chapters - board of secondary education, rajasthan, ajmer

vkWCtSDV vkWCtSDV vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax izksxzkfeax dh dh ewy ewy /kkj.kk
/kkj.kk
1
v/;k;&1
v/;k;&1
vkWCtSDV vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax
izksxzkfeax
(Object Oriented Programming)
(Basic concepts of Object Oriented Programming)
izksfltjy Hkk"kk vkWCtSDV vkWfj;UVsM izksxzkfeax blfy, fodflr dh xbZ D;ksafd igys tks izksfltjy Hkk"kk,¡ C,
FORTRAN, vkSj Pascal languages Fkh] muesa cafn’ks FkhA blfy, bu Hkk"kkvksa esa izR;sd dFku ;g crkrk gS fd dEI;wVj
dks dqN djuk gSA buiqV fMokbl ls buiqV ysuk] fQj buiqV MkVk ij izkslSl djuk] vkmViqV iznf’kZr djuk bR;kfnA
izksfltjy Hkk"kk esa izksxzke funsZ’k vkSj dFkuksa dh lwph gksrh gSA
fp= 1 Arrangement of global and local variable
tc izksxzke cgqr cM+k gks tkrk gS] rks og NksVs&NksVs ;wfuV es a rksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA bl dkj.k ls izksxzke dks ljy cukus
ds fy, QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA izksfltjy izksxzke dks QaD’ku esa ck¡Vk tkrk gS vkSj izR;sd QaD’ku esa Li"V mís’;
dk Li"Vhdj.k rFkk vU; QaD’ku ls tqM+ko ds fy, Li"V fn’kk funs Z’k gksrs gSA izksxzke dks QaD’ku esa rksM+us ds fopkj dks vkxs
eksM~;wyl esa c

2
Fig. 2 Procedural paradigm
izksfltjy iSjkfMxe esa ;g leL;k gS fd QaD’ku rFkk MkVk ds chp esa dkQh tqM+ko gksrs gSA lHkh QaD’ku tks MkVk ij dk;Z
djrs gSa] oks mudks #ikarfjr djrs gS tSlk fp= 1A esa fn[kk;k x;k gSA
izR;sd vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM Hkk"kk esa dqN vko’;d vo/kkj.kk,a gS] tks bl izdkj gS%
vkWCtSDV vkWCtSDV (Objects):
vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk esa vkWCtSDV ,d ewy ju Vkbe fo|ekurk (entity) gSA nwljs ’kCnks a esa ge ;g dg ldrs gS
fd vkWCtSDV ,d Dykl dk mnkgj.k gSA izR;sd vkWCtSDV i`Fkd eSEcj ¼dsoy ukWu LVsfVd½ osfj;scy j[krs gSA ge Dykl ds
ftrus pkgsa mrus vkWCtSDV cuk ldrs gSA
Dykl Dykl (Classes):
Dykl vkWCtSDV dk Iyku]

3
bugSfjVSUl bugSfjVSUl (Inheritance):
;g ,d ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlesa ,d Dykl ds vkCtSDV nwljh Dykl ds vkCtSDV ds xq.kksa (members) dks izkIr djrk gSA ;g
gk;j,sfddy oxhZdj.k dh vo/kkj.kk dks ikyuk djrk gSA nwljs ’kCnks a es a ge ;g dg ldrs gS fd bugSfjVSUl eSEcj (variable
vkSj methods) dks gk;j,fddy lEcU/kksa ds lkFk mUgsa ,d ls vf/kd Dyklksa ds chp ck¡Vrh gSA tks Dykl nwljs dks bugSfjV
djrh gS og fMjkbo Dykl dgykrh gS rFkk tks Dykl bugSfjfVM gksrh gS ¼nwljh Dykl ls½] og csl Dykl dgykrh gSA
ikWfyeksjfQte ikWfyeksjfQte vkSj vkSj vksojyksfMax vksojyksfMax (Polymorphism and Overloading):
os D;k MkVk Vkbi vkWijsV dj jgs gS] bl ij fuHkZj jgrs gq, ge vkWijsVj vkSj QaD’ku dks fofHkUu rjhdksa ls mi;ksx dj ldrs
gSA ;g izfØ;k ikWfyeksjfQte ¼,d ,slh pht ftlds fofHkUu izk#i gS½ dgykrh gSA tc Hkk"kk es a iwoZ ekStwn vkWijsVj ¼tks Lor%
fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij dk;Z djrsa gSa½ fdlh u;s MkVk ¼;wtj }kjk ifjHkkf"kr½ ij dk;Z djus dks l{ke gks rks mls vkWijsVj
vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA tc ,d ls vf/kd QaD’ku dk uke leku gks rFkk muds vkX;w ZesUV dk MkVk Vkbi fHkUu gks ;k vkX;wZesUV
dh dqy la[;k fHkUu gks] rks bls QaD’ku vksojyksfMax dgrs gS aA QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ,d izdkj dh ikWfyeksjfQte gS tks OOPs
dh egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk Hkh gSA vksojyksfMax nks izdkj dh gksrh gS% 1- dEikbyVkbe (early binding) rFkk 2- ju Vkbe (late
binding)A
fj;wtsfcfyVh fj;wtsfcfyVh (Reusability):
tc ge ,d Dykl dks fy[k ysrs gSa] fMcx (debug) dj ysrs gS] rS;kj dj ysrs gS rks bls vU; izksxzkej dks muds vius izksxzke
esa iz;ksx djus gsrq ns nsrs gSA ;g izfØ;k fj;wtsfcfyVh dgykrh gSA ;g fcYdqy mlh rjg gS ftl izdkj fdlh izksfltjy Hkk"kk
esa QaD’ku dh ykbczsjh fofHkUu izksxzke esa tksM+h tkrh gSA
OOP esa bugSfjVSUl dh vo/kkj.kk fj;wtsfcfyVh dk egRoiw.kZ fopkj izLrqr djrh gSA ,d izksxzkej igys ls ekStwn
Dykl fcuk ifjofrZr fd, ys ldrk gS rFkk blesa dqN vfrfjDr lqfo/kk rFkk {kerk mldks bugSfjV djds tksM+ ldrk gSA
;g dk;Z ubZ fMjkboM Dykl }kjk igys ls ekStwn Dykl ¼csl Dykl½ }kjk iw.kZ fd;k tk ldrk gSA ubZ Dykl iqjkuh Dykl
dh {kerk dks bugSfjV dj ysrh gS ijUrq Loa; ubZ lqfo/kk tksM+us ds fy, Lora= gksrh gSA
C++ dk dk ifjp; ifjp; (Introduction of C++):
C++ ,d vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM izksxzkfeax (OOP) Hkk"kk gSA bls Bjarne Stroustrup us New Jersey, Murrary Hill
es a AT&T Bell Laboratories es a 1979 es a fodflr fd;k FkhA C++, C Hkk"kk dk foLr`r #i gSA izkjEHk es a bldk uke “C with
Classes” FkkA 1983 esa bldk uke cnydj C++ dj fn;k x;kA C++ dk fopkj buØhesUV vkWijsVj (++) ds uke ls vk;k
gSA ;g C Hkk"kk dk lqij lSV gSA C++ esa lcls egRoiw.kZ lqfo/kk tks C Hkk"kk ds cnys esa tksM+h xbZ gS og Dykl] vkWCtSDV]
bugSfjVSUl] vkWijsVj rFkk QaD’ku vksojyksfMax gSA C++ ds vkWCtSDV vksfj,fUVM fo’ks"krk ds dkj.k ;g gesa izksxzke dks lkQ]
foLr`r #i esa rFkk ljy j[kj[kko ls fy[kus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA C esa Åij&uhps

mi;ksx gksrk gS] mlds fcYdqy iklA
Eg. :-
# include
# include
class X
{
private:
int a;
int sqr(int a)
{
return a*a;
}
public:
int b;
int twice(int i)
{
return 2*i;
}
void disp(int x)
{
int p=sqr(i);
int q=twice(p);
cout

5
i = j = k = l = 0;
}
Abc( int a) { // one argument constructor
cout > i >> j >> k >> l;
}
void show( ) {
cout

6
cin >> i >> j >> k; // multiple variables input
buiqV vkWijsVj >> dks ge ,DlVªSD’ku (extraction) ;k xSV Ýkse vkWijsVj (get from) dgrs gS] ftldk mi;ksx LVS.MMZ
buiqV fMokbl (keyboard) ls MkVk izkIr djds osfj;scy esa LVksj djuk gSA ;gka cin ,d iwoZ ?kksf"kr LVS.MMZ buiqV LVªhe
dk vkWCtSDV gSA ;g iostream.h gSMj Qkby esa ?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gS] tks C ds scanf() QaD’ku ds lerqY; gS tSlk fp=
3 esa crk;k x;k gSA
vkmViqV vkmViqV vkmViqV vkWijsVj vkWijsVj (Output operator):
fp= 4 vkmViqV vkWijsVj
cout

7
C++ ds dh oMZl esa vf/kdka’k C Hkk"kk ds dh oMZl gS dqN u;s dh oMZ tksM+s x, gS ftuesa vf/kdka’k OOP’S ds fy,
gSA
dh oMZ dk igyk lewg MkVk Vkbi gS C++ ds eq[; MkVk Vkbi fp= esa fn[kk;s x;s gSA bUVhxzy MkVk Vkbi signed vkSj
unsigned izdkj ds gksrs gSaA lHkh bUVhxzy MkVk Lor% signed izdkj ds gksrs gSA
fp= 5 MkVk Vkbi
char:
;g gS ,d fizfefVo (built-in) MkVk Vkbi gSA tks dSjsDVj osfj;scy dks ?kksf"kr djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA C++ esas
dSjsDVj osfj;scy ,d ckbV dk gksrk gSA Lor% ;s signed gksrk gSA
char c = ‘A’;
int:
;g ,d fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g dh oMZ 16 fcV fQDlM iksbUV U;wesfjd (bUVhtj) osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA
int i = 10;
short:
;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g dh oMZ 16 fcV ’kksVZ fQDlM iksbUV U;wesfjd ¼bUVhtj½ ?kks"k.kk djus esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA
short int i = 10;
long:
;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gSA tks 32 fcV fQDlM iksbUV U;wesfjd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa dke vkrk gSA
long a = 10L;

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float:
;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gS tks 32 fcV flaxy fizfltu yksfVax iksbUV U;wesfjd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds fy, dke esa
vkrk gSA ;g IEEE754 dksfaMax rduhdh dks] uEcj dks iznf’kZr djus ds dke esa ysrk gSA
float f = 23.4f;
double:
;g fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi gS tks 64 fcV Mcy fizfltu yksfVax iksbUV U;wesfjd osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk djus ds dke esa vkrk
gSA ;g IEEE754 dksfMax rduhdh dks] uEcj dks iznf’kZr djus ds dke esa ysrk gSA Lor% yksfVax iskbUV fyVjy Mcy izdkj
dk gksrk gSA
double d = 23.5;
signed:
izR;sd _.kkRed fQDlM iksbUV U;wesfjd eku dks dEI;wVj es a 2’ s dEiyhesUV esa izLrqr fd;k tkrk gSA lkbUM uEcj /kukRed
eku ds lkFk&lkFk _.kkRed eku dks Hkh LVksj djrs gSA bUVhtj ?kks"k.kk Lor% signed izdkj dh gksrh gSA signed dks ge float
vkSj double osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds lkFk ugha yxk ldrsA bldk osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr iz;ksx gksrk gSA
int i; // by default signed
signed int i; // explicit declared as signed
unsigned:
bldks Hkh osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds lkFk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bUVhxzy osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr bldk iz;ksx gksrk gSA
unsigned data flQZ /kukRed eku gh LVksj djrs gSA
unsigned char c;
unsigned int i;
void:
;g dh oMZ void iksbUVj dh ?kks"k.kk esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] bldk mi;ksx QaD’ku ds fjVuZ Vkbi rFkk QaD’ku ds vkX;w ZesUV
esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA vxj QaD’ku dk vkX;w ZesUV void izdkj dk gSA rks og ;g n’kkZrk gS fd QaD’ku ’kwU; vkX;wZesUV okyk gSA
vxj QaD’ku ds fjVZu izdkj esa void gS rks og ;g n’kkZrk gS fd QaD’ku dqN Hkh fjVZu ugha dj jgk gSA
void *v; // void point declaration
void abc( int i) ; // function returns nothing
int abc(void); // zero argument function
goto:
;g vudaMh’kuy daVªksy LVsVesUV gS] tks fcuk dksbZ daMh’ku tkaps fn, x, yscy ij daVªksy Hkstrk gS ;g C++ izksxzke dh
200)
break;
stmt2;
}
stmt3;
for(intialize;condition;update)
{
stmt1;
if(val>2000)
break;
stmt2;
}
stmt3;
do
{
stmt1;

}
if(val>2000)
break;
stmt2;
while(text expression);
stmt3;
9
continue:
;g dh oMZ ywi (for, do-while, while) dks vxys bVjs’ku (iteration) ij ys tkrk gS vkSj cph gqbZ ckWMh dks NksM+
nsrk gSA ge ges’kk bls if daVªksy LVsVesUV esa iz;ksx djrs gS vU;Fkk bldk dksbZ eryc ugha jgrkA
while(test expression)
{
stmt 1;
if(val>200)
continue;
stmt2;
}
stmt3;
for(intialize;condition;update)
{
stmt1;
if(val>2000)
continue;
stmt2;
}
stmt3;
do
{
stmt1;
if(val>2000)
continue;
stmt2;
} while(text expression);
stmt3;
return:
;g dh oMZ QaD’ku ls ykSVus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g QaD’ku }kjk x.kuk dh xbZ eku dks cqykus okys izksxzke
dks Hkstrk gSA lkekU;r;k ge bls QaD’ku dh ckWMh ds var esa iz;ksx djrs gSA vxj bls vafre ykbu ls igys iz;ksx fd;k
tk, rks og if daVªksy LVsVesUV ds vUnj gksuk pkfg,A
int abc() { int abc() { int abc(int n) {
int i=2; int i=2; int i=2;
i = i*2; return i*i;O if ( n>3) {
return i;P cout

