AFTER VIOLENCE: 3R, RECONSTRUCTION, RECONCILIATION ...

the possibility that this was the problem to start with? In
Occasional Paper No. 1 (Carbonnier is No. 2) this is even built
into the title, After the Conflict: A Review of selected Sources
On Rebuilding War-torn Societies, Geneva: UNRISD, 1995. But all
three are recommended as introductions to reconstruction,
particularly as the focus of the present text is on
reconciliation.
58. This is argued in some detail in PBPM, Part III on
"Development".
59. And of course it was taken out, particularly harshly, on
Norwegian women who had been with German soldiers, and their
children.
60. See Johan Galtung, "Alternative Models for Global Democracy"
in Barry Holden, Global Democracy: A Debate, forthcoming 1999.
61. Many of them are small (islands in Northern Europe or the
Pacific), some are under protection of other countries (Iceland,
Luxembourg), others have big militias (Costa Rica). But the
number is increasing.
62. An alternative hypothesis was that for Stalin this was
unnecessary, the capitalist system was going to collapse anyhow,
hence strengthen the communist parties in that world and be
prepared for their attack. But such reasonable hypotheses were
discarded in the frozen thinking of the Cold War. In Norway, for
instance, the day of the German invasion 1940, 9 April, took on
almost mythical proportions as people were waiting for the Soviet
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replay of that scenario. That Russia, a neighbor, had not been at
war with Norway for 1,000 years and at that time we (the Vikings)
had attacked Norway was even seen as a trick to lull us into