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integral to conversation. Thus, conversation could be conceived of as both co-
operative yet not wholly rational.
Following on from Grice's conversational maxims, discourse theorists
such Lakoff (1973,1979) and Leech (1983) have attempted to follow the
(conversational maxim' approach (Fraser 1990) to account specifically for one
particular discourse phenomenon - that of politeness. Lakoff (11973) for example
identified two basic'pragmatic rules' - essentially opposed to each other which
operate in conversational interaction - namely be clear (where the content of the
message is a primary concern), and be polite (where the relationship between
the speaker and hearer is a primary concern). In addition, three sub-maxims or
rules of politeness were also identified, namely, don't impose (by displaying of
deference), give options (the maintenance of distance), and make [one's
interlocutor] fee/ good (the display of camaraderie) for example by generally
being friendly and making one's interlocutor feel wanted or like a friend (see
Lakoff 1973,296). What these maxims formally accounted for was the
observation that conversationalists routinely employed language not only to
convey meaning, but to consider the feelings and rights of interlocutors
strengthen interpersonal relations and generally reduce friction in interaction.
Importantly, Lakoff noted that politeness usually superseded clarity in
conversation. Thus for example, an orientation to be polite may well cause a
speaker to breach to some degree the need to be clear, as interpersonal
concerns superseded ideational ones.
Similarly drawing on, and seeking to append Grice's cooperative
principle, Leech (1983) outlined what he termed a 'politeness principle' and
developed a comprehensive set of maxims and sub-maxims, set out under the
general rubric of 'interpersonal rhetoric'. Pragmatic discourse, that is, discourse
where speakers seek to achieve some conversational 'goal', was seen to be
guided by maxims of tact (minimize cost to other, maximize benefit to other);
generosity (minimize benefit to self; maximize cost to selý; approbation
(minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other); modesty (minimize
praise of self, maximize dispraise of selo; agreement (minimize disagreement
between self and other, maximize agreement between self and other); and
sympathy (minimize antipathy between self and other; maximize sympathy
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