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American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages<br />
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? Postmodernist Theory and Russian Cultural Criticism<br />
Author(s): <strong>Edith</strong> W. <strong>Clowes</strong><br />
Source: The Slavic and East European Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1995), pp. 333-343<br />
Published by: American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages<br />
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/308235<br />
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SIMULACRUM AS S(T)IMULATION?<br />
POSTMODERNIST THEORY AND RUSSIAN<br />
CULTURAL CRITICISM<br />
<strong>Edith</strong> W. <strong>Clowes</strong>, Purdue University<br />
In the last quarter century post-structuralist (and post-Marxist) thinkers<br />
have developed a vocabulary to describe contemporary Western culture.<br />
This language of ideological sabotage, welcoming the collapse of valuative<br />
polarities and stressing epistemological and ontological shiftiness, has be-<br />
come a hallmark of what we have come with Lyotard to call the "postmod-<br />
ern condition." First conceived to probe the dominanta of so-called "late<br />
capitalism," especially in French, British, and American cultures, terms<br />
such as "deconstruction," "totality," "difference," "simulacrum," "hyper-<br />
reality" have gradually gained currency in all kinds of non-Western or non-<br />
capitalist cultural milieux-from the Caribbean to Africa to the Arab<br />
world to China and the former Soviet Union. This essay examines the ways<br />
in which a number of Russian cultural critics have employed postmodernist<br />
theory to generate models for analyzing Stalinism, late Soviet, and post-<br />
Soviet culture. A chief concern here is to ask whether postmodernist think-<br />
ing serves as a stimulus to Russian self-definition or whether it is just<br />
another in a long line of Westernizing simulacra that fix and repress the<br />
shifting and strange Russian experience in an inadequate theoretical mold.<br />
Is Russian "postmodernism," indeed, yet another mirage, a word game,<br />
another label that has no referent?<br />
At first glance, official Soviet culture with its firm rituals, its self-assured<br />
movement toward definite goals, its authoritarian hold on social discourse,<br />
seems the very opposite the postmodernist crumbling of "Ideology"-the<br />
collapse of long-held valuative opposites, the reduction of the Saussurian<br />
model of referentiality to a mere signifier, and the failure of aesthetic<br />
representation. But in the 1970s and 1980s the cultural underground and<br />
particularly its extensions in exile developed a rich language of play as a<br />
response to this stifling Soviet culture. We think of Dmitrii Prigov's paro-<br />
dies of children's poetry, the apartment art movement, the conceptualist<br />
SEEJ, Vol. 39, No. 3 (1995): p. 333-p. 343 333
334 Slavic and East European Journal<br />
play with Socialist Realist painting by Erik Bulatov, Komar and Melamid,<br />
and others, and the "historical" fantasies of Voinovich, Sokolov, and<br />
Aksenov. More recently, the collapse of Soviet Marxism into its opposite,<br />
fascism, in the loose communist/fascist alliance of the krasnokarichnevye<br />
("red-browns"), the rapid disintegration of the Soviet empire, the emer-<br />
gence of genuine pop culture and the diminution of the cultural elite-all<br />
suggest that there are at the very least interesting comparisons-in-contrast<br />
to be drawn between the postmodernist West and postcommunist Russia.<br />
As Mikhail Epstein maintains in his essay, "The Origins and Meaning of<br />
Russian Postmodernism," although the term postmodernism was until re-<br />
cently a signal of mutual recognition among the super-elite of the Russian<br />
intelligentsia, it is now on everyone's lips, welcomed as "topical" and "the<br />
most vital, the most aesthetically relevant constituent of contemporary<br />
culture."' Has this term caught on so fast because it is the latest fad from<br />
the West or because it suggests a cultural condition that is somehow close to<br />
Russians' own post-Soviet experience?<br />
In the last five years a number of Russian critics (and a few Western<br />
