of Dreams. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing
House, 1968, 1974, 1991.
St. Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologiæ. Timothy McDermott,
ed. Allen, Tex.: Christian Classics, 1989.
Thomas Becket (1118–1170) Archbishop of Canterbury,
martyr
Also known as: Thomas Becket; Thomas of Canterbury
Thomas Becket, the most revered English saint, was
born in London to middle-class Norman parents. As a
young boy he studied with the canons regular at Merton
priory in Surrey. At age 24, he accepted a post in
the household of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury,
who was quite taken with the young man. Thomas
received minor orders under the archbishop’s tutelage,
and the archbishop sent him to study law in Bologna
and Auxerre. Theobald also provided Thomas with
several church benefices for his support. In 1154,
Thomas was ordained a deacon, then appointed
archdeacon of Canterbury, the highest ecclesiastical
position in England after the bishops and abbots.
On Theobald’s urging, King Henry II Plantagenet
named Thomas as chancellor in 1155, a post equaled
only by the justiciar and ranking second only to the
king. Thomas was 36 years old; Henry was 22, married
for three years and king for one. They became great
friends and fellow carousers; one account described
their merrymaking as “frolicsome.” Thomas lived more
grandly than his liege, owning palaces, giving banquets,
wearing fine clothing and employing hundreds.
In 1159, Thomas served as one of Henry’s generals on a
campaign to Toulouse to recover Queen Eleanor of
Aquitaine’s property, engaging in hand-to-hand combat.
Henry and Thomas were inseparable.
Archbishop Theobald died in 1161 while Thomas
and Henry were at court in Normandy. Henry, eager to
assert his secular authority, proposed that his friend
Thomas assume the see. But Thomas, realizing the
potential for church-state conflict, declined, remarking
that if he were archbishop many of the king’s policies
would put them at odds, jeopardizing their friendship.
Henry scoffed at Thomas’s objections and pressed his
chancellor to accept, but Thomas refused. Finally Cardinal
Henry of Pisa, papal legate, convinced Thomas to
accept the post, and the election was made in May
1162. As Thomas was not even a priest, he was first
ordained by Walter, bishop of Rochester, and consecrated
by Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, before
receiving the official pallium from Pope Alexander III.
Relations between Thomas and Henry remained
good for a few months, but by the end of 1162 Thomas
was a changed man. He took his responsibilities on
behalf of the Church as seriously as he had those of the
king. Thomas no longer wore fine robes but instead
donned a hair shirt crawling with vermin under a
simple black cassock. He read Scripture continuously
and performed self-flagellation. He ate sparingly, took a
personal interest in the household, gave away much of
his fortune, and frequently celebrated Mass at the
cathedral.
Tensions mounted, and in October 1163 Henry
convened a meeting of the bishops at Westminster to
demand that the “criminous clerks”—clergy convicted
of civil crimes—be handed over to the king’s authorities
and not judged solely by the Church. Henry had
long believed Church courts were far too lenient. The
bishops were prepared to acquiesce, but Thomas saw
such efforts as an affront to Church jurisdiction. Then
King Henry demanded the bishops promise to observe
unspecified royal customs. Thomas agreed conditionally
as long as the customs didn’t infringe on the
Church. Insulted, King Henry demanded Thomas
renounce certain castles and honors he had held since
his chancellorship. Thomas refused, and the conflict

came to a head at the Council of Clarendon, near Salisbury,
in early 1164.
Although Thomas initially tried to be conciliatory
and accept some of the so-called Constitutions of
Clarendon, he angrily rejected the entire document
when he read the king’s proposed customs: No prelate
could leave the kingdom without royal permission nor
appeal to Rome without the king’s consent; no tenantin-chief
could be excommunicated against royal will;
custody of empty Church benefices—and, most important,
their revenues—were to be held by the king; and
most critical, clerics convicted and sentenced in ecclesiastical
courts could be at the disposition of royal
authorities, leading to double punishment. Thomas
was filled with remorse at the thought that he considered
accepting such an attack on church jurisdiction
and refused to perform Mass for over 40 days.
Henry saw Thomas’s intransigence as disloyalty and
betrayal. Henry sued Thomas for 30,000 marks then
refused to speak to him. In October 1164 Henry summoned
the bishops and barons to a council at
Northampton, which deteriorated into antagonism
toward the archbishop. On October 13, without wearing
his mitre or pallium, but carrying his metropolitan’s
cross of office, Thomas went to the council hall
after celebrating a Mass for St. Stephen. He was kept
waiting for quite a while; finally, the earl of Leicester
came out and demanded that Thomas render his
accounts or suffer the king’s judgment. Thomas indignantly
replied that he had received the see of Canterbury
without temporal obligation and was not liable
for any judgment from the king. He, the archbishop,
would answer only to the pope and God. Thomas fled
Northampton that night and arrived in Flanders three
weeks later.
King Louis VII of France welcomed Thomas in
exile. Meeting Pope Alexander III at Sens, Thomas
tried to resign his office, but the pope refused, instead
sending him to the Cistercian monastery at Pontigny.
Thomas lived there as a simple monk; Henry, meanwhile,
confiscated the goods of anyone connected to
Thomas and suggested they travel to Pontigny to plead
their case. Negotiations among King Henry, Pope
Alexander and Thomas dragged on for six years. King
Louis VII tried to arrange a reconciliation at least 10
times. By 1169 Thomas had excommunicated some of
his adversaries and was preparing a sentence of interdict
on England. Still, in July 1170, Henry and Thomas
unexpectedly met in Normandy and briefly reconciled
without settling anything.
On December 1, 1170, Thomas landed in England
and made a triumphal return to Canterbury. But the
archbishop did not come in peace. Thomas was furious
Thomas Becket 329
that during his exile King Henry’s oldest son, Henry,
had been crowned the heir-apparent by the archbishop
of York, Roger de Pont-l’ Eveque, assisted by the bishops
of London and Salisbury. By Church tradition,
coronations could be performed only by the archbishop
of Canterbury. So before returning to Canterbury,
Thomas had already excommunicated the
bishops and suspended the archbishop. The three clerics
went to Normandy to plead their case at court, and
someone said there would be no peace as long as
Becket lived. In a rage, King Henry reportedly asked if
no one could rid his kingdom of the “pestilent clerk,”
and four knights left for England to answer the king’s
“order”: Reginald Fitzurse, William de Tracy, Hugh de
Morville and Richard le Breton.
The knights arrived during the afternoon of December
29 and demanded that Thomas remove the bishops’
censures. Thomas refused, and the four left while
threatening his life. Shouting and breaking of doors
was heard moments later as Thomas slowly walked to
the church, holding his cross before him. As Thomas
entered the cloister of the church, armed men were
seen in the dim light. The frightened monks bolted the
doors in confusion, but Thomas opened them. Only
three clerics accompanied Thomas as he walked
toward the front, and finally only Edward Grim
remained. According to Grim’s first-person account,
the knights were joined by a subdeacon, Hugh of
Horsea. The five angrily called for the traitor Thomas.
Thomas identified himself and came down to stand
between the altars of Our Lady and St. Benedict. After
again demanding the removal of the bishops’ censures,
Fitzurse grabbed the archbishop’s robe and tried to pull
him from the altars, threatening him with an axe.
Thomas wrenched free and courageously demanded
submission from the knights. Fitzurse dropped the axe
and struck Thomas with his sword. Then Tracy swung
his sword, nearly severing Grim’s arm. Tracy struck
again, knocking Thomas to his knees, and Thomas
commended his soul to God. Le Breton sliced off
Thomas’ scalp, coming down so hard on the stones
that he broke his sword, and then the subdeacon Hugh
of Horsea stepped on Thomas’ neck and scattered his
brains on the floor. The knights fled while Thomas’s
body remained on the floor.
Although King Henry may not have been legally
responsible for Thomas’s death, outrage throughout
Christendom required that the most powerful king in
Europe humble himself. King Henry performed a public
penance in July 1174 and received absolution. Pope
Alexander III canonized Thomas in 1173, and reports
of miracles at his tomb appeared almost immediately.
In July 1220, Thomas’s body was transferred to a

330 Thomas More
shrine behind the high altar in Canterbury Cathedral,
where it became one of the most popular medieval pilgrimage
sites. Geoffrey Chaucer’s pilgrims were going
there in The Canterbury Tales. The shrine was
destroyed in September 1538 by King Henry VIII, who
appropriated the jewels, exhumed Becket’s bones and
allegedly burned them, condemning the saint for daring
to oppose his king.
Canonized: 1173 by Pope Alexander III
Feast: December 29
Patronage: Secular clergy in England; officials;
Portsmouth, England
FURTHER READING
Barlow, Frank. Thomas Becket. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990.
Butler, John. The Quest for Becket’s Bones: The Mystery of the
Relics of St. Thomas Becket of Canterbury. New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996.
Thomas More (1478–1535) Lord chancellor of England;
scholar; martyr
Thomas More was born in London in 1478. His father,
John More, was a lawyer and a judge, and Thomas followed
in his footsteps. After working as a page for
John Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, he entered
Oxford University and studied law in Lincoln’s Inn. He
was admitted to the bar in 1501 and joined Parliament
in 1504.
In 1505 he married Jane Colt; they had three
daughters and a son. Jane died in 1511, and Thomas
married a widow, Alice Middleton, to care for his children.
In 1510, he was elected undersheriff, the first of
various posts that led him to the top of royal government.
In 1520 he accompanied King Henry VIII on a
trip to the Continent. Henry was taken by his keen
intellect and wit, and in 1521 had him knighted.
Thomas became speaker of the House of Commons in
1523, high steward for the University of Cambridge in
1525 and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster the
same year. After Cardinal Thomas Wolsey failed to get
Henry a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon,
Wolsey was removed as chancellor of England in 1529
and Thomas succeeded him.
But More could not reconcile himself with Henry’s
insistence on divorce, and on May 16, 1532, he
resigned his post. He retired in exile to his estate in
Chelsea and wrote in defense of the Church. Henry
split from the Church and set himself up as head of the
Church of England. In 1534, Thomas and a close
friend, John Fisher, refused to take the Oath of Succession
acknowledging Henry as the head of both church
and state. Thomas was arrested and sent to the Tower
Sr. Thomas More (Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division)
of London on April 17, 1534. He languished there for
over a year. In July 1535 he was tried for treason and
was convicted on the perjury of Richard Rich, who
succeeded him as chancellor.
Thomas was beheaded on July 6, 1535 (John
Fisher was beheaded the same year). Prior to his execution,
the king had ordered him to keep his final
words short. He asked the crowd to pray for him and
the Church, and said he was dying as “the King’s good
servant—but God’s first.” His head was spiked on
Tower Bridge and then buried in the Roper Vault at St.
Dunstan’s Church in Canterbury. His body was buried
at St. Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London. An
account of his life was written by his son-in-law,
William Roper.
Thomas’s best-known work is Utopia, written in
1515–16, a criticism of English society that may have
been inspired by his lectures on St. Augustine’s City of
God. Other notable works are The Four Last Things,
published in 1520, Dialogue of Comfort against Tribulation
(1553) and Dialogue concerning Heresies and
Confutation of Tyndale’s Answer, which refuted the
Protestant writings of Matthew Tyndale.
In art Thomas is portrayed in his chancellor’s robes,
carrying a book and an ax.
Beatified: 1886 by Pope Leo XIII
Canonized: 1935 by Pope Pius XI
Feast: June 22

Patronage: adopted children; civil servants; court
workers; lawyers
FURTHER READING
Ackroyd, Peter. The Life of Thomas More. New York: Doubleday
and Co., 1999.
The Last Letters of Thomas More. Alvaro da Silva, ed. Grand
Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
2000.
Maruis, Richard. Thomas More: A Biography. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Roper, William. The Life of Sir Thomas More. URL: http://
www.fordham/edu/halsall/mod/16Croper-more.html.
Downloaded: August 17, 2000.
Timothy 331
Timothy (d. 97) Disciple of St. Paul; Evangelist; by tradition,
the first bishop of Ephesus; martyr
Also known as: Timotheus
Timothy was born in Lystra, Lycaonia; his father was
Greek, his mother Jewish. His mother, Eunice, her
mother, Lois, and Timothy converted to Christianity
during St. Paul’s visit to Lycaonia. Because Timothy’s
mother was Jewish by birth, St. Paul allowed him to be
circumcised to satisfy the Jews.
When Paul returned to Lystra seven years later,
Timothy replaced St. Barnabas at the evangelist’s side.
When Jewish opposition forced Paul to leave Beroea,
Timothy remained behind to baptize, organize and
St. Timothy reading the sacred writings with his mother and grandmother (Engraving, 19th century)

332 Turibius Mogroveio
confirm new Christian converts. Later he was sent to
Thessalonica to report on the status of Christianity
there, and to support believers faced with persecution
from Rome. His report served as the basis for Paul’s
First Letter to the Thessalonians, believed to be the
earliest writing in the New Testament.
In A.D. 58, Timothy went with St. Erastus to
Corinth. They then accompanied Paul into Ephesus
and Asia Minor. It is likely that Timothy was with Paul
when the latter was imprisoned in Caesarea and in
Rome. Timothy himself was imprisoned in Rome for a
while.
Paul sent Timothy two epistles, one from Macedonia
around A.D. 65, the other from Rome, during his
third and last imprisonment, while he was awaiting his
death. These letters instructed Timothy to correct false
doctrine and to appoint bishops and deacons.
According to tradition, Timothy went to preach in
Ephesus and established the Church there. After denouncing
the Dionysian festival of Katagogia, the tradition
continues, he was stoned and clubbed to death
about the year 97. His relics are said to have been
translated to Constantinople in 356, and cures at his
shrine there were later mentioned by St. Jerome and St.
John Chrysostom.
In art, Timothy often is portrayed as a bishop with a
club and stone, or being stoned to death. He is also
shown receiving an epistle from Paul.
Feast: January 26 (formerly 24 in the West); January
22 (in the East)
Patronage: against intestinal disorders; against
stomach diseases
Turibius Mogroveio (1538–1606) Bishop; missionary;
founder
Also known as: Toribio or Turibius of Lima, Turibius of
Mongrovejo, Toribio de Mongrovejo
Turibius Mogroveio was born in Mayorga, León, Spain,
on November 16, 1538, the son of Luis Alfonso de
Mogroveio (or Mongrovejo) and Ana de Robles y
Moran. Although he was religious from an early age,
he did not enter the Church, but instead studied law
and was a professor of law at the University of Salamanca
when King Philip II appointed him chief judge
of the Court of the Inquisition at Granada in 1571. In
1580, the king called on him again, this time to
become the new archbishop of Lima. Although the Vatican
supported the nomination, Turibius protested,
presenting canons forbidding the promotion of laymen
to high Church offices. He continued to resist for three
months before finally assenting. He was duly ordained
a priest, consecrated bishop, named to the office by
Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–85) and sailed for Peru. He
was 42 years old.
Turibius landed in Piura in March 1581, and walked
the 285 miles from there to Lima, arriving at the end of
May. This was the first of many long walks he was to
take over the remaining 25 years of his life. His archdiocese
covered some 18,000 square miles, encompassing
the present countries of Venezuela, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and a portion of
Argentina. Turibius traveled through this vast territory
three times, the first time spending seven years in the
process. He found a region much in need of aid, not
only because of the many unsaved souls but also
because of the cruelties of the colonial regime. This
was less than a half-century after the subjugation of
the Inca Empire, and many of the scars were still bare.
Turibius came into immediate conflict with secular
authorities over the treatment of the Andean Quechua,
whose rights he defended and whose dialects he
learned to speak. He fought injustice and vice, among
the clergy as well as laymen, and succeeded in eliminating
many of the worst abuses. At the end of his life
he sent a message to the king saying that he had
administered the sacrament to and confirmed more
than 800,000 persons.
His legacy is larger than this, however. He put considerable
effort into organizing the Church in Peru,
building churches and hospitals and almost doubling
the number of parishes in the archdiocese—when he
arrived there were 150 and when he died there were
250. He also founded the first seminary in the Americas
(1591) and established a biannual diocesan synod.
He convened and presided over the Third Council of
Lima (1582–83), attended by prelates from throughout
Hispanic America. This historic assembly established
important pastoral norms relating to the evangelization
of the Indians and produced texts of the catechism in
Spanish, Quechua and Aymara, the first books published
in South America.
Turibius confirmed three others who have become
saints—Rose of Lima, Martin de Porres and Francis
Solanus—and worked with a fourth, John Massias.
In his 78th year, Toribius was taken ill in the town
of Pacasmayo, on the northern coast of present-day
Peru. He continued traveling and working, however,
and died a short while later, on May 23, 1606, in Saña
(Zaña). It took almost a year for his body to be carried
back to Lima, but it arrived there in a remarkable state
of preservation, as if he had only recently died.
After his death many miracles were received at his
intercession.
In 1983 Pope John Paul II (r. 1978– ) proclaimed
him Patron of Latin American bishops and set his

feast day on the universal calendar as March 23. In
Peru, however, it is still celebrated on its former date of
April 27.
Beatified: 1679 by Pope Innocent XI
Canonized: 1726 by Pope Benedict XIII
Feast: April 27 (Peru), March 23 (elsewhere)
Patronage: Latin American bishops; native rights;
Peru
Turibius Mogroveio 333
FURTHER READING
“Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo,” Santos Peruanos. Available
online. URL: http://ekeko.rcp.net.pe/IAL/cep/santpapa/
santoslos.htm. Downloaded: November 14, 1999.
“Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo.” Santos y Biatos de America
Latina: Perú. Available online. URL: http://www.aciprensa.
com/santperu.htm. Downloaded: November 14, 1999.

Ulric (890–973) Bishop of Augsburg, Germany; first
saint to be canonized by a pope
Also known as: Ulrich
Ulric was born in 890 at Kyburg in the Swiss canton of
Zurich, to Count Hucpald and Thetbirga. His parents
were connected to the dukes of Alamannia and the
imperial family of the Ottos. Ulric was sent to the
monastic school of St. Gall. Though sickly, he excelled
in his studies.
Ulric was attracted to the priesthood and was sent
to Augsburg, where he became the chamberlain of
Bishop Adalbero. Upon Adalbero’s death on April 28,
910, Ulric returned home, where he remained until
923, when Adalbero’s successor, Bishop Hiltine, died.
His influential relatives, especially his uncle, Duke
Burchard of Alamannia, succeeded in getting him
appointed to the post of bishop of Augsburg. He was
consecrated on December 28, 923.
Ulric set high moral standards and sought to
improve the low moral and social conditions of the
clergy, and to enforce a rigid adherence to the laws of
the Church. He made his presence known by visiting
as many churches as possible, and by playing an active
role in the politics and judicial proceedings of the
Ottonian empire. He traveled to Rome to obtain relics
for his churches in either 952 or 953 (he had also gone
to Rome for the same purpose in 910). In 955 the Magyars
besieged Augsburg, and Ulric was instrumental in
Uf
335
leading the city to hold out until Holy Roman Emperor
Otto I’s troops could arrive and defeat the invaders.
Ulric’s unbending adherence to Church laws is
illustrated in the lore surrounding him. According to
the most popular story, one Thursday night he dined
late with a colleague. The meal went on past midnight.
An aide deferentially observed that it was now Friday,
and the two were still eating meat. The meat then
miraculously turned to fish.
On July 4, 973, the ailing Ulric anticipated and
arranged the setting for his death. At dawn he had
ashes strewn on the ground in the shape of a cross and
sprinkled with holy water. Ulric was placed upon it. His
nephew Richwin came with a message and greeting
from Emperor Otto II. Ulric died beneath the rising sun
while the clergy sang the litany. His body was interred
in the Church of St. Afra, which had been rebuilt by
him. Many miracles were reported at his grave.
In art he is often shown with a fish.
Canonized: 993 by Pope John XV
Feast: July 4
Ulrich (d. 1093) Benedictine monk and monastery
founder
Ulrich was born in Ratisbon, Germany. He served as a
page at the court of Empress Agnes, but left to enter

336 Urban I
St. Ulrich, left, with saints at the foot of the cross (Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
the religious life. He became archdeacon of the cathedral
in Ratisbon. But while on a pilgrimage to Rome
and Jerusalem, another man was appointed to his position.
In 1052, Ulrich went to Cluny and became a
Benedictine monk. After ordination, he was named
chaplain to the nuns at Marcigny. Loss of sight in one
eye caused him to resign and return to Cluny.
Ulrich then was prior at Peterlingen, was founding
friar of the Ruggersberg Priory, and was founding abbot
of the monastery at Zell in the Black Forest and of a
convent at nearby Bollschweil. In 1091 he became
totally blind. He died on July 10, 1093, at Augsburg.
Ulrich is known for his authorship of Consuetudines
cluniacences, on the liturgy and the direction of monasteries
and novices.
Feast: July 14
Urban I (d. 230) Pope
Urban was born in Rome, the son of Pontianus. About
the year 222 he was elected bishop of Rome to succeed
the martyred St. Callistus, and ruled for eight years
during a relatively peaceful period of the early Church.
St. Hippolytus, as antipope, persisted with his schism,
but seems to have had no direct confrontations with
Urban.
An increase in the extent of the Roman catacombs
at this time suggests that the Christian community
was growing, not surprising since it had the support of
Emperor Alexander Severus. Severus went so far as to
grant the Church the right to build a new church on
land that was also claimed by tavern-keepers, declaring
that it would be better for God to be worshiped
there.
Urban died, most likely of a natural death, on May
23, 230, and two days later was laid to rest in the Catacomb
of Prætextatus on the Via Appia. Although he is
sometimes said to have been buried in the San Callistus
cemetery, that was almost certainly a different
bishop Urban.
Feast: May 25
Urban II (ca. 1042–1099) Benedictine monk, pope
Also known as: Otho; Otto or Odo of Lagery
Urban was born to a noble family at Châtillons-sur-
Marne, Champagne, France, and christened Odo
(sometimes written Otho or Otto). Odo studied under
St. Bruno (later founder of the Carthusian order) at
Reims. He became archdeacon there, and, about 1070,
joined the Benedictine monastery at Cluny, of which
he was named prior by the abbot, St. Hugh.
After a few years, Odo was sent to Rome to assist
Pope St. Gregory VII (r. 1073–85) in his Church reforms.
In 1078, Gregory created him cardinal-bishop
of Ostia. From 1082 to 1085 he was the papal legate to
France and Germany, and was briefly imprisoned by
the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV in 1083. He
returned to Rome upon Gregory’s death in 1085, and
served in the Vatican under the following pope, B1.
Victor III (r. 1086–87). Both Gregory and Victor having
proposed him as their successor, Odo was unanimously
elected to the Chair of St. Peter on March 12,
1088, whereupon he assumed the name Urban II.
The reigns of Gregory and Victor had been troubled
by the antipope Clement III (Archbishop Guibert of
Ravenna), who had been seated under the influence of
Henry IV in 1084. Clement was in control of Rome at
the time of Urban’s succession, and Urban was able to
enter the city (with Norman assistance) for the first
time only in November 1088. Because of the support
Guibert enjoyed, however, Urban had to take refuge on
the island of St. Bartholomew. He was not able to enter
St. Peter’s until after a three-day battle that drove Guibert
from Rome.
Urban left Rome again in the fall of 1089 to attend a
council of bishops at Melfi, in southern Italy, but when
he tried to return to the city in December, he found
Guibert there again. Guibert celebrated Christmas
Mass in St. Peter’s while Urban anathematized him
from outside the walls. Unable to enter the city, Urban
then began a three-year tour of southern Italy, holding
councils that promulgated decrees against simony, cler-

ical marriage, and the royal investiture of bishops and
monasteries without prior church approval.
By 1093, Urban was in desperate straits, deeply in
debt and dependent on charity. A French abbot, Gregory
of Vendôme, came to his assistance, and when the
governor of the Lateran Palace offered to surrender it
to Urban for a fee, Gregory raised the ransom by selling
possessions of his monastery. Urban was able to
return to St. Peter’s in time for the Easter solemnities.
Once again, he did not stay long in Rome, but left,
this time traveling north into France. He convened
councils that took strong stands in favor of ecclesiastical
discipline and other matters of consequence to the
Church. The most important council of this period was
held at Clermont (Claremont) in Auvergne in November
1095. In response to a request from Emperor Alexis
I in Constantinople, Urban declared the Truce of God
and proposed a crusade to retake Jerusalem from the
Pope St. Urban II recruiting knights for the Crusades (Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)
Muslims. The call met a sound response, and Urban
began traveling around France to drum up further support.
Although he was urged repeatedly to lead the crusade,
he appointed Ademar, Bishop of Le Puy, in his
place. The First Crusade was launched in 1097 and on
July 15, 1099, reclaimed Jerusalem.
Victory came before Urban died, but he did not live
to hear the news. He passed away in Rome on July 29,
1099. Guibert’s followers prevented his burial in the
Lateran and his relics were conveyed instead to the
crypt of St. Peter, where they were interred close to the
tomb of Pope Adrian I (r. 772–795).
Urban is listed as a saint in many medieval martyrologies.
According to Guibert of Nogent, miracles
attended his tomb, and his cultus seems to have
formed at the time of his death. His feast day, however,
was never extended to the Universal Church.
Urban appears in a painting in the apse of the Lateran
Palace oratory built by Pope Callistus II (r.
1119–124). He is depicted at the feet of Our Lady, his
head is crowned by a square nimbus, the words sanctus
Urbanus secundus beneath him.
Beatified: July 14, 1881, by Pope Leo XIII
Feast: July 29
Urban V 337
Urban V (1310–1370) Benedictine monk, pope
Also known as: Guillaume de Grimoard; William of
Grimoard
The pope who was to take the name Urban V was born
to a knightly family in Grisac, in the Languedoc of
southern France, in 1310, as William (Guillaume) de
Grimoard. He joined the Benedictines at the priory of
Chirac, near Grisac, but also was ordained a priest, and
pursued an academic career. He studied law, letters and
philosophy at universities in Toulouse, Montpellier
and Paris, receiving his doctorate in 1342. He became
one of the greatest canonists of his day, and taught
canon law as a professor at Montpellier as well as in
other places.
William served as vicar general at Clermont and
Uzès and as prior of Notre-Dame du Pré (a priory
dependent on St. Germain d’Auxerre). In 1352, Pope
Clement VI (r. 1342–52) appointed him abbot of St.
Germain d’Auxerre. He was a papal legate in Italy in
1354 and 1360, then in 1361 Pope Innocent VI (r.
1352–62) sent him to the abbey of St. Victor at Marseilles.
William was on a papal mission to Naples when, on
September 28, 1362, he learned that Innocent had
died and that he had been elected his successor. He
returned to Avignon, where the papacy was then based,
on October 31, and was consecrated on November 6.

338 Ursula
He took the name Urban V because, he said, all the
popes of that name had been saints.
Urban devoted much attention to education,
reforming or creating universities (including ones at
Cracow in 1364 and Vienna in 1365) and student
scholarships. He implemented needed Church reforms,
strengthened ecclesiastical discipline, and restored
churches and monasteries. He supported the last of the
Crusades against the Turks, in which Peter de Lusignan,
king of Cyprus, succeeded in taking and temporarily
occupying Alexandria in October 1365, but
the initiative failed.
William was closely involved with affairs of state,
but probably the most momentous event of his pontificate
was his decision to move the Holy See from Avignon
(where it had been based for 50 years) back to
Rome. The decision met universal acclaim from all but
the French, who rightly feared a diminution of their
influence. Urban nevertheless left Avignon on April 30
and entered Rome on October 16, 1367, after a stay of
some months in the citadel at Viterbo.
In Rome, he set about restoring the city, reviving
religion and tightening clerical discipline. The unemployed
were put to work in the neglected gardens of
the Vatican, and the papal treasure, which had been
preserved at Assisi since the days of Pope Boniface VIII
(r. 1294–1303), was distributed among city churches.
Urban negotiated a new treaty with German emperor
Charles IV and crowned his empress. He also
attempted to bridge the schism with the Eastern
Church, which seemed to him a permanent injury to
Jesus Christ. However, although he reconciled with the
Greek emperor, John V Palaeologus, the latter was
unable to bring his people along, and the schism persisted.
As important a political and religious event as the
return to Rome was, political realities made it impossible
to sustain. Urban decided to move his court back
to Avignon, even though St. Bridget had come to warn
him of her premonition that if he did, he would shortly
die. He left Rome on September 5, and was back in
Avignon on September 24, 1370.
Less than three months later, he had his own premonition
of impending death, and, not wanting to die
in fine sheets, had himself moved from the Papal
Palace to his brother’s house at the foot of the hill. He
had all the doors to the street opened, so that he could
receive farewell visitors, and expired on December 19.
His relics were interred in Notre-Dame des Doms at
Avignon, but in accordance with his own wishes, were
translated two years later to the abbey church of St.
Victor at Marseilles.
The many miracles reported at his tomb led to
demands for his canonization by King Waldemar of
Denmark. Though promised by Gregory XI (r.
1370–78) in 1375, this did not occur, owing to the disorders
of the time.
Beatified: March 10, 1870, by Pope Pius IX
Feast: December 19
Ursula (fourth or fifth century?) Legendary martyred
virgin whose cult has been suppressed
Ursula was one of the most popular saints in the
Middle Ages. Ursula seems to have been associated
with several martyred virgins; accounts of her story
have been embellished. The basis for the legend is a
true account of a senator, Clematius, who rebuilt a
basilica in Cologne, dated to perhaps the fourth century,
that honored a group of virgins who had been
martyred there. The identities and circumstances of
their martyrdom are not known.
According to a 10th-century legend, Ursula was the
daughter of a Christian king in Britain, who planned to
marry her to a pagan prince. As she did not want this
marriage, she asked for and was granted a three-year
postponement. With 10 ladies in waiting, each
attended by 1,000 maidens, Ursula embarked on a voyage
across the North Sea, sailed up the Rhine to Basel,
Switzerland, and then went to Rome. On their way
back in about 451, they went to Cologne, where Ursula
refused to marry the chieftain of the Huns. All the
women were massacred.
According to another even more embellished legend,
Ursula and an army of women met their demise
after a battle. Armorica was settled by British colonizers
and soldiers after Emperor Magnus Clemens Maximus
conquered Britain and Gaul in 383. The ruler of
the settlers, Cynan Meiriadog, called on King Dionotus
of Cornwall for wives for the settlers. Dionotus promised
his daughter Ursula for Cynan, and sent her off
by ship with 11,000 maidens and 60,000 common
women. The fleet was wrecked and all the women were
enslaved or murdered.
Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740–58) allegedly planned
to remove Ursula from the Roman martyrology. Her
cult was suppressed in 1969.
Feast: formerly October 21
Patronage: drapes; schoolgirls; young women
Ursus (sixth century) Archdeacon of Aosta, Italy, and
miracle-worker
A native of Ireland, Ursus traveled to Europe and was
made archdeacon of Aosta in northern Italy, where he
spent many years preaching against the Arian heresy.

