Plants with toxic alkaloids - University of Washington

Venom of snakes and insects is mostly a foreign protein, 

sensitivity is related to allergies against casein & ovalbumins 

Northern Pacific Rattlesnake 

Crotalus viridis oreganus 

California to BC, up to 4,5 feet 

one of the largest and deadliest 

Black widow spider 

Latrodectus mactans 

Females larger & eat full-service 

male, nearly blind, 

under rim of outhouse seats 

Very toxic venom… death

1. Hormones 

Thyroid hormone thyroxin over dosage 

from animal product will cause symptoms 

of iodine poisoning 

Insulin 

overdosing from animal source will cause 

deathlike stage of low blood sugar 

2. Blood contamination of open 

wound will often cause hemolysis in 

humans; eel Anguila or tuna blood 

Roe of Tetraodon or puffer fish is 

famous suicide poison in Japan, 

barbus, pike and other species is 

often toxic

What makes plants toxic? 

alkaloids (nicotin) , oxalate crystals (Areacea), proteins (ricin 

Ricinus, abrin (Abrus rosary pea), polypeptides ( phallotoxin of 

Amanitas); amines and non-proteinogenic AAs (Fabaecea), 

resins (oily urushiol form poison ivy), minerals (selenium 

accumulation in Astralagus), alcohols (cicutoxin in Cicuta water 

hemlock, tremetol in Eupatorium snakeroots), glycosides 

What does toxic mean to us? 

Paracelsus: Acting as a toxin or medicine is matter of dosage! 

Homeopathy: Hahnemann “like cures like”, diluted poisons have 

a similar vaccine-like effect comparable to weakened germs 

Paul Ehrlich 1898 (“magic bullet”) started studies on antitoxic 

immunity got immunity by feeding abrin & ricin to mice, 

…serum develops antibodies against protein. plant toxins

many plants produce just irritants (buttercups, Ginkgo, spurges) 

Real toxins are Internally metabolic T. or causing allergic dermatitis 

Mushrooms esp amatoxins from genera Amanita, Cortinarius (liver dam) 

Alkaloid toxins in: Wisteria, Galanthus (snowdrop), Clivia, Crinum, Amaryllis, 

Narcissus, Taxus, Colchicum , Gloriosa 

Nitrate poisoning through plants: Amamranthus (pigweeds), Ambrosia 

(ragweeds), Datura (Jimson weed) etc. take up large amount of nitrate 

especially when late fertilization & harvesting in the morning: 

nitrate in high concentration is toxic poison to mammals 

Toxic amines in: Microcystis (blue-green algae), claviceps (ergot), 

Phoradendron (mistletoe), Blighia (akee), Lathyrus (sweet peas) 

Toxic resins in: Cicuta (water hemlock), Asclepias (milkweeds), Ledum 

(Labrador tea), Arum maculatum (lords-& ladies) 

Oxalates: Arisaema triphyllum & dracontium(weed, Jack in the pulpit), Calla 

palustris (water arum), Lysichiton am.(Skunk cabb), Dieffenbachia 

Cardiac glycosides in: Nerium (oleander), Apocynum (dogbane), Scilla 

(squill), Convallaria (lily of the valley, maybells)

Plants that thrill or kill

Laticiferous 

systems (lactifers) 

are found in the 

poppy family, in the 

rubber trees (Para 

rubber tree and 

Castilla elastica), 

and in the 

Cichorieae with 

Dandelion, lettuce, 

hawkweed and 

salsify; also present 

in milkweeds & 

spurges 

Lactifers 

Latex = milky sap of many plants that coagulates on exposure to 

air. A complex emulsion in which proteins, alkaloids, starchs, 

sugars, oils, tannins, resins and gums are found. In most plants, 

latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or scarlet latex.

Lactifers – pipelines for defense and wound healing 

Opium for illegal use is often converted 

into heroin, which is less bulky to 

smuggle & has a potency of twice that of 

morphine. Heroin can be taken by 

intravenous injection, intranasally, 

smoked and inhaled. 

Semen papaveri or poppy seeds contain 

a lot of oil but little morphine.

Plants and Insects 

The majority of animals is herbivorous = feeds on plants! Spines, thorns, 

cuticle, camouflage, repelling smell, taste & deadly toxins are the 

reason that plants keep dominating (95 %!) the planet’s biomass. 

Herbivores feed only on one to a few plant species because they can only 

overcome a few of the defense mechanisms. Even humans (only herbi species 

that cooks & selects population features by breeding) feed only on very small 

number of plants out of the 400 000 species on the planet. E.g. we feed only on 

the petioles of rhubarb leaves & discard the oxalate-rich blades. 

Milky caustic, toxic juice flows 

through many plants with 

lactifers (pressurized vessels 

running in parallel with watertransporting 

xylem & sugartransporting 

phloem). Occurring 

in Apocynaeceae, Euphorbiaecea, 

Asteraecea, Caricaceae, Moracea

Plants help snails to defend against insects! 

Snails are slow animals, both in the speed of their locomotion & nervous 

transmission. How do these sitting ducks defend against ants. 

When you poke a slug 

with a toothpick & wiggle 

it, the slug will produce a 

rubbery blob around the 

tip. Ant would be muzzled; 

fixed mandibles 

How do snail eggs survive from being eaten? 

They are protected by an isoprenoid= terpene called miriamine. 

R: Thomas Eisner “ For love of insects” Harvard University Press, 2003

Can Plants produce a Polymer muzzle for 

Insects? 

1905 H Kniep carried out classical experiment on chemical defense in plants. 

By repeated poking the midvein of Euphorbias he drained/milked them & 

found them now being eaten by snails. 

Kniep did not know that some insects have practiced his method 

regularly to avoid being poisoned or muzzled alive! 

Drain the lactifer 

defense chemicals 

or get muzzled !!! 

R: Thomas Eisner “ For love of insects” Harvard University Press, 2003

Papaveracea – Poppy family -Opium 

Opium lachryma papaveris) is the dried 

latex from the opium poppy Papaver 

somniferum containing up to 12% 

morphine, adjusted for medicine to 10 % 

(Europe). 

Opium for illegal use is often converted 

into heroin, which is less bulky to 

smuggle & has a potency of twice that of 

morphine. Heroin can be taken by 

intravenous injection, intranasally, 

smoked and inhaled. 



Lactuca virosa or German opium 



Ranunculin

: Ranunculaeacea – buttercup family 

Buttercups, anemones, clematis and hellebores contain the irritant 

glycoside ranunculin. Upon hydrolysis in mucous epithelia & skin 

it releases protoanemonin that rapidly dimerizes to anemonin, a 

harmless compound found in dried materials.

Creeping buttercup 

Ranunculus repens 

Protoanemonin in fresh sap 

irritating to skin & mucuous 

membranes causes blisters 

diarrhea to neural paralysis 

Pasque flower Anemone 

occidentalis / patens 

Touching the plant may cause 

blisteringEating the plant 

bloody vomiting and diarrhea

Plants with Cyanogenic Glycosides 

One of the most dangerous 

plants. 

However, the cause is 

unknown!