Russianists) have been borrowing that amalgamated language of post-<br />
structuralist and post-Marxist thought that comprises postmodern theory-<br />
taken from Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault, Baudrillard and Lacan, among<br />
others-as a new window into both Stalinist culture and the unofficial post-<br />
Stalinist subculture. What distinguishes one critic, Mikhail Epstein, from<br />
the rest is his effort to probe broadly what he believes to be the postmod-<br />
ernist nature not only of unofficial art, but of Socialist Realism, Soviet<br />
Marxist "ideolanguage," and, indeed, of Russian culture itself. This essay<br />
will focus on the appropriation of postmodernist thinking in the work of a<br />
small number of Russian critics, giving most attention to its most provoca-<br />
tive, and perhaps problematic, extension in Epstein's recent work.<br />
The emigre intellectual historian, Boris Groys, and the art critic, Marga-<br />
rita Tupitsyn, were among the first to invoke French post-structuralist<br />
thought. Groys' essay, "Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin," written in 1988 ("The<br />
Total Art of Stalinism," 1991), views Stalinism in the light first of the<br />
modernist avant-garde, then in juxtaposition to postmodernist positions.<br />
Groys finds a number of parallels between what he calls "postutopian"<br />
Russian art and Western postmodernism: "Linking Russian literature and<br />
art of the 1970s and 1980s with similar phenomena in the West are a shared<br />
aspiration to erase the boundary between 'high' and 'low' in art, interest in<br />
the myths of the everyday, work with extant sign systems, an orientation<br />
toward the world of the mass media, the rejection of creative originality,<br />
and a great deal more" (Groys, 105). In her book on countercultural art<br />
movements entitled Margins of Soviet Art (1989), Tupitsyn describes sots<br />
art parody as "deconstruction" of the "divine claims and utopian assump-<br />
tions" inherent in Soviet culture (Tupitsyn, 65). Like Groys she brings
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? 335<br />
conceptualist art into line with Western contemporary culture by talking<br />
about the "erasure" of difference in Soviet culture between valuative pairs<br />
such as art and reality, ideology and fact, high and low culture. The possibil-<br />
ity of an "erasure" of the boundary between high and low art is problematic<br />
for Soviet culture where both high and low culture were themselves<br />
"erased" (to use a euphemism) by the late 1930s and replaced by force with<br />
a homogenized culture. Still, Tupitsyn and Groys do draw attention to the<br />
vital interaction between the imported American pop art and the Russian<br />
underground, an interaction that stimulated renewed experimentation with<br />
popular forms.2<br />
Another characteristic usually associated with the postmodern concerns<br />
the ambiguous relationship of the artist to authority. Both Groys and<br />
Tupitsyn raise this issue in terms of the complicity between experimental<br />
art and the reigning ideology, and in terms of being simultaneously "inside"<br />
and "outside" of the system. Anti-Stalinist or dissident art that openly<br />
opposed or exposed Stalinism (one could point, for example, to Solzheni-<br />
tsyn or Rasputin) could never escape the singlemindedly utopian mentality<br />
that is the heart and soul of Stalinism. Such metaesthetic art as concep-<br />
tualism, in Groys' view, "incorporates the Stalin myth into world mythol-<br />
ogy and demonstrates its family likeness with supposedly opposite myths"<br />
(Groys, 115). They understand that one can never be fully "outside" or free<br />
of the system of values with which one was raised. By acknowledging the<br />
force of Stalinism as part of one's heritage, but according to it a place in<br />
one's past (and not anathematizing it), one can, perhaps against all expecta-<br />
tion, cope with it most effectively. Only in this way can one gain distance<br />
and be able to see the "artificial unconscious" created by the Stalinist<br />
experiment and rework it as an object of play or, as Groys puts it, an object<br />
of "frivolous amusement" (Groys, 120).<br />
Epstein is the most persistent of all three critics in his application of<br />
postmodernist concepts to the late Soviet and post-Soviet scene. His focus<br />