Ursus 339
Middle level: Ursula with the 11,000 virgins. Top level: Mary with Jesus. Bottom level: Young boys being boiled in oil.
(Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division)

340 Ursus
Ursus is credited with miraculously manifesting a
stream of water in time of need. On a hot summer day
in rural Burseia, he listened to people complaining
about the lack of a fountain. Calling up his faith that
all things are possible for those who believe, he struck
the rock with his staff and a fountain bubbled forth. It
was named St. Bear’s Fountain, and was still bearing
water in the 13th century.
His story is similar to stories of other saints who
struck rocks with staffs to find water.
St. Ursus is depicted in art as striking a rock with
his staff.
Feast: February 1

Valentine (d. ca. 269–270)
Name Meaning: Valor
Also known as: Valentine of Terni, Valentine of Rome
Little is known about the real Valentine. In fact, many
early martyrologies listed two and sometimes three
Valentines: a priest in Rome, a bishop in Interamna
(now Terni) and a third in Africa. Most scholars now
presume that all three Valentines are the same man.
Most probably, Valentine either lived in Rome or
was called from Terni to Rome as a consequence of his
giving comfort to the martyrs under Emperor Claudius
II, known as the Cruel. Imprisoned, Valentine, also a
physician, reportedly converted his jailer to Christianity
by restoring the eyesight of the jailer’s daughter.
Brought before the Roman prefect, Valentine refused to
renounce his faith and was beaten and beheaded on
February 14. On the morning of his execution, he
supposedly sent a farewell message to the jailer’s
daughter, signed “from your Valentine.” His body was
buried on the Flaminian Way in Rome, and his relics
were taken to the church of St. Praxedes.
Another legend about Valentine has the priest surreptitiously
marrying Roman couples when Claudius
II, frustrated at his difficulty in taking men from their
homes to be soldiers, outlawed marriage. In this version,
Valentine languishes and dies in prison on the
emperor’s orders but is not executed.
Vf
341
Such stories—that Valentine helped lovers and that
he sent loving messages—have connected the saint
with romance. Other sources of the connection
between Valentine’s date of martyrdom and love stem
from early Roman festivals, such as the Lupercalia, that
involved young noblemen running through the streets
with thongs made from the skins of sacrificed goats.
They lashed young women, which was believed to
improve their chances at childbearing. The thongs
were called februa, and the lashing februatio, from a
Latin word meaning “to purify,” the same root as February.
In other celebrations, Roman men drew names
of available young ladies out of a box and promised to
love them—at least until the festival next year.
In England, both men and young women put their
names into the box and were drawn in pairs. Each
couple exchanged gifts, and the man wore his love’s
name on his sleeve. Perhaps more significant to love and
February is that birds choose mates around February
14, a fact noted by Chaucer. The custom of giving flowers
for Valentine’s Day supposedly began with a daughter
of King Henry IV of France, who threw a party to
honor the saint and gave every lady present a bouquet.
Feast: February 14
Patronage: beekeepers; betrothed couples; epilepsy;
fainting; greetings; happy marriages; love and
lovers; plague; travelers; young people

342 Victor I
Victor I (d. ca. 199) Pope
Victor was a native of North Africa. He became the
14th bishop of Rome, succeeding St. Eleutherius
around the year 175.
During Victor’s rule, the Christians of the Roman
Empire enjoyed a peace they had not known before.
Emperor Commodus (r. 180–192) had once been
cured by a Christian named Proculus, whom he kept
with him in his palace. He employed other Christians
as officials at his court and pardoned those who had
been sent to do forced labor in the Sardinian mines,
after his mistress Marcia obtained a list of names from
Victor. One of those freed was St. Callistus, a later
pope, who chose to live at Antium with the support of
a monthly pension from Victor.
The external peace was, however, marred by internal
dissent. For some time there had been conflict
between the Church of Rome and the Quartodeciman
churches of Asia Minor over the scheduling of Easter.
Rome celebrated Easter on Sunday, whereas the Quartodecimans
had always followed the Hebrew calendar
and celebrated it instead on the first day of Passover—
on whatever day of the week that might fall. The conflict
came to a head when the growing number of Asian
immigrants in Rome tried to celebrate Easter on the
day to which they were accustomed. Victor instructed
the Quartodecimans to change their celebration to
Sunday, threatening their bishops with excommunication
if they did not. When they defied him, he made
good his threat, though this seems not to have been
enforced. In Rome, his attempt to enforce the decree
was met by the Asian Blastus, who brought about a
short-lived schism.
Victor also had to contend with Gnostics and other
heretics, such as the Monarchians. Monarchians denied
the Trinity, holding that God was supreme, and that
Jesus was merely a man endowed at baptism with
supernatural power. Victor convened several synods to
deal with the sect and excommunicated its head,
Theodotus the Tanner. Theodotus responded by forming
his own schismatic church, which persisted in
Rome for some time thereafter.
Victor, the first Latin writer in the Church, declared
Latin the official language of the Church of Rome. Also
under Victor, the Roman Church became the proprietor
of a cemetery on the Appian Way.
Feast: Formerly July 28
Victor III (ca. 1026–1087) Pope
Also known as: Desiderius
A sickly and reluctant pope, Victor is remembered for
sending the military force to North Africa that in 1087
defeated the Muslim Saracens, prefiguring the Crusades.
He was born in 1026 or 1027 to a family of Lombard
nobles. From his youth he yearned to become a
monk, but since he was an only son, his parents
opposed this plan, and arranged a marriage for him
instead. After his father died fighting the Normans in
1047, he fled his marriage and went to Cava, only to be
captured and brought back home by force. Again he
escaped to Cava, where he received permission to enter
the monastery of Santa Sophia at Benevento, and took
the name Desiderius.
Finding the life at Santa Sofia less strict than he
wished, Desiderius soon moved to the island
monastery of Trimite in the Adriatic Sea, then, in 1053,
went to live with some hermits at Majella in the
Abruzzi. His austerity brought him to the attention of
Pope St. Leo IX (r. 1049–54) and his successor, Pope
Victor II (r. 1055–57). He attached himself to Victor’s
court at Florence, where he met two monks from
Monte Cassino, and in 1055 he returned with these
monks to their monastery. Joining the community
shortly thereafter, he was appointed superior of the
dependent house at Capua.
In 1058, Desiderius succeeded Pope Stephen X (r.
1057–58)—who had retained the abbacy even while he
held the papacy—as abbot of Monte Cassino. He
proved to be a great abbot, who rebuilt the church and
established schools of art, while he reinstated monastic
discipline. His reputation brought the abbey many gifts
and exemptions. Pope Alexander II (r. 1061–73) gave
him the power to reform other monasteries in his
region as well. He was well positioned to act as a gobetween
for Rome and the Normans in Italy, a role he
performed under Pope St. Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085).
In May 1085, as he lay dying, Gregory named
Desiderius as one of the fittest to succeed him. After
Gregory’s death, Desiderius went to Rome to consult
on the succession, but when he discovered that he was
the leading candidate, returned to Monte Cassino.
There he involved himself in political affairs, trying to
get the Normans and Lombards to support the Holy
See. In the autumn, he marched on Rome with the
Norman army, but when he discovered that the Norman
princes were conspiring with the Vatican’s cardinals
to seat him, he refused to enter the city unless
they desisted. Since neither side would give in, the
election was postponed.
In 1086, Desiderius was importuned to return to
Rome and was once again pressed to accept the Chair
of St. Peter. When he continued to resist, the cardinals
lost patience with him. On May 24, they seized him
and carried him to the Church of St. Lucy, where they
dressed him in the pope’s red cape and gave him the

name Victor. Four days later he abandoned the papal
insignia, and again returned to Monte Cassino. He
spent about a year there before finally accepting the
throne during Lent in 1087. After the Normans had
driven the soldiers of the antipope Clement III (Guibert
of Ravenna) out of St. Peter’s, he was consecrated
there on May 9, and gave the Easter Mass. However,
he remained in Rome only eight days before returning
once more to Monte Cassino.
Victor’s short papacy was much concerned with
struggles with Clement and his supporters. In August
1087, at a synod in Benevento, Victor renewed Gregory
VII’s excommunication of Clement, who was once
again ensconced in the Lateran Palace. While the
council was under way—on August 5—the army he
had sent to North Africa under the Banner of St. Peter
captured the town of El Mahadia and forced the
Islamic ruler of Tunis to free all Christian slaves and to
pledge tribute to the Holy See. The Benevento council
had lasted only three days, however, when Victor
entered his final illness. He retired to Monte Cassino,
where he had himself carried to the chapter house,
which he had built. He died there on September 16,
1087, and was interred in a tomb he had prepared for
himself. Four hundred years after, his relics were translated
to the church, then later were moved again.
Victor’s only known literary work is his Dialogues
on the miracles of St. Benedict and others at Monte
Cassino.
His cultus seems to have begun no later than the
reign of Pope Anastasius IV (r. 1153–54), only decades
after his death, though it was largely confined to the
region of Monte Cassino. In 1727, the monastery’s
abbot obtained permission to keep his feast.
Cultus approved: 1727 by Benedict III
Feast: September 16
Vincent Ferrer (1350–1419) Dominican friar and
missionary
Vincent Ferrer was born on January 23, 1350, in
Valencia, Spain, to a noble family. At age 17 he entered
the Dominican order and was sent to Barcelona to
complete his studies. In 1370 he began teaching at
Lerida, and had for a pupil Pierre Fouloup, who later
became the grand inquisitor of Aragon.
Vincent returned to Barcelona in 1373 and aided
famine sufferers. While preaching one day he accurately
predicted that ships bearing grain were approaching.
In 1377 he continued his studies in
Toulouse. In 1379, he was employed by Cardinal Pedro
de Luna, the papal legate to the court of Aragon, and
from 1385 to 1390 taught at the cathedral of Valencia.
St. Vincent Ferrer
Vincent Ferrer 343
Pedro de Luna became the antipope Benedict XIII, and
appointed Vincent as his confessor and apostolic penitentiary.
Vincent declined appointment as cardinal.
Vincent fell seriously ill during a French siege of
Avignon in 1398. He had a miraculous recovery after
having a vision of Christ and SS. Dominic and Francis
of Assisi, who told him to go out and preach. Benedict
opposed this but allowed him to do so in 1399. For 20
years, Vincent traveled throughout western Europe
preaching penance for sin and preparation for judgment.
Huge numbers came to hear him preach.
Though he spoke only his native dialect, Vincent made
himself understood to foreign audiences, apparently
through the gift of tongues. St. Bernadine of Siena was
among those who heard him speak.
In 1408 Vincent went to Genoa to try to help
plague victims and to try to heal the schism between
Benedict and Pope Gregory XII (r. 1406–15). Though
he supported Benedict, he was unsuccessful in getting
Benedict to resign for the good of the Church.

344 Vincent of Lérins
He returned to Spain, and spent the next eight years
preaching and working miracles throughout the southern
part of the country. He converted thousands of
Moors. In 1416, he announced in his preaching that
Benedict was the legitimate pope, but due to the fact
that he would not resign, King Ferdinand of Aragon
was withdrawing his states from obedience to Avignon.
The same year Gregory XII resigned, paving the way
for the schism to be healed. Pope Martin V was elected
in 1417, and reigned until 1431.
Throughout his life, Vincent lived simply, dressing
poorly, observing austerities and fasting perpetually. He
usually tended to sick children every day. In his last
years, Vincent traveled throughout northern France.
He died in Vannes, Brittany, on April 5, 1419.
In art Vincent often is portrayed as a Dominican
holding an open book while preaching, and as a Dominican
preacher with a flame on top of his head.
Canonized: 1455 by Pope Callistus III
Feast: April 5
Patronage: brick makers; builders; construction
workers; pavement workers; plumbers; tile makers
FURTHER READING
Pradel, Andrew. St. Vincent Ferrer: Angel of the Judgment.
Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 2001.
Vincent of Lérins (d. ca. 445) Father of the Church
Vincent of Lérins was born into a noble family of Gaul
(now France); he is believed by some to have been the
brother of St. Lupus of Troyes. After serving as a soldier,
he gave up the military life and entered a monastery
on the island of Lérins (today Isle St. Honorat). He
was ordained there and in about 434 wrote his bestknown
work, the Commonitorium, under the pseudonym
Peregrinus.
The Commonitorium offered a guide to orthodox
Christian teaching and included the famous Vincentian
Canon, by which he sought to differentiate between
true and false tradition: quad ubique, quad semper, quad
ab omnibus credituni est (“what has been believed
everywhere, always, and by all”). Vincent held that the
ultimate source of Christian truth lay in the Holy
Scriptures and that the authority of the Church was to
be invoked to guarantee their correct interpretation.
Ironically, he was a strong proponent of Semi-Pelagianism
and opposed the Augustinian model of Grace.
However, since he wrote before Semi-Pelagianism had
been declared heretical by the Church, this is not now
held against him.
The date of Vincent’s death is not known, but it was
certainly before 450 and probably around 445.
Feast: May 24
Vincent de Paul (ca. 1581–1660) Founder of the
Congregation of the Mission and the Sisters of Charity,
Patron of all Charities
Also known as: Apostle of Charity; Friend of the Poor
Vincent was born on April 24, 1581, at Pouy (now
called St.-Vincent-de-Paul) near the village of Dax in
Gascony, the third of six children. His parents, Jean de
Paul and Bertrande de Moras, were poor peasants, but
they managed to send Vincent to study with the Cordeliers,
a strict sect of Franciscans. In 1597 he began theological
studies at the University of Toulouse, with a
short stay at the University of Saragossa in Spain,
receiving his degree in 1604. In 1600, at age 19, Vincent
entered the priesthood, ordained by Francois de
Bourdeille, bishop of Perigueux.
In 1605, Vincent returned to Toulouse from his
home to recover a small legacy left him by a parishioner.
Returning by boat from Marseilles to Narbonne,
Vincent and the other travelers were attacked by Turkish
pirates from the Barbary Coast of North Africa.
Three were killed, and the survivors were chained and
sold into slavery in Tunis. Vincent was bought by a
fisherman, who sold him to an old Muslim alchemist.
When the man died, his nephew sold Vincent to a former
monk that had renounced Christianity for Islam
and had taken three wives. According to legend, one of
the wives—a Turkish Muslim—took an interest in Vincent
and his faithfulness. She pestered her husband to
return to Christianity, and he and Vincent safely
escaped from Africa to Marseilles in 1607. The next
year the man supposedly accompanied Vincent to
Rome, where the former monk entered the order of the
Brothers of St. John of God and spent the rest of his life
in hospital service.
Vincent came to Paris in 1609. He became almoner
to the former wife of King Henry IV, Marguerite of Valois—a
post that earned him the income from a small
abbey. He also attracted the attention of Pierre de
Berulle, who eventually became a cardinal. In 1612,
Father Berulle found Vincent a curacy at Clichy, just
north of Paris. The next year Vincent entered service as
tutor and chaplain to the family of Philip de Gondi,
count of Joigny and general of the galleys. It was customary
for French convicts to serve their sentences as
slaves, manning the oars in French warships. Vincent
also listened to the confessions of the peasants on the
de Gondi properties, and in 1617 was called to hear
the confession of a dying man in Folleville who admitted
that all his previous confessions had been lies.
Appalled, Mme. de Gondi arranged for Vincent to
preach in the Folleville parish church and teach the
country people the sanctity of the sacraments and

liturgy. Vincent was so successful that he had to call for
help from the Jesuits in Amiens.
In July of that year, Vincent left the de Gondi family
to become pastor of the parish church at Châtillon-les-
Dombes in eastern France. He restored the building
and inspired the congregation, even converting the
apparently notorious count of Rougemont and other
dissolute aristocrats. He also founded the first Confraternity
of Charity to encourage wealthy ladies—who
had little or no experience with charity—to raise funds
and to minister to the sick and poor as if they were caring
for their own sons. Returning to the de Gondis in
December, Vincent was soon ministering to the galley
slaves held in the Conciergerie in Paris, showing these
wretched prisoners that they, too, were beloved. In
1619 Vincent was named chaplain-general of the galleys
and their royal almoner.
About 1623, Mme. de Gondi offered Vincent a large
endowment to found a perpetual mission for whatever
purpose he saw fit. Vincent humbly averred, not
believing himself worthy. Meanwhile, Mme. de Gondi
prevailed upon her husband to organize a group of
missionaries to work among the peasants and discussed
their plans with M. de Gondi’s brother, Jean
Francois de Gondi, archbishop of Paris. The archbishop
gave the mission the Collège des Bons Enfants
as a home for their new community. Vincent took possession
of the house and became director of its mission
in April 1625, although he continued to serve Mme. de
Gondi until her death later that year.
Members of this new Congregation of the Mission
were secular priests who were devoted to ministry in
the towns and villages, vowing to live in poverty,
chastity, obedience and stability. They tended the poor
and sick and provided seminaries for those considering
the priesthood. In 1632, Pope Urban VIII (r. 1623–44)
approved the rules of the community, and in 1633 the
archbishop gave Vincent the priory of St. Lazare, which
became the motherhouse. Henceforth the fathers often
were called Lazarists but are also known as Vincentians.
Besides the mission, Vincent also held retreats,
conferences and seminaries at St. Lazare and at Bon
Enfants to adequately educate clerics and those in religious
orders about the spiritual and practical aspects of
their vocation.
In 1633, Vincent and St. Louise de Marillac cofounded
the Sisters (also called the Daughters) of
Charity. The Sisters undertook more direct service and
hospital work than the original Confraternities of
Charity, renamed the Ladies of Charity, could handle.
Through generous contributions from wealthy families,
the Ladies of Charity and even Cardinal Richelieu,
Vincent was able to establish asylums and hospitals
for the old, the sick, the insane, foundling infants, or-
Vincent of Lérins 345
phans, beggars, the poor, galley convicts—all who suffered,
whether physically, emotionally or spiritually.
Vincent was active in the politics of his day and at
court as well, always seeking opportunities to serve.
When Cardinal Richelieu brought France into the
fighting against Germany in 1635, during the Thirty
Years’ War, Vincent organized relief for the war-torn
province of Lorraine. He attended King Louis XIII on
his deathbed in 1643 and remained a valued adviser to
the king’s widow, Anne of Austria, who became regent
on behalf of the five-year-old dauphin Louis XIV.
Remembering his own enslavement, Vincent raised
enough funds to free 1,200 slaves in North Africa and
acted as agent for the families. During the Fronde, a
period of rebellion by the nobility against the monarchy
in 1649–53, Vincent worked tirelessly to petition
Anne for clemency for the nobles and the establishment
of peace. He implored her to dismiss her minister,
Cardinal Mazarin, for the good of France, but she
declined (giving credence to rumors that Jules
Mazarin, born Giulio Mazarini, was secretly married to
Anne after Louis XIII’s death).
Not long after assuming the regency, Anne had
named Vincent the head of the Council of Conscience,
a panel charged with reforming ecclesiastical abuse,
particularly the bestowing of wealthy religious
benefices to aristocrats who were often too young or
spiritually untrained for the posts. At one meeting, the
Comtesse de Chavigny took great offense at Vincent’s
refusal to approve an abbacy for her five-year-old son.
Supposedly she threw a stool at Vincent, hitting him in
the head. Walking calmly from the room, bleeding,
Vincent commented, “What a wonderful thing is
mother love!” Vincent’s efforts at reform annoyed Cardinal
Mazarin, who had ascended to his position as
cardinal without ever being ordained a priest. Finally,
Mazarin quit informing Vincent of the council’s meetings
and removed him in 1652.
A staunch defender of the faith, Vincent fought vigorously
against the Jansenist heresy. Cornelius Jansen
was a Dutch Catholic theologian and bishop of Ypres
who attempted to reform the faith by returning to the
principles of St. Augustine. His treatise “Augustinus”
and emphasis on personal holiness received wide
acceptance in France. Vincent took issue with the
bishop’s belief in predestination, denying man’s free
will and ability to contribute to his salvation—in other
words, some few are chosen but most are not—and
campaigned for the pope to condemn these ideas.
At the end of his life Vincent suffered ill health and
became unable to visit his many ministries. He died
peacefully in his chair on September 27, 1660, and
was buried in the motherhouse at St. Lazare. St. Louise
de Marillac died later that year. In Vincent’s spirit,

346 Vitalian
Frédéric Ozanam founded the St. Vincent de Paul Society
in Paris in 1833. Pope Leo XIII declared Vincent
the patron of all charitable societies in 1885.
During the French Revolution, enraged citizens
ransacked St. Lazare on July 13, 1789, the day before
the crowds stormed the Bastille. All of the community’s
buildings were confiscated in 1792; the current motherhouse
in Paris was given to the congregation in 1817
as compensation. But when the mob broke into the
Pantheon and destroyed the religious statues, supposedly
they spared the statue of Vincent de Paul, for even
the most angry and desperate realized that he was the
friend of all.
Beatified: August 13, 1729, by Pope Benedict XIII
Canonized: June 16, 1737, by Pope Clement XII
Feast: September 27
Patronage: charities and charitable societies; horses;
hospitals; hospital workers; lepers and leprosy;
lost articles; prisoners; spiritual help; St. Vincent
de Paul Societies; Vincentian Service Corps; volunteers;
Madagascar
FURTHER READING
Freund, John C.M. “Saint Vincent de Paul: Following Christ”
and “Chronology of Important Dates.” URL: http://www.
cptryon.org. Downloaded: October 10, 2000.
“Vincent de Paul.” St. Vincent de Paul Society (England and
Wales), 1998. URL: http://home.btconnect.com. Downloaded:
August 15, 2000.
Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac: Rules, Conferences and
Writings. Frances Ryan and John E. Rybolt, eds. Mahwah,
N.J.: Paulist Press, 1995.
“Vincent de Paul, Helper of the Poor.” URL: http://elvis.
rowan.edu. Downloaded: October 10, 2000.
Vitalian (d. 672) Pope
Vitalian was born in Segni, Campagna (Italy), the son
of Anastasius. He entered the priesthood and was
active in the Church of Rome, being consecrated
bishop to replace Pope St. Eugene I on July 30, 657.
Vitalian continued the Roman Church’s battle
against Monothelitism that had so occupied his immediate
predecessors. He was on better terms than they
with Byzantine emperor Constans II, and after Constans
was assassinated in 688, supported his son, Constantine
IV, in his political struggles. However, he was
unable to get Byzantium to abrogate the heresy.
He was more successful in promoting Catholicism
in the West. In 664, at the Synod of Streaneshalch
(Whitby), King Oswy of Northumberland decided to
observe Easter according to the Roman Church and to
follow it in the shape of the tonsure. He dispatched a
candidate for archbishop to be consecrated by the
pope, but the man died in Rome. Vitalian then decided
to send St. Theodore of Tarsus in his stead. Theodore
was consecrated by Vitalian on March 26, 688, and
went to England, where he was recognized as archbishop
of Canterbury and head of the Church in England
by all the clergy.
Vitalian died on January 27, 672, and was buried in
St. Peter’s at the Vatican.
Feast: January 27
Vladimir I of Kiev (ca. 956–1015) Patron saint of
Russia
Also known as: Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Vladimir the
Great, Svyatoy Vladimir, Vladimir Veliky
Grand Duke Vladimir I was the illegitimate third son
of Svyatoslav by his favorite court mistress Olga
Malushka. His great-grandfather, the Varangian adventurer
Oleg, had ousted the Viking invaders from the
Slavic city-state of Novgorod in the ninth century and
eventually expanded his kingdom to include the principality
of Kiev, forming Kievan Rus. By the early 10th
century, Kievan Rus was economically stable enough to
challenge the nearby Byzantine Empire and establish
trade routes. Oleg’s son Igor, Vladimir’s grandfather,
was killed in 945 during a trading expedition.
Vladimir’s grandmother, St. Olga, could not convert
her son Svyatoslav to Christianity, and his three
sons—Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir—lived as pagan
chieftains. Before Svyatoslav’s murder in 970 at the
hands of his own barbarian tribes (legend tells that the
men were so angry at their defeat by the Byzantines at
Arcadiopolis that they used Svyatoslav’s empty skull as
a drinking vessel), he had divided his kingdom, giving
the grand duchy of Kiev to Yaropolk and the Drevlani
(now part of Poland and Hungary) to Oleg. Vladimir
received the rebellious Russian capital of Novgorod.
War broke out between Yaropolk and Oleg, with
Yaropolk conquering Drevlani and ousting his brother.
Vladimir feared a similar fate and fled to his Varangian
uncle in Scandinavia, leaving Novgorod vulnerable to
attack. Yaropolk conquered the city and united all the
principalities of Russia under his reign. But by 980
Vladimir had not only retaken Novgorod but had also
conquered the city of Polotzk and slain its prince,
Ragvald, and had married Ragvald’s daughter Ragnilda,
who was supposed to marry Yaropolk. Vladimir
then took Kiev and Rodno, where he killed Yaropolk,
and declared himself grand duke of Kiev and all Russia.
Russia now extended from the Ukraine to the Baltic
Sea. Vladimir lived like an Eastern pasha, with at least
four, and possibly six, other wives besides Ragnilda
and many concubines. He built pagan temples and was

umored to practice strange rites. Before becoming
grand duke, Vladimir had nominally converted to
Islam, but he reverted to his pagan upbringing. Realizing,
however, what a unifying force religion could be,
Vladimir reportedly invited representatives of Latin
Christianity, Eastern Christianity, Judaism and Islam to
make presentations for his consideration. He liked the
Muslim practice of having many women to enjoy but
disliked the rules against drink. The German Christians
were no better since they emphasized fasting and
celibacy (the Germans also represented a political
threat to Russian sovereignty). And Vladimir could not
believe the Khazarian Jews had any real religious
authority if God had scattered them throughout the
world as punishment for their unfaithfulness.
Finally a representative from the Orthodox patriarch
made his appeal, and Vladimir supposedly chose
the Eastern Church because of its beautiful liturgy and
art. A more likely consideration was Vladimir’s desire
to maintain independence from the Germans. He
remembered that his grandmother, St. Olga, had been
Orthodox.
About 987, Byzantine emperor Basil II appealed to
Vladimir for help in putting down an insurrection, and
Vladimir requested marriage to Basil’s sister Anne in
return. Basil II replied that his sister, a devout Christian,
could not marry a heathen, but that he would consider
the union if Vladimir converted. Vladimir
acquiesced, and a pact was reached. In 988 Vladimir
was baptized by the Orthodox metropolitan Michael
and took the baptismal name Basil, then married
Princess Anne. Marriage to Anne was quite a coup, as
she was born in the Porphyra, the purple marble bedroom
of the Byzantine empress, and was thereby considered
the most desirable consort in Christendom. It
is from this that the phrase “to the purple born” originates.
Emperor Otto I had already sought Anne’s hand
for his son Otto II, as had the French king Hugh Capet
for his son Robert. Vladimir was the first foreigner to
marry a “purple” princess.
Vladimir may have chosen Christianity because of
political reasons, but once he accepted the faith he
embraced it wholeheartedly. Upon his marriage to
Vladimir I of Kiev 347
Anne he put away all other wives and concubines. He
built churches and monasteries, ordered the conversion
of Kiev and Novgorod with penalties for resistance,
and threw pagan idols into the Dnieper River.
Although Vladimir adopted the Byzantine rites in the
Old Church Slavonic language, he maintained ties with
Rome, introduced tithing in the East, and exchanged
papal legates. He expanded schools and the justice system,
even questioning the use of capital punishment.
In 989 he built the large Church of St. Mary Ever Virgin
in Kiev, usually called the Desyatinnya Sobor, or
Cathedral of the Tithes.
Anne and Vladimir, now called the Fair Sun, had
two sons, Boris and Gleb, martyrs also known as SS.
Romanus and David. When Anne died in 1011,
Vladimir remarried, and their daughter became the
consort of Casimir I, Restorer of Poland.
Vladimir’s later years were spent in dealings with
his children from the earlier marriages. In keeping
with ancestral custom, Vladimir had divided his kingdom
among his children. One son, Vsevolod, prince of
Volhynia, met an untimely death in a fire when his
pursuit of the widowed queen Sigrid of Sweden displeased
her. Vladimir’s son Yaroslav became prince of
Novgorod, but he rebelled against homage to his father
and refused service and tribute. In 1014 Vladimir prepared
to march on Novgorod, but Yaroslav called in
Varangian forces, just as his father had done 34 years
earlier.
Vladimir died while on campaign in Berestova, near
Kiev, on July 15, 1015. His death ignited a brutal civil
war, with Yaroslav the eventual victor over his brother
Mstislav. Yaroslav came to be called “the Wise” as he
ruled over a united Russia; supported trade, education
and the arts; built the Great Gate of Kiev; and helped
draft the Ruskais Pravda, the first law code in Russia.
Feast: July 15
Patronage: converts; kings; murderers; parents of
large families; Russia
FURTHER READING
Reston, James, Jr. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year
1000 A.D. New York: Doubleday, 1998.

Walburga (710–779) Abbess
Walburga was born in Devonshire, England, around
710. She was the daughter of a West Saxon chieftain
and the sister of SS. Willibald and Winebald (also
given as Winnebald and Wunebald). She was educated
at Wimborne Monastery in Dorset, where she became a
nun. In 748, she was sent with St. Lioba to Germany to
help St. Boniface in his missionary work. She spent
two years at Bishofsheim. Her brother Winebald,
bishop of Eichstadt, appointed her abbess of the Benedictine
double monastery at Heidenheim, which he
had founded. Walburga served as superior of both men
and women until her death in 779.
She was buried first at Heidenheim. Between 870
and 879 her body was interred next to that of her
brother Winebald in the Holy Cross Church at Eichstadt.
The Church of St. Walburga is there today.
After the remains were moved, Walburga’s bones
began to secrete a manna called “pearls,” a clear, tasteless
and odorless liquid described as resembling fresh
water and said to have great healing power. For more
than 10 centuries, this manna—also called an oil—
has been collected by Benedictine nuns, bottled and
given out to the faithful. It is consumed and used as an
ointment.
The bones are housed in a reliquary that has two
compartments separated by a shelf. The bones rest in a
Wf
349
silver bowl in the top compartment. A silver shell is in
the bottom compartment. Oil from the bones drips
through silver pipes into the shell. It is collected and
placed into ampules.
The oil flow begins every year between October 12,
the date her remains were moved, and stops on February
25, the date of the anniversary of her death.
In the Roman Martyrology, Walburga’s feast day was
observed on May 1, which became known as Walburga’s
night, or Walpurgisnacht. May 1 was a major
pagan festival, Beltane, which became demonized as a
night of witches’ revelries. Rites were performed on
this night for protection against witches and witchcraft.
Feast: February 25
Patronage: crops; against famine; against plagues
Wenceslaus (d. 929) Duke of Bohemia, patron saint of
Bohemia and of other parts of the present Czech Republic,
martyr
Also known as: Wenceslas
Wenceslaus was born near Prague, the older of two
sons of Ratislav, king of Bohemia, and his wife, Drahomira.
He was raised by his grandmother, Ludmila, a
convert. He was still a boy when his father was killed
fighting the Magyars. Drahomira assumed control of

350 William of Norwich
St. Walburga
the government and pursued a vigorous anti-Christian
policy and a cruel reign. Fearing the influence of Ludmila,
Drahomira had her strangled in her castle.
Wenceslaus overthrew his mother in about 924 or 925
and banished her to Budech.
After Wenceslaus restored a more moderate reign
that encouraged Christianity, he recalled his mother,
who evidently posed no further problem. But when the
duke married and had a son, his brother Boleslaus
(also Boleslav) lost his succession to the throne, and
began plotting against him. Wenceslaus also lost popu-
larity as a result of his capitulation to the invading
German king, Henry I the Fowler.
In September 929 Boleslaus invited Wenceslaus to
celebrate the feast of its patron saints, Cosmas and
Damian. As Wenceslaus went to Mass on the morning
after the festival, Boleslaus and his companion knights
attacked him. The two brothers fought, and then the
friends of Boleslaus killed the duke.
Wenceslaus immediately was proclaimed a martyr,
and miracles were reported at his tomb. Fearful of the
growing cult, Boleslaus three years later had the body
translated to the Church of St. Vitus in Prague, which
then became a site of pilgrimage.
Wenceslaus is featured in the Christmas carol,
“Good King Wenceslaus.”
Feast: September 28
Patronage: Czech Republic
William of Norwich (d. 144) Alleged martyr
William of Norwich supposedly was a boy apprenticed
to a tanner in Norwich, England. When he was 12
years old, the Jews in the town plotted to mock the
Crucifixion at Passover by kidnaping him, torturing
him and murdering him. They bound him up, pierced
him with nails to mimic the wounds of Christ and then
poured boiling water over him.
No historical basis for the story has been found,
and it probably was written to appeal to medieval
Christian beliefs that, during Passover, Jews would
steal children and put them to death. The story served
to stir up anti-Jewish sentiments.
The complete story, The Life and Miracles of St.
William of Norwich, was written in 1173 by Thomas of
Monmouth, a monk in the Norwich Benedictine abbey.
The cult is now suppressed.
Feast: formerly March 26
FURTHER READING
Thomas of Monmouth. The Life and Miracles of St. William of
Norwich. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/
1173williamnorwich.html. Downloaded: August 20,
2000.

