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Religion and Spiritual Development: Japan Editorial note: Bracketed number codes in this entry refer to the list of ideograms that follows. Japanese martial arts developed within a multifaceted ethos that aligned human activities with the ultimate forces or principles ruling the cosmos. Warriors drew upon their understanding of these cosmic forces as they disciplined their bodies to acquire or apply physical skills, psychological vigor, and special abilities. Modern authors frequently address aspects of Japanese cosmos and ethos under the Western rubrics of religion and spiritual development. Even in Western contexts, however, the terms religion and spiritual lack consistent and generally accepted definitions. It should not be surprising, therefore, that their application to Japanese contexts is frequently problematic. Nowhere are problems more abundant than in accounts of Japanese martial arts and religion. It is widely reported, for example, that Japanese martial arts constitute paths of spiritual development based on Zen Buddhism [1], the goal of which is to attain a state of nomind (mushin [2]), characterized by spontaneous action and reaction without regrets. Such accounts not only romanticize the relationship between martial arts and religion, but greatly exaggerate the relative importance of Zen Buddhism and present a distorted image of the nature and aims of Zen training. The following presents an alternative account, one that is more comprehensive and that situates the religious aspects of Japanese martial arts within their historical context. The simplistic myth of “Zen and the martial arts” has been so uncritically accepted and repeated so often, however, that it cannot be ignored or dismissed out of hand. Indeed it is difficult to gain a more balanced view of this topic without first attempting to understand the origins of this Zen motif and the reasons for its enduring appeal both in the West and in Japan. For this purpose, it is necessary to briefly review the development of scholarly discourses on the nature of religions, on Japanese religiosity, and on the religious nature of European sports and Japanese martial arts. All of these discourses emerged at the same time during a period of recent history when Western powers exerted colonial control over much of Asia and viewed contemporary Asians and their cultures with contempt. Japanese faced this challenge by actively importing Western intellectual methodologies and by fashioning new images of themselves to export to the West. Within this geopolitical context academic theories of religion and descriptions of the religious aspects of Japanese martial arts have never been value-free or impartial. Their development has been shaped by contemporaneous intellectual currents and has served to advance changing ideological agendas. Once these agendas have been assessed, we can turn our at- 472 Religion and Spiritual Development: Japan
A story from the famous series Biyu Suikoden (Handsome Heroes of the Water Margin) of the warrior Takagi Umanosuke undergoing a trial of courage by spending the night in a haunted ancient temple, 1866. (Asian Art & Archeology, Inc./Corbis)
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Martial Arts of the World
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Copyright © 2001 by Thomas A. Gree
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vi Contents Japanese Martial Arts,
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Editorial Board D’Arcy Jonathan D
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Bill Adams Director, Bill Adams Fit
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Kimberley Taylor University of Guel
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xvi Introduction the sword” in Eu
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xviii Introduction References Frida
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Africa and African America Although
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a range of up to 80 meters. The wou
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the competitors. In this respect, t
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Beginning in 1415, after the Portug
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Many African combat systems relied
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as a result of similar circumstance
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eturn strike; rather, the practitio
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Ranking in most aikidô dôjô is b
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The magic monkey Songoku from a Chi
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A young woman aims at a barrel of s
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See also Kendô; Religion and Spiri
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Baguazhang is closely associated wi
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26 Bandô ———. 1984. The Mast
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Chinese children in a martial arts
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A modern picture of a Buddhist mona
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32 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles L
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A 74-year-old Buddhist monk practic
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Grand Master Rich Mooney demonstrat
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38 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles h
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40 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles m
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42 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles (
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44 Boxing, European See also Animal
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46 Boxing, European marked the end
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48 Boxing, European If there is one
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50 Boxing, European practicality an
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52 Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Gilbey, John
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54 Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu papers his w
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56 Budô, Bujutsu, and Bugei autono
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58 Budô, Bujutsu, and Bugei Meiji-
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Capoeira Capoeira is a Brazilian ma
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quiring knowledge of capoeira and t
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early 1990s. By the late 1990s capo
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The entries on archery, straight sw
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Contemporary literature provides a
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eral policies in recent years have
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Clovis, one of the earliest Frankis
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A candidate for knighthood, after s
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though the weapons were blunted, th
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wise counsel, attacked the Turkish
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and elevated courtly love to a form
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Combatives: Military and Police Mar
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during the 1870s, as did the Japane