10
ds fy, iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA yksftdy ,Dliz S’ku cwfy;u (Boolean) eku nsrk gS] ftls lh/kk daMh’ku esa iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA
vFkZeSfVd ,Dliz S’ku U;wesfjd eku nsrk gS] vxj U;wesfjd eku ’kwU; gS rks daMh’ku FALSE gksxh vU;Fkk daMh’ku TRUE gksxhA
vf/kdrj (1) lkoZHkkSfed TRUE rFkk (0) lkoZHkkSfed FALSE gksrk gSA
# include
# include
void main()
{
clrscr();
int A,B,C;
coutA;
coutB;
if(a>10&&B

}
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cout

# include
# include
void main()
{
clrscr();
int l;
for(l=1;l

}
}while(ch

14
esa Xykscy ugha gksrsA
int i=10; // non-static global variable
static int j; // static global variable
void main( ) {
cout

15
inline:
;g dh oMZ vkWQykbu QaD’ku dks bu ykbu ¼vkWu ykbu½ cukus ds dke vkrk gSA bu ykbu QaD’ku NksVk vkSj ljy
gksrk gSA bu ykbu QaD’ku esa ge ywi dk iz;ksx ugha dj ldrsA QaD’ku dks cqykus ds oDr oks fdlh izdkj ds LVSd dk;Z dk
mi;ksx ugha djrsA oks dEikbys’ku ls igys foLr`r (extend) fd, tkrs gSA vFkkZr~ dEikbyj QaD’ku cqykus dh txg ij
QaD’ku dh ckWMh j[krk gSA
inline float areaOfTriangle( int b, int h) { // simple program which
float area; // have no loop
a = (b*h)/2.0;
return area;
}
this:
;g ,d iksbUVj gS ftlds }kjk ju Vkbe ds oDr fdlh vkWCtSDV ds ,MjSl dks i

};
16
Abc operator + (Abc x) { // overload “+” binary operator
return Abc(i + x.i);
}
virtual:
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx ju Vkbe ikWfyeksjfQte (polymorphism) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fMjkbZoM Dykl ds
vksojjkbM (override) ¼csl Dykl dk eSFkM tks fMjkboM Dykl es a mlh izksVksVkbi }kjk iqu% ?kksf"kr fd;k x;k gks½ eSFkM dks
csl Dykl ds vkWCtSDV ls i

17
try:
;g dh oMZ ,DlSI’ku gSaMfyx ds dke vkrk gSA ge try CykWd esa ,sls LVsVeSUV fy[ksaxs tks ,DlSI’ku Fkzks (throw) dj
ldrs gSA
catch:
bl dh oMZ dk mi;ksx try CykWd }kjk QSads x, fofHkUu ,DlSI’ku dks idM+us (catch) ds dke vkrk gSA
throw:
;g dh oMZ ,d vkWijsVj gSA tc fdlh izdkj dh =qfV dk irk pyrk gS rks Vªkb CykWd ls ,DlSI’ku QSadus ds dke
vkrk gSA
void main() {
int a, b, c, d;
cin>> a >> b;
try {
c = a / b;
if (c == 0) {
throw 10;
} else {
d = a / c;
}
} catch (int e) {
cout

18
private:
;g ,d ,lsl eksfMQk;j gS tks Dykl esa izkbosV eSEcj dh ?kks"k.kk djus esa mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gS] ftls Dykl ds
ckgj ugha i

19
Dykl dks bugSfjV djus es a Hkh fd;k tkrk gS tks ;g n’kkZrh gS fd Xykscy Ldksi esa fMjkbo Dykl ds vkWCtSDV }kjk csl Dykl
ds ifCyd eSEcj dks i

20
};
void main( ) {
S2 x;
x.i = 10;
x.j = 10; O // can’t access private member
x.k = 10; O // can’t access protected member
x.l = 10;
x.p = 10;
cout

a
21
public:
double d; // explicit declared as public member,
and this field is its largest field of 8 bytes
};
void main( ) {
S1 x;
cout

const:
cout

23
cout

24
Abc *x; Abc *x; Abc *x;
x->i = 10; x->i = 10; x->i = 10;
cout

25
a = (a + b)++; O // can’t use with expression
a = MAX++; O // can’t use with constant
a = 23++; O // can’t use with literal
a = size(30)++; O // can’t use with function
~ (1’s complement)
;g fcV okbl ;wujh vkWijsVj gS tks fn, x, MkVk dk 1’ s dkEiyhesUV Kkr djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g
fn, x, vkWijsUM ds lHkh fcVl dks dkWEiyhesUV dj nsrk gSA bldk izh fQDl #i esa iz;ksx gksrk gSA
int i = 10; i = 0000 0000 0000 1010
i = ~i; ~i = 1111 1111 1111 0101
! (Logical NOT)
;g yksftdy ;wujh vkWijsVj gS ftldk vkWijsUM fjys’kuy vkSj vFkZesfVd ,DlizS’ku (Nonzero U;wesfjd eku true
vkSj zero false gksrk gS½ gksrs gSA bls ges’kk izh fQDl #i esa iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vksijsUM ds eku dks true ls false vkSj
false ls true esa cnyrk gSA
if ( ! (20 is true, it convert into false condition
& (Address of)
;g ju Vkbe esa fdlh osfj;scy rFkk vkWCtSDV dk ,MjSl irk yxkrk gSA bldk mi;ksx fdlh QaD’ku dks jSQjSUl
}kjk vkX;wZesUV Hkstus esa fd;k tkrk gSA
int a = 10;
int *p = &a; // address of variable a is stored in pointer variable p
a = abc(&a); // passing argument by reference to function abc()
* (De-reference)
;g fn, x, ,MjSl ls eku dks ykus ds dke vkrk gS] bldk iksbUVj osfj;scy ?kksf"kr djus esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA ;g iksbUVj osfj;scy ds ges’kk izh fQDl esa yxrk gSA
int a = 10;
int *p = &a; // used for pointer variable declaration
cout

26
nwljh ,DliyhflV dkfLVax gS tks cM+s lkbt ds MkVk dks NksVs lkbt esa Vkbi dkfLVax vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djds
cnyrh gSA bl ifjorZu es a cM+ s lkbt ds MkVk ds vfrfjDr MSB fcVl dkfLVax ds oDr NksM+ (discard) fn, tkrs gS tSlkfd
fp= 6(b) esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA
sizeof
;g vkWijsVj fdlh osfj;scy ;k vkWCtSDV ds }kjk iz;qDr dh tkus okyh dqy eSeksjh dks crykrk gSA ;g Mk;ufed
eSeksjh ,yksds’ku ds oDr ju Vkbe lkbt Kkr djus ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA vkWCtSDV dk lkbt mlds ukWu LVsfVd
eSEcj osfj;scy ds lkbt ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA
void main( ) { class Abc {
int i; int i;
cout

}
27
a[i] = new int[col]; // allocate memory for cols
delete and delete[ ]
;g vkWijsVj ju Vkbe fdlh osfj;scy ;k vkWCtSDV dks vkoafVr eSeksjh eqDr djus ds dke vkrk gSA ;g C Hkk"kk ds
free() QaD’ku ds leku dk;Z djrk gS] vUrj flQZ bruk gS fd free() ,d QaD’ku gS rFkk “delete” ,d vkWijsVj gS bls fdlh
izdkj dh gSMj Qkby dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA
void main ( ) {
int *i = new int;
Abc *obj = new Abc;
delete i;
delete obj;
}
delete[ ] vkWijsVj }kjk fdlh Hkh ,Sjs dks delete fd;k tk ldrk gS tc ge ,Sjs dks delete djs a rks bldk syntex delete
[ ] expr gh gksuk pkfg,A czSdsV ds vanj ,Sjs dh Mk;eSu’ku ikl djus dh vko’;drk ugha gSA
void main ( ) {
char *p;
p = new char[10]; // allocate 10 chars array
delete[ ] p;// delete 10 chars array
}
eSEcj eSEcj MhjSQjsUl MhjSQjsUl vkWijsVj vkWijsVj (Member Dereference Operator)
class Abc {
public: int i;
};
void main( ) {
int Abc::* p = &Abc::i; // pointer to member variable i
Abc x; // non-pointer type object
Abc *y = new Abc; // pointer type object
x.*p = 10; // direct member dereference
y->*p = 20; // indirect member dereference
cout

28
tkrk gS] bldh ,lksfl,VhfoVh (associativity) cka;s ls nka;s gksrh gSA vxj ckbujh vkWijsVj ds nksuksa vksijsUM fofHkUu lkbt
rFkk fofHkUu izdkj ds gS rks os Lor% gh Vkbi izeksV gks tkrs gSA NksVs lkbt dk vksijsUM cM+s lkbt es a vkSj bUVhxzy vksijsUM
yksfVax iksbaV esa cny tkrk gSA
operand1 operator operand2
vFkZesfVd vFkZesfVd vkWijsVj (Arithmetic operator):
,sls vkWijsVj tks vFkZesfVd dk;Z djus ds fy, iz;qDr fd, tkrs gks rFkk ifj.kke dks baVhxzy #i esa nsrs gks] vFkZesfVd
vkWijsVj dgykrs gSA ;s fdlh Hkh fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij mi;ksx fd, tk ldrs gS tcfd % (modulo) vkWijsVj dks dsoy
bUVhxzy MkVk (char, int, long) ij iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gS uk fd yksfVax iksbUV (float, double) ij] % vkWijsVj es a ifj.kke
dk lkbu (sign) igys ¼cka;k½ vksijsUM ds leku gksrk gSA dEI;wVj ds ALU esa % vkWijsVj ds fy, lh/kk dksbZ gkMZos;j ugha
gksrkA ;g fuEu izdkj ls csfld vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djds gy gksrk gS%
x % y is equivalent to x – (x/y)*y
fMfotu vkWijsVj es a vxj bUVhtj eku dks bUVhtj ls Hkkx ns rks ifj.kke ges’kk bUVhtj esa gh vk,xkA mnkgj.k ds
fy, 5/2 gy gksus ij 2 nsrk gS u fd 2.5] D;ksafd ;g dk;Z fQDlM iksbUV ALU }kjk lEiw.kZ fd;k tkrk gSA budh ojh;rk
;wujh vkWijsVj ls de gksrh gSA
fp= 6

29
Priority Operator Operation / Purpose Examples Result
(1) * Multiplication 5*2 10
5.0*2.0 10.0
/ Division 5/2 2
2/5 0
5.0/2.0 2.5
5/2.0 2.5
5.0/2 2.5
% Modules 5%2 1
(Remainder) 2%5 2
-5%2 -1
5%-2 1
-5%-2 -1
5.0%2.0 O ERROR
(2) + Addition 5+2 7
5.0+2.0 7.0
- Substraction 5-2 3
5.0-2.0 3.0
f’kV f’kV vkWijsVj vkWijsVj (Shift Operator):
;g fcV okbl vkWijsVj gS ;g vkWijsVj dsoy bUVhxzy vksijsUM ds lkFk gh iz;ksx fd, tkrs gSA igyk vksijsUM ;g
crkrk gS fd ge fdldks shift djuk pkgrs gS rFkk nwljk vksijsUM ;g crkrk gS fd ge fdruh ckj f’kV djuk pkgrs gSA
operand1 shift operator operand2

30
vksojyksM fd;k x;k gS] bls iwoZ ?kksf"kr buiqV LVªhe vkWCtSDV cin ds lkFk dh cksMZ ds lkFk MkVk izkIr djus ds fy, iz;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA
fp= 8
int i = 10;
i = i >> 1; // one time right shift all bits of variable i
cout > i; // overloaded for input purpose
i = i >> 2.3; // wrong, can’t use float as operand
fjys’kuy fjys’kuy fjys’kuy ¼dEiSjhtu½ ¼dEiSjhtu½ vkWijsVj vkWijsVj [Relational (comparison) Operator]:
bl vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx fdUgha nks vFkZesfVd ,DlizS’ku dks feykus (comparison) ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjtYV dk
Boolean eku (true or false) es a nsrk gSA bldh ojh;rk vFkZesfVd vkWijsVj ls de gksrh gSA bldk mi;ksx eq[;r;k daMh’kuy
daVªksy LVsVeSUV (if, for, while, … bR;kfn) esa daMh’ku dks tk¡pus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
void main ( ) {
float f = 0.7; // 0.7 is double, so cast it to float and truncate some data
if (f < 0.7 ) { // f is auto type promoted, and add zero on extra bits
cout =1 true
1 >=2 false
(2) == equal to 5==2 false
!= not equal to 5 !=2 true
fcVokbl fcVokbl vkWijsVj vkWijsVj vkWijsVj (Bitwise Operator):
bu vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx fn, x, MkVk ds ,dy (individual) fcV~l ij dk;Z djus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vkWijsVj
dsoy baVhxzy MkVk (char, int and long) ij dk;Z djrk gSA fcV~okbl vkWijsVj dh foLr`r tkudkjh fp= 9 esa n’kkZ;h xbZ gSA

31
fp= 9
ykWftdy ykWftdy ¼’kkWVZ ¼’kkWVZ ¼’kkWVZ lfdZV½ lfdZV½ lfdZV½ vkWijsVj vkWijsVj [Logical (short ckt.) Operator]:
;g U;wure ojh;rk Øe okys ckbujh vkWijsVj gS tks fjys’kuy ;k vFkZesfVd ,DlizS’ku dks tk¡pus ds dke esa vkrs
gSaA nks izdkj ds yksftdy vkWijsVj gksrs gS% && (logical AND) vkSj || (logical NOT)A bUgs a ’kkWVZ lfdZV vkWijsVj ds uke
ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA blesa nwljs vksijsUM dks rHkh gy djrs gSa tc izFke vksijsUM vafre mÙkj dks nsus esa vl{ke gksrk gSA
&& (Logical AND)
bl vkWijsVj esa ;fn izFke vksijsUM true gS rc gh nwljk vksijsUM gy djsxk vU;Fkk ughaA ;fn igyk vksijsUM false
gS rks fcuk nwljs vksijsUM dks gy fd, ge vafre gy crk ldrs gS vkSj og false gh gksxkA
int a=2, b=3; int a=2, b=3;
// 1st operand is true, so // 1st operand is false, so
// it will solve 2nd operand // it will not solve 2nd operand
if (a