Zachary (first century) Father of St. John the Baptist
Name meaning: Jehovah hath remembered
Also known as: Zacharius; Zechariah
Little is known about Zachary. He is mentioned in
Luke 1 in connection with the birth of John. He
belonged to the tribe of Abia (Abijah) and was married
to Elizabeth, kinswoman of Mary (destined to become
the Blessed Virgin Mary). He was a priest in the temple
at Jerusalem.
Zachary and Elizabeth were childless and well
advanced in years when they were informed by Gabriel
the Archangel that Elizabeth would bear a child.
Zachary received this news one day while he was performing
his assigned rites in the temple and was alone
at the altar. Gabriel appeared on his right and said that
the couple’s prayers would be answered with the birth
of a son, who was to be named John. Zachary doubted
this because of their ages and so asked for a sign.
Gabriel said he would be stricken dumb and would
regain his speech when the prophecy was fulfilled. The
angel departed and Zachary could not speak.
Elizabeth did conceive and she bore a son. After
eight days, the parents took him to the temple to be
circumcised. Elizabeth said the child’s name was John,
but the priests did not believe her, saying no one in her
family was named thus. Zachary, still dumb, wrote on a
tablet for the priest, “His name is John.” At that
Zf
351
Zachary and the angel

352 Zachary I
moment his speech was restored and he began to
praise the Lord.
According to ex-canonical sources, Zachary was
killed when he refused to tell King Herod the location
of his son.
Feast: November 5 (with Elizabeth)
Zachary I (d. 752) Pope
Also known as: Zacharias I
Zachary was born at San Severino, Calabria, Italy, of
Greek parents. He joined the priesthood and was made
a deacon in the Roman Church by Pope St. Gregory III
(r. 731–741). Immediately after Gregory’s burial on
November 29, 741, Zachary was unanimously elected
his successor. He was consecrated and enthroned on
December 5.
Zachary was soon called upon to intervene with
King Liutprand of the Lombards, who was about to
invade Roman lands. Legend has it that the Lombards
were moved to tears at the devotion with which they
heard Zachary say Mass. He presented Liutprand (St.
Ratchis) with a Benedictine habit. More important, he
succeeded not only in dissuading Liutprand from his
campaign but also in getting him to return lands he
had seized and occupied for 30 years, and in winning
the liberty of all Roman prisoners of war—concessions
that led to a lasting peace between the Lombards and
the Eastern Empire.
At the same time, Zachary sowed the seeds for the
Papal-Frankish alliance, which also was to have lasting
implications for the Roman Church. Relations between
Rome and the Eastern churches, led by Constantinople,
had been strained for some time over Iconoclasm,
the Muslim-influenced movement that banned
the worship of images. Meanwhile, St. Boniface in Germany
was shoring up the Roman Church’s influence
with the Franks. Zachary instructed Boniface to recognize
baptisms of persons whose Latin was imperfect,
on the grounds that it was the intention that was
important. He also told him to suspend polygamous
and murderous priests and to abolish superstitious
practices, even those that were then current in Rome.
Zachary is remembered also for translating the Dialogues
of Gregory the Great (Gregory I, r. 590–604)
from Latin into Greek, for providing refuge to nuns
driven from Constantinople by the Iconoclasts, and for
opposing the Mediterranean slave trade. He ransomed
slaves from the Venetians and forbade the selling of
Christian slaves to the Muslim Moors. He also aided
the poor of Rome. So great was his popularity that he
began to be venerated as a saint immediately after his
death in 752.
In art, Zachary is shown making peace with King
Liutprand. Sometimes he has a dove and olive branch
over him.
Feast: March 15 (formerly March 22; in the East,
September 5)
Zephyrinus (d. 217) Pope and martyr
Zephyrinus was born in Rome. He succeeded St. Victor
I as bishop of Rome about the year 199. He was apparently
a simple man, without higher learning, who
devoted himself more to practical matters than to theological
pronouncements. Immediately upon his election,
he called St. Callistus to Rome from Antium,
ordained him deacon, and put him charge of the
Church’s coemeterium (cemetery) on the Appian Way.
Callistus also became Zephyrinus’s counselor and succeeded
him in 217.
The pontificate of Zephyrinus was marked by the
ongoing challenge to the Church from heretical sects.
Victor had excommunicated Theodotus the Tanner
and members of his group, the Monarchians. Monarchians
denied the Trinity, declaring that it was God
who died on the cross and that Jesus was merely a man
who had received supernatural powers at baptism. The
sect continued in Rome after its excommunication and
persuaded a confessor named Natalis to be ordained
bishop for a fee. Natalis accepted, but began to experience
dreams in which he received warnings. He paid
little attention to these until he dreamt that he had
been severely tortured by angels. He then put on
a penitential garment, covered himself with ashes and
presented himself to Zephyrinus. Confessing his
wrongdoing, he begged to be received again into the
Church, which in the end Zephyrinus granted. However,
he took no action against the Monarchians or
other rival schools of the day; critics charged that he
himself was Monarchian.
The imperial attitude toward Christianity, which
had been exceptionally tolerant for a decade, took a
turn for the worse in 202 or 203 when Emperor Septimius
Severus (r. 193–211) issued an edict that
forbade conversion to Christianity under any circumstance.
Zephyrinus died a few years later, probably in
217. He is listed in the Roman Martyrology, though it
is not certain that he was killed, because his body—
placed originally in its own tomb over the Appian
Way cemetery and now interred in the San Sisto Vecchio
Church in Rome—is intact. He may have been
considered a martyr for his faith because of the trials
he underwent.
In art, Zephyrinus is shown as a pope with a sword.
Feast: August 26

Zita (1218–1272) Servant renowned for her charity
and miracles
Zita was born at Monte Sagrati, Italy, into a poor but
holy Christian family. Her older sister became a Cistercian
nun and her uncle Graziano was a hermit whom
the local people regarded as a saint. Zita herself always
tried to do God’s will obediently whenever it was
pointed out to her by her mother. At the age of 12 Zita
became a housekeeper in the home of the wealthy
Fatinelli family in Lucca, eight miles from her home at
Monte Sagrati. The other servants took an immediate
dislike to her because she worked hard, prayed and
went to Mass daily, and gave away food and clothing—
including those of her employers—to the poor. In
time, she won over the members of the household.
Zita’s generosity with her employer’s goods once
nearly got her into trouble. She gave away a lot of the
household stock of beans. When Signor Fatinelli
decided to inspect the stock, intending to sell it, Zita
worried. The supply, however, had been miraculously
replenished.
St. Zita
According to tradition, she had extra help that
enabled her to do an extraordinary amount of work.
Zita went to Mass and prayed every day. One day she
stayed in church too long and was late starting her
baking. When she arrived home, she found loaves of
bread prepared and neatly laid out in rows in the
kitchen, ready to be baked. Another story tells that the
other servants found an angel taking Zita’s place in
baking and cleaning.
Because of her efficiency, she was given a free reign
over her working schedule. She visited the sick and those
in prison. She was sought out by many important people.
Zita stayed with the Fatinelli family for the last 48
years of her life. She died in 1278 and was buried in
the Church of St. Frediano in Lucca. Her casket was
opened in 1446 and 1581 and her body was found to
be dark and dry, but incorrupt. She is now enshrined in
a glass-sided reliquary in the church.
In art Zita is depicted with a bag and keys, or loaves
of bread and a rosary.
Canonized: 1696 by Pope Innocent XII
Feast: April 27
Patronage: domestic workers and servants
Zosimus (d. 418) Pope
Also known as: Zozimus
Nothing is known about the life of the Greek Zosimus,
son of the priest Abram, before he was consecrated
bishop of Rome to succeed Pope St. Innocent I on
March 18, 417.
Like his recent predecessors, Zosimus acted decisively
as head of the universal church. However, he ran
into trouble when he attempted to overrule certain
African bishops in their efforts to discipline their own
priests. There was in Africa a well-prescribed system of
appeal of ecclesiastical decisions, but the defrocked
priests appealed directly to Rome, and Zosimus made
the mistake of backing the priests without first allowing
the appeals process to run its course. He also
caused confusion by referring to a decision of the
Council of Nicaea when in reality it had come from the
Council of Sardica, and was unknown in Africa. The
resulting crisis was but the latest tension in easternwestern
Church relations that was eventually to lead to
a parting of ways between them.
Zosimus issued decrees instructing deacons in the
country parishes of the Roman Church to wear the
maniple on the dedication of the Easter candles and
forbidding clerics to visit taverns.
He died on December 27, 418, after a reign of 21
months, and was buried in the sepulchral Church of St.
Laurence in Agro Verano.
Feast: December 26
Zosimus 353

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 PATRON SAINTS BY TOPIC
APPENDIX 2 PATRON SAINTS OF COUNTRIES, CITIES,
TOWNS, REGIONS, PLACES AND PEOPLES
APPENDIX 3 CALENDAR OF FEAST DAYS
APPENDIX 4 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
APPENDIX 5 DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH
APPENDIX 6 BEATIFIED AND CANONIZED POPES
APPENDIX 7 BEATIFICATION AND CANONIZATION
APPENDIX 8 GLOSSARY OFTERMS
APPENDIX 9 CALENDAR OF FEASTS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
APPENDIX 10 AUTHENTICATED APPARITIONS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
APPENDIX 11 UNAUTHENTICATED APPARITIONS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
APPENDIX 12 GLOSSARY OF HERESIES AND SCHISMS

Saints can be petitioned for their intercession in any
matter, but many of them have areas of specialty, or
patronage. Patronages are related to the saints’ interests
and activities during life, or perhaps events that happened
to them. Patronages are designated by venerable
tradition and sometimes by papal decree. Many early
saints and martyrs are patrons, but under present practices
only canonized saints can become patrons.
A
Abandoned children: Jerome Emiliani
Abuse victims: Adelaide; Agostina Pietrantoni; Joaquina
de Vedruna
Academics: Thomas Aquinas
Accidents (against): Christopher
Accommodations: Gertrude of Nivelles
Accountants: Matthew the Apostle
Actors: Genesius; Vitus
Actresses: Pelagia
Adopted children: Clotilde; Thomas More
Adultery victims: Elizabeth of Portugal; Marguerite
d’Youville
Advertising: Bernardino of Siena
African Americans: Benedict the Black; Peter Claver
African missions: Thérèse of Lisieux
Agricultural workers: Phocas
AIDS caregivers: Aloysius Gonzaga
AIDS sufferers: Aloysius Gonzaga; Thérèse of Lisieux
Aircraft pilots: Thérèse of Lisieux
Air crews: Thérèse of Lisieux
Air travelers: Joseph of Cupertino
Alcoholics: John of God; Monica
Alpine guides: Agatha
Alpinists: Bernard of Montjoix
Altar boys and girls: John Berchmans
Altar servers: John Berchmans
Ammunition workers: Barbara
APPENDIX 1
PATRON SAINTS BY TOPIC
357
Amputees: Anthony of Padua; Anthony
Anesthetists: Rene Goupil
Anglers: Andrew the Apostle
Animals: Anthony of Padua; Francis of Assisi
Animals, domestic: Ambrose
Apologists: Justin Martyr
Apoplexy (against): Andrew Avellino
Apostleship of prayer: Francis Xavier
Apothecaries: James the Greater, Apostle; James the
Lesser, Apostle; Raphael the Archangel
Apple orchards: Charles Borromeo
Apprentices: John Bosco
Archaeologists: Damasus I; Helen
Archers: Sebastian
Architects: Barbara; Thomas the Apostle
Armorers: Dunstan; Sebastian
Art: Catherine of Bologna
Art dealers: John the Divine
Art guilds: Luke the Evangelist
Arthritis (against): James the Greater, Apostle
Artillery: Barbara
Artists: Catherine of Bologna; Luke the Evangelist
Art schools: Luke the Evangelist
Astronauts: John the Divine; Joseph of Cupertino
Astronomers: Dominic
Athletes: Sebastian
Attorneys: Francis de Sales; Mark the Evangelist
Authors: Lucy; Francis de Sales; Paul
Aviators: Joseph of Cupertino; Thérèse of Lisieux; Our
Lady of Loretto
B
Babies: Holy Innocents; Zeno
Bachelors: Theobald; Christopher
Bad luck (against): Agricola of Avignon
Bad weather (against): Eurosia

358 Appendices
Bakers: Elizabeth of Hungary; Honoratus; Nicholas;
Meingold
Bakers of honeybread: Ambrose
Bankers: Matthew the Apostle
Baptism: John the Baptist
Barbers: Louis IX; Cosmas and Damian; Martin de
Porres
Barrelmakers: Abdon; Senen
Barren women: Anthony of Padua; Felicitas
Barristers: Mark the Evangelist
Basketweavers: Anthony
Battle: Michael the Archangel
Beekeepers: Ambrose; Valentine
Bees: Ambrose; Bernard of Clairvaux
Beggars: Alexis; Giles; Benedict Joseph Labre
Belgian air crews: Thérèse of Lisieux
Bell founders: Agatha
Beltmakers: Alexis
Betrothed couples: Ambrose Sansedoni; Valentine
Birds: Gall; Francis of Assisi
Birth: Margaret of Antioch
Bishops: Ambrose
Black Catholic missions: Peter Claver
Black missions: Thérèse of Lisieux
Blacks: Martin de Porres
Blacksmiths: Brigid of Ireland; Dunstan; James the
Greater, Apostle
Bleeding (against): Bernadine of Siena; Rita of Cascio
Blind people: Lucy of Syracuse; Clare of Assisi; Lawrence
the Illuminator; Odilia; Raphael the Archangel;
Thomas the Apostle
Blood banks: Januarius
Boarding schools: Charles Borromeo
Boatmen: Anthony of Padua; Brendan of Clonfort;
Brigid of Ireland; Julian the Hospitaller
Bodily ills: Angela Merici; Terese of the Andes;
Thérèse of Lisieux
Bookbinders: Bartholomew the Apostle; Luke the
Evangelist; Celestine V; Columba; John the Divine;
Peter; Sebastian
Bookkeepers: Matthew the Apostle
Booksellers: John of God; John the Divine
Bowel disorders (against): Bonaventure
Boys: Nicholas
Boy Scouts: George
Brass workers: Barbara
Breast disease (against): Agatha
Breast Feeding: Giles
Brewers: Arnulf of Metz; Augustine of Hippo; Luke the
Evangelist; Nicholas
Bricklayers: Stephen; Stephen of Hungary
Brick makers: Vincent Ferrer
Brides: Adelaide; Clotilde; Elizabeth of Portugal; John
Nepomucene; Nicholas; Dorothy; Tugal
Bridge builders: Peter
Bridges: John Nepomucene
Broadcasters: Gabriel the Archangel
Broken bones (against): Stanislaus Kostka
Broommakers: Anne, Matron
Bruises (against): Amalburga
Brushmakers: Anthony
Builders: Barbara; Blaise; Louis IX; Thomas the Apostle;
Vincent Ferrer
Burglary (against): Leonard
Burns (against): John the Divine
Bus drivers: Christopher
Businessmen: Homobonus
Businesswomen: Margaret Clitherow
Butchers: Adrian; Anthony; Luke the Evangelist
Butlers: Luke the Evangelist
Buttonmakers: Louis IX
C
Cab drivers: Fiacre
Cabinetmakers: Anne
Cancer victims: Ezequial Moreno; Peregrine Laziosi;
Bernard of Clairvaux
Candlemakers: Ambrose
Canonists: Raymond of Penafort
Captives: Mark the Evangelist
Carpenters: Anne; Joseph; Thomas the Apostle
Carvers: King Olaf II
Casket makers: Stephen
Catechists: Charles Borromeo; Robert Bellarmine
Catholic action: Francis of Assisi
Catholic press: Francis de Sales
Catholic universities: Thomas Aquinas
Catholic youth: Aloysius Gonzaga
Cats: Gertrude of Nivelles
Cattle: Blaise; Brigid of Ireland
Cattle diseases: Sebastian
Cavalry: George
Cemetery workers: Anthony
Champions: Drausin
Chandlers: Ambrose; Bernard of Clairvaux
Chaplains: John of Capistrano
Charitable societies: Elizabeth of Portugal; Vincent de
Paul
Charitable workers: Elizabeth of Portugal
Chastity: Agnes of Rome; Thomas Aquinas
Chemical industries: Cosmas and Damian
Chest problems (against): Bernadine of Siena
Child abuse victims: Alodia
Childbirth: Gerard Majella; Raymond Nonnatus
Childbirth complications (against): Ulric
Childhood illnesses (against): Aldegund; Pharailidis
Childless people: Anne, Matron; Anne Line

Children: Nicholas; Maria Goretti; Pancras
Children, death of: Alphonsa Hawthorne; Isidore the
Farmer; Joaquina de Vedruna; Louis IX; Marguerite
d’Youville
Children, disappointing: Clotilde
Children, sick: Alphonsa Hawthorne; Beuno; Pharailidis
Children of Mary: Philomena
Children receiving their first communion: Pancras
Children whose parents are not married: Brigid of Ireland
Chills (against): Placid
Chivalry: Demetrius
Choirboys: Dominic Savio; Holy Innocents
Cholera (against): Roch
Choristers: Leo I
Church, The: Joseph
Circus people: Julian the Hospitaller
Civil servants: Thomas More
Clairvoyance: Agabus Clergy, secular: Charles Borromeo;
Thomas Becket
Clerics: Gabriel the Archangel; Gabriel Francis of Our
Lady of Sorrows
Clerks, courtroom: Cassian
Climbers: Bernard of Clairvaux
Clockmakers: Peter
Cloth dyers: Lydia
Cloth workers: Homobonus; Paul the Hermit
Cobblers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Crispin and
Crispinian
Coffeehouse keepers: Drogo
Coin collectors: Stephen the Younger
Colds (against): Maurus
Cold weather (against): Sebald
Colic: Charles Borromeo
Collectors: Benedict Biscop
Colleges: Thomas Aquinas
Comedians: Genesius; Vitus
Communications: Bernardino of Siena; Gabriel the
Archangel
Composers: Cecilia
Compositors: John the Divine
Computer hackers: Columba
Computer technicians: Isidore of Seville
Computer users: Isidore of Seville
Confessors: Alphonsus Marie Liguori; Francis de Sales;
John Nepomucene
Construction workers: Louis IX; Thomas the Apostle;
Vincent Ferrer
Conversion and baptism: John the Baptist
Converts: Anne Line; Helena; Flora; Vladimir I of Kiev
Convulsive children: Scholastica
Cooks: Lawrence; Martha
Coopers: Nicholas
Coppersmiths: Maurus
Corn chandlers: Bartholomew the Apostle
Coughs (against): Quentin
Court workers: Thomas More
Cowherds: Gummarus
Cows: Perpetua
Cramps (against): Maurice; Pancras
Cripples: Giles
Crops: Ansovinus; Walburga
Crusades and Crusaders: Louis IX
Curriers: Simon the Zealot
Customs officials: Matthew the Apostle
Cutlers: Lawrence; Lucy of Syracuse
Appendices 359
D
Dairyworkers: Brigid of Ireland
Dancers: Genesius; Vitus
Deacons: Stephen
Dead, recently: Gertrude of Nivelles
Deaf: Francis de Sales
Death, sudden (against): Andrew Avellino
Death of children (against): Marguerite d’Youville;
Stephen of Hungary
Death row inmates: Dismas
Dentists: Apollonia
Desperate situations: Jude; Gregory of Neocaesare;
Rita of Cascia
Detraction: John Nepomucene
Devil possession (against): Quirinus; Bruno; Dymphna
Dieticians (in hospitals): Martha
Difficult marriages: Alphonsa Hawthorne; Elizabeth
of Portugal; Louis IX; Marguerite d’Youville
Dioceses of Lugano and Basel, Switzerland: Charles
Borromeo
Diplomats: Gabriel the Archangel
Disabled people: Angela Merici
Disasters (against): Genevieve
Displaced persons: Frances Xavier Cabrini
Distillers: Louis IX
Divine intervention: Margaret
Divorce (against): Fabiola; Helena
Divorced people: Alphonsa Hawthorne
Dizziness (against): Avertinus
Dockworkers: Nicholas
Doctors: Blaise; Luke the Evangelist; Cosmas and
Damian; Pantaleon
Dog fanciers: Roque
Dogs: Hubert
Dog bites (against): Hubert
Domestic animals: Anthony
Domestic help: Martha; Zita
Donkeys: Anthony of Padua
Doubt (against): Joseph; Thomas the Apostle

360 Appendices
Doves: David
Drapes: Ursula
Drivers: Fiacre
Drought (against): Swithin; Godberta
Drowning (against): Adjutor
Drug addiction: Maximilian Kolbe
Druggists: Cosmas and Damian; James the Greater,
Apostle; Raphael the Archangel
Dyers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Maurice
Dying: Barbara; Catherine of Siena; Joseph
Dying people: James the Less, Apostle; John of God
Dysentery sufferers: Matrona
E
Earache sufferers: Polycarp of Smyrna
Earthquakes (against): Agatha; Alexis
Ecologists: Francis of Assisi
Ecology: Kateri Tekakwitha
Ecumenists: Cyril and Methodius
Eczema sufferers: Anthony
Editors: John Bosco; John the Divine
Elderly people: Anthony of Padua
Embroiderers: Clare of Assisi; Louis IX; Rose of Lima
Emergencies: Expeditus
Emigrants: Frances Xavier Cabrini
Empresses: Adelaide; Helena
Endurance: Pantaleon
Enemies of religion: Sebastian
Engaged couples: Valentine
Engineers: Ferdinand III; Joseph; Patrick
Engravers: John the Divine
Enlightenment: Our Lady of Good Counsel
Environment: Kateri Tekakwitha
Epidemics (against): Godberta
Epileptics: Anthony; Dymphna; Genesius; Valentine;
Vitus
Ergotism sufferers: Anthony
Eruptions of Mt. Etna (against): Agatha
Evil spirits (against): Agrippina
Excluded people: Patrick
Exiles: Adelaide; Clotilde; Joaquina de Vedruna
Expectant mothers: Anthony of Padua; Elizabeth; Gerard
Majella
Exposure (against): Valerian
Eyes: Lucy of Syracuse
Eye trouble (against): Aloysius Gonzaga; Clare of
Assisi; Herve; Lucy of Syracuse; Raphael the
Archangel
F
Fainting (against): Valentine
Falsely accused: Elizabeth of Portugal; Gerard; Raymond
Nonnatus; Roch
False witness (against): Pancras
Families: Joseph
Family harmony: Dymphna
Famine (against): Domitian; Walburga
Farmers: George; Isidore the Farmer
Farm workers: Isidore the Farmer
Farriers: Eligius; John the Baptist
Fathers: Joseph
Fear of the Lord: Holy Spirit
Ferrymen: Julian the Hospitaller
Fever sufferers: Albert of Trapani; Antoninus; Peter
Fieldworkers: Notburga
Financial officers: Matthew the Apostle
Finding lost objects: Arnulf of Metz
Fire: Agatha; Francis of Assisi
Firefighters: Florian
Fire prevention: Agatha; Barbara; Catherine of Siena
Fireworks: Barbara
First communicants: Imelda; Pius X; Tarsicius
Fishermen: Andrew the Apostle; Anthony of Padua;
Peter
Fishmongers: Andrew the Apostle; Magnus of Scotland
Flight attendants: Bona
Floods (against): Florian
Florentine salt and cheesemakers: Bartholomew the
Apostle
Florists: Dorothy; Thérèse of Lisieux; Rose of Lima
Flour industry workers: Arnulph of Metz
Flower growers: Thérèse of Lisieux
Flyers: Joseph of Cupertino; Our Lady of Loretto
Foot trouble (against): Peter; Victor of Marseilles
Foreign missions: Francis Xavier; Thérèse of Lisieux
Foresters: John Gualbert
Forgotten causes: Jude
Fortifications: Barbara
Fortitude: Holy Spirit
Foundations: Anthony Mary Claret
Founders: Barbara
Foundlings: Holy Innocents
Freemasons: Four Crowned Martyrs
Freezing victims: Sebald; Valerian
French monarchs: Louis IX Friendship: John the
Divine
Fugitives: Brigid of Ireland
Fullers: Anastasius; James the Less, Apostle
Funeral directors: Dismas; James the Greater, Apostle;
Joseph of Arimathea
Furriers: Bartholomew the Apostle; James the Greater,
Apostle
G
Gallstones (against): Albinus; Liberius
Gambling, uncontrolled: Bernardino of Siena; Cajetan

Garage mechanics: Eligius
Gardeners: Adelard; Dorothy; Fiacre; Phocas; Rose of
Lima; Sebastian
Geese: Ambrose
Geometricians: Thomas the Apostle
Gilders: Clare of Assisi
Gingerbread makers: Ambrose
Girdlers: Agatha
Girls: Agnes of Rome
Girl Scouts: Agnes of Rome
Glandular disorders: Cadoc
Glass painters: Clare of Assisi; James Grissinger
Glassworkers: Lucy of Syracuse; Luke the Evangelist
Glaziers: Lucy of Syracuse; Clare of Assisi; Lawrence;
Mark the Evangelist
Glovers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Petroc
Goldsmiths: Anastasius; Dunstan; Luke the Evangelist
Good weather: Agricola of Avignon
Gout (against): Andrew the Apostle; Maurice
Governors: Ferdinand III of Castile
Grandmothers and grandparents: Anne, Matron
Gravediggers: Anthony
Greeting card industry: Valentine
Grocers: Michael the Archangel
Grooms: Hormisdas; Louis IX
Guardians: Mamas
Guards: Matthew the Apostle
Guild, Fraternity, and Brotherhood of the Most Glorious
and Undivided Trinity of London: Clement I
Gunners: Barbara
H
Haberdashers: Louis IX
Hail (against): Ansovinus
Hairdressers: Louis IX
Hairstylists (men): Martin de Porres
Hairstylists (women): Mary Magdalen
Handicapped people: Angela Merici
Hangings (against): Colman
Hangovers (against): Bibliana
Happy death: Joseph
Happy marriage: Valentine
Hardware: Sebastian
Harvests: Anthony of Padua
Harvests, corn: Medard
Hatters: Blaise; James the Less, Apostle; Philip; Severus
Haymakers: Gervase and Protase
Headaches (against): Avertinus; Denis; Pancras; Teresa
of Avila
Healers: Brigid of Ireland
Healing of wounds: Rita of Cascia
Health workers: Martin de Porres
Heart attack sufferers: Teresa of Avila
Appendices 361
Heart patients: John of God
Heirs: Felicity
Hemorrhaging (against): Lucy of Syracuse
Hemorrhoids (against): Fiacre
Hermits: Giles; Anthony
Hernia sufferers: Conrad; Drogo
Hesitation: Joseph
Hoarseness (against): Bernadine of Siena
Holy death (for): Andrew Avellino
Home builders: Our Lady of Loretto
Homeless: Benedict Joseph Labre; Margaret of Cortona
Hopeless cases: Jude
Horned cattle: Colman
Horsemen: Anne, Matron; Martin of Tours
Horses: Anthony of Padua; Hippolytus; Giles
Hosiery workers: Blaise
Hospital administrators: Basil the Great; Frances
Xavier Cabrini
Hospitals: Camillus de Lellis; John of God; Jude; Vincent
de Paul
Hospital workers: Jude; Vincent de Paul
Hotel employees: Amand; Julian the Hospitaller
Housekeepers: Anne, Matron; Martha; Zita
Housewives: Anne, Matron; Monica
Hunters: Eustachius; Hubert
Husbandmen: Isidore the Farmer
I
Illegitimate children: John-Francis Regis
Illness (against): Terese of the Andes; Thérèse of
Lisieux
Immigrants: Francis Xavier Cabrini
Impenitence (against): Barbara; Mark the Evangelist
Impossible causes: Jude
Impotence (against): Winwaloe; Gummarus
Impoverished: Marguerite Bourgeoys; Martin of Tours
Infantrymen: Maurice
Infants: Wite; Nicholas of Tolentino
Infertility (against): Rita of Cascia
Infidelity (against): Monica; Fabiola; Gengulphus
Infidelity victims: Elizabeth of Portugal; Marguerite
d’Youville
Infirmarians: Camillus de Lellis
Injuries (against): Aldegonda
In-law problems: Adelaide; Marguerite d’Youville
Innkeepers: Armand; Julian the Hospitaller; Martin de
Porres
Innocence: Hallvard
Insanity (against): Dymphna; Fillan
Insect bites (against): Mark the Evangelist
Internet: Isidore of Seville
Intestinal diseases (against): Elmo; Bonaventure
Invalids: Roch

362 Appendices
Irish nuns: Brigid of Ireland
Ironmongers: Sebastian
J
Janitors: Theobald
Jaundice sufferers: Albert of Trapani
Jealousy (against): Elizabeth of Portugal; Hedwig
Jealousy victims: Elizabeth of Portugal
Jesuit Order: Ignatius Loyola
Jewelers: Agatha; Dunstan; Eligius
Journalists: Francis de Sales; Paul
Jurists: Catherine of Alexandria; John of Capistrano;
Ivo Kermartin
K
Kidnapping victims: Arthefius
Kidney disease (against): Albinus
Kings: Louis IX; Olaf Il of Norway; Stephen of Hungary;
Vladimir I of Kiev
Knife sharpeners: Maurice
Knights: Gengulphus; James the Greater, Apostle;
Michael
Knights of Columbus: Columba
Knowledge: Holy Spirit
Korean clergy: Andrew Kim Taegon
L
Laborers: Isidore the Farmer; James the Greater, Apostle;
John Bosco; Lucy of Syracuse
Lacemakers: Anne, Matron; Francis of Assisi; John-
Francis Regis; Luke the Evangelist
Lame people: Clotilde
Lampmakers: Our Lady of Loretto
Last sacraments: Stanislaus
Laundresses: Clare of Assisi; Hunna; Veronica
Lawsuits: Agia
Lawyers: Ivo Kermartin; Genesius; Thomas More
Lay apostolate: Alphonsus Marie Liguori
Lead-founders: Fabian
Lead workers: Sebastian
Learning: Ambrose; Margaret of Scotland
Learning and the arts: Charles Borromeo
Leatherworkers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Crispin
and Crispinian
Lectors: Pollio; Sabas
Leg disorders (against): Servatius
Lepers: Vincent de Paul
Liberal arts: Catherine of Bologna
Librarians: Jerome
Libraries: Jerome
Libraries, public: Charles Borromeo
Lies (against): Felix
Lighthouse keepers: Dunstan; Venerius
Lightning (against): Alexis; Barbara
Linguists: Gotteschalk
Lions: Mark the Evangelist
Lithographers: John the Divine
Livestock: Isidore the Farmer
Living Rosary: Philomena
Locksmiths: Dunstan
Loneliness: Rita of Cascia
Longevity: Peter
Loss of parents: Marguerite Bourgeoys; Marguerite d’Youville;
Thérèse of Lisieux
Lost articles (against): Anne, Matron; Anthony of
Padua; Arnulf of Metz
Lost causes: Jude
Lost souls: Nicholas of Tolentino
Love: Valentine
Lovers: Raphael; Valentine
Lumbago: Lawrence
Lunatics: Christina; Dymphna
Lungs and chest: Bernadine of Siena
M
Machinists: Hubert
Madmen: Romanus
Magistrates: Ferdinand III of Castile
Maidens: Andrew the Apostle; Catherine of Alexandria
Maids: Zita
Manual laborers: James the Greater, Apostle
Marble workers: Clement I
Mariners: Anthony of Padua; Brendan of Clonfort;
Brigid of Ireland; Cuthbert; Michael the Archangel;
Nicholas of Myra; Nicholas of Tolentino
Marital problems (against): Elizabeth of Portugal; Rita
of Cascio; Pharailidis; Hedwig
Married couples: Joseph
Married women: Monica
Martyrs: Agatha; Agostina Petrantoni
Masons: Louis IX; Peter; Stephen of Hungary; Thomas
the Apostle
Mass media: Gabriel the Archangel
Mathematicians: Hubert
Medical social workers: John-Francis Regis
Medical technicians: Albert the Great
Mental disorders (against): Dymphna
Merchants: Armand; Francis of Assisi; Nicholas of
Myra
Messengers: Gabriel the Archangel
Metal workers: Hubert
Midwives: Brigid of Ireland; Margaret of Cortona; Raymond
Nonnatus
Migraine sufferers: Gerson
Military: Theodore Tiro

Military chaplains: John of Capistrano
Millers: Arnulf of Metz; Victor of Marseilles
Milliners: James the Less, Apostle
Miners: Albert the Great; Anne, Matron; Barbara; Piron
Miscarriages (against): Dorothy; Bridget of Sweden
Misfortune (against): Agricola of Avignon
Missionaries: Thérèse of Lisieux
Missionary labors: Barnabas
Missions, foreign: Francis Xavier; Leonard of Port
Maurice; Thérèse of Lisieux; Teresa of Avila
Monastic life: John the Baptist
Monastics: Benedict
Money managers: Matthew the Apostle
Monks: Anthony; Benedict
Moral theologians: Alphonsus Marie Liguori
Mortal dangers (against): Christopher
Morticians: Joseph of Arimathea
Mothers: Anne, Matron; Blessed Virgin Mary; Gerard
Majella; Monica
Motorcyclists: Our Lady of Grace
Motorists: Christopher
Mountaineers: Bernard of Montjoix
Murderers: Vladimir I of Kiev
Music: Arnulf of Metz; Cecilia
Musicians: Benedict Biscop; Cecilia; Dunstan;
Gregory I; Leo I; Odo of Cluny
Mystics: John of the Cross
N
Nailmakers: Claud
Natural disasters (against): Agatha
Naturalists: Albert the Great
Natural sciences students: Albert the Great
Naval officers: Francis of Paola
Navigators: Our Lady, Star of the Sea
Nearsightedness: Clarus
Neck disorders (against): Blaise
Needleworkers: Francis of Assisi; Louis IX; Rose of
Lima
Nerves: Dymphna
Nervous diseases (against): Bartholomew the Apostle
Netmakers: Peter
Newborn babies: Brigid of Ireland
Nightmares (against): Christopher
Notaries: Ives; Luke the Evangelist; Mark the
Evangelist
Nuns: Brigid of Ireland
Nurses: Agatha; Alexis; Camillus de Lellis; John of
God; Raphael the Archangel
Nursing homes: Catherine of Siena; Elizabeth of Hungary
Nursing mothers: Concordia
Nursing service: Elizabeth of Hungary
Appendices 363
O
Oaths: Pancras
Obsession (against): Quirinus
Obstetricians: Raymond Nonnatus
Officials: Thomas Becket
Old clothes dealers: Anne, Matron
Old maids: Andrew the Apostle
Opposition of Church authorities: Marguerite
d’Youville
Oppressed people: Anthony of Padua
Orators: John Chrysostom; Philip Neri
Organ builders: Cecilia
Orphans: Jerome Emiliani; Louise
P
Pain (against): Madron
Painters: Benedict Biscop; John the Divine; Luke the
Evangelist
Papacy: Peter
Paper makers: John the Divine
Paralyzed: Osmund
Paratroopers: Michael the Archangel
Parents (loss of): Alphonsa Hawthorne; Angela Merici;
Marguerite Bourgeoys; Marguerite d’Youville; Mary
of the Incarnation
Parenthood: Adelaide; Clotilde; Ferdinand III of
Castile; Louis IX; Rita of Cascia
Parents of large families: Adalbald of Ostrevant;
Adelaide; Louis IX; Vladimir I of Kiev
Parents separated from their children: Mary of the
Incarnation Parish missions: Thérèse of Lisieux
Parish priests: John Baptiste Marie Vianney
Park services: John Gualbert
Pastry chefs: Philip
Pavement workers: Vincent Ferrer
Pawnbrokers: Nicholas of Myra
Peace: Irene
Peasants: Lucy of Syracuse
Pencil makers: Thomas Aquinas
People of mixed race: Martin de Porres
People rejected by religious orders: Marguerite
Bourgeoys
People ridiculed for their piety: Agostina Petrantoni;
Marguerite d’Youville; Rose of Lima; Teresa Maria
of the Cross
People who have suffered the death of children:
Clotilde
Perfumers: Mary Magdalen
Perjury (against): Pancras
Pestilence (relief from): Aloysius Gonzaga
Pestilence sufferers: Anthony
Pets: Blaise Cecilia; Caedmon

364 Appendices
Pharmacists: Gemma Galgani; Cosmas and Damian;
James the Greater, Apostle; James the Less, Apostle
Philosophers: Catherine of Alexandria; Justin
Martyr
Physical abuse (against): Pharailidis; Louise de
Marillac; Fabiola
Physically disabled: Giles
Physicians: Cosmas and Damian; Luke the Evangelist;
Raphael the Archangel
Pilgrims: Alexis; James the Greater, Apostle; Pius X
Pilots: Joseph of Cupertino
Plagiarists: Columba
Plagues (against): Agricola of Avignon; Aloysius
Gonzaga; Christopher; Genevieve; Roch; Sebastian;
Walburga
Plasterers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Blaise
Plumbers: Vincent Ferrer
Poets: Brigid of Ireland; Columba; David
Poison (against): Benedict; John the Divine
Police officers: Michael the Archangel
Polio: Margaret Mary Alacoque
Political prisoners: Maximilian Kolbe
Poor: Anthony of Padua; Lawrence
Popes: Gregory I
Porters: Christopher
Possession (against): Dymphna
Postal workers: Gabriel the Archangel
Potters: Fabian; Justta and Rufina
Poverty (against): Agostina Petrantoni; Anne, Matron;
Mary of the Incarnation; Regina
Preachers: Catherine of Alexandria; John
Chrysostom
Pregnant women: Anne, Matron; Gerard Majella;
Margaret of Antioch; Raymond Nonnatus
Press: Edmund Campion
Priests: John Baptiste Marie Vianney
Princes: Gottschalk; Casimir
Princesses: Adelaide
Printers: Augustine of Hippo; Genesius; John of God;
John the Divine
Printing press: Brigid of Ireland Prisoners: Adelaide;
Barbara; Beatrix da Silva; Dismas; Louis IX; Vincent
de Paul
Prisoners of war: Leonard
Prisons: Joseph Cafasso
Procrastination (against): Expiditus Professors;
Alphonsus Marie Liguori
Psychics: Agabus
Public education: Martin de Porres
Public health: Martin de Porres
Public libraries: Charles Borromeo
Public relations: Bernardine of Siena; Paul
Publishers: John the Divine; Paul
Q
Queens: Elizabeth of Portugal; Clotilde; Hedwig
R
Rabies (against): Hubert
Race relations: Martin de Porres
Racquet makers: Sebastian
Radiologists: Michael the Archangel
Radio workers: Gabriel the Archangel
Rain (for): Agricola; Isidore the Farmer; Scholastica;
Swithun
Ranchers: Isidore the Farmer
Rape victims: Agatha; Maria Goretti
Rats (against): Gertrude the Great
Reconciliation: Theodore
Refugees: Alban
Religious orders: Benedict Joseph Labre
Repentant prostitutes: Mary Magdalen
Restaurateurs: Laurence
Restoration of religious freedom in Russia: Thérèse of
Lisieux
Retarded children: Hilary of Poitiers
Retreats: Ignatius of Loyola
Rheumatism (against): James the Greater, Apostle
Rheumatoid sufferers: James the Greater, Apostle
Rulers: Ferdinand III of Castile
Runaways: Alodia; Dymphna
S
Saddlers: Crispin and Crispinian; Lucy
Safe journey: Raphael the Archangel
Sailors: Brendan of Clonfort; Christopher; Cuthbert;
Elmo; Erasmus; Michael the Archangel; Our Lady
Star of the Sea
Sales people: Lucy of Syracuse
Savants: Isidore of Seville
Sawyers: Simon the Zealot
Scholars: Bede the Venerable; Brigid of Ireland;
Thomas Aquinas
Schoolchildren: Albert the Great; Ambrose
Schoolgirls: Ursula
Schools: Joseph Calasanz; Thomas Aquinas
Scientists: Albert the Great
Scrofulous diseases (against): Balbina; Mark the
Evangelist
Sculptors: Claude; Four Crowned Martyrs; John the
Divine; Louis IX; Luke the Evangelist
Seafarers: Francis of Paola; Michael the Archangel
Seafood: Corentin
Seamstresses: Anne, Matron
Seasickness (against): Elmo
Second marriages: Adelaide

