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An Indian miniature of the defeat of a devil by a prince on horseback and a warrior, Ragmala Bikaner school, 1765. (The Art Archive/Marco Polo Gallery Paris/Dagli Orti) physical and physical and physiological. The brightness of one’s eyes as well as the tone of one’s skin is said to be a manifestation of shakti, as is the ability to levitate, on the one hand, or lift an opponent into the air, on the other. In other words, shakti means many different things, which makes it possible to translate across various domains of experience, and the martial arts can be thought of as a critical, if often overlooked, point at which this translation is most clearly worked out. Whereas shakti can be derived from devotional and ascetic practices, it is perhaps most closely linked, and clearly embodied, through the prac- 464 Religion and Spiritual Development: India
tice of brahmacharya (celibacy; the complete control of one’s senses). In this way, shakti is directly linked to sexual activity, and the physiology of masculine sexuality in particular. Essentially, shakti becomes manifest when a person is able to renounce sexual desire and embody the energy manifest in semen. As Swami Sivananda of the Divine Life Society, one of the most highly regarded spiritual leaders of the twentieth century, puts it: “The more a person conserves his semen, the greater will be his stature and vitality. His energy, ardor, intellect, competence, capacity for work, wisdom, success and godliness will begin to manifest themselves, and he will be able to profit from long life. . . . To tell the truth, semen is elixir” (1984, 10–11). Semen itself is thought of as the distilled, condensed essence of the body, as the body, nourished by food, goes through a series of biochemical metabolic transformations whereby waste products are purged and each successive metamorphosis is a more pure, refined form of the previous one. In fact, semen is thought of as the purest and most powerful of body fluids, derived from the juice of food, blood, flesh, fat, bone, and marrow; it imparts an aura of ojas (bright, radiant energy) to the body, and ojas is, in essence, the elemental, particulate form of cosmic shakti. Although the physiology of this transformation is what matters in the context of martial arts training and self-development, the embodied process of metamorphosis is congruent with cosmological mythology and astrology. The underlying model within this cosmology is the flow of liquids and the dynamic interplay of dry solar heat and cool, moist, lunar fluids. The waxing and waning of the moon are conceived of as the drying up and death of the lunar king, but then his subsequent cyclical rejuvenation. Rejuvenation is regarded as a process by which cool, moist, lunar “semen” is replenished. Significantly, this cosmology defines the potential energy of contained semen, and the embodiment of semen, in terms of the negative consequences of its outward flow. In an important way the high value placed on semen/shakti in the Indian martial arts is defined in terms of the danger associated with indiscriminate sensual arousal, and one can note, in the anxious rhetoric of contemporary religious teachers, the underlying mythic symbolism of heat, waning energy, and the violent destructiveness of sex. Sivananda characterizes this condition in the following way: “Because the youth of today are destroying their semen, they are courting the worst disaster and are daily being condemned to hell. . . . How many of these unfortunate people lie shaking on their cots like the grievously ill? Some are suffering from heat. . . . There is no trust of God in their hearts, only lust. . . . [W]hat future do such people have? They only glow with the light of fireflies, and neither humility nor glory are found in their flickering hypocrisy” (1984, 41). Religion and Spiritual Development: India 465
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Martial Arts of the World
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Copyright © 2001 by Thomas A. Gree
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vi Contents Japanese Martial Arts,
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Editorial Board D’Arcy Jonathan D
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Bill Adams Director, Bill Adams Fit
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Kimberley Taylor University of Guel
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xvi Introduction the sword” in Eu
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xviii Introduction References Frida
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Africa and African America Although
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a range of up to 80 meters. The wou
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the competitors. In this respect, t
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Beginning in 1415, after the Portug
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Many African combat systems relied
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as a result of similar circumstance
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eturn strike; rather, the practitio
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Ranking in most aikidô dôjô is b
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The magic monkey Songoku from a Chi
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A young woman aims at a barrel of s
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See also Kendô; Religion and Spiri
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Baguazhang is closely associated wi
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26 Bandô ———. 1984. The Mast
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Chinese children in a martial arts
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A modern picture of a Buddhist mona
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32 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles L
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A 74-year-old Buddhist monk practic
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Grand Master Rich Mooney demonstrat
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38 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles h
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40 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles m
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42 Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles (
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44 Boxing, European See also Animal
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46 Boxing, European marked the end
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48 Boxing, European If there is one
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50 Boxing, European practicality an
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52 Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Gilbey, John
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54 Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu papers his w
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56 Budô, Bujutsu, and Bugei autono
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58 Budô, Bujutsu, and Bugei Meiji-
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Capoeira Capoeira is a Brazilian ma
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quiring knowledge of capoeira and t
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early 1990s. By the late 1990s capo
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The entries on archery, straight sw
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Contemporary literature provides a
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eral policies in recent years have
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Clovis, one of the earliest Frankis
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A candidate for knighthood, after s
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though the weapons were blunted, th