is on the loss of "reality" in a culture dominated by one Ideology, the loss of<br />
the referent in a sea of floating signifiers. Epstein's critic of choice is Jean<br />
Baudrillard whose writing is oriented toward electronic culture, the com-<br />
puter, and the media, and their seemingly referentless proliferation of<br />
information and images. Like many French post-structuralists Baudrillard<br />
is fixated on Saussure's linguistic model as a model for cultural criticism<br />
and for talking about strategies of meaning and interpretation. If the mod-<br />
ernist project was oriented toward unearthing the relationship between<br />
sign and concept, between signifier and signified, Baudrillard in "The Politi-<br />
cal Economy of the Sign" insists that signifier, signified, and referent exist<br />
as one "compact unit." The point here is that the signifier is the dominant.<br />
There is no "deeper" concept to be unearthed and there is no "reality"<br />
independent of the sign. There is only a "hyperreality" created from the
336 Slavic and East European Journal<br />
proliferation of "simulacra" of reality on computer and television screens.<br />
To cite the tinselly tennis star, Andre Agassi, in his camera commercial:<br />
"Image is everything." And so it is in Baudrillard's postmodernist world.<br />
All is surface. There is nothing to interpret (which leads us to wonder why<br />
Baudrillard is indeed interpreting). Epstein in his recent essays, "After the<br />
Future" (1991) and "Relativistic Patterns in Totalitarian Thinking" (1991),<br />
makes an interesting case for relating the ideas of "simulacrum" and<br />
"hyperreality" to Soviet culture. In "Relativistic Patterns" he sees the fol-<br />
lowing fundamental contradiction in Soviet culture:<br />
The Soviet world view is characterized by extreme materialism in theory and extreme idealism<br />
in practice. We could even say that Soviet Marxism's overstated materialism is nothing but an<br />
ideological phantom, in the postmodernist sense of the word. Such 'hypermaterialism' is a sort<br />
of simulacrum, the product of pure mentality. The self-serving raison d'etre for such countless<br />
Soviet simulacra as hyperunity, hyperlabor, hyperparty, hyperpeople, hyperpower, and<br />
hyperfuture does not differ much from that of Western media. If in the west visual simulacra<br />
bring great profit, in the Soviet Union ideological simulacra have long brought great power<br />
(Epstein, "Relativistic Patterns," 42, n.54).<br />
Thus, this extreme, though officially denied contradiction between theory<br />
and practice leads to "hypermaterialism," a simulacrum of materialist phi-<br />
losophy behind which there is no real acknowledgment of material condi-<br />
tions. Indeed, Soviet citizens subsisted for decades on ideas and ideals,<br />
since very little else was offered.<br />
It is important to note that, while Baudrillard claims that the American<br />
public is in the grip of hyperreality, these Soviet-era simulacra have long<br />
since lost their power to convince even the simplest worker. Soviets' sur-<br />
vival skepticism is borne out in the widely held view that "if you pretend to<br />
pay us, we will pretend to work." Similarly, the old joke s borodoi about<br />
the "eye-ear" doctor tells us the same thing: the woman comes to the clinic<br />
and says she wants to see the eye-ear doctor. She is told that the clinic has<br />
eye doctors or ear-nose-and-throat doctors but not what she wants. The<br />
nurse asks what her symptoms are. When she answers, "Well, I see one<br />
thing and hear another," the nurse replies, "We can't cure you of Soviet<br />
ideology." These anecdotes do point to a difference between Baudrillard's<br />
conceptualization of postmodern culture, based largely on his observation<br />
of the American "utopia," and the Soviet situation. Baudrillard argues that<br />
the postmodern condition persists because consumers are seduced by the<br />
surface, by image. This is not at all the case in Russia where not only<br />
intellectuals but others, as well, have known for a long time that they were<br />
being lied to, cheated, and coerced by brute force.<br />
In "After the Future," Epstein poses the question of the relation be-<br />
tween "post-future" Russian culture of the late 1980s and Western postmod-<br />
