BEM Dec06-Feb07 (Env.. - Board of Engineers Malaysia

BUMPER 

ISSUE 

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA 

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA 

KDN PP11720/1/2006 ISSN 0128-4347 VOL.32 DEC 2006 - FEB 2007 RM10.00 

ENVIRONMENT

8 

16 

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64 

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

contents 

Volume 32 Dec 2006 - Feb 2007 

4 President’s Message 

Editor’s Note 

Announcement 

5 Professional Assessment Examination 

Competency Examination 

Publication Calendar 

Cover Feature 

6 Auditing For Hazards: Lessons Learnt From Kundasang 

Landslide Complex, Sabah 

10 Sustainability: Closing The Energy & 

Environment Cycles 

16 Water Leakage Detection – Impact, Innovations And 

Economic Benefits 

21 Contaminated Land Remediation Technologies: 

Current Usage And Applicability In Malaysia 

Guidelines 

25 The National Urbanisation Policy 

Seminar 

29 Safety In Construction: Rules & Responsibility Of 

Professional Engineers 

Engineering & Law 

31 Claims For Quantum Meruit And Section 71 Contracts 

Act 1950: Is There A Nexus? 

Feature 

35 Environment, Ethics & The Engineer 

42 Assessment Of Raw Water Quantity And Quality For 

Water Supply 

47 Early Warning And Surveillance Systems In Surface 

Water Management 

52 Bandar Lestari Environment Award 

54 Development Of EWARNS TM Forecast And Real-Time 

Early Warning System On Erosion Risks/Hazards 

59 Some Design And Practical Perspectives 

In Concrete Cracks (Part 2) 

Engineering Features 

64 Roofed Bridge At Kg Baru Guchil, 

Kuala Krai, Kelantan 

THE INGENIEUR 

2 

Pg 28 

Borang H 

Pembaharuan 

Pendaftaran 

Jurutera 

Profesional 2007

KDN PP11720/1/2007 

ISSN 0128-4347 

VOL. 32 DEC 2006 - FEB 2007 

Members of the Board of Engineers Malaysia 

(BEM) 2005/2006 

President 

YBhg. Dato’ Sri Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar 

Registrar 

Ir. Dr. Mohd Johari Md. Arif 

Secretary 

YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Dr. Judin Abdul Karim 

Members of BEM 

YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Md Radzi Mansor 

YBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul Abdullah 

YBhg. Mej. Jen. Dato’ Ir. Ismail Samion 

YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam 

YBhg. Datu Ir. Hubert Thian Chong Hui 

YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Prof. Chuah Hean Teik 

Ar. Dr. Amer Hamzah Mohd Yunus 

Ir. Henry E Chelvanayagam 

Ir. Dr. Shamsuddin Ab Latif 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan 

Ir. Mohd. Rousdin Hassan 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Hassan Basri 

Tn Hj. Basar bin Juraimi 

Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman 

Ir. Anjin Hj. Ajik 

Ir. P E Chong 

Editorial Board 

Advisor 

YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar 

Chairman 

YBhg Datuk Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam 

Editor 

Ir. Fong Tian Yong 

Members 

Ir. Prem Kumar 

Ir. Mustaza Salim 

Ir. Chan Boon Teik 

Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman 

Ir. Prof. Dr. K. S. Kannan 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan 

Ir. Prof. Madya Dr. Eric K H Goh 

Ir. Nitchiananthan Balasubramaniam 

Ir. Prof. Madya Megat Johari Megat Mohd Noor 

Executive Director 

Ir. Ashari Mohd Yakub 

Publication Officer 

Pn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman 

Assistant Publication Officer 

Pn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali 

Design and Production 

Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd 

The Ingenieur is published by the Board of 

Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia) 

and is distributed free of charge to registered 

Professional Engineers. 

The statements and opinions expressed in this 

publication are those of the writers. 

BEM invites all registered engineers to contribute 

articles or send their views and comments to the 

following address: 

Publication Committee 

Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia, 

Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR, 

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 

50580 Kuala Lumpur. 

Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017 

E-mail: bem1@streamyx.com 

publication@bem.org.my 

Web site: http://www.bem.org.my 

Advertising/Subscriptions 

Advertisement Form is on page 63 

President’s Message 

The essence of the professionals is to create, to modify 

and to develop the environment of man to serve the needs as 

perceived in the society of the time. Thus, some elementary 

economic understanding is needed to be able to judge the 

“viability” of industrial projects. It is necessary, furthermore, 

to be informed on the nature and working of the human 

communities within which the professional will apply his skills. 

There has been, to varying extents in different places, an 

enlargement of programmes by means of the introduction of 

information in the human and social sciences, in information 

science and economics. 

However, during the last few decades there has been an evolutionary change in 

the perception and evaluation of the “environment” in which we should live and in 

the way in which we should exploit the resources of our planet. This has been reflected 

in: the increasing awareness of the finite nature of many natural resources; the need 

for more economic and equitable use of resources; recognition of the degradation 

and destruction already inflicted and the urgent need to halt and repair this damage; 

the growing body of legislation and state controls to protect and defend the 

environment; the mobilization of public opinion in the preservation of the quality of 

life; the increased awareness and exposure of individuals and political institutions to 

all these problems and the creation of ministries/departments of environment, of 

energy and natural resources, of land management etc. All these changes have had 

consequences for the training of various professions engaged in the development and 

modification of the environment. 

It becomes necessary for us to train engineers by giving them the basic concepts 

to an understanding of what constitutes sound environmental management, the 

processes involved in natural systems and ecology, and the impact of their profession 

on the interplay of physical and human factors constituting an environment. Engineers 

have, in many cases, become aware of the interdisciplinary nature of the problems 

which they face and the need for solutions of a similarly complex, process-oriented 

form. There is growing awareness of the need to collaborate among professionals and 

of the need imposed on the various professions by economic and social change to 

take account of new constraints and demands associated with environmental 

conservation, the management of resources, and the changing values associated with 

acceptable or desired quality of life standards. 

Dato’ Sri Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar 

President 

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA 

Editor’s Note 

As 2006 draws to a close, there were series of activities 

nationwide on environmentally-related matters. The celebration 

of World Habitat Day, National Recycling Day, National 

Environment Week and the launching of National Urbanisation 

Policy were just some of the events. 

Publication with the theme on environment remains the most 

popular among article contributors. The update section on 

National Urbanisation Policy attempts to keep readers informed 

of the major thrusts and directions on future planning requirements that will have 

effect on future development patterns. 

A new section on photographs of interesting “engineering features” has also 

been introduced since photographs for ”engineering nostalgia” are difficult to come 

by. We hope to receive more photographs of such features which you may have 

picked up during your daily work. 

Meanwhile, on behalf of the Publication Committee, may I wish all our readers 

Merry Christmas and Happy New Year. 

Ir. Fong Tian Yong 

Editor 

THE INGENIEUR 

4

Announcement 

PROFESSIONAL ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION 

The Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) has decided that the Professional Assessment Examination 

(PAE) will be conducted by the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) on behalf of the Board with 

effect from January 1, 2007. 

All engineers who intend to sit for PAE are advised to contact IEM at the following address: 

Institution of Engineers Malaysia, 

Bangunan Ingenieur, 

Lot 60/62 Jalan 52/4, 

Peti Surat 222 (Jalan Sultan), 

46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan. 

COMPETENCY EXAMINATION 

Competency Examination will be conducted as an additional examination by BEM with effect from 

January 1, 2008. 

[BEM-255 th Meeting / December 7, 2006] 

DATO’ SRI PROF. Ir. Dr. WAHID BIN OMAR 

President 

Board of Engineers Malaysia 

Publication Calendar 

The following list is the Publication Calendar 

for the year 2007. While we normally 

seek contributions from 

experts for each special 

theme, we are also pleased to 

accept articles relevant to 

themes listed. 

Please contact the Editor or 

the Publication Officer in 

advance if you would like to 

make such contributions or to 

discuss details and deadlines. 

March 2007: AGRICULTURE 

June 2007: WASTE 

September 2007: POWER 

THE INGENIEUR 

The The Board Board of Engineers Engineers Malaysia Malaysia 

wishes wishes all readers readers 

5 

Merry Merry 

Christmas 

Christmas 

Happy Happy 

New New Year Year 

2007 2007 

& 

Gong Gong Xi 

Fa Fa Cai! Cai!

cover feature 

Auditing For Hazards: 

Lessons Learnt From Kundasang 

Landslide Complex, Sabah 

By Professor Dato’ Dr Ibrahim Komoo and Sarah Aziz Abdul Ghani Aziz, 

Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 

It is a given fact that natural 

hazards impact greatly on the 

human socio-economic fabric. It 

not only poses a threat to life, 

destruction of property and 

disruption of economic activity, 

it also brings about a suite of 

risks to planned and existing 

developments, particularly in the 

way land is to be used. Lessons 

learnt from a study of large scale 

landslides in Kundasang, Sabah 

provide a brief insight of the 

prerequisites in comprehending 

the characteristics, nature and 

potential risks as well as threats 

which are often hampered by 

inadequate linking of scientific 

understanding and governance 

processes. Methods from various 

disciplines such as engineering 

geology (mapping), geotechnical 

assessment, socio-economic 

impact and evaluation of 

governance processes were key 

in helping develop an integrative 

approach towards better 

assessment and control of the 

impact and risks ensuing from 

the landslides. 

It is common practice in Malaysia 

to use the terms landslides and 

slope failures interchangeably 

when in fact both are distinct in nature 

and characteristics. Based on a study 

on large scale landslides conducted in 

Kundasang, Sabah the main lesson 

learnt was that current approaches and 

techniques in assessing and mitigating 

the impacts of geo-hazards commonly 

applied in Peninsular Malaysia is not 

suited for the phenomenon in Sabah. 

For one, the landslide complex in the 

study area is made up of six landslide 

systems each mass ranging between 

1.5-5 million m 3 and the rate of 

movement varies from location to 

location. It is highly influenced by the 

nature of the geological characteristics 

and the underground water level. 

It is important to note that the 

landslide events are complex in nature 

requiring a multi-disciplinary 

approach to address and ensure long 

term risk reduction. Understanding and 

finding solutions require application 

of refined science for geo-hazards 

(landslides), the sociological impacts 

of the hazard, the governance aspect 

related to control and the best 

technology for prevention and 

mitigation. 

The impact meted by the landslide 

both affected the natural surroundings 

and the socio-economic fabric, and in 

a recorded landslide event near one of 

the landslide systems, two men lost 

their lives. The study also showed that 

the measures to address impact played 

a huge role in determining the 

effectiveness of the solution applied. 

THE INGENIEUR 6 

In some cases, the solution provided 

resulted in continued rectification, 

which, in turn, has made a huge dent 

on public spending. The development 

plan for Kundasang too has great 

bearing on the stability of the area, as 

the plans were drawn up based on 

existing information and 

interpretations of the same based on 

methodologies suited for events in 

Peninsular Malaysia but not 

necessarily in Kundasang. 

This, in turn, has led to a rather 

fragmented and reactive approach 

towards addressing the problem arising 

and potential risk posed by the 

landslide complex. 

Kundasang Landslide Complex: 

A Brief Introduction 

As stated earlier, the Kundasang 

Landslide Complex (KLC) is made up 

of six landslide systems of varying 

sizes and shapes, which continuously 

move at different rates from a few 

cm to a few metres per year (see 

Figure 1). Its movement is largely 

dictated by the sub-catchment water 

flow and the underground water level. 

Serious impacts include land 

subsidence (see Figure 2), structural 

defects (see Figure 3), slanting 

structures (see Figure 4) and damage 

to infrastructure and utilities such as 

water pipes and tanks(see Figure 5), 

electric cables, poles and drainage. 

Impact to the socio-economic 

fabric included loss of life, loss of 

income due to crop destruction, rising 

cost of living due to continuous repair

Figure 1. Six landslide systems indicating major geodynamic features mapped between 

2003-2005 (Source: Komoo, et. al. 2005). 


and maintenance of property, 

restriction in transport mobility due 

to poor roads and access to social 

amenities. There is an element of 

having to live in and with danger 

constantly, though the study in 

Kundasang has shown the local 

community, for want of a better 

alternative, has indeed soldiered on. 

Much has to do with ownership of 

the land which has a propensity to 

move, and there has been recorded 

incidences of land disputes when 

boundary stones move or structures 

infringe on neighbouring lands. 

The Government has spent quite 

a lot of money mitigating the 

impacts particularly to roads and 

buildings, but the repairs and 

maintenance still continue to date. 

The case in point is the Tamparuli- 

Kundasang-Ranau road that cuts 

across the landslide complex. It has 

seen many facelifts and to date work 

still continues. 

Getting To Grips With 

The Landslide 

‘Auditing’ the danger would be a 

sensible place to begin. A systematic 

assessment process will have to be 

Figure 2. Photograph showing a two-tiered land subsidence due to landslide movement at the head of the landslide affecting the 

market behind the Ranau-Tamparuli main road (Komoo, et. al. 2005) 

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instituted taking into account 

four main prerequisites, that is: 

● The need for a geo-hazard 

information system that 

takes into account the 

nature and characteristic of 

the landslide; the impacts 

to the socio-economic 

fabric; and the methods and 

tools required to address the 

risk and impacts; 

● A review of current planned 

spatial development and 

land use taking into 

account the suitability 

factor of the areas and the 

ability to absorb impact; 

● A merger of sciences 

and methods whereby geoscientific 

understanding 

becomes the underlying 

factor in assessment and 

control to complement 

geotechnical and 

engineering solutions 

proposed; and 

● Re-designing and retro-fitting 

engineering control measures to 

suit local conditions to alleviate 

the stress and reduce the causal 

factors. 

Figure 3: Photograph showing an opening of an 

extension crack along a retaining wall at the toe of a 

landslide unit near the SMK Kundasang (Komoo, et. al. 

2005) 

Developing an information system 

that integrates sciences and 

humanities would allow for better 

analysis of options in the 

implementation of measures to either 


mitigate impact or reduce the 

risk of the landslide. The use of 

a geographical information 

system (GIS) would help put 

into perspective the various 

threats and options in 

developing an integrated 

framework for KLC assessment 

and control. It would bring to 

fore the triggering and causal 

factors, in addition reflect the 

actual scale of the risk and 

impact in addition to mapping 

out the geodynamic features. 

Reviewing spatial 

development, on the other 

hand, would reduce the risk of 

the landslide causing more 

damage, since a brief study of 

the changes in land use and 

land cover patterns of 

Kundasang has indicated that 

suitability should be the key 

factor in determining the type 

and scale of development 

planned. This itself has become 

a crucial issue as Kundasang 

has been earmarked for agricultural 

and tourism development. Based on 

the integrated information collected, 

special areas of risks can be 

demarcated and zoned accordingly, 

Figure 4: Photograph showing an abandoned house badly affected by the landslide movement. The owner has since built another 

house adjacent to the old structure (Komoo, et. al. 2005)

and physical development 

control instituted based on the 

areas determined. Current land 

use patterns would then have to 

be re-looked to determine and 

establish areas for conservation, 

rehabilitation, natural 

stabilisation and development. 

Geo-scientific measures too 

will have to be considered, as 

the nature and characteristics of 

the landslide varies from 

location to location. The proper 

understanding of the influence 

of degree of risk, suitability in 

addition to the causal and 

triggering factors are 

paramount in order to design 

appropriate and cost effective 

solutions. Given the influence 

of the sub-catchment flow and 

underground water level, 

greater emphasis will have to be 

given towards adopting an ecosystem 

approach, including 

unravelling the geobioindicators 

that give the 

landslides unique signatures. 

Engineering solutions will 

remain a fixture towards mitigating 

the impact and reducing the risks, 

but a refocus will have to be made 

in light of geo-scientific findings 

that can tailor the solutions 

accordingly. Two mains lessons 

learnt from Kundasang include the 

need to use engineering methods to 

stabilise slopes by increasing force 

of resistance against the landslide 

movement and reduce the casual 

factors of the landslides to a 

reduction in force of the landslides. 

A re-profile of the key areas, redrainage 

and reconstruction of 

stabilising walls will have to 

considered based on the respective 

nature and characteristics of the 

landslide. 

Concluding Remarks: 

Taking The Next Step 

Landslides are costly in human 

and economic terms, and change the 

natural landscape affecting the ecosystems 

and socio-economic fabric. 

Figure 5: Photograph showing a badly damaged 

water tank (inset) and pipe due to the lateral 

movement of the landslide (Komoo, et. al. 2005) 

The KLC study revealed that the 

current governance systems and 

processes in place to address geohazards, 

were not designed to meet 

the problems head on. Actions taken 

were often piecemeal and 

fragmented, and the study has shown 

it has been costly, since the solutions 

put in place often had to be rectified. 

Resources were constantly 

mortgaged, water being the key 

victim. Services such as sewerage, 

drainage and water supply were not 

effective as the damage caused was 

often too great and the cost of repair 

too large. Roads, where possible were 

patched up to fill up gaps where the 

road had collapsed or cracked. Some 

roads had become inaccessible 

except to those with powerful and 

reliable 4WD. 

Stakeholder coordination is a 

must. The custodians of the 

resources (the land, natural 

resources) and the people will have 

to sit with those who can help 

remedy the impacts caused by the 

landslides as well as with those with 

the will to change the physical and 


economic landscape of 

Kundasang. By imparting basic 

techniques to help identify the 

geo-bioindicators to the local 

communities, much time can be 

saved and danger reduced. A 

comprehensive review of 

planned development must be 

done taking into account the 

geo-scientific information that 

has identified the areas of risks 

(scales of which have been 

earmarked). Engineering 

solutions will have to suit the 

nature and characteristics of 

the landslides to ensure 

longevity and reduce costs. 

Much can be done for 

Kundasang, and lessons learnt 

should provide a good basis for 

a re-look at the way 

geohazards, particularly 

landslides are being addressed 

throughout the country. BEM 

REFERENCES 

Komoo, I. & Morgana, S.N., 1999. 

The Kundasang Landslide 

Complex, Sabah (extended 

abstract). Journal of Nepal 

Geological Society, 20, 230. 

Komoo, I. & Salleh, H., 2003. 

Living with danger: Kundasang 

Active Landslide. In Salleh, H.; 

Othman, M. 

Komoo, I. & Aziz, S. (eds.) Culture 

and Science of Mountains. 

LESTARI UKM Pub., Bangi, 213- 

223. 

Komoo, I., Salleh, H., Tjia, H.D., 

Aziz, S., Tongkul, F., Jamaluddin, 

T.A. & Lim, C.S., 2005. Kundasang 

Landlside Complex: Mechanism, 

Socio-Economic Impact and 

Governance (in Malay). 

Paper presented during 

Stakeholders Dialogue on 

‘Kundasang Landslide Risks: 

Impact, Role and Action’, May 22, 

2005, Kundasang, Sabah. 

cover feature

cover feature 

Sustainability: Closing The 

Energy & Environment Cycles 

By Ir. Chen Thiam Leong, Fellow & Distinguished Lecturer ASHRAE 

This paper is an extract from the recent ASHRAE (American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air- 

Conditioning Engineers Inc.) Regional Conference held in Kuala Lumpur (on Aug 25, 2006) with the 

theme “Sustainability: From Design & Installation to Commissioning & Maintenance” The theme was 

conceived primarily to promote ASHRAE’s international agenda on Sustainability. Other reasons 

included the need to address problems faced by developing nations where we are regularly reminded 

of our ability to achieve 1 st Class Infrastructure but only to be undone by our 3 rd Class Mentality in 

failing to sustain these facilities. In terms of the Building Services industry, this quote may be more 

appropriately translated as the mentality of achieving 1 st Class Design and Installation but 3 rd Class 

Commissioning and Maintenance habits. 

Sustainability is the latest buzz 

word to highlight the critical 

need to protect our society from 

the vagaries of mankind and to 

remind us of the urgency to take care 

of our resources and fragile 

environment in a responsible manner 

to ensure our very own sustainable 

existence. 

To many of us, sustainability in 

the built industry may sound like a 

new terminology. However, if we 

examine the concept behind this 

word, it is actually not so, as many 

of the philosophy expounded have 

actually being promoted over the 

years albeit under different names. 

These past terms would include the 

likes of “Intelligent Buildings”, “Smart 

Buildings”, “K-Buildings”, “Energy 

Efficient Buildings”, and many other 

terms including the still vogue “Green 

Buildings”. 

Perhaps it would be simpler to 

define sustainability as a relatively 

new term that refers to our efforts at 

closing the energy and environment 

cycles. 

As society progresses, awareness 

naturally spreads. With energy prices 

set to soar and global warming 

effects already felt, the need to 

address sustainability in our daily 

lives inevitably becomes more 

pronounced and taken seriously. In 

fact, as the world’s population 

continues to grow and the need 

increases for more food, comfort and 

luxuries, we must learn to do more 

with less energy and materials. We 

must begin developing alternative 

and renewable energy sources that 

will be available when the known 

supplies of fossil fuels are gone. We 

must also learn to turn our garbage 

into a resource. 

Simply put, today’s designers have 

to develop a “cradle to grave” attitude 

in their designs. 

By thinking initially about the full 

life-cycle of a product and how it 

might ultimately be re-used, engineers 

can make great strides in helping to 

close the cycle. The technical concepts 

leading to sustainable development 

especially in the areas of Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy are 

very well researched and advanced. 

The challenge now is to be able to 

apply these technologies optimally 

and in the most sustainable manner. 