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wise counsel, attacked the Turkish
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and elevated courtly love to a form
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Combatives: Military and Police Mar
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during the 1870s, as did the Japane
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and 1930s, comic books and movies f
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he beat up the British Resident. Th
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And, with decolonization on the hor
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Coe, Michael D., Peter Connolly, An
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United States Army. 1992. Field Man
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98 Dueling duels in late eighteenth
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100 Dueling the upper class, but it
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102 Dueling tribal level of sociopo
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104 Dueling was equipped with a coa
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106 Dueling theories are different,
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108 Dueling See also Gunfighters; M
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110 Europe system dates to the Egyp
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An armored ninthcentury Franconian
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An old German woodcut illustrating
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116 Europe handsprings, cartwheels,
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118 Europe the art vary, it is gene
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elow the navel) by physical and spi
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122 External vs. Internal Chinese M
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124 Folklore in the Martial Arts la
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126 Folklore in the Martial Arts sy
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128 Folklore in the Martial Arts ve
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130 Folklore in the Martial Arts a
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132 Folklore in the Martial Arts tr
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134 Folklore in the Martial Arts wi
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Women at an annual martial arts fes
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138 Form/Xing/Kata/Pattern Practice
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In any event, one should probably n
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142 Gladiators in every province of
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144 Gladiators protection, was ligh
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146 Gladiators The question, of cou
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148 Gongfu Although providing marti
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A late-nineteenthcentury engraving
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152 Gunfighters (quoted in Horan 19
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154 Gunfighters fine art” (Cunnin
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Hankuk Haedong Kumdô See Swordsman
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and kyûdô (Japanese Archery). Kor
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ecome other thoughts. In combat app
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this ideology by a word meaning “
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largely the creation of heralds, wh
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Christendom gradually acquired the
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Iaidô Iaidô is the Japanese marti
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the imaginary blood is flicked off
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Watanabe, Tadashige. 1993. Shinkage
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for infantry; and for wrestling), a
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named after dynamic animals such as
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Japan The historical development an
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Warfare, Politics, and Society Warf
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egion (present-day Nara prefecture)
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of the Taira and the Minamoto as vi
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winds that blew the invading armada
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would be punished. The kenka ryô s
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improve their arsenal of weapons us
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fact, some of these weapons were co
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The periodic emphasis on the ideal
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of the bloody Ônin War (1467-1477)
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Berry, Marry Elizabeth. 1994. The C
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Yuanyun (1587-1671, usually pronoun
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for I strongly object to formality,
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searched and experimented with othe
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Bruce Lee said that Jeet Kune Do wa
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In 1996, Lee’s widow, Linda Lee C
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the “all-pervading” jûdô prin
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Naturally, it was immediately compa
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(jûdô practitioner). Older system
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———. 1994. Kôdôkan Judo. 19
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220 Kajukenbo Joseph Holck, a black
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222 Kajukenbo nese, and the Japanes
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224 Kajukenbo Kajukenbo techniques
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Satish Kumar (left) and Shri Ajit (
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228 Kalarippayattu though clearly r
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230 Kalarippayattu given to applica
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232 Kali Kali See Philippines Karat
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234 Karate, Japanese where he recei
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236 Karate, Japanese pseudonym, Sh
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238 Karate, Japanese terminology fo
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240 Karate, Okinawan ———. 199
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242 Karate, Okinawan gested to the
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244 Karate, Okinawan shionna Kanry
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246 Karate, Okinawan sible for havi
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248 Karate, Okinawan returned to Ok
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250 Kendô In the late Kamakura and
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252 Kendô only noted fencers from
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254 Kendô leadership, ability in j
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Japanese men and women practicing K
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258 Kenpô Kempô grand master, the
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260 Ki/Qi See also Kajukenbo; Karat
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262 Ki/Qi jujitsu. Martial artists
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264 Knights crossbow, or harquebus.
