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134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO PALEOBIOLOGY Cranium Mandibula Scapula Clavicula Coracoideum Sternum B5ZS5^ a E3 Larus argentatus • Gavia stellata Humerus fT ' ' 1 f ~ V///////////7A -" Ulna Radius Carpometacarpus Vertebrae Pelvis Femur Tibiotarsus gggjL^ Tarsometatarsus f&w* Phalanx SSSSSS///SJ///S//S////S//S/S/SS///S/S///SS/SS/ sssssm Cranium Mandibula Scapula Clavicula Coracoideum Sternum Humerus Ulna Radius Carpometacarpus Vertebrae Pelvis Femur V//////A '////////////A 2222a Tibiotarsus V//////A Tarsometatarsus '////MA Phalanx I 1 ri H E3 Aquila chrysaetos MMW/////////////A (^^W^^W^^^J^ 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 FIGURE 3.—Diagram of relative representation of main skeletal elements for some bird species from the Ust' Poluisk settlement. The column for "cranium" includes maxillare. A, Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata) and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus); B, Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos); C, White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). more often (13% of 256 wild duck skeletons examined by Tiemier, 1941). A bird of prey with a broken leg or wing has very little chance of survival in the wild. It is possible that eagles, at least White-tailed Eagles, were kept captive at the settlement. Brothwell (1993:37) noted that "excluding injury received in the wild, birds are most likely to display evidence of trauma as a result of hunting, catching, keeping, or handling." Interestingly, among 145 skeletons of captive macaws {Ara spp.), birds of ritual and trade value for Pueblo Indians found in archaeological sites in Arizona and New Mexico, 13% have healed Cranium Mandibula Scapula Clavicula Coracoideum Sternum Humerus • Ulna • Radius • Carpometacarpus Vertebrae Pelvis Tarsometatarsus Phalanx iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiinii i iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiu iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mmnniMi mnnnnmnnnni nnnmifflfflimii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII DU i IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII •111111 nnnnimi] nnnDii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII •11111 inn i mil IIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII nnuniii llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII iiiimiiiiiiiniiiii llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ID n ED Haliaeetus albicilla IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII mini IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII DDHIID mi iiiii'i IIIIIIIII Femur llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII nunnmni gunnnnii Tibiotarsus llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII im mi 10 12 14 bones (Brothwell, 1993). Furthermore, one ulna from a Mexican macaw found at an archaeological site in Arizona (Brothwell, 1993, fig. 2B) has a similar pattern of trauma as the eagle ulna from the Ust' Poluisk site. Keeping captive birds, including birds of prey, was widespread in various groups of people. Eagles taken from nests were kept by the Ayny, Selkups, and Kets (Sokolova, 1972; Kosarev, 1981, 1991). The Ayny kept eagles in cages for sacrifices (Sokolova, 1972). Mikhail Litvin, traveling in southwestern Russia during the second half of the sixteenth century,
NUMBER 89 135 FIGURE 4.—Bones of the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). a, broken and healed distal part of ulna, b, broken and healed tibiotarsus, c, lateral and d, ventral views of the upper part of a cranium showing clear evidence of having been cut. (Scale=3 cm.) noted that eagles were kept to provide feathers for arrows (Aristov, 1866). In some California Indian tribes, birds of prey were used as decoys for hunting eagles; this also was a ritual event among the Great Plains Indians (Parmalee, 1977b). Remains of Golden and Bald Eagles {Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus)) were discovered in 60% of 51 Arikara tribe sites in South Dakota and constituted 9% of the bone remains from these sites (Parmalee, 1977b). Golden and Bald Eagles, along with other birds of prey, still play important roles in Great Plains Indian material and spiritual culture, as they have in the past. They were, and are, represented in rock art, ledger art, and all types of decoration. They form integral components of legends and visions. Archaeological sites specifically devoted to capturing eagles are known throughout the North American Great Plains (L.W Rom, pers. comm., 1997). Many Siberian people worshipped eagles, and some of them call March the month of the Eagle. Eagles were associated with the sun god, were equated with the sun god, or were the sun's owner, or creator. The eagle was the supreme god, the benefactor of individuals, peoples, or clans, or a bird of fortune (Sternberg, 1925:718). In the Urges tribe of the Ob' River, the totem- ic cult of the eagle was linked to the image of the soul-bird (the fourth soul of a person), which dwelled in the hair (Chernetsov, 1959; Kosarev, 1981). Sculptural images of eagles are very common on kitchenware and cult weapons from the Ust' Poluisk site. They are engraved on combs, buckles, suspenders, spoons, klevtsy (ritual axes), and knives (Moshinskaya, 1953; Chernetsov, 1953). Among 12 bone carvings of birds found at the site in 1935-1936, nine were eagles. Six of the carved eagles, on combs and bone tools, are depicted sitting on and pecking either a moose head or the head of another stylized bird having a heavy beak. Two other artifacts have stylized pecking eagles, and one has a stylized eagle with outstretched wings (Adrianov, MSb, figs. 2, 3, 18, 51, 70, 176, 177, 190, 260). Chernetsov (1953) believed that forest hunters of the Ob' River basin, who practiced the cult of moose or bear, later adapted the eagle cult from the south-steppe Skiph-Sarmatian tribes who inhabited the steppe zone north to the Kama River basin. The bird from the sun, "Kars" (eagle), was