32
int a=2, b=3; int a=2, b=3;
// 1st operand is true, so // 1st operand is false, so
// it will not solve 2nd operand // it will solve 2nd operand
if (a

33
ds fy, Lor% dkfLVax mi;ksx dj ysrk gS ¼vxj bldh vko’;drk gks rksA½
Simple assignment Equivlent Compound Assignment
a = a + b a += b
a = a - b a -= b
a = a * b a *= b
a = a / b a /= b
a = a % b a %= b
a = a >= b
a = a & b a &= b
a = a ^ b a ^= b
a = a | b a |= b
vlkbueSUV vlkbueSUV ds ds nkSjku nkSjku C++ }kjk }kjk ,DlizS’ku ,DlizS’ku gy gy djus djus dk dk rjhdk
rjhdk
(Way of solving expression by C++ during Assignment)
;g osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr rFkk ckn esa LVksj djus okys ,DlizS’ku dks vyx&vyx rjhds ls gy djrk gSA
osfj;scy dh ?kks"k.kk ds oDr vlkbueSUV djuk (Assignment during variable declaration):
1. ckbujh vkWijsVj ds vksijsUM ds eku dks cka;s ls nka;h fn’kk dh rjQ j[krk gS rFkk vkWijsUM dk eku j[krs oDr ;wujh (++,
--) vkWijsVj dks Hkh gy dj ysrk gSA iksLVfQDl ;wujh vkWijsVj vksijsUM esa eku j[kus ds i’pkr~ gy gksrk gS tcfd izh fQDl
;wujh vkWijsVj igys gy gksrk gS ckn esa vkWijsUM esa eku j[krk gSA
2. ckbujh vkWijsVj ds vkWijsUM dk eku j[kus ds i’pkr~ ;g ckbujh vkWijsVj dks mudh ojh;rk ds vuqlkj gy djrk gSA
(means *,/,% solve first, after that it solve +,-)
int a = 2;
int b = a++ + ++a + a++ * a + a; // storing exp. value during dec.
cout

34
try {
if ( a

35
s NEW l LEMDA
2. fuEu lwfp ds vuqlkj ,ytSfczd QaD’ku dks lerqY; C++ QaD’ku esa cny ysuk pkfg,A lHkh ykbczsjh QaD’ku math.h gSMj
Qkby esa miyC/k gSA fact(n) ;wtj fMQkabM QaD’ku gS tks C++ dh ykbczsjh esa ugha gSA
Algebraic Equivalent Example Result
Function C++ Function
÷x sqrt(x) sqrt(9.0) 3.0
Îx˚ floor(x) floor(2.99) 2
Èx˘ ceil(x) ceil(2.001) 3
ÔxÙ mod(x) mod(-23.3) 23.3
sin x sin(x) sin(30.0) -0.988
cos x cos(x) cos(30.0) 0.154
sin -1 x asin(x) asin(0.2) 0.201
cos -1 x acos(x) acos(0.2) 1.369
e x exp(x) exp(3.0) 20.08
log e x log(x) log(2.0) 0.693
log 10 x log10(x) log10(2.0) 0.301
x y pow(x,y) pow(2.0,3.0) 8.0
În fact(n) fact(3) 6
a
3. ;fn fMohtu (/) vkWijsVj ds lkFk baVhxzy fyVjy dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k gS rks mls yksfVax iksbUV fyVjy esa cny ysuk
pkfg,A bl izdkj ge baVhtj fMokbM ckb baVhtj ls cp ldrs gS] tks ges’kk ifj.kke baVhtj esa gh nsrk gSA
a / 3 convert into a / 3.0
4. fMohtu vkWijsVj ds va’k rFkk gj ,Dlizs'ku dks isjsfU;fll esa fy[k ysuk pkfg,A
5. ge fdrus Hkh iSjkfFkfll iz;ksx dj ldrs gSa ¼tc vko’;drk gksA½
6. ’kq# gksus okys rFkk can gksus okys czSfdV leku gksus pkfg,A
7. Lor% dHkh Hkh eYVhfQds’ku ugha gksrk blfy, gesa eYVhiyhds’ku ds fy, (*) vkWijsVj dk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A
s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c) // wrong
s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c) // correct
8. C++ QaD’ku dks vkX;wZesUV@eku Hkstus ds fy, ges’kk isjsfU;fll dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A
sqrt 9 // wrong
sqrt (9) // correct
9. vlkbueSUV (=) vkWijsVj ds cka;s Hkkx esa ges’kk osfj;scy dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A dsoy izh fQDl bUØhesUV] fMØhesUV
vkWijsVj cka;s Hkkx esa ekU; gksxkA
a + b = c + d; // wrong
a = c + d – b; // correct
++a = c +d - b; // correct
10. dkWUlVSUV dks ges’kk cM+s v{kjks esa fy[kuk pkfg;s rkfd bls osfj;scy ls fHkUu izdkj ls igpkuk tk ldsA ,d ls vf/kd
’kCnksa okys dkWUlVSUV ds uke ds chp vUMjLdksj (_) dk iz;ksx djuk pkfg,A
a = b + pie; // bad way
a = b + PIE; // best way to use
a = b + MAX_NO; // multiple words constant
11. osfj;scy rFkk dkWUlVSUV dk uke dk;Z ls feyrk&tqyrk gksuk pkfg,A ge iwjk uke ;k dk;Z ds uke dk igyk v{kj dk
iz;ksx dj ldrs gSA jSUMe rFkk csrqdk uke iz;ksx ugha djuk pkfg,A ,d ls vf/kd ’kCnksa okys osfj;scy ds uke esa ’kCn dk
igyk v{kj cM+k gksuk pkfg, tSls f=Hkqt dk {ks=Qy Kkr djus ds fy, ge fuEu izdkj ls uke dk iz;ksx djsaxs%
int a; // best way for naming
int area; // best way for naming
int AreaOfTriangle; // best way for naming

Examples:
36
int x; // bad way for naming
Sr. Algebraic Equivalent C++
No Equation Expression
1. x + ÷y
--------- p ((x+sqrt(y)) / ((pow(ALPHA,2) + pow(BITA,3)))* PIE
a 2 + b 3
2. expx + e x
---------- (floor(x) + exp(x)) / (sqrt(pow(x,y)) / LEMDA)
÷x y ÷ l
3. |x|* sinq
------------- (mod(x) * sin(THITA)) / (ALPHA + BITA + GAMA)
a + b + g
4. 1
1+ -------------- 1 + 1 / ( 1 + 1 / ( 1 + x ))
1
1 + ---------
1 + x
5. x + max_no
---------------- (x + MAX_NO) / (fact(n) / PIE)
!n ÷ p
uSlVsM+ uSlVsM+ daVªksy daVªksy daVªksy LVsVeSUV LVsVeSUV (Nested Control Statement)
ge fdlh daVªksy LVsVeSUV dh ckWMh es a vU; fdrus Hkh daVªksy LVsVeSUV fy[k ldrs gS] bl izdkj dh O;oLFkk dks uSlfVM
daVªksy LVsVeSUV dgrs gSA ge fdrus Hkh uSlfVM Lrj dk mi;ksx dj ldrs gSA uSlfVM daVªksy LVsVeSUV dk iz;ksx fdlh leL;k
esa ,d ls vf/kd daMh’ku tk¡pus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA vanj okyk daVªksy LVsVeSUV rHkh fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc ckgj okyk
daVªksy LVsVeSUV true gksA vanj ds daVªksy LVsVeSUV esa fy[ks x, LVsVeSUVl rHkh fu"ikfnr gksrs gS tc nksuksa ¼vanj vkSj ckgj½
gh daMh’ku true gks If within if dks uSlfVM if, switch within switch dks uSlfVM switch rFkk for within for dks uSlfVM for
dgrs gSA
Nested if Nested switch
if ( condition1) { // outer if switch(exp1) { // outer switch
———— ————
if (condition2) { // inner if switch(exp2) { // inner switch
———— ————
} }
———— ————
}
}
ge uSlfVM for ywi esa fdlh ,d for ywi esa fdrus Hkh for ywi fy[k ldrs gSa tcfd izR;sd for ywi dk osfj;scy
vyx&vyx gksuk pkfg,A
for (int i=1; i

}
}
jsQjsUl jsQjsUl jsQjsUl osfj;scy osfj;scy osfj;scy (Reference Variable)
37
igys C esa nks izdkj ds osfj;scy gksrs gSa% ukWu&iksbUVj rFkk iksbUVj osfj;scyA C++ ,d u;s izdkj ds osfj;scy izLrqr djrk
gS ftls jsQjsUl osfj;scy dgrs gSA ;g iwoZ ?kksf"kr osfj;scy dks vyVjusVho uke (alias) nsrk gS vFkkZr~ ge ,d gh eSeksjh yksds’ku
dks ,d ls vf/kd uke ns ldrs gSA ge ?kks"k.kk ds oDr osfj;scy ds uke ls igys & fpUg dk iz;ksx djrs gSA ;g ?kks"k.kk ds
oDr fdlh osfj;scy }kjk vo’; bfuf’kykbZt gksuk pkfg,A jsQjsUl osfj;scy dks ,SMªl vlkbZu gksus okys osfj;scy ds ,SMªl
ls leku gksrk gSA
data_type & ref_var_name = variable_name;
int a = 10;
int &p = a; // create ref./alias of variable a
cout

38
int a=2, b=3; int a=2, b=3; int a=2, b=3;
swap(a, b); swap(&a,& b) swap(a, b);
cout

}
cout

7. fuEu izksxzke ds [k.M dk vkmViqV D;k gksxk\
int a = 2;
if ( !0

41
v/;k;&2
v/;k;&2
dUlVªDVj dUlVªDVj rFkk rFkk MsLVªDVj
MsLVªDVj
(Constructors and Destructors)
dbZ ckj ge vkWCtSDV mRiUu gksus ds rqjUr ckn rFkk vkWCtSDV ds u"V gksus ds iwoZ dqN dk;Z djuk pkgrs gSA C++
dh Dykl esa nks ,slh lqfo/kk gS ftuds }kjk ge mijksDr dk;Z dj ldrs gSA ;g dUlVªDVj vkSj MsLVªDVj gSA dUlVªDVj
Lor% gh fu"ikfnr gks tkrk gS tc vkWCtSDV mRiUu gksrk gSA blh izdkj MsLVªDVj Hkh Lor% fu"ikfnr gksrk gS tc vkWCtSDV
u"V gksrk gS ;k Ldksi ls ckgj ¼ckn esa ftldh dksbZ vko’;drk u gks½ pyk tkrk gSA ;s Dykl ds fo’ks"k izdkj ds eSEcj
QaD’ku gksrs gSA bu lqfo/kkvksa ds }kjk ;g ;wtj ds fy, lqfo/kktud gksrk gS fd vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds le; Lor% gh
bfuf’k;ykbt gks tkrk gS rFkk u"V gksus ij Lor% gh lHkh L=ksr eqDr dj nsrk gSA
dUlVªDVj
dUlVªDVj
dUlVªDVj (Constructors)
dUlVªDVj ,d eSEcj eSFkM gS tks vkWCtSDV dh mRifÙk ds oDr Lor% gh fu"ikfnr gksrk gSA dUlVªDVj vkWCtSDV dks
mRifÙk ds oDr Lor% bfuf’kykbZt djus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA bls vkWCtSDV dk Lor% bfuf’kykbZts’ku Hkh dgrs gaSA
;g vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds rqjUr ckn fu"ikfnr gksrk gS] bldk uke Dykl ds uke ds leku gksrk gSA bls vksojyksM dj
ldrs gaSA bldk dksbZ Hkh fjVZu Vkbi ugha gksrk] ;g Lor% Dykl ds izdkj dks gh fjVZu djrk gSA ;g ges’kk ckgj ls gh
cqyk;k tkrk gS blfy, bldk ,lsl eksfMQk;j izkbosV ugha gksuk pkfg,] blfy;s ge mls vf/kdrj ifCyd j[krs gaSA
vxj ge dksbZ Hkh dUlVªDVj ugha fy[krs gaS rks dEikbyj Lor% gh ’kwU; vkX;w ZesUV dUlVªDVj fcuk fdlh dher ij iznku
dj nsrk gSaA tSls gh ,d ckj ’kwU; vkX;wZesUV ds vykok vU; dUlVªDVj cuk fy;k tkrk gS rc dEikbyj gesa ’kwU;
vkX;w ZesUV dUlVªDVj iznku ugha djrkA fofHkUu izdkj ds dUlVªDVj fp= 1 esa n’kkZ;s x;s gSA
// A class without Constructor // A class with constructor
# include # include
class Abc { class Abc {
private: private:
int a; int a;
public: public:
void show() { // member method Abc(void) { // constructor
cout