Second parents: Adelaide
Secretaries: Genesius; Mark the Evangelist
Security guards: Matthew the Apostle
Seminarians: Charles Borromeo
Separation from a spouse: Gummarus; Nicholas of
Flüe; Gengulphus
Servants: Martha; Zita
Service women: Joan of Arc
Sheep raisers: Raphael the Archangel
Shepherdesses: Agatha; Bernadette Soubirous; Regina
Shepherds: Drogo
Shipbuilders: Peter
Shipwrecks (against): Anthony of Padua
Shoemakers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Blaise; Crispin
and Crispinian
Sick children: Pharailidis
Sickness (against): Angela Merici; Thérèse of Lisieux
Sick people: Camillus de Lellis; John of God; Louis IX;
Raphael the Archangel; Terese of the Andes; Thérèse
of Lisieux
Silence: John Nepomucene
Silversmiths: Andronicus; Dunstan
Singers: Andrew the Apostle; Cecilia; Gregory I
Single lay women: Agatha; Andrew the Apostle
Single mothers: Margaret of Cortona
Single women: Catherine of Alexandria
Skaters: Lidwina
Skiers: Bernard of Montjoix
Skin diseases (against): Anthony; Marculf; Peregrine
Laziosi; Roch
Skinners: Petroc
Slander (Against): John Nepomucene
Slavery victims: Peter Claver
Sleep disorders (against): Seven Sleepers of Ephesus
Sleepwalking (against): Dymphna
Smelters: Stephen the Younger
Snakebites (against): Hilary of Poitiers; Patrick; Paul
Snakes: Patrick
Snakes, fear of (against): Patrick
Social justice: Joseph; Martin de Porres
Social workers: Joseph; Louise de Marillac
Soldiers: Joan of Arc; George; Hadrian; Ignatius of
Loyola; Louis IX; Martin of Tours; Sebastian;
Demetrius
Solitary death: Francis of Assisi
Solutions: Expeditus
Songwriters: Caedmon
Sore throats (against): Andrew the Apostle
Spanish air crews: Thérèse of Lisieux
Spanish cattle breeders: Mark the Evangelist
Spanish conquistadors: James the Greater, Apostle
Speleologists: Benedict
Spinsters: Andrew the Apostle; Nicholas of Myra;
Catherine of Siena
Appendices 365
Spiritual directors: Charles Borromeo
Spiritual help: Vincent de Paul
Spiritual retreats and exercises: Ignatius of Loyola
Stable workers: Anne, Matron; Hormisdas
Stained-glass workers: Luke the Evangelist; Mark the
Evangelist Stamp collectors: Gabriel the Archangel
Starvation (against): Anthony of Padua
State schools: Martin de Porres
Stationers: Peter
Steelworkers: Eligius
Stenographers: Cassian; Genesius
Step-parents: Adelaide
Sterility (against): Agatha; Anne, Matron; Anthony of
Padua; Emperor Henry II
Stiff neck (against): Andrew the Apostle
Stockbrokers: Matthew the Apostle
Stomachaches (against): Wolfgang
Stomach diseases (against): Brice; Charles Borromeo
Stonecutters: Blaise; Clement I; Stephen of Hungary;
Thomas the Apostle
Stonemasons: Ambrose; Barbara; Louis IX; Reinhold;
Sebastian; Stephen; Stephen of Hungary
Storms (against): Alexis; Barbara; Scholastica;
Theodore
Storms at sea (against): Petroc
Stress: Walter of Portnoise
Strokes (against): Andrew Avellino
Stroke victims: Andrew Avellino
Struma (against): Balbina; Mark the Evangelist
Students: Albert the Great; Catherine of Alexandria;
Isidore of Seville; Thomas Aquinas
Successful enterprises: Servatius
Sudden death (against): Andrew Avellino; Barbara;
Christopher
Surgeons: Cosmas and Damian; Luke the Evangelist
Swimmers: Adjuto
Swordsmiths: Dunstan; Maurice
Syphilis (against): Fiacre
T
Tailors: Bartholomew the Apostle; Homobonus; John
the Baptist; Martin of Tours
Tanners: Bartholomew the Apostle; Blaise; Crispin and
Crispinian; John the Divine; Simon Stock; Simon
the Zealot
Tax collectors: Matthew the Apostle
Teachers: Catherine of Alexandria; Francis de Sales;
John Baptist de la Salle; Gregory I
Teenagers: Aloysius Gonzaga
Telecommunications workers: Gabriel the Archangel
Telegraph: Gabriel the Archangel
Telephone workers: Gabriel the Archangel
Television: Clare of Assisi; Martin de Porres

366 Appendices
Television workers: Gabriel the Archangel
Temptation: Michael
Tentmakers: Paul
Tertiaries: Elizabeth of Hungary; Elizabeth of Portugal;
Louis IX; Margaret of Cortona
Theologians: Alphonsus Marie Liguori; Augustine of
Hippo; John the Divine; Thomas the Apostle;
Thomas Aquinas
Theology students: Albert the Great
Therapists: Christina
Thieves: Dismas
Throat diseases (against): Blaise; Lucy of Syracuse
Thunderstorms (against): Agrippina
Tile makers: Vincent Ferrer
Tinworkers: Joseph of Arimathea
Toddlers: Vaast
Toothache sufferers: Apollonia
Torture victims: Agatha; Alban; Eustachius; Regina
Toymakers: Claude; Benedict Joseph Labre
Trappers: Bartholomew the Apostle
Travelers: Alexis; Anthony of Padua; Brendan of Clonfort;
Brigid of Ireland; Christopher; Julian the Hospitaller;
Nicholas of Myra; Paul; Raphael the
Archangel; Three Wise Men; Valentine
Treaties: Pancras
Truck drivers: Christopher
Tuberculosis sufferers: Pantaleon; Gemma Galgani;
Thérèse of Lisieux
Tumors: Rita of Cascia
Tuners: Claud
Turners: Anne, Matron
Twitching (against): Bartholomew the Apostle
U
Ulcers (against): Charles Borromeo
Understanding: Holy Spirit
Undertakers: Dismas; Joseph of Arimathea; Sebastian
Unfaithfulness victims: Marguerite d’Youville
Universal church: Joseph
Universities: Contardo Ferrini
Unmarried women: Andrew the Apostle
V
Vanity (against): Rose of Lima
Venetian gondoliers: Lucy of Syracuse
Veterinarians: Blaise; James
Vinegrowers: Bartholomew the Apostle; Tychon
Vintages: Medard
Vintners: Amand; Francis Xavier; Morand; Vincent
Virgins: Agnes of Rome; Blessed Virgin Mary; Joan of
Arc
Vocalists: Cecilia
Vocations: Alphonsus Marie Liguori
Volcanic eruptions (against): Agatha
W
Waitpersons: Martha
War: Elizabeth of Portugal
Warehouses: Barbara
Watchmen: Peter of Alcantara
Watermen: Brigid of Ireland
Wax melters and refiners: Ambrose
Weavers: Anastasia; Anastasius; Barnabas; Blaise; Paul
the Hermit; Maurice
Wet nurses: Agatha
Whales: Brendan of Clonfort
Wheelwrights: Catherine of Alexandria
Whiteners: Bartholomew the Apostle
Widowers: King Edgar the Peaceful
Widows: Adelaide; Anne Line; Clotilde; Elizabeth of
Portugal; Fabiola; Joaquina de Vedruna; Louise;
Marguerite d’Youville; Mary of the Incarnation;
Paula
Wild animals: Blaise Wind musicians: Blaise
Wine merchants: Amand; Walter of Portnoise
Wineries and winegrowers: Amand; Francis Xavier;
Morand; Vincent
Witchcraft (against): Benedict
Wolves (against): Herve; Peter
Women in the air and naval service: Joan of Arc
Women in army corps: Genevieve
Women in labor: Anne, Matron; Leonard
Women who wish to become mothers: Andrew the
Apostle
Women with unfaithful husbands: Clotilde
Woods: Giles
Woodsmen: Wolfgang
Wool dealers: Blaise
Wool workers: Bernadine of Siena
Working men: Joseph
Working women: Flora
Writers: Francis de Sales; John the Divine; Lucy of
Syracuse; Paul
Y
Yachtsmen: Adjutor; Our Lady of the Star of the Sea
Young women: Ursula
Youths: Aloysius Gonzaga; Dominic Savio; Gabriel of
the Sorrowful Mother; John Berchmans; Laura Vicuña;
Maria Goretti; Terese of the Andes; Valentine
Zoos: Francis of Assisi
Z

APPENDIX 2
PATRON SAINTS OF COUNTRIES, CITIES,
TOWNS, REGIONS, PLACES AND PEOPLES
Many saints become patrons of the places where they
lived and worked. They are adopted as patrons of
places and peoples as well, especially if their activities
and accomplishments resonate with others. Saints may
also be named patrons of organizations and places of
learning.
Achaia: Andrew the Apostle
Africa: Our Lady Queen of Africa; Moses the Black
Algeria: Cyprian of Carthage
Alsace: Odilia
Amalfi, Italy: Andrew the Apostle
America: Christopher
America North: Our Lady of Guadalupe
Americas: North American Martyrs
Americas Central and South: Our Lady of Guadalupe;
Rose of Lima
Angola: Immaculate Heart of Mary
Argentina: Our Lady of Luzon; Laura Vicuña
Armenia: Bartholomew the Apostle; Gregory the Illuminator
Asia Minor: John the Divine
Assisi, Italy: Clare of Assisi
Australia: Our Lady Help of Christians; Francis Xavier
Austria: Our Lady of Mariazell; Colman; Stephen
Avranches: Andrew the Apostle
Bavaria: Hedwig
Belgium: Joseph
Blacks: Martin de Porres
Bohemia: Adalbert of Prague; John Nepomucene;
Wenceslaus
Bologna, Italy: Ambrose Borneo: Francis Xavier
Brabant, Germany: Andrew the Apostle
Brazil: Nossa Senhora de Aparecida; Immaculate Conception;
Peter of Alcantara
Brittany: Anne, Matron
367
Brunswick: Andrew the Apostle
Brussels: Michael the Archangel
Burgundy, France: Andrew the Apostle; Bernard of
Clairvaux
Camden, Netherlands: Nicholas of Myra
Canada: Anne, Matron; Joseph
Carthage: Augustine of Hippo
Catania, Sicily: Agatha
Chile: James the Greater, Apostle; Our Lady of Mt.
Carmel
China: Joseph; Francis Xavier
Cologne University: Albert the Great
Colombia: Peter Claver; Luis Beltrán
Corfu, Greece: Nicholas
Corsica: Immaculate Conception; Devota
Cracow, Poland: Stanislaus
Cuba: Our Lady of Charity
Czech Republic: Adalbert of Prague; John Nepomucene;
Wenceslaus
Denmark: Anskar; Canute
Dominican Republic: Our Lady of High Grace;
Dominic
East Indies: Thomas the Apostle
Ecuador: Michael of Ecuador; Sacred Heart
Egypt: Mark the Evangelist
El Salvador: Our Lady of Peace
England: Augustine of Canterbury; George
Estremadura, Spain: Peter of Alcantara
Ethiopia: Frumentius
Europe: Benedict
Finland: Henry of Uppsala
Florence, Italy: Barnabas
France: Our Lady of the Assumption; Joan of Arc;
Thérèse of Lisieux
Freiburg, Switzerland: Nicholas
French Army Commissariat: Ambrose

368 Appendices
Germany: Boniface; Michael
Ghent: Pharailidis
Gibraltar: Bernard of Clairvaux
Goa, India: Francis Xavier
Greece: Andrew the Apostle; Nicholas
Guatemala: James the Greater, Apostle; Pedro de San
José Betancur
Hebrew Nation: Michael the Archangel
Holland: Willibrord
Holstein: Andrew the Apostle
Hungary: Blessed Virgin, Great Lady of Hungary;
Stephen of Hungary
Iceland: Thorlac
India: Our Lady of the Assumption; Thomas the Apostle
Ireland: Brigid of Ireland; Columba; Patrick
Italy: Catherine of Siena; Francis of Assisi
Japan: Peter Baptist; Francis Xavier
Knights of St. John: Casimir
Krakow, Poland: Faustina Kowalska
Latin America: Rose of Lima
Liège diocese: Nicholas
Liguria, Italy: Bernard of Clairvaux
Lithuania: Casimir; Blessed Cunegunda
Lorraine, France: Nicholas
Lyons, France: Bonaventure
Luxembourg: Andrew the Apostle; Philip the Apostle
Madrid, Spain: Isidore the Farmer
Malta: Agatha; Paul; Our Lady of the Assumption
Massa Marittima, Italy: Bernadine of Siena
Mexico: Our Lady of Guadalupe
Milan, Italy: Ambrose; Barnabas
Monaco: Devota
Moravia: Cyril; Methodius
Moscow: Boris; Nicholas
Naples: Andrew Avellino
Naples kingdom: Nicholas
Native Americans: Anthony of Padua
New Zealand: Francis Xavier; Our Lady Help of Christians
Nigeria: Patrick
Norway: Olaf of Norway
Padstow, Cornwall: Petroc
Pakistan: Thomas the Apostle
Paraguay: Martyrs of Paraguay (Roque Gonzalez,
Alphonsus Rodriguez, John of Castillo); Our Lady
of the Assumption
Patras, Greece: Andrew the Apostle
Peru: Joseph; Rose of Lima
Pesaro: Andrew the Apostle
Philippines: Sacred Heart of Mary; Rose of Lima
Plock, Poland: Faustina Kowalska
Poland: Adalbert of Prague; Casimir; Bl. Cunegunda;
Stanislaus; Our Lady of Czestochowa
Portsmouth, England: Thomas Becket
Portugal: Immaculate Conception; Francis Borgia;
Anthony of Padua; Vincent; George
Prussia: Adalbert of Prague
Quebec, Canada: Anne, Matron
Queen’s College, Cambridge, England: Margaret of
Antioch
Rome: Catherine of Siena; Philip Neri
Russia: Andrew the Apostle; Boris; Nicholas; Thérèse
of Lisieux; Vladimir I of Kiev
Salzburg University: Charles Borromeo
Santa Ana Pueblo: Anne, Matron
Scandinavia: Anskar
Scotland: Andrew the Apostle; Columba
Sicily: Nicholas
Siena, Italy: Ambrose Sansedoni, Blessed
Silesia: Hedwig
Slovakia: Our Lady of Sorrows
South Africa: Our Lady of the Assumption
South America: Rose of Lima
Spain: James; Teresa of Avila
Speyer Cathedral, Germany: Bernard of Clairvaux
Sri Lanka (Ceylon): Lawrence; Thomas the Apostle
St. Neot, Cornwall, England: Neot
Sweden: Bridget of Sweden; Gall; Eric
Switzerland: Antiochus; Gall; Nicholas of Flüe
Syria: Addai; Mari
Taos, New Mexico: Anne, Matron; John the Divine
Tigua Indians: Anthony of Padua
Turkey: John the Divine
Ukraine: Josaphat
United States: Immaculate Conception
United States National Rural Life Conference: Isidore
the Farmer
University of Patras: Andrew the Apostle
Uruguay: James the Less, Apostle; Our Lady of Lujan;
Philip
Venezuela: Our Lady of Coromoto
Venice, Italy: Mark the Evangelist
Vilnius, Lithuania: Faustina Kowalska
Wales: David
West Indies: Gertrude the Great; Rose of Lima
Women Appointed for Voluntary Emergency services
(WAVES): Joan of Arc
Women’s Army Corps (WACs): Joan of Arc
Zamarramala, Spain: Agatha

JANUARY
1 Mary, Mother of God
Fulgentius of Ruspe
Gregory of Nazianzus the Elder
2 Basil the Great
Gregory of Nazianzus
Sylvester I (Western Church)
3 Anterus
4 Elizabeth Ann Seton
Pharailidis
5 John Nepomucene Neumann (in United States)
Simeon Stylites
Telesphorus
Emiliana and Tarsilla
6 Brother André Bessette; Blessed Epiphany of Our
Lord (Sunday after) Charles of Sezze
7 Raymond of Penafort
Lucian of Antioch
8 The Baptism of Our Lord
Apollinaris of Hierapolis
9 Marciana
Peter of Sebaste
10 Marcian
Laura Vicuña
Agatho
Gregory X
11 Theodosius the Cenobiarch
Hyginus
12 Marguerite Bourgeoys (Canada)
Arcadius
Benedict Biscop
13 Hilary of Poitiers
Berno
14 Felix of Nola
Macrina the Elder
15 Paul the First Hermit
Macarius the Elder
16 Marcellus I
Fursey
APPENDIX 3
CALENDAR OF FEAST DAYS
369
17 Anthony the Abbot
18 Prisca
19 Canute
Henry of Uppsala
Marguerite Bourgeoys
20 Fabian
Sebastian
21 Agnes of Rome
Meinrad
Maximus of Constantinople (in the East)
22 Vincent
Laura Vicuña
23 Emerentiana
24 Francis de Sales
25 Conversion of Paul
26 Timothy
Titus
Paula
27 Angela Merici
Vitalian
28 Thomas Aquinas
29 Sabinian
30 Martina
Felix IV
31 John Bosco
FEBRUARY
1 John of the Grating
Brigid of Ireland
Ursus
2 The Presentation of Our Lord
Adalbald of Ostrevant
Lawrence of Canterbury
3 Blaise
Ansgar
Blessing of Throats
4 Andrew Corsini
Isidore of Pelusium

370 Appendices
5 Agatha
6 Paul Miki and Companions
7 Theodore of Heraclea
Piux IX, Blessed
Romuald
8 Jerome Emiliani
9 Apollonia
Michael of Ecuador
10 Scholastica
11 Our Lady of Lourdes
Paschal I
12 Marina
Julian the Hospitaller
13 Catherine de’ Ricci
14 Cyril
Methodius
Valentine
15 Agape
16 Gilbert of Sempringham
Juliana of Cumae
17 Seven Holy Helpers
18 Simeon
Colman of Lindisfarne
Leo I (Eastern Church)
19 Mesrop
20 Tyrannio
21 Peter Damian
22 The Chair of Peter the Apostle
23 Polycarp of Smyrna
Peter Damian
24 Praetextatus
25 Victorinus
Walburga
Caesarius of Nazianzus
Jacinta and Francisco Marto
26 Nestor
27 Gabriel Francis of Our Lady of Sorrows
Anne Line
Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
28 Romanus and Lupicinus I
1 David
Felix III
2 Chad
3 Aelred of Rievaulx
Katharine Drexel
4 Casimir
Pope Lucius I
5 Phocas of Antioch
6 Chrodegang of Metz
Colette
7 Perpetua and Felicity
8 John of God
MARCH
9 Frances of Rome
Dominic Savio
Catherine of Bologna
Pacianus of Barcelona
Gregory of Nyssa
10 Macarius of Jerusalem
Simplicius
11 Constantine
Gregory II
Sophronius
12 Alphege
13 Euphrasia
14 Matilda
15 Longinus
Zachary I
16 Julian of Antioch
17 Patrick
Alexis (Eastern Church)
Joseph of Arimathea
18 Cyril of Jerusalem (Eastern Church)
19 Joseph (Husband of Mary)
20 Martin of Braga
Andrew Sansedoni of Siena
Cyril of Jerusalem (Western Church)
Cuthbert
21 Serapion the Scholastic
Nicholas of Flüe
22 Basil of Ancyra
23 Turibius Mogroveio
24 Irenaeus of Sirmium
Catherine of Sweden
25 Annunciation of the Lord
Urban I
Dismas
26 Basil the Younger
Mariana of Quito
27 John of Egypt
28 Tutilo
Sixtus III
29 Cyril of Heliopolis
30 John Climacus
Quirinus
31 Balbina
APRIL
1 Melito
2 Francis of Paola
3 Mary of Egypt
4 Isidore of Seville
5 Vincent Ferrer
6 Martyrs of Persia
Sixtus I
Celestine I (Western Church)
7 The Annunciation of Our Lord

8 Dionysius of Corinth
Celestine I (Eastern Church)
9 Mary Cleophas
10 Fulbert
11 Stanislaus
Marguerite d’Youville
12 Julius I
13 Martin I
14 Tiburtius, Valerius, and Maximi
15 Basilissa and Anastasia
16 Bernadette Soubirous
Optatus and Companions
Stephen of Hungary
Benedict Joseph Labre
17 Stephen Harding
Anicetus
18 Apollonius the Apologist
19 Leo IX
20 Hildegund
21 Anselm
Anastasius the Sinaite
22 Agapetus I
Soter
Caius
23 George
Adalbert of Prague
24 Fidelis of Sigmaringen
Gregory of Elvira
25 Mark the Evangelist (in the West)
Pedro de San José Betancur
26 Peter of Braga
Anencletus
Marcellinus
27 Zita
28 Peter Mary Chanel
Vitalis
29 Catherine of Siena
Peter of Verona
30 Pius V
Mary of the Incarnation
MAY
1 Joseph the Worker
2 Athanasius
3 Philip and James the Less, Apostles
Juvenal
Alexander, Eventius, and Theodolus
4 Cyriacus
5 Hilary of Arles
6 Evodius
Petronax
7 Domitian
John of Beverly
Appendices 371
8 The Ascension of Our Lord
Peter of Tarantaise
Boniface IV
Benedict II
John the Divine (Greek Orthodox)
9 Pachomius
Beatus
Gregory Nazianzen
10 Antoninus
Simon the Zealot (Greek Orthodox and Coptic
Churches)
11 Mamertus
Asaph
12 Nereus and Achilleus
Pancras
Epiphanius of Salamis
Germanus I
13 John the Silent
14 Matthew the Apostle
15 Isidore the Farmer
Dymphna
John Baptist de la Salle
16 Ubaldus
Brendan of Clonfort
John Nepomucene
John Nepomucene Neumann (outside
United States)
Simon Stock
17 Paschal Baylon
18 Pentecost Sunday
John I
19 Celestine V
Pudentiana and Pudens
Dunstan
20 Bernardino of Siena
21 Andrew Bobola
Sylvester I (Eastern Church)
Constantine the Great
22 Rita of Cascio
Joaquina de Vedruna
23 Ivo of Chartres
24 Donatian and Rogatian
Vincent of Lérins
25 Bede the Venerable
Gregory VII
Mary Magdalene de Pazzi
Martyrs of Mexico
Madeleine Sophie Barat
26 Philip Neri
Mariana of Quito
Eleutherius
27 Augustine of Canterbury
28 Senator
Justus of Urgel
29 Cyril of Caesarea

372 Appendices
30 Joan of Arc
Rose of Lima (in Peru)
Felix I
31 The Visitation of Our Lady to Elizabeth
JUNE
1 Justin Martyr
2 Marcellinus and Peter
Eugene I
3 Charles Lwanga and Companions
Michael of Ecuador
Clotilde
John XXIII
4 Francis Caracciolo
Morand
Optatus of Milevis
Petroc
5 Boniface
6 Norbert
7 Paul of Constantinople
Médard
9 Ephraem
Columba
10 Getulius
Margaret of Scotland
11 Barnabas
Bartholomew the Apostle (in the East)
12 John of Sahagun
Leo III
13 Anthony of Padua
Bartholomew the Apostle (in Persia)
14 The Sacred Heart of Jesus
Methodius I of Constantinople
Methodius of Olympus
15 The Immaculate Heart of Mary
Vitus
16 John Francis Regis Clet
Julitta and Quiricus
17 Avitus
18 Mark and Marcellian
Elizabeth of Schonau
19 Romuald
Juliana of Falconieri
Gervase and Protase
20 Silverius
Aloysius Gonzaga
Lawrence of Brindisi
Paulinus of Nola
John Fisher
Alban
22 Innocent V
Paulinus of Nola
Thomas More
23 Alban
24 The Birth of John the Baptist
25 William of Vercelli
26 John and Paul
Anthelm
27 Cyril of Alexandria
28 Irenaeus of Lyons (Latin Church)
Leo II
Paul I
29 Peter and Paul
30 Protomartyrs of Rome
1 Junipero Serra
Oliver Plunkett
JULY
2 Processus and Martinian
3 Thomas the Apostle
Jude and Simon the Zealot (in the East)
4 Elizabeth of Portugal
Ulrich
Andrew of Crete
5 Anthony Mary Zaccaria
6 Maria Goretti
7 Ethelburga
Benedict XI
8 Adrian III
Eugene III
Raymond of Toulouse
9 The Martyrs of Gorkurn
10 Rufma and Secunda
11 Benedict
Pius I
12 John Gualbert
Nabor and Felix
13 Henry II
Terese of the Andes
Margaret of Antioch (in the East)
14 Camillus de Lellis
Francis Solanus
Kateri Tekakwitha
Ulrich
15 Bonaventure
Vladimir I of Kiev
16 Our Lady of Mt. Carmel
Beatrix da Silva
Eustathius
17 The Scillitan Martyrs
Alexis (in the West)
Leo IV
Ennodius of Pavia
Nicholas II and Companions
18 Bruno of Segni
Arnulf of Metz
19 Macrina the Younger
Symmachus

20 Ansegisus
Margaret of Antioch (in the West)
21 Lawrence of Brindisi
22 Mary Magdalen
23 Bridget of Sweden
John Cassian
24 Christina
Boris and Gleb
25 James the Greater, Apostle
Christopher
26 Joachim and Anne—Parents of Our Lady
27 Pantaleon
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (West)
28 SS. Nazarius and Celsus
Innocent I
Botwid
29 Martha
Lazarus
Urban II
Olaf of Norway
30 Peter Chrysologus
31 Ignatius of Loyola
AUGUST
1 Alphonsus Marie Liguori
2 Eusebius of Vercelli
Stephen I (Western church)
3 Finding of the Body of Stephen Protomartyr
4 John Baptiste Marie Vianney
Nicodemus
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (East)
5 Dedication of Mary Basilica in Rome
Oswald
Nonna
6 Transfiguration of Our Lord
Justus and Pastor
Hormisdas
7 Sixtus II and Companions
Cajetan
8 Dominic
Mary MacKillop
9 Romanus
Teresa Benedicta of the Cross
10 Lawrence
11 Clare of Assisi
Philomena (former feast date)
12 Euplius
Maximus of Constantinople (in the East)
13 Pontian
Maximus of Constantinople (in the West)
Hippolytus
John Berchmans
14 Maximilian Kolbe
15 The Assumption of Our Lady
16 Stephen (Hungary)
17 Hyacinth
Clare of Montefalco
Roch
18 Jane Frances de Chantal
Helena
19 John Eudes
Ezequial Moreno
20 Bernard of Clairvaux
21 Pius X
22 The Queenship of Mary
23 Rose of Lima (outside of Peru)
Irenaeus of Lyons (Greek Church)
24 Bartholomew the Apostle (in Rome)
25 Louis IX, King of France
Joseph Calasanz
Bartholomew the Apostle (in Eternach and
Cambrai)
26 Teresa of Jesus de Ibars
Zephyrinus
27 Monica
Caesarius of Arles
28 Augustine of Hippo
Moses the Black
29 The Martyrdom of John the Baptist
30 Felix and Adauctus
31 Raymond of Nonnatus
Aidan of Lindisfarne
Cyprian of Carthage (in the East)
SEPTEMBER
1 Giles
Fiacre
2 Antoninus of Apamea
3 Gregory I
4 Boniface I
Marcellus and Valerian
Rose of Viterbo
5 Lawrence
Justinian
6 Donatian, Laetus, and Companions
7 Anastasius the Fuller
Stephen I (Eastern church)
8 Birth of Mary
Sergius I
9 Peter Claver
10 Nicholas of Tolentino
Finian
11 Protus and Hyacinth
12 Ailbhe
13 John Chrysostom (in the West)
14 The Triumph of the Holy Cross
15 Our Lady of Sorrows
Catherine of Genoa
Appendices 373

374 Appendices
16 Cornelius
Cyprian of Carthage (in the West)
Victor III
17 Robert Bellarmine
Hildegard of Bingen
18 Joseph of Cupertino
John Massias
19 Januarius
Peter of Alcantara
20 Andrew Kim Taegon,
Paul Chong Hasang and Companions
21 Matthew the Apostle (West)
22 Thomas of Villanova
Maurice and Companions
Phocas the Gardener
23 Adamnan
Mark the Evangelist (in the East)
24 Our Lady of Ransom
25 Cadoc
Sergius of Raonezh
Finbar
26 Eusebius I
John the Divine (in the East)
27 Vincent de Paul
Cosmas and Damian
28 Wenceslaus
Lawrence Ruiz and Companions
29 Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael—Archangels
30 Jerome
OCTOBER
1 Thérèse of Lisieux
Gregory the Illuminator
2 Holy Guardian Angels
3 Hesychius
4 Francis of Assisi
5 Apollinaris of Valence
Faustina Kowalska
6 Bruno
Marie-Rose Durocher
Faith
7 Our Lady of the Rosary
Marcus
8 Marcellus
9 Denis and Companions
John Leonardi
Luis Beltrán
10 Francis Borgia
11 Bruno the Great
12 Maximilian
Ethelburga of Barking
13 Edward the Confessor
Theophilus
14 Callistus I
15 Teresa of Avila
16 Hedwig
Margaret Mary Alacoque
Gerard Majella
Gall
17 Ignatius of Antioch
18 Luke the Evangelist
Alexander I
19 Paul of the Cross
North American Martyrs
20 Andrew of Crete
22 Philip of Heraclea
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (East)
23 John Capistrano
24 Anthony Mary Claret
Proclus (in the West)
25 Chrysanthus and Daria
Marcellinus
Crispin and Crispinian
26 Lucian and Marcian
Evaristus
Alfred the Great
27 Frumentius
28 Simon the Zealot and Jude—the Apostles (in the
West);
Anastasia
29 Abraham of Rostov
30 Serapion of Antioch
Alphonsus Rodriguez
31 Quentin
Foillan
NOVEMBER
1 All Saints’ Day
2 All Souls’ Day
3 Martin de Porres
4 Charles Borromeo
5 Elizabeth and Zachary
6 Leonard of Noblac
7 Willibrord
8 Four Crowned Martyrs
9 Dedication of John Lateran Basilica in Rome
Martyrs of Paraguay (Roque Gonzalez, Alphonsus
Rodriguez, John of Castillo)
10 Leo I
Andrew Avellino
11 Martin of Tours
12 Josaphat
Nilus
13 Frances Xavier Cabrini
John Chrysostom (in the East)
Pope Nicholas II
14 Laurence O’Toole
15 Albert the Great

16 Margaret of Scotland
Gertrude the Great
Clare of Assisi
Matthew the Apostle (Greece)
Cornelius
Eucherius of Lyons
Hugh of Lincoln
17 Elizabeth of Hungary
Dionyius of Alexandria
18 The Dedication of Peter and Paul Basilica
Rose Philippine Duchesne
19 Barlaarn
Mechtilde
Pontian
20 Felix of Valois
Edmund the Martyr
Proclus (in the East)
21 The Presentation of Our Lady
Gelasius I
22 Cecilia
23 Clement I
Columban
Miguel Agustin Pro
24 Christ the King
25 Mercurius
26 Peter of Alexandria
Conrad
Siricius
27 Barlaarn and Josaphat
Maximus of Riez
28 Simeon Metaphrastes
Catherine Labouré
29 Saturninus
30 Andrew the Apostle
1 Edmund Campion
2 Bibiana
3 Francis Xavier
DECEMBER
Appendices 375
4 John Damascene
Barbara (former feast day)
Clement of Alexandria (former feast day)
5 Sabas
Crispina
6 Nicholas
7 Ambrose
8 Immaculate Conception of Mary
Eutychianus
9 Seven Martyrs of Samosata
Gorgonia
Juan Diego
10 Miltiades
Gregory III
11 Damasus I
12 Our Lady of Guadalupe
Finian of Clonard
13 Lucy of Syracuse
14 John of the Cross
15 Paul of Latros
16 Adelaide
17 Lazarus
18 Rufus
19 Anastasius I
Urban V
20 Ursicinus
21 Peter Canisius
22 Chaeremon and Ischyion
23 John Kanty
24 Christmas Vigil
Anastasia of Sirmium
25 Christmas, The Birth of Our Lord
26 Stephen
Dionysius
Zosimus
27 John the Divine (in the West)
28 The Holy Innocents
Peter (Apostle) (in the East; also December 29)
29 Thomas Becket
30 Sabinus
31 Sylvester I (Eastern Church)

The title Father of the Church is bestowed upon the
great early teachers of the Church who handed down
the tradition taught by the apostles of Jesus. The first
age of the Church has no definite dates but generally is
thought to extend to the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Some of the Fathers lived much later than that, into
the eighth century.
Criteria for the title of Father of the Church include
orthodox doctrine and learning, holiness of life, and
antiquity. Their work must be cited by a general council,
in public acts of popes addressed to the Church or
concerning the faith, in public readings in churches in
early centuries, or by other illustrious Fathers. Those
who do not meet the criteria are known simply as
ecclesiastical writers.
GREEK FATHERS
St. Anastasius the Sinaite (d. 700)
St. Andrew of Crete (d. 740)
Aphraates (fourth century)
St. Archelaus (d. ca. 278)
St. Athanasius (d. 373)
Athenagoras (second century)
St. Basil the Great (d. 379)
St. Caesarius of Nazianzus (d. 369)
St. Clement of Alexandria (d. ca. 215)
St. Clement I of Rome, Pope (r. 88–97)
St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444)
St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. ca. 386)
Didymus the Blind (d. ca. 398)
Diodore of Tarsus (d. 392)
APPENDIX 4
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
376
St. Dionysius the Great (d. ca. 265)
St. Epiphanius (d. 403)
Eusebius of Caesarea (d. 340)
St. Eustathius (fourth century)
St. Firmillian (d. 268)
Gennadius I of Constantinople (fifth century)
St. Germanus I (d. 733 or 740)
St. Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 390)
St. Gregory of Nyssa (d. after 385 or 386)
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus (d. 270 or 275)
Hermas (second century)
St. Hippolytus (d. 236)
St. Ignatius of Antioch (d. ca. 107)
St. Isidore of Pelusium (d. ca. 450)
St. John Chrysostom (d. 407)
St. John Climacus (d. 649)
St. John Damascene (d. 787), last Father of the East
St. Julius 1, Pope (r. 337–352)
St. Justin Martyr (d. 167 or 168)
St. Leontius Byzantinus (sixth century)
St. Macarius (d. ca. 390)
St. Maximus of Constantinople (d. 662)
St. Melito (d. ca. 180)
St. Methodius of Olympus (d. ca. 311)
St. Nilus (d. ca. 430)
Origen (d. 254)
St. Polycarp of Smyrna (d. ca. 155)
St. Proclus (d. ca. 446)
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (sixth century)
St. Serapion the Scholastic (d. ca. 370)
St. Sophronius (d. 638)
Tatian (second century)
Theodore of Mopsuestia (d. 428)