the most important part of worship dedicated to the "Upper" world. This worship is very ancient and is believed to have originated in India or southern Iran (Sternberg, 1925; Chernetsov, 1947). Kars, from heaven, was believed to be seated in a sacred tree, where the sun and the moon grew. In Siberia this tree was either a birch or a larch (Sternberg, 1925). Chernetsov (1959) observed the initiation procedure in the clan of the Winged Old Man (Eagle) of the Urges in the Ob' River region. According to his account, young men that had reached the age of initiation walked to a special, sacred place where they climbed a sacred tree, home of the clan's "winged" ancestor. In the twentieth century the Urges from Ob' perform a similar ritual, but without a real bird in the tree; however, perhaps in their shamanistic past there was a live eagle in the tree. The eagle, as a totem bird, was considered untouchable by many Siberian peoples. Yakuts buried dead eagles, and a community member who killed an eagle by mistake was expected to roast it on a fire and eat all but its head (Sternberg, 1925:723). This possibly explains why there were so many skulls of eagles at the Ust' Poluisk site. Conclusions The species composition of the bird-fauna remains collected at the Ust' Poluisk settlement indicates more favorable environmental conditions in that area and a warmer climate at the time of deposition, ca. 400-100 BC, than at present. This conclusion is supported by findings at the site of remains of forestanimal species with ranges that now stop at the timberline, which is south of the site. Avifaunal remains indicate that settlement inhabitants hunted fatty and/or meaty birds that could have been obtained easily, like grouse and waterfowl, as well as birds of ritual importance. The latter included eagles, which were hunted or which might have been kept alive at the settlement, as evidenced by healed, broken eagle bones. Additional
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134 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO PALEOBIOLOGY<br />
Cranium<br />
Mandibula<br />
Scapula<br />
Clavicula<br />
Coracoideum<br />
Sternum B5ZS5^<br />
a<br />
E3 Larus argentatus<br />
• Gavia stellata<br />
Humerus fT ' ' 1 f ~<br />
V///////////7A<br />
-"<br />
Ulna<br />
Radius<br />
Carpometacarpus<br />
Vertebrae<br />
Pelvis<br />
Femur<br />
Tibiotarsus gggjL^<br />
Tarsometatarsus f&w*<br />
Phalanx<br />
SSSSSS///SJ///S//S////S//S/S/SS///S/S///SS/SS/<br />
sssssm<br />
Cranium<br />
Mandibula<br />
Scapula<br />
Clavicula<br />
Coracoideum<br />
Sternum<br />
Humerus<br />
Ulna<br />
Radius<br />
Carpometacarpus<br />
Vertebrae<br />
Pelvis<br />
Femur<br />
V//////A<br />
'////////////A<br />
2222a<br />
Tibiotarsus V//////A<br />
Tarsometatarsus '////MA<br />
Phalanx<br />
I 1<br />
ri H<br />
E3 Aquila chrysaetos<br />
MMW/////////////A<br />
(^^W^^W^^^J^<br />
0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30<br />
FIGURE 3.—Diagram of relative representation of main skeletal<br />
elements for some bird species from the Ust' Poluisk settlement.<br />
The column for "cranium" includes maxillare. A, Red-throated<br />
<strong>Lo</strong>on (Gavia stellata) and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus); B,<br />
Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos); C, White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus<br />
albicilla).<br />
more often (13% of 256 wild duck skeletons examined by Tiemier,<br />
1941). A bird of prey with a broken leg or wing has very<br />
little chance of survival in the wild. It is possible that eagles, at<br />
least White-tailed Eagles, were kept captive at the settlement.<br />
Brothwell (1993:37) noted that "excluding injury received in<br />
the wild, birds are most likely to display evidence of trauma as<br />
a result of hunting, catching, keeping, or handling." Interestingly,<br />
among 145 skeletons of captive macaws {Ara spp.), birds<br />
of ritual and trade value for Pueblo Indians found in archaeological<br />
sites in Arizona and New Mexico, 13% have healed<br />
Cranium<br />
Mandibula<br />
Scapula<br />
Clavicula<br />
Coracoideum<br />
Sternum<br />
Humerus •<br />
Ulna •<br />
Radius •<br />
Carpometacarpus<br />
Vertebrae<br />
Pelvis<br />
Tarsometatarsus<br />
Phalanx<br />
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiinii<br />
i iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiu<br />
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mmnniMi<br />
mnnnnmnnnni nnnmifflfflimii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII DU<br />
i<br />
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
•111111 nnnnimi] nnnDii<br />
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII •11111<br />
inn i mil IIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII nnuniii<br />
llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII iiiimiiiiiiiniiiii<br />
llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
ID<br />
n<br />
ED Haliaeetus albicilla<br />
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII mini<br />
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII DDHIID<br />
mi iiiii'i IIIIIIIII<br />
Femur llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
nunnmni gunnnnii<br />
Tibiotarsus llllllllllllllllllllll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII<br />
im<br />
mi<br />
10 12 14<br />
bones (Brothwell, 1993). Furthermore, one ulna from a Mexican<br />
macaw found at an archaeological site in Arizona (Brothwell,<br />
1993, fig. 2B) has a similar pattern of trauma as the eagle<br />
ulna from the Ust' Poluisk site.<br />
Keeping captive birds, including birds of prey, was widespread<br />
in various groups of people. Eagles taken from nests<br />
were kept by the Ayny, Selkups, and Kets (Sokolova, 1972;<br />
Kosarev, 1981, 1991). The Ayny kept eagles in cages for sacrifices<br />
(Sokolova, 1972). Mikhail Litvin, traveling in southwestern<br />
Russia during the second half of the sixteenth century,
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