Optimal applications (for example) 

in the Malaysian context would 

include the ability to adapt and use 

these concepts to suit the local 

climatic and social conditions – 

therein lies the formidable challenges 

of practical applications to also meet 

social and political agendas. 

We simply cannot ignore the 

writings on the wall and the following 

notable quotes will serve as a constant 

reminder in our never-ending quest 

to achieve sustainable development 

in all that we do today and in the 

future. 


❛ Sustainable development is 

development that meets the needs of 

the present without compromising 

the ability of future generations to 

meet their own needs.❜ 

Brundtland Commission report 

of 1987 

❛All political decisions must give due 

consideration to long-term 

economic, social and environmental 

consequences. The aim is to hand on 

to the next generation a society in 

which the major environmental 

problems have been solved.❜ Sweden 

❛A hundred years after we are gone 

and forgotten, those who never heard 

of us will be living with the results of 

our actions.❜ Oliver Wendell Homes 

Sustainable Concepts 

& Elements 

At a recent international 

symposium on sustainability (The 

2005 World Sustainable Building 

Conference in Tokyo), it was quite 

obvious (albeit to the author) that new 

Energy Efficiency (EE) and Renewable 

Energy (RE) concepts are being 

exhausted – the challenge now is their 

optimal applications. 

Hence, the most effective 

applications of EE and RE concepts

for the built environment to optimize 

sustainability would constitute the 

ultimate goal. Some of these concepts 

are; 

● All forms of low energy and 

passive building design features/ 

components 

● Active building facades or Blue 

Technology 

● Proper insulation for walls and 

roofing (including the application 

of green roofs) 

● BIPV (Building Integrated Photo 

Voltaic) 

● Natural Ventilation 

● Natural Lighting 

● Solar water heating 

● High and low ceiling rooms 

● Ventilated roof 

● Occupant’s life-style 

● Good housekeeping 

● Water saving devices such as less 

water flush wc, and water-less 

urinals 

● Rainwater harvesting and grey 

water recycling 

● Hot water heat reclaim from airconditioning 

system 

● Energy Efficient lamps and other 

electrical appliances including 

fridges, air-conditioners, fans, 

motors, televisions, personal 

computer’s and laptops. 

● Latest and future technologies 

such as fuel-cell hot water – 

electricity units, air-conditioning 

- fuel cell units, embedded cooling 

pipes. 

Energy & Energy Efficiency 

In Design 

The growing concern of 

environmental problems, including 

global warming, which have been 

linked to the extended use of energy, 

has increased both the importance of 

all kinds of so-called “energy saving 

measures”, and the necessity for an 

increased efficiency in all forms of 

energy utilization. The Kyoto Protocol 

and the need to fulfill it are steps in 

this direction. There has been a lot of 

effort made to make buildings and the 

processes related to them, such as 

making domestic hot water 

production more efficient, and to 

reduce the use of fossil energy sources 

in the built environment. In countries 

like Germany and many others, the 

approach has been taken with low 

energy and passive houses, in which 

almost no surplus heating from the 

energy supply is needed to keep the 

houses at comfortable levels, even 

during harsh winter conditions. Also, 

research related attempts, such as high 

technology zero energy houses, have 

been made. The aim in all these efforts 

is to conserve natural and fossil 

energy resources with the key 

objective of creating energy conscious 

and comfortably built environments. 

There is nonetheless still a large 

“savings potential” left, due to the fact 

that the primary energy demand of 

buildings accounts for more than one 

third of the world’s energy demand. 

Most of the energy supplied is utilized 

for room conditioning, to heat or cool 

the room space to maintain a 

temperature of between 20° and 26°C. 

The question remains, what is 

really consumed under the law of 

energy conservation? And 

furthermore, is it sufficient to “save” 


energy, to be “energy conscious”, or 

to make sustainable buildings with 

sustainable “energy” systems? 

‘Exergy’ Way To Sustainable Design 

It is often claimed that energy is 

consumed. This assumption holds true 

not only in everyday conversation but 

also in scientific discussions associated 

with so-called energy and 

environmental issues. However, this 

claim tends to conflict with the fact 

that the total amount of energy is 

conserved even though the forms of 

energy may change from one to 

another. It would hence seem rather 

confusing to use one of the most well 

established scientific terms, “energy”, 

to mean “to be conserved” and “to be 

consumed” simultaneously. This is why 

there is need for a new terminology to 

be derived - the concept of ‘exergy’ - 

to really understand what is consumed. 

‘Exergy’ can be regarded as the 

valuable part of energy. Energy exists 

everywhere around us, but in forms 

we cannot use, or at least not directly. 

So, in this regard, we must be 

concerned with the quality of energy 

flow. The use of high quality energy 

sources, like electricity or fossil fuels 

are for high quality applications such 

as lighting and driving machines. But 

for low quality energy applications, 

such as space heating or cooling, we 

should not use these high quality 

energy sources. 

Picture source: www.etisolar.ca/highlights/BIPV/ 

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To understand the difference (and 

impact) between low and high quality 

energy applications, a simple 

reference to the generation of 

electricity from a waste incinerator 

plant would be a good example; 

Waste is burned in air stream to 

ensure complete combustion. Hot gas 

from the waste incinerator furnace is 

then used to raise steam in a steam 

cycle to generate electricity. This 

relatively low steam temperature 

limits electricity generation efficiency 

to around 27% which is low when 

compared to a coal power station 

electricity generation efficiency of 

around 35%. However, if this waste 

heat is instead used directly in district 

(space) heating (i.e. bypassing the 

electricity conversion stage), then the 

overall efficiency is over 70% ! 

‘Exergy’ Efficiency In Design 

Kilkis (2004) describes ‘exergy’ 

as a qualitative measure of the useful 

work potential available for a given 

amount of energy source. For 

example, low-temperature waste 

heat is a low-‘exergy’ resource 

because only low temperature and 

limited applications such as domestic 

water service can be realized. On the 

other hand, natural gas is a high- 

‘exergy’ resource because several 

different useful applications such as 

electricity generation can be realized. 

Existing HVAC (Heating, Ventilation 

& Air-Conditioning) systems are not 

directly compatible with low-‘exergy’ 

renewable and waste energy 

resources unless either the equipment 

is oversized and/or resource 

temperatures are conditioned, both 

of which are costly measures and 

diminish the appeal for renewable 

energy resources. Furthermore, 

conventional HVAC systems depend 

upon fossil fuels even when heat 

pumps are used, as heat pumps 

depend on electric power generally 

supplied from conventional power 

plants using fossil fuels and delivered 

at low transmission efficiency. 

In the presence of serious 

environmental issues, the global 

need for sustainable development, 

and high primary energy costs, 


‘exergy’ analysis is the primary 

engineering tool for addressing both 

the rational utilization of energy 

resources and protection of the 

environment. 

Alfvén (1975) compared energy 

accounting irrespective of different 

energy qualities (grades) to a cashier 

counting cash only by the number 

of coins or notes and neglecting their 

value. This comparison has a great 

similarity with what is happening in 

the energy-efficiency description of 

an HVAC system. HVAC systems are 

rated only with respect to their 

thermal efficiencies, which neglects 

the overall energy, environment, and 

economic relationships. Current 

HVAC systems generally rely on 

high-‘exergy’ fossil fuels for comfort 

functions, which only require lowgrade 

heat or cold. This mismatch 

destroys most of the ‘exergy’. ‘Exergy’ 

of any flow or resource is the total 

amount of useful work that is 

available, and an HVAC system 

wastes most of that. Therefore, it is 

no surprise that their ‘exergy’ 

efficiency is less than 10% (Rosen 

and Dincer 1996; Kilkis 2004), or 

5% on average for Swedish homes 

(Wall 1986). 

It is unfortunate that this 

problem, which has been known for 

a relatively long time, has not yet 

been addressed: the building sector, 

with a dominant share in annual 

energy use, has a very low ‘exergy’

Picture source: //virtual.vtt.fi/annex31tekstiraamissa.htm 

efficiency for energy utilization and 

continues to be responsible for 

environmental degradation, mainly 

in terms of CO 2 emissions. Residential 

and commercial buildings are 

responsible for about 39% of the 

annual US primary energy 

consumption, more than 70% of the 

total electric power consumed 

(Torcellini et al. 2004) and close to 

40% of CO 2 emissions (DOE 1998). On 

the other hand, the thermal efficiency 

of HVAC systems has reached a good 

saturation point, well above 90% on 

average, except for thermal energy 

transport and distribution losses. 

Therefore, according to Annex 37 

(IEA and ECBCS 2003), the priority 

must now be given to exergy 

efficiency and we must develop new 

HVAC systems with higher exergy 

efficiencies by addressing the root 

causes. The most rational way to 

address this priority is to utilize lowexergy 

waste and alternative energy 

resources directly in temperaturecompatible 

HVAC systems yet to be 

developed. In this respect, radiant 

panels combined with novel 

convective systems and independent 

of any compression cycle seem 

promising. 

Low ‘Exergy’ Buildings 

‘Exergy’ analysis applied to 

buildings shows that the largest 

fraction of the total supplied ‘exergy’ 

for heating in buildings is consumed 

when heat is generated from other 

sources, e.g. fossil fuels, natural gas. 

Parts of these losses occur during 

energy transformation, extraction, 


and transformation in power stations 

or in heat generation, e.g. in the boiler. 

Only a small fraction of the ‘exergy’ 

consumption happens within the 

buildings (Schmidt and Shukuya 

2003). 

This simply implies that our 

known energy systems consume 

more ‘exergy’ than is needed for a 

specific purpose. There is clearly a 

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larger potential for ‘exergy’ saving 

measures than for energy “savings” 

(Johannesson 2004). 

There are examples of such 

systems already in the market, such 

as thermally activated building 

components used for floor heating 

systems or waterborne systems where 

heating or cooling pipes are placed 

into the concrete slab construction. 

Another is the airborne hollow core 

deck system, where tempered air first 

circulates inside the construction walls, 

thereby heating or cooling the rooms 

before being released as fresh supply 

air to the rooms (Johannesson 2004). 

There are many more system 

alternatives, which are showcased in 

the LowEx Guidebook. 

‘Exergy’ analysis can enable 

designers to identify the location, to 

understand the origin, and to establish 

the true magnitude of waste or loss. 

‘Exergy’ analysis is therefore an 

important tool for the design of 

thermal systems since it provides the 

designer with answers to two 

important questions of where and why 

the losses occur. The designer can then 

proceed forward and work on how to 

improve the thermal system. 

There are a large number of 

demonstration projects which show the 

wide variety of possibilities to apply 

low ‘exergy’ heating and cooling 

systems in buildings. A collection of 

example buildings can be found in the 

final report, LowEx Guidebook, of the 

IEA Annex 37. The application of low 

‘exergy’ systems provides many 

additional benefits besides a more 

flexible energy supply, such as: 

improved thermal comfort, improved 

indoor air quality and reduced energy 

use. These aspects needs to be further 

promoted to increase the application 

of low ‘exergy’ systems for heating and 

cooling of buildings. 

Further research is needed to 

explore new or not commonly used 

‘exergy’ resources for the use in the 

built environment, such as the ground 

(e.g. using ground coolness for 

cooling), water (e.g. using ground-, 

sea- or river water as a cooling source), 

sky (e.g. using the radiation in a clear 

sky at night for cooling), snow or 

others. 

The building regulations and 

energy strategies should take the 

quality of energy into account more 

than today. Wide application of low 

‘exergy’ heating and cooling systems 

in buildings will create a building 

stock, which will be able to adapt to 

the use of sustainable energy sources, 

when desired. Without this ability, the 

transfer towards a sustainable built 

environment will be delayed for 

decades. 

CONCLUSION 

Closing the energy and 

environment cycles is certainly not 

an easy task. It is a necessary 

commitment if the human race wants 

to ensure its own sustainable 

existence. We simply have no choice 

but to work towards this goal of (at 

least) stretching our resources. 

For the built environment, the 

HVAC industry which has served 

mankind extremely well (in terms of 

comfort convenience and the like), 

now needs to be at the forefront of 

this effort (since we will not likely 

sacrifice all the comfort and luxury 

that HVAC has afforded and for which 

we are now accustomed to). 

In order to reduce ‘exergy’ waste 

it is imperative that we develop 

innovative yet practical and feasible 

new HVAC methods and equipment. 

Without such an ‘exergy’-conscious 

(rather than energy-conscious) 

change in the near future, buildings 

will continue to contribute 

extensively to global warming. 

The need to address 

“Sustainability: From Design & 

Installation to Commissioning & 

Maintenance” even when applied 

only to the HVAC sector, represents a 

very broad and dynamic subject. We 

have to adopt an integrated approach 

right at the onset of the design process 

all the way to installation before we 

can assure proper commissioning can 

be carried out and maintainability can 

be achieved and thereafter sustained. 

It is far too common not to recognise 

that the industry has progressed at a 

rather large differential pace for these 

four different component stages, and 

we really must close this gap to realise 

a sustainable built environment. 

As a parting food for thought, the 

author’s rating of these four 

component stages (scale of 0 to10) in 


the current built environment (in 

Malaysia) is as follows; 

Average (Maximum) 

Standard Achieved 

Design 7 (10) 

Installation 5 (9) 

Commissioning 5 (8) 

Maintenance 3 (7) 

REFERENCES 

BEM 

Ahern J. 1980. The Exergy Method 

of Energy System Analysis. New 

York: Wiley-Interscience 

Publication, John Wiley and Sons. 

Ala-Juusela, M. (ed.); Schmidt, D. et. 

al. 2004. Heating and Cooling with 

Focus on Increased Energy Efficiency 

and Improved Comfort. Guidebook 

to IEA ECBCS Annex 37. 

VTT Research notes 2256, VTT 

Building and Transport, Espoo, 

Finland, 2004. 

Annex 37. 2005. International 

Energy Agency – Low Exergy heating 

and Cooling of Buildings – Annex 

37, Web Homepage, http:// 

www.vtt.fi/rte/projects/annex37/ 

Index.htm. 

Baehr H.D. 1980. Zur 

Thermodynamik des Heizens- I. Der 

zweite Hauptsatz und die 

konventionellen Heizsysteme. 

Brennstoff-Wärme-Kraft, Germany, 

Vol 32, No 1, 1980, pp. 9-15. 

Baehr H.D. 1980a. Zur 

Thermodynamik des Heizens- II. 

Primärenergieeinsparung durch 

Anergienutzung Brennstoff-Wärme- 

Kraft, Germany, Vol 32, No 2, 1980, 

pp. 47-57. 

DIN 4701-10. 2001. Energy Efficiency 

of Heating and Ventilation Systems 

in Buildings – Part 10: Heating, 

Domestic hot Water, Ventilation. 

German National Standard. Berlin: 

Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. 

Birol I. Kilkis, PhD Fellow ASHRAE. 

From Floor Heating to Hybrid HVAC 

Panel – A Trail of Exergy-Efficient 

Innovations

cover feature 

Water Leakage Detection – Impact, 

Innovations And Economic Benefits 

By Prof. Madya Ir. Dr. Eric Goh, Head - Amquest Research, USM Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 

Ir. Muhd. Sobri Zakaria, Senior Engineer - Penang Water Supply Corporation (PBA) and 

Ir. Peter Chin Joo Negan, Managing Director - DemoCipta 

The headlines in the New Straits Times entitled 

‘Water shortage in Seremban at Critical Stage’ was a 

shock to everyone since Malaysia lies in the 

equatorial zone and is blessed with abundant 

rainfall. In the above-mentioned June 2005 news 

article, it was also reported that the Sg. Terip Dam 

supplying water to the state capital of Seremban 

could only continue to supply water for another 39 

days in the absence of rain and that the 

complementary dam at Kelinchi was almost dry! The 

nation was at a loss of words. Where had the 

excessive rainfall, which at times causes floods, 

disappeared to? The State Authorities subsequently 

concurred, with the results from Water Network 

Management Studies carried out worldwide, that a 

significant percentage of water is lost while in transit 

from treatment plants to consumers. Findings from 

recent investigations carried out by the 

International Water Supply Association (IWSA) in 

1991 indicate that the amount of water lost or 

‘unaccounted for’ is typically in the range of 20 to 

30% of the original production of treated water (IRC, 

2005). A recent study carried out in Sandakan, 

Sabah noted that physical leakages have been 

assessed at 30.8MLD or 39% of the 77 MLD water 

productions. The leakage frequency for the Sabah 

water supply mains is approximately 280 bursts/ 

100km; a statistic that approximates to ten times 

that of the acceptable ‘non-revenue’ level in the U.K. (HalcrowWater, 2005). In Penang, the state-owned 

utility has tried its best to efficiently manage the supply water by paying considerable attention in 

upholding an effective water supply infrastructure, particularly in the replacement of old pipes, and in 

maintaining an efficient water management network. Faulty pipes are the principal culprits in water 

losses. This has resulted in a 50% loss of water in most of the other states nationwide – the so-called 

Non-Revenue Water (NRW) that the utilities corporation cannot account for primarily because of 

leakages. In addition to environmental and economic losses caused by leakages, the presence of leaky 

pipes pose a public health risk as leaks are potential entry points for contaminants should a pressure 

drop occur in the water network system. An efficient water leakage detection system would be an 

advantage to arrest further losses of this precious commodity. The impact, innovations and benefits for 

effective water leakage detection would be of great economic benefit to the Government as it works 

towards sustainable national development. 

THE INGENIEUR 16

The need to conserve water 

supplemented by the concern 

over public health risks are 

good incentives to implement leakage 

detection and control programs. The 

Penang Water Authority is amongst 

the most efficient in the country with 

Non-Revenue Water (NRW) losses 

averaging only about 20%. In 

comparison, some of the other States 

in Malaysia have NRW losses of a 

much greater magnitude; for example, 

the NRW losses in Sabah amount to 

58%, Kedah (48%), Pahang (48%) and 

Kelantan (40%); with all the other 

states having NRW losses above 40%. 

Even Kuala Lumpur and Selangor, two 

of the most progressive states in the 

country have NRW losses amounting 

to 40% (Water Watch, 2005). The 

recent predicament by Negri Sembilan 

indicates that the NRW losses in the 

state could be as high as 50%. Some of 

the potential benefits to every State 

Water Authority of lower NRW water 

loss statistics via effective leak 

detection include: 

● Increase in state revenue from the 

efficient delivery of treated water 

to the community and industry. 

● Savings in delayed capacity 

expansion, as a result of wellorganised 

usage of existing water 

supply thus. 

● Improved public relations between 

consumers and the State Water 

Authorities. 

● Reduced risk of contamination to 

treated water supply from seepage 

of pollution from environment 

into pipe network. 

● Increased base of knowledge on 

water distribution network for 

improved response time for pipe 

repair or replacement during 

emergencies. 

● Optimum energy consumption 

since pressure need not be 

increased to deliver the water in 

the supply network system. 

● Efficient fire-fighting capabilities 

due to optimum pressure 

maintained in water pipe 

distribution networks servicing 

hydrants. 

Causes Of Water Pipe Leakage 

Owing to evolving changes in the 

climate worldwide and the civic 

concern of the international 

community, water resources are now 

considered a valuable commodity. 

The primary objective of all global 

water utility suppliers is the successful 

delivery of all treated water via 

distribution networks to the respective 

consumers. However, in reality a 

sizable portion of treated water is lost 

whilst in transit from treatment plants 

to consumers. ‘Unaccounted-for’ 

water is simply defined as the 

difference between the treated water 

produced and the actual volume of 

water that reaches consumers at the 

end of the distribution networks. The 

principle cause of excessive 

unaccounted-for water is leakage. 

Some of the main factors contributing 

towards leakage in water distribution 

networks include: 

● Degradation of pipe material 

quality due to harsh climatic and 

ground conditions at site. 


● Water quality which includes 

extreme temperatures, high 

pressures and abrasiveness of 

impurities transported in fluid. 

● Inadequate maintenance of 

pipelines and valves. 

● Poor initial design of distribution 

or joining systems. 

● Sub-standard usage of distribution 

system components during the 

installation phase. 

● Uncoordinated maintenance of 

localised pipes which do not 

conform to overall distribution 

network set-up. 

● Structural damage or unplanned/ 

accidental excessive load, stress 

from traffic vibrations applied to 

concealed subsurface pipe 

distribution set-up. 

● Inadequate corrosion protection. 

Water Leakage 

Detection Surveys 

Active leakage detection and 

control is one of the basic methods of 

managing real losses in any clean 

water supply network. Management 

Water 

Leakage 

Detection 

Technique 

Maximum leak noise level 

Rapid decrease 

of noise level 

Origin of Water Leak 

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of leakage control is a long-term 

activity and is thus an essential exercise 

for any State Water Authority. This 

innovative cost saving method i.e. 

active leakage control is one of the most 

effective methods of reducing losses of 

this important commodity. The benefits 

of reducing water leakage in the 

distribution network are as follows: 

● Less water needs to be produced. 

Therefore, this translates into cost 

savings on the operation and 

maintenance via the reduction of 

chemical usage for water 

treatment process. 

● Costs involved in leak repair are 

lower than the costs for repairing 

pipe bursts. 

● Good public relations and 

company image. 

● A systematic system or method of 

reducing leakages will also reduce 

the level of contamination in 

the system. 

● An in-depth knowledge of real 

water consumption in the 

community will help to improve 

the prediction of water demand for 

reliable long-term economic and 

logistic planning. 

Mechanics Of NRW 

Leakage Detection 

Basically three types of sounds are 

identified as being caused by leakage 

from underground water pipes 

(SubSurface Leak Detection, 2005): 

(i) Pipe vibrations due to reduction 

in orifice pressure. 