ernism. Here again he finds in the sphere of politics, ideology, political<br />
advertising, and propaganda another simulacrum. This is the figure of
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? 337<br />
Brezhnev and the practice of what turned out to be "late-Soviet" ideology.<br />
He writes:<br />
In contrast to the figure of Stalin, ominously modernist and Kafkaesque, Brezhnev is a typical<br />
simulacrum: a postmodernist surface object, even a kind of hyperreal object behind which<br />
stands no reality. Long before Western video technology began to produce an overabundance<br />
of authentic images of an absent reality, this problem was already being solved by our ideol-<br />
ogy, by our press, and by statistics that calculated crops that would never be harvested to the<br />
hundredths of a percentage point ("After the Future," 440).<br />
What is a key to Soviet hyperreality and makes it similar to Baudrillard's<br />
Western high-tech culture is that not only do ideological icons refer to no<br />
substantially existing actuality but the icons' signifier and signified do not<br />
interact. Everything has become pure surface, a proliferation of images<br />
that in its very repetition belies any claim to a signified and ultimately<br />
represses all signifieds. The lack of depth or even apparent depth means<br />
the impossibility of interpretation, that is, something hidden that can be<br />
teased out and revealed. Since everything is equal only to itself, meaning<br />
becomes impossible. Such is the condition to which Baudrillard alludes in<br />
"The Political Economy of the Sign" and develops in his later work. Ep-<br />
stein claims in "The Origins" that the Soviet Union was "poor not in<br />
commodities, comfort, hard currency, but in reality itself. All its shortcom-<br />
ings and deficiencies are only symbols of this fading reality; and symbols<br />
themselves comprise the only genuine 'reality' that survives" (Epstein,<br />
"The Origins," 8). This nonsensical situation returns "consumers" of So-<br />
viet ideology to the same Nietzschean realization to which Baudrillard has<br />
arrived in "Simulacra and Simulations" about the "desert of the real itself":<br />
the real in and of itself is without meaning (Baudrillard, 166).<br />
In "The Origins and the Meaning of Russian Postmodernism" Epstein<br />
ambitiously expands his critique of Russian culture. Here he finds what he<br />
argues are Russian equivalents for the concept of simulacrum. If in "After<br />
the Future" he claims that Potemkin villages are the epitome of Russian<br />
simulacra, then here he adds the terms "pokazukha" and "prezentatsiia."<br />
Interestingly, he characterizes Russia's as a "nominative civilization" in<br />
which the sign, the name of an object, is more important than the referent,<br />
the object itself (Epstein, "The Origins," 4). Real, material existence is<br />
cynically claimed for an object if its label is "presented" to someone whose<br />
opinion matters and if, having seen the label, that person accepts the<br />
existence of the object behind the label. The assumption of those perpetrat-<br />
ing pokazukha (again, throughout Russian history perpetrators might be<br />
grandees facing Westerners or, as in War and Peace, peasants facing their<br />
masters or, as in any number of works by Gogol, one person posing in front<br />
of another) is that reality without the labels is mere emptiness, a desert.<br />
The labels that Epstein discusses all distort the abstract concept to which<br />
they claim to pay homage and give reality. For example, the Soviet-era
338 Slavic and East European Journal<br />
subbotnik claimed to be an enactment of the notion of free labor. In fact,<br />
under this program nearly all Soviet citizens were coerced in one way or<br />
another into working for free on Saturdays. There was little voluntary<br />
action or free choice in the matter. Thus, insofar as it gave the lie to free<br />
labor, it became a "hyperevent." Its actual "signified" was unfree labor or<br />
servitude. In the post-Soviet era the new business culture suffers also from<br />
what one might call a will to simulation. Epstein describes (unfortunately<br />
without any documentation) how new enterprises come into being: a select<br />
group of people is assembled to watch the "prezentatsiia" of the new<br />