Doll’s Eyes Actaea pachypodia 

Actaea pachypoda (Doll's-eyes, White 

Baneberry) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the 

family Ranunculaceae, native to eastern North 

America. The berries contain cardiogenic toxins 

which can have an immediate sedative effect on 

human cardiac muscle tissue, and are the most 

poisonous part of the plant. Ingestion of the 

berries can lead to cardiac arrest and death. 

The Doll’s eye plant, also known by 

the equally unsettling name “white 

baneberry.” Just in case you were 

actually thinking of eating this thing, 

those eyeballs are highly poisonous.

Salicin - a glycoside of 

salicylic acid from 

willows & meadowsweet 

related to the drug 

aspirin 

Glycosides for temporary detoxification 

Aglycoside is a molecule in which (1) a sugar is 

bound to (2) a non-carbohydrate moiety: some 

other organic molecule. The sugar group is then 

known as (1) the glycone and the non-sugar 

group as (2) the aglycone or genin part of the 

glycoside. 

Plants store chemicals including toxins in the 

form of inactive glycosides. These can be 

activated by hydrolysis, which causes the sugar 

part to break off, making the chemical ready to 

act. Also in animals and humans, poisons are 

often bound to sugar molecules as part of their 

detoxification.

Cyanogenic glycosides Amygdaline

Choke cherry 

Prunus virginiana 

Seeds, dried and fresh leaves, 

bark contain deadly cyanogenic 

glycosides such as amygdalin 

and prunasin 

Loss of voice, respiratory 

failure , spasms, coma , death 

Neurotoxins cause crazy 

behavior = locoism, lifestock 

may seek locoweeds instead of 

healthy food plan… death

Plants with Cyanogenic Glycosides

Plants with Cyanogenic Glycosides

Plants with Cardiac Glycosides

Plants with Cardiac Glycosides

Plants with Cardiac Glycosides 

Nerium oleander is an evergreen shrub in the 

dogbane family Apocynaceae, toxic in all its 

parts. Name oleander comes from its 

superficial resemblance to the unrelated olive 

Olea europea leaf 

Among the cardiac glycosides are 

oleandrin and oleandrigenin, which are 

known to be toxic when ingested. Dogs and 

humans, are relatively sensitive to the effects 

of cardiac glycosides and the clinical 

manifestations of "glycoside intoxication”.

Suicide Tree Cerbera odollam – cardiac glycosides 

In the SW Indian coastlands lives a relative of Oleander 

The fruit looks like a small mango, with a green shell 

enclosing an ovoid kernel measuring approximately 2 cm 

×1.5cm. On exposure to air, the white kernel turns 

violet, then dark grey, and ultimately brown, or black. The 

plant as a whole yields a milky, white latex. 

The kernels contain cerberin a potent toxin related to 

digoxin, a cardiac glycoside poison found in 

foxglove. It blocks the calcium ion channels in heart 

muscle, causing disruption of the heart beat. This is fatal. 

Cerberin is difficult to detect in autopsies and its 

taste can be masked with strong spices. Therefore it 

is often used in homicide and suicide in India. 

In Madagascar belief in the accuracy of trial by 

ordeal using this poison was so strongly held that 

innocent people did not hesitate to subject 

themselves to it

Unusual Poisons 

The slobber weed: Pilocarpus pennatifolius stimulates the 

salivary glands much more than the betel nut Areca catechu 

(the nut causing red saliva that stains the street of Asia). Here 

the secretion becomes so powerful that it interferes with 

speech (ideal for political opponents!). Unfortunately, the 

drooling (up to 2 pints) is followed by nausea & dizziness. 

Drooling is also caused by the pencil tree extract. Pilocarpine 

(an alkaloid used for glaucoma) is used to treat dry mouth & 

also to stimulate sweat glands. 

Pilocarpus: approx13 

species in the Rutaceae, 

from the tropics of S Amer. 

The Suicide Tree: Cerbera odollam is a relative of 

Madagascan arrow poison tree Cerbera tanghin ( nuts that 

are used in trials by ordeal). The tree grows at the SW coast 

of India and has white jasmine-scented flowers. The nuts 

look like green mangos & the white meat inside is full of 

cardiac glycosides that stop the heart of a human within 4 

hours. Widows & other religiously inclined people use these 

nuts (mashed nut meat with brown sugar) as their last meal. 

Also used to poison people since it has no bad taste & a 

delayed action.

Sausage Tree Kigelia ssp – cardiac glycosides 

Kigelia is a 20 m tall tree of in the Bignoniaceae 

which occurs throughout tropical Africa. 

Sausage Tree refers to the long, sausage-like fruit. 

The fruit is a woody berry 30–100 cm long it weighs 

between 5–10 kg, and hang down on long, rope-like 

peduncles. The fruit pulp is fibrous and pulpy, and 

contains numerous seeds. It is eaten by several 

species of mammals, including Baboons, Bushpigs, 

Savannah Elephants, Giraffes, Hippopot. 

For humans the fresh fruit is poisonous and 

strongly purgative. In African herbal medicine, the 

fruit is used as a cure for a wide range of ailments: 

rheumatism, snakebites, evil spirits, syphilis, 

and even tornadoes. Fruit are prepared for 

consumption by drying, roasting or fermentation. An 

alcoholic beverage similar to beer is also made 

from it. The fresh fruit is poisonous and strongly 

purgative.

Ericaeceae: Rhododendrons, Kalmia laurels

Plants with serious cardiac effects: Pontic honey?

Biological warfare in the history of our World 

Indians invented a special assassination weapon- poison 

maidens. They send dancing girls contact with whom = death. 

Alex the Great was a chosen recipient of such a girl in 327 BC. 

Pontic honey = was used by the ancient Georgians (Colchis, 

Pontus) to poison Pompey’s Roman soldiers which were 

pursuing Mithridates to the Crimea. Mithridates was a 

Greek king & a leading toxicilologist. He designed the 

universal antidote to prevent himself from being poisoned. 

When he killed himself with poison – his end was painful. 

World war 1 & 2: Churchill uses poisonous gas against the 

Kurds when Britain occupies Iraq. Later repeated by 

Saddam Hussein after armistice with US. During WWII 

CSS/CIA tries to pacify Hitler by injecting female hormones 

into his vegies (he was a belligerent vegetarian and antialcoholic). 

2002 Pentagon develops mind-altering pacifiing 

volatiles that can be sprayed or shot with bullets/granates. 

This can be used against a population mixed with terrorists.

Plants with toxic Saponins 

The primary function of saponins is to protect the plant from microbial and insect attack. 

In mammals, including humans who consume saponins, they frequently create pores in 

the gut lining, thereby increasing intestinal permeability. If they enter the 

bloodstream in sufficient concentrations, they cause hemolysis

Plants with Saponins: Soap nut Sapindus

Plants with toxic Saponins: ivy Hedera helix

Plants with toxic Saponins: Solanum tuberosum 

Some notorious non-edible nightshades include 

tobacco, petunias, jimson weed, mandrake, and 

deadly nightshade. The family also comprises well 

known food plants such as potatoes, tomatoes, 

green peppers, chili peppers, eggplants and 

tomatillos.. Genetic testing of proved a single 

origin for potatoes in the area of present-day 

southern Peru from a species in the Solanum 

brevicaule where they were domesticated 7,000– 

10,000 years ago. 