(ii) Water impaction on nearby soil. 

(iii) Circulation and seepage of water 

in the soil cavity formed due to 

the leakage from pipe system. 


From studies carried out, it was 

observed that pipe vibrations or 

resonance produce the loudest or 

most intense leak noise, similar to a 

‘whoosh’ or a ‘hiss’. The sound of the 

impaction and seepage of leakage 

water is not so noticeable. Water 

impacting directly onto soil produces 

a ‘rapid thumping’ or ‘beating’ 

sound; complemented by the sound 

of ‘a mountain stream’ when the 

leakage water infiltrates the soil or 

flows around the outer surface of the 

pipe. 

The variables affecting the 

intensity and frequency of the 

sounds produced due to water 

leakage from pipes and transmitted 

to the surface of the ground are: 

● Water pressure within the pipe. 

● Material and Diameter of pipe. 

● Depth of overburden/soil 

overlaying water pipe network. 

● Soil Type and Compactness. 

● Type of Surface Cover (cement, 

asphalt, grass or loose soil). 

A summary of research findings 

from noise characteristics due to 

leakage from water distribution 

systems include the following: 

● PVC water pipes transmit water 

leak sounds that are softer and of 

lower frequency compared to 

metal pipes (knowledge on pipe 

material is essential in analysis). 

● Leaks from small diameter pipes 

(whatever the material) transmits 

more noise and of higher 

frequency compared to large 

diameter pipes. 

● Hard and compacted soils are the 

best medium for transmitting 

leakage noise. However, sandy 

soils, water-saturated soils and 

very loose soils are not effective 

transmitters of leak noise. 

● Depth of buried pipe network is 

another factor since soil absorbs 

the sound of water leaks. It is 

easier to detect water leaks at 1m 

depth compared to sites where the 

pipes are buried more than 3m 

below the surface.

● Surface ground cover overlaying 

the distribution pipe network can 

affect leak detection analysis. 

Concrete slabs or hard surfaces 

resonate with the sounds of the 

water leak; thus the sound of the 

leak can still be detected 2-3m 

away from the pipe. However, 

grass lawns and loose soil are not 

good transmitters of vibrations. 

Leakage Detection Technology 

Specialised instruments that are 

used in an active leakage control 

programme include: 

● Noise Loggers. 

● Digital Noise Correlators. 

● Electronic Listening Devices. 

● High-tech Ground Microphones. 

The water distribution system is 

checked for leaks during the survey 

phase by using acoustic equipment 

that detects the sound or vibrations 

induced by water as it escapes from 

pipes under pressure. The state-ofthe-art 

acoustic equipment 

First-pass leak detection survey 

(daytime correlation and sounding) 

Do leaks found 

equal excess night flow? 

No 

Carry out night leak survey 

Do leaks found 

equal excess night flow? 

No 

Is a step-test 

worthwhile? 

Yes 

Carry out step-test 

planning procedure 

Are valves operable? 

Yes 

Carry out step-test 

Analysis results 

Leak location 

required? 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

Follow repair procedure 

Flowchart of NRW Leakage Detection 

Follow repair procedure 

Repair valves 

Repair leaks found 


commonly used includes listening 

devices such as aquaphones/ 

sonoscopes and geophones/ground 

microphones (IRC,2005). Acoustic 

equipment also includes leak noise 

correlators. Correlators are 

computer-based instruments that 

have a simple field set-up and work 

by measuring leak signals (sound or 

vibrations) at two points that 

bracket a suspected leak. The 

position of the leak is then 

determined autmatically based on 

the time shift between the leak 

signals calculated using the crosscorrelation 

method. 

Innovations of the digital 

correlators, recently developed in 

2002, over its analogue predecessor 

include (IWA, 2003): 

● Superior performance in locating 

leaks on all pipe materials 

(including plastics) and sizes. 

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● Easy to use complemented with 

rapid processing time. 

● Efficient transmission of digital 

data with no data loss. 

Another technological innovations 

to increase the accuracy of NRW 

leakage detection include the 

development of the combined acoustic 

logger cum leak noise correlator. 

Advantages of this new set-up include 

reduction in wait time in the 

identification of the leak noise and 

pinpointing the exact location of the 

leak, thus reducing the repair time and 

eventually cost of repair. 

The Ground Penetrating Radar 

(GPR) is another advancement that can 

be used to locate leaks via observations 

of cavities, voids or disturbed ground 

in the ground near the sub-surface 

water pipes. The GPR System works 

best in dry and granular soils. Useful 

in locating leaks at sites with excessive 

background noise such as traffic or 

pumps. 

The Gas Injection and Tracer 

technique can also be used to detect 

accurately the location of leaks. The 

Tracer Gas, normally industrial 

hydrogen, is introduced into the pipe 

network that will eventually escape at 

the point of the leak. A sensor probe at 

the surface is used to detect the point 

where the Tracer Gas escapes to the 

environment. 

Another innovation in NRW leak 

detection is the usage of the Surface 

Sensor Array. This equipment sends off 

radio frequency carrier signals into the 

ground and the waves reflected from 

the various ground conditions are 

subsequently analysed. The 

interferometer component of this setup 

will detect the changes in phase and 

amplitude modulation of the reflected 

signal caused by flowing water from a 

leak source. The location of the leak 

can thus be confirmed to a high degree 

of accuracy. 

Leak Abatement Programme 

The phases of work for successful 

operation of a leak abatement 

programme are: 

● Accurate mapping and continuous 

updating of the entire distribution 

network. 

● Identification of high-risk leak 

prone sections of pipe systems. 

● Inspection of valves and hydrants 

in distribution system. 

● Systematic placement of leak 

detection equipment/loggers at 

strategic locations in the 

distribution network. 

● Isolation of leaks, upon detection, 

to a particular line segment or 

local pipe network. 

● Establish the exact location for 

each leak detected. 

● Characterisation of all leaks 

observed according to their 

magnitude. 

● Setting up of a computerised online 

database containing records of 

all leaks detected for easy retrieval 

and future network planning and 

design. 

CONCLUSION 

The feature has successfully 

discussed the economic benefits and 

the various innovative techniques for 

the detection of leaks in any water 

distribution network. These activities 

are useful for further strategic 

development to decrease NRW losses. 

When treated water flow increases in 

efficiency, less energy is required to 

transport this valuable commodity to 

the respective consumers. The 

economic benefits generated by this 

technology means a ‘win-win’ 

scenario for all concerned: the 

government can quantitatively justify 

that all the valuable water in the 

nation is being used effectively; the 

respective Water Authorities will 

generate savings via actual 

transportation of all treated water 

produced to the consumers thus an 

increase in revenue; whilst the 

consumers will benefit via no 

significant increase in water tariffs/ 

bills since the respective Water 

Authorities will now not be running 

at a loss due to excessive leakages of 

NRW to the environment. This noble 

objective should thus meet the 


escalating demands of the community 

and complement the Government’s 

needs for further efficient 

industrialisation and national 

development. BEM 

REFERENCES 

IRC – Inst. of Research in 

Construction (2005). Leakage 

Detection. http://irc.nrc.gc.ca 

HalcrowWater (2005). 

Leak Detection. 

www.halcrowwaterservices.co.uk. 

IWA (2005). Leak detection 

practices and techniques: 

a practical approach. 

www.iwapublishing.com 

Lambert, A.O. (2004). Personal 

Communication, September. 

International Water Data 

Comparisons Ltd, UK 

Lambert, A.O., Myers, S. and Trow, 

S. (2004). Managing Water Leakage 

(Economic and Technical Issue) 

NSTP – News Straits Times Press 

(2005). Water shortage in 

Seremban at Critical Stage. 

Office of Water Services(OFWAT) 

(1999). 1998 - 1999 Report on 

leakage and water efficiency 

RAJAC (2005). Leak detection and 

abatement in water utility. 

www.rec.org. 

Reynolds, J. and Preston, S. (2004). 

The International Application of 

BABE Concepts - From Feasibility 

Studies to Performance Target 

Based NRW Reduction Contracts 

SubSurface Leak Detection (2005). 

How to find leaks. 

www.subsurfaceleak.com 

Water Watch, 2005. Non-Revenue 

Water. 

http://greenfield.fortunecity.com

Contaminated Land Remediation 

Technologies: Current Usage And 

Applicability In Malaysia 

By Yin Chun Yang 1,3 , Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Suhaimi Abdul-Talib 2,3 , Ir. Dr. G. Balamurugan 3 and Ir. Khew Swee Lian 3 

Contaminated lands are often the blight of concerted industrial 

activities in highly developed and industrialized countries. 

Unfortunately, Malaysia is not unaffected by this issue and thus 

requires intervention in terms of tightening of legislation regarding 

contaminated land as well as application of established remediation 

technologies. Since redevelopment of such sites are already 

earmarked under the 9 th Malaysia Plan, it is reckoned that the next 

step for related stakeholders is to focus on local customization or 

creation of cost-effective and effectual contaminated land 

remediation technologies. As applications of these technologies are 

still in their infancy in Malaysia, familiarity of such technologies is 

lacking among pertinent stakeholders. Therefore, this paper aims 

to provide an overview of the types of contaminated land 

remediation technologies with regards to their current usage and 

applicability in the Malaysian context. Technologies such as soil 

vapour extraction, bio-remediation, containment, solidification/ 

stabilization, excavation and phyto-remediation are described. It is 

suggested that a long-term strategy be established to ensure more 

expertise and technologies with regards to contaminated land 

remediation will be locally available. All agencies, either public or 

private should invest in the training of their personnel so that a pool 

of local experts can be made available in the near future. 

The presence of contaminated 

land has been the subject of 

concern in most developed 

countries for at least two decades, 

especially countries that are 

experiencing scarcity of 

uncontaminated land (greenfields) for 

development. Even though the 

predicament of contaminated land in 

Malaysia is not thought to be as 

widespread as that found in 

industrialized countries, the problem 

nevertheless exists and demands 

intervention. Many of the older 

industrial areas in Malaysia have 

large patches of contaminated land 

including petrol stations, waste 

disposal sites and ex-mining sites. 

Land contamination in Malaysia is 

generally attributed to: 

(a) Indiscriminate dumping of wastes; 

(b) Leaking of underground 

petroleum storage tanks; 

(c) Improper and illegal storage of 

fuel and chemicals within 

industrial premises; 


(d) Years of gradual accumulation 

of chemicals within industrial 

premises. 

Utilization of established 

technologies for land remediation 

in Malaysia is rather limited as 

compared to developed countries. 

These technologies are mostly 

being utilized on a trial basis in 

order to facilitate local 

remediation engineers to evaluate 

the technical and economic 

feasibility of local application. 

However, with the imminent 

creation of a National Register for 

contaminated sites and 

formulation of comprehensive 

policies on redevelopment of such 

sites earmarked under the 9 th 

Malaysia Plan, these technologies 

will be essential in assisting 

sustainable development 

initiatives in the country. 

Hitherto, the majority of 

engineers and environmental 

experts in Malaysia are unaware 

of the existence of such 

technologies and this may hamper 

efforts in redevelopment of 

contaminated sites. As such, the 

aim of this paper is to provide an 

overview of the types of 

contaminated land remediation 

technologies with regards to their 

current usage and applicability in 

the Malaysian context. 

1 Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA 

2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA 

3 Environmental Engineering Technical Division, The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia 

cover feature

cover feature 

Retail Downstream 

Operations 

Contaminated Land Remediation In Malaysia 

Petroleum Industry Other Industries 

Oil Depots 

Applicable Remedial 

Technologies 

Petroleum 

Refineries 

● Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) 

● Remedial Natural Attenuation 

● Enhanced Attenuation 

● Bio-remediation 

● Containment 

Chlorinated 

Hydrocarbons 

Applicable 

Remedial 

Technologies 

● Soil Vapour 

Extraction 

● Bio-remediation 


Figure 1: Contaminated land remediation technologies in Malaysia 

The Need For Contaminated 

Land Remediation Technologies 

In Malaysia 

Demand for contaminated land 

remediation technologies in Malaysia 

is low compared to developed 

countries due to the exorbitant costs 

of carrying out remediation and the 

lack of legislation to obligate culprits 

to bear the remediation costs. Largescale 


is primarily conducted on a voluntary 

basis and not regulatory driven, albeit 

some organisations would find it 

necessary to fulfill property lease or 

purchasing requirements by carrying 

out remediation activities (Leong and 

Ng, 2001). Therefore, cost still plays a 

major factor for industries that are 

willing to acquire the services of 

environmental firms in order to clean 

up contamination located within their 

premises. Other external 

circumstances that cause the need for 

contaminated land remediation in 

Malaysia include property value 

depreciation, negative public 

Metal 

Applicable 

Remedial 

Technologies 

● Solidification/ 

Stabilization 


perception and requirement from 

third parties such as potential buyers 

of the property (Lee, 2001). 

Description Of 

Remediation Technologies 

The selection of remediation 

technology for cleaning up of a 

particular contaminated land is 

dependent upon various factors such 

as local soil conditions, hydrogeological 

conditions and the types of 

contaminants. Most established 

remediation technologies do not 

necessitate localized customization. 

The predominant industry that 

frequently conducts contaminated 

land remediation in Malaysia is the 

petroleum-based industry. Locations 

such as retail downstream operations 

(petrol kiosks), oil depots and 

petroleum refineries are examples of 

petroleum-based premises that 

generally require contaminated land 

remediation. This may be attributed to 

the fact that the petroleum-based 

industry is managed by established 


multi-national corporations that 

incorporate efficient and wellorganized 

environmental 

management systems in their routine 

operations. As a result, these systems, 

which are standard corporate 

requirements, compel the 

corporations to carry out clean-up 

activities of contaminated sites within 

their premises. Conversely, other 

industries such as metal plating, paper 

and textile in Malaysia are generally 

managed by small and medium 

enterprises (SMEs) which generally 

ignore contaminated spots within 

their premises due to their supposedly 

meagre profits to cover the high costs 

of remediation. 

Figure 1 shows the list of 


technologies normally used in 

Malaysia. These technologies include 

soil vapour extraction, bioremediation; 

remedial natural 

attenuation, containment, 

solidification and stabilization, 

contaminated soil excavation and 

phytoremediation. Subsequent 

sections provide a brief description of 

these technologies and their 

applicability in Malaysia 

● Soil Vapour Extraction 

Soil vapour extraction (SVE) 

removes harmful chemicals, in the 

form of vapours, from the soil above 

the water table. These chemicals are 

usually organic compounds which are 

easily volatilized (VOCs). The vapours 

are extracted (removed) from the 

ground by applying a vacuum to pull 

the vapours out (USEPA, 2001). This 

technology is depicted in Figure 2. In 

most local clean up projects involving 

organics (especially if groundwater 

contamination is a concern), 

remediation is usually conducted by 

means of SVE and coupled with above 

ground pump-and-treat (P&T) systems 

that incorporate small-scale 

wastewater treatment systems to 

facilitate and expedite the clean up 

process. Local application of SVE is 

very suitable due to constant warm 

temperature (30 0 ± 5 0 C) in the country 

throughout the year that facilitates

Extraction well 

Polluted 

groundwater 

Feeding 

tank 

rapid evapouration of organic-based 

chemicals under vacuum within 

contaminated soil matrix. 

● Bio-remediation And Remedial 

Natural Attenuation 

Bio-remediation allows natural 

processes to clean up harmful 

organic chemicals in the 

environment. Microbes that are 

present in soil and groundwater 

degrade certain harmful chemicals, 

such as those found in gasoline and 

oil spills. When microbes completely 

digest these chemicals, they change 

them into water and harmless gases 

such as carbon dioxide (USEPA, 2001). 

Bio-remediation can be conducted 

in-situ or ex-situ. The most 

significant parameters affecting bioremediation 

are temperature, 

concentration of nutrients/fertilizers 

and concentration of oxygen 

(aeration). In Malaysia, laboratoryscale 

treatability studies must be 

carried out prior to actual clean-up. 

A diagram illustrating the 

mechanisms in bio-remediation is 

shown in Figure 3. 

Water table 

Wastewater 

treatment 

system 

Figure 2: Soil vapour extraction (Adapted from USEPA, 2001) 

(1) Microbes 

approach 

organic 

contaminant 

(2) Microbes 

attached to 

organic 

contaminant 

Natural attenuation relies on 

natural processes to clean up or 

attenuate pollution in soil and 

groundwater in-situ. Natural 

attenuation occurs at most polluted 

sites. However, the right conditions 

must exist to clean sites properly. If 

not, cleanup will not be quick enough 

or complete enough (USEPA, 2001). 

The supplementary engagement of 

experts to monitor or test these 

conditions to ensure natural 

attenuation is working is called 

monitored natural attenuation (MNA). 

In recent years, there have been 

requests for natural attenuation to be 

part of contaminated soil remediation 

strategies in Malaysia. This method is 

still novel and generally conducted 

subsequent to a primary clean-up 

activity where monitoring of soil 

conditions is initiated. 


This is the simplest remediation 

method currently used in Malaysia. It 

is employed if there are no potential 

environmental and/or public health 

threats posed by the sub-surface 

(3) Microbes 

degrade 

organic 

contaminant 

Figure 3: Mechanisms of bioremediation (Adapted from USEPA, 2001) 


Treated 

water 

Ground surface 

CO2 + H2O 

(4) Microbes 

release CO2 

and water into 

soil matrix 

contaminants. This method merely 

involves paving the entire 

contaminated site with concrete to 

prevent public contact, with no effort 

on contaminant source removal. 

Additional steps involve placing a 

cover over contaminated material 

such as wastes buried at a landfill to 

stop rainwater from seeping through 

the wastes and carrying pollution into 

groundwater, lakes or rivers. 

● Solidification/Stabilization 

Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) 

technology uses physical and 

chemical processes to produce 

chemically stable solids with 

improved contaminant containment 

and handling characteristics (USACE, 

1995). Solidification refers to a 

process whereby wastes in the form 

of sludges or soils, are solidified to 

produce free-standing and monolithic 

masses with enhanced physical 

integrity (Cheng, 1991; USACE, 

1995). Stabilization is a chemical 

alteration technique of reducing the 

mobility and solubility of 

contaminants in wastes or soil 

(Conner 1990; Vipulanandan and 

Wang, 1997). S/S is best utilized for 

soil heavily contaminated with metals 

and can be utilized either in-situ or 

ex-situ. In-situ S/S operations, 

schematically shown in Figure 4, 

usually consist of augers to mix 

clean-up materials and metal 

contaminated soils with addition of 

water. The clean-up materials usually 

consist of chemical binders such as 

cement or lime (CaO) and other 

pozzolanic materials. S/S is the Best 

Demonstrated Available Technology 

(BDAT) in the US for remediation of 

metal contaminated soils due to its 

high effectiveness in stabilizing 

metals. This technology is also highly 

adaptable to Malaysian weather as 

high humidity permits high 

cementitious hydration of mixed 

slurry, rendering high compressive 

strength of the treated soils. 

● Contaminated Soil Excavation 

This is the conventional method 

used by the local authority (especially 

cover feature

cover feature 

Mixing of 

cleanup 

materials 

and polluted 

soil 

the Department of Environment) to 

remove the direct threat of 

contaminated soil on groundwater 

caused by illegal dumping of 

scheduled wastes. The excavated 

contaminant is subsequently treated 

ex-situ at a treatment facility. 

Although this method is usually fast 

and cost-effective, alternative cleanup 

technologies are being considered 

as excavation is not viable for cleanup 

of soils contaminated at depths of 

more than five metres. 

● Phyto-remediation 

This method utilizes plants to 

accumulate heavy metals or organics 

in contaminated soils. It consists of 

two mechanisms, namely, phytoextraction 

involving uptake of 

contaminants by plants and phytostabilization, 

where excretion of 

components from plants decrease 

soil pH and form metal complexes. 

The use of phyto-remediation for 

extraction of contaminants from 

soils is almost non-existent in 

Malaysia and is mainly limited to 

bench-scale research in academic 

institutions. However, this 

technology presents itself as an 

attractive remediation option as it 

increases the aesthetic values of the 

contaminated site and requires less 

equipment and labour than any other 

remediation methods. 

Conclusions & 

Recommendations 

Expertise and land remediation 

technologies are currently available in 

the global market. In the short term, 

Polluted soil 

Malaysia can rely on the pool of 

available experts and technologies in 

the global market. However, Malaysia 

must consider a long-term strategy to 

ensure expertise and technologies will 

be available locally. All agencies, either 

public or private should invest in the 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


training of their personnel so that a 

pool of local experts can be made 

available in the near future. Various 

training institutions in the country 

should also provide training 

programmes, courses, seminars by 

bringing in experts from developed 

countries, especially from the US, or 

by tapping into the pool of experts 

from multi-national companies based 

in Malaysia. Contaminated soil 

remediation technologies, while still in 

their infancy in Malaysia in terms of 

market potential and applicability, 

should be viewed as important 

commodities especially since the 

Government plans to tighten 

legislations and policies regarding 

contaminated land remediation and 

due diligence matters. BEM 

The authors gratefully acknowledge Mr. Ng Hon-Seng, Regional Director of 

ENSR Corporation Sdn Bhd for his magnanimous contribution of valuable 

and up-to-date information pertaining to contaminated land remediation 

projects in Malaysia. 