venture (Epstein, "The Origins," 8). He claims that the young businesspeo-<br />
ple (who, it should be added, are in general ignorant of the lively and rapid<br />
capitalization and industrialization of Russia in the five decades before<br />
1917) have no business heritage or business ethic to rely on. Thus, they are<br />
to a large degree playacting before a chosen audience that is expected to<br />
affirm the reality of the new business. In Epstein's view, this will to simula-<br />
tion is so deeply embedded in Russian culture that it is entirely thinkable<br />
that a "market simulacrum" imposed from above might be the next step in<br />
Russia's move toward capitalism. This market simulacrum would be a<br />
pretend market created by force in place of a real market. Epstein does not<br />
elaborate on the reasons why such a hyperevent might occur except to<br />
imply that Russians are hopelessly hooked on simulacra.<br />
While Epstein's observations and speculations are certainly fresh and<br />
with additional documentation would certainly shed new light on the Soviet<br />
and post-Soviet scene, there are some instances in which he overempha-<br />
sizes similarity and deemphasizes differences between the former Soviet<br />
Union and Baudrillard's West when the differences are considerable and<br />
even dominant. For example, he argues in "Relativistic Patterns" that<br />
Soviet totalitarianism is a specific mode of postmodernism (Epstein, "Rela-<br />
tivistic Patterns," 2). Soviet Marxist ideology or "ideolanguage," he sug-<br />
gests, shares with postmodern culture a relativist posture. Epstein proceeds<br />
to show how in Soviet ideological word games the same concept can be<br />
presented in a negative or a positive light, depending on the words one<br />
selects. For example, one can seem to be for an internationalist outlook,<br />
international "peace and friendship," for one audience and yet characterize<br />
that outlook as "rootless cosmopolitanism" for the next audience.<br />
This phenomenon is not convincing as "postmodernism." Such word<br />
games have little to do with any particular era in history and everything to<br />
do with political gamesmanship. It is merely a rhetorical tactic meant to<br />
keep one's allies and opponents in their "right" places by verbally establish-<br />
ing and enforcing one's own political hierarchy. This kind of sport is age-<br />
old and has little to do with the project of teasing out "other" voices and<br />
points of view in a situation in which one ideology claims total dominance<br />
and total truth-such is the relativism central to postmodernist feminism,
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? 339<br />
ethnic studies, New Historicism, deconstruction. If one wants to speak of<br />
"postmodernist" and relativist aspects of perestroika, then we must point<br />
to the fundamental contradiction that Gorbachev introduced: a "free" mar-<br />
ket economy involves a loosening of grassroots initiative and some allow-<br />
ance for competition, something that the Soviet Communist Party (in dis-<br />
tinction, seemingly, to the Chinese Party) showed itself as unwilling to<br />
allow. Centralized planning, privilege, and the central chain of command<br />
were all threatened by the possibility of grassroots enterprise, a more fluid<br />
economy in which money had real value, and a hierarchy different from the<br />
old command structure. All these considerations suggest that Soviet com-<br />
munists were exhibiting not a postmodernist temper, but rather extreme<br />
principle or "printsipial'nost'."<br />
This argument for the postmodernity of Soviet Marxism stands in stark<br />
contrast to Groys' contention that Stalinism fulfilled the ambitions of Rus-<br />
sia's modernists (not to mention Russia's Godbuilders, Bogdanov, Luna-<br />
charskii, and Gor'kii). According to Groys, Stalin was the "artist-ruler" or<br />
leader-creator that modernists such as Malevich, Khlebnikov, Maiakovskii<br />
wished to be-who seemed to have the power to take the material of<br />
human nature and transfigure it, to make a complete break with the past<br />
and construct a new society. Groys' claim that Stalinism represented the<br />
"complete triumph of modernism" is certainly lopsided (Groys, 11). Less<br />
problematically, as Tupitsyn shows, Stalinism unwittingly provided excel-<br />