42
4.
djrs gSaA
bUgsa vksojyksM fd;k tk ldrk gSA
5. Mªkbo Dykl }kjk os bugsfjV (inherit) ugha fd;s tk ldrs] mUgsa Mªkbo Dykl ds dUlVªDVj ls cqyk;k tk ldrk gSA
6. ;s vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds rqjUr ckn fu"ikfnr gksrs gSaA
7. ;s vkWQykWbu eSFkM dh rjg Hkh fy[ks tk ldrs gaSA
8. os virtual ¼,slk eSFkM ftldh dksbZ ckWMh ugha gksrh] ckWMh dks Mªkbo Dykl esa ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gS virtual eSFkM
dgykrk gS½ izdkj ugha gks ldrsA
iSjkehVjkbtM iSjkehVjkbtM dUlVªDVj dUlVªDVj (Parameterized Constructors)
ge vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr eSEcj osfj;scy dks fofHkUu eku ls bfuf’k;ykbt djokuk pkgrs gSaA ;s eku dUlVªDVj
}kjk Hksts tkrs gSaA bl izdkj ds dUlVªDVj dks iSjkehVjkbtM dUlVªDVj dgrs gS] vFkkZr~ ,sls dUlVªDVj tks eku dks vkX;w ZesUV
dh rjg ysrs gS] iSjkehVj dUlVªDVj gksrs gSaA
’kwU; ’kwU; vkX;wZesUV vkX;wZesUV dUlVªDVj dUlVªDVj (Zero Argument Constructor):
’kwU; vkX;w ZesUV dUlVªDVj ¼fcuk iSjkehVj½ vkWCtSDV mRifÙk ds oDr fofHkUu eku iznku ugha djrsA vxj ;wtj fdlh
izdkj dk dUlVªDVj ugha fy[krk gS rks ;s Lor% gh dEikbyj }kjk mRiUu gks tkrs gSA
# include
class Abc {
private:
int a;
public:
Abc( ) {
cout

43
// variable have same name
}
void show() {
cout

44
class Abc {
private:
int a, b, c;
public:
Abc(int a=10, int b=20, int c=30 ) {
this->a = a;
this->b = b;
this->c = c;
}
void show() {
cout

this->b = b;
this->c = c;
}
void show() {
cout

46
Abc obj2(obj1); // copy initialization
Abc obj3 = obj2; // copy initialization, alternative syntax
mijksDr nksuksa rjhds dkWih dUlVªDVj ds gSa tks vius vkWX;wZesUV dks u;s vkWCtSDV esa dkWih djrs gSaA ;g vlkbueSUV
vkWijsVj tSlk gh gSa ijUrq vUrj ;g gS fd dkWih dUlVªDVj u;k vkWCtSDV Hkh rS;kj djrk gSA
# include
class Abc {
private:
int a;
public:
Abc( ) { } // zero argument constructor
Abc(int a) { // one argument constructor
this->a = a;
}
Abc (Abc &obj) { // copy constructor
a = obj.a*2;
cout

MsLVªDVj
MsLVªDVj
47
String () {
name = NULL;
size = 0;
}
String (char *str) { // dynamic constructor
size = strlen(str);
name = new char[size+1];
strcpy(name,str);
}
void read() {
cin.get(name, 80); // read multiple words string
}
void join(String &s1, String &s2) { // concat two string
size = s1.size + s2.size;
delete name;
name = new char[size+1];
strcpy(name,s1.name);
strcat(name,s2.name);
}
void show() {
cout

48
cout

ÝSaM ÝSaM QaD’ku QaD’ku (Friend Functions)
49
MkVk fNikus rFkk MkVk ,udSIlwys’ku dh vo/kkj.kk ds vuqlkj ge ckgj ls izkbosV rFkk izksVsDVsM eSEcj dks ugha i

50
(l) private: ~Abc( ) { } (n) Abc::~Abc( ) { }
5. dkSulk ÝSaM QaD’ku (func) lgh gS\
(v) obj.func(obj); (c) obj->func(obj);
(l) func(obj) (n) func();
vfry?kqÙkjkÙked vfry?kqÙkjkÙked iz’u
iz’u
1. nks dUlVªDVj izdkj crkb;s\
2. dUlVªDVj ds nks mi;ksx crkb;s\
3. MsLVªDVj ds nks mi;ksx crkb;s\
4. dkWih dUlVªDVj dkWfyax ds nks rjhds crkb;sA
5. ÝSaM QaD’ku dSls dkWy fd;k tkrk gS\
y?kqÙkjkÙked y?kqÙkjkÙked iz’u
iz’u
1. dc vkSj D;ksa dUlVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\
2. dc vkSj D;ksa MsLVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\
3. dc vkSj D;ksa dkWih dUlVªDVj cukuk pkfg,\
4. dc vkSj D;ksa ÝSaM QaD’ku cukuk pkfg,\
5. dUlVªDVj fy[kus ds fy, fofHkUu ck/kkvksa (restrictions) dks crkb;s\
fuca/kkRed fuca/kkRed iz’u
iz’u
1. dUlVªDVj vksojyksfMax dk mi;ksx djrs gq, ljy Dykl cukb;sA
2. ,d Dykl fyf[k, tks dkWih dUlVªDVj dk mi;ksx djrs gq, fLVªax dh dkWih djsA
3. ,d Dykl fyf[k, ftlesa Mk;ufed dUlVªDVj fMQkWYV vkX;wZesUV ysrk gksA
4. dUlVªDVj ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A
5. ÝSaM QaD’ku ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A
mÙkjekyk mÙkjekyk
mÙkjekyk
1. (n) 2. (l) 3. (n) 4. (n) 5. (l)

51
v/;k;&3
v/;k;&3
QaD’ku QaD’ku rFkk rFkk vkWijsVj vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax
vksojyksfMax
(Function and Operator Overloading)
MkVk Vkbi vkWijsVj D;k dj jgs gS] bl ij fuHkZj jgrs gq, ge vkWijsVj vkSj QaD’ku dks fofHkUu rjhdksa ls mi;ksx
dj ldrs gSA ;g izfØ;k ikWfyeksjfQTe ¼,d ,slh pht ftlds fofHkUu izk#i gS½ dgykrh gSA tc Hkk"kk esa iwoZ ekStwn
vkWijsVj ¼tks Lor% fizfefVo MkVk Vkbi ij dk;Z djrsa gSa½ fdlh u;s MkVk ¼;wtj }kjk ifjHkkf"kr½ ij dk;Z djus dks l{ke
gksa] rks mls vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dgrs gSA tc ,d ls vf/kd QaD’ku dk uke leku gks rFkk muds vkX;w ZesUV dk MkVk
Vkbi fHkUu gks ;k vkX;wZesUV dh dqy la[;k fHkUu gks] rks bls QaD’ku vksojyksfMax dgrs gSaA QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ,d
izdkj dh ikWfyeksjfQte gS tks OOP dh egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk Hkh gSA vksojyksfMax nks izdkj dh gksrh gS% 1- dEikbyVkbe
(early binding) rFkk 2- ju Vkbe (late binding)A
QaD’ku QaD’ku vksojyksfMax vksojyksfMax (Function Overloading)
ge cgqr ls QaD’ku cukrs gS ftudk uke leku gksrk gS ijUrq vkX;wZesUV fyLV ¼dqy vkX;w ZesUV fHkUu] fHkUu MkVk
Vkbi½ fHkUu gksrh gSA QaD’ku] dkWy esa iz;qDr dh xbZ vkX;wZesUV fyLV ds vuqlkj QaD’ku fofHkUu dk;Z djrk gSA dqy
vkX;wZesUV rFkk vkX;wZwesUV MkVk Vkbi ds vuqlkj lgh QaD’ku cqyk;k tkrk gS ;g QaD’ku dkWfyax ds oDr vksojyksMsM
QaD’ku dk fjVZu Vkbi ugha pSd djrkA QaD’ku dkWy djrs oDr lcls igys okLrfod iSjkehVj dh lgh rqyuk djrk gSA
vxj rqyuk ugha gks ikrh gS rks og Vkbi izeks’ku dk iz;ksx djrk gSA
// Overloaded Function prototypes
int add(int a, int b); // prototype 1
int add(int a, int b, int c); // prototype 2
double add(double a, double b); // prototype 3
double add(int a, double b); // prototype 4
double add(double a, int b); // prototype 5
add add(int a); // prototype 6
// Functions calls
cout

52
// Calculate area using base and height of triangle
void area(float base, float height) {
a = (base*height) / 2.0;
cout

53
public:
Abc() { a=b=0; }
Abc(int a, int b) {
this->a = a;
this->b = b;
}
void show() {
cout

54
// Prefix Unary Negation Operator overloading
Abc operator - () {
return Abc(-a, -b);
}
};
void main() {
Abc a(2,3), b;
b = -a;
a.show();
b.show();
}
OUTPUT: a=2 b=3
a=-2 b=-3
6.4.3 Complement (~) operator overloading:
# include
class Abc {
private:
int a,b;
public:
Abc() { a=b=0; }
Abc(int a, int b) {
this->a = a;
this->b = b;
}
void show() {
cout

55
public:
Abc() { a=b=0; }
Abc(int a, int b) {
this->a = a;
this->b = b;
}
void show() {
cout

56
b = obj.b; // update the member with passing object
return *this;// return current object address
}
// Compound Assignment Operator overloading
Abc operator += (Abc obj) {
a += obj.a; // update the member with passing object
b += obj.b; // update the member with passing object
return *this;// return current object address
}
};
void main() {
Abc a(1,2), b(3,4), c, d;
c = d = a;
c.show();
d.show();
d += a;
d.show();
}
OUTPUT: a=1 b=2
a=1 b=2
a=2 b=4
vksojyksfMax vksojyksfMax vkWijsVj vkWijsVj ds ds fu;e fu;e (Rules of overloading operators)
gesa vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds oDr dqN fu;eksa dh ikyuk djuh iM+rh gS] tks fuEu izdkj gS%
1. ge . (dot), :: (scope resolution), ?: (conditional), .* (direct member dereference), .-> (indirect member
dereference), vkSj sizeof vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM ugha dj ldrsA
2. ge vkWijsVj dh ojh;rk ugha cny ldrsA
3. ge vkWijsVj ds dqy vkX;w ZesUV ugha cny ldrsA
4. ge vksojyksMsM vkWijsVj esa fMQkWYV vkX;wZesUV ugha ikl dj ldrsA
5. ge dsoy miyC/k vkWijsVj dks gh vksojyksM dj ldrs gS u;k vkWijsVj ugha cuk ldrsA
6. vksojyksMsM vkWijsVj (overloaded operator) esa de ls de ,d vkWijsUM gksuk vko’;d gS vkSj og ;wtj fMQkbaM
¼Dykl dk vkWCtSDV½ izdkj dk gksuk pkfg,A
7. ge vkWijsVj dk ewy mís’; ugha cny ldrs] tSls ge + vkWijsVj dks (*, multiplication) ds fy, iz;qDr ugha dj ldrsA
8. ;wujh vkWijsVj (unary operator) dksbZ vkX;wZesUV ugha ysrk ijUrq iksLV fQDl esa int izdkj dk Meh vkX;wZesUV ?kksf"kr
fd;k tkrk gSA
9. ckbujh vkWijsVj esa ges’kk eku dks fjVZu djok;k tkuk pkfg,A
10. ÝSaM QaD’ku }kjk dqN vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM ugha fd;k tk ldrkA
bUgsjhVsal
bUgsjhVsal
Inheritance
bUgsjhVsal ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlesa igys ls cuh gqbZ Dykl dks vk/kkj ekurs gq, ubZ Dykl cukbZ tk ldrh gSA blls ubZ Dykl
esa igys ls cuh gq, DYkkl ds eSEclZ Lor% vk tkrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, eku ysrs gSa fd geus fo|kFkhZ ds vadksa dk ;ksx Kkr djus ds
fy, ,d Dykl cuk j[kh gSA vc ;fn fo|kFkhZ ds vadksa dk izfr'kr Hkh Kkr djuk gks rks mlh Dykl esa ifjorZu djus ds LFkku ij
ge ,d u;h Dykl cuk ldrs gSa ftlesa ;ksx Kkr djus okyh Dykl dks bUgsfjV fd;k tk ldrk gS D;ksafd izfr'kr vad Kkr djus
ds fy, vadksa dk ;ksx ekywe gksuk vko';d gS rFkk ;g ;ksx igys ls cuh gqbZ Dykl esa ekStwn gSA
jh;wtsfcfyVh (reusability) vkWCtsV vksfj,aVsM izksxzkfeax dk ,d egRoiw.kZ xq.k gSA blesa ,d ckj fy[ks x, dksM dks iqu% vko';drk
ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx Dyklksa esa iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA og DYkkl tks igys ls ekStwn gS rFkk ftls bUgsfjV fd;k tkuk gS mls
isjs aV Dykl (parent class), lqij Dykl (super class) ;k csl Dykl (base class) dgrs gSaA rFkk og Dykl ftles a igys ls cuh gqbZ

57
Dykl dks bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS mls pkbYM Dykl (child class), lc Dykl (sub class) ;k fMjkbOM Dykl (derived class) dgrs gSaA
C++ esa bUgsjhVsal eq[; :i ls fuEu ikap izdkj ds gksrs gSa &
* flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Single Level Inheritance)
* eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal (Multi Level Inheritance)
* eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal (Multiple Level Inheritance)
* fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal (Hierarchical Inheritance)
* gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal (Hybrid Inheritance)
bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal ds ds eksM eksM (Modes of Inheritance)
fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks fuEu rhu eksM~l (modes) esa ls fdlh ,d eksM esa bUgsjhV fd;k tk ldrk gSA
* ifCyd eksM (public mode)
* izkbosV eksM (private mode)
* izksVsDVsM eksM (protected mode)
ifCyd ifCyd eksM eksM (public mode)
;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks ifCyd eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds %
* lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds ifCyd eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrs gSaA
ifCyd eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class child_class_name : public parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
izkbosV izkbosV eksM eksM (private mode)
;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izkbosV eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds %
* lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrh gSaA
izkbosV eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA %
class parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class child_class_name : private parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
izksVsDVsM izksVsDVsM eksM eksM (protected mode)
;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izksVsDVsM eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjsaV Dykl ds %
* lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM DYkkl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA

58
* lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izksVsDVsM eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrs gSaA
izksVsDVsM eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class child_class_name : public parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
izkbosV izkbosV eksM eksM (private mode)
;fn fdlh isjsaV Dykl dks izkbosV eksM esa bUgsfjV fd;k tkrk gS rks isjasV Dykl ds %
* lHkh ifCyd eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* lHkh izksVsDVsM eSEclZ pkbYM Dykl ds izkbosV eSEclZ gks tkrs gSaA
* izkbosV eSEclZ bUgsfjV ugha gksrh gSaA
izkbosV eksM esa fd, tkus okys bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA %
class parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class child_class_name : protected parent_class_name
{
.............
.............
.............
},
flaxy flaxy ysoy ysoy ysoy bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal (Single Level Inheritance)
flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal esa dsoy ,d isjsaV Dykl rFkk ,d pkbYM Dykl gksrh gSA bls fp= ds :i es a fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk
gSA
flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class B : mode A
{
.............
A
B
flaxy ysoy bUgsjhVsal
(Single Level Inheritance)

.............
.............
},
eYVh eYVh ysoy ysoy bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal (Multilevel Inheritance)
59
eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal esa fdlh pkbYM DYkkl dks iqu% fdlh u;h Dykl esa bUgsfjV fd;k tk ldrk gSA bls fp= ds :i esa
fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gSA
A
B
C
eYVh ysoy bUgsjhVsal
(Multi Level Inheritance)
mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl] B Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gS rFkk B Dykl] C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA blh izdkj B Dykl
A Dykl ds fy, pkbYM DYkl gS rFkk C Dykl B Dykl ds fy, pkbYM Dykl gSA eYVhbugsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class B : mode A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class C : mode B
{
.............
.............
.............
},
eYVhiy eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal (Multiple Inheritance)
eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d ls vf/kd isjs aV Dykl rFkk dsoy ,d pkbYM DYkkl gksrh gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gSa
fd eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d fMjkbOM Dykl ,d ls vf/kd csl Dyklst dks bUgsfjV dj ldrh gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj
n'kkZ;k tk ldrk gS %
A
B
C
eYVh bUgsjhVsal
(Multiple Inheritance)
mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl rFkk B Dykl] C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA eYVhiy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class A
{
.............
.............