REFERENCES 

Water 

tank 

Clean soil 

Cleanup 

materials 

Figure 4: In-Situ solidification/stabilization of contaminated soil (USEPA, 2001) 

Ground 

level 

Cheng, K.Y. (1991). Controlling Mechanisms of Metals Release from Cementbased 

Waste Form in Acetic Acid Solution. Ph.D Thesis. University of 

Cincinnati, USA. unpublished 

Conner J.R. (1990). Chemical Fixation and Solidification of Hazardous 

Wastes. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 

Leong, K. and Ng, H. S. (2001). Remediation Case Studies for Industrial Sites 

in Asia. Proceedings of the National Conference on Contaminated Land: 

Brownfield 2001, 14 – 15 February 2001, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. 

Lee, A. K. (2001). The Need for the Registration of Contaminated Sites in 

Malaysia. Proceedings of the National Conference on Contaminated Land: 

Brownfield 2001, 14 – 15 February 2001, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. 

USACE (1995). Engineering and Design – Technical Guidelines for 

Hazardous and Toxic Waste Treatment and Cleanup Activities, U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, Washington D.C., pp. 4-88 to 4-93. 

USEPA (2001). Citizen’s Guides to Cleanup Methods. U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency. 

Vipulanandan, C. and Wang S. (1997). Solidification/Stabilization of 

Hexavalent Chromium Contaminated Soil. Proceedings of the Conference 

on In-Situ Remediation of the Geoenvironment, 5-8 October 1997, 

Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.

The National Urbanisation Policy 

Issued by Jabatan Perancangan Bandar Dan Desa (JPBD) 

Submitted by Cheo Hong Keyong 

The National Urbanisation Policy (NUP) will guide and 

coordinate the planning and urban development of the country 

to be more efficient and systematic particularly to handle the 

increase in the urban population by 2020 with emphasis on 

balancing the social, economic and physical development 

within urban areas. It will also serve as the foundation to 

encourage racial integration and solidarity for those who will 

reside in the urban areas. 

The NUP will be the main thrust for all urban planning and 

development activities in Peninsular Malaysia including 

development plans at the state and local level. This policy 

will outline the thrust, policy, measures and implementation 

plan to coordinate and manage the urbanisation process of 

the country. 

Philosophy 

The formulation of urbanisation policies should be based on 

the philosophy of a liveable city which encompasses the 

following: 

● Generate economic development in order that the nation’s 

prosperity is shared equitably and beneficial to all. 

● Provide quality urban services, utility and infrastructure 

required by the population. 

● Emphasize safety aspects in towns. 

● Ensure the design and quality of urban fabric is based on 

the local cultures of the nation. 

● Focus on the preservation and conservation of the 

environment. 

● Promote social development and national unity. 

● Promote participation of the residents in their respective 

community development towards enhancing governance 

for greater efficiency and effectiveness. 

● Eradicate urban poverty. 

● Be sensitive and innovative towards technological 

advancement and development. 

Goal 

The goal of urban development to create a livable 

environment that could realize a peaceful community and 

living environment requires a balance in all aspects of 

development, namely physical, economy, social and 

environment. This is in line with efforts to achieve the goal 


of Vision 2020 for Malaysia to be a developed nation. To 

achieve this, the National Urbanisation Policy is guided by 

the following goal: 

To Create A Visionary City With A Peaceful Community And 

Living Environment Through Sustainable Urban Development. 

Objective 

Based on the above goal, six objectives have been identified 

namely: 

i. To develop a planned, quality, progressive and sustainable 

city; 

ii. To develop and strengthen a competitive urban economy; 

iii. To create a conducive environment in order to encourage 

social development; 

iv. To eradicate urban poverty; 

v. To strengthen the planning, implementation and 

monitoring system; 

vi. To strengthen urban management and administrative 

institutions. 

National Urbanisation Policy Thrust 

The National Urbanisation Policy is formulated on six thrusts 

as follows; 

Thrust 1: An efficient and sustainable 

Urban Development 

NUP 1 - The National Urbanisation Policy shall form 

the basic framework for urban development in 

Malaysia. 

NUP 2 - Urban development shall be based on the urban 

hierarchy system of the NUP. 

NUP 3 - Each urban development shall be based on 

the Development Plan being prepared. 

NUP 4 - Urban growth limit is determined based on its 

carrying capacity for all towns in the country. 

NUP 5 - Optimal and balanced landuse planning shall 

be given emphasis in urban development. 

guidelines

guidelines 

NUP 6 - Urban development shall give priority to urban 

renewal within the urban area. 

NUP 7 - Village development in towns shall be integrated 

with urban development. 

NUP 8 - Environmentally sensitive areas and prime 

agricultural areas shall be conserved. 

NUP 9 - Open space and recreational areas shall be 

adequately provided to meet the requirements of the 

population. 

Thrust 2: Development of an Urban Economy that 

is resilient, dynamic and competitive 

NUP 10 - The development of urban economic activities 

that is value-added and knowledge based (k-economy) 

at all conurbations shall be promoted. 

NUP 11 - Economic development of Major and Minor 

Settlement Centres shall be enhanced to support their 

roles in regional development. 

NUP 12 - Special feature towns shall be developed in 

accordance to their respective potential and niches. 

NUP 13 - Employment opportunities especially for the 

low income group shall be improved and diversified 

irrespective of race. 

NUP 14 - Development of urban areas shall take into 

consideration the Malaysian identity that is multi-racial. 

Bumiputera participation and those with low income 

from the urban economic sector shall be improved. At 

the same time, the interest, opportunity and future 

potential of other races will not be neglected nor 

obstructed. 

Thrust 3: An integrated and efficient Urban 

Transportation System 

NUP 15 - An integrated, efficient and user-friendly public 

transportation system shall be developed. 

NUP 16 - A more comprehensive traffic management 

shall be implemented to ensure a more efficient and 

effective traffic flow. 

NUP 17 - A more comprehensive road network shall be 

developed to improve accessibility and mobility for inter 

and intra urban. 

THE INGENIEUR 

Thrust 4: Provision of urban services, infrastructure 

and utility of quality 

NUP 18 - The provision of infrastructure and utilities shall 

be improved while continuous management and 

maintenance shall be ensured. 

NUP 19 - A planned, effective and sustainable solid waste 

and toxic management system shall be implemented. 

NUP 20 - The quality of urban services shall be improved 

to create a comfortable and liveable environment. 

Thrust 5: Creation of a conducive liveable Urban 

Environment with identity 

NUP 21 - Sufficient housing shall be provided based on 

the requirements of the population. 

NUP 22 - Adequate, fully-equipped and user-friendly 

public amenities shall be provided with continuous 

management and maintenance. 

NUP 23 - Safe urban environment shall be provided. 

NUP 24 - The formation of an urban image and identity 

congruent with local function and culture that represents 

a multi-racial society. 

NUP 25 - Areas and building of historical value and unique 

architecture shall be restored and gazetted. 

NUP 26 - A sustainable and environment-friendly 

development shall form the basis of environmental 

conservation and improve the urban quality of life. 

Thrust 6: Effective Urban Governance 

NUP 27 - The institutional capacity shall be strengthened 

to implement a more efficient and effective urban 

administration and management. 

NUP 28 - Good corporate governance shall be practiced 

to promote a management culture that is transparent, 

has integrity and is accountable. 

NUP 29 - The involvement of society shall be encouraged 

in urban planning and governance. 

NUP 30 - The use of innovative technology in urban 

planning, development and urban services management. 

For further details, please refer to publication of National 

Urbanisation Policy by JPBD 

26

✁ 

NOTIS 

PEMBAHARUAN PENDAFTARAN JURUTERA PROFESIONAL 2007 

● Pembaharuan pendaftaran 

Jurutera Profesional tahun 

2007 boleh dikemukakan 

dengan syarat bayaran dan 

dokumen-dokumen yang 

berikut disertakan: 

(i) Borang H 

* (ii) Bayaran kepada 

“Lembaga Jurutera 

Malaysia” mengikut 

kadar yang berkenaan 

melalui cek/bank draft/ 

postal order/money 

order/ 

** online bill payment 

(www.Maybank2U.com.my) 

*** (iii) Laporan ringkas 

“Continuous 

Professional 

Development (CPD) 

2006” 

**** (iv) Sekeping gambar 

berukuran passport, 

jika belum 

dikemukakan. 

● Pengesahan pembaharuan 

pendaftaran 2007 akan 

dicetak dalam Sijil 

Pendaftaran. Tiada resit 

bayaran akan dikeluarkan. 

● Tuan/puan dinasihatkan 

menyemak penjelasan di 

Lampiran A kerana 

kegagalan mematuhi syarat 

akan menyebabkan 

kelewatan memproses 

pembaharuan pendaftaran. 

● Tuan/puan diminta 

mengambil perhatian 

kepada seksyen 14, Akta 

Pendaftaran Jurutera 1967 

seperti berikut: 

“Every registered Engineer 

and Engineering consultancy 

practice shall notify the 

Registrar of any change in 

his or its business address.” 

Kegagalan mematuhinya, 

tuan/puan boleh diambil 

tindakan di bawah seksyen 

25(1) Akta Pendaftaran 

Jurutera 1967. 

1. * Kadar Bayaran Tempatan: 


LAMPIRAN A 

Tarikh Berumur bawah 60 tahun Berumur lebih 60 tahun 

Kemukakan bayaran pada 1.1.2007 pada 1.1.2007 

Sebelum 31.1.2007 RM200.00 RM100.00 

Selepas 31.1.2007 RM500.00 + RM200.00 RM250.00 + RM100.00 

(yuran 2007) + (yuran 2007) + 

yuran tunggakan yuran tunggakan 

(jika ada) (jika ada) 

* Kadar Bayaran dari Luar Negara (approximately RM200.00): 

USD60 / AUD80 / GBP35 / CAD80 / EUR50 / SGD100 

2. ** Online Bill Payment (www.maybank2U.com) 

Bayaran secara “online” masih mengkehendaki tuan/puan mengemukakan Borang 

H, Laporan CPD 2006 dan gambar passport jika gambar tuan/puan tidak ada di laman 

web. Pengesahan bayaran 2007 akan dikeluarkan setelah dokumen-dokumen yang 

berkaitan diterima. 

3. *** Laporan ringkas CPD 2006 

Seperti yang telah dimaklumkan melalui Pekeliling No. 1/2005, semua Jurutera 

Professional dikehendaki mendapatkan 50 jam CPD setahun mulai 1.1.2005 untuk 

pembaharuan pendaftaran. Oleh itu, Borang H hendaklah disertakan dengan “Laporan 

Ringkas CPD 2006” mengikut format di LAMPIRAN B walau pun CPD belum 

mencukupi 50 jam. 

Keterangan mengenai CPD boleh diperolehi melalui laman web www.bem.org.my 

(button “CPD & PDP”). 

4. **** Gambar Berukuran Passport (jika belum mengemukakannya) 

Sila semak rekod pendaftaran di laman web Lembaga Jurutera (button “Directory”/ 

“Professional Engineers”/“P.Eng”). Jika rekod tuan/puan tiada bergambar, sila 

kemukakan: 

(i) Gambar berukuran passport dihantar melalui pos bersama Borang H dan Laporan 

ringkas CPD 2006; atau 

(ii) E-mel gambar berukuran passport (file .jpg saiz 2KB) ke bem1@jkr.gov.my 

Nyatakan dengan jelas nama dan nombor pendaftaran di belakang gambar atau 

di dalam e-mel. 

LAMPIRAN B 

LAPORAN RINGKAS CPD 

Category Ref Date CPD activity/ Allowable Time Actual Total 

topic/provider/ weighted weighted hours weighted 

(Please hours factor hours 

summarise 

the list 

1. Formal Education and No limit 2 

Training Activities 

2a. Informal Learning Maximum 1 

Activities: 20 hours 

– on job learning per year 

2b. Informal Learning Maximum 

Activities: 10 hours 

– private study per year 0.5 

3. Conference No limit 1 

and meeting 

4. Presentation Maximum 

and Papers 30 hours 10 

5. Service Activities Maximum 

30 hours 1 

6. Industry Involvement 

(for academician) Maximum 

30 hours 1 

TOTAL

A. PERMOHONAN UNTUK PEMBAHARUAN PENDAFTARAN SEBAGAI JURUTERA BERDAFTAR 

(Hendaklah diisi oleh Pemohon dalam HURUF CERAI) 

1. Permohonan untuk pembaharuan pendaftaran bagi tahun 2007 untuk: 

* Jurutera Profesional 

* Jurutera Sementara 

* Pemeriksa Bertauliah 

2. Nama: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...…….………… 

3. No. Kad Pengenalan/Passport: …………………………………………………………………………....………… 

4. No. Pendaftaran: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 

5. Alamat (jika ada perubahan): 

Sila rujuk seksyen 14 dan 25(1), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera 1967 

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 

6. No. Tel: ……………….....……………………… No. Faks: ……………………………..........…………….……… 

7. E-mel: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………… 

8. Bayar atas nama “Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia”. Butiran bayaran yang dikemukakan: 

** Kiriman wang/draf bank/cek No. …………….….. berjumlah RM ………......................... 

(sila sertakan komisyen bank sebanyak 50 sen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang) 

** Bayaran melalui Maybank2U berjumlah …………………...….. pada …………............... 

……………………......……… ……………………..........……. 

(Tandatangan) Tarikh 

B. GAMBAR BERUKURAN PASSPORT 

BORANG H 

AKTA PENDAFTARAN JURUTERA 1967 

PERATURAN-PERATURAN PENDAFTARAN JURUTERA 1990 

(Peraturan 20) 

Rekod pendaftaran di laman web www.bem.org.my telah disemak dan saya sahkan: 

* Rekod lengkap bergambar * Rekod tidak bergambar 

Gambar dihantar dengan ** Borang H / e-mel 

* CHECKLIST: Borang H Bayaran Laporan Ringkas CPD Gambar 

* sila (✓) yang mana berkenaan 

** Potong yang mana tidak berkenaan 


“Cheque” checklist 

Payabale to “Lembaga 

Jurutera Malaysia” 

Same amount & figure 

Valid bank account and 

signature 

Valid “date/month/year” 

Add bank commission for 

outside of Klang Valley 

No correction made on 

the cheque 

✁

Safety In Construction: 

Rules & Responsibility Of 

Professional Engineers 

This paper is an extract from a speech by YB Dato’ Seri S. Samy Vellu, Minister of Works, 

Malaysia, read by Dato’ Ir. Mohd Zin Mohamed during a seminar on “Safety In Construction: 

Rules & Responsibility of Professional Engineers” held on September 21, 2006 at the 

Sheraton Hotel and Tower, Petaling Jaya. 

Ladies and Gentlemen, 

Every human being wants to feel safe and be safe. 

To this end, he endevours to take all precautionary 

measures within his means, or seeks assistance from 

external sources at a cost which he can afford. Man 

feels endangered when he is not safe. Such 

endangerment puts fear in him, a fear of injury or 

death, or even material losses. This fear of man has 

been studied, and ways and means have been found 

to keep him safe and comfortable. 

Safety in the building industry should be a prime 

concern of all parties; the planner, the architect, the 

engineers, the builder and the regulatory bodies. 

With proper design, proper selection of materials, 

strict compliance with the specifications and the use 

of appropriate supervisors and workers, there should 

be no failure at all – all, that is, except an act of 

God. 


With the recent publicity in the media of the 

accidents at Sri Hartamas and Bukit Antarabangsa, 

safety concern in the construction industry is again 

being raised by the public. Despite what was done, 

much more need to be done to reduce such 

accidents. 

I remember a similar seminar conducted in May 

1996 after the Highland Tower incident. I was told 

that among the resolutions adopted then to ensure 

safety and stability of buildings, were among others: 

(a) Design checks should be carried out on all 

temporary works by a qualified Professional 

Engineer, who should also be held responsible 

for “stressing” and “distressing” such works, 

(b) Skilled workers such as tower crane operators 

and other relevant operators should be licensed 

and registered with the CIDB to ensure their 

competency in operation and safety, 

(c) An independent or Accredited Checker system 

should be introduced to ensure safe structural 

and geotechnical design, 

(d) Proper supervision and control at the 

construction stage should be introduced in the 

following measures: 

● mandatory standing supervision by a 

Professional Engineer for all construction 

projects above a prescribed project value 

● Professional Engineers given the 

responsibility to appoint independent site 

supervisors 

seminar

seminar 

But only an Accredited Checker system was 

adopted and included in the 2002 amendment of the 

Registration of Engineers Act. 

However, I am glad that some of the other 

resolutions are being implemented by BEM and CIDB. 

In the 9 th Malaysian Plan announced by the Prime 

Minister Malaysia, YAB Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad 

Badawi, RM200 billion had been allocated for 

development, out of which, RM27.5 billion is 

allocated for construction of roads, quarters and other 

infrastructure facilities in 2007. (Source: Speech by 

the Prime Minister on the Ninth Malaysia Plan, 

2006-2010, Dewan Rakyat, March 31, 2006 & the 

2007 Budget Speech, Dewan Rakyat, September1, 

2006) 

Recently YAB Prime Minister Malaysia announced 

the list of 880 new development project valued at 

RM15 billion would be tendered out soon. 

With the motto “membina ketahanan, 

menghadapi cabaran” for the 9 th Malaysian Plan, the 

building industry must subscribe to the motto, to 

strive with the Government, to ensure that the 

building industry will minimize unnecessary 

stoppages and wastage due to negligence and 

avoidable accidents. 


My message to owners, developers, professionals 

and the regulatory authorities is, “DO NOT 

compromise on quality, standards and safety”. To the 

owners and builders, “DO NOT put pressure on the 

persons entrusted to oversee the project to 

compromise on quality”. 

I would also call on professionals to comply 

strictly with existing acts especially the Factories And 

Machinery Act 1967 and Occupational Safety And 

Health Act 1994. 

On June 2004, the Government called for the 

Certificate of Fitness of Occupation to be replaced 

with a Completion and Compliance Certificate issued 

by the principal submitting person ie. the Architect 

or the Engineer. 

You should view this as an honour and live up to 

the trust that is given to professionals to undertake 

such an important task. 

However, it can be a double-edged sword if we 

fail to honour the task entrusted to us, as the liability 

attached to the honour is immense. The objective to 

improve efficiency in the delivery system should never 

be compromised by a lack of safety and quality. The 

public trust and confidence lie heavily in your hands. 

With these measures in place and, greater 

awareness and attention to safety in construction, 

together with proposed amendments of the various 

legislations, I believe the efficiency of the building 

delivery system will be improved. 

On that note, I would like to wish each and every 

one of you a fulfilling professional life ahead of you. 

Thank you.

Claims For Quantum Meruit And 

Section 71 Contracts Act 1950: 

Is There A Nexus? 

By Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. 1 

One of the most common categories of construction/ 

engineering related claims is the one labeled as 

‘extra-contractual’ claims 2 . This class of claims 

is basically premised outside the contract and generally 

falls within the purview of the common law. Principal 

examples of such claims are claims in negligence, 

misrepresentation, defamation, other heads of tort, 

implied contracts, collateral contracts and quantum 

meruit. A claimant, in the usual course of a typical 

claim process would first attempt to pursue a 

contractual claim followed by, or, in the alternative 

with an ‘extra-contractual’ claim. In all likelihood, 

the latter would encompass a quantum meruit claim. 

Whilst undertaking the latter, it is quite common for 

local practitioners to follow the English approach in 

furthering an assertion of rights along equitable 

principles encompassing such a claim. However, in 

Malaysia, it should be noted that our governing 

legislation has made adequate provision in the form 

of Section 71 3 of the Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) 

which covers many situations envisaged by the 

quantum meruit doctrine. In view of the above and in 

the light of the High Court’s recent decision in Multi- 

Purpose Credit Sdn. Bhd v Tan Sri Dato’ Paduka (Dr) 

Ting Pek Khing 4 , this short article has been formulated 

to review both the core issues of quantum meruit and 

the applicability of Section 71 of the Contracts Act in 

like situations locally. 

CLAIMS FOR QUANTUM MERUIT 

Meaning 

Despite the aura of mystery shrouding the term and 

its indiscriminate incantation by claimants in almost 

all claim situations, the term ‘quantum meruit’ has a 

well defined meaning ascribed by leading authorities 

in the engineering/construction industry; notable 

examples of which are reproduced hereunder. 

In ‘An Engineering Contract Dictionary’ 5 the term 

‘quantum meruit’ is defined as: 

THE INGENIEUR 

‘As much as he has deserved - a reasonable sum. This 

Latin phrase is often used as synonym for “quantum 

valebat” which means “as much as it is worth”. It is a 

measure of payment where the contract has not fixed 

a price or where, for some reason or another, the 

contract price is no longer applicable.’ 

Murdoch & Hughes in the authoritative text entitled 

‘Construction Contracts Law and Management’ explain 

a ‘quantum meruit’ claim as 6 : 

‘…… one in which the contractor seeks payment of the 

reasonable value of work done for the employer. Such 

a claim may arise in a variety of situations, not all of 

which involve a breach of contract by the employer. 

The common thread which links these situations is, 

that there is either no contractual entitlement to the 

payment or no contractual assessment of the amount 

due.’ 

Brian Eggleston describes such claims as 7 : 

‘…. meaning ‘what is worth’ are sometimes called 

quasi-contractual claims. They are highly popular with 

contractors wishing to escape from the rigidity of a 

lump sum or from contract rates towards payment on 

a cost-plus basis. Strictly speaking the phrase 

‘quantum meruit’ applies to the law of restitution for 

the value of services rendered where there is no 

contractual entitlement to payment. But it is also 

commonly used to describe claims made under a 

contract for a fair valuation or a reasonable sum’. 