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and 1930s, comic books and movies f
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he beat up the British Resident. Th
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And, with decolonization on the hor
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Coe, Michael D., Peter Connolly, An
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United States Army. 1992. Field Man
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98 Dueling duels in late eighteenth
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100 Dueling the upper class, but it
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102 Dueling tribal level of sociopo
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104 Dueling was equipped with a coa
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106 Dueling theories are different,
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108 Dueling See also Gunfighters; M
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110 Europe system dates to the Egyp
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An armored ninthcentury Franconian
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An old German woodcut illustrating
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116 Europe handsprings, cartwheels,
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118 Europe the art vary, it is gene
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elow the navel) by physical and spi
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122 External vs. Internal Chinese M
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124 Folklore in the Martial Arts la
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126 Folklore in the Martial Arts sy
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128 Folklore in the Martial Arts ve
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130 Folklore in the Martial Arts a
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132 Folklore in the Martial Arts tr
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134 Folklore in the Martial Arts wi
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Women at an annual martial arts fes
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138 Form/Xing/Kata/Pattern Practice
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In any event, one should probably n
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142 Gladiators in every province of
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144 Gladiators protection, was ligh
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146 Gladiators The question, of cou
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148 Gongfu Although providing marti
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A late-nineteenthcentury engraving
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152 Gunfighters (quoted in Horan 19
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154 Gunfighters fine art” (Cunnin
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Hankuk Haedong Kumdô See Swordsman
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and kyûdô (Japanese Archery). Kor
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ecome other thoughts. In combat app
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this ideology by a word meaning “
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largely the creation of heralds, wh
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Christendom gradually acquired the
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Iaidô Iaidô is the Japanese marti
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the imaginary blood is flicked off
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Watanabe, Tadashige. 1993. Shinkage
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for infantry; and for wrestling), a
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named after dynamic animals such as
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Japan The historical development an
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Warfare, Politics, and Society Warf
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egion (present-day Nara prefecture)
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of the Taira and the Minamoto as vi
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winds that blew the invading armada
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would be punished. The kenka ryô s
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improve their arsenal of weapons us
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fact, some of these weapons were co
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The periodic emphasis on the ideal
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of the bloody Ônin War (1467-1477)
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Berry, Marry Elizabeth. 1994. The C
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Yuanyun (1587-1671, usually pronoun
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for I strongly object to formality,
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searched and experimented with othe
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Bruce Lee said that Jeet Kune Do wa
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In 1996, Lee’s widow, Linda Lee C
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the “all-pervading” jûdô prin
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Naturally, it was immediately compa
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(jûdô practitioner). Older system
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———. 1994. Kôdôkan Judo. 19
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220 Kajukenbo Joseph Holck, a black
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222 Kajukenbo nese, and the Japanes
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224 Kajukenbo Kajukenbo techniques
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Satish Kumar (left) and Shri Ajit (
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228 Kalarippayattu though clearly r
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230 Kalarippayattu given to applica
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232 Kali Kali See Philippines Karat
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234 Karate, Japanese where he recei
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236 Karate, Japanese pseudonym, Sh
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238 Karate, Japanese terminology fo
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240 Karate, Okinawan ———. 199
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242 Karate, Okinawan gested to the
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244 Karate, Okinawan shionna Kanry
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246 Karate, Okinawan sible for havi
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248 Karate, Okinawan returned to Ok
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250 Kendô In the late Kamakura and
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252 Kendô only noted fencers from
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254 Kendô leadership, ability in j
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Japanese men and women practicing K
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258 Kenpô Kempô grand master, the
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260 Ki/Qi See also Kajukenbo; Karat
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262 Ki/Qi jujitsu. Martial artists
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264 Knights crossbow, or harquebus.