.............
},
class B
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class C : mode A, mode B
{
.............
.............
.............
},
fgjkjfddy fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal (Haerarchical Inheritance)
60
fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d isjsaV Dykl rFkk ,d ls vf/kd pkbYM Dykl gksrh gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa ge ;g dg ldrs gSa fd
gkbjkdhZdy bUgsjhVsal esa ,d ls vf/kd fMjkbOM Dykl dh dsoy ,d gh csl Dykl gksrh gSA bls fp= ds :i esa fuEukuqlkj n'kkZ;k
tk ldrk gSA
fgjkjfddy
mijksDr fp= esa A Dykl] B Dykl rFkk C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gSA fgjkjfddy bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gS %
class A
{
.............
.............
A
.............
B C
},
class B : mode A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class C : mode B
{
.............
.............
.............
},
gkbfczM gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal bUgsjhVsal (Hybrid Inheritance)
gkbjkdhZdy bUgsjhVsal
(Hierarchical Inheritance)
,d ls vf/kd izdkj ds bUgsjhVsal dks ;fn ,d lkFk iz;ksx esa fy;k tk, rks bls gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal djrs gSa mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn
fgjkjfddy rFkk eYVhiy bUgsjhVs al dk iz;ksx lkFk&lkFk fd;k tk, rks bls gkbfczM bUgsjhVs al gh dgk tk,xkA eYVh ysoy rFkk eYVhiy
bUgsjhVsal dk iz;ksx lkFk & lkFk fd;k tk, rks bls Hkh gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal gh dgk tk,xkA fgjkjfddy rFkk eYVhiy bUgsjhVs al dk iz;ksx
djds gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal dks fuEu fp= esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA

61
A
B C
D
gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal
(Hybrid Inheritance)
mijksDr fp= esa ADykl] B Dyko ,oa C Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl gS rFkk B Dykl ,oa C DYkkl D Dykl ds fy, isjsaV Dykl
gSA gkbfczM bUgsjhVsal dk izk:i fuEukuqlkj gksrk gSA
class A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class B : mode A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class C : mode A
{
.............
.............
.............
},
class D : mode B, mode C
{
.............
.............
.............
},
Data file handling
T;knkrj program Qkby ds lkFk dk;Z djrs gSa D;ksafd Qkby lwpukvksa dks lqjf{kr djrh gSA dbZ izkslslj Qkby dks cukrs gSA
MkVkcsl izksxzke lwpukvksa dh Qkby dks cukrs gSA dEikbyj ewy Qkby dks i

62
file handling fuEu izdkj ls fofHkUu Qkbyks a dks lapfjr djrk gS &
fp=
fp=
MkVk Qkby & tSlk fd ge tkurs gSa fd Qkby lwpukvksa dks LFkkbZ :i ls lqjf{kr djrh gSA ;g leku :i ls MkVk Qkby ij Hkh
ykxw gksrk gSA MkVk Qkby nks izdkj ls lqjf{kr dh tkrh gS &
(1) VsDLV Qkby (2) ckbZujh Qkby
(1) ;g ASCII :i esa lwpukvksa dks lqjf{kr djrh gSA blesa izR;sd ykbu ,d eq[; character EOL (End of line) ls vyx dh tkrh gSA
(2) ;g Qkby lwpukvks a dks mlh :i esa lqjf{kr djrh gS ftl :i esa mls eSeksjh esa lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gSA blesa izR;sd ykbu ds fy;s
dksbZ Hkh i`FkDdj.k ugha gksrk gSA
Qkby vksiu o Dykst djuk & C++ esa fdlh Hkh Qkby dks [kksyus ds fy;s loZizFke ,d stream dk gksuk vfuok;Z gSA ;g rhu
izdkj dh gksrh gS & input, output, input/output.
input stream cukus ds fy;s mls instream class esa ?kksf"kr djuk gSA output stream cukus ds fy;s bls ofstream class esa ?kksf"kr
djuk gksxkA og stream tks input vkSj output nksuksa dk;Z djrh gS mls fstream class esa ?kksf"kr djuk gksxkA ,d ckj stream cukus ds
i'pkr~ vxyk dk;Z mls file ds lkFk tksM+uk gSA blds ckn Qkby izkslsflax ds fy;s rS;kj gks tkrh gSA

63
Qkby dks nks ek/;eksa }kjk [kksyk tkrk gS &
(1) stream class ds ØaLVªDVj dks vkCtsDV ds lkFk gh ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~ og vkCtsDV ds lkFk gh dk;Z djuk izkjEHk dj nsrk
gSA ;g fuEu izdkj fd;k tkrk gS &
* Data file dks input file ds :i esa [kksyus ds fy;s geas file stream dk ,d vkCtsDV cukuk gksxkA
tSls instream input_file ("Data file")
mijksDr dFku input file uke dk ,d vkCtsDV ?kksf"kr dj nsrk gSA object dk uke dk;ZdÙkkZ Lo;a gh cuk ldrk gSA bl izdkj
nksuksa MkVk dks ljyrk ls mi;ksx esa fy;k tk ldrk gSA
bl izdkj Qkby dks i>ch;
floot amt;
input - file >> amt;
blh izdkj ;fn ge write Qkby cukuk pkgrs gSa rks gesa output file cukuh gksxhA bls Hkh nks ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS &
(1) ofstream dk ,d object cukdj tks fd output stream ds lkFk gksA
(2) ml object dks fdlh fu/kkZfjr Qkby ls tksM+djA
tSls & ofstream output file (ABC")
mijksDr dFku ,d output file uked vkWCtsDV dks cukrk gSA input vkSj output dk dk;Z lekIr gksus ds i'pkr~ vkCtsDV Lor%
gh u"V gks tkrk gSA bls ge fuEufyf[kr dFku }kjk Hkh u"V dj ldrs gSa &
input file . close ( );
output file . close ( );
(2) dqN ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gesa ,d ls T;knk Qkby ,d gh le; esa [kksyus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ;g dk;Z bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk
gS fd ;g Qkby fdl izdkj dke esa yh tkuh gSA ;fn izksxzke nks Qkbyksa dh ,d lkFk izkslsflax pkgrk gSA rks gesa izR;sd lrr~ izkslsflax
dks pkgrh gS rks ,d gh stream }kjk dk;Z fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl izdkj object cuk;k rks tkrk gS ijUrq mls dksbZ izkjfEHkd eku ugha
fd;k tkrk gSA tSls &
instrem filin ;
filin . open ("ABC . dat");
"
"
"
filin . close ( );
filin . open ("xyx.dat");
"
"
"
filin . close ( );
mijksDr dksM nks Qkbyksa dks lrr~ :i [kksy ldrk gSA ;g ;kn j[kk tk;s fd izFke Qkby dks can djus ds ckn gh nwljh Qkby dks
[kksyk tk;sA

64
Qkby dk lrr~ input/output vkWijs'ku & file stream vius lkFk vusd ,sls QaD'ku dks j[krh gS tks input / output vkWijs'ku
dks fuHkkrs gSaA QaD'ku get( ) o put ( ) ,d character dks handle dj ldrs gSaA getline QaD'ku ,d le; esa vusd character dks handle
dj ldrk gSA read ( ) o write ( ) QaD'ku ckbujh MkVk dks CykWd ds :i esa i

65
read ( ) o write QaD'ku & ;g Qkby esa i

ughaA
;g nks ek/;eksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gS &
(1) tks fjdkMZ LVªDpj }kjk cuk;s x;s gSa
(2) tks fjdkMZ Dykl ¼oxZ½ }kjk cuk;s x;s gSaA
struct stru
{
int rollno;
char name[25]
char Class[4]
float mark5;
char grade;
} s1;
int m; char found = ‘n’;
ifstrream fin(“stu.dat”, ios :: in | ios :; binary);
coutm;
while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.read((char *) & s1, sizeof (stu));
if(s1.rollno==m)
...........
found = ‘y’
66
break;
}
if(found== ‘n’)
{:
:
}
2. Qkby Qkby esa essa esa MkVk MkVk layXu layXu djuk djuk & & MkVk dks Qkby esa izfof"V djkus ds fy;s nks izdkj dh vo/kkj.kkvksa dks mi;ksx esa fy;k tkrk
gS &
(1) Qkby dks vkmViqV eksM esa [kksyuk
(2) Qkby dks ios :: app eksM esa [kksyuk
struct stru
{
int rollno;
char name[25]
char Class[4]
float mark5;
char grade;
public:
void getdata()
{:
:
}
void putdata()
{:
:
}
int get mo()
{
return rollno;
}s1;
ifstrream fin(“stu.dat”, ios :: in | ios :; binary);

coutm;
while(!fin.eof())
{
fin.read((char *) & s1, sizeof (stu));
if(s1.rollno==m)
...........
found = ‘y’
break;
}
if(found== ‘n’)
{:
:
}
67
3. NaVh NaVh Qkby Qkby esa esa esa MkVk MkVk MkVk izfof"V izfof"V & & NaVh gqbZ Qkby esa MkVk dks izfo"V djkus ds fy;s loZizFke gesa mldh fLFkfr dks tkuuk t:jh
gS] mlds i'pkr~ mls Qkby esa mldh fLFkfr ij dkWih djuk gksxk rFkk 'ks"k fjdkMZ dks Hkh dkWih fd;k tk;sxkA
* loZizFke gesa fuf'pr fLFkfr dks [kkstuk gksxkA
* Kkr fLFkfr ij MkVk dks dkWih fd;k tk;sxkA
* uohu fjdkMZ dks vLFkkbZ file dks tksM+uk pkfg,A
* Delete dek.M }kjk ml file dks tksM+uk pkfg,A
* vafre pj.k esa nksuksa gh Qkby dks u;s uke }kjk ?kksf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA
4. Qkby Qkby ls ls MkVk MkVk fudky fudky nsuk nsuk & & fjdkMZ dks fMfyV djus ds fy;s fuEu pj.kks a esa dk;Z djrs gSa &
* loZizFke ml fLFkfr dk irk yxk;k tkrk gS tgk¡ ls fjdkMZ dks fMfyV djuk gSA
* lkFk gh og fjdkMZ ftUgsa fMfyV ugha djuk gS mUgsa vLFkkbZ Qkby esa lqjf{kr fd;k tk;sxkA
* vLFkkbZ Qkby esa fMfyV fd;k tkus okyk MkVk lqjf{kr ugha fd;k tkrk gSA
* ewy Qkby dks fMfyV dj fn;k tkrk gSA
* vc vLFkkbZ Qkby dks rename dj nsaxsaA
5. fdlh fdlh Qkby Qkby Qkby esa esa MkVk MkVk dk dk la'kks/ku la'kks/ku & & file ds fdlh Hkh MkVk dks ifjofrZr djus ds fy;s eq[; pj.k ;g gS fd] fjdkMZ ftls ifjofrZr
djuk gS] mldk izkjfEHkd irk fn;k tk;sA ifjofrZr gksus ds ckn IokaVj iqu% izkjfEHkd fLFkfr ij vk tk;sxk &
class stru
{
int rollno;
char name[25]
char Class[4]
float mark5;
char grade;
public:
void getrno()
{:
:
}
void putrno()
{:
:
}
int get mo()
{
return rollno;
}
void modify();
} s1;
stream fio;

fio.open(“stu.dat”, ios :: in |ios::out | ios :; binary);
int m;
coutm;
long pos;
while(!fio.eg())
{
pos=fio.tellg();
fio.read((char*) & s1, sizeof (s1));
if(s1.getrno()==m)
{
s1.modify();
fio.seekg(pos);
fio.write((char*) & s1, sizeof (s1));
}
}
68
vH;kl vH;kl iz’u
iz’u
cgqp;ukRed cgqp;ukRed iz’u&
iz’u&
1. dkSulh ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax lgh gS\
(v) Abc operator + (Abc, Abc);
(c) Void operator + (Abc);
(l) Abc operator + (Abc);
(n) Abc operator + (Abc x = 10);
2. dkSulh iksLV fQDl;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax lgh gS\
(v) Abc operator ++ (Abc);
(c) Abc operator ++ (int);
(l) Abc operator ++ ( );
(n) void operator ++ (int);
3. dkSulk dFku vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa xyr gS\
(v) operator dhoMZ iz;ksx djukA
(c) sizeof dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA
(l) new dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA
(n) delete dks vksojyksM dj ldrs gSA
4. dkSulk vkWijsVj vksojyksM ugha dj ldrs\
(v) ~ (c) += (l) .* (n) new
5. dkSulk vkWijsVj vksojyksM dj ldrs gSa\
(v) :: (c) ?: (l) ->* (n) &
vfry?kqÙkjkÙked vfry?kqÙkjkÙked iz’u&
iz’u&
1. nks ugha vksojyksM gksus okys vkWijsVj ds uke crkb;sA
2. nks vksojyksM gksus okys vkWijsVj ds uke crkb;sA
3. ckbujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa fdrus vkX;wZesUV ikl djrs gS\
4. ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax esa fdrus vkX;wZesUV ikl djrs gS\
5. vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ds fy, iz;qDr gksus okys dhoMZ dk uke fnft,A
6. Qkby D;k gS\
7- Qkby dks open djus ds nks ek/;e crkb;s\