1. B.E. (Mech) S’pore, LLB (Hons) London, CLP, DipICArb, P.E., 

C. Eng., Director HSH Consult Sdn. Bhd. 

2. The others being ‘Contractual’ claims and ‘Ex-Gratia’ claims. 

3. Entitled ‘Obligation of Person Enjoying Benefit of Non-Gratuitous 

Act’. 

4. [2006] 5 MLJ 589. 

5. by Powell-Smith, Chappell & Simmonds at P 510. 

6. [2 nd Edn.] at P 332 

7. See ‘The ICE Design and Construct Contract: A Commentary’ at 

P 313. 

31 

engineering & law

engineering & law 

The following pertinent observations can be distilled from 

the abovementioned definitions: 

● ‘Quantum Meruit’ claims are synonymous with ‘quasicontractual’ 

claims and ‘quantum valebat’ claims 

although the former label remains the popular mode 

of description; 

● It is a class of claim that straddles the boundaries of 

contract and restitution. Therefore it is immaterial 

whether the claim is framed as a ‘quantum meruit’ 

claim or a claim for a reasonable sum as it does not 

assist in classifying the claim as contractual or quasicontractual: 

British Steel Corporation v Cleveland 

Bridge & Engineering Co. Ltd. 8 ; and 

● The principle behind such remedies lies in the 

application of the so-called ‘Doctrine of Unjust 

Enrichment or Unjust Benefit’ which aims ‘to prevent 

a man from retaining the money of, or some benefit 

derived from another which is against the conscience 

that he should keep’: Fibrosa Spolka Akeyjna v 

Fairbairn Lawson Combe Barbour Ltd. 9 . 

Situations Where Applicable 

Since ‘quantum meruit’ claims are essentially 

restitutionary in nature, the likely situations where they 

are applicable are not precise owing to the complexity of 

the very substratum i.e. the law of restitution. Hence, much 

depends on the particular facts of the case under 

consideration and the subsequent findings of the courts. 

As a general guide, a possible list of applicable situations 

have been proposed by some leading authorities 10 ; a 

comprehensive rendition of which is summarized 

hereunder: 

● Where there is no price fixed in the contract i.e. work 

has been done under a contract but: 

(i) Without any express agreement as to price; or 

(ii) A price fixing clause in the contract is invalid/ 

ineffective; 

● Where the contract is void i.e. work has been done 

under a contract which both parties believe to be valid 

at the material time but which was actually void e.g. 

due to mistake, etc.; 

● Where no contract is ever concluded i.e. work has been 

done at the request of a party without the existence of 

any express contract or as to agreement of the essential 

terms i.e. price e.g. work done under a letter of intent: 

Marston Construction Ltd. v Kigrass Ltd. 11 ; 

● Where the contract provides for payment of a 

reasonable sum or fair valuation e.g. work has been 

done pursuant to an express undertaking by the 

employer to pay a ‘reasonable price’ or a ‘reasonable 

sum’; 

THE INGENIEUR 

● Where extra work is ordered which falls outside the 

scope of the contract i.e. work has been undertaken 

but it falls outside the purview of an express variation 

clause: Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co. v Commissioner 

of Works 12 ; 

● Where the contract is for a lump sum and the employer 

prevents completion i.e. work has been, or is being 

undertaken but the employer’s and/or his agent’s acts 

and/or omissions prevents the contractor from 

completing his obligations under the contract; 

● Where the contract is unenforceable i.e. work has been 

done under the contract, which the parties believed to 

be legally enforceable but is in reality invalid and 

unenforceable; and 

● Where the contract is discharged by frustration i.e. 

work has been done under the contract but a 

supervening event has frustrated the contract and made 

further performance impossible: Wong Lau Ying v 

Chinachem Investment Co. Ltd. 13 . 

It should be noted that a ‘quantum meruit’ claim is 

not tenable where there is an adequate contractual remedy 

available under the contract e.g. suitable express 

contractual provisions for compensation: Morrison- 

Knudson Co. Inc. v British Columbia Hydro & Power 

Authority 14 and McAlpine Humbroack Ltd. v McDermott 

International Inc. 15 . However, the absence of any defined 

formulae for the assessment of such claims is not a bar to 

recovery as evidenced in the English Cases of Laserbore 

Ltd. v Morrison Biggs Wall Ltd. 16 and Marston 

Construction Co. Ltd. v Kirgrass Ltd. 17 . 

PROVISIONS OF THE CONTRACTS ACT 1950 18 

Main Provision 

The main provision of the Malaysian Contracts Act 

1950 governing such claims is Section 71 which 

stipulates: 

“Obligation of person enjoying benefit of non-gratuitous 

act 

8. [1981] 24 BLR 94 

9. [1942] 2 All ER 122. 

10. See ‘The ICE Design and Construct Contract: A Commentary’ at P 

314, ‘An Engineering Contract Dictionary; by Powell-Smith, 

Chappell & Simmonds at P 510. 

11. [1989] CILL 48 

12. [1949] 2 KB 632 

13. [1979] 13 BLR 81 

14. [1985] 85 DLR 

15. [1992] 58 BLR 61 

16. [1993] CILL 896 

17. [1989] CILL 48 

18. Act 136 

32

Where a person lawfully does anything for another 

person, or delivers anything to him, not intending to do so 

gratuitously, and such other person enjoys the benefit 

thereof, the latter is bound to make compensation to the 

former in respect of, or to restore, the thing so done or 

delivered. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

(a) A, a tradesman, leaves goods at B’s house by mistake. 

B treats the goods as his own. He is bound to pay A 

for them. 

(b) A saves B’s property from fire. A is not entitled to 

compensation from B, if the circumstances show that 

he intended to act gratuitously.” 

Scope of Section 71 

Section 71 has been subjected to judicial scrutiny in a 

string of local cases; the most notable of which is the 

locus classicus case of Siow Wong Fatt v Susur Rotan 

Mining Ltd. & Anor 19 where the Privy Council stated the 

following principles of law governing the operation of 

the said provision: 

“It has been common ground before their Lordships 

that four conditions must be satisfied to establish a claim 

under Section 71. The doing of the act or the delivery of 

the thing referred to in the Section: (i) must be lawful; (ii) 

must be done for another person; (iii) must not be intended 

to be done gratuitously; (iv) must be such that the other 

person enjoys the benefit of the act or delivery. In their 

Lordship’s judgment these matters must be assured at the 

time the act is done or the things delivered and this, their 

Lordships think is of fundamental importance” 20 

The above-mentioned principles of law have been 

consistently applied by the Malaysian Courts over the 

years; the most recent case being of Multi-Purpose Credit 

Sdn. Bhd v Tan Sri Dato’ Paduka (Dr) Ting Pek Khing 21 

where his Lordship, Abdul Malik Ishak J, following Gunn 

Chit Tuan J (as he then was) in New Kok Ann Realty Sdn. 

Bhd. v Development & Commercial Bank Ltd., New 

Hebrides (in liquidation) 22 said 23 : 

“In the context of the present appeal before me, the 

four conditions as alluded to by Gunn Chit Tuan J (as he 

then was) in that case must be satisfied in order to establish 

a claim under S71 of the Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136). In 

my judgment, the four conditions have been satisfied and 

for convenience I will now consider them: 

(1) Must be lawful 

The act of the plaintiff lending the defendant the 

monies as mentioned earlier and the settlement 

agreement that was entered between the parties were 

entirely lawful because the plaintiff is a licensed 

moneylender under the Moneylenders Act 1951. 

THE INGENIEUR 

(2) Must be done for another person 

The memorandum of agreement for the loan clearly 

showed that the sum of money was lent to the 

defendant and the settlement agreement was for the 

benefit of the defendant. 

(3) Must not be intended to be done gratuitously 

From the memorandum of agreement for the loan and 

the memorandum of deposit of shares together with 

the settlement agreement, it can readily be surmised 

that the plaintiff’s intention of entering into those 

agreements was entirely for commercial gains. Being 

a licensed moneylender, the plaintiff was legally 

authorized, in the course of running its business, to 

grant the loan to the defendant. Such acts were not 

done gratuitously. 

(4) Must be such that the other person enjoys the benefit 

of the act or the delivery 

The defendant has certainly benefited by the plaintiff’s 

withdrawal of its Suit No. D3-22-2499-1998 which 

was initiated pursuant to the memorandum of 

agreement for a loan. 

Now, S71 of the Contracts Act (Act 136) requires proof 

that the promisee did not effect the performance or delivery 

with gratuitous intent ……. At common law too there is a 

requirement that there must be an understanding that the 

promisee would be remunerated for his efforts and it is 

this kind of scenario that takes the fact situation out of 

the rubric of past consideration. Lord Scarman’s 

requirement in Pao On v Lau Yiu Long [1980] AC 614 at 

p629; [1979] 3 All ER 65 at p74 that the promise must 

be ‘legally enforceable’ is also reflected by the usage of the 

word ‘lawfully’ in Section 71 of the Contracts Act 1950 

(Act 136) …… The literal language employed in the two 

illustrations to S71 of the Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) 

as reproduced earlier seemed to suggest that there be no 

request by the promisor for the benefit conferred upon 

him by the promisee ….. Section 71 of the Contracts Act 

1950 (Act 136) is said to be wider in scope than the 

common law exception. It has been described in Mohamed 

Yusoof v Murugappa Chettiar (1941) FMSLR 106 at p113 

to go ‘far beyond English law’. It is clear that S71 of the 

Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) does not deal with a situation 

of past consideration simpliciter. Rather the provision is 

premised on that all interesting concept of restitution ……. 

The law relating to restitution has developed rapidly. 

Basically, it seeks to prevent unjust enrichment (Lipkin 

Gorman v Karpnale Ltd. [1991] 2 AC 548; [1991] 3 WLR 

10; and Woolwich Equitable Building Society v Inland 

19. [1967] 2 MLJ 118; (1967) 2 PCC 413, PC. 

20. [1967] 2 MLJ 118 at p120. 

21. [2006] 5 MLJ 589, HC. 

22. [1987] 2 MLJ 57. 

23. [2006] 5 MLJ 589 at 599. 

33 

engineering & law

engineering & law 

Revenue Commissioners [1993] AC 10; [1992] 3 WLR 

366). The law of restitution is concerned with these 

situations where the defendant has been unjustly enriched 

at the expense of the plaintiff …….”. 

From the foregoing write-up, the following salient 

points can be crystallized 24 : 

● In a case falling under the ambit of Section 71 of the 

Contracts Act, the aggrieved party can neither pursue 

a contractual remedy nor one for specific performance, 

as there is no contract on which he can rely. Hence, 

his option lies only in ‘quasi-contract’ or restitution; 

● The scope of Section 71 therefore not only covers the 

situations envisaged in the earlier discussion on 

quantum meruit but is apparently even wider. Provided 

the four conditions stipulated in Section 71 are met, 

the provisions of this Section can be invoked even in 

the event of a void contract 25 ; 

● For goods delivered or services rendered, the measure 

of compensation under Section 71 would normally be 

the corresponding market price. Accordingly, it has 

been held that the invoice price in respect of the goods 

delivered should be taken to be the prevailing market 

value of the goods in dispute 26 ; 

● Case law especially in India (whose provision of S70 

of the Indian Contracts Act 1872 is in pari materia 

with S71 of the Malaysian Contracts Act 1950) has 

shown that even when a person does an act for his 

own benefit and that act incidentally benefits a third 

person, S71 will also apply 27 ; 

● In the construction/engineering context, where work 

done by the contractor is pursuant to an invalid 

Variation Order (e.g. based on an oral instead of a 

written instruction) issued by the contract administrator 

and the said work is within the framework of the 

contract, such work is to be treated as additional work 

and since the employer receives its benefit, then the 

latter is liable to pay the contractor for the same under 

Section 71 28 ; and 

From a literal reading of the section, it is clearly 

apparent that Section 71 is applicable in situations where 

either no formal contract has been entered into by the 

parties and one party has benefited at the expense of the 

other, or even if there is no contract at all for the 

performance of certain work, if the aggrieved party had 

done some work without intending to do that work 

gratuitously and the other party has benefited in a material 

manner, then adequate compensation has to be meted out 

to prevent unjust enrichment. 

SUMMARY 

A detailed discourse on the subject of quantum meruit 

and the scope and applicability of Section 71 of the 

THE INGENIEUR 

Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) is beyond the remit of this 

short article. For this, the reader is encouraged to pursue 

the relevant legal treatise or authoritative texts. Suffice 

to say at this juncture is the fact that one should 

appreciate the essence, ambit, applicability and the nexus 

between these important specie of remedies circumscribed 

by the principles of restitution and quasi-contract. In 

the process, one should be mindful of the contemporary 

Malaysian position whereat there exist statutory 

mechanisms e.g. Section 71 of the Contracts Act 1950 

which afford an aggrieved party with an appropriate 

remedy against unjust enrichment rather than pursuing 

the ‘quantum meruit’ route under the common law; which 

route is purely equitable and discretionary. We are 

fortunate to have the former, as proceeding under the 

purview of the Contracts Act has added advantages 

compared to a purely common law claim. It is high time 

we appreciate Section 71 and give due recognition to its 

applicability in practice. Be that as it may, a positive 

way of breathing life into Section 71 is to give due 

prominence to it and ensure that it is correctly and fully 

utilized in furthering claims where its application is 

appropriate under the particular circumstances. This 

surely will propel it from its current state of relative 

obscurity to the forefront of restitutionary and quasicontractual 

claims in the construction/engineering 

industry. 

REFERENCES 

● Andrew Phang Boon Leong Chesire, Fifoot & Furmstons 

Law of Contract (First Singapore & Malaysian Students 

Edn.), Butterworths. 

● Eggleston, B. The ICE Design & Construct Contract: A 

Commentary, Blackwell. 

● Gajria, K. Law Relating to Building & Engineering 

Contracts in India (4 th Edn.), Butterworths. 

● Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. Engineering and Construction 

Contracts Management: Post-Commencement Practice, 

Lexis-Nexis. 

● Murdoch & Hughes Construction Contracts Law and 

Management (3 rd Edn.), E & FN Spon. 

● Powell-Smith, Chappell & Simmonds An Engineering 

Contract Dictionary, Legal Studies & Services 

(Publishing) Ltd. 

● Sinnadurai, V. Law of Contract (3 rd Edn.), Lexis-Nexis/ 

Butterworths. 

24. See also Gajria, K. ‘Law Relating to Building & Engineering 

Contracts in India’ 4 th Edn., p 64 to 66. 

25. Mulam Chand v State of Madhya Pradesh AIR 1968 SC 1218. 

26. See Pilloo Dhunji Shah Sidhwa v Municipal Corporation of the 

City of Poona AIR 1970 SC 1201. 

27. See Srirama Raju v Secretary of State (1943) 204 IC 561 (FB). 

28. Provided all other conditions of S71 are met. See State of UP v 

Chandra Gupta & Co. AIR 1977 All 28. 

34 

BEM

Environment, Ethics And 

The Engineers 

By Ir. Prof. Ruslan Hassan 

Some complex regional or global systems are showing signs of failing, 

vizually traffic congestion, collapse of stocks of worldwide fish 

resources and global warming with attendant climatic changes 

resulting in floods. To address these issues, Sustainable Development, 

an often over-used word will be discussed within the context of 

Environmental Ethics and the role of the ‘new engineers’. The 

Sustainable design approach, illustrated in the case of principles of 

Sustainable Building Design which addresses Economy of Resources, 

Life Cycle and Humane Design will be discussed. Finally, consideration 

on ethical issues and the engineers is presented. 

The world is moving towards a 

complex situation for survival. 

Increasing environmental 

pollution, over population growth, 

increasing rate of consumption and 

use of natural resource material are 

all creating an unsustainable situation 

for the human being. Over use of nonrenewable 

energy and resource 

exploitation to run the Industrial 

economy and to reach the high levels 

of production and consumption, has 

generated global environmental 

problems. For example, transport is 

responsible for up to 70% of all CO 2 

emissions. Huge investment made in 

end-of-pipe equipment and cleaner 

and smarter technologies to minimise 

environmental pollution and increase 

resource productivity did not really 

lead to drastic minimisation of overall 

environmental impacts, because it 

increases rate of consumption, which 

is driven by economies of scale 

(Gershenfeld, 2004). 

According to an estimation, the 

World population will be almost 

double by 2025, which will again 

demand an increase in resource 

consumption. If it is assumed to 

follow the exponential growth of 5- 

6% for Developing countries and 3- 

4% for Developed countries according 

to Brundtland Report, then the Earth 

will not be able to sustain such a huge 

growth. In its original context, the 

definition was stated solely from the 

human point of view. In order to 

embrace the idea of a global ecology 

with intrinsic value the meaning must 

be expanded to allow all parts of 

nature to meet their own needs now 

and in the future. Designing for 

sustainability requires therefore, 

awareness of the full short and long 

term consequences of any 

transformation of the environment. 

The environment and economy 

depends depend on our ethics – our 

sense of right and wrong – that 

incorporating ethics into decisions 

might begin to alter the past 

objectives of growth, accumulation, 

and excess towards new objectives of 

sustainability, sharing and restraint. 

A more accurate phrase for the 

Twenty-First Century might be 

Environment 

Society Economy 

Sustainable Development 

Fig.1(a): Sustainable Science 


economy, environment, energy and 

equity (Figure 1(a) and (b). 

SUSTAINABILITY DESIGN 

APPROACH 

The designer has a role of strategic 

thinking in dealing with corporate 

strategies and policies towards 

sustainable solutions. Strategic 

thinking and action in the form of 

creativity and capacity to respond to 

unforeseen-events must therefore be 

cultivated at all levels of the 

organisation. This creativity must be 

contextual and ecological – social 

creativity. Design is a journey of 

creation (McDonough, 1992). It is a 

journey towards a desired future state, 

Sustainable science focuses on the 

dynamic interactions between nature 

and society, with equal attention to how 

social change shapes the environment 

and how environmental change shapes 

society (Figure 1a). 

feature

feature 

Figure 1(b): Sustainable Development Approach 

which we define for ourselves and 

want to realise. The metaphor of the 

journey allows us to see design as a 

method by which we can move from 

the present to a future situation that 

is preferred to the present. This is a 

re-thinking of strategy as a 

relationship to the future, and as a 

process – a journey. Strategy as design 

is also viewed as a journey of creation 

– and as a creative process. 

Comparing realism versus 

idealism, design attempts to transcend 

the two opposing positions. Realists 

focus on describing what is, and 

developing theories, approaches, and 

strategies on the basis of the 

description; idealists focus on what 

ought to be and plan on the basis of 

their ideals. The dichotomy ensures 

that realists are unlikely to go beyond 

existing conceptual frameworks and 

explore what could be, let alone what 

should be, whereas idealists often fail 

to ground their strategies in a 

‘realistic’ assessment in a given 

situation. The fundamental 

assumption is that the environment 

is by no means fully knowable, and a 

plurality of descriptions can give us 

a “rich picture” that can allow for a 

deeper understanding of the situation. 

Design proceeds from outside-in 

rather than inside-out: this is a crucial 

difference, which distinguishes design 

from planning. Inside-out inquiries 

start from within the planner’s already 

existing conceptual and empirical 

boundaries. It is information-driven, 

because the inquiry is based on 

already existing information rather 

than value-driven. This means it 

Economy 

Society 

Environment 

occurs based on information derived 

from the perspective of already 

existing conceptual frameworks in 

which values are implicit (“inside”), 

and there is no attempt to engage in 

a questioning of those fundamental 

values themselves. Value-driven, 

outside-in design starts with an 

articulation of our present situation 

in which our values concerning our 

assessment of the situation are made 

explicit, and the values inspire us to 

design a future system that conforms 

to those values. The stress is on 

articulating values, and fostering 

creativity. 

Design is a creative, decisionoriented 

disciplined inquiry that aims 

to formulate expectations and 

requirements of the system to be 

designed, clarify ideas and images of 

alternative representations of the 

future system, devise criteria by which 

to evaluate those alternatives, select 

and describe or “model” the most 

promising alternatives, and prepare 

a plan for the development and 

implementation of the selected model. 

Design is a systemic process: it is 

not a linear, step-by-step process 

which separates components in a 

chain of cause and effect, and focuses 

on the smallest unit of analysis by 

removing it from its context. It is 

rather a process of inquiry that 

stresses the importance of the context 

one works in, the context in which 

the present system operates, and in 

which the future system will emerge. 

Design is also a creative process: 

emphasis is placed on developing an 

alternative, or a series of alternative 


Structured to meet objectives and 

values set by society 

Decides objectives for 

development and sets ethical and 

value framework 

Sets limits, the real bottom line 

solutions, to an existing problem. 

Design assumes that there are many 

different ways of creating a model, 

and many different models, which can 

emerge from design. In design, an 

inductive model is created, which is 

“a representation of a system that does 

not yet exist but is intended to be 

built”. Design is creative in the sense 

that it does not develop a model by 

merely shuffling around components 

of an already existing system within 

the parameters defined by that 

system, but attempts to change or 

reconceptualize the nature of the 

system itself. 

The creative dimension of design 

is “the dynamics of divergenceconvergence,” 

in which “the designer 

continually goes through alternating 

sequences of generating variety 

(divergence) and reducing variety 

(convergence), while seeking the 

single most feasible and workable 

alternative”. 

ILLUSTRATIVE PRINCIPLES OF 

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN 

Sustainability is an important 

design principle. It is not an end-state 

or system target; neither does it 

necessarily have an explicit/analytic/ 

measureable property. Therefore it 

must be approached as a design goal. 