Wild potato contain sufficient saponins of the 

steroid type to warrant caution. 

Some potato varieties produce small green fruits that resemble 

green cherry tomatoes, each containing up to 300 true seeds. 

Potato fruit contains large amounts of the toxic alkaloid 

solanine and is therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new 

potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true seed" or 

"botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers.

Plants with toxic Saponins: Corn cockle Agrostemma 

Agrostemma is a 

genus of annual plants 

in the Caryophyllaceae 

family, containing the 

species known as 

corncockles. Its bestknown 

member is A. 

githago, the Common 

Corncockle. 

Saponin-containing 

seeds of Agrostemma 

spoil grain crop by 

bitter taste.

Plants with toxic Saponins: Pokeweed

Plants with toxic Saponins

Ilex Holly unknown hemolytic agent – saponin?

Plants with toxic Saponins

Plants that can be used as soap ersatz 

Plants that produce foam do not contain Na salts of fatty acids ( the 

manmade soap) but saponins - foaming terpenoids 

Agave root, leaves & stem 

Jujuba or Zizyphus fruit 

Morning glory Ipomea plant ashes 

Pigweed Chenopodium root 

Pokeweed Phytolacca fruit 

Soapberry Sapindus berry 

Soapwort Saponaria root 

Yucca root 

Wild gourd Cucurbita fruit 

quinoa seeds 

lentil Lens culinaris seeds 

potatoes Solanum tuberosum fruit 

Shepherdia soapberry is bitter 

Zizyphus jujuba 

The role of the foaming quality of saponins in plants is yet to be 

established. It could be that they play a role to stabilize plant-derived 

li lik lt t

Alkaloid definition * 

3000 alk. in 4000 species of fungi and plants (ca. 40 in animals) 

Fabaecea, Solanaecea, Rubiaceae, Apiaecea, Piperaecea 

Four features of alkaloids 

- Contain N 

- have alkaline reaction (pH>7) 

- bitter taste 

- often affect CNS of animals 

Taxus b. taxol to fight ovarian/breast cancer 

Ephedra ephedrine to fight bronchial asthma, bronchitis 

Rauwolfia/reserpin tranquilizer (schizo), red. blood pressure 

Vinca rosea vinblastine against leucemia (cancer. blood cells) 

Pilocarpus pilocarpine relieves intraocular pressure (glaucoma)

Papaveracea – Poppy family -Opium 

Opium lachryma papaveris) is the dried 

latex from the opium poppy Papaver 

somniferum containing up to 12% 

morphine, adjusted for medicine to 10 % 

(Europe). 

Morphine is a potent opiate analgesic 

medication. It was the first alkaloid to be 

isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, 

a “Apotheker” in Halle (Germany), first 

distributed by same in 1817, and first 

commercially sold by Merck in 1827, 

which at the time was a single small 

chemists' shop in Darmstadt. 

Morphine is regarded as the gold standard of analgesics to relieve severe, agonizing 

pain. Like other opioids, such as oxycodone, hydromorphone, and diacetylmorphine 

(heroin), it acts directly on the CNS. Morphine has a high potential for addiction; 

tolerance and psychological dependence develop rapidly,

Poison Hemlock 

Conium maculatum : 

Piperidine alkaloid coniine 

killed Socrates 

Profuse salivation, respir. 

Muscle paralysis, bad death 

Coniinne can be steamdistilled 

like essential oil 

Water Hemlock 

Cicuta douglasii (Western) 

cicutoxin alcohol 

stomach pain, cramps, 

salivation, delirium and … 

death 

Plants with toxic Alkaloids

Poison Hemlock 

Conium maculatum : 

Piperidine alkaloid coniine killed 

Socrates 

Profuse salivation, respir. 

Muscle paralysis, bad death 

Coniinne can be steam-distilled 

like essential oil 

Water Hemlock 




salivation, delirium and … death

Water Hemlock 


Cicuta, water hemlock, is 

a perennial herbaceous 

plant in the family 

Apiaceae, which grows up 

to 2.5 meter tall 



salivation, delirium and … 

death

Plants with toxic alkaloids: Solanum tuberosum 

Some notorious non-edible nightshades include 

tobacco, petunias, jimson weed, mandrake, and 

deadly nightshade. The family also comprises well 

known food plants such as potatoes, tomatoes, 

green peppers, chili peppers, eggplants and 

tomatillos.. Genetic testing of proved a single 

origin for potatoes in the area of present-day 

southern Peru from a species in the Solanum 

brevicaule where they were domesticated 7,000– 

10,000 years ago. 

Wild potato contain sufficient saponins of the 

steroid type to warrant caution. 

Some potato varieties produce small green fruits that resemble 

green cherry tomatoes, each containing up to 300 true seeds. 

Potato fruit contains large amounts of the toxic alkaloid 

solanine and is therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new 

potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true seed" or 

"botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers.

Mom, why are lupines toxic? 

Due to association with N-fixing Rhizobium bacteria Lupines thrive in dry open 

fields and prairie/wood area. Horticultural variety of lupine has been a favorite 

of many gardeners. However … 

Signs of poisoning: labored breathing (snored) in sheep, with 

depression , salivation, head pressing tremors, seizures and coma, 

Death may be preceded by no struggling or alternatively, by 

violent attacks on other animals. Signs may appear as early as one 

hour after ingestion or as late as 24 hours after consumption. Death 

may occur within one day or several days (respiratory paralysis). 

ofloxacin 

15 quinolizidine + some piperidine alkaloids and other types of alkaloids 

have also been isolated from species of Lupinus. They are present in

toxic alkaloids larkspur Delphinium 

Larkspurs or Delphinium species are a widespread 

group of poisonous plants in the Western US killing from 

5 to 15% of the cattle on N Am mountain rangelands. Of 

the 40 diterpenoid larkspur alkaloids, the most toxic 

is methyllycaconitine (MLA). 

The toxins are at least two alkaloids called delphinium 

alkaloids (0.1 to 0.6 % DWT) causing a neuro-muscular block with 

tremor and final collapse, bloating and death. The main victims are 

cows, horses and sheep rarely eat enough to suffer. 

Larkspur alkaloids act on cattle in a similar way as which more 

famous alkaloid acts on you and other mammals? 

…………………………….

toxic alkaloids locoweeds 

Locoweed is a widespread group of poisonous plants in the Western US.Among 

530 species of the Fabaceae Astralagus and Oxytropis: there are 11 

causing locoism. Populations are cyclic increasing in wet years 

catastrophic appearances. 

The toxin is an alkaloid called 

swainsonine (0.01 to 0.3 % DWT) that 

inhibits the mannosidase enzymes resulting in 

unmetabolizable glycoproteins = hybridtype 

glycans assocoated with neurological 

damage, depression, in-coordination, 

decreased libido and fertility, abortions, 

decreased appetite etc. 