Theodoret of Cyrrhus (d. ca. 458)
St. Theophilus (second century)
LATIN FATHERS
St. Ambrose (d. 397)
Arnobius (d. 330)
St. Augustine of Hippo (d. 430)
St. Benedict (d. ca. 547)
St. Caesarius of Arles (d. 543)
St. Celestine 1, Pope (r. 422–432)
St. Cornelius, Pope (r. 251–253)
St. Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258)
St. Damasus I, Pope (r. 366–384)
St. Dionysius of Alexandria (d. 265)
St. Ennodius of Pavia (d. 521)
St. Eucherius of Lyons (d. ca. 450)
St. Fulgentius of Ruspe (d. 533)
St. Gregory of Elvira (d. ca. 392)
St. Gregory I, Pope (r. 590–604)
Appendices 377
St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368)
St. Innocent I, Pope (r. 401–417)
St. Irenaeus of Lyons (d. 202)
St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636), last Father of the West
St. John Cassian (d. 433)
St. Lactantius (d. 323)
St. Leo I (r. 440–461)
Marius Mercator (d. 451)
Marius Victorinus (fourth century)
Minucius Felix (second century)
Novatian (d. ca. 257)
St. Optatus of Milevis (fourth century)
St. Pacian (d. ca. 390)
St. Pamphilus of Caesarea (d. 309)
St. Paulinus of Nola (d. 431)
St. Peter Chrysologus (d. 450)
St. Phoebadius of Agen (4th century)
Rufinus of Aquileia (d. 410)
Salvian (fifth century)

The title of Doctor of the Church, one of the Church’s
highest honors, is conferred upon great ecclesiastical
theologians and preachers of great sanctity whose
work has made a lasting contribution to the Church as
a whole. In the Western Church, four Fathers of the
Church were given this honor in the early Middle
Ages: Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory the Great and
Jerome. The Eastern Church recognized three great
Doctors: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and Gregory
of Nazianzus. To these, others have been added.
There are no martyrs on the list; only confessors may
be considered. Only three women have been given the
title, all since 1970: Teresa of Avila, Catherine of Siena
and Thérèse of Lisieux.
A careful examination of a saint’s life and writings is
made to establish the saint’s eminent learning and a
high degree of sanctity. The decree naming a Doctor of
the Church is issued by the Congregation of Sacred
Rites and approved by the pope.
APPENDIX 5
DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH
St. Albert the Great (d. 1280); declared 1931
St. Alphonsus Marie Liguori (1696–1787); declared
1871
St. Ambrose (d. 397); Father of the Church
St. Anselm (1033–1109); declared 1720
St. Anthony of Padua (1195–1231); declared 1946
St. Athanasius (d. 373); Father of the Church
St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430); Father of the
Church
St. Basil the Great (d. 379); Father of the Church
St. Bede the Venerable (673–735); declared (n.d.)
St. Bernard of Clairvaux (ca. 1090–1153); declared
1830
378
St. Bonaventure (ca. 1217–74); declared 1588
St. Catherine of Siena (ca. 1347–80); declared 1970
St. Cyril of Alexandria (ca. 376–444); declared
1882
St. Cyril of Jerusalem (ca. 315–386); declared 1882
St. Ephraem (ca. 306–373); declared 1920
St. Francis de Sales (1567–1622); declared 1877
St. Gregory I, Pope (d. 604); Father of the Church
St. Gregory of Nazianzus (d. ca. 390); Father of the
Church
St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368); declared 1851
St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636); declared 1722
St. Jerome (d. 419); Father of the Church
St. John Chrysostom, Greek Father (d. 407);
declared 451
St. John Damascene (ca. 676–754 to 787); declared
1890
St. John of the Cross (1542–91); declared 1926
St. Lawrence of Brindisi (1559–1619); declared
1959
St. Leo I (d. 461); declared 1574
St. Peter Canisius (1521–97); declared 1925
St. Peter Chrysologus (d. ca. 450); declared 1729
St. Peter Damian (1007–72); declared 1828
St. Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621); declared 1931
St. Siricius, Pope (r. 384–399)
St. Teresa of Avila (1515–82); declared 1970
Tertullian (d. ca. 222)
St. Thérèse of Lisieux (1873–97); declared 1997
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–74); declared 1567
St. Vincent of Lérins (d. ca. 445)

Reign dates are given.
Peter (d. 64 or 67)
Linus (67–76)
Anacletus (76–88)
Clement I (88–97)
Evaristus (97–105)
Alexander I (105–115)
Sixtus I (115–125)
Telesphorus (125–136)
Hyginus (136–140)
Pius I (140–155)
Anicetus (155–166)
Soter (166–175)
Eleutherius (175–189)
Victor I (189–199)
Zephyrinus (199–217)
Callistus I (217–222)
Urban I (222–230)
Pontian (230–235)
Anterus (235–236)
Fabian (236–250)
Cornelius (251–253)
Lucius I (253–254)
Stephen I (254–257)
Sixtus II (257–258)
Dionysius (259–268)
Felix I (269–274)
Eutychian (275–283)
Caius (283–296)
Marcellinus (296–304)
Marcellus I (308–309)
Eusebius (309 or 310)
Miltiades (311–314)
Sylvester I (314–335)
APPENDIX 6
BEATIFIED AND CANONIZED POPES
379
Marcus (336)
Julius I (337–352)
Damasus (366–384)
Siricius (384–399)
Anastasius I (399–401)
Innocent I (401–417)
Zosimus (417–418)
Boniface I (418–422)
Celestine I (422–432)
Sixtus III (432–440)
Leo I the Great (440–461)
Hilary (461–468)
Simplicius (468–483)
Felix III (II) (483–492)
Gelasius I (492–496)
Symmachus (498–514)
Hormisdas (514–523)
John I (523–526)
Felix IV (III) (526–530)
Agapitus I (535–536)
Silverius (536–537)
Gregory I the Great (590–604)
Boniface IV (608–615)
Adeodatus I (615–618)
Martin I (649–655)
Eugene I (654–657)
Vitalian (657–672)
Agatho (678–681)
Leo II (682–683)
Benedict II (684–685)
Sergius I (687–701)
Gregory II (715–731)
Gregory III (731–741)
Zachary (741–752)
Paul I (757–767)

380 Appendices
Leo III (795–816)
Paschal I (817–824)
Leo IV (847–855)
Nicholas I (858–867)
Adrian III (884–885)
Leo IX (1049–1054)
Gregory VII (1073–1085)
Urban II, Blessed (1088–1099)
Eugene III, Blessed (1145–1153)
Gregory X, Blessed (1271–1276)
Innocent V, Blessed (1276)
Celestine V (1294)
Benedict XI, Blessed (1303–1304)
Urban V, Blessed (1362–1370)
Pius V (1566–1572)
Innocent XI, Blessed (1676–1689)
Pius IX, Blessed (1846–1878)
Pius X (1903–1914)
John XXIII, Blessed (1958–1963)

APPENDIX 7
BEATIFICATION AND CANONIZATION
In the Roman Catholic Church a holy person is officially
recognized as a saint through a formal process of
investigation. The process begins after a candidate’s
death and can go on for many years before it is completed.
The Church considers saints to be the servants
of God and does not “make” saints, but rather recognizes
the holiness in them, and that they are in heaven
and can intercede on behalf of those who petition
them.
Canonization is a decree regarding the public ecclesiastical
veneration of an individual. If the veneration
is universal, that is, if it involves the entire Church, it
is a decree of canonization. If the veneration is not to
be universal, but may be exercised locally or by individuals,
it is a decree of beatification. There are two
ways to canonize. Formal canonization results from
judicial process. Equivalent canonization can be
decreed by a pope for persons who have long been venerated
and whose miracles and virtues—or martyrdom—can
be historically established, and whose
miraculous intercessions have continued uninterrupted.
In all cases, the recognition is extended
posthumously; there are no “living saints.”
In the days of early Christianity, sainthood was
established by popular acclaim. The early martyrs, for
example, were proclaimed saints, as were the Fathers
of the Church and confessors, people who lived lives of
heroic virtue and died peacefully. Such people were
accorded ecclesiastical honors by local authorities. By
the 11th century, it became increasingly apparent that a
system of regulation was needed in order to prevent
abuses, and to ensure that those venerated were done
so with good cause. Popes Urban II (r. 1088–99), Callistus
II (r. 1119–24) and Eugenius III (r. 1145–53)
decreed that the examination of the virtues and mira-
381
cles of proposed saints be done by general councils. In
the 12th century, Pope Alexander III (r. 1159–81) prohibited
veneration as a saint without the authority of
the Roman Church. In 1234, Pope Gregory IX (r.
1227–41) declared that the right to canonize belonged
exclusively to the papacy. In 1634 Pope Urban VIII (r.
1623–44) issued a bull extending the Church’s exclusive
authority to beatification as well as canonization.
Formal review procedures were developed.
In 1983 significant changes were made in the process
of canonization by Pope John Paul II (r. 1978– ).
The cause of beatification, the first step, is initiated
after the death of a candidate. Often the followers of
the candidate want the process to begin immediately,
but years may elapse first. This waiting period is beneficial,
in that it allows for a more objective perspective.
The life, writings and works (or martyrdom) of the
candidate are investigated locally by the bishop for
heroic virtue and orthodoxy of doctrine. The investigation
is evaluated by a panel of theologians at the Vatican.
If the candidate has lived a life of faith and morals
and is approved by the panel and by the Congregation
for the Causes of Saints (see Glossary), the pope proclaims
the candidate “Venerable.”
In order to be beatified, there must be proof of at
least one posthumous miracle that results from a petition
(martyrs are excepted from this requirement). The
miracle establishes that the candidate is in heaven and
has the ability to intercede on behalf of the living, and
to mediate a divine intervention that cannot be
explained according to the laws of science. First all the
evidence for the miracle is gathered, including historical
and clinical data and depositions of witnesses. The
evidence is critically studied. A postulation is written
of the “Positio” that proves the miracle took place. If

382 Appendices
the miracle involved a physical event such as a healing,
the Positio is reviewed by a board of medical specialists.
The case is assessed by a board of theologians, and
evaluated at a meeting of cardinals and bishops who
are members of the Congregation for the Causes of
Saints.
If the miracle can be proved and the cause goes forward,
the pope proclaims the candidate “Blessed” (Beatus),
which means he or she can be venerated in
localities or by groups of people to whom they have an
importance.
For canonization, in which the candidate is proclaimed
“Saint,” a second miracle is required. This
requirement applies to martyrs, too. The same process
as for beatification is followed. Saints are “raised to the
altars,” that is, they are venerated by the entire Church
and given feast days observed throughout the entire
Church.
Saintly figures are venerated in all religions, but
only the Roman Catholic Church has a formal procedure
for establishing sainthood. The Russian Orthodox
Church venerates the early church fathers and martyrs,
and occasionally adds new saints to the list of the venerated.
Several hundred persons have been canonized.
There are about 10,000 saints who have cults, and historians
believe that thousands more have been lost to
history due to lack, or destruction, of records. Pope
John Paul II has beatified more than 900 persons and
canonized more than 300 persons—more than any
other pope.

All Saints A feast honoring all saints of the Church,
those declared, those not in the calendar and those
unknown. The All Saints feast is one of the highestranking.
Formal observances for All Saints began in
the early eight century and have evolved throughout
the centuries.
All Souls A feast honoring the faithful dead, celebrated
on November 2, or on November 3 if November
2 falls on a Sunday. The origins of the feast can be
traced to prayers for the dead performed in the early
Church. The feast is especially for those departed who
did not atone for their venial sins while living.
audition An experience of hearing a direct voice,
which may be attributed to God or another divine or
holy figure. Audition can occur in dreams, as part of
visions, or alone during waking consciousness.
bilocation Being in two distant places simultaneously.
Bilocation of saints has been especially reported
when saints are called to minister to others in different
locales. They appear real to all witnesses. Bilocation
becomes apparent only when testimonies are compared.
Alphonsus Marie Liguori would attend confession
and preach sermons simultaneously. Once he
went into a trance-like state for two days, after which
he said he had gone to assist the pope, who was dying.
Venerable Mary of Agreda reportedly bilocated from
Spain to America more than 500 times (up to four
times a day) from 1620 to 1631, in order to teach the
natives. Padre Pio reportedly bilocated around the
APPENDIX 8
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
383
world in response to prayers for his intercession in
healing.
communion of the saints The tradition of the spiritual
union among the saints, the faithful on Earth and
the souls in purgatory. According to St. Thomas
Aquinas, angels participate in it as well, under the
grace of Christ. The origins of the communion of
saints are expressed in St. Paul’s concept of the Mystical
Body of Christ; the communion of saints is held to
be much larger, because it does not require membership
in the true Church, but is a union of Christ
through charity and in association with his Church.
Practices of this communion include prayers for the
dead and the invocation, intercession and veneration
of the saints in heaven.
Congregation for the Causes of Saints The administrative
agency of the Church responsible for overseeing
all things related to the causes of the saints, such as
beatification, canonization and preservation of relics.
The Congregation was established in 1588 by Pope
Sixtus V (r. 1585–90) and was initially called the Congregation
of Rites.
cults of the saints Devotions, honors and veneration
paid to saints.
ecstasy A state of heightened consciousness in which
one is infused with joy, awe, wonder, rapture and love.
Long periods of time in intense prayer, coupled with
deprivations and mortifications, can facilitate the onset
of an ecstasy.

384 Appendices
graces Gifts of the Spirit. Saints are bestowed with
the favors of working miracles, healing, discernment of
spirits, prophecy, visions and so forth as part of their
spiritual advancement.
hagiography A writing of the lives and works of a
saint. “Hagiography” is an ancient term derived from
the Greek terms hagios (holy) and graphein (to write).
The earliest collections were of the martyrs and church
fathers, and date to St. Eusebius of Caesarea in the third
and fourth centuries. Hagiographies contain mythology
and legends in addition to historical fact; many were
written expressly to inspire wonder and awe.
incorruptibility Unusual preservation of saints’ bodies
after death, without embalming. Incorruptibility is
taken as evidence of sanctity. Some bodies have
remained incorrupt for hundreds of years, though the
tissue dries and darkens. Many incorrupt saints are on
display in glass reliquaries. Persons who are candidates
for sainthood are periodically exhumed and examined.
intercession The act of intervention by a saint in
heaven in the lives of the living. Through prayer and
invocation, saints are invited to help the living in all
manner of needs, such as healing, financial distress,
decision-making, protection and so on. Many intercessions
are described as miraculous events.
levitation The rising up from the ground and into
the air. Numerous saints reportedly have levitated
while in ecstasy or in prayer, sometimes for extended
periods and sometimes in a kneeling position. Often
the bodies of the saints glow with a supernatural light.
The levitation comes spontaneously, an uprushing
force that lifts and sustains the saint.
lights and luminosities The emanation of, or being
surrounded by, brilliant, unearthly light, such as during
intense prayer or in ecstasy. This phenomenon is
reported in intense spiritual practices around the
world. Such lights may be accompanied by other phenomena,
such as levitation, heat and the perception of
spiritual presences. Faces may be transfigured.
manna A mysterious oil or powder that forms on or
flows from the incorrupt bodies of saints or the bones
of saints. Manna usually is an oil or liquid that is colorless,
odorless and tasteless. If a powder, it can be granular
or like flour. Manna, which manifests in small
quantities, sometimes appears regularly on feast days
or other significant anniversaries. It is collected and
often distributed to ranking ecclesiastical persons or to
the sick; it may be believed to have miraculous powers
for healing.
martyrology A list of martyrs, either for cities, countries
or regions, or for the entire Church. The earliest
martyrologies, notably of Rome and Carthage, were
calendars noting death dates. Other martyrologies may
have brief descriptions of saints’ lives.
miracle A witnessed event that contradicts the laws
of nature. The Church considers miracles signs of
God’s intervention in the world. Many saints who
worked miracles served as conduits for the glory of
God to be witnessed by others. Two validated miracles
are required for canonization. The Church investigates
claims of miracles in the course of the causes for beatification
and canonization.
miraculous protection Many saints are credited with
performing miraculous acts that saved and protected
themselves and others from danger and death.
miraculous transport The ability to suddenly be in a
distant location. Saints have transported themselves
and others in situations of need. Miraculous transport
is not the same as bilocation, which is being in two
locations simultaneously. An old term used in psychical
research to describe this phenomenon is teleportation.
mortification The deprivation of physical comfort in
order to purify the body. Many saints undertook varying
degrees of mortification, such as wearing hair
shirts, sleeping on uncomfortable beds, wearing
chains, scourging themselves and fasting. Some also
practiced mortification of the senses by keeping their
eyes cast downward so as not to see the beauty of the
world, by not engaging in mirth, and by lacing their
meager diets with unpleasant-tasting additives. Many
damaged and ruined their health in the process.
multiplication The miraculous increase of any substance.
Many saints were said to increase food and
money in accordance with the needs of others. Jesus
multiplied fishes and loaves to feed the multitudes.
mystical fasting The ability to exist on food and
water that normally could not sustain life. As part of
their lives, saints were in prolonged or perpetual fasts,
and often credited their ability to thrive on the inspiration
of God and the sustenance provided by the
Eucharist. St. Nicholas of Flüe was said to have lived
for 20 years on Communion wafers.
mystical jewelry A ring of precious metals and jewels
or a bejeweled crucifix given in mystical marriage or in
ecstasy. The ring may or may not be visible to others,
but the recipient always sees it. Sometimes the finger on
which it is worn is indented, marked or reddened.
Saints usually kept their mystical crucifixes hidden
away, but bequeathed them to others upon death.
mystical knowledge The ability to see into the minds
and hearts of others, to know their thoughts, desires

and sins; also the direct knowledge of profound spiritual
truths. In the language of parapsychology, the ability
to know the thoughts and desires of others would
be called clairvoyance.
mystical marriage The union of the soul with God.
Saints experienced the mystical marriage in an enraptured
vision in which they were spiritually united with
the Lord of Hosts or the Blessed Virgin Mary. Departed
saints may also participate in the ceremony. Records
exist of nearly 100 saints experiencing mystical marriage,
with 55 of them receiving a mystical ring.
odor of sanctity A sweet perfume emitted by the
bodies of saints; evidence of their holiness. The odor of
sanctity might be detected during prayer or ecstasies;
some saints reportedly smelled sweet all the time.
Many exuded heavenly fragrances upon and after
death. Scents have been described as sweet, floral,
spicy and like incense.
odor of sin The presence of evil in a person, which
some saints can detect as an overwhelming stench. The
odor of sin—not detectable to others—is so repulsive
as to cause some saints to become ill and even faint.
oil of the saints See manna.
prophecy The accurate knowing of the future. Many
saints have prophesied important historical events and
also the date of their own death.
relic An object that serves as a memorial of a saint.
The most important relics are bodies and body parts,
including limbs, organs, bones and bone fragments. A
saint’s clothing can become a relic, as well as his or her
personal belongings (such as a crucifix) and casket.
Appendices 385
Objects that touch relics become relics of lesser status.
The veneration of relics was widespread in Christianity
by the fourth century. Miracles are associated with
them. In the recognition of the holiness of a saint, his
or her relics are translated, or elevated, to a shrine
above ground.
stigmata Physical wounds corresponding to the
wounds suffered by Jesus during his Passion and Crucifixion.
The wounds, which vary in number, spontaneously
appear and bleed. Most stigmatists have five
wounds, in the hands, feet and side. Some are marked
according to the scourging that Christ received, and
also according to the wounds produced by his crown
of thorns. St. Francis of Assisi received the stigmata
from an angel. Other saints received the wounds while
in intense prayer or during an ecstasy. For some, the
wounds are temporary, and may reappear on Fridays or
at Easter, and then close and disappear. Padre Pio was a
young man when he received the stigmata, and the
wounds on his hands and feet remained open and
bleeding for the rest of his life.
transverberation Spiritual wounding of the heart; literally,
“striking through of.” The most famous example
is Theresa of Avila, whom an angel pierced with a flaming
arrow of love while she was in ecstasy. Thérèse of
Lisieux was wounded by a dart of love, and Blessed
Padre Pio was visited by an angel who hurled a fiery
weapon like a sharp-pointed steel blade into the depths
of his soul.
veneration Devotion. The Church distinguishes between
veneration paid to saints and the worship of God.

January 1 Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God
February 2 Presentation of Our Lord
February 11 Our Lady of Lourdes (optional)
March 25 Annunciation of the Lord
May 31 Visitation to Elizabeth
July 16 Our Lady of Mt. Carmel (optional)
August 5 Dedication of the basilica in honor of
St. Mary Major (optional)
August 15 Assumption
August 22 Queenship of Mary
APPENDIX 9
CALENDAR OF FEASTS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
386
September 8 Birth of Mary
September 15 Our Lady of Sorrows
September 24 Our Lady of Ransom
October 7 Our Lady of the Rosary
November 21 Presentation of Mary (optional)
December 8 Immaculate Conception
December 12 Our Lady of Guadalupe (optional)
Saturday after the Second Sunday
after Pentecost Immaculate Heart
of Mary (optional)

APPENDIX 10
AUTHENTICATED APPARITIONS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
The Catholic Church holds that religious apparitions
are mystical phenomena permitted by God. Both corporeal
and incorporeal apparitions are recognized, and
are mentioned in both Old and New Testaments of the
Bible. Marian apparitions are not accepted as articles of
faith, but those that are deemed authentic are celebrated.
The Church is painstaking in its investigation
of Marian apparitions.
Visions of the Blessed Virgin Mary are accompanied
by a host of glorious phenomena, such as visions of
angels, heavenly music and singing, miraculous healing,
luminosities, trance states, extrasensory perception
and prophesying. The apparitions tend to be
apocalyptic in nature, with Mary exhorting people to
prayer and righteous living, and to build churches in
her honor. She also warns of dire consequences if
people continue their sinful ways. She bestows secret
prophecies on a select few who perceive her (frequently
children). In this respect, Mary has taken over
the primary functions of the prophets of old, who were
transported to heaven to receive the same admonitions
and prophecies from God. But Mary, out of her love for
humanity and her loyalty to those devoted to her, is
able to intercede with an angry God on humanity’s
behalf.
Authentic sightings approved by the Church are:
Guadalupe, Mexico, 1531 Mary’s appearances were
accompanied by heavenly singing, and one of her
miraculous signs involved an angel. She appeared five
times to Juan Diego, a middle-aged Aztec convert to
Catholicism. The first episode occurred in the pre-
387
dawn one morning as Juan was on his way to attend
Mass. He suddenly heard a heavenly choir, and then a
lady’s voice calling out to him by name. Diego then saw
a woman standing in a luminous cloud of mist iridescent
with rainbow hues. She identified herself immediately
as Mary.
On another occasion, Mary appeared and told
Diego to pick flowers, despite the fact that it was too
cold a time of the year. Miraculously, he found a garden
of roses at a site where no flowers had grown
before. He followed her instructions to wrap the flowers
in his cape and take them to the bishop.
When Diego revealed the flowers and cape to the
bishop and others who were present, a beautiful image
of the Immaculate Conception was found to be
imprinted on the cape—a woman with the sun and
stars, standing on a new moon, with an angel at her
feet. The style of the “painting” is not in the Maya-
Toltec-Aztec tradition of the time, which resembled
primitive hieroglyphics. The cape was made of ayate, a
coarse fabric made of cactus fiber, and had a maximum
life span of about 30 years. It and the “painting” have
lasted to the present day, and are on display in the
church shrine that was built at Mary’s request.
Specialists have examined the figure’s eyes in the
“painting” and confirm what appear to be images of a
man, perhaps Juan Diego, in each eye.
Pope Pius XII (1939–58) said that “on the tilma
(cape) of humble Juan Diego—as tradition relates—
brushes not of this earth left painted an Image more
tender which the corrosive work of the centuries was
marvelously to respect.”

388 Appendices
Paris, 1830 Mary appeared to Catherine Labouré, a
nun with the Sisters of Charity in the Rue du Bac.
Catherine had entered the convent in 1830, shortly
before the sighting. Within a few days of her arrival,
she had a vision of the heart of St. Vincent, glowing
above a case containing some of his relics. She prayed
to St. Vincent and to her guardian angel to be granted a
vision of Mary, her greatest ambition.
On July 18, Catherine was awakened at 11:30 P.M.
by the sound of her name being called. She saw a child
of about four or five years of age with golden hair,
whom she took to be her guardian angel. The angel
told her to go to the convent chapel; upon arrival, she
found it brilliantly lit. Mary appeared at midnight and
delivered her customary messages of exhortation to
prayer. She asked Catherine to undertake a mission
that would require her suffering, and also gave her
prophecies.
Mary appeared to Catherine again on November 27
in a glorious vision while Catherine was praying in the
chapel at about 5:30 P.M. She told Catherine to have a
medal struck of her vision, and that all who wore it
would receive graces. Catherine was not able to do this
until six months before her death in 1876. The medal,
called “the Miraculous Medal,” is now worn by millions
worldwide.
La Salette, France, 1846 Mary appeared once on
September 19, 1846, to two children, a boy and a
girl—who had known each other for only two days—
who were herding cows in the French Alps. Awakening
from a nap, 14-year-old Melanie Mathieu and 11-yearold
Maximim Giraud discovered that their cows had
wandered off. In rounding them up, Melanie looked
into a ravine and saw a brilliant light that transformed
into a weeping woman sitting on a rock. She wore a
headdress capped by a crown ringed with roses. Her
long white dress and slippers were decorated with
pearls, and her slippers also had gold buckles and
roses.
The woman rose and approached the children. She
spoke in French, which they did not understand well
(they spoke a local dialect). She made a long complaint
about the social and political turmoil in France and the
neglect of religion. If people did not convert, if people
did not pray and observe the Sabbath, she would be
compelled to set loose her Son’s arm is punishment,
she said.
As she spoke, only one child could hear her at a
time. She gave each child a secret and warned of coming
famine. She admonished them to pray.
The woman was identified as Mary after they told
their story to others. The children were interrogated. A
spring was said to have miraculously appeared at the
spot where Mary had appeared, and people who drank
the water reported being healed.
The Church authenticated La Salette in 1851; a
church and statue of Mary were consecrated in 1879 by
the cardinal archbishop of Paris.
Lourdes, France, 1858 On 18 occasions, from February
11 to July 16, 1858, 14-year-old Bernadette
Soubirous reportedly saw Mary in a grotto along the
Gave du Pau River near Lourdes. Bernadette said she
saw “a girl in white, no taller than I, who greeted me
with a little bow of her head.” On one occasion, the
Lady spoke, in the Lourdes dialect, and said, “Will you
please come here every day for a fortnight. I do not
promise to make you happy in this world but in the
next.” In the last apparition, the woman identified herself
as, “I am the Immaculate Conception.”
As a result of the apparitions, Bernadette reportedly
experienced trances or ecstasies, some lasting an hour.
After her series of visions ceased, a spring near the site
became credited with miraculous healing powers. The
spring has no known natural therapeutic properties;
believers attribute its curative powers to the patronage
of Mary. Numerous other claims of visions and miracles
proved to be spurious. The Catholic Church
authenticated Bernadette’s apparitions four years later,
and canonized Bernadette as a saint on December 8,
1933.
The identification of the apparition as the Immaculate
Conception is important to Catholicism, and has
been taken by many Catholics to be heavenly confirmation
of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception,
which had been defined as a Catholic dogma in 1854,
(see MARY). The “immaculateness” of Mary is a theme
of the apparitions at Guadalupe and Fatima.
At Mary’s request, a chapel was built in 1871 at the
Lourdes site; it has grown to be one of the great
churches of southern France.
Up to six million pilgrims visit Lourdes each year.
Supervision and examination of people who claim to
be healed is done by a Medical Bureau established in
1883 as an independent group of doctors, which also is
open to qualified visiting physicians. There are documented
cases of cures associated with both the waters
and the site.
Knock, Ireland, 1879 Mary, other figures and perhaps
angels were seen on August 21, 1879, by 15
people at the village chapel at dusk. Besides Mary,
there were figures of St. Joseph and a bishop or St.
John the Evangelist (accounts differ). There also was
an altar, above which was a lamb with a halo of gold
stars; behind the lamb was a cross. Mary had her
hands raised in prayer. Although it was raining, no

ain fell where the apparition appeared. One witness,
Patrick Hill, was 11 years old. Interviewed again in
1897, he embellished his account with visions of
winged angels who fluttered in the air for some 90
minutes.
Fatima, Portugal, 1917 In the most dramatic of all
authenticated sightings, three children were paid
three visits by an angel who identified itself as the
Angel of Portugal, who acted as an annunciating figure.
Mary then appeared to the children: Lucia dos
Santos, 10, and her two cousins, Jacinta and Francisco
Marto, seven and nine, respectively. The two girls saw
a “young lady” and heard her speak; the boy saw her
but did not hear her speak. The children said the lady
was dressed in white and stood above a small tree. She
asked them to return to the same place at the same
hour of the same day for six consecutive months. Tens
of thousands of spectators showed up at the
appointed time and place to witness the six apparitions.
At the final sighting on October 13, a crowd of
50,000 or more gathered in the rain. Mary appeared to
the children and told them to build a chapel in her
honor. She said she was the “Lady of the Rosary,” and
that people must say the rosary daily. Then the rain
stopped, and a phenomenon now known as the “miracle
of the sun” occurred. The sun appeared suddenly
through a rift in the clouds and seemed to spin, throwing
off multicolored light. It appeared to plunge to
earth, giving off heat, and then returned to normal in
the sky.
A cult devoted to the Angel of Portugal, the
guardian angel of the state, was sanctioned by the
Catholic Church.
Lucia wrote four memoirs between 1935 and 1941.
In her Second Memoir, she made the new claim that she
and her cousins had been visited by an angel in 1916.
This “Angel of Peace,” as he identified himself, taught
the children a special prayer, and said that the hearts of
Jesus and Mary were attentive to them. Lucia described
him as looking about 14 or 15 years of age, whiter than
snow, transparent as crystal, and quite beautiful when
the sun shone through him. She warned the other two
that the visit must be kept secret (secret visits, messages
and prophecies are an integral part of Marian
apparitions, and conform with apocalyptic experiences).
On a second visit, the angel urged them to pray
constantly to God, and said that the hearts of Jesus
and Mary had “designs of mercy” on them. He
instructed them to make everything possible a sacrifice
offered to God, which would be reparation for the sins
that offend God, and supplication for the conversion
Appendices 389
of sinners. The angel said that if they did this, their
country would have peace. He then identified himself
as the Angel of Portugal. He ended his visit by telling
them to bear the suffering that God would send
them.
On a third visit, the angel gave them Communion.
Lucia received the consecrated host, and Jacinta and
Francisco were allowed to share the chalice.
Beauraing, Belgium, 1932–33 Mary made numerous
appearances to children between November 29, 1932,
and January 3, 1933, in the farming town of Beauraing
in southern Belgium. On the evening of November 29,
with her feet covered in small clouds, she appeared to
five children near the Sisters of Christian Doctrine
Academy, where one of them was a student. No one
believed the children because they had a reputation for
pranks.
The children saw the apparition again on the next
two days. Attempts to find a prankster failed. Mary
emerged from shrubs and ascended to heaven. Later on
the evening of December 1, the children went to
school and recited the rosary outside the gate. Mary,
wearing a white gown and radiating a blue light,
appeared beneath a hawthorn tree.
In subsequent appearances, Mary exhorted the children
to be good. She ignored requests to produce miracles
to convince the growing crowd of spectators
accompanying the children. She asked them to come to
the school garden on December 8, the Feast of the
Immaculate Conception. Expecting a miraculous cure
of two invalid children, 15,000 people showed up.
Though the children saw Mary, they were not healed.
Mary requested that a chapel be built where the
hawthorn tree stood. She spoke to each child individually
and exhorted them all to pray.
She made her last appearance on January 3, revealing
to some children her heart of gold. Fernande Voisin
witnessed a blaze of flame in the hawthorn tree and a
vision of Mary. She asked the child to sacrifice herself
for Mary.
The church authenticated the apparitions in 1949.
Banneux, Belgium, 1933 Eight apparitions of Mary
appeared to 11-year-old Mariette Beco between January
15 and March 2. In the first apparition, Mary appeared
as a glorious lady in white outside the window of the
Beco home. The figure beckoned Mariette to come outside.
The girl’s mother, who could see a shadowy white
form in less detail, feared it was a witch and kept the
child indoors. Mariette insisted it was Mary.
In subsequent visions, Mary uncovered a spring
that she said had healing waters. She asked for a chapel
to be built on the spot, and told Mariette to pray and

390 Appendices
believe in her. She gave Mariette two secrets. On at
least two occasions, Mariette witnessed Mary floating
or gliding in the sky. Mariette sometimes fainted after
the apparitions ended. One apparition lasted 37 minutes.
Though her priest considered her an unlikely
visionary due to her lack of education and piety, others
felt differently. Miracles of healing were reported at the
spring. Banneux became one of the great healing
shrines of Europe.