A problem is that indicators of poor 

design are not immediately 

observable. The challenge therefore is 

to use a systems approach to construct 

guidelines that facilitate sustainable 

design. In practice, we are often faced

y short-term pressures (e.g. the 

lowest bidders) that constrain the 

long-term view needed for 

sustainability to be achieved. In 

addition to system design, the notion 

of change needs to be applied to the 

planning and operation as well. By 

focusing on system design, planning 

and operations, the definitions of 

sustainability will ultimately need 

to balance trade-offs among 

economic development, social and 

environmental goals. 

During a building’s existence, it 

affects the local and global 

environments via a series of 

interconnected human activities and 

natural processes. At the early stage, 

site development and construction 

influence indigenous ecological 

characteristics. Though temporary, the 

influx of construction equipment and 

personnel onto a building site and 

process of construction itself disrupt 

the local ecology. The procurement 

and manufacturing of materials 

impact the global environment. Once 

built, building operation inflicts longlasting 

impact on the environment. 

For instance, the energy and water 

used by its inhabitants produce toxic 

gases and sewage; the process of 

extracting, refining, and transporting 

all the resources used in building 

operation and maintenance also have 

numerous effects on the environment. 

For sustainable buildings, there 

are three principles of sustainability 

(Kim, 1998). Economy of resources is 

concerned with reduction, reuse, and 

recycling of the natural resources that 

are input to building. Life cycle design 

provides a methodology for analyzing 

the building process and its impact 

on the environment. Humane design 

focuses on the interactions between 

the human and the natural world. The 

overall conceptual diagram for 

sustainable design is shown in 

Figure 2. 

Principle One: 

Economy of Resources 

By economizing resources, the use 

of nonrenewable resources in the 

construction and operation of 

buildings is reduced. There is a 

continuous flow of resources, natural 

and manufactured, in and out of a 

building. This flow begins with the 

SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND POLLUTION PREVENTION 

Principle One: 

Economy of 

Resources 

Energy 

Conservation 

Water 

Conservation 

Material 

Conservation 

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Design and Pollution Prevention 

production of building materials and 

continues throughout the building’s 

life span to create an environment for 

sustaining human well-being and 

activities. After a building’s useful life, 

it should turn into components for 

other buildings. 

The three strategies for the 

economy of resources principle are 

energy conservation, water 

conservation, and material 

conservation. Each focuses on a 

particular resource necessary for 

building construction and operation. 

Energy Conservation 

After construction, a building 

requires a constant flow of energy 

input during its operation. The 

environmental impact of energy 

consumption by buildings occurs 

primarily away from the building site, 

through mining or harvesting energy 

sources and generating power. The 

energy consumed by a building in the 

process of heating, cooling, lighting, 

and equipment operation cannot be 

recovered. 

The type, location and magnitude 

of the environmental impact of 


Principles 

Principle Two: 

Life Cycle Design 

(LCD) 

Strategies 

Pre-Building 

Phase 

Building 

Phase 

Post-Building 

Phase 

Methods 

energy consumption in buildings 

differ depending on the type of energy 

delivered. Coal-fired electric power 

plants emit polluting gases such as 

SO 2 ,CO 2 ,CO and NOx into the 

atmosphere. Hydropower plants each 

require a dam and a reservoir which 

can hold a large body of water; 

construction of dams result in 

discontinuance of river ecosystems 

and the loss of habitats for animals 

and plants. 

Water Conservation 

Principle Three: 

Humane Design 

Preservation 

of Natural 

Conditions 

Urban Design 

Site Planning 

Design for 

Human Comfort 

A building requires a large 

quantity of water for the purposes of 

drinking, cooking, washing and 

cleaning, flushing toilets, irrigating 

plants, etc. All of this water requires 

treatment and delivery which 

consumes energy. The water that exits 

the building as sewage must also be 

treated. 

Material Conservation 

A range of building materials are 

brought onto building sites. This 

occurs primarily during the 

construction stage. The waste 

feature

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generated by the construction and 

installation process is significant. 

After construction, a low-level flow 

of materials continues in for 

maintenance, replacement, and 

renovation activities. Consumer goods 

flow into the building to support 

human activities. All of these 

materials are eventually output, either 

to be recycled or dumped in a landfill. 

Principle Two: 

Life Cycle Design (LCD) 

The conventional model of the 

building life cycle is a linear process 

consisting of four major phases: 

design; construction; operation and 

maintenance; and demolition. The 

problem with this model is that it is 

too narrowly defined: it does not 

address environmental issues (related 

to the procurement and 

manufacturing of building materials) 

or waste management (reuse and 

recycling of resources). 

This “cradle-to-grave” approach 

recognizes environmental 

consequences of the entire life cycle 

of resources, from procurement to 

return to nature. LCD is based on the 

notion that a material transmigrates 

from one form of useful life to 

another, with no end to its usefulness. 

For the purpose of conceptual 

clarity, the life cycle of a building can 

be categorized into three phases: prebuilding, 

building, and post-building. 

These phases are connected, and the 

boundaries between them are not 

obvious. The phases can be developed 

into LCD strategies that focus on 

minimizing the environmental impact 

of a building. Analyzing the building 

processes in each of these three phases 

provides a better understanding of 

how a building’s design, construction, 

operation, and disposal affect the 

larger ecosystem. 

Pre-Building Phase 

This phase includes site selection, 

building design, and building 

material processes, up to but not 

including installation. Under the 

sustainable-design strategy, we 

examine the environmental 

consequences of the structure’s 

design, orientation, impact on the 

landscape, and materials used. 

The procurement of building 

materials impacts the environment: 

harvesting trees could result in 

deforestation; mining mineral 

resources (iron for steel; sand, gravel, 

and limestone for concrete) disturbs 

the natural environment; even the 

transport of these materials can be a 

highly polluting activity, depending 

on their weight and distance from 

the site. The manufacturing of 

building products also requires 

energy and creates environmental 

pollution: for example, a high level 

of energy is required to manufacture 

steel. 

Building Phase 

This phase refers to the stage of 

a building’s life cycle when a 

building is physically being 

constructed and operated. In the 

sustainable-design strategy, we 

examine the construction and 

operation processes for ways to 

reduce the environmental impact of 

resource consumption; we also 

consider long-term health effects of 

the building environment on its 

occupants. 

Post-Building Phase 

This phase begins when the useful 

life of a building has ended. In this 

stage, building materials become 

resources for other buildings or waste 

to be returned to nature. The 

sustainable-design strategy focuses 

on reducing construction waste 

(which currently comprises 60% of the 

solid waste in landfills1) by recycling 

and reusing buildings and building 

materials. 


Site and Building Interactions 

The LCD concept calls for 

consideration of the environmental 

consequences of buildings in all 

three phases of the life cycle. Each 

phase of the building life cycle is 

associated with two groups of 

ecological elements: site and 

building. The principal domain of the 

design is in the building phase, but 

sustainable building can be achieved 

by finding ways to minimize the 

environmental impacts during all 

three phases of the buildings’ life 

cycle. 

Principle Three: 

Humane Design 

Humane design is the third, and 

perhaps the most important, 

principle of sustainable design. While 

economy of resources and life cycle 

design deal with efficiency and 

conservation, humane design is 

concerned with the livability of all 

constituents of the global ecosystem, 

including plants and wildlife. This 

principle arises from the 

humanitarian and altruistic goal of 

respecting the life and dignity of 

fellow living organisms. Further 

examination reveals that this 

principle is deeply rooted in the need 

to preserve the chain elements of the 

ecosystems that allow human 

survival. 

In modern society, more than 

70% of a person’s lifespan is spent

indoors. An essential role of 

architecture is to provide built 

environments that sustain 

occupants’ safety, health, 

physiological comfort, 

psychological well-being, and 

productivity. 

Because environmental quality is 

intangible, its importance has often 

been overlooked in the quest for 

energy and environmental 

conservation, which sometimes 

seemed to mean “shivering in the 

dark.” Compounding the problem, 

many building designers have been 

preoccupied with style and formmaking, 

not seriously considering 

environmental quality in and 

around their built environments . 

Remember the performance 

factor of design. When a product 

saves energy, does it perform as well 

as what it is replacing? And how 

does it affect the performance of the 

buildings’ occupants? For instance, 

early fluorescent lighting systems 

were more efficient than their 

incandescent counterparts; 

however, some fluorescents were 

known to buzz. The bulb might save 

RM90 in annual energy costs, but 

if the noise irritated the employee 

working nearby, the employee’s 

resulting drop in productivity could 

cost the employer a lot more, 

thereby wiping out any financial 

benefits gained from lighting energy 

conservation. 

A general rule of thumb in such 

comparisons is that the annual 

energy bill of a typical office 

building amounts to around 

five hours of employee labor 

cost; therefore, any building 

energy conservation strategy 

that annually reduces 

productivity by more than five 

hours per employee defeats its 

purpose. This is not to say that 

energy conservation cannot be 

financially beneficial, just that 

it should be kept in holistic 

perspective, taking other 

pertinent factors into account. 

The following three 

strategies for humane design 

focus on enhancing the 

coexistence between buildings 

and the greater environment, 

and between buildings and their 

occupants: 

1. Preservation of 

Natural Conditions 

An architect/engineer should 

minimize the impact of a building on 

its local ecosystem (e.g., existing 

topography, plants, wild-life). 

2. Urban Design and Site Planning 

Neighborhoods, cities, and entire 

geographic regions can benefit from 

cooperative planning to reduce 

energy and water demands. The result 

can be a more pleasant urban 

environment, free of pollution and 

welcoming to nature. 

3. Human Comfort 

As discussed previously, 

sustainable design need not preclude 

human comfort. Design should 

enhance the work and home 

environments. This can improve 


productivity, reduce stress, and 

positively affect health and wellbeing. 

ENGINEERING ETHICS 

Sustainable development is 

defined in the Brundland Commission 

Report (WC, 1987) as meeting the 

needs of the present without 

compromising the ability of future 

generations to meet their own needs. 

This definition of sustainability does 

not specify the ethical roles of humans 

for their everlasting existence on the 

planet. It also fails to embrace the 

value of all other constituents 

participating in the global ecosystem. 

The need for finding long-term 

solutions that warrant continuing 

human existence and well-being is far 

more compelling than that of finding 

a proper terminology to describe 

the human need. In this respect, 

the debate on the terms “green,” 

“sustainable,” or “ecological” 

architecture is not terribly 

important. 

The central ethical principle 

behind sustainable development 

is intergenerational equity which 

can be defended in both 

consequentialist and 

deontological terms. It can be 

considered in term of ensuring 

long term consequences of 

today’s actions. This utilitarian 

viewpoint fits the pragmatic 

concerns of some business 

interests. The environmental 

crisis threatens the sustainability 

of economic activity. 

Intergenerational equity can also 

be considered a duty that current 

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generations have to future 

generations or right of future 

generations. The Cost Benefit Analysis 

(CBA) is the ultimate embodiment of 

consequentialist ethics in that it seeks 

to ensure that good consequences 

outweigh bad consequences and 

consequences are measured in 

monetary terms. In reality however, 

CBA works against the ethic of equity 

and the measuring of sequences in 

financial terms fails to capture the 

consequence fully. 

The valuation of the environment 

in terms of the total of what each 

individual is willing to pay denies a 

separate concept of public interest. 

The welfare of society has meaning 

only as the summation the welfare of 

its’ individual members. Thus, the 

economic view of value is based on 

the reduction of human values to 

individualism and reduces the world 

to one in which individuals all seek 

their own good and are indifferent to 

the success or failure of other 

individuals. Therefore, valuation of 

the environment through CBA is a 

concept that embraces the values of 

ethical egoism and is in fact 

antithetical to an ethic of equity. 

Engineering ethics however, 

normally go beyond ethical egoism, 

at least in principle. The ethical 

principle that engineers put the public 

interest before other interests seeming 

works against their self-interest. 

However, if we look at ethics and 

morality in terms of a social contract, 

that serves self-interest in the long 

term as well, the terms of this contract 

are that if everyone follows the rule 

of morality rather than acting on 

personal self-interest, then everyone 

will be better off, society will be a 

better place to live in. Morality 

consists of governing how people are 

to treat one another, that rational 

people will agree to accept, of their 

mutual benefit, on the condition that 

others will follow these rules as well. 

To extend this to environmental 

ethics, the ecological (non-human 

inclusive) concerns should be given 

a practical shape in any ethical 

decision. This value-centred concern 

has been the ultimate objective for 

the universal common good of all 

created beings. On the basis of this 

principle, that the repelling of 

mischief is preferred to the acquisition 

of benefits, we can build the theory 

of abuse of rights governing the 

relations between neighbours. It 

provides that a person might be 

denied the exercise of a right if it 

causes excessive damage to others. 

Thus, an activity causing excessive 

environmental pollution might be 

stopped or curtailed even though this 

may cause loss to the owners of the 

business. A wrong must be redressed 

for the sake of justice even though 

there may be economic benefits in the 

perpetuation of the wrong. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

To achieve environmental 

sustainability in the building sector, 

engineers and architects must be 

educated about environmental issues 

during their professional training. 

Universities have to foster 

environmental awareness, introduce 

students to environmental ethics, and 

develop their skills and knowledgebase 

in sustainable design. 

The current status of sustainable 

design is that of an ethic rather than 

a science. While a change of lifestyles 

and attitudes toward the local and 

global environments is important, the 

development of scientific knowledgebases 

that provide skills, techniques, 

and methods of implementing specific 

environmental design goals is urgent. 

To enhance environmental 

sustainability, a building must 

holistically balance and integrate all 

three principles — Sustainable Design, 

Economy of Resources and Life Cycle 

Design — in design, construction, 

operation and maintenance, and 

recycling and reuse of engineering 

and architectural resources. These 

principles comprise a conceptual 

framework for sustainable 

architectural design. This framework 

is intended to help designers seek 

solutions rather than giving them a 

set of solutions. Specific design 

solutions compatible with a given 

design problem will emanate from 

these principles. 

A change in new perspectives on 

ethics is needed to displace the 

powerful ethical egoism that 

rationalizes the market as the 

predominant decision-making tool in 

our society. Sustainable development 


is in reality a way of endorsing market 

morality and seems to be also 

inadequate to the solution of modern 

environmental problems. It needs the 

over arching principles of good 

morality. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The following are recommended: 

● To address the problem raised by 

unsustainable activities, top-down 

and bottom-up approaches are 

necessary to realise the tangible 

transitions towards sustainability. 

● To integrate the notion of 

sustainability into everyday 

engineering activities. 

● To integrate sustainability into 

education programmes by having 

a more horizontal integrative 

approach to alter the mix of what 

students learn so that they can 

contribute professionally in a 

world where sustainability is the 

overarching design principle. 

● To take a re-look at sustainable 

development for further 

refinement within the context of 


ethical values. 

REFERENCES 

Gershenfeld, J.C., Field, F., Hall, 

R., Kirchain, R., Marks, D., Oye,K. 

and Sussman, J. (2004), 

Sustainability as an Organizing 

Design Principles for Large Scale 

Engineering Systems, MIT 

Engineering System Monograph. 

Kim, J.J., (1998). Introduction to 

Sustainable Design, National 

Pollution Prevention Centre for 

Higher Education, Michigan An 

Arbor. 

William McDonough and Michael 

Braungart (1992). Hannover 

Principles: Design for 

Sustainability, in green@works, 

com. 2003. 

World Commission on 

Environment and Development, 

(1987). Our Common Future, 

London: Oxford University Press.

feature 

Assessment Of Raw Water Quantity 

And Quality For Water Supply 

By Chris Nielsen, Felix Ko Kok Hou, Janice Ayog, DHI Water and Environment (Malaysia) 

The methodology used to assess the viability of river and stream extractions for potable water supply 

is described. This includes design low flow conditions, which can be generated from available discharge 

data or from catchment models. Water quality aspects consider land use and pollution loads generated 

from the catchments (both point and non-point sources) and its effects upon in-stream water quality 

(via numerical modelling). 

Potable water supply sourced 

from rivers and streams is 

common in Malaysia and other 

countries in the region. To assess the 

viability of the water source, several 

aspects relating to water quantity and 

quality must be considered, which can 

be aided by the use of numerical 

modelling tools. This includes: 

● Raw water availability, 

particularly during low flow 

conditions (droughts). 

● The effects of catchment land use 

upon pollution generation. 

● The ambient water quality in the 

river or stream. 

● The assessment methodology is 

described, highlighting the 

application of numerical 

modelling tools. 

Raw Water Availability 

A continuous water extraction is 

desired. If the river dries up then this 

is not possible. Before this extreme 

condition occurs there are other 

considerations relating to 

environmental baseflow and 

prioritisation of the various river 

extractions. Guidelines and 

regulations exist that limit the amount 

of water that can be extracted and/or 

a minimum flow below which no 

extraction is permitted. To ensure 

continuous supply when such 

restrictions exist, a storage facility 

(either within the distribution system 

or in the river itself) can be considered 

and/or an emergency alternative 

source, such as groundwater extraction 

or desalination plants (if near the 

coast). 

Low Flow Conditions 

Low flow periods can often occur 

during periods of drought. These may 

be a consequence of local anomalous 

weather or regional climatic patterns. 

Commonly considered low flow 

periods are 1 day (daily), 7 day 

(weekly), 30 day (monthly) and 90 day 

(quarterly) durations. These different 

durations are important for different 

applications and conditions; for 

example a monthly low flow condition 

may be of importance for groundwater 

extraction and sustainability, while a 

daily low flow condition may be of 

importance for domestic water supply. 

A quarterly duration considers an 

extreme drought event. 

Figure 1 Overview of rainfall / runoff process 


Assessment of River Discharge 

In many cases river discharge can 

be obtained from measurement 

stations; often stage measurement 

stations with an associated rating 

curve, generated by performing 

gauging exercises to determine a 

relationship between water level and 

flow. Potential limitations exist when 

using a rating curve, particularly 

when measured water levels are 

higher than the highest gauged 

record, or lower than the lowest 

gauged record. Unless located at a 

measurement station, a scaling factor 

is often applied to the flow 

measurements, based upon relative 

differences in catchment areas, to 

estimate discharge at a proposed 

intake structure. 

If no discharge data is available, a 

hydrologic model can be applied to

generate a simulated discharge from 

available rainfall data. Runoff, the 

process by which falling rain flows 

into the river, is dependant upon the 

amount of rainfall and evaporation 

and the nature of the catchment such 

as soil land use, vegetation and slope 

(Figure 1). 

Hydrologic Modelling 

The NAM hydrologic model (DHI, 

2006) is a deterministic, lumped and 

conceptual model that can 

continuously represent hydrological 

processes, which makes it ideal for 

generating long duration time series 

of runoff. It represents various 

components of the rainfall runoff 

process by continuously accounting 

for the water content in four different 

and mutually interrelated storages; 

snow (not often used in this region), 

surface, lower or root zone and 

groundwater storages. 

An alternative, more physically 

based approach is via MIKE SHE (DHI, 

2006), which can simulate the entire 

land phase of the hydrological cycle. 

Each component of the cycle can be 

modelled in various ways (Figure 2) 

with differing levels of detail. This 

flexibility enables the model to be 

tailored to suit the specific 

requirements of each application. 

MIKE SHE is generally more 

physically based than other models, 

which reduces the interpretations and 

assumptions required during model 

establishment and, with a basis 

primarily on spatial data (which is 

extracted directly from the GIS), 

makes changes and updates easier. 

Statistical Analysis of Discharge 

Measurements 

Extreme value analysis 

techniques are available for 

predicting design low flows. The 

Log-Pearson III (LPIII) probability 

distribution is widely used for low 

flow estimation (including US 

Environmental Protection Agency; 

USEPA and US Geological Society; 

USGS). It can be argued that the 

selection of this distribution as 

opposed to any other is of less 

relevance compared to the visual fit 

of the curve and the accuracy, 

consistency and duration of the 

available data. Design low flow based 

on the LPIII distribution is: 

Figure 2 Overview of MIKE SHE components and modules 

Q D,T = exp(u + K g,T s) 

where D is duration, T is return 

period, u is the mean of the natural 

logarithms of the series, g is the 

skewness of the natural logarithms of 

the series, s is the standard deviation 

of the natural logarithms of the series, 

and K g,T is the frequency factor for 

given skewness (g) and return 

period (T). 


Annual minimum series (AMS) are 

typically plotted using a Cunnane 

plotting position (Cunnane, 1978). 

The LPIII parameters are estimated by 

the sample moments of the 

logarithmic transformed data 

(moments in log space). To assess 

reliability, 95% confidence intervals 

can be approximated (Chow, 1988). 

Using the calculated design low 

flows, the frequency of occurrence of 

Figure 3 Daily design low flow conditions, generated from LPIII analysis (AMS 

shown as points) 

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non water extraction for various 

durations can be estimated. This 

provides the basis for assessment of 

the viability of raw water supply. 

Pollution Load Assessment 

Pollution load assessment 

determines the quality of water from 

the catchment, which considers the 

hydrological, agricultural, population 

and land use information to predict 

pollution concentrations in a 

catchment runoff. Pollution load can 

be categorised as: 

● Non-point sources: related to the 

land use characteristics, non-point 

loads are dependent upon 

catchment runoff, which includes 

soil runoff from cleared areas, 

agricultural runoff, etc. 

● Point Sources: these are identified 

sources of pollution, which are 

often independent of catchment 

runoff. These include discharges 

from industry, sewage outfalls, etc. 