Swainsonine is an anti-cancer drug with 

potential for treating glioma (brain tumor) and 

gastric carcinoma, bone marrow

Unusual Poisons 

The slobber weed: Pilocarpus pennatifolius stimulates the 

salivary glands much more than the betel nut Areca catechu 

(the nut causing red saliva that stains the street of Asia). Here 

the secretion becomes so powerful that it interferes with 

speech (ideal for political opponents!). Unfortunately, the 

drooling (up to 2 pints) is followed by nausea & dizziness. 

Drooling is also caused by the pencil tree extract. Pilocarpine 

(an alkaloid used for glaucoma) is used to treat dry mouth & 

also to stimulate sweat glands. 

Pilocarpus: approx13 

species in the Rutaceae, 

from the tropics of S Amer. 

The Suicide Tree: Cerbera odollam is a relative of 

Madagascan arrow poison tree Cerbera tanghin ( nuts that 

are used in trials by ordeal). The tree grows at the SW coast 

of India and has white jasmine-scented flowers. The nuts 

look like green mangos & the white meat inside is full of 

cardiac glycosides that stop the heart of a human within 4 

hours. Widows & other religiously inclined people use these 

nuts (mashed nut meat with brown sugar) as their last meal. 

Also used to poison people since it has no bad taste & a 

delayed action.

Speckled Locoweed 

Astralagus lentiginosous 

Neurotoxins cause 

crazy behavior = locoism, 

lifestock may seek locoweeds 

instead of healthy food plants 

nerve cells damaged , 

bad death 

Poison vetch 

Astralagus pectinatus 

Accumulates selenium 

“blind staggers” in lifestock 

…death

Teratogens 

Teratology is the study of abnormalities of 

physiological development. Narrowly thought of as the 

study of birth defects, it is much broader than that, taking in 

other developmental stages, such as puberty; and other life 

forms, such as plants. The term was popularized in the 1960s 

by Dr. David W. Smith of the University of Washington 

Medical School, who became known in 1973 for the discovery 

of Fetal alcohol syndrome. 

Drugs and medications: tobacco, caffeine, drinking alcohol (ethanol), isotretinoin (13cis-retinoic 

acid, Roaccutane) = a anti ACNE medication, temazepam (Restoril; 

Normisson), nitrazepam (Mogadon), nimetazepam (Ermin), aminopterin, coumarin, 

diethylstilbestrol, phenytoin 

Environmental chemicals: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated 

dibenzodioxins a.k.a dioxin, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), , 

organic mercury, ethidium bromide, etc. 

Ionizing radiation: atomic fallout, diagnostic x-rays, radiation 

Infections: cytomegalovirus, herpes virus, parvovirus B19, rubella virus (German 

measles), syphilis, toxoplasmosis, encephalitis virus. 

Metabolic imbalance: alcoholism, diabetes, folic acid deficiency, iodine 

deficiency,hyperthermia, phenylketonuria, rheumatism

Teratogenic Plants 

Teratogens cause abnormalities of physiological 

development; which in mammals early appear as 

birth defects . Approx. 1 % of all livestock in US 

rangeland shows birth defects from teratogenic plants. 

Western False Hellebore = Corn lily = Veratrum 

californicum causes poisoning in sheep, cattle and goat. 

Identified teratogens are the steroidal alkaloids 

cyclopamine, cycloposine and jervine interfering with 

neurological embryo development causing lambs with 

monkeyfaces and one eye (cyclopsis) 

Lupines Lupinus ssp Conium and Nicotiana contain 

piperidine & quinolizidine alkaloids inducing birth 

defects in the form of palate cleft (lips). Quinolizidine 

alkaloid anagyrine causes birth defects in cattle. Other 

piperidine alkaloids affect birth defects in in sheep and goats. 

Coniine & anabasine (from Nicotiana) cause similar effects in 

swine, gaots, sheep and cattle.

Rhubarb RheumXcultorum 

malic acid in petiole, oxalic 

acid + anthraquinone glycos. 

In blades intern bleeding 

lethal 

Corn lily Veratrum viride/ 

protoanemonin – typical 

highly toxic alkaloids 

malformations, cramps 

Pokeweed Phytolacca amer 


convulsions espec. From 

root

Oxalate-rich plants include sorrel 

Rumex acetosa, several Oxalis 

species, the root & leaves of 

rhubarb and buckwheat . 

Leaves of the tea plant (Camellia 

sinensis) contain among the 

greatest measured concentrations 

of oxalic acid relative to other 

plants. However the infusion 

beverage typically contains only 

low to moderate amounts per 

serving 

Also several vegetables like 

rhubarb or taro Colocasia 

esculenta have high contents of 

oxalate 

Plants with toxic Oxalates

Plants with toxic Oxalates: Skunk cabbage family 

Araceae are a family of 

monocotyledonous flowering plants 

with an inflorescence called a 

spadix. The spadix is usually 

accompanied by, and sometimes 

partially enclosed in, a spathe or 

leaf-like bract. Also known as the 

Arum family, as aroids or skunk 

cabbage family. 

Alocasia, Arisaema, Colocasia, 

Dieffenbachia, Philodendron contain 

calcium oxalate crystals in the form of 

raphides. Raphides are needle-shaped 

crystals of calcium oxalate/ When 

consumed, these may cause edema, 

accompanied by painful stinging and 

burning to the mouth and throatfor 

up to two weeks. 

Skunk cab 

Anthurium 

inflorescense 

raphides 

Monstera 

Calla

Oxalates: Skunk cabbage family 

Harmless oxalate 

crystals in onion peels 

Les raphides dangereux

Rhubarb RheumXcultorum 

malic acid in petiole, oxalic 

acid + anthraquinone glycos. 

In blades intern bleeding 

lethal 

Corn lily Veratrum viride/ 

protoanemonin – typical 

highly toxic alkaloids 

malformations, cramps 

Pokeweed Phytolacca amer 


convulsions espec. From 

root

Plants with toxic amino acids and proteins 

Lectins are sugar-binding proteins 

that are highly specific for their 

sugar moieties. They moderate 

biological recognition like viruses 

use lectins to attach themselves to 

the cells. 

Plant lectins like arbrin and ricin 

attach themselves to the 

glycoproteins at the surface of 

erythrocytes and cause them to 

clump together hemagglutinins 

Peter Hermann Stillmark in 1888 (University of Dorpat) isolated ricin, an extremely toxic 

hemagglutinin, from seeds of the castor plant (Ricinus communis) The first lectin to be 

purified on a large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A from 

the jack bean.





oxalate





oxalate

Plants with toxic amino acids and proteins

Arrow Poisons 

Curare: Alkaloid d-turbocurarin from vine Chondrodendrum tomentosum is a 

fast acting muscle relaxant. It has to enter the blood stream , so meat is safe to 

eat if your gut is ok. The prey is not dead but paralyzed & experiences the 

whole scene with P13 terror. Victims die after hours when curarin reaches the 

lungs (artificial respiration keeps them alive). It does not relive the pain but 

prevents patients from thrashing around. 