69
8- input o output stream D;k gS\
9- seekg ( ) dk mi;ksx D;k gS\
10- C++ esa binary Qkby VsDLV Qkby ls fdl izdkj fHkUu gS\
11- stream D;k gS\
y?kqÙkjkÙked y?kqÙkjkÙked iz’u
iz’u
1. dc vkSj D;ksa vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM fd;k tkrk gS\
2. dc vkSj D;ksa QaD’ku dks vksojyksM fd;k tkrk gS\
3. iksLV fQDl rFkk fiz fQDl vksojyksfMax esa dEikbyj vUrj dSls Kkr djrk gS\
4. D;k ge u;k vkWijsVj u;s fluVSDl ls vksojyksM djk ldrs gS\
5. D;k ,d ls vf/kd leku uke okys QaD’ku dk flQZ fjVZu Vkbi fHkUu gksus ls vksojyksfMax gksrh gS\
6- instream o ofstream esa vUrj crkvksaA
7- read ( ) o write ( ) QaD'ku es a vUrj crkvksaA
8- get ( ) o get line ( ) QaD'ku es a vUrj crkb;sA
9- file dk vkdkj byte esa iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s program cukb;sA
10- Data dks binary o text esa lqjf{kr djus ij D;k fo"ks'krk;sa feyrh gSA
fuca/kkRed fuca/kkRed iz’u iz’u
iz’u
1. iksLV fQDl +++ vksojyksfMax dk mi;ksx djrs gq, ljy Dykl cukb;sA
2. ,d Dykl fyf[k, tks vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax dk iz;ksx djrs gq, fLVªax dh dkWih djsA
3. ,d Dykl fyf[k, ftles a deikm.M vlkbueSUV vkWijsVj dks vksojyksM fd;k x;k gksA
4. ;wujh vkWijsVj vksojyksfMax ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A
5. QaD’ku vksojyksfMax ij fVIi.kh fyf[k,A
mÙkjekyk mÙkjekyk
mÙkjekyk
1. (n) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (l) 5. (n)

70
v/;k;&4
v/;k;&4
O;wg
O;wg
(Array)
;g ,d ,slh lajpuk gS ftles a ekuks a dks Øekxr lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gS rFkk mudk çdkj leku gksrk gS A bUgsa lqjf{kr
djus ds fy;s ge eseksjh ds Øe dk mi;ksx djrs gS A ;g nks çdkj ds gksrs gSa &
1½ ,d foeh; O;wg
2½ f} foeh; O;wg
1½ bl çdkj ds O;wg esa ekuksa dks LrEHk ;k iafDr fdlh ,d çdkj ls lqjf{kr fd;k tkrk gS A tSls %&
Syntax :datatype
array_name[size];
;gkW data type lqjf{kr fd;s tkus okys ekuksa dk çdkj gS rFkk array name ge viuh lqfo/kk vuqlkj j[k ldrs gSaA
size ekuksa dks la[;k ij fuHkZj djrh gS A tSls %&
int a[5];
;gk¡ lqjf{kr gksus okys eku integer datatype ds gS] (array) O;wg dk uke ‘a’ gS rFkk blesa 5 eku lqjf{kr fd;s tk
ldrs gS A
Insert element in array O;wg esa fdlh vo;o dh izfof"V djukA
#include
#include
void main()
{
int *p,n,item,pos;
clrscr();
cout

for(i=0;i

eak;
}
else
{
no=1;
continue;
}
}
#include
#include
void main()
{
int a[5],i;
int ele,temp=0,pos=0;
clrscr();
cout

#include
#include
#include
void main()
{
clrscr();
int arr[5]={1,2,3,4,5}, pos,i;
coutpos;
for(int i=pos; i

{
key=x[j];
i=j-1;
while(x[i]>key && i>=0)
{
x[i+1]=x[i];
i--;
}
x[i+1]=key;
}
}
int main()
{
clrscr();
int A[25];
int size,i;
int x;
coutsize;
cout

{
}
75
minat=j; //the position of the min element
min=array[j];
}
int temp=array[i] ;
array[i]=array[minat]; //swap
array[minat]=temp;
}
}
void printElements(int *array,int length) //print array elements
{
int i=0;
for(i=0;i

#include
using namespace std;
int compare(int, int);
void sort(int[], const int);
void swap(int *, int *);
int compare(int x, int y)
{
return(x > y);
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;
temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
}
void sort(int table[], const int n)
{
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for(int j = 0; j < n-1; j++)
{
if(compare(table[j], table[j+1]))
swap(&table[j], &table[j+1]);
}
}
}
int quantity;
int* tab;
int main()
{
cout > quantity;
tab = new int [quantity];
cout

}
return 0;
}
77
Merge 2 array :- fdlh fdlh nks nks jSf[kd jSf[kd O;wgksa O;wgksa dk dk laJ`[kyuA
laJ`[kyuA
#include
#include
void main()
{
int a[20],b[20],c[40],n,m,i,j,k,temp,item;
clrscr();
coutn;
cout

#include
const int ROW=4;
const int COLUMN =3;
void main()
{
int i,j;
int Exforsys[ROW][COLUMN];
for(i=0;i

Enter value of Row 3, Column 1:70
Enter value of Row 3, Column 2:80
Enter value of Row 3, Column 3:90
Enter value of Row 4, Column 1:100
Enter value of Row 4, Column 2:110
Enter value of Row 4, Column 3:120
COLUMN
1 2 3
ROW 1 10 20 30
ROW 2 40 50 60
ROW 3 70 80 90
ROW 4 100 110 120
Add 2 D array :- ¼nks ¼nks foeh; foeh; O;wg½ O;wg½ ekyk ekyk js[kh; js[kh; la[;kad la[;kad eku eku eku okys okys okys nks nks N x M O;wgks O;wgks dk dk ;ksxA
;ksxA
#include
#include
#include
class matrix
{
int a[4][4],b[4][4],i,j,x,y;
public:
void getvalues();
void displaysum();
};
void matrix::getvalues()
{
coutx>>y;
if(x!=y)
{
cout

}
}
void main()
{
clrscr();
matrix m;
m.getvalues();
m.displaysum();
getch();
}
OUTPUT:
Enter the size of the row and column 2
2
Enter values for the matrix A
9
5
7
3
Enter the values for matrix b
9
3
1
5
The sum of matrix A and B is
18 8
8 8
¼nks ¼nks ¼nks foeh; foeh; O;wg½ O;wg½ ekyk ekyk js[kh; js[kh; la[;kad la[;kad eku eku okys okys nks nks N x M O;wgks O;wgks dk dk vUrjA
vUrjA
include
#include
#include
void main()
{
int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],i,j,m,n,o,p,q,ip;
cout >m>>n;
cout >p>>q;
cout

{
cin>>b[i][j];
}
}
cout

82
cout >m>>n;
cout >p>>q;
if(n==m)
cout

c[i][j]=c[i][j]+(a[i][ip]*b[ip][j]);
}
}
}
cout

eturn data[top];
}
};
int main()
{
Stack s;
// Push elements
s.Push(100);
s.Push(200);
// Top element
cout

85
int front;
int back;
public:
Queue() {
front = -1;
back = -1;
}
void Add(int aData)
{
if ( back >= MAX_SIZE )
{
cout

OUTPUT:-
Added element: 100
Added element: 200
Added element: 300
Added element: 400
Delete element: 100
Delete element: 200
Delete element: 300
Delete element: 400
Queue is empty
Delete element: 0
86
vH;kl vH;kl iz'u
iz'u
a
cgqp;ukRed cgqp;ukRed iz'u
iz'u
1.LIFO dk iwjk uke gS :
(v) Last in First out (c) Last in Forward out
(l) Late in First out
2. FIFO dk iwjk uke gS :
(n) Late in Forward out
(v) First in Forward out (c) Forward in Forward out
(l) First in First out
3. Stack ,d
(n) Forward in First out
(v) File (c) Database
(l) Data Structure
4.O;wg ----------------- çdkj ds gksrs gSa
(n) Header
(v) 1 (c) 2
(l) 3
vfry?kqÙkjkRed vfry?kqÙkjkRed iz'u
iz'u
(n) 4
1- ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa esa fdl izdkj gVk ldrs gS \
2- ge O;wg esa lqjf{kr fd;s x;s ekuksa dks fdl izdkj [kkst ldrs gSaA
y?kqÙkjkRed y?kqÙkjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks fdrus ek/;eksa }kjk gVk ldrs gS
2- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks fdrus ek/;eksa }kjk [kkst ldrs gSaA
3- p;u NkaV fdls dgrs gSa\
fuca/kkRed fuca/kkRed fuca/kkRed iz’u
iz’u
1- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuksa dks gVkus dk program cukb;sA
2- O;wg esa lqjf{kr ekuks dks [kkstus dk program cukb;sA
mÙkjekyk mÙkjekyk
mÙkjekyk
1. v 2. l 3. l 4. c

87
v/;k;&5
v/;k;&5
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl o o ,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y dk dk ifjp;
ifjp;
(Introduction to Database and SQL)
User interface :
gkykafd cgqr ls ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ysfdu dqN ;wtj MkVkcsl dks mi;ksx esa ysus ds fy;s DoSjh
ySaXost dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA T;knkrj ;wtj MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djus ds fy;s fuEu Vwy dke es a ysrs gSaA ftUgsa ÝaUV ,sUM Vwy
Hkh dgk tkrk gSA ;s Vwy fuEu izdkj gSa %&
1. Forms and Graphical user Inteface:
;g Vwy ;wtj dks oSY;w ,sUVj djus dh vuqefr iznku djrs gSa] ftuds }kjk igys ls crk;s x;s dk;Z dks iwjk fd;k
tkrk gSA blds ckn flLVe DoSjh dks ,sfXtD;wV djrk gS vkSj ;wtj ds crk;s x;s QkWjesV esa fjtYV dks vkmViqV ds :i esa
nsrk gSA xzkfQDy ;wtj bUVjQsl ;wtj dks vklkuh ls mi;ksx esa ykus okys Vwy miyC/k djkrs gSaA
izksxzkej xzkfQDy ;wtj bUVjQsl dks osc czkmtj dk ÝUV,s.M ds :i esa iz;ksx djds rS;kj dj ldrk gSA ;g blds
fy;s vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa ds }kjk miyC/k djk;s tkus okys QWkeZ vkSj nwljh lqfo/kkvksa dk mi;ksx dj ldrk gSA bu lqfo/
kkvksa dks ,Iyhds’ku izksxzkfeax bUVjQsl (API) dgk tkrk gSA ftuesa java,Swing fotqvy csfld ;k fotqvy lh $ $ dk
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA osc czkmtj esa HTML ls fMtkbZu fd;s x;s QkWeZ dk mi;ksx cgqrk;r ls fd;k tkrk gSA
2. Report Generator :
;g Vwy ;wtj ds fy;s igys ls fMtkbZu dh xbZ fjiksVZ esa orZeku MkVk dk mi;ksx djus dh btktr nsrk gS ;gka
fjiksVZ dk QWkjesV igys ls fu/kkZfjr gksrk gSA bl QkWjesV esa oSY;wt ml le; mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys MkVkcsl ds vuqlkj
mi;ksx gksrh gSa] vkSj fo’ys"kd rFkk eSustj fdlh fjiksVZ Hkfo"; dh :i js[kk rS;kj djus ds fy;s dke esa ysrs gSaA bl fjiksVZ
ds vk/kkj ij vxys fu.kZ; fy;s tkrs gSaA fjiksVZ tujsVj Vwy] ,sls Vwy gSa ftuds }kjk ;wtj ds ]}kjk i

88
djus dk rjhdk gSA blds vUrxZr lwpukvks a dks fdl izdkj laxzg fd;k tk lds] mudk