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266 Knights tury, when the benefice
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268 Knights vided with support in t
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270 Knights adopt those hereditary
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272 Knights hope of being knighted
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274 Knights acquire dominions and f
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276 Knights which time the tourname
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278 Knights their own troop and fou
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280 Knights Germany were probably f
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282 Knights glect. Instead, many ne
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284 Knights From the beginning of t
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286 Kobudô, Okinawan Kobudô, Okin
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288 Kobudô, Okinawan Japanese Infl
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290 Kobudô, Okinawan various forms
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Winners of an archery contest in Ko
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294 Korea fucianism so completely t
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296 Korea nese withdrawal. Moreover
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298 Korea KTA and changed the name
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including Ming general Qi Jiguang
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302 Koryû Bugei, Japanese koryû b
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304 Koryû Bugei, Japanese student
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306 Krav Maga Krav Maga Krav maga (
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Krav Maga practitioners are taught
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powerless for a few seconds while t
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Krav maga has been called the “fi
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Two young women demonstrate Chinese
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318 Masters of Defence and-death en
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320 Masters of Defence “Masters o
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322 Masters of Defence ing both in
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324 Masters of Defence naissance sp
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326 Masters of Defence the classic
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328 Medicine, Traditional Chinese f
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330 Medicine, Traditional Chinese s
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332 Medicine, Traditional Chinese o
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334 Medicine, Traditional Chinese
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A sculpture of Buddha in seated med
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338 Middle East Maliszewski, Michae
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340 Middle East ture battles. The c
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342 Middle East The oil obviously m
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344 Mongolia to gain punching power
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Two Inner Mongolian wrestlers await
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348 Mongolia range of up to 500 yar
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350 Muay Thai Sinor, Denis. 1990. T
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352 Muay Thai (Praditbatuga 2000).
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354 Muay Thai Ron Smith emphasizes
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356 Ninjutsu ninja boom that spread
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358 Ninjutsu Nobunaga in Kyoto in 1
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360 Ninjutsu out fatigue, breath co
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Okinawa Okinawa means a “rope in
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Sensei Ty Yocham of the Texas Okina
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source in Okinawa. The family opera
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A meeting of a branch of the Knight
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it one of the largest and most wide
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the Teutonic Knights of the Hospita
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in 1211 and had just been expelled
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the Knightly Order of St. George, f
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tallers of St. John wore a habit an
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some places grand priories, includi
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cipline was enforced by written reg
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though they normally included men f
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emony (principally the Knights of t
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and Order of the Young Male Falcon,
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took it upon themselves to promote
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Castilian court. Before he could co
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William, and St. George of the Peli
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cieties. One order—that of the Sh
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order in 1344, there can be little
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minion or domain, the monarchical o
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404 Pacific Islands to fight well t
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406 Pacific Islands was developed f
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408 Pacific Islands Hawaiians inclu
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410 Pankration References Balent, M
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412 Pankration feet were permitted.