Strychnine: from tree Strychnos nux-vomica acts similar but acts faster 

Kombe: from the African vine Strophantus kombe contains a cardiac glycoside 

that slows the pulse in low doses. Polluted area of meat must be discarded. 

Arrow plant Acokantherea is an SAfrican shrub with juice that contains 

cardiac glycoside . Was smeared on arrows and weapons and on fruits of 

punture vine as as poisonous land mine. 

Upas tree: Antiaris in the mulberry tree family is an Asian tree with brk and 

leaves filled with a toxic sap. Was suspected to exude deadly fumes to people 

close to him, but no volatile toxins were found. Juice was used as aroow poison 

and also in flaming fire lances thrown by the Chinese army.

Delayed Poisons 

Coyotillo berries: contain a neurotoxin that acts only after 

a few days. Then the victim – men or animal – would lose 

control over their legs (quadriplegia). Coyotillo is the shrub 

Karwinskia humboldtiana in the buckthorn family that 

thrives in the dry valleys of Texas, Mexico and New 

Mexico. Ideal for murder mysteries & assasinations. 

Ergot: the alkaloid ergotamine from the parasitic fungus 

Claviceps purpurea infects rye grains in humid conditions. It 

might give you a pleasant feeling first (hallcinogen lysergic 

acid) but then it constricts blood vessels , causes nausea, 

seizures uterine contractions & gangrene (limbs falling off). 

Polluted area of meat must be discarded. Rinsing grains with 

salt solution will kill the fungus. 

Cortinarius mushroom small shiitake-like mushrooms are 

highly toxic & show the Orellanus syndrome: a damaged kidney 

function after a delay of several days. Seizures , pain and kidney 

& liver damage & of ten death are the results of late treatment.

Deadly Poisons 

Sandbox tree Hura crepitans: A member of the 

Euphorbiaecea from the West Indies was used as an arrow 

poison by cannibalistic indians at the time of Columbus. 

The fruits explode with a loud bang and shatter poisonous 

seeds at a distance of up to 100 m dynamite tree 

Ratbane : Dichapetalum cymosum is flowering tree from 

west Africa. Several plants produce the same toxin Sodium 

fluoroacetate. This toxin is taste & odorless & some 

smart US boys in the 1940s tried to poison coyotes. 

However, the poison is not catabolized and poisons the 

whole foot chain the poison that keeps on killing. EPA 

banned Compound 1080 in 1972. US firms also supplied 

Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. 

Larkspur Delphinium is a buttercup like monkshood 

Aconitum napellus . Like the neurotoxic alkaloid aconitin, 

larkspurs also contain a deadly alkaloid in their foliage.

Stinging Hairs of the Urticas 

For a long time we did not know what caused 

the stinging sensation of Urtica dioica? It was 

first shown that formic acid was inside the hairs 

but that alone does not cause such effects! 

Urtica dioica is harmless when compared with tropical 

nettles like Urtica stimulans (Java) & Urtica crenulata 

(India) & the worst Urtica urentissima (Timor) which 

also cause skin irritations but in addition affect the nervous 

system in the area with paralytic cramps & permanent 

damage to nerves. Dogs refuse to search for game after 

experiencing the burning sensation of nettels, geese seem 

to be insensitive, larvae of some butterfly too 

There are other plant families with stinging hairs 

Hydrophyllaeceae Wigandia urens , Euphorbiaceae 

Jatropha urens have stinging hairs while many members 

of the Urticaeceae (glass plants, hops) have none. Other 

plants like Primula obconica cause dermatitis 

pict 

Mimicry of nettle leaves by dead nettels alias Lamium species

Nettles 

The tree nettle Urtica ferox, commonly known as 

Ongaonga, is endemic to New Zealand. has woody stems 

and unusually large stinging spines, and can grow 5 metres 

tall. Even the lightest touch can result in a painful sting that 

lasts several days. 

Stinging tree: Dendrocnide moroides is a small 

tree from west Australia. It is covered with peachlike 

fuzzy hairs that contain a neurotoxin. Simpl 

brushing against the tree may lead to extreme pain 

lasting for a year. Toxin still active in dry 

herbarium species. Best treatment: hair-removal 

wax strips will pull out the hairs: short pain only! 

The tree nettle Laportea from the tropical 

regions of Asia & Australia surprise with a 

sting that can hurt for weeks rather than 

hours as with Urtica dioica..

Porcupine Potato Solanum pyracanthum 

Aside from being sharp and 

poisonous, the porcupine tomato is a 

potentially invasive species, since it 

is difficult to kill, even in drought. 

Among the features you don’t want 

in a poisonous dagger monster, “hard 

to kill” has to be way up there. 

This eye-opening plant from 

Madagascar is a member of the tomato 

family. It grows 5’ tall with pretty, 

actually, blue-green leaves that have 

prominent orange spines It hails from 

Madagascar, the island nation that 

brought us the lemur and Dracula ants,

Phototoxic Plants 

Some ancient people thought that some plants harvest more sun than others. 

Today we know that some species produce phototoxins = substances that are 

activated by the short-wave blue and UV part of the sun’s spectrum. The 

plants produce increased phototoxin levels when attacked by fungi or insects. 

Giant Upon exposure hoagweed, to ultraviolet the white kernel radiation, turns discoloration violet, then of the skin occurs 

(inflammation, lightening or darkening) or rashes, and even blistering. 

Blister Bush Peucedanum galbanum with unpleasant cocktail of psoralen, 

xanthotoxin, bergapten triggers severe dermmatitis 2-3 days after exposure 

Apiaceae like Heracleum (giant hoagweed or cow parsnip), Angelica and 

others cause phototoxic blistering 

Many toxic plants like Deadly Nightshade Atropa belladonna etc can also 

cause dermatitic inflammations 

Marigold plant produces the phototoxin alpha-terthienyl, which 

functions as a nematicide. When exposed to near ultraviolet light, such as 

in sunlight, alpha-terthienyl generates the toxic singlet oxygen.Alphaterthienyl 

results in damage to the respiratory, and nervous system of 

larvae, resulting in 100% death rates = natural insecticide.

Rue (Ruta) is a genus of strongly 

scented evergreen subshrubs 20-60 

cm tall, in the family Rutaceae, 

native to the Mediterranean region, 

leaves are bipinnate or tripinnate, 

with feathery appearance, bluegreen 

in color. The flowers are 

yellow, with 4-5 petals, about 1 cm 

diameter, 

it is very bitter, can cause severe 

stomach pain. Rue has been used 

internally as antispasmodic, 

abortifacient, 

Common rue (leaves & oil) on 

skin with sun exposure blisters. 

Rue Ruta graveolens

Phototoxic Plants – Blister Bush 

Peucedanum galbanum, Blister Bush, is a plant in the family Apiaceae, Like 

other members of the family like Heracleum or cow parsnip or Angelica 

touching it can cause blistering if the irritant chemicals are exposed to sunlight 

Blister bush, with its greenish-yellow umbrella-shaped 

flowers, is perfectly harmless, until you touch it and an 

unpleasant cocktail of psoralen, xanthotoxin, bergapten are 

brushed off the plant’s leaves and onto your skin. 