89
6. Fees managment System :
bl rjg ds flLVe fofHkUu f’k{kk laLFkkuksa esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh Qhl dk ys[kk tks[kk j[kus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs
gSaA ftlls fofHkUu M~;wt] fofHkUu enksa dh Qhl rFkk M~;w fnukad dk irk yxk;k tk ldrk gSA Qhl dh jlhn fizUV djus
rFkk vyx&vyx dkslZ ds vuqlkj Qhl Lor% x.kuk dh tkrh gSA vkSj mlds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu dkslsZst ls vk; o O;; dks
tkuk tk ldrk gSA
7. Result Analysis System :
bl izdkj ds flLVe esa fofHkUu ijh{kkvksa ds ifj.kke fudkyus muds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu Js.kh Kkr djus esa MkVkcsl
dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA fdlh ijh{kk ifj.kke dks Kkr djus ds fy;s fofHkUu le; ij gq, VsLV muds iw.kkZsad o izkIrkadksa
ds vk/kkj ij izfr’kr fudkys tkrs gSaA vkSj mlds vuqlkj Jsf.k;ka] vf/kdre vad gj fo"k; es a] vf/kdre o U;wure vad VksVy
o gj fo"k; esa izfr’kr ikl o Qsy fo+|kfFkZ;ksa dh x.kuk;as dh tkrh gSaaA
8. Addmission Managment System :
bl flLVe esa MkVkcsl esa izos’k ds fy;s vk;s QkeZ dh lwpuk;sa lap; dh tkrh gSaA mlds i’pkr fofHkUu fu;eksa ds
vk/kkj ij izos’k gsrq ik=rk dks tkapk tkrk gSA vkSj mlds ckn izos’k gsrq ik= lHkh izos’kkfFkZ;ks a dks NkaVk tkrk gSA blds i’pkr
vkj{k.k ds vk/kkj ij izos’k lwfp;ka cuk;h tkrh gSaA vkSj izos’k uk ysus dh fLFkfr esa gksus okys vU; izos’k ds fy; dqy lhVksa
ds vk/kkj ij osfVax fyLV rS;kj dh tkrh gSA
9-Insurence Management System :
bl flLVe esa fofHkUu esSustj^];wfuV eSustj]],Q-lh rFkk fQYM esa dk;Z djus okys vius }kjk fd;s x;s O;olk; dk
fglkc j[krs gSa vkSj mlds vuqlkj vius y{; dks izkIr djus ds iz;kl djrs gSaA fofHkUu dkWy ij tkus dh rkfj[k rFkk fofHkUu
dkWy ij D;k izksxzsl gwbZ budk fglkc j[krs gsSaA buds vk/kkj ij fu"dZ’k fudkys tkrs gSa fd fdl O;fDr dks dkSu lh ikWfylh
vkWQj dh tk;s o fdl ,fj;k ;k Lrj ds yksx dkSulh ikWfylh dks ysus ds mRlqd gksxasA
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl eSustesaV eSustesaV flLVe
flLVe
MkVkcsl eSustesaV flLVe ,d ,slk flLVe gS tks MkVkcsl dks eSust djrk gS vFkkZr fdlh MkVkcsl dk lqfu;ksftr
fof/k }kjk çcU/ku djuk MkVkcsl eSustes aV flLVe dgykrk gSA de ls de ç;Ru es a mi;ksxh lwpuk,¡ MkVkcsl eSustes aV flLVe
}kjk gh çkIr dh tk ldrh gSA bl ç.kkyh ¼System½ esa MkVk dks tksM+uk] gVkuk ;k mls cnyuk fdlh vU; ç.kkyh ls vklku
gS A Mh-ch-,e-,l- dk çkFkfed y{; ,slk okrkoj.k çnku djuk gS] tks fd lqfo/kktud ,oa MkVkcsl lwpuk dks LVksj djus
,oa fjVªkbo djus ds ;ksX; gksA
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl eSustesaV eSustesaV flLVe flLVe ds ds Qk;ns Qk;ns %
%
1- MkVkcsl ls dkQh gn rd MkVk jhMaMsalh ¼MkVk MqIyhds’ku½ ?kVkukA
2- MkVkcsl ls cM+h gn rd MkVk laca/kh vfu;ferrk dks fu;U=.k djukA
3- MkVkcsl ls vklkuh ls MkVk dks Access djuk A
4- MkVk ds fc[kjko dks jksdukA
5- MkVk dks lqjf{kr j[kukA
Data Models ¼MkVk ¼MkVk ¼MkVk ekWMYl½
ekWMYl½
MkVk ekWMy ,sls fHkUu ekWMy gksrs gSa] ftudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl dks fMtkbu djus esa gksrk gSA MkVk fMtkbu esa MkVk dk
o.kZu] MkVk fjys’ku’khi] MkVk dh Hkk"kk fo"k; tkudkjh vkSj daflLVVsalh dULVªsUV~l tSlh ckrsa ’kkfey gksrh gSA fofHkUu LVªDpj
vkSj vewrZrkvksa ¼,DLVªsD’kUl½ ds lkFk fofHkUu MkVk ekWMy çLrkfor fd, x, gS A
Object based Data
Models
Entity Relationship Data
Model
Object Oriented Data
Model
DATA MODELS
Record based Data
Models
Relational Data Model
Network Data Model
Semantic Data Model Hierarchical Data
Model
fp= 1 MkVk ekWMYl

90
vkWCtsDV vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr vk/kkfjr MkVk MkVk ekWMYl ekWMYl % %
%
ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMYl dk mi;ksx MkVk dks fMLØkbo djus ds fy, ç;qDr gksrk
gS A mudh fof’k"Vrk bl rF; esa gS fd os dkQh yphyh

91
gSA bl çdkj ,d gh osY;w okys nks vkWCtsDV fcYdqy fHkUu gksrs gSaA fMfLVªDVj vkWCtsDV vkbMsUVhQk;j ds vlkbZuesaV ds }kjk
HkkSfrd Lrj ij vkWOtsDVl ds chp fHkUurk cuk,a j[kh tkrh gSA
fjdkMZ fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr vk/kkfjr MkVk MkVk ekWMYl ekWMYl %
%
fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr ykWftdy ekWMy dk mi;ksx ykWftdy o O;w ysoy ij MkVk fMLØkbo djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
vkWCtsDV vk/kkfjr MkVk ekWMy ds foifjr mudk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds vksojvkWy ykWftdy LVªDpj dks LislhQkbZ djus vkSj
bEiyhesaVs’ku dk mPp Lrjh; fMLØI’ku miyC/k djkus nksuksa ds fy, gksrk gS A
fjdkMZ vk/kkfjr ekWMyksa dks ,slk uke blfy, fn;k x;k gS] D;ksafd MkVkcsl dks dbZ çdkj ds fQDl QkWjesV fjdkWM~Zl
esa

92
Customer ID Account No.
101 A-10001
102 A-20001
103 A-20016
104 A-40007
105 A-40013
106 A-50000
107 A-50020
;gk¡ çFke Vscy Customer, Customer ds ID, uke] irk] ’kgj ds ckjs esa tkudkjh nsrh gS] tcfd nwljh Vscy vdkmUV]
vdkmUV ua- o cSysal dh tkudkjh nsrh gS A fdUrq nksuksa Vscy ds e/; Depositer Table ds ek/;e ls fjys’ku LFkkfir fd;k
x;k gSa A çFke Vscy esa ls Customer ID o f}rh; Vscy esa Account No. ,d Unique dkWye gks budh lgk;rk ls ge nksuksa
VscYl esa fjys’ku dk irk dj ldrs gSaA
fjys’kuy MkVkcsl cgqr ’kfDr’kkyh gksrh gS] D;ksafd MkVk dSls lacaf/kr gks ;k bls MkVkcsl ls dSls fudkyk tk;sxk A
fjys’kuy fjys’kuy ekWMy ekWMy ekWMy ds ds xq.k xq.k
xq.k
1- laiw.kZ MkVk Vscy ds :i esa çnf’kZr fd;k tkrk gSA
2- MkVk ds e/; fjys’ku’khi dks dkWye osY;w ls n’kkZ;k tkrk gSA
3- ;g MkVkcsl es Qsjcny dh fLFkfr esa ,Iyhds’ku izksxzke cnyko ykus dh vko’;drk dks lekIr dj nsrk gSA
4- ;wtj dks MkVkcsl dk mi;ksx djus ds fy, HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i dh Bhd&Bhd tkudkjh gksus dh
vko’;drk ugha gksrh gSA
5- HkkSfrd jpuk Lo:i es fd, x, fdlh Hkh Qsjcny ds f[kykQ ;wtlZ dks laj{k.k feyrk gSA
6- fjys’kUl dh iafDr;ksa dks Tuples o dkWye dks ,VªhC;wV ¼Attributes½ ds :i es mYysf[kr fd;k tkrk gSA
7- fjys’ku dk çR;sd xq.k dk viuk fof’k"V eku gksrk gSA
8- ,VªhC;wV ;k dkWye ds fy, osY;w ]osY;wt ds lsV es a ls fudkyh tkrh gSA bl lsV dks Mksesu dgrs gSA
fjys’kuy fjys’kuy ekWMy ekWMy ds ds ykHk
ykHk
1-

,l- ,l- D;w- D;w- ,y ,y dk dk ifjp;%
ifjp;%
93
,l-D;w-,y- ,d ukWu izkslhtjy Hkk"kk gSA ;g MkVkcsl ij dfBu DoSjh nsus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA SQL esa
mi;ksxdrkZ ¼;wtj½ dksa crkuk gksrk gS fd D;k MkVk pkfg,] fcuk ;g crk;s fd MkVk dSls izkIr fd;k tk;sA ,l-D;w-,y- dk
iwjk uke LVªDpMZ DoS sjh yS aXost s gS vkSj ;g MkVkcsl ls dE;wfudsV djus ds mi;ksx es a yk;h tkrh gSA ;g vesfjdu us’kuy LVS s.MMZ
baLVhV~;wV ¼ANSI) ekud dEI;wVj Hkk"kk gS tks fd fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe ds fy;s MkVk ,Dlsl ,oe~ MkVk ds
cnyko ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ,l-D;w-,y- LVsVesUV~l dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds viMsV ;k ns[kus ¼fjVªho½ ds fy;s
fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ds lkFk dke djrh gSA fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe esa MkVk
VscYl esa ,df=r ¼LVksj½ fd;k tkrk gSA MkVkcsl VscYl dk ,d laxzg.k gSA Vscy esa fjdkWMZ gksrs gS ,oe~ fjdkWMZZ esa QhYM gksrs
gSaA Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dk LVªDpj leku gksrk gSA
,l-D;w-,y- MkVkcsl ds fofHkUu izksxzkeksa tSls ,e-,l- ,Dlsl] bUxzsl] Mh-ch-2] buQksfeZDl] ,e-,l-,l-D;w-,y- loZj]
vkWjsdy] lkbZcsl ,ao ,lD;w,y vkfn ds lkFk iz;ksx dh tkrh gSaA ekud ,l-D;w-,y- dek.M tSls fd lysDV] viMsV] fMyhV]
fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi vkfn dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% MkVkcsl dh lHkh vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA
,l-D;w-,y- dks lkekU;r% rhu mi Hkk"kkvksa esa ckaVk tk ldrk gSA MkVk MsfQus’ku ySXaost ¼DDL) esa lkekU;r% fØ;sV
,oe~ MªkWi dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV ¼VscYl] O;w] bUMsDl½ vkfn cukus ds dke vkrs gSaA ,d
ckj MkVk LVªDpj r; gksus ds i’pkr~ ;wtj MkVk es Suhiqys’ku ySs aXost ¼DML) dk mi;ksx djrk gS ftlesa fd lkekU;r% bUlVZ]
fjVªho ,oe~ eksMhQkbZ dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVk dks ekWMhQkbzZ djus ds mi;ksx esa fy;s tkrs gSaA MkVk dUVªksy ysaSXost dk
mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds j[k&j[kko ds fy;s gksrk gS ftlesa fd xzkUV ,oe~ fjoksd dh Lohd`fr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds fy;s nh tkrh
gSA
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y ¼ ¼¼Sql½
¼ ½ ½ dk dk ifjp;%
ifjp;%
,lD;w,y ,d fjys’kuy MkVkcsl es SustesaV flLVe ¼vkjMhch,e,l½ gSA bldks eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source
license½ ds rgr tkjh fd;k x;k gSA blesa ekud Lrj dh ,lD;w,y ¼LVªDpMZ DoSjh ySaXost½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS
tks fd MkVkcsl es a MkVk Mkyus ds fy,] ns[kus ds fy, ,ao izfd;k ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA ,lD;w,y cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr]
fo’oluh; ,ao yphyh Mhch,e,l gSA ftldk mi;ksx O;olkb;ksa ,ao vU; izfr"Bkuksa }kjk fd;k tk jgk gSA ;g ,d cgqr
gh izfl) eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS D;ka sfd ;g eqr esa ¼fcuk dksbZ ewY; fn;s½ miyC/k gSA ,ao
;g fHkUu fHkUUk vkWijsfVax flLVe ij dk;Z djrh gSA ,lD;w,y dk mi;ksx fHkUu fHkUu izdkj ds dk;ksZ ¼,Iyhds’kUl½ ds fy;k
tkrk gS ysfdu bldk eq[;r% mi;ksx osc ,Iyhds’kUl ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y(Sql) ,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y dh dh fo’ks"krk,sa% fo’ks"krk,sa%
fo’ks"krk,sa%
;g eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source license½ ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS ,oa ;g eqr esa ¼fcuk dksbZ
ewY; fn;s½ bu gkml mi;ksx ds fy, miyC/k gSA
;g cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr] fo’oluh; ,ao yphyh gSA
;g cgqr cMs MsVk ij cgqr rst dk;Z djrh gsSA
;g bUMsDl ,ao ckbZujh vkWCtsDVl dks leFkZu nsrh gSA
,lD;w,y ds }kjk ,lD;w,y MkVk ySXosat dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
,lD;w,y dk lkslZ dksM ¼Source Code½ miyC/k gksrk gS vkSj bldks iqu% dEikby ¼recompile½ fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
;g C ,ao C++ Hkk"kk esa fy[kh x;h gSA
;g fHkUu fHkUu vkWijsfVax flLVel ¼OS½ dks liksVZ ¼support½ djrh gSA
;g dbZ Hkk"kkvksa tSls PHP, C, C++, JAVA, PERL etc.dks liksVZ ¼support½ djrh gSA

