The Fiume Question 1918-1920
The Fiume Question 1918-1920 The Fiume Question 1918-1920
László Gulyás - Loránt Bali: The Fiume Question 1918-1920 views in foreign affairs. They cut back on Italy’s territorial claims. Eventually their claims were approved by the Versailles conference and Italy could annex South Tirol and the port of Trieste. It is interesting to note that Trieste, as well as the French-occupied Strasbourg were the two most populous cities, acquired by the Allied Forces in the aftermath of the war. 20 Nitti’s foreign policy in relation to the Fiume question concretely meant that Italy was trying to come to an agreement with the southern Slav state and they gave the city over to them. D’Annunzio’s Adventure Nitti’s more moderate foreign policy provoked Italian nationalists and fascists, who called the prime minister the greatest traitor of the nation. In order to prevent the agreement with the southern Slav state, they launched military action. On August 24 the Sardic grenadiers, who were garrisoned in Fiume, left the city under the pretences of going to the small town of Ronchi, their new station in the vicinity of Monfalcone. They did so indeed, but having arrived at Ronchi, their nationalistic officers immediately contacted Gabriele D’ Annunzio, who, at that time, was in Venice. Upon the officers’ request D’Annunzio went to Ronchi and organised a troop of legionaries. In the meantime the Italian government signed the Saint Germain Treaty on September 10, 1919, determining Austria’s borders. This treaty was a success for Italy, since they got South-Tirol. 21 In spite of this two days later D’Annunzio’s legionaries marched into Fiume. 22 D’Annunzio delivered a speech on the balcony of the governor’s mansion, in which he announced that he would annex Fiume ’in the name of Italy’. His speech was met with the inhabitants’ enthusiasm. The following day D’Annunzio declared that he was taking over the military control over the city and demanded that the military representatives of the Allied Forces to leave. The British, American and French troops did as he said and left Fiume without resisting. General Pittaluga, Italian commander of Fiume, hesitatingly, and with some bad conscience, but hugged the ’nation’s poet’ and gave the power over to him. 23 Nitti’s government disapproved of Fiume’s occupation, but it was not strong enough to take resort to arms and fight D’Annunzio’s troops. Thus it was only D’Annunzio’s legionaries who represented armed forces in Fiume. In the meantime D’Annunzio was devising new plans. He was thinking of two possible scenarios. One of them was that in case of the resignation of Nitti’s government he would form a new Italian government which would undertake the issue of 20 HEARDER, 187. 21 GULYÁS László, A Dél-Tiroli-kérdés rövid története, ARACS. 2006/3. szám, 84-93. 22 DUGGAN Chistofer, A Concise History of Italy, Cambridge University Press Cambridge and New York 1994, 196. 23 KIS Aladár, A Duce, Zrínyi Kiadó, Budapest 1989, 111. 23 ORMOS Mária, Mussolini, Kossuth Könyvkiadó, Budapest 1987. 148
ÖT KONTINENS, az Új- és Jelenkori Egyetemes Történeti Tanszék tudományos közleményei, N o 2011/1. ELTE, BUDAPEST, 2012. finalising Fiume’s annexation. His other plan was to occupy Rome with his legionaries using Fiume as his base. Mussolini, who had an increasing significance in Italian internal politics of that time, 24 first seemed to support D’Annunzio’s second scenario. On September 25, 1919 he wrote a letter to D’Annunzio, suggesting the occupation of Trieste, proclaim the overthrow of the monarchy, and appoint a governing directorate with the purpose of dispatching troops to the major cities of northern Italy. 25 Mussolini’s attitude changed within two weeks. On October 7, 1919 he flew to Fiume, where he had a 2-hour long discussion with D’Annunzio. Unfortunately, no written records of this discussion survived. It is likely that referring to the elections of November 16, 1919, he asked D’Annunzio to be patient. It means that Mussolini most probably asked the ’Commander’ to postpone the implementation of his second plan. 26 Mussolini changed his attitude because he had expected his own political views to gain momentum in the elections of November 16, consequently the Fiume question became of secondary significance for him. In addition to elaborating his plans, D’Annunzio, as commander of Fiume, took concrete steps to take all power into his hands. On October 26, 1919 he held a referendum to decide Fiume’s national status. Based on census figures 10,330 people had the right to vote, but 30% of them refrained from voting. A total of 7,155 votes were collected, from which 6,999 voted for the ’Commander’, as D’Annunzio preferred to be addressed, and his national party list. 27 Although the commander won in the elections of October, later serious conflicts arose between D’Annunzio and the members of Fiume’s Italian National Council. The legionaries demonstrated in front of the commander’s mansion almost on a daily basis in order to prove their loyalty. D’Annunzio used these opportunities to incite his followers to fight. Most often he spoke about poor and exploited proletarian nations, which can only free themselves by launching a new, holy war against the robber nations, who had accumulated all the wealth. Fiume, in his view, would become the centre of the new Crusade. These speeches were very effective: his supporters celebrated their Commander in extasy. 