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414 Pankration dent hit correctly,
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416 Pankration With the explosion o
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An opera singer in full costume wav
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420 Performing Arts can be impossib
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422 Philippines now internationally
Page 444 and 445: Warrior tribesmen of the Philippine
Page 446 and 447: 426 Philippines his people. Althoug
Page 448 and 449: 428 Philippines Also in the first c
Page 450 and 451: 430 Philippines While the sixth cat
Page 452 and 453: 432 Philippines curer (seruhana, ar
Page 454 and 455: 434 Philippines Besides reasons of
Page 456 and 457: A painting of a burning station and
Page 458 and 459: A photo of the Ghost Dance of the A
Page 460 and 461: 440 Political Conflict and the Mart
Page 462 and 463: 442 Political Conflict and the Mart
Page 465: Martial Arts of the World
Page 468 and 469: Copyright © 2001 by Thomas A. Gree
Page 470 and 471: vi Contents Karate, Okinawan, 240 K
Page 473: A Note on Romanization In 1979, the
Page 476 and 477: Taekwondo students wear colored bel
Page 478 and 479: for every battle, but whenever a ma
Page 480 and 481: century the cross was introduced wh
Page 482 and 483: the mobilization of an expedition t
Page 484 and 485: desire of Christian princes to main
Page 486 and 487: The martial arts probably more ofte
Page 488 and 489: Shaolin Monastery, established in A
Page 490 and 491: ing on boxing to try to bring it up
Page 492 and 493: See also Boxing, Chinese; Boxing, C
Page 496 and 497: In terms of formalized religious pr
Page 498 and 499: from these austerities is thought t
Page 500 and 501: Sutra of Patanjali, give scant ment
Page 502 and 503: Religion and Spiritual Development:
Page 504 and 505: tention to the relationships among
Page 506 and 507: from firsthand knowledge of their o
Page 508 and 509: spread throughout the world. It rea
Page 510 and 511: ity just as warriors (bushi [24]) o
Page 512 and 513: To counter the influence of the Bri
Page 514 and 515: Herrigel spoke each other’s langu
Page 516 and 517: Japan. Variation by region and soci
Page 518 and 519: to deliver the labor and taxes dema
Page 520 and 521: and gods and all creatures. Success
Page 522 and 523: Aside from magical spells, the alch
Page 524 and 525: Over time, the Confucian ideals pro
Page 526 and 527: a means of acquiring status. Lackin
Page 528 and 529: 498 Religion and Spiritual Developm
Page 537 and 538: Sambo Sambo is an acronym (in Russi
Page 539 and 540: A crowd intently watches a wrestlin
Page 541 and 542: Upravlenije; State Intelligence Age
Page 543 and 544: In addition to this ranking system,
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A portrait of three men in Japan dr
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Godaigo, issued a call to arms agai
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Mass, Jeffrey P. 1989. Lordship and
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style. One should note that at this
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teach the techniques and logic of a
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are launched from very low stances,
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acteristics in regional styles of p
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gion of Indonesia and most of the p
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nese martial arts. The latter theor
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Medieval judicial combat, trial by
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“Philopoemen,” the Roman morali
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References Alford, Violet. 1962. Sw
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The earliest history of the region
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een effected. Struggles between Sia
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tions, silat has been an element of
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An advertisement for Burmese boxing
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and unlike contemporary Krabi krabo
Page 579 and 580:
modeled on the spurring talons of t
Page 581 and 582:
Ryan, N. J. 1976. A History of Mala
Page 583 and 584:
English actor, producer, and direct
Page 585 and 586:
moves, the actors and the choreogra
Page 587 and 588:
a gibbet immediately outside the li
Page 589 and 590:
lades being replaced by an ash stic
Page 591 and 592:
techniques have been part of savate
Page 593 and 594:
tises that stickfighting competitio
Page 595 and 596:
Dressed in traditional garb, sword-
Page 597 and 598:
As a result of the first invasion,
Page 599 and 600:
Zen masters, however, did not thems
Page 601 and 602:
strength, stamina, and ferociousnes
Page 603 and 604:
and actively, defensively and offen
Page 605 and 606:
to stand up against increasingly he