APPENDIX 11
UNAUTHENTICATED APPARITIONS OF
THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY
Alleged sightings of Marian apparitions have a powerful
effect on witnesses, even if the apparitions are not
authenticated by the Church. Investigations can take
years before a decision on authenticity is made; meanwhile,
sites of apparitions continue to draw new pilgrims
who hope to have miraculous experiences. The
Catholic Church remains very cautious about investigating
reported Marian apparitions. The overwhelming
majority of them fade away over time. Major unauthenticated
sightings are:
Garabandal, Spain, 1961–63 Apparitions occurred
at San Sebastian de Garabandal in northern Spain; they
are unauthenticated. The sightings involved the
archangel Michael, who, like the Angel of Portugal at
Fatima, gave witnesses Communion. The case began
on June 18, 1961, when four girls reported that they
had seen an angel. Over the next two weeks, the angel
made nine appearances. In the two years following,
there were more than 2,000 reports of Marian apparitions
by the girls.
One of the chief documents is the Diary of one of
the witnesses, Conchita Gonzalez, who was 12 at the
time. She began to write the account in September of
1962 and finished it in 1963.
According to Gonzalez, she and the other viewers
were stealing apples on June 18—and arguing over
whether it was right—when a beautiful figure
appeared, brilliant in light. The girls told others about
this angel, and were ridiculed by some. The girls
returned to the spot the next day to pray, but the angel
did not reappear. Gonzalez was consoled by a voice
that night that assured her she would see the angel
391
again. The angel did appear the following day, causing
some disbelievers to recant.
Others joined them in prayer at the site, and over
the next 11 days, the girls had various ecstasies and
eight more sightings of the angel, in front of numerous
witnesses (who could not see the phenomena themselves).
On six of the eight appearances, the angel only
smiled at the girls. On June 24, he appeared with a
sign beneath him; they could remember only that the
first line began with “Hay” and the second line contained
roman numerals.
On July 1, the angel appeared with the sign again
and spoke for the first time, telling the girls that he had
come to announce the arrival of Mary on the following
day. Mary appeared on July 2, accompanied by two
angels who looked like twins. One was Michael, the
angel who had been appearing to them; the other was
not recognized (Gonzalez never said how she was able
to identify the angel as Michael). On Mary’s right side
was a large eye of God.
During these and other visions, the girls were subjected
to crude experiments by researchers to test their
ecstatic states by measuring their sensitivity to pain.
During the June 25 appearance of the angel, Gonzalez
was dropped on her knees, pricked and scratched with
needles and subjected to strong electric light, none of
which broke her trance or made her feel any pain.
On May 18, 1962, the girls began announcing
that they had been receiving Communion from
Michael. Mari Loli was first to make the claim. She said
Michael told her he would give her Communion while
the local priest was absent. The four girls said that

392 Appendices
from then on, they received frequent Communions
from the angel.
Gonzalez said that Michael used unconsecrated
hosts in order to teach them how the host should be
received. One day, the angel told them to fast and to
bring another child along as a witness. He then gave
them consecrated hosts. These reports generated much
controversy. Priests said that angels did not have the
ability to consecrate a host. Gonzalez took this objection
to Michael, who then told her he had taken consecrated
hosts from tabernacles on Earth. Nonetheless,
some people doubted the story.
Gonzalez’s father verified that, prior to their public
admission of Communion from Michael, he had witnessed
the girls going through gestures of putting their
hands together, sticking out their tongues and swallowing,
all of which now made sense. After the admission,
numerous photos were taken of them receiving
invisible Communion.
On June 22, 1962, the angel told Gonzalez—who
had been asking for a miracle as a sign of proof—that
during the next Communion God would perform a
miracle through the angel’s intercession by making a
host visible on her tongue. (Until then, Gonzalez had
no idea that no one else could see the hosts given them
by the angel.) She told the angel that this would be a
tiny miracle, and he laughed. On July 18, a host
appeared on her tongue.
Though the girls later retracted some of their statements
about their experiences, believers were not dissuaded.
Even the retractions seemed part of the overall
experience, with Gonzalez’s diary claiming that Mary
predicted that retractions would be made. Supporters
of the apparitions at Garabandal have worked to try to
convince the Catholic Church to authenticate the
sightings.
Zeitoun, Egypt, 1968–69 More than 70 Marian
apparitions and other unusual phenomena were
reported in the vicinity of St. Mary’s Coptic Church in
Zeitoun, a suburb of Cairo. The first eyewitnesses
were three Muslim mechanics, who reported seeing
a woman dressed in dazzling white, standing
on top of the central dome of the church in the late
night hours. The light was so brilliant that they could
not make out facial features. Others saw it, and a
crowd gathered within minutes; someone recognized
the apparition as Mary. The crowd shouted and the
figure acknowledged by bowing. After a few minutes,
it ascended rapidly into the night sky and disappeared.
The first sighting on April 2 was followed by hundreds
of alleged spontaneous cures of all manner of
diseases and illnesses. One of the mechanics, who suf-
fered a gangrenous finger and was due for surgery the
next day, completely recovered.
From April 2 until August 1969, Marian apparitions
occurred two to three times a week, then were
sporadic for the remainder of 1969. They were most
frequent on early Sunday mornings and on the 32 Marian
feast days of the Coptic Church. Total eyewitnesses
were estimated at 250,000 to 500,000.
The apparitions included full and partial figures in
at least 10 different shapes, which bowed and waved to
the witnesses; reddish clouds of sweet incense, which
appeared and disappeared with great rapidity; unusual
lights shooting across the sky; and luminous doves or
dove-like objects of silver and other brilliant colors,
some of which appeared in the shape of a Christian
cross. None of the apparitions was accompanied by
sound. The shortest lasted about one minute, while the
longest, on June 8, 1968, lasted for more than seven
hours. The General Information and Complaints
Department of the Egyptian government investigated
and declared it “an undeniable fact” that Mary had
appeared to both Christians and Muslims.
Medjugorje, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1981– A remote
village tucked into the mountains, Medjugorje (formerly
in Yugoslavia) has attracted millions of pilgrims
and tourists since Mary first appeared on a hill to six
adolescent villagers on June 24, 1981. Four were girls
and two were boys; they ranged in age from 10 to 17.
For the next 18 months, there were daily apparitions to
one or more of the adolescents, who came to be called
the “seers” or “visionaries.” Apparitions have continued,
and thousands of them have been recorded. Many
have occurred in the “chapel of apparitions,” the rectory
behind St. James Roman Catholic Church in Medjugorje.
Most last a few minutes, but some have lasted
20 to 45 minutes.
In addition to the apparitions, miraculous healings
have been reported of a range of physical and psychological
conditions, from eye diseases and vascular
problems to substance addictions. Other miracles
occurred nearly daily. In August 1981, the Croatian
word for peace, Mir, was seen written in the sky at
night above the cross on the hill where Mary first
appeared, now known as the Hill of Apparitions. Her
silhouette has also been seen on the hill. Like the “miracle
of the sun” at Fatima, the sun has been reported to
either pulsate, spin hypnotically, change into a white
disc, or shine in a rainbow of brilliant colors. The cross
behind the church has been seen to spin or disappear.
On October 28, 1981, a bush spontaneously ignited
on the hill. People rushed to extinguish it, but by the
time they reached it, it had burned itself out, leaving
no charring or burned evidence.

According to the visionaries, the purpose of the
apparitions is to bring a message from Christ, which
the seers would then communicate to the world.
Essentially, the message is that atheists must convert
and return to the ways of God, to change their lives to
peace with God and with their fellow humankind.
Returning to God can be achieved through peace, conversion,
fasting, penance and prayer. Peace is the most
important, for it makes everything else possible. Prayer
is vital because faith cannot be maintained without it.
Prayer must be directed to Jesus, and Mary will intercede
with him. The purpose of the supernatural events,
according to Mary, is to give credence to the apparitions
and underscore the importance of the message.
Mary further communicated that Medjugorje was
selected because the village of about 400 families
included many good believers who were capable of
restoring their faith, and serving as an example, to
other people in the world regarding the need to convert.
After their first vision, the visionaries spent at least
six hours in prayer, and fasted up to three times a
week. They said they conversed with Mary in normal
conversation tones, and in their native Croatian. They
learned that each of them would be given 10 secrets,
after which time Mary would cease to appear to them,
except on special occasions. The children did not
receive their secrets at the same time; four messages
were to concern mankind as a whole, while the rest
would be directed to individuals or the village of Medjugorje.
As a result of the apparitions, the villagers, with few
exceptions, converted and began attending daily
church services.
Pilgrims who visit the church and rectory say Mary
appears to them during prayer. Others report unusual
experiences, such as the changing of silver rosary
chains to gold. Photographs appear to show images of
Appendices 393
the figure of Jesus on the cross on the Hill, Mary in
prayer against the cross, Mary and child in the sky, and
unnaturally originating rays of light striking across the
cross. In some cases, the images are evident only after
the film is developed.
By the fall of 1987, Mary was appearing on the 25th
day of each month, giving messages to visionaries to
spread throughout the world about the need for prayer
and the need to dedicate time to Jesus.
The messages support Catholic teachings; most fall
into five themes: peace, faith, conversion, prayer and
fasting. In 1984, Mary began giving “special messages.”
By 1999, three visionaries had received all 10
secrets, and three had received nine. The ninth and
tenth secrets were supposed to be “very grave, having
to do with the sins of the world.” Prayer and penance
will help to ward off evil and war.
Only one secret was revealed to the public: that
Mary would leave a visible sign on the mountain where
she first appeared.
After all the secrets are given, three warnings will
be given to the world. Ten days before each warning, a
priest will be notified so that he can fast and pray for
seven days, and then announce the warning that will
take place in three days. The three warnings will occur
in rapid succession. Those who have not converted
will have little time to do so.
The Catholic Church’s position on Medjugorje is
that supernatural apparitions and revelations have not
been affirmed. Private pilgrimages are permitted as
long as they are not taken as authentification of events.
In 1998, a scientific study was done on the visionaries
at the request of the Parish Office of Medjugorje. It
was concluded that none of the visionaries demonstrated
any pathological symptoms such as trance
interference, dissociative interference or loss of reality
interference, and that their states of ecstasy were not
hypnotically induced.

APPENDIX 12
GLOSSARY OF HERESIES AND SCHISMS
From its beginnings, Christianity was beset by heresies,
schisms and competing religions. Some of these
were confined to small areas and lasted but a few
decades or a century or so. Others became powerful
and well established, threatening the growth of the
Church.
A heretic is one who accepts only part of the doctrine
of the Church. Apostasy, on the other hand,
rejects the entire faith of Christ. All heresies are
schisms but not all schisms are heresies. A schism may
uphold the entire doctrine of the Church but attempt
to assert some independence. Heresy is considered a
sin. Heretics once were subject to excommunication,
and perhaps also to fines, seizure of estates and banishment.
During the Inquisition, heretics were arrested,
severely tortured and turned over to the secular courts
for punishment, usually execution by burning or hanging.
Today heresy is punishable by excommunication,
public humiliation and—for clerics—a stripping of all
clerical orders.
The establishment of Christian doctrine was a long
process studded with great controversies. It was not
uncommon for defenders of orthodoxy to find themselves
condemned as heretics because their views and
writings fell into error.
The following are brief summaries of some of the
notable heresies and schisms referred to in entries in
this encyclopedia. The Catholic Encyclopedia provides
detailed entries on these and other heresies and
schisms.
Adoptionism A heresy that held that Christ was a
man and was the Son of God only by adoption. The
heresy arose toward the end of the eighth century in
Spain, where Islam and the Nestorian heresy had
394
found support. Its chief proponent was Elipandus, the
archbishop of Toledo. Adoptionism was condemned by
Pope Adrian I in 785 and 794. Also in 794 the Council
of Frankfort rejected it as heresy. Adoptionism was
largely gone by the Middle Ages. In 1177 Pope Alexander
III anathematized anyone who did not recognize
Christ as the natural Son of God.
Apollinarianism A heresy that Christ had a human
body and soul, but no human intellect; that is, his
rational side, or human spirit, was replaced by the
Divine Logos.
The heresy was conceived by Apollinaris the
Younger, Bishop of Laodicea (d. 392), and gained popularity
during the latter part of the fourth century.
Apollinaris held that humanity’s rational mind is capable
of sinning, and thus Christ, as the perfect union of
humanity and God, had to possess the Divine Logos in
its stead.
Apollinaris wrote numerous works, including treatises
on the Scriptures and apologies for Christianity
against other heresies. His views about the Divine
Logos in Christ initially were highly regarded by major
Fathers of the Church such as SS. Athanasius, Basil
and Jerome. The Apollinarists fabricated supporting
writings supposedly authored by SS. Athanasius, Gregory
Thaumaturgus and others in order to gain adherents.
This worked for a time, and Apollinarianism was
especially strong in the Eastern Church.
Church councils in Rome in 377 and Constantinople
in 381 denounced the theory as heresy. Athanasius,
Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa and
others wrote against it. The defenders of orthodoxy
held that Christ experienced joy and sadness, which
are properties of the human soul, and that without a

ational spirit he was not a man, nor was he God-man,
and therefore he could not serve as the model for
Christian life.
Apollinaris died a heretic in 392. Many of his followers
returned to orthodoxy, and some became supporters
of another heresy, Monophysitism.
Arianism A heresy that denied the divinity of Christ.
Arianism was the first major heresy to arise after
Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity in 313,
and it created a significant struggle of doctrine that
engaged some of the leading figures of the Church,
including SS. Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of
Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus.
Arius, the namesake of the heresy, was a Libyan
who grew up in Antioch and went to school with Eusebius,
who became bishop of Nicomedia. Despite Jesus’
statement in the Gospels that “I and the Father are
one,” Arius held that God was without beginning and
therefore could not create himself as Son. Christ, who
had an origin, was a second, inferior God. A huge controversy
over this raged in the Church, but Emperor
Constantine treated it as a minor matter.
The response to Arianism was the Nicene Creed,
which affirmed that Father and Son were “consubstantial.”
This was affirmed by a council, and Arius and his
supporters were exiled. But the Nicene term itself then
came under controversy. Thanks to schemes and
intrigues, Constantine was persuaded to accept Arius
back, and ordered Athanasius, the patriarch of Constantinople,
to do so. Athanasius refused, and was
deposed and banished. In 336 Arius made a triumphant
return to the city, but his triumph was shortlived—he
died suddenly, to the satisfaction of his
opponents. This, however, did not end Arianism, for
Constantine favored it until his own death in 337.
Athanasius fought Arianism to his death in 373.
There were constant intrigues and various new sects
that arose. Constantinople remained an Arian stronghold;
the battle against it was continued by Basil, the
two Gregorys and others. In 381 the Council of Constantinople
approved the Nicene Creed, which
affirmed the unity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, and
set forth the fundamentals of the Christian faith. Arianism
was condemned and quickly lost power. It lingered
in patches throughout Europe and among
barbarians, but was essentially dead by the eighth century.
Docetism A heresy that arose from Gnosticism during
the first century of Christianity. The Docetae, or
Illusionists, held that Christ only “seemed” to be
human. Some Docetae denied the entirety of Christ’s
human nature, while others denied only his human
birth and death, or only his human body. St. Clement
Appendices 395
of Alexandria credited a Julius Cassianus as the
founder of Docetism, but the ideas were in existence
long before him. The Apostles and early Church
fathers campaigned against Docetism and Gnosticism.
Docetism was absorbed by Manichaeanism.
Donatism A schism in Africa that lasted from about
311 to 411. The Donatists were not heretics. However,
St. Augustine, who vigorously and successfully
opposed them, said that schismatics were just as bad as
heretics, if not worse.
The schism arose in the wake of the terrible Christian
persecutions in North Africa in the early fourth
century. Christians were giving themselves up, but
Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, decreed that those who
surrendered voluntarily could not be glorified as martyrs.
Mensurius died in 311 after the persecutions
abated. The schism arose during the controversy over
selecting a new bishop, and was led by Donatus of
Casae Nigrae, a forceful and eloquent figure. Much of
the polarization of sides concerned the treatment of
the martyrs. A bishop was chosen who had been antagonistic
toward the martyrs. Dissenting bishops
declared the bishop’s ordination invalid, and elected
their own replacement. Soon there were many cities
having two bishops.
The Donatists gained power and were tolerated by
Emperor Constantine. The Arian heretics tried to gain
the support of the Donatists, but failed.
After Augustine was ordained a priest in 391, he
began a strong campaign against the schism. He prevailed
at a conference in Carthage in 411, at which
Donatist assemblies were forbidden, and other measures
were taken against them. In 412, Pope Honorius
outlawed them, and by 430 they had disappeared.
Eastern Schism Numerous schisms plagued the Eastern
Church, culminating in a great schism that completely
separated Eastern and Western churches in the
15th century. The Eastern Schism was not the product
of a single controversy, but the result of a long and
gradual process.
From the beginning of Christianity, differences
appeared in the Eastern and Western churches. They
had different capitals of activity (Rome and Constantinople),
different philosophies and their own loyalties
and politics. There was constant friction between
Rome and Constantinople. The East had its own troubled
history, spending 203 years of the 544-year period
between 323 and 867 dealing with a series of schisms
and heresies.
The Eastern Schism took shape in 1053, when
Michael Caerularius, patriarch of Constantinople,
declared war on the West and closed down the Latin
churches in the city. He and his followers were excom-

396 Appendices
municated by Rome in 1054. Attempts were made to
heal the breach on into the 15th century, but reunions
never lasted. In 1472 the East formally broke away
from the West.
Eutychianism A heresy in the fifth century that
rejected the orthodox, two united natures of Christ in
favor of one nature. The heresy was a response against
another heresy, Nestorianism, and is often identified
with the Monophysite heresy. It was named after Eutyches,
though he contributed little to it.
At the time the heresy arose, Eutyches was 70 years
old and for 30 years had served as archimandrite of a
monastery of 300 monks outside of Constantinople.
Eutyches opposed Nestorianism, but could not accept
the concept, expressed by St. Cyril of Alexandria, that
Christ was of two natures united after the Incarnation,
consubstantial with God and with the flesh of humanity.
Eutyches held that nothing could be imposed by
faith that was not found in the Scriptures.
Eutyches was tried for heresy and was excommunicated
and deposed. He appealed to Pope St. Leo, who
decided that Eutyches was a foolish old man and could
be restored if he repented. In 449 a council held in
Ephesus absolved him, but another council in Chalcedon
in 451 exiled him. He is believed to have died
soon thereafter.
Gnosticism An intellectual religion espousing salvation
through gnosis, or knowledge. Gnosticism was in
existence several centuries before Christianity. It borrowed
from Christianity and lasted into the fifth century.
The exact origins of Gnosticism are not known,
but it appears to have drawn from Babylonian, Persian,
Judaic and Hellenistic thought. The Gnostic cosmology
drew upon Chaldean astrology.
The Gnostics viewed the cosmos as a series of concentric
spheres. They called them aeons, each with its
own ruler or aeon (comparable to a very high angel).
The highest, 365th circle was ruled by Abraxas, the
chief of the heavens. At the summit, or the center, was
the good God, otherwise called the Father, essentially
unknowable to humans. Aeons could combine and
subdivide and multiply themselves in a process called
syzygy. Descending in tiers down to the terrestrial
world were 30 circles, which constituted the Pleroma.
Sophia was the aeon of the 30th circle. According to
one version of her story, she desired to contemplate on
her own the splendor of the Pleroma. This was an illfated
wish, for when she crossed the last circle, she was
dazzled by light and fell down to our world. Sophia
was made pregnant by the Pleroma and gave birth to a
creature, the Demiurge, who, after modifications by the
Aeons of the Pleroma, created humankind. Gnostics
associated their many versions of this “accursed god”
with the God of the Old Testament.
Gnostics considered the world of matter evil and
polluted, deteriorated from the Godhead. Through
knowledge, which included the use of magical spells,
the pneuma, or spirit, struggled to ascend to the
Pleroma.
Numerous Gnostic systems and schools proliferated.
Christianity refuted it from its beginnings. Many
of the early Church fathers wrote strongly against it,
especially St. Irenaeus and Tertullian. Beginning in the
fourth century, Gnosticism fell into rapid decline and
was no longer a force by the fifth to sixth centuries.
Iconoclasm A heresy of the eighth and ninth centuries
in the Eastern Church, before the final break
between East and West. The heresy centered around the
veneration of images, or icons. In the eighth century,
Emperor Leo III (the Isaurian) instigated persecutions
against icon worship on the grounds that images were
idols that fostered superstition and hindered the conversion
of the Jews and Muslims. The Iconoclasts, as
the opponents of icons were called, burned monasteries
in the East and tortured, killed and banished monks.
They then turned on relics, and vandalized shrines and
burned the bodies of saints. The papacy’s defense of
holy images only intensified the persecutions.
In 731 Pope Gregory III held a synod in Rome that
declared that anyone who broke or defiled holy images
would be excommunicated. The response of Leo III
was to send a fleet to Rome to punish the pope, but it
was wrecked by storms. When Leo III died in 741, his
persecutions were carried on by his son Constantine V.
In 754 a synod in Constantinople declared that the
only lawful image of Christ was the Eucharist; all others
were either Monophysite or Nestorian, since they
confounded or divorced his two natures. The destruction
of images and relics continued. When Constantine
V died in 775, his son Leo V maintained the persecutions,
though less vigorously than his father.
Leo V died in 780 and the throne went to his nineyear-old
son, Constantine VI. The boy’s mother,
Empress Irene, served as regent. She began a campaign
to reverse Iconoclasm and reopen and restore the
monasteries. Pope Adrian I demanded restitution of
the property confiscated by Leo III.
The lawfulness of venerating holy images was reestablished
at a synod at Nicaea in 787. But peace did
not last, for the Iconoclast party still existed, especially
in the army. Twenty-seven years later, a second Iconoclastic
persecution erupted. There were countering synods
that rejected and upheld icons, and much fighting.
The Iconoclasts regained the upper hand. The persecutions
became so great that many monks fled to the West.

The situation did not change until 842, when
another empress regent, Theodora, gained control and
restored icon worship. The Iconoclasts were excommunicated.
The Feast of Orthodoxy was established to
commemorate the defeat of Iconoclasm, and became
symbolic of the defeat of all heresies. The Iconoclast
party gradually died out.
Twenty years later, the Eastern and Western
Churches separated.
Manichaeanism An intellectual and dualistic religion
founded in Persia by Mani in the last half of the third
century. Presenting itself as a synthesis of all religions,
Manichaeanism spread rapidly from Asia Minor to
Europe, Africa, India, China and Tibet, lasting about
700 years.
Mani (the name is more a title than a personal
name) was born ca. 215–216 in Babylonia to a religious
family. He became a pagan priest. In 242 he proclaimed
himself “Apostle of the true God,” evoking
Buddha, Zoroaster and Jesus. He began evangelizing
abroad in Turkestan and India. Returning to Persia, he
was imprisoned by King Sapor I, and either was
released or escaped after the king’s death in 274.
Sapor’s successor, Ormuzd I, favored Mani, but lived
only one year on the throne. The next king, Bahram I,
had Mani crucified in 276–277, his corpse flayed and
the skin stuffed and hung up at the city gate.
Manichaeans were persecuted viciously.
Like Gnosticism, Manichaeanism promised salvation
through knowledge. It had an elaborate cosmology
of light and dark; the world of matter was
polluting and had to be overcome. Mani proclaimed
himself the Paraclete promised by Jesus, although he
claimed no divinity. He repudiated the historical Jesus
as an ordinary man, a “devil” who was fittingly punished.
Jesus Christ was only an aeon, or personification
of Light. He accepted portions of the New Testament
but rejected all of the Old Testament.
Manichaeanism was especially popular in the Arab
world and the East; it also gained a strong following in
Egypt. It was at its peak around 400, and its followers
suffered persecution as heretics. It lasted until about
1000, becoming absorbed into other sects such as the
Paulicians, Cathars and Bogomils, which were eradicated
by the Inquisition.
Marcionism A heresy that survived for about 300
years in early Christianity and that rejected the God of
the Old Testament as the Father of Christ.
The heresy was conceived by Marcion, born to
wealthy parents in Pontus ca. 110, and who became a
bishop. He went to Rome ca. 140, announcing that he
would divide the Church forever. His final breach with
the Church occurred in 144.
Appendices 397
Marcion could not reconcile the cruel God of the
Old Testament with God the Father of Christ. He said
the Old Testament God was really a lesser God, a
Demiurge who created the world and was given to
anger. Christ was the son of a great God, the good God
who was nothing but love. He created his own New
Testament that included a chopped up version of the
Gospel of St. Luke and 10 letters of St. Paul.
Marcion attracted many followers who further
developed his ideas toward Gnosticism. By 154 Marcionism
was widespread. Opponents included some of
the most prominent fathers of the Church, such as SS.
Irenaeus, Justin the Martyr, Epiphanius and Hippolytus
of Rome, as well as Tertullian.
Marcion was thrown out of the Church. At some
point he is said to have professed penitence and
promised to bring back to the fold those whom he had
led astray, but he died—the date is not known—before
he could do so. Marcionism eventually was absorbed
into Manichaeanism.
Monophysitism One of the most important early
heresies of the Church, which had strength in the fifth
and sixth centuries. It denied the united two natures of
Christ in favor of one nature.
The most famous of all Monophysite proponents
was Severus, who served as bishop of Antioch from
512 to 518. After his baptism, Severus renounced
bathing and took to fasting and holding vigils. He died
in 538, having retired to Egypt. He refused to bathe
even to save his life, although at the end he did allow
himself to be bathed with his clothes on. After his
death, miracles were worked by his relics.
Severus was considered a great enemy of orthodoxy,
which held that Christ was one person, one hypostasis
(basis or foundation) and two natures, divine and
human. Severus and the Monophysites held that he
was one person, one hypostastis and one nature. The
Nestorians divided Christ into two.
Monophysitism thus denied that Christ had any
human acts of cognition and will. This position
led inevitably to the idea that either the whole of
God had incarnated, suffered and died, or that each of
the three persons in God—Father, Son and Holy
Ghost—had a divine nature of its own. Monophysitists
split on this question, and a schism of Tritheists
supported the idea of a threefold divine nature. The
Tritheist in turn split into factions, and were excommunicated.
Monophysitism was condemned as a heresy and
eventually lost force. During its heyday, it attracted
numerous prolific supporters who produced a large
body of writings, more than on any other heresy of the
early Church.

398 Appendices
Monothelitism A heresy of the seventh century that
was a modification of Monophysitism. The original
intent of Monothelitism was to reconcile Monophysitism
with orthodoxy, but it fell into heresy itself.
Catholic doctrine holds that Christ had two wills, one
human and one divine. Monothelites held that this was
contrary, and that Christ could have had only one
divine will. Parallel to the will is the operation, or
energy, for action. Monothelites held that Christ could
have only one operation.
The Monothelite heresy arose almost accidentally
around 622. Emperor Heraclius heard an argument
from a Monophysite, and refuted him with theological
arguments. Heraclius incidentally referred to the “one
operation” of Christ. At the time the Church was badly
fractured by a long history of heresies, and Heraclius
badly wanted to reunite the factions. Previous efforts
by other emperors had met with dismal failure. Heraclius
was heartened when the Monophysites accepted
the idea of one operation.
Monothelitism was condemned by the Sixth General
Council in Constantinople in 680.
Montanists A schism founded in the second century
by the prophet Montanus and two women prophets,
Maximilla and Priscilla (also known as Prisca). The
Mantanists first were known as the Phrygians, then the
Montanists, Pepuzians and Cataphrygians.
Montanus and his prophetesses were based in the
village of Pepuza. They would fall into ecstatic trances
and speak in the name of the Father, the Word, the
Paraclete and Jesus. Entranced, they issued instructions
to their followers for the spiritual life; Maximilla
especially predicted continual wars and fighting that
didn’t happen. They advocated fasts and abstinence;
chastity was a way to ecstasy. Martyrdom was valued.
Second marriages were forbidden.
It is likely that the Montanists drew from, and
appealed to, followers of the orgiastic cult of Cybele,
which was popular in Phrygia. Christians were among
those drawn to the trance spectacles that would take
place.
Incredible stories about the Montanists circulated.
One tale held that on a certain feast they stuck an
infant with brazen pins and used the blood to make
cakes for sacrifices. If the infant died it was a martyr; if
it lived, it became a high priest. This sort of story was
similar to the stories that were rampant during the
Inquisition about witches and other heretics assembling
for orgiastic feasting and the sacrificing and eating
of babies. Another story was that the Montanists
baptized the dead. Such accounts were repudiated as
fiction even as they circulated, but nonetheless they
found credulous ears.
The schism was short-lived. Maximilla died in 179
and Montanus and Priscilla died some time before that
(according to one anonymous account, the latter two
hanged themselves). Montanism was at its peak
around 177. The prophecies were condemned as profane
heresy and followers were excommunicated. This
did not end the sect, which gained much popularity in
both East and West into the third century. Christian
emperors beginning with Constantine I outlawed the
Montanists, but the laws were seldom enforced. The
sect became increasingly secretive and dwindled.
Nestorianism A heresy whose main points held that
Christ had two natures, not one, and condemned the
term Theotokos (“God-bearer”) as applied to the
Blessed Virgin Mary.
The heresy’s proponent, Nestorius (d. ca. 451), was
an eloquent Syrian priest and monk who was chosen
by Emperor Theodosius to become patriarch of Constantinople
in 428. He came from a school of thought
that held that Christ had two natures, divine and
human, which were unified in him. Although Nestorius
did not admit to the existence of two Christs, such
was the inevitable outcome of this theory. The denial of
Theotokos as a title to Mary implied that she was not
the mother of the Son of God.
After becoming bishop, Nestorius made a vigorous
campaign against heretics, especially the Arians. But in
428 or 429 he preached the first of his sermons against
the Theotokos, a title he held would turn Mary into a
goddess. His views excited opposition, first among his
own clergy and then by powerful persons such as St.
Cyril of Alexandria. In 430 Nestorius assembled a council,
which, led by his rival Cyril, then condemned him.
Nestorius refused to submit, but bishops who supported
him were deposed, and his friends deserted
him. He retired to his monastery at Antioch in 435.
Emperor Theodosius II condemned his writings to be
burnt. A few years later, Nestorius was banished.
A Nestorian Church was founded in Persia, but was
cut off from the Catholic Church. The Nestorians
established themselves in India, China and Mongolia.
Much later, the last remnants of the Nestorian Church
reunited with the Catholic Church.
Novatianism A schism of the third century created
by Novatian, a Roman priest who made himself
antipope. In 250 Pope St. Fabian was martyred in the
persecutions launched by Emperor Decius. Novatian
reportedly escaped persecution by denying he was a
priest. In 251 St. Cornelius was elected pope, but
Novatian also laid claim to the honor, and the two
began attacking each other with charges. The legitimacy
of Novatian’s ordination was questioned. He had

een given baptism while thought to be on his
deathbed from a demonic possession, and he had never
been confirmed by a bishop.
A serious division in the Church resulted. Before
the end of 251, Cornelius assembled a council of 60
bishops that excommunicated Novatian. Later, Novatian
was called a heretic for his strict views that idolatry
was an unpardonable sin, and that the Church had no
right to restore to Communion anyone who had committed
such a sin. His followers extended this view to
all mortal sins. Novatian also separated God the Father
from Christ the Son of God, identifying the Son with
the angels who appeared to Abraham in the Old Testament.
Novatianism spread throughout Christendom. In
Phrygia, its followers combined with the Montanists.
The schism ran out of steam by the end of the third
century, but Novatians were still in existence in
Alexandria in 600.
Origenism Theology and philosophy expressed in
the work of Origen (185–253 or 254), an early Church
father.
Born in Alexandria, Origen was a brilliant and precocious
student. He became the head of a catechetical
school. On a trip to Greece, Origen was ordained a
priest by the bishop of Caesarea, which did not sit well
with the bishop of Alexandria, who may also have been
jealous of Origen’s popularity and influence. He succeeded
in having Origen deposed and banished.
In 232 Origen went to Caesarea and founded a new
school and attracted many pupils, among them St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus. During the persecution of
Emperor Decius in 250, Origen was severely tortured
and imprisoned. While in prison, he wrote numerous
letters to help the martyrs maintain their faith. Decius
died in 251, and Origen retired to Tyr, where he died
around 253–254. He was buried with honor as a confessor
of the faith, and pilgrims visited his tomb in the
cathedral at Tyr. The cathedral has long been in ruins
and the location of Origen’s tomb is not known.
Origen was extremely prolific, leaving a body of
work numbering about 6,000 pieces. His theology and
teachings influenced many of the great figures of the
early Church. Some of his points of doctrine were
refuted by orthodox writers, in controversies that continued
long after his death.
Refutations of the errors of Origenist thought broke
out around the turn of the fifth century, especially in
Egypt, and in the mid-sixth century. Origen’s writings
were condemned and anathematized.
Pelagianism A heresy that denied original sin and
Christian grace. Pelagianism flourished in the fifth to
Appendices 399
mid-sixth centuries. One of its chief opponents was St.
Augustine.
Little is known about the originator of the heresy,
Pelagius. His home has been placed in England, Scotland
and Ireland. He went to Rome and became a
monk, and authored treatises that formed the core of
his heresy. He was aided by a eunuch lawyer, Caelestius,
whom he met in Rome.
The principle ideas of Pelagianism, as expressed by
Caelestius, were that: Adam died not from his sin but
from natural causes; Adam’s sin harmed only himself;
newborn children are in the same state as Adam before
the fall; humanity does not die through Adam’s sin or
death and does not rise through the resurrection of
Christ; Mosaic Law is as effective a guide to heaven as
the Gospels; before Christ there were men without sin;
and men have the natural ability to conquer sin and
gain eternal life without the aid of grace.
Pelagius and Caelestius went to North Africa, where
they excited the opposition of Augustine. Pelagius
went to the East. A synod condemned Caelestius’s theses,
and he went to Ephesus. In 415 a synod was convened
against Pelagius in Diospolis (the ancient
Lydda) in Asia Minor, but his chief accusers failed to
appear. Pelagius declared that the doctrines in question
came from Caelestius, and so no action was taken
against him. Two subsequent synods in North Africa
rejected the doctrines. In 417 Pope Innocent I sided
with the North Africans, developed the orthodox
teachings on original sin and grace, and excommunicated
Pelagius and Caelestius.
Pelagius modified his stance and Caelestius
affirmed his belief in all doctrines of the Church. Innocent
I died, and his successor, Zosimus, considered
rescinding the sentence against the two. He was persuaded
against that by another synod convened in
Carthage.
In 418 Emperor Honorius banned all Pelagians
from all cities in Italy. Zosimus made all bishops refute
Pelagianism in writing, or be deposed and banished; 18
suffered this fate. Pelagius and Caelestius ended their
days in Asia Minor.
Pelagianism gained a foothold in Gaul and Britain,
but finally died out in the middle of the sixth century.
Tritheism See Monophysitism.
Western Schism A 40-year dispute in the Latin
Church that ended in 1417 with the election of an
undisputed pope. It was a disagreement more than a
schism, for it involved no revolt against papal authority
itself.
From the beginning of the 14th century, the pope
had lived in Avignon, France. Pope Gregory XI

400 Appendices
returned the Holy See to Rome, and died there in 1378.
His successor was Urban VI, who quickly proved himself
unpopular with the cardinals. His opponents left
Rome and elected their own pope, Clement VII, who
had friends and relatives in the major royal families of
Europe. He established himself at Avignon.
Loyalties quickly divided. SS. Catherine of Siena
and Catherine of Sweden were among those who supported
Urban VI, while SS. Vincent Ferrer and Colette
were among those who supported Clement VII. Most
of the Italian and German states, plus England and
Flanders, supported Urban VI, and France, Spain,
Scotland and their allies supported Clement VII. The
rival popes excommunicated each other.
The controversy extended beyond the deaths of
both popes. Boniface IX succeeded Urban VI and Benedict
XIII succeeded Clement VII. Boniface IX in turn
was succeeded by Innocent VII and then Gregory XII.
In 1409, there was a third claimant to the papacy, John
XXIII.
In 1414 the Council of Constance deposed John
XXIII, forced Gregory XII to abdicate and dismissed
Benedict XIII. In 1417 Martin V was elected pope and
was accepted by both factions. The papacy remained in
Rome.

