Martial Arts Of The World - Webs
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See also Boxing, Chinese; Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles; China; Medicine, Traditional Chinese; Meditation; Written Texts: China References Chan, Wing-tsit, trans. 1963. The Way of Lao Tzu. New York: Bobbs- Merrill Company. Cheng Dali. 1995. Zhongguo Wushu: Lishi yu Wenhua (Chinese Martial Arts: History and Culture). Chengdu: Sichuan Daxue Chuban She. Duan Yuming. 1994. Zhongguo Simiao Wenhua (Chinese Monastery and Temple Culture). Shanghai: Renmin Chuban She. Gu Yanwu. 1928. Rizhi Lu (Record of Daily Knowledge). Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju. Guojia Tiwei Wushu Yanjiu Yuan, bianzuan (National Physical Culture Commission Martial Arts Research Institute), eds. 1997. Zhongguo Wushu Shi (Chinese Martial Arts History). Beijing: Renmin Tiyu Chuban She. Henning, Stanley E. 1997. “Chinese Boxing: The Internal versus External Schools in the Light of History and Theory.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 6, no. 3: 10–19. ———. 1998. “Observations on a Visit to Shaolin Monastery.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 7, no. 1: 90–101. Kuang Wennan, et al. 1990. Zhongguo Wushu Wenhua Gailun (An Outline of Chinese Martial Arts Culture). Chengdu: Sichuan Jiaoyu Chuban She. Li Chi, trans. 1974. The Travel Diaries of Hsu Hsia-k’o. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong. Liu Junxiang. 1991. Zhongguo Wushu Wenhua yu Yishu (Chinese Martial Arts Culture and Artistry). Taiyuan: Xinhua Chuban She. Matsuda Ryuji. 1984 [1979]. Zhongguo Wushu Shilue (A Short History of the Chinese Martial Arts). Translated by Lu Yan and Yan Hai. Chengdu: Sichuan Kexue Jishu Chuban She. Spiessbach, Michael F. 1992. “Bodhidharma: Meditating Monk, Martial Arts Master or Make-Believe?” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 1, no. 4: 10–27. Tang Hao. 1969. Neijia Quan de Yanjiu (Internal School Boxing Research. 1935. Reprint, Hong Kong: Unicorn Press. ———. 1968. Shaolin-Wudang Kao (Shaolin-Wudang Research). 19xx. Reprint, Hong Kong: Unicorn Press. Tonami, Mamoru. 1990. The Shaolin Monastery Stele on Mount Song. Translated by P. A. Herbert. Kyoto: Italian School of East Asian Studies. Wu Gu and Liu Zhixue, eds. 1982. Shaolinsi Ziliao Ji (Collection of Shaolin Monastery Materials). Beijing: Shumu Wenxian Chubanshe. Young, Robert W. 1994. “Bodhidharma and Shaolin Temple.” Karate/Kung Fu Illustrated, October, 30. ———. 1994. “Bodhidharma and Shaolin Temple.” Karate/Kung Fu Illustrated, December, 48. Religion and Spiritual Development: India In comparison to China and Japan, as well as Thailand and other regions of Southeast Asia, India does not often come to mind as a country with a strong martial arts tradition. Indeed, Indian civilization is most often associated with elaborate ritual codes, abstract metaphysical speculation, and, at least 462 Religion and Spiritual Development: India

in modern times, the principle of nonviolence. Even though the so-called classical scheme of social classification known as varna clearly defined the role of warrior princes in relation to other occupational groups and the two preeminent epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are replete with military exploits and martial heroes, Indian civilization has come to be associated with the values of Brahmanic Hinduism and colored by the values of orthodox ritual religiosity on the one hand and contemplative, otherworldly speculation on the other. In both public conception and much of the academic literature, these attributes are conceived of as decidedly noncombative and, very often, abstracted from the body rather than linked to it. Nevertheless there is a strong tradition of martial arts in South Asia, as D. C. Muzumdar brought out in his Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture, published in 1950, and this tradition is not nearly as dissociated from the so-called mainstream of spiritualism and philosophical thought as popular perception would have it. In practice, the martial arts in India are clearly marginalized, and their popularity is sharply limited, but in theory various forms of martial art are closely linked to important medical, ritual, and meditational forms of practice. Moreover, it is somewhat problematic to think of the martial arts in India as a discrete entity upon which an equally discrete entity—spirituality and religion—has a direct effect. When, as in South Asia, the distinction between mind and body is not applicable, other categorical binary distinctions also tend to lose their meaning. As a result, what might be classified as religion shades into metaphysics, which, in turn, shades into physical fitness. Thus, in a sense, devotionalism, meditation, and the martial arts are, perhaps, best seen as part of the same basic complex rather than as interdependent variables. The concept of shakti (Hindi; power/energy) or its various analogs, such as pran (vital breath), is of central importance to this complex. Most broadly, shakti as a metaphysical concept denotes the active, or animating, feminine aspect of creation. It also means cosmic energy or, simply, the supernatural power associated with divine beings and spiritual forces. Shakti is regarded as a kind of power that pervades the universe, but that does not always manifest itself as such. To the extent that human beings are microcosmic, they are thought to embody shakti, and this shakti can be made manifest in various ways under various circumstances. Most often one is said to manifest shakti when one so closely identifies with a deity that one embodies that deity’s power. Moreover, the performance of austerities, such as fasts and other forms of renunciation, as well as various forms of ritualized sacrifice, produces shakti. Thus, shakti is thought of as something that can be developed through practice, and this, in particular, is what links it to the performance of various martial arts. Most significantly, shakti is at once supernatural and therefore meta- Religion and Spiritual Development: India 463