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266 Knights tury, when the benefice
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268 Knights vided with support in t
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270 Knights adopt those hereditary
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272 Knights hope of being knighted
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274 Knights acquire dominions and f
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276 Knights which time the tourname
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278 Knights their own troop and fou
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280 Knights Germany were probably f
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282 Knights glect. Instead, many ne
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284 Knights From the beginning of t
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286 Kobudô, Okinawan Kobudô, Okin
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288 Kobudô, Okinawan Japanese Infl
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290 Kobudô, Okinawan various forms
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Winners of an archery contest in Ko
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294 Korea fucianism so completely t
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296 Korea nese withdrawal. Moreover
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298 Korea KTA and changed the name
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including Ming general Qi Jiguang
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302 Koryû Bugei, Japanese koryû b
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304 Koryû Bugei, Japanese student
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306 Krav Maga Krav Maga Krav maga (
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Krav Maga practitioners are taught
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powerless for a few seconds while t
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Krav maga has been called the “fi
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Two young women demonstrate Chinese
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318 Masters of Defence and-death en
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320 Masters of Defence “Masters o
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322 Masters of Defence ing both in
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324 Masters of Defence naissance sp
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326 Masters of Defence the classic
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328 Medicine, Traditional Chinese f
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330 Medicine, Traditional Chinese s
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332 Medicine, Traditional Chinese o
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334 Medicine, Traditional Chinese
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A sculpture of Buddha in seated med
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338 Middle East Maliszewski, Michae
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340 Middle East ture battles. The c
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342 Middle East The oil obviously m
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344 Mongolia to gain punching power
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Two Inner Mongolian wrestlers await
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348 Mongolia range of up to 500 yar
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350 Muay Thai Sinor, Denis. 1990. T
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352 Muay Thai (Praditbatuga 2000).
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354 Muay Thai Ron Smith emphasizes
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356 Ninjutsu ninja boom that spread
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358 Ninjutsu Nobunaga in Kyoto in 1
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360 Ninjutsu out fatigue, breath co
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Okinawa Okinawa means a “rope in
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Sensei Ty Yocham of the Texas Okina
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source in Okinawa. The family opera
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A meeting of a branch of the Knight
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it one of the largest and most wide
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the Teutonic Knights of the Hospita
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in 1211 and had just been expelled
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the Knightly Order of St. George, f
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tallers of St. John wore a habit an