SOURCES AND FURTHER
READING RECOMMENDATIONS
Many of the entries in this book include suggestions
for further reading. In addition, the following books
were consulted and are sources of biographical and
anecdotal information on saints:
Ball, Ann. Modern Saints: Their Lives and Faces, Book One and
Book Two. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers,
1983 and 1990.
Bunson, Matthew, and Margaret Bunson and Stephen Bunson.
Our Sunday Visitor’s Encyclopedia of Saints. Huntington,
Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1998.
Butler, Alban. Lives of the Saints. Michael Walsh, ed. San
Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991.
Cantor, Norman F., gen. ed. The Encyclopedia of the Middle
Ages. New York: Reference Works/Viking, 1999.
Cruz, Joan Carroll. Mysteries, Marvels, Miracles in the Lives of
the Saints. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books, 1997.
Cruz, Joan Carroll. Secular Saints. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books
and Publishers, 1989.
Cruz, Joan Carroll. The Incorruptibles. Rockford, Ill.: TAN
Books, 1977.
de Voragine, Jacobus. The Golden Legend. Vols. I and II. Tr.
William Granger Ryan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1993.
401
Dunn-Mascetti, Manuela. Saints: The Chosen Few. New York:
Ballantine Books, 1994.
Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1986.
Newland, Mary Reed. The Saint Book. New York: Seabury
Press, 1979.
One Hundred Saints. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1993.
Stevens, Rev. Clifford. The One Year Book of Saints. Huntington,
Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1989.
The following websites also were among sources consulted.
The Catholic Encyclopedia, which can be found at Eternal
World Television Network, http://www.ewtn.com and
New Advent, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen
Internet Medieval Sourcebook, at http://www.fordham.edu/
halsall/search.html
Catholic Community Forum, at http://www.catholic-forum.
com/saints
St Patrick’s Church, at http://www.users.erols.com.saintpat/ss
Church Forum, at http://www.churchforum.org.

A
Abelard, Peter 48
Abra 146
Acacius 107
Acarie de Villemor, Peter 239, 240
Acción Católica 231, 232, 233
Accurcius 45
Achatius 109
Achilleus 267
Act of Union 107
Adalbald of Ostrevant 1
Adalbero 335
Adalbert of Magdeburg 1
Adalbert of Prague 1–2, 313
Adalsindis 1
Adamnan 79, 80, 81
Adelaide 2–3
Adeodatus I, Pope 3
Adjutus 45
Adoptionism 208, 394
Adorno, Giuliano 64, 65
Adrian I, Pope 207, 394, 396
Adrian II, Pope 77
Adrian III, Pope 3
Adrian V, Pope 64
Aethelfrith, King 263
Aethelred, King 9–10, 94
Aethelstan, King 94
Agapetus I, Pope 3–4
Agatha 4
Agatho, Pope 5, 44
Agde, Council of 60
INDEX
Note: Page numbers followed by the letter f indicate figures. Boldface page numbers indicate the primary
discussion of a topic.
Agnes, Empress 335
Agnes of Assisi 5, 76
Agnes of Jesus 324
Agnes of Rome 5–6, 6f
Agostina Petrantoni 6
Agricolaus of Cappadocia 49–50
Agustín Caloca 232–233
Aidan of Argyll, King 80
Aidan of Lindisfarne 6–7, 73,
146–147, 264
Aladel 70, 71
Alaric 156
Alaric II, King 60
Alban 7
Albert the Great 7–8, 16, 326
Albinus 78
Alcatrines 278
Alcfrith 44
Aldhelm of Sherborne 212
Alexander I, Pope 9, 37, 291
Alexander II, Pope 342
Alexander III, Czar 256
Alexander III, Pope 26, 329, 381,
394
Alexander IV, Pope 8, 50
Alexander of Hales 50
Alexander Severus, Emperor 72,
336
Alexandra 256–257, 256f
Alexei 256, 257
Alexis 9, 110
Alexis I, Emperor 337
403
Alexis Falconieri 303
Alfonso VIII, King 158
Alfred the Great, King 9–10, 253
Alix of Hesse 256–257
All Saints feast 383
All Souls feast 383
Aloysius Gonzaga 10–11, 296
Alphege the Bald 94
Alphonsa Hawthorne 11
Alphonsus Liguori 131
Alphonsus Marie Liguori 11–13,
383
Alphonsus Rodriguez 13–14, 279
Alphonsus Rodriguez (Martyr of
Paraguay) 234–235
Amalasuntha, Queen 4, 107
Ambrose 14–16, 72, 251, 274, 301
Ambrose Sansedoni, Blessed 16–17
Anaclitus 103
Ananais 271
Anastasia 17
Anastasia of Russia 257
Anastasius I, Pope 17
Anastasius II, Emperor 132
Anastasius the Sinaite 17
André, Blessed Brother ix–x,
57–58, 57f, 191
Andrew the Apostle 17–18, 18f
Andrew Avellino 18–19
Andrew of Crete 19, 238
Andrew Kim Taegon 19–20
Anencletus, Pope 20

404 Index
angel(s)
and Frances of Rome 110–111
and Fursey 122
and Gemma Galgani 128–129
Jerome on 167
and Neot 253
and Padre Pio 267
Thomas Aquinas on 327, 383
Angela Merici 20–21
Angelico, Fra 31
Angelic Rule 265
Anger 120
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 10
Anicetus, Pope 21, 97
animals
Francis of Assisi and 116
Francis Solanus and 119
Gall and 127
Gerard Majella and 131
Isidore the Farmer and 158
Joseph of Copertino and 193
Martin de Porres and 227
Anne, Matron 21–22, 168, 236,
243
Anne of Austria 108, 345
Anne Line 22–23
Annunciation 125
Anselm 23–25
Anskar 255
Anterus, Pope 25
Anthelm 25–26
Anthemius, Emperor 145
Anthimus 83
Anthinus 4
Anthony 26–27, 26f, 144, 302
Anthony Mary Claret 27–28, 28f
Anthony Mary Zaccaria 28–29
Anthony of Padua 29–31, 30f, 45
Antoninus 31–32
Antony Daniel 260
Antony Deynan 231
Anulinus 84
Apollinarianism 394–395
Apollinaris the Younger 394
Apollonia 32, 91, 248
apostasy, definition of 394
apparitions See also visions
of Blessed Virgin Mary 387–393
authenticated 237, 387–390
in Banneux, Belgium
389–390
in Beauraing, Belgium 389
in Fatima, Portugal 161–162,
389
in Garabandal, Spain
391–392
in Guadalupe, Mexico
194–195, 387
in Knock, Ireland 388–389
in La Salette, France 388
in Lourdes, France 46–47,
388
in Medjugorje, Bosnia-
Herzegovina 392–393
in Paris, France 388
unauthenticated 391–393
in Zeitoun, Egypt 392
of Michael the Archangel
247–248, 391–392
Arianism 395
Ambrose on 14, 15
Anthony on 27
Athanasius on 33, 395
Basil the Great on 40
definition of 14, 395
Eustathius on 103
Fulgentius of Ruspe on 122
Hilary of Poitiers on 146
opposition to 15, 27, 33, 40,
103, 122, 146
Aristakes 138
Aristotle 8, 51, 326, 327
Arius 33, 395
Armenia, Christianity in 138
Arnold of Brescia 102
Arnulf of Metz 32
Artaxius 275
Arthur, King 90
Assumption, of Mary 236, 237
Astrik 313
Athalaric 107
Athanasian Creed 33
Athanasius 33
on Anthony 27
on Apollinarianism 394
on Arianism 33, 395
Basil the Great and 40
Gregory of Nazianzus and 138
Julius I and 199
Serapion and 302
Athelm 94
Athenodorus 140
Atilano Cruz 234
Atticus 290
Attila the Hun 207
Aubert 248
audition
definition of 383
and Francis of Assisi 114
and Joan of Arc 64, 169, 217
Augustine of Canterbury 33–34,
205, 268
Augustine of Hippo 34–36, 34f
Ambrose and 14
Anselm and 23
Celestine I and 72
City of God 35–36
Confessions 34, 35
on Crispina 84
on Donatism 395
Manichaeanism and 35
Monica and 34–35, 251
and Paulinus of Nola 274
on Pelagianism 399
Augustinians 36
Auschwitz concentration camp
244–245, 321
Ausonius 274
Auxentius 14
Avitus 141
B
Bahram I, King 397
Balbina 9, 37, 291
Baldwin I, King 210
Balley 175
Banneux, Belgium, apparitions of
Mary in 389–390
baptism, after heresy 85, 312
Barbara 37–38, 38f
Barbara (Holy Helper) 109
Barnabas 38–39, 38f, 224, 272
Barnabites 29
Bartholomew Amidei 303
Bartholomew the Apostle 39, 39f,
282
Basil I, Emperor 256
Basil II, Emperor 347
Basil the Elder 39, 215, 281
Basil the Great 39–40, 40f, 138,
139, 215, 394
Battista, Fra 29
Baudricourt, Robert 169
Bayley, Richard 98
beatification, formal process of
381–382
Beatrix da Silva 40–41
Beauraing, Belgium, apparitions of
Mary in 389
Beco, Mariette 389–390

Bede the Venerable 41
Benedict and 45
on Chad 73
on Cuthbert 84–85
Ecclesiastical History of the
English People 41
on Fursey 122, 123
on Hilda 146, 147
on Lawrence of Canterbury
205
on Oswald 263–264
Begga 32
Begu 147
Belgium, apparitions of Mary in
389–390
Benedetto, Fra 31
Benedict 41–43, 42f, 301
Benedict II, Pope 43–44
Benedict III, Pope 255
Benedict VII, Pope 9
Benedict XI, Pope 44
Benedict XIII, Pope 11
Benedict XIII (antipope) 343,
400
Benedict XV, Pope 236
Benedict Biscop 41, 44–45
Benedictine(s) 43
Benedictine Rule 42, 43
Benedict Joseph Labre 45
Benevenuto Scotivoli of Osimo
45
Benignus 270
Berard 45
companions of 45
Berengarius 2
Bernadette Soubirous 45–47, 46f,
388
Bernadine of Siena 49, 343
Bernard of Clairvaux 47–49, 47f,
102, 148
Bernini, Giovanni 320
Berulle, Pierre de 344
Beza, Theodore 113
bilocation
by Alphonsus Marie Liguori 13,
383
by Catherine de’ Ricci 63
definition of 383
by Francis of Paola 117
by Francis Xavier 121
by Gerard Majella 131
by Martin de Porres 227, 228
by Mary of Agreda 238, 383
by Padre Pio 267, 383
birds
Cuthbert and 84–85
Francis of Assisi and 116
Francis Solanus and 119
Meinrad and 246
Black Plague 109
Blaise 49–50
Blanche of Castile, Queen
209–210, 211
Blanche of Namur, Queen 54
Blase 109
Blesilla 273
Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the
202
blood
of Andrew Avellino 19
of Clare of Montefalco 76–77
of Januarius 164–165
of Lawrence 205
of Mariana of Quito 222–223
of Stephen 312
Boisil 84
Boleslaus 350
Boleslaus I, King 2, 310
Boleslaus II, Duke 1–2
Boleslaus II, King 310
Bonaventure 31, 50–51
Bonfilio Monaldo 303
Boniface I, Pope 51
Boniface II, Pope 60
Boniface III, Pope 51
Boniface IV, Pope 51–52
Boniface VIII, Pope 44, 73
Boniface IX, Pope 400
Boniface of Querfurt 2
Book of Enoch 293
Book of James 21–22
Book of Tobit 293–294
Boris 52, 257, 347
Boris, Prince 255
Bosnia-Herzegovina, apparitions of
Mary in 392–393
Bossuet 108
Botwid 52
Bourg, William Valentine de 99
Bregusuit 146
Brendan of Clonfort 52–54, 53f,
59, 109
Breton, Richard le 329
Breviarium Alarici 60
Bridget of Sweden 54–55, 55f, 69,
338
Brighid 56
Brigid of Ireland 55–57
Brigittines 55, 69
Britius 229
Brother André, Blessed ix–x,
57–58, 57f, 191
Brothers, Holy Cross 57
Brothers Hospitallers 186
Brude, King 80
Bruno 336
Buonagiunta Monetti 303
C
lndex 405
Cadoc 59, 109, 248
Caecilianus 85
Caedwalla, King 263, 303
Caelestius 399
Caelin 73
Caerularius, Michael 395–396
Caesaria 60
Caesarius of Arles 60, 107
Caesarius of Nazianzus 60, 134,
138, 139, 260
Caius, Pope 60–61
Caius Francis 231
calendar of Feast Days 369–375,
386
Calles, Plutarco 231, 233, 250
Callistus I, Pope 61, 342, 352, 381
Camaldolese Order 298
Camillians 61, 62, 187
Camillus de Lellis 61–62, 187
cancer patients 11
canonization
equivalent 381
formal x, 381–382
The Canterbury Tales (Chaucer)
330
“Canticle of Brother Sun” (Francis
of Assisi) 116
Canute the Great, King 263
Caradoc 59
Carmelites 171, 182, 240, 305,
320
Carterius 138
Casimir 62
Casimir IV, King 62
Cassianus, Julius 395
Castelnau, Pierre de 92
Castulus 302
Catechism, of Peter Canisius 279
Cathach 80
Catharine de Arana 238
Catherine (Holy Helper) 109

406 Index
Catherine of Alexandria 63–64,
63f, 169
Catherine of Aragon 330
Catherine of Bologna 64
Catherine de’ Ricci 62–63
Catherine of Genoa 64–66
Catherine Labouré 69–71, 70f, 388
Catherine of Siena 66–69, 299, 400
Catherine of Sweden 54, 69, 400
Catherine of Vadstena 69
Cecilia 71–72, 71f
Cedd 73–74
Celestine I, Pope 72–73, 86, 269
Celestine V, Pope 44, 73
Celestines 73
celibacy
Anthelm on 26
Siricius on 307
Celtic Christianity 56, 80–81
Ceolfrid 136
Cerdon 285
Ceslas 150
Chad 73–74
Chalcedon, Council of 207
charisma 273
Charity, Sisters of 222
Charlemagne 207–208
Charles IV, Emperor 338
Charles VI, King 168
Charles VII, King 168, 169–170
Charles VIII, King 117
Charles the Bald 255
Charles Borromeo 19, 21, 62, 74
Charles the Fat, Emperor 3
Charles Garnier 261
Charles Martel 32
Charles of Sezze 74–75
Charlotte 312–313
Charlton, Catherine 98
Chatillon, John de 108
Chaucer, Geoffrey 330, 341
Chilperic of Burgundy, King 78
Christ
Andrew and 18, 18f
divinity of 395
humanity of 395
intellect of 394–395
Peter and 18, 18f
two natures of 396, 397, 398
will of 398
Christopher 75–76, 75f, 110
Chromatius 302
Church of Alexandria 224
Church of England 34
circumcision 163, 277
City of God (Augustine) 35–36
Clare of Assisi 5, 76, 76f
Clare of Montefalco 76–77
Clares, Poor 5, 76, 79
Claretians 27
Claude La Colombière, Blessed
219, 220
Claudius 302
Claudius II, Emperor 341
Clement I, Pope 77
Clement III (antipope) 137, 336,
343
Clement VI, Pope 337
Clement VII, Pope 21, 400
Clement VII (antipope) 68
Clement VIII, Pope 62, 296
Clement of Alexandria 77–78, 395
Clement of Ireland 78
Clotaire of Neustria, King 81
Clothaire II, King 32
Clotilde 78
Clotsindis 1
Cloud 78
Clovis I, King 78, 122
Clovis II, King 1
Colette 78–79, 400
Colombian Martyrs of Spanish Civil
War 79
Columba 79–81, 109, 264
Columban 81, 127
Columbus, Christopher 54
Comgall 81, 127
Commodus, Emperor 342
Commonitorium (Vincent of Lérins)
344
communion of saints 383
concentration camp, Auschwitz
244–245, 321
Confessions (Augustine) 34, 35
Congregation for the Causes of
Saints 383
Congregation of the Most Holy
Savior (Redeemer) 12
Congregation of the Oratory 283,
284
Conlaeth 56
Conon, Pope 303
Conrad 81–82, 246
Conrad, Emperor 208, 209
Constance, Council of 400
Constance, Treaty of 102
Constans II, Emperor 102, 226,
346
Constantine, Pope 136
Constantine II, Emperor 146
Constantine IV, Emperor 346
Constantine V, Emperor 273, 396
Constantine the Great 82–83
on Arianism 395
conversion of 250–251
Helena and 143
Marcus and 217
on Mary 236
Sylvester I and 314
visions of 82–83, 247, 250, 314
Constantinople, Council of 40, 87,
395, 398
Constantius I Chlorus 82, 143
Constantius II, Emperor 302
Conway, Cecilia 99
Corbibian 136
Corentin 254
Cornelius (centurion) 276
Cornelius, Pope 83, 91, 212, 312,
398–399
Cornelius of Imola 280
Coroticus, King 270
Corrigan of New York 112
Cosmas 83, 184
Cosmas Takeya 231
Council(s)
of Agde 60
of Chalcedon 207
of Constance 400
of Constantinople 40, 87, 395,
398
Ecumenical 5, 50, 157, 207,
327
of Ephesus 86, 145
of Frankfort 394
General 86, 138
Lateran 48, 245
of Lima 332
of Lyons 138, 157, 327
of Nicaea 33, 101, 353
of Orange 60
Quintisext 303
Robber 145
of Sardica 353
of Sens 48
of Trent 74, 279
Trullanum 303
Vatican
First 28, 287–288
Second 172–173, 288
Crispin 83
Crispina 84

Crispinian 83
Cristóbal Magallanes 232, 233
Crucifixion, Mary Magdalen and
242
Cruithnechan 80
Crusade(s)
First 337
Fourth 114
Gregory X and 138
Louis IX and 211
Second 48, 102, 211
cults of saints 383
Cur Deus Homo (Anselm) 24
Curé d’Ars See John Baptist Marie
Vianney
Curnan, Prince 80
Cuthbert 41, 84–85
Cynethryth 94
Cynibill 73
Cyprian of Carthage 83, 85–86,
212, 312
Cyracus 238
Cyriaca 294
Cyriacus 110
Cyril 77
Cyril of Alexandria 86, 86f, 159,
278, 396, 398
Cyril of Jerusalem 86–87
Cyril of Scythopolos 238
Cyrus of Alexandria 309
D
Dacian 105
Dagobert I, King 1
Damasus I, Pope 40, 89
Damian 83
Dante Alighieri 25, 51
David 90, 108
David Galván 232
David Roldán 232
David Uribe 232
Decius, Emperor 83, 85, 105, 141,
304
Delphinus 274
Demetrius 90
Denis of Portugal, King 100
Desiderius 164
de Tracy, William 329
devil
Martin de Porres and 228
Michael the Archangel and 247
Dianius 39–40
Diarmait, King 80
Didymus 27
Diego, Don 91
Diego Kisai 230
Diocletian, Emperor
Caius and 60
Constantine the Great and 82
George and 129
persecution under 5–6, 103,
129, 164, 212, 216, 267
and Sebastian 302
Diomedes 304
Dionotus of Cornwall, King 338
Dionysius (Holy Helper) 110
Dionysius, Pope 90, 105
Dionysius of Alexandria 90–91
Dioscorus 37
Discalced Carmelites 182, 240, 320
Dismas 91
Divine Comedy (Dante) 25, 51
Divine Logos 394
Divine Mercy movement 106–107
Divine Office, prayer of 43
Docetism 395
Doctors of the Church
criteria for 378
list of 378
women as 69, 378
Dominic 7, 91–93, 92f, 150
Dominicans 92
Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne
11
Dominic Savio 93–94, 176
Domitian, Emperor 153, 267, 282
Domitilla 267
Donatism 17, 395
Donatus 165, 395
dragons
George and 130, 130f
Philip and 282
Drahomira 349–350
dreams
of Anselm 23
of Bernard of Clairvaux 47
of Bridget of Sweden 54
of Catherine Labouré 69–70
of Cyprian of Carthage 85
of Faustina Kowalska 106
of Francis of Assisi 114
Jerome on 167
of John Bosco 93–94, 176–178
of Joseph 191
of Lawrence of Canterbury 206
of Martin of Tours 229
of Patrick 269
of Thérèse of Lisieux 324
Thomas Aquinas on 327–328
Dubthach 55–56, 270
Duglosz, John 62
Dulcitius 106
Dunant, Henri 61
Dunstan 94–95
Dymphna 95, 95f
E
lndex 407
Eadmund, King 94
Eadred 94
Eadward, King 94
Easter celebration, timing of 21,
147, 342
Eastern monasticism 40
Eastern schism 395–396
Eata 84
Ecclesiastical History of the English
People (Bede) 41
ecclesiastical writers, vs. Fathers of
the Church 376
Ecgberht 73
Ecgfrith, King 84
Eckhart, Johann (Meister) 143–144
ecstasy
of Alphonsus Rodriguez 14
of Ambrose Sansedoni 17
of Bonaventure 50–51
of Catherine de’ Ricci 62–63
of Catherine of Genoa 65
of Catherine of Siena 66
definition of 383
of Frances of Rome 110
of Francis of Assisi 116
of Gerard Majella 131
of Mary of Agreda 238
of Mary of the Incarnation 239
of Rose of Lima 299
Ecumenical Council(s)
Fourteenth 50
Second 157, 327
Sixth 5, 207
Edbald, King 205, 206
Edmund Ironside, King 220
education
Albert the Great and 7–8
Isidore of Seville and 159
John Baptist de la Salle and 174
Edward III, King 130
Edward the Aethling 220

408 Index
Edwin, King 146, 263
Egypt
apparitions of Mary in 392
Christianity in 32
Eleutherius, Pope 97, 157
Elipandus 394
Elizabeth 97–98, 173, 236, 351
Elizabeth Ann Seton 98–99, 98f
Elizabeth of Austria 62
Elizabeth of Portugal 99–100
Emeric 313
Emiliana 100, 134
Emmelia 39, 215, 281
Eneas 276
England
Catholicism in 23
Christianity in 41
Ennodius of Pavia 100–101
Ephesus
Robber Council of 145
Seven Sleepers of 304
Third General Council of 86
Ephraem 101
Epiphanius of Salamis 101, 145,
273, 397
Erasmus 110
Erastus 332
Erc 53
Erconwald 122
ergot 27
Eriksson, Leif 54
Etchen of Clonfad 80
Ethne the White 270
Eucherius of Lyons 101
Eudoxia, Empress 180
Eugene I, Pope 101–102
Eugene III, Pope 102–103
Eugene IV, Pope 31–32
Eugenius III, Pope 148, 381
Eulalius 51
Euprepius 83
Eusebia 1
Eusebius (historian) 82–83
Eusebius, Pope 103, 250
Eusebius of Caesarea 103, 384
Eusebius of Nicomedia 33, 395
Eustace 127
Eustachius 110
Eustathians 103
Eustathius 103, 103f
Eustochium 167, 273
Eutyches 145, 207, 280, 396
Eutychia 212
Eutychianism 396
Eutychianus, Pope 103
Eutychius 134
Evangelista 110–111
Evaristus, Pope 103–104
Eventulus 9
Evodius 277
Ewe 104
Ezequial Moreno 104
F
Fabian, Pope 83, 105, 398
Faerie Queen (Spenser) 130
Faith 105–106
Faro 108
fasting, mystical
by Catherine of Genoa 65
definition of 384
by Gemma Galgani 129
by Nicholas of Flüe 258, 384
Fathers of the Church
criteria for 376
vs. ecclesiastical writers 376
Greek 376–377
Latin 377
Fatima, Portugal, apparitions of
Mary in 161–162, 389
Faustina Kowalska 106–107
Feast Days
All Saints 383
All Souls 383
calendar of 369–375, 386
Feast of Orthodoxy 397
Fedelm the Red 270
Felicity 275–276
Felix 121, 274
Felix I, Pope 107
Felix III, Pope 100, 107
Felix IV, Pope 107–108
Ferdinand I, Emperor 279
Ferrantes, King 117
Festus 164
Fiacre 108
Figueroa 155
Finbar 108–109
Finian 80, 109
Finian of Clonard 59, 109
Fisher, John 330
Fitzurse, Reginald 329
Flavian of Constantinople 280
flies of Foigny 48
Florentina 159
Foillan 109, 122
Formosus 3
Formula of Hormisdas 149
Fouloup, Pierre 343
Fountain of Seven Canals 117
The Fountain of Wisdom (John
Damascene) 184
Fourteen Holy Helpers 109–110
France, apparitions of Mary in 388
Francesco di Lucia of Mugnano
284
Frances of Rome 110–111
Frances Xavier Cabrini 111–113,
112f, 202
Francis of Assisi 114–117, 115f
Agnes of Assisi and 5
and animals 116
Anthony of Padua and 30
Benedict and 42
Berard and 45
Bonaventure and 50
Clare of Assisi and 76
dreams of 114
miracles of 116
stigmata of 115f, 116, 385
visions of 116
Francis Blanco 230
Francisco Marto 161–162, 389
Francis de Sales 113–114
on Gertrude the Great 133
manna from heart of 113
Mary of the Incarnation and
239, 240
on Michael the Archangel 247
Peter of Alcantara and 278
Francis of Miyako 231
Francis of Paola 117–119, 118f
Francis of Saint Michael 230, 231
Francis Solanus 119, 332
Francis Xavier 119–121, 120f,
230
Franco, Francisco 79
Frankfort, Council of 394
Frederick II, Emperor 76, 99, 300
Frigyth 147
Fulgentius of Ruspe 121–122
Fulgentius of Seville 159
Fursey 109, 122–123
G
Gabriel the Archangel 125–127,
126f, 236, 351
Gabriel de Duisco 231

Gabriel Francis of Our Lady of
Sorrows 127, 128
Gabriel Lalement 261
Galerius, Emperor 82, 250
Galileo 296
Gall 81, 127
Galla Placida, Empress 280
Gallienus 90, 91
Gallus 141
Garabandal, Spain, apparitions of
Mary in 391–392
Gelasius I, Pope 4, 127–128
Gellert 313
Gemma Galgani 127, 128–129,
129f
Gemman 80
George 110, 129–130, 130f
George of the Aventine 3
George of Constantinople 5
Gerard Majella 130–132, 131f
Gerbert of Aurillac 3
Gerebernus 95
Germano 128–129
Germanus 178–179, 269
Germanus I 132
Germanus of Auxerre 280
Gertrude 1
Gertrude the Great 132–134, 133f,
245
Gervase 16
Gestas 91
Geza 312–313
Ghibellines 300
Gilbert 48
Gildas 109
Giles 110
Giraud, Maximim 388
Gleb 52, 257, 347
glossary, of heresies and schisms
394–400
Gnosticism 21, 395, 396
Gondi, Jean François de 345
Gondi, Philip de 344-345
Gonzalez, Conchita 391–392
Gorgonia 134, 138, 139, 260
Gospel of Mary 242
Gospel of Philip 242
graces, definition of 384
Granier, Claude de 113
Gratian, Emperor 89, 139, 274
Greek Fathers of the Church
376–377
Gregorian chant 135
Gregory I, Pope 134–135, 135f
Agatha and 4
Agatho and 5
Augustine of Canterbury and
33–34
on Benedict 33–34, 301
Boniface IV and 51
Emiliana and 100
on Mary Magdalen 243
miracles of 135
on Pancras 268
Tarsilla and 100
Gregory II, Pope 135–136
Gregory III, Pope 136, 396
Gregory VI, Pope 137
Gregory VII, Pope 136–137, 336,
342
Gregory IX, Pope 92, 381
Gregory X, Pope 8, 17, 50,
137–138
Gregory XI, Pope 68, 399–400
Gregory XII, Pope 343, 344, 400
Gregory XIII, Pope 296
Gregory XIV, Pope 283
Gregory XV, Pope 278, 297
Gregory XVI, Pope 284
Gregory of Elvira 138
Gregory the Great See Gregory I
Gregory the Illuminator 138
Gregory of Nazianzus the Elder 40,
60, 134, 138, 139, 260
Gregory of Nazianzus the Younger
39, 40, 60, 134, 138–139
Gregory of Nyssa 139
on Apollinarianism 394
Basil the Great and 39, 139
Cyril of Jerusalem and 86–87
on Gregory Thaumaturgus 140,
141
Macrina the Younger and
215–216
on Stephen 312
Gregory Palamas 140
Gregory Thaumaturgus 140–141,
215, 394, 399
Gregory of Tours 141, 243, 304
Gregory of Vendôme 337
Grey Nuns 222
Grigio 178
Grim, Edward 329
Grunewald, Matthias 27
Guadalupe, Mexico, apparitions of
Mary in 194–195, 387
Gudmarsson, Ulf 54–55
Guibert of Nogent 337
Gundafor, King 326
Gundisalvus Garcia 230
H
lndex 409
Hadrian, Emperor 308
hagiography, definition of 384
Handmaids of Mary Serving the
Sick 223
Harold Grenske, King 263
heart
of Clare of Montefalco 76–77
of Francis de Sales 113
of Margaret of Castello 218
of Philip Neri 283
Helena, Empress 82, 142, 144f,
244
Henry I, King 24–25
Henry II, Emperor 313
Henry II, King 150, 328–329
Henry III, King 210, 211
Henry IV, King 113, 137, 239, 296
Henry V, King 168
Henry VIII, King 150, 330
Henry of Pisa 328
Henry the Quarrelsome, Prince 313
Henry Suso, Blessed 143–144
Heraclius 103
Heraclius, Emperor 245, 398
Hereswith 146
heresy
definition of 394
glossary of 394–400
punishment for 394
rebaptism after 85, 312
vs. schism 394
Hereticon 107
Herod, King 236, 352
Herod Agrippa I, King 163, 185,
276, 282
Herod Antipas, King 173–174
Herodias 173
hesychasm 140, 179, 181
Hesychius 145
Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 230
Hilarion 144–145
Hilarus, Pope 145–146
Hilary of Arles 101
Hilary of Poitiers 146, 229
Hilda 146–147
Hildegard of Bingen 147–149
Hill, Patrick 389
Hiltibod 127

410 Index
Hiltine 335
Himerius 138, 307
Hippolytus 61, 149, 290, 336,
397
Holy Cross Brothers 57
Holy Helpers
Fourteen 109–110
Seven 303–304
Holy Kinship doctrine 22
Holy Roman Empire 208
Holy Satan See Gregory VII, Pope
Honoratus 16
Honorius, Emperor 51, 399
Honorius I, Pope 6, 207, 245, 395
Hormisdas, Pope 101, 149, 304
Hortulana, Blessed 5
Huber, Alice 11
Hugh of Horsea 329
Hugh of Lincoln 26, 149–150
Hugh of Provence 2
Huron Indians 260, 261
Husserl, Edmund 321
Hyacinth 150, 151f
Hyginus, Pope 151
I
Iconoclasm
definition of 396–397
opposition to 132, 136, 184,
268
Ignatius of Antioch 153–154, 289
Ignatius of Loyola 154–156, 155f
Francis Xavier and 119–120
miracles by 156
Peter Canisius and 278, 279
Philip Neri and 283
visions of 154, 155
Illtyd 90
Illuminata 64
Immaculate Conception of Mary
236, 287, 388
Ina, King 136
incorruptibility 384
of Alphonsus Marie Liguori 13
of Angela Merici 21
of Anthony Mary Zaccaria 29
of Anthony of Padua 31
of Bernadette Soubirous 47
of Bonaventure 51
of Camillus de Lellis 62
of Catherine of Bologna 64
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Catherine of Genoa 66
of Catherine Labouré 71
of Cecilia 72
of Charles Borromeo 74
of Clare of Montefalco 77
of Cuthbert 84
definition of 384
of Dominic 93
of Francis Xavier 120–121
of Fursey 122
of Hilarion 145
of Hugh of Lincoln 150
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
176
of John of the Cross 183
of John of God 187
of John Nepomucene 189
of Madeleine Sophie Barat 216
of Margaret of Castello 218
of Margaret of Cortona 219
of Martin de Porres 228
of Nicholas of Tolentino 259
of Romuald 298
of Rose of Viterbo 300
of Teresa of Avila 320–321
of Zita 353
infallibility, papal 287–288
Innocent I, Pope 9, 156, 399
Innocent II, Pope 48
Innocent III, Pope 91–92,
114–115
Innocent IV, Pope 64
Innocent V, Pope 17, 156–157
Innocent VI, Pope 337
Innocent VII, Pope 400
Innocent VIII, Pope 92
Inquisition 92, 193, 394
Institute of the Brothers of the
Christian Schools 174
intercession, definition of 384
The Interior Castle (Teresa of Avila)
320
Ireland
apparitions of Mary in 388–389
Christianity in 56
Irenaeus of Lyons 149, 157, 289,
396, 397
Irene 302
Irene, Empress 396
Iroquois Indians 261
Isaac Jogues 260
Isabella, Queen 28
Isidore the Farmer 157–158
Isidore of Pelusium 158–159
Isidore of Seville 157, 159
Islam 8
J
Jacinta Marto 161–162, 389
James 101
James I of Aragon, King 99
James the Greater, Apostle
162–163, 184
James the Less, Apostle 162, 163,
195
Jansen, Cornelius 345
Januarius 164–165
Japan, Martyrs of 230–231
Jaricot, Pauline 284
Jenaro Sánchez 232
Jerome 165–167, 166f
on angels 167
on Anthony 27
on Apollinarianism 394
on Basil the Great 40
biblical translation by 89, 167
dreams and 167, 178
on Gregory of Nazianzus 139
on Hilarion 144, 145
and Holy Kinship doctrine 22
Paula and 273
visions of 165–167
Jesuits 13, 120, 155
Jesus Christ
Andrew and 18, 18f
divinity of 395
humanity of 395
intellect of 394–395
Peter and 18, 18f
two natures of 396, 397, 398
will of 398
Jesús Méndez 234
jewelry, mystical
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
definition of 384–385
of Gertrude the Great 132, 133
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
176
of Teresa of Avila 66, 320
Joachim 22, 167–168, 168f, 236
Joachim Sakakibara 231
Joan of Arc 168–171, 169f
audition and 64, 169, 217
Catherine of Alexandria and 64,
169
Christopher and 76