lent raw material for the kind of postmodernist parody brought later by the<br />
conceptualists with their "after-cultural" sensibility of living after a great<br />
event, in this case, the demise of "utopia."<br />
Another area in which Epstein overextends the claim to a Russian post-<br />
modernism is in his discussion of socialist realism. In "The Origins" he writes<br />
that "socialist realism may be regarded as an essentially postmodernist trend<br />
destined to balance all opposites and to create a new space for the interaction<br />
of all possible stylistic devices" (Epstein, "The Origins," 18). By contrast,<br />
Groys argues that socialist realism may have won the position that the avant-<br />
garde coveted, but in its style and outlook it is neither modernist nor post-<br />
modernist. It is some strange throwback to what Zamiatin called the outlived<br />
realism of Gor'kii, eclectic and-a much more serious criticism-inwardly<br />
self-contradictory, as Terts pointed out in "On Socialist Realism" (1959).<br />
There is none of the self-conscious, semi-humorous postmodernist quota-<br />
tion or parody of a variety of styles in order to expose the "totalizing" value<br />
system inherent in it. In socialist realist writing, instead of the admission of<br />
the artist's complicity with the system, there is the assumption of complicity<br />
and, indeed, in practice, bald, open, shameless complicity itself. It is cer-<br />
tainly possible to argue, as Tupitsyn does, that the socialist realist tradition<br />
left rich raw material for a postmodern response. As Terts showed 35 years<br />
ago, the inept contradictions and awful mixtures of sensibility inherent in it
340 Slavic and East European Journal<br />
foil belief and eventually feed skepticism and a desire to play. Socialist<br />
realism did indeed help to create a hyperreality, but the general conscious-<br />
ness of hyperreality is a late-Soviet, post-socialist-realist phenomenon, bur-<br />
geoning forth in the underground since the 1960s.<br />
We can see remarkable differences between a postmodern sensibility and<br />
that inherent to a slight degree in Groys' and quite strongly in Epstein's<br />
work. The postmodern sensibility is resigned to being "inside" an overrid-<br />
ing system of value but still presses for an "outside" perspective. It admits<br />
its own complicity. It is meta-aesthetic and "meta-utopian": it is shocked<br />
and amused at the collapse of left and right politics one into the other<br />
(<strong>Clowes</strong>). Finally, the postmodern is resolutely present-oriented, rejecting<br />
the nostalgia for the past of the right and the faith in the future of the left.<br />
Something closer to a "modernist" impulse is apparent in both Groys' and<br />
Epstein's writing. For example, if postmodernism stands for the collapse of<br />
opposing ideologies, one into the other, and the erasure of major valuative<br />
differences between them, then Groys' choice of stark military metaphors<br />
for this process sounds incongruously modernist. Groys emphasizes a<br />
"war" of value systems in conceptualist art. He claims, in my view, errone-<br />
ously, that this art "delights in the spectacle of antagonistic semiotic and<br />
artistic systems destroying each other" (10). Komar and Melamid and oth-<br />
ers are really showing in a humorous vein the complicity of opposing sys-<br />
tems and the structural similarity between their mentalities. War of the<br />
worlds and the shock of the abyss are the idiom of Maiakovskii, Malevich,<br />
and their avant-gardes.<br />
Epstein's work has a strong orientation toward the future-his is a<br />
predictive criticism that presses beyond an unacceptable present. For ex-<br />
ample, in "After the Future" he predicts that, after the culture of<br />
simulacra and after the loss of meaning so familiar in the present, an art<br />
of silence in which "verbalized silence" and the "silenced word" can "pre-<br />
serve literature at the bottom of language" will develop (Epstein, "After<br />
the Future," 443-444). In an unpublished essay, "After Carnival, or the<br />
Eternal Venichka," he offers a refined culture of hangover and of "the<br />
morning after" from Venichka Erofeev's Moskva-Petushki as the answer<br />
for post-postmodern times! Then, to repeat, he also foresees a "market<br />
simulacrum" in Russia's future. This continual denial of the present in<br />