See also Boxing, Chinese; Boxing, Chinese Shaolin Styles; China; Medicine,<br />

Traditional Chinese; Meditation; Written Texts: China<br />

References<br />

Chan, Wing-tsit, trans. 1963. <strong>The</strong> Way of Lao Tzu. New York: Bobbs-<br />

Merrill Company.<br />

Cheng Dali. 1995. Zhongguo Wushu: Lishi yu Wenhua (Chinese <strong>Martial</strong><br />

<strong>Arts</strong>: History and Culture). Chengdu: Sichuan Daxue Chuban She.<br />

Duan Yuming. 1994. Zhongguo Simiao Wenhua (Chinese Monastery and<br />

Temple Culture). Shanghai: Renmin Chuban She.<br />

Gu Yanwu. 1928. Rizhi Lu (Record of Daily Knowledge). Shanghai:<br />

Zhonghua Shuju.<br />

Guojia Tiwei Wushu Yanjiu Yuan, bianzuan (National Physical Culture<br />

Commission <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong> Research Institute), eds. 1997. Zhongguo<br />

Wushu Shi (Chinese <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong> History). Beijing: Renmin Tiyu Chuban<br />

She.<br />

Henning, Stanley E. 1997. “Chinese Boxing: <strong>The</strong> Internal versus External<br />

Schools in the Light of History and <strong>The</strong>ory.” Journal of Asian <strong>Martial</strong><br />

<strong>Arts</strong> 6, no. 3: 10–19.<br />

———. 1998. “Observations on a Visit to Shaolin Monastery.” Journal of<br />

Asian <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong> 7, no. 1: 90–101.<br />

Kuang Wennan, et al. 1990. Zhongguo Wushu Wenhua Gailun (An Outline<br />

of Chinese <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong> Culture). Chengdu: Sichuan Jiaoyu Chuban She.<br />

Li Chi, trans. 1974. <strong>The</strong> Travel Diaries of Hsu Hsia-k’o. Hong Kong:<br />

Chinese University of Hong Kong.<br />

Liu Junxiang. 1991. Zhongguo Wushu Wenhua yu Yishu (Chinese <strong>Martial</strong><br />

<strong>Arts</strong> Culture and Artistry). Taiyuan: Xinhua Chuban She.<br />

Matsuda Ryuji. 1984 [1979]. Zhongguo Wushu Shilue (A Short History of<br />

the Chinese <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong>). Translated by Lu Yan and Yan Hai. Chengdu:<br />

Sichuan Kexue Jishu Chuban She.<br />

Spiessbach, Michael F. 1992. “Bodhidharma: Meditating Monk, <strong>Martial</strong><br />

<strong>Arts</strong> Master or Make-Believe?” Journal of Asian <strong>Martial</strong> <strong>Arts</strong> 1, no. 4:<br />

10–27.<br />

Tang Hao. 1969. Neijia Quan de Yanjiu (Internal School Boxing Research.<br />

1935. Reprint, Hong Kong: Unicorn Press.<br />

———. 1968. Shaolin-Wudang Kao (Shaolin-Wudang Research). 19xx.<br />

Reprint, Hong Kong: Unicorn Press.<br />

Tonami, Mamoru. 1990. <strong>The</strong> Shaolin Monastery Stele on Mount Song.<br />

Translated by P. A. Herbert. Kyoto: Italian School of East Asian Studies.<br />

Wu Gu and Liu Zhixue, eds. 1982. Shaolinsi Ziliao Ji (Collection of Shaolin<br />

Monastery Materials). Beijing: Shumu Wenxian Chubanshe.<br />

Young, Robert W. 1994. “Bodhidharma and Shaolin Temple.” Karate/Kung<br />

Fu Illustrated, October, 30.<br />

———. 1994. “Bodhidharma and Shaolin Temple.” Karate/Kung Fu<br />

Illustrated, December, 48.<br />

Religion and Spiritual Development: India<br />

In comparison to China and Japan, as well as Thailand and other regions of<br />

Southeast Asia, India does not often come to mind as a country with a strong<br />

martial arts tradition. Indeed, Indian civilization is most often associated<br />

with elaborate ritual codes, abstract metaphysical speculation, and, at least<br />

462 Religion and Spiritual Development: India

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