Margaret of Antioch and 217
visions of 76, 169, 170
Joanna of Aza 91
Joanna of Naples 69
Joaquina de Vedruna 171
Jocundus 275
John, King 150
John I, Pope 107, 171–172
John III, King 120, 277
John V, Emperor 338
John XV, Pope 1
John XXII, Pope 2, 143–144
John XXIII, Pope 172–173, 288,
400
John the Apostle See John the
Divine
John of Austria 286
John of Avila, Blessed 186
John the Baptist 97–98, 173–174,
173f, 351
John Baptist de la Salle 174, 249
John Baptist Marie Vianney
174–176, 175f
John Berchmans 176
John of Beverly 41
John Bosco 93–94, 176–178,
177f
John Calybata 9
John Cassian 101, 178–179
John of Castillo 234–235
John Chrysostom 179–180
Carterius and 138
Cyril of Alexandria and 86
Epiphanius of Salamis and 101
heresy accusations against 86,
101, 180
Innocent I and 156, 180
Isidore of Pelusium and 159
Meletius and 179–180
and Nilus 259
and Proclus 290
John Climacus 181
John of Constantinople 149
John of the Cross 133, 181–183,
183f, 320
John Damascene 183–184
John de Brébeuf 260–261
John de Lalande 260
John the Divine 79, 162, 184–185,
185f, 289
John Dominic, Blessed 31
John Eudes 185–186, 220
John the Evangelist See John the
Divine
John of God 186–187, 187f
John of Jerusalem 101, 184
John Kisaka 231
John of La Rochelle 50
John of Luxembourg 170
John Mark 38, 224
John Massias 187–188, 332
John Nepomucene 188–189
John Nepomucene Neumann
189–190, 189f
John Paul II, Pope
on Agostina Petrantoni 6
attempted assassination of 162
and canonization 381, 382
on Faustina Kowalska 106
on Hildegard of Bingen 149
and Opus Dei 190
John of Ravenna 280, 303
John Soan de Goto 230
John Vianney 284–285
Jordan of Saxony, Blessed 7
José Isabel Flores 233
Josemaria Escriva 190
José María Robles 233
Joseph 57, 190–191, 191f, 236
Joseph of Arimathea 191–192,
192f, 259
Joseph of Copertino 192–194,
193f
Joseph’s Oratory, Saint ix–x, 57,
58
Jovian, Emperor 60
Jovinian 307
Juan Diego 194–195, 387
Jude 163, 195–196, 195f, 306
Juliana of Cumae 37–38, 196
Julian the Apostate, Emperor 60,
86
Julian the Hospitaller 196–197
Julian of Norwich 197–198
Julio Alvarez 232
Julitta 199, 291
Julius I, Pope 199
Jung, Carl G. 272
Justin 285
Justin, Emperor 171–172
Justina 15
Justinian, Emperor 4
Justinian II, Emperor 136, 303
Justin Martyr 199–200, 200f,
397
Justino Orona 233, 234
Justus 206
Jutta, Blessed 147
K
Kateri Tekakwitha, Blessed 201,
260
Katharine Drexel 201–202, 202f
Kea 254
Kelsey, Morton 167
Kester See Christopher
Kildare 56
Kinship doctrine, Holy 22
Knights of the Immaculata 244,
245
Knock, Ireland, apparitions of Mary
in 388–389
knowledge, mystical
of Charles of Sezze 74–75
definition of 385
of Gerard Majella 131
of Philip Neri 283
Koppany 313
Korea, Christianity in 19–20
L
lndex 411
Lackland, John 150
Ladder of Divine Ascent (John
Climacus) 181
Lampert Zula 310
Lanfranc of Lombardy, Blessed
23–24
Lang, Andrew 170
Laoghaire, King 80, 270
La Salette, France, apparitions of
Mary in 388
Lateran Council
First 245
Second 48
Latin Fathers of the Church 377
Latino Orisini 73
Laura Vicuña, Blessed 203–204
Laurentius 100, 136, 314–315
Lawrence 204–205, 204f, 308
Lawrence of Brindisi 205
Lawrence of Canterbury 205–206
Lazarus 206, 206f, 225–226, 243
Leander 159
le Breton, Richard 329
Leicht, Herman 109
Lejay 279
Leo I, Pope 206–207, 269–270,
278
Leo II, Pope 207
Leo III, Emperor 132, 136, 184,
396

412 Index
Leo III, Pope 207–208
Leo IV, Pope 208
Leo IX, Pope 137, 208–209
Leo XI, Pope 62, 296
Leo XII, Pope 287
Leo XIII, Pope 288–289, 324
Leo the Great See Leo I, Pope
Leo Karasumaru 231
Leontius 83
Leontius Byzantinus 209
levitation
by Alphonsus Marie Liguori 13
by Angela Merici 21
by Anthony Mary Claret 28
by Benedict Joseph Labre 45
by Catherine of Siena 66
definition of 384
by Francis of Paola 117
by Gemma Galgani 129
by John of the Cross 183, 183f
by Joseph of Copertino
192–193, 193f
by Martin de Porres 227, 228
by Rita of Cascia 295
Lewis, C. S. 170
Liberius, Pope 89
Licinius, Emperor 82, 250
Lifris 59
lights and luminosities
and Angela Merici 21
and Anthony Mary Claret 28
definition of 384
Lima, Third Council of 332
Lindisfarne Gospels 7
Lindisfarne monastery 6–7
Linus, Pope 209
Lioba 349
Little Flowers of St. Francis Assisi
116
Liutprand, King 352
Logos, Divine 394
Loli, Mari 391
Lothair I, Emperor 268
Lothair II, King 255
Louis I the Pious, Emperor 268
Louis II, Emperor 255
Louis VII, King 329
Louis VIII, King 209–210
Louis IX, King 209–212, 210f
Louis XI, King 117
Louis XIII, King 108, 345
Louis XIV, King 108, 221, 345
Louise de Marillac 345
Louis Ibaraki 231
Lourdes, France, apparitions of
Mary in 46–47, 388
Lucetmael 270
Lucia of the Immaculate Heart of
Mary 162
Lucian of Beauvais 291
Lucius, King 97
Lucius I, Pope 85, 212
Lucius II, Pope 102
Lucy of Syracuse 4, 212–213, 212f
Ludmila 349, 350
Luis Batis 232
Luis Beltrán 213
Luke the Evangelist 213–214,
214f, 272
luminosities
and Angela Merici 21
and Anthony Mary Claret 28
definition of 384
Lupus of Troyes 344
Luther, Martin 22, 36
Lyons
General Council at 138
Second Ecumenical Council of
157, 327
Lysius 83
M
MacCuirb 108
Machan 59
Macrina the Elder 39, 140, 215,
281
Macrina the Younger 39, 139,
215–216, 281
Madeleine Sophie Barat 216
Majolus of Cluny 1, 2
Malcolm III, King 220
Malo 59
Manes 91
Manettus dell’ Antello 303
Manfred of Sicily, King 99
Mani 397
Manichaeanism 35, 397
manna
definition of 384
from Francis de Sales 113
from Gerard Majella 131–132
from Hugh of Lincoln 150
from Nicholas 254–255
from Philomena 284
from Walburga 349
Manuel Morales 232
Marcellian 302
Marcellina 14
Marcellinus, Pope 216
Marcellus I, Pope 103, 216–217
Marcellus II, Pope 62
Marcion 285, 397
Marcionism
definition of 285, 397
opposition to 21, 285
Marcus 302
Marcus, Pope 217
Marcus Aurelius, Emperor 157,
323
Margaret, Queen 210, 211
Margaret of Antioch 169, 217
Margaret of Castello, Blessed
217–218
Margaret of Cortona 218–219
Margaret Mary Alacoque 133, 186,
219–220
Margaret of Scotland, Queen
220–221
Margarito Flores 233
Marguerite Bourgeoys 221, 221f
Marguerite d’Youville 222
Marguerite of Valois 344
Maria Celeste 12
Maria de la Cabeza 158
Mariana of Quito 222–223
Maria Soledad 223
Marie Barbier 221
Marie of the Incarnation, Blessed
223
Marinus 298
Mariology 236
Mark Barkworth, Blessed 23
Mark the Evangelist 223–225, 224f
marriage, mystical
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Catherine of Siena 66, 67f
of Colette 79
definition of 385
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
176
of Teresa of Avila 320
Martha 206, 225–226, 225f, 243
Martin 245
Martin I, Pope 102, 226
Martin V, Pope 49, 400
Martin de Porres 129, 226–228,
227f, 332
Martinez y Sanz, Michael 223
Martin Loynaz 230
Martin of Saint Mary 277

Martin of Tours 228–230, 229f,
274
Marto, Francisco 161–162
Marto, Jacinta 161–162
Martyr(s)
of Japan 230–231
of Mexico 231–234
of North America 260–261
of Paraguay 234–235
of Spanish Civil War 79
of World War II 244–245, 321
martyrology 384
Mary, Blessed Virgin 235–238, 237f
apparitions of 387–393
authenticated 237, 387–390
in Banneux, Belgium
389–390
in Beauraing, Belgium 389
in Fatima, Portugal 161–162,
389
in Garabandal, Spain
391–392
in Guadalupe, Mexico
194–195, 387
in Knock, Ireland 388–389
in La Salette, France 388
in Lourdes, France 46–47,
388
in Medjugorje, Bosnia-
Herzegovina 392–393
in Paris, France 388
unauthenticated 391–393
in Zeitoun, Egypt 392
Assumption of 236, 237
calendar of feasts of 386
childhood of 22, 236
Elizabeth and 97, 236
Gabriel the Archangel and 125,
126f, 236
Immaculate Conception of 236,
287, 388
Joseph and 190–191
parents of 21–22, 167–168,
236
role in theology 236, 237
visions of 236–237
of Bernadette Soubirous
46–47, 388
of Bernadine of Siena 49
of Brigid of Ireland 56
of Catherine of Bologna 64
of Catherine Labouré 70–71
of Faustina Kowalska 106
of Frances of Rome 110
of Gemma Galgani 128
of Gertrude the Great 132
of Gregory Thaumaturgus
140
of John of the Cross 182
of Mary of Agreda 238
of Maximilian Kolbe 244
of Mechtilde 245
of Michael of Ecuador 249
of Nicholas of Tolentino 259
of Padre Pio 267
of Seven Holy Helpers
303–304
of Simon Stock 305
Mary, Queen of Scots 220
Mary of Agreda, Venerable 238,
383
Mary of Austria, Empress 10
Mary of Bethany 206, 225, 225f,
240, 243
Mary of Egypt 238–239
Mary Francis 294
Mary of the Incarnation 239–240
Mary MacKillop 240
Mary Magdalen 22, 240–243, 241f
Maslow, Abraham H. 272
Mateo Correa 233
Mathieu, Melanie 388
Matthew the Apostle 243–244,
244f
Matthias of Miyako 231
Maurice, Emperor 135
Maurontius 1
Maxentius, Emperor 63, 82, 103,
216, 217, 250
Maximian (patriarch) 290
Maximian, Emperor 83, 143, 302
Maximilian II, Emperor 286
Maximilian Kolbe 244–245
Maximilla 398
Maximin 243
Maximinus the Thracian, Emperor
290
Maximus 86
Maximus, Emperor 15, 229
Maximus of Constantinople 245
Mazarin, Jules 345
Mechtilde 132, 245
Medal, Miraculous 70–71, 388
Medjugorje, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
apparitions of Mary in 392–393
Meinrad 245–246
Mel of Ardagh 56
Meletian Schism 103
lndex 413
Meletius 101, 103, 179–180
Melito 246
Mellitus 52, 206
Mensurius 395
Merton, Thomas 181
Metaphrastes 129
Methodius of Olympus 246
Mexico
apparitions of Mary in 194–195,
387
Martyrs of 231–234
Michael III, Emperor 255
Michael the Archangel 246–249,
247f
apparitions of 247–248,
391–392
Francis de Sales on 247
and Joan of Arc 169
Satan and 247
Michael Cozaki 231
Michael of Ecuador 249
Miguel Agustin Pro, Blessed 234,
249–250, 250f
Miguel de la Mora 233
Milan, Edict of 250
Militia (Knights) of the Immaculata
244, 245
Miltiades, Pope 250–251, 314
Minim Friars 117
miracles 384
of Ambrose 16
of Anthony Mary Claret 27, 28
of Anthony of Padua 30
in beatification 381–382
of Benedict 43
of Benedict Joseph Labre 45
of Bernard of Clairvaux 48
of Blaise 49–50
in canonization 382
of Clare of Assisi 76
of Columba 81
of Cuthbert 84–85
definition of 384
of Dominic 92–93
of Faustina Kowalska 107
of Fiacre 108
of Finbar 109
of Frances of Rome 111
of Francis of Assisi 116
of Francis of Paola 117
of Francis Xavier 120, 121
of Fursey 122
of Gerard Majella 131
of Gregory I 135

414 Index
of Gregory Thaumaturgus 141
of Hilarion 145
of Hyacinth 150
of Ignatius of Loyola 156
of Isidore the Farmer 158
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
175–176
of John of the Cross 183
of John Nepomucene 189
of Josemaria Escriva 190
of Katharine Drexel 202
of Margaret of Castello 218
of Mariana of Quito 223
of Olaf of Norway 263
of Padre Pio 267
of Peter 276
of Philip Neri 283, 284
of Philomena 285
of Rita of Cascia 295
of Rose of Viterbo 300
of Teresa of Avila 320
of Thérèse of Lisieux 324
miraculous protection 384
miraculous transport
of Anthony Mary Claret 28
definition of 384
of Dominic 92
of Francis of Paola 117
Mohawk Indians 260–261
Molaise of Devenish 80
Monaldo 5
Monarchianism 61, 352
monasticism
Eastern 40
Western 42
Monica 14, 34–35, 251
Monologium (Anselm) 23
Monophysitism 307, 397
Monothelitism
Agatho on 5
definition of 398
Martin I on 102, 226
Montanism 97, 309, 398
Montanus 398
Montfort, Simon de 92
Mont St. Michael 248
Mora, Manuel 203
Mortara, Edgardo 288
mortification
Benedict on 41
by Benedict Joseph Labre 45
by Catherine de’ Ricci 62
definition of 384
by Mariana of Quito 222
by Peter of Alcantara 278
by Rose of Lima 299
Moses the Black 251
multiplication 384
Murray, Margaret A. 170
Myers, Frederic W. H. 170
The Mystical City of God (Mary of
Agreda) 238
mystical fasting
by Catherine of Genoa 65
definition of 384
by Gemma Galgani 129
by Nicholas of Flüe 258, 384
mystical jewelry
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
definition of 384–385
of Gertrude the Great 132, 133
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
176
of Teresa of Avila 66, 320
mystical knowledge
of Charles of Sezze 74–75
definition of 385
of Gerard Majella 131
of Philip Neri 283
mystical marriage
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Catherine of Siena 66, 67f
of Colette 79
definition of 385
of John Baptist Marie Vianney
176
of Teresa of Avila 320
N
Natalis 352
National League for the Defense of
Religious Freedom 231, 232
Native Americans, Jesuit missionaries
and 260–261
Navigatio Santi Brendani Abatis 53,
54
Neot 253–254
Nereus 267
Nero, Emperor 272, 277
Nestorianism
definition of 398
Eutychianism and 396
opposition to 209, 398
Nestorius 86, 179, 398
Nicaea, Council of 33, 101, 353
Nicene Creed 33, 87, 138, 139, 395
Nicholas 254–255, 254f
Nicholas I, Pope 255–256
Nicholas II, Czar 256–257, 256f
Nicholas II, Pope 137
Nicholas V, Pope 32
Nicholas of Flüe 257–258, 384
Nicholas of Tolentino 258–259,
258f
Nicodemus 191, 259, 259f
Nicostratus 302
Nilus 259–260
Ninnidh 56
Noel Chabanel 261
Nonna 138, 139, 260
North American Martyrs 260–261
Nothelm 136
Notre Dame, Sisters of 221
Novatian 83, 85, 91, 312, 398–399
Novatianism 86, 212, 312,
398–399
O
Oblates of Mary 110
Oblates of St. Charles 74
O’Brien, Matthew 98
Odoacer 307
odor of sanctity
of Anthony Mary Claret 28
of Benedict 42
of Catherine of Bologna 64
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Cecilia 72
definition of 385
of Dominic 93
of Frances of Rome 111
of Gerard Majella 131
of John of God 187
odor of sin
definition of 385
and Dominic Savio 94
and Gemma Galgani 129
and Joseph of Copertino 193
oil See manna
Olaf of Norway, King 263
Oleg 346
Olga 346, 347
Optatus of Milevis 263
Opus Dei 190
Orange
Second Council of 60
Synod of 107–108
Origen 399

anishment of 90
critics of 103, 246, 290
life of 399
students of 90, 140
supporters of 78, 267
writings of 399
Origenism 399
Ormuzd I, King 397
Orseolo, Peter 313–314
Orthodoxy, Feast of 397
Osthrida, Queen 264
Oswald, King 6, 84, 263–264
Oswy, King 44, 74, 147, 346
Otho 45
Otto I, Emperor 2, 81, 335
Otto II, Emperor 2, 312
Otto III, Emperor 2–3, 298
P
Pachomius 265
Pacianus of Barcelona 265–266
Padre Pio, Blessed 266–267, 266f,
383, 385
Palamism 140
Palaneo 156
Palemon 265
Palladius 269
Pamphilus of Caesarea 267
Pancras 267–268
Pantaenus 78
Pantaleon 110
papal infallibility 287–288
Paradiso (Dante) 25, 51
Paraguay, Martyrs of 234–235
Paris, Treaty of 211
parochial schools 99
Pascal 303
Paschal I, Pope 72, 268
Paschal II, Pope 25
Pascual, Iñes 154
Patrick 268–271, 269f
Celestine I and 72
David and 90
dreams of 269
visions of 90
patron saints
by location 367–368
by peoples 367–368
by topic 357–366
Paul 271–273, 271f
Barnabas and 38, 38f, 272
Luke and 213, 272
Mark and 224
Peter and 277
Stephen and 312
Timothy and 331–332
visions of 271, 272
Paul I, Pope 273
Paul III, Pope 29, 120, 155
Paul IV, Pope 286
Paul V, Pope 296
Paula 167, 273
Paul Chong Hasang 20
Paul Ibaraki 231
Paulinus 90, 146
Paulinus of Antioch 273
Paulinus of Nola 273–274
Paul Miki 231
Paul of Samosata 107
Paul Suzuki 231
Pedro de Jesús 234
Pedro de San José Betancur
274–275
Pedro Esqueda 233
Pelagianism 51, 399
Pelagius 399
Pelagius II, Pope 134
Penda of Mercia 264
Pepin II of Heristal 32
Pepin III, King 273
Pepin of Landen, Blessed 32
Perpetua 275–276
Persiano Rosa 283
Peter 276–277, 276f
Andrew and 18, 18f
Clement I and 77
James the Less and 163
John the Divine and 184, 185
Linus and 209
Mark and 224
Mary Magdalen and 242
miracles of 276
Paul and 277
Peter (companion of Berard) 45
Peter III, King of Aragon 100
Peter of Alcantara 277–278, 277f
Peter Baptist 230, 231
Peter Canisius 278–279
Peter Chrysologus 280
Peter Claver 13–14, 279–280
Peter Damian 209, 280–281, 298
Peter Faber, Blessed 13, 278
Peternus 85
Peter of Sebaste 39, 139, 215, 281
Peter Sukejiro 231
Petroc 254, 281–282, 281f
lndex 415
Petronilla 273
Pharailidis 282
Philip 18, 282–283, 282f
Philip, Emperor 105
Philip II, King 10, 119, 332
Philip III, King 158, 205
Philip IV (the Fair), King 44
Philip de las Casas 230
Philip Neri 283–284
Camillus de Lellis and 61
Catherine de’ Ricci and 62, 63
miracles of 283, 284
mystical knowledge of 283
visions of 283
Philippicus, Emperor 132
Philomena 175, 284–285, 285f
Phocos, Emperor 51
Photius 255–256
Pietro Yi 19
Pilgrim of Passau 312–313
Pino, Mercedes del 203–204
Pistis Sophia 308
Pius I, Pope 285
Pius II, Pope 32
Pius IV, Pope 74, 286
Pius V, Pope 62, 74, 285–286
Pius IX, Blessed Pope 93, 286–288,
287f
Pius X, Pope 93, 288–289, 288f
Pius XI, Pope 11, 172
Pius XII, Pope 172, 173, 288, 387
Plague, Black 109
Plessis, Armand-Jean (Cardinal
Richelieu) 345
Polycarp of Smyrna 21, 153, 157,
289–290
Pontian, Pope 149, 290
Ponziani, Lorenzo de 110
Poor Clares 5, 76, 79
popes, beatified and canonized, list
of 379–380
Portugal, apparitions of Mary in
161–162, 389
Pothinus 157
prayer
of Divine Office 43
Teresa of Avila on 318
Priestly Society of the Holy Cross
190
Priscilla 398
Priscillianism 229
Proaeresius 138
Proclus 290
Proculus 342

416 Index
prophecy
of Benedict 43
of Colette 79
of Columba 81
definition of 385
of Dominic 93
of Gerard Majella 131
of Mariana of Quito 223
Proslogium (Anselm) 23
Protase 16
protection, miraculous 384
Q
Quentin 291
Quintinian 4
Quintinus 83
Quintisext Council 303
Quintus 275
Quiricus 199, 291
Quirinus 9, 37, 291
R
Raphael the Archangel 247,
293–294, 294f
Rasputin 256
Ratchis 352
Ratislav, King 349
Raymond of Capua, Blessed 68
rebaptism 85, 312
recusancy 23
Red Cross 61
Redemptorist Congregation 12
Regula Monachorum (Benedict)
42
relics, definition of 385
Remigius 78
René Goupil 260
resurrection
by Catherine of Sweden 69
by Dominic 92
by Francis Xavier 120, 121
by Jesus 206, 225–226
of Jesus 242
by Martin of Tours 229
by Rose of Viterbo 300
Revelations of Divine Love (Julian of
Norwich) 197–198
Richard I, King 150
Richelieu, Cardinal See Armand-
Jean du Plessis 345
Rictiovarus 83, 291
Rictrude 1
Rimini 139
Rita of Cascia 294–296, 295f
Robber Council of Ephesus 145
Robert Bellarmine 11, 296–297,
296f
Robert of Normandy 24–25
Roch 297–298, 297f
Rodrigo Aguilar 233
Roger Filcock, Blessed 23
Roger of Sicily 102
Roland, Nicholas 174
Román Adame 233
Romanus 41
Romaric 32
Romuald 280, 298
Romulus Augustulus 307
Roque Gonzalez 234–235
rosary 237
Rose of Lima 222, 226, 298–300,
332
Rose Philippine Duchesne, Blessed
216
Rose of Viterbo 300
Rudolph II, King 2
Rufino 5
Rule (Regulus) 18
Rusticus 199–200
S
Sabás Reyes 232
Sabellius 61, 90
Sacred Heart
devotion to 186, 219
Society of the 216
saint(s)
canonization process for x,
381–382
canonized vs. popular x, 381
communion of 383
cults of 383
Saint Joseph’s Oratory ix–x, 57, 58
Saint Michael’s Mount 248
Saint Vincent de Paul Society 346
Salesians 177
Salome 173–174
Salonius 101
Salvador Lara 232
Sanchez, Miguel 248
Santa Claus 255
Santos, Lucia dos 161, 389
Sapor I, King 397
Sarah 294
Sardica, Council of 353
Sartre, Jean-Paul 272
Satan
Martin de Porres and 228
Michael the Archangel and 247
Saturninus 275
Saturus 275
Satyrus 14
Scalabrini of Piacenza 112
schism(s)
definition of 394
Eastern 395–396
glossary of 394–400
vs. heresy 394
Western 399–400
Scholastica 42, 301
scholasticism 8
schools, parochial 99
Schuthyn 90
Sebastian 301–302, 302f
Secret of Fatima 161, 162
Secundulus 275
Seguier 108
selbdritt paintings 22
Sens, Council of 48
Septimius Severus, Emperor 352
Serapion the Scholastic 302
Sergius I, Pope 135, 302–303
Sergius of Constantinople 309
Servants of Mary 303–304
Servite Friars 303–304
Seton, William Magee 98
Seven Holy Helpers 303–304
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus 304
Severin, Tim 54
Severus Alexander, Emperor 72,
336
Severus of Antioch 397
Sidonius 243
Sigebert, King 122, 127
Sigebert I, King 141
Silas 272
Silverius, Pope 304
Silvia 134
Simeon Stylites 304–305
Simon Stock 305–306
Simon the Zealot 196, 306–307,
306f
Simplicius, Pope 127, 307
Simultaneous Method 174
Siricius, Pope 274, 307
Sisinnius 77

Sissinus 290
Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
202
Sisters of Charity 222
Sisters of Hawthorne, Dominican
11
Sisters of Notre Dame 221
Sixtus I, Pope 307
Sixtus II, Pope 204, 307–308
Sixtus III, Pope 308
Sixtus V, Pope 61, 296, 383
slavery, Anselm on 25
Society of Jesus 13, 120, 155
Society of the Sacred Heart 216
Sophia 308–309, 309f
Sophie, Queen 188–189
Sophronius 238, 245, 309
Sostenes Sostegno 303
Soter, Pope 51, 97, 309, 323
Spain
apparitions of Mary in
391–392
Catholicism in 79
Spanish Civil War, Colombian
Martyrs of 79
Spenser, Edmund 130
Stachys 18
Stanislaus 309–310
Statius Quadratus 289
Stephen 310–312, 311f
Stephen I, Pope 85, 307, 312
Stephen III, Pope 273
Stephen Harding 47
Stephen of Hungary, King 220,
312–314
Stephen the Protomartyr 313
stigmata 385
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Catherine of Siena 68
definition of 385
of Faustina Kowalska 106
of Francis of Assisi 115f, 116,
385
of Gemma Galgani 128
of Mary of the Incarnation 239
of Padre Pio 266, 385
The Story of a Soul (Thérèse of
Lisieux) 324
Sulpitius Severus 229
Summa Theologica (Thomas
Aquinas) 327, 328
Svyatoslav 346
Sylvester I, Pope 314
Sylvester II, Pope 313
Sylvester Gozzolini 45
Symmachus, Pope 4, 60, 100,
314–315
T
Tabitha 276
Tarsilla 100, 134
Tekakwitha Conference 201
Telesphorus, Pope 317
Teodoro 259
Teresa of Avila 317–321, 319f
Gertrude the Great and 133
incorruptibility of 320–321
The Interior Castle 320
John of the Cross and 182
and Mary of the Incarnation
239–240
miracles of 320
mystical jewelry of 66, 320
mystical marriage of 320
Peter of Alcantara and 278
on prayer 318
transverberation of 266,
319–320, 385
visions of 320
Teresa Benedicta of the Cross
321–322
Teresa Maria of the Cross 322
Terese of the Andes 322–323
Tertullian 246, 323, 396, 397
Thecla 215, 323
Theobald 328
Theo of Brittany 104
Theodebert II, King 32
Theodobert, King 81
Theodolus 259–260
Theodora 77, 143, 397
Theodore 44
Theodore of Canterbury 74
Theodore of Mopsuestia 290
Theodore of Tarsus 346
Theodoric, King 60, 107, 171–172,
314–315
Theodosius 303
Theodosius I, Emperor 15–16, 87,
89, 139, 398
Theodosius II, Emperor 51, 153,
398
Theodotus 342, 352
Theodulus 9
Theophano 2–3, 312
Theophilus of Alexandria 251
lndex 417
Theophilus of Antioch 86, 180,
323
Theosebia 139
Thérèse of Lisieux 106, 323–325,
385
Thierry II, King 81
Thomas a’ Kempis 144
Thomas the Apostle 325–326, 325f
Thomas Aquinas 326–328
Albert the Great and 8, 326
Ambrose Sansedoni and 16
on angels 327, 383
Anselm and 23
Bonaventure and 50, 51
on dreams 327–328
on Immaculate Conception 236
Summa Theologica 327, 328
Thomas Becket 328–330
Thomas of Canterbury 84
Thomas of Celano 116
Thomas Cozaki 231
Thomas of Monmouth 350
Thomas More 330–331, 330f
Thomas Xico 231
Thrasamund, King 149
Thrasimund, King 122
Tiburtius 72, 302, 307
Timothy 272, 331–332, 331f
Timothy of Campania 164
Tobacco Indians 260, 261
Tobias 293–294
Tobit 293–294
tongue, of Anthony of Padua 31
Torelli, Ludovica 29
Toribio Romo 233–234
Tracy, William de 329
Trajan, Emperor 77, 153, 267
Tranquilino Ubiarco 234
transport, miraculous 384
of Anthony Mary Claret 28
definition of 384
of Dominic 92
of Francis of Paola 117
transverberation 385
definition of 385
of Padre Pio 266, 385
of Teresa of Avila 266, 319–320,
385
of Thérèse of Lisieux 324, 385
Trdat, King 138
Trent, Council of 74, 279
Tritheism 397
Troyes, Treaty of 168
Trullanum Council 303

418 Index
Turibius Mogroveio 299, 332–333
Tzimisces, John 2
U
Uguccio Uguccione 303
Ulan 109, 122
Ulric 335
Ulrich 335–336, 336f
Urban I, Pope 336
Urban II, Pope 24, 336–337, 337f,
381
Urban V, Pope 337–338
Urban VI, Pope 68, 400
Urban VIII, Pope 192, 381
Ursinus 89, 307
Ursula 21, 338, 339f
Ursulines 21, 240
Ursus 338–340
Utopia (More) 330
V
Valens, Emperor 60, 86, 138
Valentine 341
Valentinian I, Emperor 14–15
Valentinian II, Emperor 15–16
Valentinian III, Emperor 280
Valentinus 285
Valerian 71–72
Valerian, Emperor 17, 85, 90, 91,
204, 308
Vandals 121–122, 207
Vatican Council
First 28, 287–288
Second 172–173, 288
Vazul 313–314
Velásquez de Cuellar, Juan 154
veneration, definition of 385
Ventura 231
Veranius 101
Vianney, John 284–285
Victor I, Pope 61, 342, 352
Victor II, Pope 137, 342
Victor III, Pope 336, 342–343
Vincent de Paul 70, 344–346, 388
Vincent Ferrer 79, 343–344, 343f,
400
Vincent of Lérins 344
visions See also apparitions
of Agatha 4
of Alexis 9
of Aloysius Gonzaga 11
of Alphonsus Marie Liguori 12
of Alphonsus Rodriguez 13–14
of Ambrose Sansedoni 17
of Angela Merici 20, 21
of Anthony 26
of Benedict 42–43
of Bernadette Soubirous 46–47,
388
of Bernadine of Siena 49
of Bernard of Clairvaux 47, 48
of Bridget of Sweden 54, 55
of Brigid of Ireland 56
of Catherine of Bologna 64
of Catherine de’ Ricci 63
of Catherine of Genoa 65
of Catherine Labouré 70–71
of Catherine of Siena 66
of Chad 74
of Charles Borromeo 74
of Clare of Assisi 76
of Clare of Montefalco 76
of Colette 79
of Conrad 81–82
of Constantine the Great 82–83,
247, 250, 314
of Cuthbert 84–85
of Dominic Savio 93
of Dunstan 94
of Faustina Kowalska 106
of Finbar 108
of Frances of Rome 110–111
of Francis of Assisi 116
of Fursey 122
of Gemma Galgani 128
of Gertrude the Great 132,
133–134
of Gregory Thaumaturgus
140–141
of Hildegard of Bingen 147–148
of Ignatius of Loyola 154, 155
of Jerome 165–167
of Joan of Arc 76, 169, 170
of John of the Cross 182
of John the Divine 185
of John of God 186
of Joseph of Copertino 192
of Julian of Norwich 198
of Leo IX 209
of Margaret Mary Alacoque 219
of Martin de Porres 228
of Mary of Agreda 238
of Mary of the Incarnation 239
of Maximilian Kolbe 244
of Mechtilde 245
of Michael of Ecuador 249
of Nicholas of Flüe 258
of Nicholas of Tolentino 259
of Padre Pio 267
of Patrick 90
of Paul 271, 272
of Perpetua 275
of Philip Neri 283
of Polycarp of Smyrna 289
of Rose of Viterbo 300
of Seven Holy Helpers 303–304
of Simon Stock 305
of Teresa of Avila 320
of Vincent Ferrer 343
Vitalian, Pope 268, 346
Vitus 110
Vladimir I of Kiev 52, 346–347
Voisin, Fernande 389
Vulgate Bible 89, 167
W
Walburga 349, 350f
weather
Francis of Assisi and 116
John Bosco and 178
Wenceslas IV, Emperor 188–189
Wenceslaus 349–350
Western monasticism 42
Western schism 399–400
Wilfred of York 5, 43–44
William II Rufus 23–24
William the Conqueror 84, 220
William of Norwich 350
Willibald 136, 243, 349
Willibroard 303
Willimar 127
Winebald 349
Winfrid 136
Wolsey, Thomas 330
women, as Doctors of the Church
69, 378
World War II, martyrs of 244–245,
321
Y
Yaropolk 52, 346
Yaroslav 52, 347
Yvo 150

Z
Zachary 97, 173, 351–352, 351f
Zachary I, Pope 352
Zechariah 125
Zeitoun, Egypt, apparitions of Mary
in 392
Zeno, Emperor 107
Zephyrinus, Pope 61, 149, 352
lndex 419
Zita 353, 353f
Zoe 302
Zosimus, Pope 238–239, 353, 399