favor of the future is not just modernist but a quality deeply ingrained in<br />
Russian intellectual discourse. Or perhaps better put, accepting and work-<br />
ing with the present, seeing its good sides as well as bad, is alien to the<br />
Russian tradition. In any case, a postmodernist sense of time is oriented<br />
toward the present and pulls both past experience and future possibility<br />
very much toward the present. All three temporalities are closely intercon-<br />
nected, not fragmented as in a modernist sensibility.<br />
All of these points are made simply to stress what I see as some major
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? 341<br />
differences between contemporary Russian culture, in which modernist<br />
and postmodernist (or more accurately and not necessarily parallel: commu-<br />
nist and postcommunist) sensibilities coexist, and French and American<br />
cultures, where probably a postmodernist sensibility is paramount. While<br />
postmodernist theory is certainly useful for characterizing contemporary<br />
culture, it is by no means adequate. The economic cultures of East and<br />
West from which a "post-something" culture emerged are different one<br />
from another. If the West lives on a capitalist consumer economy in which<br />
everything can be bought or sold and emphasis is placed on creating "need"<br />
for new products, then in the East there was a poorly working centralized<br />
command economy where, as Epstein points out, non-economic "ideologi-<br />
cal" considerations always came first. Now what exists is neither Baudril-<br />
lard's so-called "second-order" simulacrum of industrial "production" and<br />
replication of goods-at most there are in Russia the tiniest sprouts of a<br />
"first-order" culture of basic reproduction and trade (Baudrillard, 135).<br />
The "third-order" simulacrum of "simulation" that Baudrillard claims is<br />
predominant in the United States today emphasizes not the product itself<br />
but the proliferation of its image on the electronic media and the computer.<br />
This order of simulacrum has started to make some inroads into post-<br />
communist Russian life and, given the Soviet precedent, should have an<br />
easier time of it than the first- and second-orders simulacrum which actu-<br />
ally depend on producing something concrete. If Soviet ideology had as its<br />
"product" the radiant future, Soviet "advertisers" (that is, propagandists)<br />
had a much easier time talking about it and proliferating images of it than<br />
producing or, much less, reduplicating versions of it in real life. Such is the<br />
situation with the first sprouts of the market economy in Russia-actual<br />
rational, effective production is still largely blocked by bureaucrats and<br />
old-style directors and by popular apathy, but it is relatively easy to project<br />
a picture of a bubbling economy on television and in the newspapers,<br />
through advertisements, thumb-nail sketches of success stories, and the<br />
like. If this picture of the economic situation is true, then once again we<br />
find Russia "skipping" what in the West are historical stages, now repre-<br />
sented in Baudrillard's theory as the three "orders" of simulacrum. It is<br />
slipping easily into an absurd economy of the code, the sign, without even<br />
imagining the first order (that is, the concept of competing or mobile signs<br />
that emerged first in the Renaissance, according to Baudrillard) or enact-<br />
ing the second-order simulacrum.<br />
Epstein and Groys are both sensitive to Russian precedents for post-<br />
modernist thinking and as well to the particular conditions that have given<br />
rise to a sense of irreality and ideological collapse in late Soviet culture.<br />
The question now needs to be asked: is it sufficient to speak of a Russian<br />
postmodernism or should we be talking of a postcommunist culture that<br />
fits under a larger "post- cultural" rubric along with postmodernism and
342 Slavic and East European Journal<br />
perhaps postcolonialism. There are so many clear differences that sepa-<br />
rate Soviet and Western experience. Despite Groys' implication that Sta-<br />
linism was in some ways the realization of the dreams of the modernist<br />
avant-garde, in fact the culture of esthetic play, of philosophical, social<br />