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some places grand priories, includi
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cipline was enforced by written reg
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though they normally included men f
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emony (principally the Knights of t
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and Order of the Young Male Falcon,
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took it upon themselves to promote
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Castilian court. Before he could co
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William, and St. George of the Peli
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cieties. One order—that of the Sh
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order in 1344, there can be little
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minion or domain, the monarchical o
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404 Pacific Islands to fight well t
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406 Pacific Islands was developed f
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408 Pacific Islands Hawaiians inclu
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410 Pankration References Balent, M
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412 Pankration feet were permitted.
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414 Pankration dent hit correctly,
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416 Pankration With the explosion o
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An opera singer in full costume wav
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420 Performing Arts can be impossib
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422 Philippines now internationally
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Warrior tribesmen of the Philippine
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426 Philippines his people. Althoug
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428 Philippines Also in the first c
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430 Philippines While the sixth cat
Page 452 and 453: 432 Philippines curer (seruhana, ar
Page 454 and 455: 434 Philippines Besides reasons of
Page 456 and 457: A painting of a burning station and
Page 458 and 459: A photo of the Ghost Dance of the A
Page 460 and 461: 440 Political Conflict and the Mart
Page 462 and 463: 442 Political Conflict and the Mart
Page 465: Martial Arts of the World
Page 468 and 469: Copyright © 2001 by Thomas A. Gree
Page 470 and 471: vi Contents Karate, Okinawan, 240 K
Page 473: A Note on Romanization In 1979, the
Page 476 and 477: Taekwondo students wear colored bel
Page 478 and 479: for every battle, but whenever a ma
Page 480 and 481: century the cross was introduced wh
Page 482 and 483: the mobilization of an expedition t
Page 484 and 485: desire of Christian princes to main
Page 486 and 487: The martial arts probably more ofte
Page 488 and 489: Shaolin Monastery, established in A
Page 490 and 491: ing on boxing to try to bring it up
Page 492 and 493: See also Boxing, Chinese; Boxing, C
Page 494 and 495: An Indian miniature of the defeat o
Page 496 and 497: In terms of formalized religious pr
Page 498 and 499: from these austerities is thought t
Page 500 and 501: Sutra of Patanjali, give scant ment
Page 504 and 505: tention to the relationships among
Page 506 and 507: from firsthand knowledge of their o
Page 508 and 509: spread throughout the world. It rea
Page 510 and 511: ity just as warriors (bushi [24]) o
Page 512 and 513: To counter the influence of the Bri
Page 514 and 515: Herrigel spoke each other’s langu
Page 516 and 517: Japan. Variation by region and soci
Page 518 and 519: to deliver the labor and taxes dema
Page 520 and 521: and gods and all creatures. Success
Page 522 and 523: Aside from magical spells, the alch
Page 524 and 525: Over time, the Confucian ideals pro
Page 526 and 527: a means of acquiring status. Lackin
Page 528 and 529: 498 Religion and Spiritual Developm
Page 537 and 538: Sambo Sambo is an acronym (in Russi
Page 539 and 540: A crowd intently watches a wrestlin
Page 541 and 542: Upravlenije; State Intelligence Age
Page 543 and 544: In addition to this ranking system,
Page 545 and 546: A portrait of three men in Japan dr
Page 547 and 548: Godaigo, issued a call to arms agai
Page 549 and 550: Mass, Jeffrey P. 1989. Lordship and
Page 551 and 552: style. One should note that at this
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teach the techniques and logic of a
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are launched from very low stances,
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acteristics in regional styles of p
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gion of Indonesia and most of the p