● Soil erosion: this is a non-point 

source of pollution, but its 

generation and transport differ to 

other forms of pollution. Soil 

erosion depends upon terrain, soil 

type, land cover and rainfall 

intensity. 

Pollution load assessment can be 

carried out using the MIKE BASIN 

model, with the LOAD and SEAGIS 

modules (DHI, 2006). The model 

describes pollutant loads on an annual 

basis but alternative time resolutions 

can be applied. Estimated pollution 

loads can subsequently be used to 

assess water quality processes in 

receiving water bodies. Components, 

generated primarily from spatial data 

in a GIS, are as follows: 

● Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of 

catchment terrain. 

● River network of significant 

waterways. 

● Distance grid: Decay and 

degradation occurs as pollutants 

travel from their point of origin to 

the river network. Using the DEM 

and river networks, the travel 

distance from the pollution source 

to the nearest river point can be 

estimated. Decay is then estimated 

using a 1st order decay rate. 

Figure 4 Steps for pollution load assessment 

Figure 5 Calculation steps for soil erosion assessment (SEAGIS) 

Figure 6 Identified pollution sources of Nitrogen (top, with non-point sources 

shaded and point sources as black dots). The bottom image shows estimated 

loads at the coastline, which accounts for decay and dilution. 

THE INGENIEUR 44

● The Runoff grid, representing 

annual runoff (mm/year), 

generated from a catchment 

model. 

● Landuse theme, from which 

pollution rates for specific land 

use categories are assigned. 

● Population theme, from which 

per capita loads are estimated. 

This considers sewered (treated 

and non-treated) and nonsewered 

segments of the 

population, and assigns pollution 

rates for each. 

● Point source theme, based upon 

identified sources such as 

industry, sewage treatment 

plants, mills, etc. 

● Source soil erosion risk map, 

estimated using one of three 

models; the Universal Soil Loss 

Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier & 

Smith, 1978) and the revised 

version (RUSLE) (Renard et al., 

1997), the Soil Loss Estimator for 

Southern Africa (SLEMSA) 

(Elwell, 1978), and the Morgan, 

Morgan and Finney model 

(Morgan, 1986) 

As an example, Figure 6 shows 

identified pollution loads of Nitrogen, 

showing non-point sources (shaded) 

resulting from various land uses, and 

point sources (black dots), resulting 

from industry and population centres. 

Figure 6 (bottom) shows estimated 

loads at the coastline, which takes into 

account decay and dilution that 

occurs in the journey to the coastline. 

As an example, a heavy polluter in 

the upper catchments may contribute 

less pollution load to the ocean 

compared to a much smaller polluter 

on the coast. 

Raw Water Quality 

Assessment of river water 

quality is necessary for assessing 

viability of a water source, or to 

implement and design a treatment 

plant. In cases where a significant 

proportion of total river flow is 

extracted, consideration of the 

impact and consequences to 

ambient water quality downstream 

is also necessary. 

The MIKE 11 water quality model 

(DHI, 2006) uses a hydrodynamic 

and advection dispersion model to 

Figure 7 A comparison of water quality model predictions to 

measurements of COD 

Figure 8 Example of pollution loads from a given catchment for a number 

of scenarios; pristine (natural conditions), existing, guidelines (if available 

guidelines are followed) and future (with uncontrolled catchment 

development) 

Figure 9 Distribution of land use by total area (top) and by contribution to soil 

erosion (and subsequent river sediment concentrations, bottom). This 

demonstrates which land use types are the largest contributors to pollution. 


feature

feature 

simulate the two mechanisms for 

movement of water borne material: 

● Advection due to the flow of water 

through the river system 

● Dispersion (or spreading) due to 

concentration gradients 

The water quality module 

(ECOLAB) simulates the reaction 

processes of multi-compound systems 

including the degradation of organic 

matter, the photosynthesis and 

respiration of plants, nitrification and 

the exchange of oxygen with the 

atmosphere. Inputs for the model 

come directly from the LOAD 

assessment. 

The water quality model 

completes the modelling tool, where 

the effect of changing catchment 

conditions upon instream water 

quality can be predicted. This is 

particularly useful for assessment of 

various scenarios, such as future land 

use conditions as a result of 

catchment development and 

urbanisation, and its consequences on 

water quality. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The methodology described is a 

relatively straightforward and effective 

approach to assessment of water supply 

sources. The methodology applies to 

river intakes, and also to assessment of 

groundwater sources and design of 

REFERENCES 

● VT Chow, DR Maidment and LW Mays. Applied Hydrology, 1988. 

● Cunnane, 1978. Unbiased Plotting Positions - A Review. J. Hydrol. 37, p 205- 

222. 

● DHI Water and Environment, “MIKE 11 Users Manual, Release 2006”, DHI, 

(2006). 

● DHI Water and Environment, “MIKE SHE Users Manual, Release 2006”, 

DHI, (2006). 

● DHI Water and Environment, “MIKE BASIN Users Manual, Release 2006”, 

DHI, (2006). 

● Elwell, H.A (1978): Modelling Soil Losses in South Africa. J. Agric. Engng. 

Res. 23, 117-127. 

● Renard, K.G., Foster, G.A., Weesies, D.K., McCool, and D.C. Yooder, 

coordinators, 1997. Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide to Conservation 

Planning With the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 703, 404 pp. 

● Wischmeier, W.H. and D.D. Smith (1978): Predicting rainfall erosion losses. 

Agriculture handbook number 537. United States Department of Agriculture. 

THE INGENIEUR 

weirs and dams. A key feature is the use 

of numerical models in combination 

with other data analysis techniques, 

which provides particular advantages 

especially relating to runoff generation 

(quantity and quality) and the 

prediction of the impact of future 

catchment conditions. BEM

Early Warning And 

Surveillance Systems In 

Surface Water Management 

By Chris Nielsen, Darren KK Soh, Julien Frachisse, DHI Water and Environment (Malaysia) 

Early warning and surveillance 

systems are available that 

integrate on-line monitoring 

and mathematical models. As an 

example, during severe flooding 

that occurred in Central Europe 

some year ago, on-line model 

systems were used extensively 

for evacuation planning. Other 

aspects of early warning 

systems, such as for water 

quality forecasting, are still in a 

developmental stage. This 

paper discusses the latest 

techniques and methods 

available, and the latest findings 

from research. Examples of 

applications from around the 

world are also presented, 

including applications that have 

particular relevance to Malaysia. 

Systems are available that 

combine monitoring with 

mathematical models. In this 

way, mathematical models are 

continuously updated by on-line 

measurements to provide an adaptive 

forecasting tool. This technology has 

significantly improved forecasting 

and early warning for many water 

related dangers including flooding, 

pollution of water supplies and public 

health issues. 

This paper discusses the 

techniques that are used for on-line 

forecasting systems. Examples of 

applications to flooding and to 

pollution spills are presented, plus a 

discussion of the future direction of 

this technology. 

Background: Flooding 

The technology for the integration 

of mathematical models and on-line 

monitoring warning has been 

available for almost a decade. With 

respect to flooding, the use of 

mathematical models for forecasting 

of flow has been adopted worldwide. 

The basic elements of a flood warning 

system comprise of: 

● Water level and flow sensors, 

meteorological forecasts, SCADA 

systems and telemetry for 

online data processing and 

transmission. 

● Mathematical models for forecast 

simulations. 


● Data processing and output 

generation tools, usually linked to 

GIS. 

● Issue of warnings to the public (via 

internet, radio, etc). 

A prerequisite for reliable forecast 

is a data assimilation routine to 

improve forecast accuracy. The basic 

elements of such a data assimilation 

routine are: 

● Comparison and analysis of 

measured and simulated water 

levels and discharges are made 

during a hindcast period, defined 

as the period up to the present 

where forecasting parameters 

are calculated. 

feature

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● Using this information forecasting 

is made, usually with statistical 

likelihood and confidence 

intervals included. 

● As more information from 

measurement stations arrives, the 

forecasting parameters are 

reassessed and improved. Thus, as 

time progresses and more 

information becomes available, 

the more refined and accurate the 

forecasting system becomes. 

Background: Water Quality 

The elements of a water quality 

warning system are the same as those 

discussed for flooding, except that a 

selected water quality component (or 

components) is measured and 

modelled as well as water levels and 

discharges. 

Water quality warning systems 

are based on a combination of 

physical, chemical and radioactive 

analyses, microbiological analyses, 

biomonitoring (bioalarms) and online 

sensors for such parameters as 

dissolved oxygen, temperature and 

turbidity. The coupling with 

mathematical models and related 

technology for data assimilation and 

water quality forecast is a new 

technology. Also, available 

technology for online monitoring of 

water quality components is still 

limited to only a few parameters. 

Future prospects are good however – 

there is rapid development in sensor 

technology, including on-line 

monitoring of heavy metals and toxic 

compounds. Thus, coupling early 

warning systems with state of the art 

water quality modelling techniques 

and forecasting is realistic. 

Data Assimilation And 

Forecasting Routine 

The data assimilation routine that 

generates the forecasting parameters 

is based upon Kalman filtering 

techniques. These techniques take 

measurements and, through a 

feedback process, adjust and update a 

numerical model to match 

observations. The technique combines 

Monte Carlo methods for randomised 

forecasts with Ensemble Kalman 

filtering, which incorporates known 

features of the input signal. This is a 

stochastic system, where it is also 

possible to forecast uncertainties. By 

assigning statistical properties to the 

inputs and propagating uncertainties 

through the model, confidence 

intervals can be assigned to 

predictions. 

Figure 1 

Inundation Map 

of Bangladesh, 

August 2002 

showing a 

significant 

proportion of 

the country 

under flood 

waters. 


Illustration: Flooding 

The following illustration gives an 

excellent overview of what is possible 

with on-line forecasting, and how 

effective this technology can be. 

Bangladesh regularly suffers 

enormous losses on a nationwide 

scale due to flooding of the 

Brahmaputra, Ganges and Maghna 

Figure 2 

Flood 

forecasting 

internet 

interface for 

Bangladesh.

Rivers, which can inundate over half 

of the country (see Figure 1). 

A flood forecasting and early 

warning system has been 

implemented for Bangladesh. The 

system contains the following 

components: 

● Data collection: On-line telemetry 

system, manned stations linked via 

UHF radio and mobile phones, 

satellite imagery (cyclone tracking 

and cloud movement) and satellite 

and radar rainfall data. 

● Real time data management 

(input): GIS links, providing a 

display map of water level and 

rainfall status, automatic data 

exchange to the forecasting 

model. 

● Flood Forecast Model: Hydrologic 

model for simulation of rainfall/ 

runoff from all catchments, linked 

to hydrodynamic model of all 

rivers and floodplains. 

Forecasting techniques used to 

provide projections of likely flood 

water levels. 

● Real time data management 

(output): GIS display of forecast 

water levels, automatic 

generation of bulletins, issue 

flood status to local government 

and agencies, automatic 

Figure 3 Time series of water level at selected river station. 

generation of statistics, automatic 

presentation of information on 

the internet. 

The online output from the flood 

forecasting system is shown in 

Figure 2 (taken from www.ffwc.net). 

Flood risk at each station/ 

populated area is categorised from 

normal (green) to severe (red). By 

clicking on any location a time 

series of the water level can be seen, 

along with a forecast for the 

following days (Figure 3). Also 

shown is the danger level (above 

which flood damage may occur) and 

the RHWL (highest recorded water 

level). 

Figure 4 Example of WQ early warning system – cyanide spill into a river system 

upstream from a water supply intake. 


The end result of this system is an 

extremely effective flood warning 

tool that has significantly reduced loss 

of life during flood events. 

Illustration: Early Warning For 

Water Supply 

An AWS survey in 1999 (USA) 

lists the most common 

contamination threats for surface 

water treatment plants: 

● Transportation accidents, mostly 

oil and petroleum products. 

● Non point source pollution, such 

as pesticides and nutrients from 

agriculture. 

● Sewage releases. 

● Industrial chemical releases. 

● Pipeline releases. 

Such risks are equally applicable 

to Malaysia, although other possible 

risks could include: 

● Saline intrusion 

● Turbidity 

To illustrate a potential use of an 

early warning system, consider a 

hypothetical example. Figure 4 shows 

a gold mine situated on a river. 

Downstream from the gold mine is a 

water intake supplying potable water 

to a community. A system has been 

developed to ensure that any cyanide 

accidentally released from the gold 

mine does not enter the water supply. 

This system consists of a monitoring 

station downstream of the mine, which 

is continuously sampling the river 

feature

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water, and on-line measurements of 

flow at the upstream boundary (some 

distance upstream from the mine). 

Downstream boundary conditions 

assume normal flow. 

The monitoring stations are 

connected on-line to a one 

dimensional model that performs 

continuous forecasting simulations. If 

the forecasting simulation detects a 

spill and predicts that a dangerous 

concentration of cyanide will reach 

the water supply intake, a safety valve 

is automatically shut off at the intake. 

The forecasting model is 

continuously running multiple water 

quality simulations. Each simulation 

uses the latest measurements of 

pollutant concentration with a 

random variation applied. The 

magnitude of the random variation is 

statistically dependent upon the 

accuracy of measurements at the 

monitoring station and also on the 

accuracy of the water quality model. 

As more information is read and with 

improved model calibration, the 

random variation is reduced. This 

means that at each sampling interval 

of the measurement gauge a 

statistically significant number of 

model simulations are performed, all 

using slightly different boundary 

conditions. This provides statistically 

relevant confidence intervals to the 

predictions. 

Figure 5 to Figure 9 display 

longitudinal profiles of cyanide 

concentrations along the river reach 

at different times during the spill 

event. The black line represents the 

actual cyanide concentration in the 

river. The red line represents the 

average concentration predicted by 

the forecasting model. 

Figure 5 shows the concentration 

just after the spill. The actual 

concentration (black line) is at its 

highest. The concentration has not yet 

reached the monitoring site, so the 

forecasting model does not yet predict 

any concentrations (except for some 

random fluctuations, created as part 

of the forecasting model). The next 

figure (Figure 6) shows that the spill 

is propagating downstream. Again, 

the forecast model has not yet 

detected any concentrations. 

Figure 5 Longitudinal profile of cyanide concentration, real 

(black) and predicted (red) – just after spill 


(black) and predicted (red) – upstream of measurement station 


(black) and predicted (red) – at measurement station 


(black) and predicted (red) – forecast 


(black) and predicted (red) – forecast at water supply intake 

THE INGENIEUR 50

Figure 7 shows the spill 

reaching the monitoring station. At 

this point the forecasting model (in 

red) responds to the measured 

concentration, and commences a 

forecast simulation. 

The final two figures (Figure 8 

and Figure 9) show the average 

prediction from the forecasting 

model. The final figure (Figure 9) is 

at the water supply. This forecast 

happens immediately after a 

concentration is detected at the 

measurement station – the forecast 

at the water supply is made long 

before the spill actually arrives. 

As mentioned, the forecasting 

model performs an ensemble of 

simulations. This means that the 

forecast at the water intake 

includes a measure of the 

uncertainty of the prediction. The 

average concentrations are shown 

above – if required the confidence 

intervals and standard deviation of 

the predictions could also be 

presented. 

Conclusions 

Flood forecasting is a well 

established technology. On the other 

hand, forecasting of water quality and 

water borne pollutants as a commonly 

used tool is still developing. While the 

mathematical tools and tools to 

integrate measurements are available, 

much of the new development is in the 

sensor and measurement technologies 

where rapid progress is being made. 

This paper has shown two 

examples of the application of early 

warning and surveillance systems in 

surface water management, where online 

measurement stations have been 

coupled to numerical models and data 

assimilation techniques to create 

extremely useful and valuable 

prediction tools. The benefits of 

improved forecasting and surveillance 

can be summarised as: 

● Early warning of natural and manmade 

disasters, reducing damage 

and potential loss of life. 

THE INGENIEUR 

● A cleaner, safer environment. 

● For water abstractions and 

pollution sensitive issues, a better 

estimate of risks and downtime 

periods improves production and 

minimises damage. 

● Improved water resources 

management in relation to 

freshwater supply and distribution 

of domestic and irrigation water. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The information contained in this 

paper is a summary of 

development carried out within a 

number of R&D projects over the 

past decade, hosted by DHI Water 

& Environment. 

REFERENCES 

Web Page of the Flood Forecasting 

and Warning Centre, Bangladesh 

(www.ffwc.net). 


feature

feature 

Bandar Lestari Environment Award 

Contributed by Patrick Tan Hock Chuan, Director of Strategic Communications, 

Department of Environment Head Office, Putrajaya, Malaysia. 

Cities and urban centers are 

complex entities within which 

various dynamic economic 

and social interactions take place. 

For this reason, the task of ensuring 

sustainable development is a 

challenge for city planners and 

administrators and requires broadbased 

cross-sectoral and stakeholder 

participatory approaches. However, 

if sustainable development is viewed 

as a process of change, efforts can 

be made to ensure that a city 

progresses towards sustainability. 

Thus a Bandar Lestari is one where 

achievements in social, economic 

and physical development are made 

to last. 

The concept of Bandar Lestari 

incorporates many dimensions. In 

addition to the environment 

dimension, other strategic 

imperatives such as economic growth 

to meet essential needs, provisions 

of shelter and urban services, 

efficient transportation, public 

safety, good governance and 

community stakeholder participation 

are equally important. 

The concept also promotes: 

● Facilitating the sharing of 

environment-development 

Sustainable Development - Bandar Kuantan 

information, expertise and 

building inter-agency partnership 

● Building environmental planning 

and management capacities 

● Leveraging environmental 

resources and managing risks 

for achieving sustainable 

development 

In collaboration with the 

Ministry of Housing and Local 

Government and relevant 

Government agencies and 

community-based organisations, 

the Department of Environment of 

the Ministry of Natural Resources 

and Environment has introduced 

‘Bandar Lestari - Environment 

Award’ to give recognition to urban 

centres for their overall 

commitment and efforts towards 

environmental sustainability. The 

award is not designed as a 

competition and participation is on 

a voluntary basis. 

OBJECTIVES 

● Recognize the efforts and 

contributions of local authorities 

with regard to environmental 

sustainability in their policies and 

actions; 


● Enhance awareness of 

environmental sustainability with 

the support of local communities; 

● Encourage innovative approaches 

and promote good practices 

towards environmental 

sustainability. 

ASSESSMENT & SELECTION 

An Assessment Panel and a 

Selection Panel will be established to 

administer the process. Both Panels 

consist of distinguished members with 

relevant expertise and technical 

support from the Institute for 

Environment and Development 

(LESTARI) of Universiti Kebangsaan 

Malaysia. 

The Department of Environment 

serves as the Secretariat for the award. 

The Secretariat will collate 

preliminary data and information for 

the Assessment Panel. The 

Assessment Panel will carry out 

evaluation based on the defined list 

of criteria and indicators as well as 

conduct field visits and interviews. 

The Assessment Panel will then 

presents its recommendation to the 

Selection Panel for a final decision. 

In addition, a Public Perception 

Survey will also be carried out

Tun Ismail Lane 

- Pedestrian 

Mall 

involving respondents residing in the 

area. Existing environment quality 

data will also be evaluated. 

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 

Physical Environment: Elements 

that relate to this criterion are based 

on the extent of improvement to the 

surrounding physical environmental 

conditions for conducive urban 

living. Initiatives such as improved 

air quality, improved water quality, 

and reduction of noise levels, among 

others are taken into account. 

Ecological Initiatives: Elements 

that relate to this criterion are 

protection of the natural 

environment, biodiversity-related or 

habitat enhancement initiatives; 

environment-friendly innovations 

such as energy savings, efficiency 

and reduction of heat islands in the 

built environment; innovative 

practices like solar lighting, 

pedestrian malls, bicycle lane, among 

others; and new technological and 

experimental practices such as use 

of alternative fuels or other 

Kuantan River 

Esplanade 

environment-friendly product 

development and usage. 

Urban Services: Initiatives that 

inculcate the practice of reducing, 

reusing and recycling of wastes as 

well as improvement of transport 

management system will be 

recognized. Other elements that 

relate to this category include water 

and materials efficiency, clean-up 

projects, sanitation and effluent 

management. 

Environmental Governance: 

This criterion recognizes leadership 

in environmental sustainability. 

Elements that relate to this category 

include incorporation of policies, 

practices and procedures that 

promote accountable and 

transparent governance; two-way 

communication with the 

community, including the extent to 

which issues such as public 

complaints are addressed; 

inculcation of stakeholder and 

community support; and quality of 

environment management 

training. 


Education and Awareness: This 

criterion encompasses the area of 

education or communication that 

contributes to enhancing public 

awareness and understanding of 

environmental issues and 

initiatives. Elements that relate to 

this criterion include the relevance 

and impact of communication, 

target audiences, and the 

effectiveness of communication 

mechanisms, whether individually 

or in collaboration with other 

organisations. 