28 It is also interesting to note that D’Annunzio - who had already been a celebrated poet and writer before the First World War - was the forerunner of modern political communication. His personality, way of communication and public speeches were admired by huge masses. 29 The Fiume National Council was unwilling to accept the historical role, envisaged by D’Annunzio. They only wanted to join Italy. 30 Most importantly, they 24 DUGGAN 1994, 198. 25 ORMOS Mária, Mussolini, Kossuth Könyvkiadó, Budapest 1987, 125. 26 ORMOS, 126. 27 KIS 1975, 143-144. 28 KISS 1989, 111-112. 29 FRIED 2001, 180. 30 FRIED 2001, 188. 149
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László Gulyás - Loránt Bali: <strong>The</strong> <strong>Fiume</strong> <strong>Question</strong> <strong>1918</strong>-<strong>1920</strong><br />
views in foreign affairs. <strong>The</strong>y cut back on Italy’s territorial claims. Eventually their<br />
claims were approved by the Versailles conference and Italy could annex South<br />
Tirol and the port of Trieste. It is interesting to note that Trieste, as well as the<br />
French-occupied Strasbourg were the two most populous cities, acquired by the<br />
Allied Forces in the aftermath of the war. 20 Nitti’s foreign policy in relation to the<br />
<strong>Fiume</strong> question concretely meant that Italy was trying to come to an agreement<br />
with the southern Slav state and they gave the city over to them.<br />
D’Annunzio’s Adventure<br />
Nitti’s more moderate foreign policy provoked Italian nationalists and fascists,<br />
who called the prime minister the greatest traitor of the nation. In order to<br />
prevent the agreement with the southern Slav state, they launched military action.<br />
On August 24 the Sardic grenadiers, who were garrisoned in <strong>Fiume</strong>, left the city<br />
under the pretences of going to the small town of Ronchi, their new station in the<br />
vicinity of Monfalcone. <strong>The</strong>y did so indeed, but having arrived at Ronchi, their<br />
nationalistic officers immediately contacted Gabriele D’ Annunzio, who, at that<br />
time, was in Venice. Upon the officers’ request D’Annunzio went to Ronchi and<br />
organised a troop of legionaries.<br />
In the meantime the Italian government signed the Saint Germain Treaty on<br />
September 10, 1919, determining Austria’s borders. This treaty was a success for<br />
Italy, since they got South-Tirol. 21 In spite of this two days later D’Annunzio’s<br />
legionaries marched into <strong>Fiume</strong>. 22 D’Annunzio delivered a speech on the balcony<br />
of the governor’s mansion, in which he announced that he would annex <strong>Fiume</strong> ’in<br />
the name of Italy’. His speech was met with the inhabitants’ enthusiasm. <strong>The</strong><br />
following day D’Annunzio declared that he was taking over the military control<br />
over the city and demanded that the military representatives of the Allied Forces<br />
to leave. <strong>The</strong> British, American and French troops did as he said and left <strong>Fiume</strong><br />
without resisting. General Pittaluga, Italian commander of <strong>Fiume</strong>, hesitatingly, and<br />
with some bad conscience, but hugged the ’nation’s poet’ and gave the power<br />
over to him. 23<br />
Nitti’s government disapproved of <strong>Fiume</strong>’s occupation, but it was not strong<br />
enough to take resort to arms and fight D’Annunzio’s troops. Thus it was only<br />
D’Annunzio’s legionaries who represented armed forces in <strong>Fiume</strong>. In the<br />
meantime D’Annunzio was devising new plans. He was thinking of two possible<br />
scenarios. One of them was that in case of the resignation of Nitti’s government he<br />
would form a new Italian government which would undertake the issue of<br />
20<br />
HEARDER, 187.<br />
21<br />
GULYÁS László, A Dél-Tiroli-kérdés rövid története, ARACS. 2006/3. szám, 84-93.<br />
22<br />
DUGGAN Chistofer, A Concise History of Italy, Cambridge University Press Cambridge and New<br />
York 1994, 196.<br />
23<br />
KIS Aladár, A Duce, Zrínyi Kiadó, Budapest 1989, 111.<br />
23<br />
ORMOS Mária, Mussolini, Kossuth Könyvkiadó, Budapest 1987.<br />
148
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