Psoralen is a phenolic compound called furano-coumarin. 

Exposure of the chemicals to sunlight 

triggers from a mild irritation to severe 

blistering requiring weeks to heal. 

Three days later when a red-purple 

rash and large burn-like welts appear 

on your skin. 

psoralen 

Blister bush isn’t the only plant that can cause phototoxic 

reactions. In Wicked Plants: The Weed that Killed 

Lincoln’s Mother and Other Botanical Atrocities, Amy 

Stewart dedicates a chapter to these troublemakers.

Manchineel Hippomane mancinella 

Manchineel trees, 

Hippomane mancinella, 

in the spurge family 

(Euphorbiaceae), is 

native to Florida. 

"manzanilla de la 

muerte“ = "little apple 

of death", The fruit can 

be fatal, but the tree will 

maim you before that. 

The tree secretes a toxin that causes blistering when in contact with any 

damp patch of skin. Imagine that during rainfall Caribs lashed you to the 

tree as a form of torture. They also used the sap to poison their blowgun 

darts and the leaves to poison enemies’ water supplies. Smoke produced 

by the trees is toxic enough to cause blindness.

Top ten most dangerous Plants 

1. Tobacco causes more harm than any other 

2. Blister bush with phototoxins 

3. Killer algae Caulerpa taxifolia 

4. Sandbox tree has pumpkin-shaped exploding fruits 

that explode with a bang flinging flat seeds for more a 

100 m distance 

5. Rhinitis-inducing ragweed Ambrosia pollen flies for 

more than 300 miles out to sea and grows as a weed 

6. Kudzu – the vine that ate the South . Mississippi. 

Alabama and Georgia 

7. Sago Palm is the most toxic shrub is full of 

neurotoxins (amino acid) & carcinogens 

8. Cogongrass introd in 1914 infested 1 Mio acres in 

the Southern US 

9. Stinging tree Dendrocnide moroide has leaves with 

stinging hairs full of an unknown neurotoxin 

10. Deadly nightshade Atropa belladonna sweet berry 

Accoding to Amy Stewart: Wicked Plants: The Weed 

that Killed Lincoln’s Mother and Other Botanical 

Atrocities, http://www.miller-mccune.com/scienceenvironment/something-wicked-this-way-grows-3666/

Terrible or horrible Plants 

While many stories about man-eating or 

man-killing plants belong in the roam of 

fairy tales and fantasy, that is unfortunately 

not always the case. 

BBC 2006: 

A new species of giant 

carnivorous plant has been 

discovered in the highlands 

of the central Philippines. 

The pitcher plant is among 

the largest of all pitchers 

and is so big that it can 

catch rats as well as insects 

in its leafy trap. 

http://aayuni.tumblr.com/post/4832997867/9-creepy-plants-that-shouldnt-exist

Terrible or horrible Plants 

While many stories about man-eating 

or man-killing plants belong in the 

roam of fairy tales and fantasy, that is 

unfortunately not always the case. 

http://aayuni.tumblr.com/post/4832997867/9-creepy-plants-that-shouldnt-exist

Plants attacking the Immune system 

Ragweed Ambrosia spp. with sharp points at the pollen 

surface. One plant produces a billion grains of pollen that 

can stay airborne for days spreading over an area of many 

miles. Affects 75 % of all allergy sufferers. 

Himalayan cedar Cedrus deodara. Is a common street 

tree in Parks & Universities thickly coating streets with 

sulfur-colored pollen. Some experience allergy. 

Mulberry tree Morus spp. sheds billions of pollen grains 

on streets, porches, cars & windows. Male trees do not 

produce fruits (clean-up!) The planting of male mulberry 

trees made cities uninhabitable for allergy sufferers. 

Bottlebrush Calistemon spp. Popular, showy shrub in N 

Am, red stamens sheds triangular pollen stick to sinuses 

Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon is one of the most 

popular lawn grasses & also one of the most allergenic 

ones. Another allergenic grass is Dactylus glomerata 

orchard grass .

Hayfever Rhinitis 

Symptoms: itchy nose (frequent 

sneezing), throat and red watery eyes 

Diagnosis: evaluation of the nature, duration of symptoms; possible triggers for 

symptoms like medications; family history, environmental & occupational 

exposures. Once possible causes of allergy are narrowed down, 

there are 2 possible ways of confirming the actual allergens: 

(1) direct exposure of patient to allergens (in–vivo or challenging tests) 

(2) use of a fluid sample (blood or serum) to detect specific antibodies 

Hay fever or seasonal allergic rhinitis, = allergic reaction to airborne 

substances such as pollen that get into the upper respiratory passages - 

the nose, sinus, throat. 

Misnomer because symptoms don't just occur when hay is gathered 

(autumn) but spring/ summer & never include fever. 

Most common of all the allergic diseases about 15 per cent of the 

population in industrialized countries suffer. 

Symptoms usually appear in childhood and then lessen by the age of 

30 or 40. Perennial allergic rhinitis is a similar allergy that occurs all year 

round & is often caused by dust mites & pets.

Major sources of true Allergens 

Symptoms of IgE-mediated intolerance: itch mouth, swollen gums & lips 

if other body parts respond systemic response or anaphylaxis 

Pollen: symptoms include - runny nose, sneezing, 

coughing, itchy throat and nose; spring/summer 

Dust Mites: symptoms include - persistent runny 

nose, sneezing (not seasonal), stuffy nose or ears, 

Mold: symptoms include - runny nose, sneezing, 

coughing, wheezing 

Pet or Rodent Dander: symptoms include runny 

nose, sneezing, wheezing, hoarseness 

Chemicals, e.g. 

Formaldehyde: burning eyes, nose & throat; skin 

rashes; tightness of chest; wheezing; fatigue; head

Food Intolerance 

True food allergies affect only 2-5 % adults & 2-8 % children, 

however, 60 % of undiagnosed symptoms are due to food intolerances 

Treatment (not a cure): avoidance of offending food for certain period 

of time, e.g. children can re-introduce foods after 3 months of avoidance, 

symptoms sometimes do not come back immediately but after a few days 

Prevention of recurrence: since most intolerances are cyclic try 

rotation diet: problem foods are only eaten every 4th day (cycled) so 

that symptoms are less likely to return 

Classical allergic pathologies: 

hayfever (allergy to pollen) 

perennial allerg. rhinitis nasal allergy to continuously present allergen 

food allergy immediate response to offensive food at lips, mouth, nose 

anaphylaxis violent allergic response to food, ins stings, latex, penicillin 

urticaria/ hives due to allergic causes 

Ref: Linda Gamlin (2001) The Allergy Bible. Readers Digest Assoc. NY

Major food Allergenics (FALCPA) 

Symptoms of IgE-mediated intolerance: itch mouth, swollen gums & lips 

if other body parts respond systemic response or anaphylaxis 

FDA passed a law titled the Food Allergen 

Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 

2004 (FALCPA) that requires identification 

of the eight most common allergenic foods 

accounting for 90% of reactions. 