2003/2004 AWARD 

PRESENTATIONS 

The 2003/2004 Bandar Lestari – 

Environment Award was presented to 

the Kuantan Municipal Council by the 

Rt. Hon. Deputy Prime Minister, YB 

Datuk Seri Najib Tun Abdul Razak at 

a glittering ceremony in Putrajaya on 

July 7, 2005. Five other local 

authorities were presented with 

Special-Mentioned Awards in 

recognition of their specific 

achievements, namely, 

● Johor Bahru City Council: 

“Ecological Initiative – Urban 

Forest” 

● South Kuching City Council: 

“Physical Environment Initiative 

(Landscaping)” 

● Malacca Historical City Council: 

“Urban Services Initiative - 

Centralised Transportation” 

● Penang Municipal Council: 

“Environmental Education and 

Awareness Initiative” 

● Shah Alam City Council: “Physical 

Environment Initiative - 

Innovative Planning, Balanced 

Quality Living” 

2005/2006 AWARD 

The 2005/2006 Award will be 

presented in 2007. Out of the 144 

local authorities in the country, 47 

have been pre-qualified for 

assessment under three different 

categories. The Field Assessment 

by a Panel of Independent 

Assessors, Public Perception Survey 

and Environment Quality 

Monitoring and Data Evaluation 

are in progress and will be finalised 

in early 2007. BEM 

feature

Some Design And 

Practical Perspectives In 

Concrete Cracks Part 2 

By Ir. Tee Horng Hean 

● Deep Beams 

In the British Code of Practice, 

BS8110, deep beams are defined as 

beams with clear span of less than 

twice their effective depths. The 

Indian Code of Practice, IS 456 has a 

similar definition but unique 

definitions for simply supported and 

continuous beams (Pillai & Menon, 

1998, p. 169; Shina, 1988, p.353). 

For deep beams, BS8110 should not 

be referred to as it is specifically 

mentioned in Clause 3.4.1.1 of this 

code that the design of deep beams is 

not covered and specialist texts 

should be consulted. 

The design of beams in most Code 

of Practices is based on linear-elastic 

methods. However, when it comes to 

deep beams, the stresses involved are 

non-linear as shown in Fig. 7. 

● Structural Analysis 

Obviously before any RC 

structural elements are designed, 

structural analysis has to be carried 

out. Results of a structural analysis 

can depict the stresses that the 

structural elements undergo and 

engineers can therefore prescribe 

adequate rebars at the tension zone 

of these elements. With the use of 

computers nowadays, care should be 

taken so that an engineer’s design 

concept is inputted correctly. 

Incorrect inputs would result in 

incorrect outputs and consequently 

incorrect RC designs. 

● Sites With Trees 

Trees can cause direct damage to 

nearby structures by their roots 

Figure 7 

Figure 8 

growing and consequently lifting 

or distorting structures (Fig. 8), by 

the impact of the branches onto a 

structure, etc. which can lead to 

cracks. Trees can also cause 

indirect damage as certain species 

of trees can abstract higher 

volumes of moisture from the soil 


than others which indirectly affect 

the foundation and consequently 

the RC structural elements. BS5837 

– Trees in Relation to Construction 

should be consulted when a 

situation arises where trees are to 

be planted near a building 

structure. 

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Figure 9 

WHY CRACKS OCCUR? 

It is seldom that RC is designed to 

resist direct tension but RC structural 

members still experience tensile forces 

due to bending, shrinkage, changes 

in temperature, eccentricity, etc. 

Cracks often develop as a result of 

the tensile strength (or limiting tensile 

strain) being exceeded (Pillai & 

Menon, 1998, p.48). The reasons as 

to why the tensile strength of RC can 

be exceeded may be attributed to 

overloading of structural elements, 

accidental or unforeseen loadings 

(such as blast, earthquakes, explosion, 

landslide, etc.), tractive forces (Fig. 9), 

under-providing rebars, wrong 

detailing, not consulting a 

professional engineer when 

modifying a structure, etc. 

Figure 10 

Stress concentrations, which occur 

at sections where cross-sectional 

areas of a structural element suddenly 

changes (Hibbeler, 2000, p.159) can 

cause cracks. Stress concentrations 

occur when a small, localised area of 

a structural element experiences high 

Figure 11 Figure 12 


stress (Budynas, 1999, p.364). This 

is why slabs with square openings 

tend to develop cracks at the corners 

unless diagonal bars were provided 

to control the propagation of these 

cracks. Stress concentration would 

cause a material to crack if the stress 

exceeds the material’s endurance limit 

whether the material is ductile (e.g. 

steel) or brittle (e.g. concrete) 

(Hibbeler, 2000, p.158). An example 

of the consequence of stress 

concentrations can be observed at 

corners of brick wall window 

openings (Fig. 10). 

Without proper detailing, a RC 

structure such as the six-metre high 

RC retaining wall as shown in Fig. 11 

and Fig. 12 can also experience 

excessive stress concentrations at the 

joints and hence the development of 

serious cracks with widths exceeding 

those permitted by engineering 

standards. 

THE PROS AND CONS OF 

FINE CRACKS 

No doubt the word “cracks” 

normally have a negative 

connotation, but however, cracks are 

sometimes beneficial to our everyday 

life. For instance, without 

introducing a notch in a tree, one 

would find difficulties in cutting 

down the tree with an axe. One 

would even find difficulties tearing 

stamps if stamps were not 

intentionally perforated.

As mentioned in the beginning of 

this article, concrete’s resistance to 

tensile forces is absolutely poor but 

however, by placing rebars in the 

tension zone of a concrete structural 

element would render this element to 

be able to resist tensile forces. When 

micro-cracks appear in a concrete 

structure, it clearly indicates that the 

rebars in the RC are in function to 

resist the tensile forces (Saatcioglu, 

2004). This concept may somewhat 

be difficult to grasp as one seldom 

sees designed structural members 

crack when in operation. However, 

one should note that these cracks are 

micro-cracks, thus not visible to the 

naked eye. It is analogous to say that 

when one climbs up a tree, the tree is 

in compression and therefore, the tree 

experiences a shortening effect due 

to the person’s weight. However, this 

shortening is so minute and thus not 

detected by the human eye. 

For RC structures, there are 

times when structural engineers 

prescribe pin-jointed joints i.e. 

joints that permit rotational 

movements (Fig. 13). When there 

is rotation at such joint resulting 

in tensile forces exceeding that of 

the concrete’s endurance, cracks 

occur and consequently the column 

joint (Fig. 13) is permitted to 

rotate. 

Finally, cracks also serve as signs 

of warning that a structural element 

is overloaded and there is need for 

strengthening/repair. 

CONSEQUENCES OF CRACKS 

From the aesthetics point of view, 

the presence of cracks would be an 

eyesore (Fig. 14; Fig. 15). Besides 

that, rust/corrosion of rebars would 

take place. To explain the 

consequences of cracks, take a 

staircase structure for instance, there 

may be times where the provision of 

cover to rebars may be inadequate 

either due to poor workmanship or 

poor detailing. The consequence of 

inadequate reinforcement cover is 

that the reinforcements would start 

corroding, a process which increases 

the volume of the reinforcements. 

This volume increase would induce 

a force to the concrete cover causing 

it to crack and subsequently fall off 

(Fig. 16). It is a fact that the strength 

Figure 13 

Figure 14 

Figure 15 

of steel is reduced when it is corroded 

and with corroded steel supporting the 

staircase slab as shown in (Fig. 16), 

it is undeniable that the corrosion of 

the rebar had affected the original 

design strength. 

Furthermore, the cross-sectional 

area of the staircase has been reduced 

but not substantially yet. If no 

rectifications were undertaken and 

when the rebar fully loses its strength, 

the tension zone of this structural 

member is only resisted by concrete 


Figure 16 

(which is weak in tension). Basically 

the structure in terms of strength will 

gradually be reduced. No doubt it 

would be difficult and complicated to 

determine how long before a RC 

structural member’s strength is 

affected, it is of best interest for 

engineers to ensure that corrosion be 

prevented by ensuring that cracks are 

within permissible limits. 

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Figure 17 

Figure 18 

Last but not least, cracks can 

also be a nuisance and cause 

inconveniences to say an occupant 

of a building with a cracked and 

leaking (Fig. 17; Fig. 18) floor 

slab above him. 

CONCLUSION 

Some general guidelines to 

prevent concrete cracks were 

presented. The merits and 

demerits of cracks and the 

consequences of not attending to 

cracks were also discussed. No 

doubt there are numerous other 

factors that can be attributed to 

concrete cracks, such as the use 

of impure materials, misuse of 

structure, etc., in this short 

article, only some factors were 

discussed. BEM 

REFERENCES 

Boughton, B. W., 1979, Reinforced 

Concrete Detailer’s Manual, Granada 

Publishing, London. 

Budynas, R. G., 1999, Advanced 

Strength and Applied Stress Analysis, 

Second Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston. 

Hibbeler, R. C., 2000, Mechanics of 

Materials, Fourth Edition, Prentice 

Hall, New Jersey. 

I. Struct. E. / ICE Joint Committee, 

1985, Manual for the Design of 

Reinforced Concrete Building 

Structures, Institution of Structural 

Engineers, London. 

Kong, F. K. & Evans, R. H., 1994, 

Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, 


Third Edition, Chapman & Hall, 

London. 

MacGinely, T. J., 2001, Reinforced 

Concrete – Design Theory and 

Examples, Second Edition, Spon 

Press, London. 

Mosley, W. H., Bungey, J. H. & Hulse, 

R., 1999, Reinforced Concrete Design, 

Fifth Edition, Palgrave, London. 

NPIRD, 2004, Concrete Lined 

Irrigation Channels – Causes of 

Failure, [Online], Available from 

URL:….. http://www.npird.gov.au/ 

projects/finalrep_pdf/pdf/ 

rroclic_pdf_protected/Concrete_Relining/Guide-Causes_of_Failure.PDF, 

Accessed [07 September 2004]. 

Perkins, P. H., 1997, Repair, 

Protection, and Waterproofing of 

Concrete Structures, Third Edition, E 

& FN SPON, London. 

Pillai, S. U. & Menon, D., 1998, 

Reinforced Concrete Design, Tata 

McGraw Hill, New Delhi. 

Price, W. H., February 1951, Factors 

Influencing Concrete Strength, Journal 

ACI, Vol. 47. 

Ray, S. S., 1995, Reinforced Concrete 

– Analysis and Design, Blackwell 

Science, London. 

Saatcioglu, M., 2004, Reinforced 

Concrete Design, Class Notes for 

CVG3143, Reinforced Concrete Design 

I Course, The Department of Civil 

Engineering, The University of 

Ottawa, Ottawa. 

Shina, S. N., 1988, Reinforced 

Concrete Design, Tata McGraw Hill, 

New Delhi. 

Taft, B., Speck, S. W. & Morris, J. R., 

1999, Dam Safety: Problems with 

Concrete Materials, [Online], 

Available from URL: http:// 

www.dnr.state.oh.us/water/pubs/pdfs/ 

fctsht56.pdf, Accessed [07 September 

2004]. 

Wang, C. K. & Salmon, C. G., 1992, 

Reinforced Concrete Design, Fifth 

Edition, Harper Collins, New York.

feature 

TM 

Development Of EWARNS Forecast 

And Real-Time Early Warning System 

On Erosion Risks/Hazards 

By Tew Kia Hui, Director, VT Soil Erosion Research & Consultancy, 

Dr. Faisal Hj. Ali, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya 

With many incidences of landslides, mudslides and erosion, 

especially in highlands in Malaysia, properties have been 

damaged and lives lost. Seeing the need for resolving and 

minimizing such untoward incidences, a study has been 

embarked on developing a forecast and real-time early warning 

system on erosion risks/hazards to provide an early warning to 

the public. Consequently, a case study on Cameron Highlands 

Catchment was carried out, which involved a detailed baseline 

database of the study area. The highland catchment, is an 

environmentally sensitive area where many land development 

activities such as agriculture, agro-tourism, property 

development and road-widening projects are still on-going. 

The early warning forecast on erosion risks/hazards would be 

based on the baseline database developed and it is to be 

confirmed by the weather forecast information provided by the 

Malaysian Meteorological Service (MMS). It is hoped that the 

application of this new locally developed system, which has been 

trademarked under the name EWARNS TM (Early Warning And Risk 

Navigation Systems), would be beneficial to the local authorities, 

highway operators and public to provide early warning of 

possible erosion/landslides /mudslides especially during periods 

of heavy rainfall. 


With respect to numerous 

erosion, landslide and 

mudslide occurrences in 

Malaysia, particularly at hillslopes 

and highlands, there is a great 

concern that these areas are 

extremely sensitive to disturbances 

of any sort. Events over the past 

years, such as landslides at the 

Genting Highlands slip road (1996 

& 2004), the collapse of the 

Highland Tower (1993), landslide at 

Bukit Antarabangsa (1999), 

landslides and mudslides at Gua 

Tempurung (1996 & 2004), 

landslides at the KL–Karak 

Highway near Bentong (2003 & 

2004), landslides and mudslides in 

Cameron Highlands (2000 & 2004) 

and smaller landslides in Fraser’s 

Hill occurring almost every year, 

have indicated what can happen 

when things go wrong. Seeing the 

need for resolving and minimizing 

such untoward incidences, a study 

has been embarked on developing 

a forecast and real-time early 

warning system on erosion risks/ 

hazards so as to provide an early 

warning to the public. A case 

study on Cameron Highlands 

Catchment has been carried out, 

which involved a detailed baseline 

database of the study area. This 

highland catchment is being 

considered an environmentally 

sensitive area where many land 

development activities such as 

agriculture, agro-tourism, 

property development and roadwidening 

projects, had been 

carried out and some are still ongoing.

OBJECTIVE 

The objective of this research and 

development of EWARNS TM is to 

provide an early warning to the 

authorities, tourists, hoteliers, farmers 

and public in general within the 

Cameron Highlands Catchment by 

monitoring the current situation there 

more closely. This includes taking 

mitigative measures should there be 

at any time, specific locations within 

their jurisdiction that have high 

erosion risk, which would possibly 

induce landslides. This could be done 

simply by just logging onto a website 

and checking the situation of the 

roads, agricultural farms and specific 

built-up areas on the level of erosion 

risks/hazards. Information on these 

areas would be updated every minute 

should there be any rainfall event. 

Tourists and motorists heading to 

Cameron Highlands would also be 

well informed and be able to plan 

their travel better as such information 

would be updated constantly via the 

newly developed EWARNS TM website 

Figure 1: EWARNS TM outdoor Rain Sensing 

and Transmission Unit (RSTU) 

Figure 2: Operation of EWARNS TM Real-Time Early Warning System on Erosion 

Risks / Hazards 

(www.ewarns.com.my). Farmers and 

hoteliers in Cameron Highlands would 

also be fore-warned of the dangers 

involved and be able to take necessary 

measures to protect and safeguard 

their properties. Local authorities and 

relevant agencies would also be 

notified via SMS/e-mail to take 

precautions and carry out inspections 

on high-risk areas when there are any 

incidences of continuous heavy 

downpour within a specified area. 

The scope of research and 

development includes developing: 

● Baseline database for the Cameron 

Highlands Catchment 


● Rain sensing and transmission 

unit (RSTU) 

● Receiving unit, which includes 

processing of near real-time data 

● Early warning system panel, which 

would be up hosted to the 

EWARNS TM website 

METHODOLOGY 

Methodology of research for the 

development of the EWARNS TM 

forecast and real-time early warning 

system on erosion risks/hazards starts 

firstly with the acquisition of baseline 

data for the study area, Cameron 

Highlands Catchment. Liaison with 

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various agencies was required 

to obtain the relevant 

information, which includes the 

latest Cameron Highlands 

Structure Plan (1995–2020), 

current land use using SPOT 4 

Satellite Imagery dated July 7, 

2002 (to be revised using SPOT 

5 Satellite Imagery dated April 

19, 2005), topographical 

information using 

Topographical Map (Sheet 74) 

and recorded rainfall 

information from nine existing 

rainfall stations within the 

catchment area. Such 

information is used for 

simulation of data for input into 

the early warning system. 

Once this is completed, a 

prototype of actual real-time 

outdoor transmission unit is 

then developed as shown in 

Figure 1. This could be done 

using solar-powered rain 

sensors, which would be 

triggered based on the rainfall 

amount and intensity. A SIMcard 

based GPRS transmitter, 

which is attached to the 

interface module of the Rain 

Sensing and Transmission Unit 

(RSTU) would then send out emails/ 

Internet file transfers at 

every minute interval, so that 

the data could be transferred to 

a receiving unit (a server 

connected to high speed Internet 

line). At this point, the e-mail/ 

transferred file is read and data 

is processed within the 

Geographical Information 

Systems (GIS) using an 

automated keyboard simulation 

programme. The final processed 

values would then be set against the 

threshold values, which will trigger an 

early warning if any of the value 

exceeds the threshold limits. 

Subsequently, the early warning 

panel, which is also known as 

EWARNS TM Display Panel, would be 

up hosted to the website 

(www.ewarns.com.my), whereby such 

information would be made accessible 

to the public and authorities involved. 

Figure 3: Real-Time EWARNS TM Display Panel on Erosion Risks / Hazards 

Figure 4: Real-Time EWARNS TM Display Panel on Rainfall Erosivity 

The website’s map of erosion risk 

areas will also be updated every 

minute as data from the sensors are 

constantly calculated. A blinking red 

light with continuous playback of the 

‘warning’ sound would indicate that a 

certain area is at high risk of erosion 

(> 1.0 t/ha/day), while yellow is for 

medium (0.51 – 1.0 t/ha/day), and 

blue for low risk locations (0 – 0.5 t/ 

ha/yr). Remarks on the percentage of 

risk area and in acreage for the built- 


up areas, roads and agricultural areas 

would also be shown in the display 

panel. 

Flowchart showing the 

operation of the EWARNS TM realtime 

early warning system on 

erosion risks/ hazards is depicted in 

Figure 2. Subsequently, Figure 3 

shows the sample of EWARNS TM 

display panel and corresponding 

rainfall erosivity (Figure 4) as 

viewed via the website.

As for the EWARNS TM forecast on 

erosion risks/hazards for Cameron 

Highlands Catchment, the 

information of at least 10 years 

rainfall database was acquired to get 

a picture of the rainfall distribution 

on the catchment area, and to use this 

information for forecasting of the 

rainfall pattern. However, it would 

also be very dependent on the weather 

forecast information as provided by 

the Malaysian Meteorological Service 

(MMS). This means that if the weather 

forecast for a particular day is fair, 

therefore, the EWARNS TM forecast on 

erosion risks/hazards would be a low 

risk with zero rainfall erosivity 

predicted. Such information would be 

updated on a daily basis as the 

EWARNS TM website would search the 

latest weather forecast 

provided by MMS. Sample 

of the seven-day forecast 

on erosion risks/hazards for 

Cameron Highlands is 

shown in Figure 5. 

BASELINE DATA AND 

EARLY WARNING SYSTEM 

DEVELOPMENT 

Figure 5: EWARNS TM 7 Days Forecast on Erosion Risks / Hazards 

Baseline data acquisition 

was carried out for the 

Cameron Highlands 

Catchment to serve as an 

input to the forecast and 

real-time early warning system on 

erosion risks/hazards, which include 

the latest rainfall, soil, topographical 

and land use information for the area 

as shown in Figure 6. This is crucial, 

as the early warning system requires 

the latest data to ensure the 

predicted level of risk to achieve the 

best accuracy possible. As for 

rainfall data, even though these 

information would subsequently be 

transmitted by the RSTU in realtime, 

trial-runs on the system would 

be required using historical daily 

rainfall data acquired from the 

existing rainfall stations within the 

Cameron Highlands Catchment for 

purpose of programme simulation 

and correlation with reported 

incidences. 

Figure 7. Simulated EWARNSTM Figure 6: Baseline data acquisition and GIS database development 

Display Panel observation on January 5, 2000 


feature

feature 

EXAMPLE OF TYPICAL REPORTED INCIDENCE AND 

WARNING ISSUED 

A reported incidence of heavy rain and subsequent 

landslides occurred within Cameron Highlands 

Catchment on January 5, 2000. During this incident, 

rain on that day was heavier than usual and possibly the 

highest for the year 2000, triggering landslides and soil 

erosion occurrences on various agricultural farms within 

Cameron Highlands as well as cutting off access road 

between Brinchang and Kg. Raja. Simulation of 

maximum erosivity index recorded was 62 MJ.mm/ 

(ha.hr.day) and EWARNS TM warning signal (high risk) was 

issued for all the areas of interest (built-up, roads and 

agriculture) as shown in Figure 7. 

CONCLUSION 

In conclusion, the development of EWARNS TM forecast 

and real-time early warning system on erosion risks/ 

hazards would certainly assist various parties including 

the local authorities, relevant Government agencies, and 

the public, consisting of motorists, tourists, hoteliers, and 

farmers in highland areas, as it would serve as an early 

warning in the case of any potential erosion risks or 

possible landslide occurrences. The EWARNS TM early 


warning system, which consists of the transmission unit, 

receiving unit and EWARNS 


TM display panel, is hoped to 

achieve its purpose in providing early warning and alerting 

the authorities as well as the public in general of the 

potential high erosion risk areas within the affected areas 

once there are incidences of heavy downpour. 

Finally, with the introduction of EWARNSTM for 

Cameron Highlands, it is hoped that better monitoring of 

the study area, Cameron Highlands Catchment could be 

provided and more attention could be paid to control 

indiscriminate or illegal clearing of areas with a potentially 

high erosion risk. Therefore, preventive and mitigation 

measures could be initiated early and duly enforced. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

Special thanks are extended to various parties for 

their assistance and contribution, which include: 

● Malaysian Meteorological Service 

● Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing 

● SSJCH Generation Division, Tenaga Nasional 

Berhad 

● Hydrology & Water Resources Division, 

Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia

engineering features 

Roofed Bridge At Kg Baru Guchil, Kuala Krai, Kelantan 

Submitted by Wong Siong Hwee 

THE INGENIEUR 64

BEM Dec06-Feb07 (Env.. - Board of Engineers Malaysia

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