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nese martial arts. The latter theor
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Medieval judicial combat, trial by
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“Philopoemen,” the Roman morali
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References Alford, Violet. 1962. Sw
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The earliest history of the region
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een effected. Struggles between Sia
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tions, silat has been an element of
Page 575 and 576:
An advertisement for Burmese boxing
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and unlike contemporary Krabi krabo
Page 579 and 580:
modeled on the spurring talons of t
Page 581 and 582:
Ryan, N. J. 1976. A History of Mala
Page 583 and 584:
English actor, producer, and direct
Page 585 and 586:
moves, the actors and the choreogra
Page 587 and 588:
a gibbet immediately outside the li
Page 589 and 590:
lades being replaced by an ash stic
Page 591 and 592:
techniques have been part of savate
Page 593 and 594:
tises that stickfighting competitio
Page 595 and 596:
Dressed in traditional garb, sword-
Page 597 and 598:
As a result of the first invasion,
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Zen masters, however, did not thems
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strength, stamina, and ferociousnes
Page 603 and 604:
and actively, defensively and offen
Page 605 and 606:
to stand up against increasingly he
Page 607 and 608:
there were three principal actions
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to the Eighteenth Century. 1885. Re
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the period clearly demonstrates tha
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sponse to the use of cut-and-thrust
Page 615 and 616:
the late Renaissance as a personal
Page 617 and 618:
classical fencing and sport fencing
Page 619 and 620:
evolved over more than two thousand
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(third-fifth centuries A.D.), when
Page 623 and 624:
A color woodblock print of a duel b
Page 625 and 626:
Another form subscribed to combat s
Page 627 and 628:
tainment that belongs in samurai mo
Page 629 and 630:
Hankuk Haedong Kumdô students Glen
Page 631 and 632:
through their perceptions, understa
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T’aek’kyŏn T’aek’kyŏn is
Page 635 and 636:
distinct identity, with a common fo
Page 637 and 638:
Each t’aek’kyŏn association in
Page 639 and 640:
Side kick delivered by Miss Kim, ca
Page 641 and 642:
In 1955, General Choi Hong-Hi, know
Page 643 and 644:
ing, as it is successful kicks that
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plexus, and ribs; and groin protect
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emphasis is placed on tournament fi
Page 649 and 650:
Group practice of taijiquan in Beij
Page 651 and 652:
Yang Chengfu made the form smooth,
Page 653 and 654:
powerful larger, sweeping, striking
Page 655 and 656:
tablished. The earth’s energy/for
Page 657 and 658:
Choreographed two-person sets are a
Page 659 and 660:
———. 1983. T’ai-Chi Touchst
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Two Kachin tribesmen near Bhamo, My
Page 663 and 664:
Branches of Thaing Bandô, the most
Page 665 and 666:
Outside Myanmar, thaing is represen
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martial art. As a result, its metho
Page 669 and 670:
Advanced acrobatic and sword skills
Page 671 and 672:
and those warriors who possess this
Page 673 and 674:
Doshi, Saryu, ed. 1989. Dances of M
Page 675 and 676:
Practitioners of kendô, the Japane
Page 677 and 678:
Varma Ati Tamil term literally tran
Page 679 and 680:
in this system. There are three set
Page 681 and 682:
One day [Chattambi Swamigal] was on
Page 683 and 684:
vinam’s popularity is demonstrate
Page 685 and 686:
1964, Viet Vo Dao was added to the
Page 687:
senior master of Vovinam. Worldwide
Page 690 and 691:
660 Warrior Monks, Japanese/Sôhei
Page 692 and 693:
662 Warrior Monks, Japanese/Sôhei
Page 694 and 695:
664 Wing Chun Ch’uan Renondeau, G
Page 696 and 697:
666 Women in the Martial Arts ity o
Page 698 and 699:
A depiction of the mighty female wa
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670 Women in the Martial Arts About
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672 Women in the Martial Arts About
Page 704 and 705:
674 Women in the Martial Arts boxin
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676 Women in the Martial Arts named
Page 708 and 709:
678 Women in the Martial Arts weak
Page 710 and 711:
680 Women in the Martial Arts in wh
Page 712 and 713:
682 Women in the Martial Arts Freem
Page 714 and 715:
Yip, Chun, with Danny Connor. 1993.
Page 716 and 717:
Women boxers in Washington, ca. 197
Page 718 and 719:
participation and success by women
Page 720 and 721:
A woman in Beijing performing a wus
Page 722 and 723:
692 Women in the Martial Arts: Japa
Page 724 and 725:
Page 726 and 727:
Page 728 and 729:
Page 730 and 731:
Page 732 and 733:
Page 734 and 735:
Page 736 and 737:
706 Wrestling and Grappling: China
Page 738 and 739:
708 Wrestling and Grappling: China
Page 740 and 741:
710 Wrestling and Grappling: Europe
Page 742 and 743:
Page 744 and 745:
Page 746 and 747:
Page 748 and 749:
Page 750 and 751:
720 Wrestling and Grappling: India
Page 752 and 753:
Page 754 and 755:
Page 756 and 757:
Page 758 and 759:
728 Wrestling and Grappling: Japan
Page 760 and 761:
Page 762 and 763:
Page 764 and 765:
Page 766 and 767:
736 Wrestling, Professional In Irel
Page 768 and 769:
738 Wrestling, Professional Russian
Page 770 and 771:
740 Wrestling, Professional les and
Page 772 and 773:
742 Wrestling, Professional 1987 th
Page 774 and 775:
744 Wrestling, Professional Editors
Page 776 and 777:
746 Written Texts: China ual change
Page 778 and 779:
748 Written Texts: China See also B
Page 780 and 781:
750 Written Texts: India of local m
Page 782 and 783:
752 Written Texts: India Beginning
Page 784 and 785:
754 Written Texts: India sourcebook
Page 786 and 787:
756 Written Texts: India skritized
Page 788 and 789:
758 Written Texts: Japan Hart, Geor
Page 790 and 791:
Early-fourteenth-century scroll fra
Page 792 and 793:
762 Written Texts: Japan ture of he
Page 794 and 795:
764 Written Texts: Japan of them ha
Page 796 and 797:
766 Written Texts: Japan inkblots w
Page 798 and 799:
768 Written Texts: Japan the develo
Page 800 and 801:
770 Written Texts: Japan Suzuki, Da
Page 802 and 803:
772 Written Texts: Japan
Page 805 and 806:
Xingyiquan (Hsing I Ch’uan) Of th
Page 807 and 808:
A student practices xingyiquan at t
Page 809:
Tang, Sun Lu. 1993. Xing Yi Quan Xu
Page 812 and 813:
Undated photo of the legendary Gran
Page 814 and 815:
784 Yongchun/Wing Chun changer). Ch
Page 816 and 817:
786 Yongchun/Wing Chun Green, Thoma
Page 818 and 819:
About 1500 B.C. Near the ford at Ja
Page 820 and 821:
About 460 B.C. The Hellenic histori
Page 822 and 823:
141 cont. animals themselves, the a
Page 824 and 825:
Eighth century Vishnaivite monks li
Page 826 and 827:
Tenth century A Punjabi weaver call
Page 828 and 829:
1077 The Song-dynasty scholar Zhao
Page 830 and 831:
1191 Chinese mathematicians start e
Page 832 and 833:
About 1345 cont. on the fifth hour
Page 834 and 835:
1416 cont. Chinese destroyed it in
Page 836 and 837:
About 1540 East Asian patent medici
Page 838 and 839:
1570 By doing single backward aeria
Page 840 and 841:
1624 Needing sugar to make their gi
Page 842 and 843:
1671 cont. tradition his discussion
Page 844 and 845:
About 1755 Toward reducing the risk
Page 846 and 847:
1780 cont. though they worked well,
Page 848 and 849:
About 1830 Irish immigrants introdu
Page 850 and 851:
1858 On October 13, an Austin, Texa
Page 852 and 853:
1881 The Japanese army replaces neo
Page 854 and 855:
1911 soldier with patriotic conform
Page 856 and 857:
1932 An El Paso saddler named Sam M
Page 858 and 859:
1952 cont. progress. Therefore the
Page 860 and 861:
Alter, Joseph S. 1992. The Wrestler
Page 862 and 863:
Gies, Frances, and Joseph Gies. 199
Page 864 and 865:
Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. 1973. The
Page 866 and 867:
Runciman, Stephen. 1980. The First
Page 869 and 870:
AAU. See Amateur Athletic Union ABA
Page 871 and 872:
and spiritual development: Japan Ar
Page 873 and 874:
Bond, James, 89 Bonebreaking (hakih
Page 875 and 876:
Cambodia, 541-542 history of, 541-5
Page 877 and 878:
Choi Yong-Shul, 157, 159, 160, 296
Page 879 and 880:
Dandi, 176 Dang Vu Hy, 652 Dangals,
Page 881 and 882:
Espada y daga, 560 Espinosa, Leo, 5
Page 883 and 884:
Fundai, 188 Funeral games, 788 Fune
Page 885 and 886:
Guts Muths, Johann, 816 Gymnasiums,
Page 887 and 888:
and dueling, 99-100 and social uses
Page 889 and 890:
and battle, engaging in, 193 and Br
Page 891 and 892:
303, 445-446, 478-479, 768, 822, 82
Page 893 and 894:
Kobayashi Seiko, 702 Kobudô, 823 K
Page 895 and 896:
Emperor Li Tsun-I, 23-24 Li Yiyu, 6
Page 897 and 898:
May Day, 801 Maybray, John C., 738
Page 899 and 900:
Motobu Chôyû, 258, 365 Motte, Mad
Page 901 and 902:
Nomi-no-Sukune, 729 Nonaction (wuwe
Page 903 and 904:
Oshchepkov, Vasilij Sergevich, 88,
Page 905 and 906:
Popes and dueling, 105 Popular pres
Page 907 and 908:
Ring names, 808 Ringeck, Sigmund, 3
Page 909 and 910:
Self-Defense Krav Maga, 310 Self-De
Page 911 and 912:
Song Shuming, 824 Song Tŏk-ki, 604
Page 913 and 914:
and gladiators, 142 in Japan, 478-4
Page 915 and 916:
Temple guardians, 794 Temple of Ang
Page 917 and 918:
Tyrs, Miroslav, 820 Tyson, Mike, 74
Page 919 and 920:
Weapons and Africa, 1-3 and aikidô
Page 921 and 922:
and tournaments, 706 and training,
Page 923 and 924:
Yang Aner, 691 Yang Banhou, 620-621
Page 925:
About the Author Thomas A. Green ea
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