Eight foods identified by FALCPA are: 

Milk 

Eggs 

Fish (e.g., bass, flounder, cod) 

Crustacean shellfish (crab, lobster, shrimp) 

Tree nuts (e.g., almonds, walnuts, pecans) 

Peanuts 

Wheat 

Soybeans

Major Food Allergenics (FALCPA) 

In addition to milk, eggs, fish, crayfish, nuts, peanuts, wheat, soybeans 

there are other food ingredients that are allergenics 

Food preservatives : 

benzoates E210-E21 & BHT/BHA E320-E321 

butylated hydroxytoluene hydroxyanisole with them bread 

stays fresh for several days instead of just one. crackers 

and snack foods stay fresh for months. butter and 

shortening 

Sulphur dioxide, sulphite E220-E228 

Coloring agents: E100, E101, E102 to E 180 

Flavors, Glutamates, GMH 

Drinks like beer, wine, gin 

Yeast and yeast products 

Fruits: apple, kiwi, banana, avocado, citrus, 

strawberries, tomatoes 

Meat products: Pork, beef, sheep

Mechanism and cross-reactions 

An antigen is substance that fits to specific binding site of an antibody. 

An allergen is a substance that binds to specific site of an IgE antibody 

Cross-reaction: 

tropomyosin a protein that 

occurs in dust mites but also 

in lobster, crayfish, shrimp 

& sometimes Kiwi fruit (???) 

Ragweed is related to 

sunflower (family) sunflower 

pollen can cause cross-reaction 

Peanuts are legumes but the crossreact 

not with beans, pea, lentils but 

with other nuts like cashew, pecan, 

walnut, almond 

Picture with antibody


Greeks considered Gauls, Scythians and NAfricans as barbarians partly 

because they used poisonous projectiles. 

In Greek toxicon = poison, toxon = arrow 

helenion & minon unidentified arrow poisons of the Dacians and Dalmatians 

Two hellebores or Christmas roses were used as arrow poisons 

buttercup Helleborus orientalis & lilly representative Veratrum album 

plants not easy to gather: causing sneezing & blisters, hellebores were used as 

panacea since they had an immediate purgative effect. 

Aconitum = monkshood was another arrow poison of the Gauls (and even 

the Neanderthals 50 000 years before them). Also moors used it against the 

Spaniards in the 12 century. Gauls rapidly pulled arrow out of the prey. 

Hyoscyamus = henbane another badly smelling weed used by the Gauls 

powerful alkaloids hyoscyamine & scopolamine cauuse seizures, psychosis 

& death. This was used on arrows against other humans in war. 

Adrienne Mayor: Greek fire, poison arrows & scorpion bombs. Biological and 

chemical warfare in the ancient world. The overlook Press, Woodstock,USA


Conium maculatum = hemlock juice containing coniine was used on 

Scythian arrows where it can be active for many days. 

Belladonna = deadly nightshade was known as strychnos to the Romans 

(today Strychnos is a genus of trees occurring both in Sam and Asia) it was 

used as a drug smeared upon your spear or lance (Pliny the elder reported 

Roman soldiers and auxillaries) where it is active for > 30 years. 

Taxus baccata = yew is a gloomy tree 

with berries (= cones) containing alkaloids 

& sudden death by stopping the heart. 

Rhododendron sap was known as alternative 

arrow poison containing neurotoxin that can 

be extracted from flowers, but also presented 

as poisonous food in the form of honey. 

Scythian archers with poisonous darts 

(snake venom) defeated Persian army 

under Darius, + 333 BC the Grand army of 

Alexander the Great, & even a Roman one.


590 BC Destruction of the town Kirrha during the First 

Sacred war to protect the Oracle of Delphi. The water pipes to 

the besieged town were cut off and then resembled providing 

water poisoned with hellebore plants. Weakened by diarrhea 

the defenders were too distracted to hold the walls 

Pestilencia manu factq = man-made pestilences shows awareness to be under 

biological attacks by external and internal enemies; e.g. Christians suspected to 

burn Rome under Nero in order to speed up the prophesized end of the world. 

Emperor Marcus Aurelius died from Babylonian plague in AD 180, in 189 AD 

2000 people/day died in Rome similar to US 2001 scare of anthrax. 

Babylonian plague 165-180 AD was witnessed by Galen 

( smallpox). Roman expedition against Parthians. 164 

AD Temple of Apollo in Greek city of Seleuceia at the 

Tigris river was ransacked by Roman soldiers under Cassius 

A golden chest was opened in the temple and …..Greek 

temples of Apollo had white rodents & some priests like 

Nicander were leading toxicologists. Thousands of Romans 

perished including the remarkable emperor Marcus Aurelius 

Temples were 

depositories of 

toxins, pathogens 

& vaccines


Indians invented a special assassination weapon- poison 

maidens. They send dancing girls contact with whom = death. 

Alex the Great was a chosen recipient of such a girl in 327 BC. 

Pontic honey = was used by the ancient Georgians (Colchis, 

Pontus) to poison Pompey’s Roman soldiers which were 

pursuing Mithridates to the Crimea. Mithridates was a 

Greek king & a leading toxicilologist. He designed the 

universal antidote to prevent himself from being poisoned. 

When he killed himself with poison – his end was painful. 

World war 1 & 2: Churchill uses poisonous gas against the 

Kurds when Britain occupies Iraq. Later repeated by 

Saddam Hussein after armistice with US. During WWII 

CSS/CIA tries to pacify Hitler by injecting female hormones 

into his vegies (he was a belligerent vegetarian and antialcoholic). 

2002 Pentagon develops mind-altering pacifiing 

volatiles that can be sprayed or shot with bullets/granates. 

This can be used against a population mixed with terrorists.

Greek Fire 

Roasting limestone CaCO3 produces a crumbling residue of CaO calcium oxide 

or quicklime. When this is sprinkled with water it will turn into Ca hydroxide 

and develop heat with the potentil of selfignition. The combination of 

quicklime & sulfur was creating self-ignitng materials 

Incendiary coating of arrows = were 

made from resins, tar, petroleum & sulfur. 

Smokes: Chinese have deviced burning mixtures with sulfur and arsenic that 

were used to kill large infestations of insects. They also developed smoke ball 

for warfare. One successful receipt was to mix pine resin, charcoal and sulfur 

with powdered root of Aconitum monkshood, croton beans (cathartic 

purgative from euphorb fam.), hallucinogenic hemp, 

Alum is a bisulfate of potassium and aluminum. known to the ancient 

sailors to fire-proof the wood of their ships against attacks with napalm in 

the form of Greek fire. A means to fire-proof materials or to extinguish fires 

was vinegar (at that time sour vine). When sour wine was poured over hot 

rocks of limestone or marble in a siege, these rocks would disintegrate.

Toxins of Chemical & Biological Warfare 

Chemical warfare = is the use of poisonous drinks and gases and incendiary 

materials like napalm or Greek fire. 