and artistic experiment, and ideological revolt at the heart of modernism<br />
was forcibly quashed, only in the last two decades to be revived in the less<br />
combative and more humorous post-Soviet sensibility. In an effort to clear<br />
space for postmodernism, recent treatments of modernism, Groys' among<br />
them, have focused too singlemindedly on modernists' nostalgia for a<br />
comprehensive system of belief, their nativism, their cultural regressive-<br />
ness, when, in fact, significant ground is shared between the two. This<br />
view of modernism would gladden the heart of any orthodox Soviet critic<br />
but flies in the face of canonical Western definitions of modernism such as<br />
Howe's in The Decline of the New (1970) or that implied in the aggregate<br />
of excerpts from "modern" writers and thinkers collected in Ellmann and<br />
Feidelson's The Modern Tradition (1965). In any case, Russia's modern-<br />
ism was truncated more severely than other European countries' modern-<br />
isms. Stalinism was in so many ways such a decisive break from the<br />
modernist past that contemporary artists and intellectuals have experi-<br />
enced a considerable nostalgia for modernist experiments. And this at a<br />
time when in the West modernist skepticism, the modernist rejection<br />
of canon, its personal rebelliousness was becoming vulgarized, con-<br />
sumerized, and, thus, "postmodernist."<br />
Western postmodernist theory is certainly being applied to Russian<br />
culture in a number of very promising ways. Nevertheless, the exhorta-<br />
tion bears repeating that it be used as stimulation to develop an accurate<br />
model of economy and culture in late-Soviet and post-Soviet Russia, not<br />
as a simulation that disguises more than it reveals. In this exercise, we<br />
will very likely be able to find in the Russian experience grounds for a<br />
productive dialogue with and serious critique of postmodernist thinking.<br />
Perhaps it is well to end with Groys who claims that Stalinist culture<br />
anticipates such postmodernist characteristics as stylistic eclecticism, a<br />
penchant for citation, and, much more seriously, the moral-philosophical<br />
discreditation of the subject (Groys, 108). He ends his remarks with an<br />
earnest critique of post-structuralist psychology of art. In particular, he<br />
finds in Deleuze and Guattari's manipulations in Anti-Oedipus of the<br />
unconscious and discreditation of the subject and consciousness as such a<br />
"repaving [of] the way for the [Stalinist] 'engineers of human souls'. . .<br />
The privilege of the context over the text, the unconscious over con-<br />
sciousness, the 'other' over the subjective . . . merely means the domi-<br />
nance of the person who speaks about, or even more precisely, the<br />
person who actually works on, this context, this unconscious, this other"<br />
(119-120).
NOTES<br />
Simulacrum as S(t)imulation? 343<br />
1 Epstein is citing Viacheslav Kuritsyn, "Postmodernizm: Novaia pervobytnaia kul'tura."<br />
Novyi mir 2(1992): 227, 232.<br />
2 Nonetheless, as Svetlana Boym makes abundantly clear in her new book, Common-<br />
places, a culture of kitsch has certainly emerged in the last few decades, one that such<br />
artists as Larisa Zvezdochetova make use of in their work.<br />
WORKS CITED<br />
Baudrillard, Jean. The Baudrillard Reader. Ed. M. Poster. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1988.<br />
Boym, Svetlana. Commonplaces. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1994.<br />
<strong>Clowes</strong>, <strong>Edith</strong> W. Russian Experimental Fiction: Resisting Ideology after Utopia. Princeton:<br />
Princeton UP, 1993.<br />
Epstein, Mikhail. "After the Future: On the New Consciousness in Liturature," South Atlan-<br />
tic Quarterly. 90.2(Spring, 1991): 409-444.<br />
."The Origins and Meaning of Russian Postmodernism," unpublished manuscript.<br />
. "Posle karnavala ili vechnyi Venichka," Zolotoi vek (Moscow), 4 (1993), 84-92.<br />
. "Relativistic Patterns in Totalitarian Thinking." Kennan Institute for Advanced Rus-<br />
sian Studies. Occasional Paper, 243.<br />
Groys, Boris. The Total Art of Stalinism. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1991.<br />
Tupitsyn, Margarita. Margins of Soviet Art: Socialist Realism to the Present. Milan: Giancarlo<br />
Politi Editore, 1989.