Page 607 and 608:
there were three principal actions
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to the Eighteenth Century. 1885. Re
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the period clearly demonstrates tha
Page 613 and 614:
sponse to the use of cut-and-thrust
Page 615 and 616:
the late Renaissance as a personal
Page 617 and 618:
classical fencing and sport fencing
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evolved over more than two thousand
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(third-fifth centuries A.D.), when
Page 623 and 624:
A color woodblock print of a duel b
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Another form subscribed to combat s
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tainment that belongs in samurai mo
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Hankuk Haedong Kumdô students Glen
Page 631 and 632:
through their perceptions, understa
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T’aek’kyŏn T’aek’kyŏn is
Page 635 and 636:
distinct identity, with a common fo
Page 637 and 638:
Each t’aek’kyŏn association in
Page 639 and 640:
Side kick delivered by Miss Kim, ca
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In 1955, General Choi Hong-Hi, know
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ing, as it is successful kicks that
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plexus, and ribs; and groin protect
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emphasis is placed on tournament fi
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Group practice of taijiquan in Beij
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Yang Chengfu made the form smooth,
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powerful larger, sweeping, striking
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tablished. The earth’s energy/for
Page 657 and 658:
Choreographed two-person sets are a
Page 659 and 660:
———. 1983. T’ai-Chi Touchst
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Two Kachin tribesmen near Bhamo, My
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Branches of Thaing Bandô, the most
Page 665 and 666:
Outside Myanmar, thaing is represen
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martial art. As a result, its metho
Page 669 and 670:
Advanced acrobatic and sword skills
Page 671 and 672:
and those warriors who possess this
Page 673 and 674:
Doshi, Saryu, ed. 1989. Dances of M
Page 675 and 676:
Practitioners of kendô, the Japane
Page 677 and 678:
Varma Ati Tamil term literally tran
Page 679 and 680:
in this system. There are three set
Page 681 and 682:
One day [Chattambi Swamigal] was on
Page 683 and 684:
vinam’s popularity is demonstrate
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1964, Viet Vo Dao was added to the
Page 687:
senior master of Vovinam. Worldwide
Page 690 and 691:
660 Warrior Monks, Japanese/Sôhei
Page 692 and 693:
662 Warrior Monks, Japanese/Sôhei
Page 694 and 695:
664 Wing Chun Ch’uan Renondeau, G
Page 696 and 697:
666 Women in the Martial Arts ity o
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A depiction of the mighty female wa
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670 Women in the Martial Arts About
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672 Women in the Martial Arts About
Page 704 and 705:
674 Women in the Martial Arts boxin
Page 706 and 707:
676 Women in the Martial Arts named
Page 708 and 709:
678 Women in the Martial Arts weak
Page 710 and 711:
680 Women in the Martial Arts in wh
Page 712 and 713:
682 Women in the Martial Arts Freem
Page 714 and 715:
Yip, Chun, with Danny Connor. 1993.
Page 716 and 717:
Women boxers in Washington, ca. 197
Page 718 and 719:
participation and success by women
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A woman in Beijing performing a wus
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692 Women in the Martial Arts: Japa
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Page 726 and 727:
Page 728 and 729:
Page 730 and 731:
Page 732 and 733:
Page 734 and 735:
Page 736 and 737:
706 Wrestling and Grappling: China
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708 Wrestling and Grappling: China
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710 Wrestling and Grappling: Europe
Page 742 and 743:
Page 744 and 745:
Page 746 and 747:
Page 748 and 749:
Page 750 and 751:
720 Wrestling and Grappling: India
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728 Wrestling and Grappling: Japan
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736 Wrestling, Professional In Irel
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738 Wrestling, Professional Russian
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740 Wrestling, Professional les and
Page 772 and 773:
742 Wrestling, Professional 1987 th
Page 774 and 775:
744 Wrestling, Professional Editors
Page 776 and 777:
746 Written Texts: China ual change
Page 778 and 779:
748 Written Texts: China See also B
Page 780 and 781:
750 Written Texts: India of local m
Page 782 and 783:
752 Written Texts: India Beginning
Page 784 and 785:
754 Written Texts: India sourcebook
Page 786 and 787:
756 Written Texts: India skritized
Page 788 and 789:
758 Written Texts: Japan Hart, Geor
Page 790 and 791:
Early-fourteenth-century scroll fra
Page 792 and 793:
762 Written Texts: Japan ture of he
Page 794 and 795:
764 Written Texts: Japan of them ha
Page 796 and 797:
766 Written Texts: Japan inkblots w
Page 798 and 799:
768 Written Texts: Japan the develo
Page 800 and 801:
770 Written Texts: Japan Suzuki, Da
Page 802 and 803:
772 Written Texts: Japan
Page 805 and 806:
Xingyiquan (Hsing I Ch’uan) Of th
Page 807 and 808:
A student practices xingyiquan at t
Page 809:
Tang, Sun Lu. 1993. Xing Yi Quan Xu
Page 812 and 813:
Undated photo of the legendary Gran
Page 814 and 815:
784 Yongchun/Wing Chun changer). Ch
Page 816 and 817:
786 Yongchun/Wing Chun Green, Thoma
Page 818 and 819:
About 1500 B.C. Near the ford at Ja
Page 820 and 821:
About 460 B.C. The Hellenic histori
Page 822 and 823:
141 cont. animals themselves, the a
Page 824 and 825:
Eighth century Vishnaivite monks li
Page 826 and 827:
Tenth century A Punjabi weaver call
Page 828 and 829:
1077 The Song-dynasty scholar Zhao
Page 830 and 831:
1191 Chinese mathematicians start e
Page 832 and 833:
About 1345 cont. on the fifth hour
Page 834 and 835:
1416 cont. Chinese destroyed it in
Page 836 and 837:
About 1540 East Asian patent medici
Page 838 and 839:
1570 By doing single backward aeria
Page 840 and 841:
1624 Needing sugar to make their gi
Page 842 and 843:
1671 cont. tradition his discussion
Page 844 and 845:
About 1755 Toward reducing the risk
Page 846 and 847:
1780 cont. though they worked well,
Page 848 and 849:
About 1830 Irish immigrants introdu
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1858 On October 13, an Austin, Texa
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1881 The Japanese army replaces neo
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1911 soldier with patriotic conform
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1932 An El Paso saddler named Sam M
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1952 cont. progress. Therefore the
Page 860 and 861:
Alter, Joseph S. 1992. The Wrestler
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Gies, Frances, and Joseph Gies. 199
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Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. 1973. The
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Runciman, Stephen. 1980. The First
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AAU. See Amateur Athletic Union ABA
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and spiritual development: Japan Ar
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Bond, James, 89 Bonebreaking (hakih
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Cambodia, 541-542 history of, 541-5
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Choi Yong-Shul, 157, 159, 160, 296
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Dandi, 176 Dang Vu Hy, 652 Dangals,
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Espada y daga, 560 Espinosa, Leo, 5
Page 883 and 884:
Fundai, 188 Funeral games, 788 Fune
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Guts Muths, Johann, 816 Gymnasiums,
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and dueling, 99-100 and social uses
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and battle, engaging in, 193 and Br
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303, 445-446, 478-479, 768, 822, 82
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Kobayashi Seiko, 702 Kobudô, 823 K
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Emperor Li Tsun-I, 23-24 Li Yiyu, 6
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May Day, 801 Maybray, John C., 738
Page 899 and 900:
Motobu Chôyû, 258, 365 Motte, Mad
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Nomi-no-Sukune, 729 Nonaction (wuwe
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Oshchepkov, Vasilij Sergevich, 88,
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Popes and dueling, 105 Popular pres
Page 907 and 908:
Ring names, 808 Ringeck, Sigmund, 3
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Self-Defense Krav Maga, 310 Self-De
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Song Shuming, 824 Song Tŏk-ki, 604
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and gladiators, 142 in Japan, 478-4
Page 915 and 916:
Temple guardians, 794 Temple of Ang
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Tyrs, Miroslav, 820 Tyson, Mike, 74
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Weapons and Africa, 1-3 and aikidô
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and tournaments, 706 and training,
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Yang Aner, 691 Yang Banhou, 620-621
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About the Author Thomas A. Green ea
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