Smoking arrows and balls: Chinese deviced burning mixtures with sulfur 

and arsenic that were used to kill infestations of insects. They developed 

smoke balls for warfare. One successful receipt was to mix pine resin, 

charcoal and sulfur with powdered root of Aconitum monkshood, croton 

beans (cathartic purgative from euphorb fam.), hallucinogenic hemp, 

Biological warfare = is the use of living organisms as weapons such as 

bacteria, viruses, elephants, war dogs, horses, wasp nests, toxins from plants 

and animals as in arrow poisons and catapulted ammunition 

Diodorus describes Alexander’s Army encountering war elephants of 

Indian King Porus and the siege of Harmatelia (todays SW Pakistan) in 

326 BC. The warriors had smeared their spears swords and arrows with 

snake venom from Vipera russelli. The wounded Greeks went numb, exper 

convulsions, vomitted bile and a purple-green gangrene to horr. death. After 

a plant was found as antidote “by Alex” the Greeks defeated the barbarians.

Toxins in Biological Warfare 

198 AD emperor Septimius Severus began 2 nd Parthian war for Mesopotamia 

he failed to take tow desert strongholds in today’s Hatra (near modern Mosul 

in Iraq): a double-walled fortress with 90 large + 163 small defense towers 

surrounded by desert. When the Romans breached the first wall & acscended 

the second one, clay pots rained upon them. Shattering they released deadly 

insects that stung the soldiers into eyes and exposed skin (Herodian’s account). 

Why did the Romans give up so fast & close to victory??? 

Romans were exposed to heat, double-shot catapults , poisonous insects, and 

burning naphta – a refined oil form the desert. 

Assassin bug Reduvidae are predatory bloodsucking insects that inject lethal 

neurotoxins into the victim liquifying the tissue. Favorite biotool of antique rulers 

for torture. US developed a human tracking device during Vietnam war which was 

based on the sound a bug emits when he detects humans at a distance of 500 yards . 

Scorpions can fly in strong winds (Pliny). Some scorpions have deadly poison. 

They exhaust their poison when attacked with sticks etc. , can then be collected and 

recover their poison within a day. Or Aelian reports that you can sprinkle scorpions 

with Aconite powder upon which stunts & shrivels them temporarily. They can be 

revived by sprinkling them with white hellebore powder.

Incendiary Warfare 

Plant-derived incendiaries: Pine pitch – flammable resin 

tapped from conifers. Later resin was distilled to turpentine. 

Resin fires burn hot and stick to their target. Arrows can be 

dipped into resin before igniting & firing them. Later 

sulphur (brimstone = burning stone found near volcanoes 

and hot springs) & charcoal were added for endurance 

(Spartans, Chinese). No other substance is as easily ignited 

as sulphur (Pliny). Burning sulphur creates acrid smelling 

SO2 – a poisonous gas. Chinese added saltpeter = nitrates. 

Burning arrows & catapult spears were advanced into hollow cane tubes 

(Chinese fire lance) filled with resin + later bitumen causing great carnage (see 

use in battle against some Germanic tribes shown in Hollywood’s “Gladiator” ) 

Naval varnish: colophon = black residue of turpentine (tar) boiled down 

with sharp vinegar. Ignites ships caulking and burns on the water surface. 

212 BC engineer mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse devised heat rays 

against Romans by using polished bronze mirrors to inflame Roman ships. 1972 

Greek engineer Sakkas succ. repeated experiment with 60 mirrors at a ship 50 m away.

Greek Fire 

Fire darts shot from bows (Marcellinus 4 th century AD): hollow cane 

shafts reinforced with iron and punctured with holes for oxygen access were 

filled with bitumen (petroleum product like asphalt, tar, naphta, & natural oil). 

The effect was enormous against cavalry and war elephants. Fire lances of 

China (900 AD)were bamboo tubes filled with charcoal sulphur, saltpeter fitted 

to a lance and thrown towards the enemy acitng like a 2 min flame thrower. 

Lucan (1 st century AD) torches dipped in oil & sulphur were thrown onto 

ships 

Siege of Syracuse: Greek Scientist Archimedes had soldiers polish their 

bronzen shields and focus the sun rays upon Roman ships blockading the 

harbor. 1975 experiment was repeated by I Sakkas. 60 sailors with shield-like 

mirrors ignited a wooden ship at 50 m distance. 

Noxious smokes from burning feathers (Asia) , pepper seeds ( Am), 

sulphur (SO 2 , lime dust (CaCO 3 ) were used during tunneling warfare 

(attacker tried to tunnel under the walls and have them collapse).

Greek Fire 

Roasting limestone CaCO3 produces a crumbling residue of CaO calcium oxide 

or quicklime. When this is sprinkled with water it will turn into Ca hydroxide 

and develop heat with the potentil of selfignition. The combination of 

quicklime & sulfur was creating self-ignitng materials 

Incendiary coating of arrows = were 

made from resins, tar, petroleum & sulfur. 

Smokes: Chinese have deviced burning mixtures with sulfur and arsenic that 

were used to kill large infestations of insects. They also developed smoke ball 

for warfare. One successful receipt was to mix pine resin, charcoal and sulfur 

with powdered root of Aconitum monkshood, croton beans (cathartic 

purgative from euphorb fam.), hallucinogenic hemp, 

Alum is a bisulfate of potassium and aluminum. known to the ancient 

sailors to fire-proof the wood of their ships against attacks with napalm in 

the form of Greek fire. A means to fire-proof materials or to extinguish fires 

was vinegar (at that time sour vine). When sour wine was poured over hot 

rocks of limestone or marble in a siege, these rocks would disintegrate.

Greek Fire 

Pyr automaton or self-igniting fire was a new line of weapons around 70 BC. 

Sulphur, quicklime and bitumen were combined for pyrotechnic tricks. 

Torches drenched in sulphur, tar & quicklime were thrown into the Tiber River 

while continuing to burn! 

Julius Africanus (170 AD) sulphur, salt resin, charcoal, asphalt & quicklime 

are mixed into a paste which is smeared at night on the siege engines. Dew in 

the morning will ignite the mixture. 

Fountains of fire: Oil pits and lakes existed in ancient Mesopotamia, Arabia 

and the black sea. Often temples were built around an eternal flame. Baba 

Gurgur in today’s Iraq had burned continously from 660 BC to 1927 AD. 

Islamic armies had units of naffatuns responsible for 

shooting naphta projectiles into burning cities. 1190 siege 

of crusader castle Acre naffatuns shot naphta grenades & 

then ignited them by burning arrows. 

Kallinikos (513 AD) fled Muslim occupation of Syria to 

Constantinople in

Greek Fire 

Kallinikos (513 AD) fled Muslim occupation of Syria to Constantinople 

where he designed a new weapon for the Roman Navy – Greek fire. It 

broke the naval siege of the Muslims in AD 673 & 718. Kallinikos’ great 

feat of engineering is lost to modern science and history. 

Greek fire was the ultimate weapon of the 

time. There was no real countermeasure 

(protecting ship boards with wet hides). It was 

equivalent to modern napalm by thickening 

the petroleum with resin etc. 

One of many possibilities of design of the 

secret naphta weapon of the Byzantine Navy

Plants with toxic alkaloids - University of Washington

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