MkVk MkVk MkVk MsfQus’ku MsfQus’ku ySaXost ySaXost ¼Mh-Mh-,y½ ¼Mh-Mh-,y½ %
%
94
MkVk MsfQus’ku yS aXost s dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l tSls fd VscYl] O;w ,oe~ b.MsDl vkfn dks fØ;sV
,oe~ MªkWi djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ;g ,lD;w,y dk Hkkx gS tks MsVkcsl cukus ,oa gVkus ds fy, vuqefr iznku djrk
gSaA blesa bUMsDlst dks ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSa] VscYl ds e/; fyad dks LislhQkbZ dj ldrs gSa ,oe~ MkVkcsl VscYl ij
izfrcU/k yxk ldrs gSaA
MkVk MkVk MsfQus’ku MsfQus’ku ySaXost ySaXost ds ds izeq[k izeq[k dk;Z dk;Z fuEu fuEu gS%&
gS%&
1- ubZ Vscy@ MkVkcsl cukuk
2- Vscy@MkVkcsl esa ifjorZu dj++uk
3- Vscy@MkVkcsl dks MªkWi djuk
4- bUMsDl cukuk
5- bUMsDl dks MªkWi djuk
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y }kjk }kjk lefFkZr lefFkZr MhMh,y MhMh,y MhMh,y dFku dFku %
%
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl cukuk
cukuk
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl cukus cukus dk dk dek.M dek.M fuEukuqlkj fuEukuqlkj gS&
gS&
Create Database [IF NOT EXISTS] ;
mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk Åij fn;s x;s uke dh MkVkcsl cukbZ tk ldrh gSA ;fn Åij fn;s x;s uke ds MkVkcsl iwoZ esa
gh cuh gqbZ gS rks bl dek.M }kjk ubZ MkVkcsl blh uke ls ugha cusxhA ;fn [IF NOT EXISTS] vkWI’ku dk mi;ksx ugha
fd;k x;k gS ,oa mijksDr uke dh MkVkcsl iwoZ esa gh miyC/k gS ,slh fLFkfr esa ;g =qfV lans’k nsxk ,oa MkVkcsl ugha
cuk;sxkA
ubZ ubZ MkVkcsl MkVkcsl cukuk% cukuk%
cukuk%
school uke ls ubZ MkVkcsl cukuk&
create DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS school;
mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk school uke ls ubZ MkVkcsl cukbZ xbZ gSA vc ;fn flLVe ij miyC/k MkVkcsl ns[kuk
pkgrs gSa rks fuEu dek.M dk mi;ksx fd;k tk,xkA
show databases;
mijksDr dek.M nsus ij ;g Ldwy MkVkcsl ds lkFk&lkFk vU; miyC/k MkVkcsl ds ukeksa dh lwph miyC/k djk;sxkA
ubZ Vscy cukus ls iwoZ ;g Bhd jgsxk fd MkVk ds izdkj dh tkudkjh dh tk;saA
MkVk MkVk ds ds izdkj&
izdkj&
Vscy cukrs le; QhYM Vkbi ,ao QhYM lkbt dh tkudkjh gksuk cgqr gh egRoiw.kZ gSA ,lD;w,y esa fHkUu&fHkUu izdkj
ds MkVk Vkbi dk mi;ksx fd; tkrk gSA ;g eq[;r% rhu Jsf.k;ksa es a foHkkftr fd;s tk ldrs gSA
1 String data types 2 Numeric data types 3 Date & Time data types
String Types:
CHAR(M) – ;g ,d fuf’pr yEckbzZ dh fLVa ªx ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g 1 ls 255 djsDVj rd laxzg.k ¼LVksj½
dj ldrk gSA M fLaVªx dh yEckbZ crkrk gSA ,oa fMQkYV yEckbZ 1 gSA
VARCHAR(M) – ;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ,oa ;g ifjorZuh; yEckbZ ¼1 ls 255 djsDVj½
dk laxzg.k dj ldrk gSA VARCHAR ] CHAR dh vf/kd yphyh Form gSA M fLaVªx dh yEckbZ crkrk gSA
BLOB or TEXT – ;g Hkh fLVaªx MkVk Vkbi gSA BLOB(Binary Large Objects) BLOB dk mi;ksx cgqr
vf/kd ckbZujh MkVk tSls fd bZest ;k vU; rjhds dh Qkby dk laxzg.k djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ;g vf/kdre 65535
djsDVj rd laxzfgr dj ldrk gSA

95
LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT -
;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 4294967295 djsDVj rd laxzfgr dj ldrk gSA
MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT -
;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 16777215 djsDVj rd laxzfgr dj ldrk gSA
TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT -
;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gS rFkk ;g vf/kdre 255 djsDVj rd laxzfgr dj ldrk gSA
ENUM –
;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g ,d vkbZVel dh lwph cukrk gSA ftlesa ls fdlh ,d dks vki ds }kjk p;u fd;k
tkrk gSA ;g uy Hkh gks ldrk gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ;fn vki fdlh QhYM esa E ;k F ;k G esa ls pkgrs gSA rks ENUM
(‘E’,’F’,’G’) QhYM cuk;saA ;g ;k rks E ;k F ;k G esa ls p;u djsxk ;k uy eku ysxkA
SET -
;g Hkh fLaVªx MkVk Vkbi gSA ;g fufnZ"V lwph esa ls ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd eku dks p;u djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA
tSls fd transport SET (“jeep”, “scooter”) NOT NULL ; mijksDr transport QhYM esa “jeep” “scooter”
“jeep,scooter “ eku vk ldrk gSA vf/kdre 64 eku fufnZ"V fd;s tk ldrs gSA fdlh QhYM esa lsV MsVkVkbZi ls
miyC/k lwph ls ,d ls vf/kd eku Hkh laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA tcfd ENUM DATA TYPE }kjk dsoy ,d gh eku
laxzfgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Numeric Data Types:
INT –
,d iw.kkZad eku tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fcuk fpUg dk gks ldrk gSA fpfUgr dh lhek,sa &2147483648 ls
2147483647 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fcuk fpUg ds gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 4294967295 rd gksxhA
BIGINT -
,d cMk iw.kkZad eku tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fpUg fcuk gks ldrk gSA fpfUgr dh lhek,s a 9223372036854775808
lsa 9223372036854775807 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fcuk fpUg ds gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 18446744073709551615 rd
gksxhA bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV dk gksrk gSaA
MEDIUMINT -
,d e/;e vkdkj dk iw.kkZ ad tks fd fpfUgr vFkok fcuk fpUg ds gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,s a &8388608
ls 8388607 rd gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 16777215 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 3 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA
SMALLINT -
NksVs vkdkj dk iw.kkZad fpUg vFkok fcuk fpUg gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,as -32768 ls 32767 rd
gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,sa 0 ls 65535 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 2 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA
TINYINT -
vfr NksVs vkdkj dk iw.kkZad fpUg vFkok fcuk fpUg gks ldrk gSA ;fn fpfUgr gS rks lhek,sa -128 ls 127 rd
gksrh gSA ;fn fpUg fcuk gS rks lhek,as 0 ls 255 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 1 ckbZV dk gksrk gSA
FLOAT(M,D) -
yksfVax IokabV la[;k fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrhA ;gka (M) la[;k dh yEckbZ rFkk (D) n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks
dh la[;k gSA ;fn ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k x;k gS rks ;g Lor% 10]2 gksrh gS] tgka nks n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSa
rFkk 10 la[;k ds dqy vad gS ¼n’keyo lfgr½ bldk vkdkj 4 ckbZV gksrk gSA
DOUBLE(M,D) -
Mcy izfl’ku yksfVax IokabV la[;k Hkh fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrh gSA ;gka (M) la[;k dh yEckbZ rFkk (D)
n’keyo ds ckn ds vadks dh la[;k gSA ;fn ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k x;k gS rks ;g Lor% 16]4 gksrh gS] tgka 4 n’keyo ds ckn
ds vadks dh la[;k gSaA 16 la[;k ds dqy vad gS ¼n’keyo lfgr½ bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV gksrk gSA

96
DECIMAL(M,D) –
vuiSDM yksfVax IokbaV la[;k Hkh fcuk fpUg ds ugha gks ldrh gSA izR;sd Mslhey ,d ckbV dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
bldk vkdkj 8 ckbZV gksrk gSA ¼M½ rFkk ¼D½ dk eku iznf’kZr djuk vko’;d gSA DECIMAL dk lekukFkZd
NUMERIC gSA
Date and Time data types :
DATE -
DATE dk QksjesV YYYY-MM-DD gS rFkk bldh lhek,sa 1000-01-01 ls 9999-12-31 rd gSA bldk
vkdkj 3 ckbV dk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ November 28th, 1986 QhYM esa 1986-11-28 ds :i esa laxzfgr gksxkA
DATETIME -
bles a fnukad rFkk le; dk la;kstu YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS QksjesV es a gksrk gSA ftldh lhek,s a 1000-
01-01 00:00:00 ls 9999-12-31 23:59:59 rd gksrh gSA bldk vkdkj 8 ckbV dk gksrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ 30 vDVwcj]
1986 ds nksigj ckn ds le; 5%45 dks 1986-10-30 17:45:00 ds :i esa laxzfgr gksxkA
TIMESTAMP -
bldk QksjesV iwoZ DATETIME dh rjg gh gksrk gS ijUrq & rFkk ¼hyphen½ dk mi;ksx ugha gksrkA mnkgj.kkFkZ
30 fnlEcj 1986 ds nksigj ckn ds 3:30 cts dks 19861230153000 ( YYYYMMDDHHMMSS ) :i es a laxzfgr
gksxkA bldk vkdkj 4 ckbV gSA
TIME -
;g le; dks HH:MM:SS QksjesV esa laxzfgr djrk gSA bldk vkdkj 3 ckbV gSA
YEAR(M) -
;g o"kZ dks 2 vad ;k 4 vad ds QksjesV esa laxzfgr djrk gSA ;fn nks vad esa iznf’kZr fd;k tkrk gS rks YEAR 1980
ls 2079 ds fy, ¼80 ls 79½ gksxkA ;fn 4 vadks esa iznf’kZr fd;k tkrk gS rks 1980 ls 2079 gksxkA Lor%¼default½ gh bldk
vkdkj 4 vadks esa rFkk bldk eSeksjh oMZ lkbt 1 ckbV dk gksrk gSA
izfrcU/k izfrcU/k (Constraints):
Constraint specifications }kjk fdlh Hkh Vscy esa vfrfjDr ‘'krsZ@izfrcU/k@pSd yxk;s tk ldrs gSa vkSj budks
Mh-ch-,e-,l- Lor% gh ykxw djrk gSA
fdlh Vscy ij fuEu izfrcU/k (constraints) yxk;s tk ldrs gaS &
izkbZejh dh (Primary key) izfrcU/k& izkbZejh dh] Vscy ds ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd QhYM dk lewg gksrk gS tks fd
izR;sd fjdkWMZZ dks Vscy esa vyx ls iznZf’kr djrk gS rFkk mudh osY;w ls MkVk dk fjVªhoy o viMsfVax 'kh?kz laHko gks
tkrk gSA izkbZejh dh ,d vf}rh; eku gksrk gS ftlds }kjk Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dks çFkd Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA bl
izfrcU/k ls ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tkrk gS fd izR;sd fjdkWMZ esa izkbZejh dh dk eku vyx&vyx gSA ;fn izkbZejh dh dk
eku ,d leku fn;k tkrk gS rks Vscy esa MkVk Lohdkj ugha fd;k tk;sxkA blesa uy oSY;w dks ntZ ugha fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
mnkgj.k % Alter table titles
ADD Constraint pk_titleid PRIMARY KEY (title_id);
bleas pk_titleid izfrcU/k izkbZejh dh title_id dkWye ij title Vscy esa yxk;k x;k gSA
;wfud ;wfud (UNIQUE) izfrcU/k izfrcU/k— izfrcU/k ;wfud }kjk ;g n’kkZ;k tkrk gS fd izR;sd iafä ds fy;s dkWye fo’ks"k dk eku vf}rh;
gSA Vscy dh izR;sd iafä esa bl dkWye dh osY;w vyx&vyx gksrh gSA Unique constraint }kjk ;g lqfuf’pr fd;k tkrk
gS fd Vscy dh izR;sd iafä es a ml dkWye dh vyx&vyx osY;w gSA ;g bUMsDl Lor% gh fØ;sV gks tkrk gSA ;g izfrcU/
k ml dkWye ij Hkh yxk;k tk ldrk gS tks fd NULL oSY;w ysrk gksA ;g izfrcU/k ,fUVVh baVsfxzVh dks lqfuf’pr djrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% Alter table stores
ADD Constraint uk_storeid UNIQUE store_id;

97
mijksDr mnkgj.k }kjk izfrcU/k uk_storeid dkWye store_id ij yxk;k x;k gSaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% CREATE TABLE job
(
job_id smallint PRIMARY KEY,
min_amt int NOT NULL
CHECK (min_amt>=1000),
max_amt int NULL
);
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa izfrcU/k CHECK dkWye min_amt ij yxk;k x;k gS ftlesa MkVk ntZ djrs le; ;g lqfuf’pr
fd;k tk;sxk fd min_amt dkWye dk eku 1000 ds cjkcj ;k vf/kd gksA
ukWV ukWV uy uy (NOT NULL Constraint) izfrcU/k izfrcU/k— izfrcU/k blds }kjk ;g ns[kk tkrk gS fd fdlh dkWye fo’ks"k esa uy osY;w ugha
gksA ;g ;wtj dks ml dkWye esa eku Mkyus ds fy, ck/; djrk gSA
Constraints dks dHkh Hkh Vscy cukus ds i’pkr~ vkSj Vscy cukrs le; add/disable/enable/drop fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% CREATE TABLE job
(
job_id smallint PRIMARY KEY,
min_amt int NOT NULL
max_amt int
);
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa izfrcU/k NOT NULL dkWye min_amt ij yxk;k x;k gS ftlesa MkVk ntZ djrs le; ;g
lqfuf’pr fd;k tk;sxk fd min_amt dkWye dk eku NULL ugha gksuk pkfg,A
Vscy Vscy cukuk
cukuk
MkVkcsl cukus ds i’pkr MkVkcsl esa Vscy dk fuekZ.k djuk gS tks MkVk dks laxzfgr djds j[k ldsA Vscy cukus ds
dek.M%
CREATE [TEMPORARY] TABLE [IF NOT EXISTS]
[(create_definition,...)] [table_options] [select_statement]
table-name esa u;h Vscy dk uke gksrk gSA ;fn mDr uke dh Vscy igys ls miyC/k gS rks ml uke ls Vscy fØ;sV
ugha gksxhA [IF NOT EXISTS] vkWI’ku dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS vkSj fn;s uke dh Vscy igys ls gS rks
dEI;wVj Error nsxk rFkk Vscy fØ;sV ugha gksxhA TEMPORARY vkWI’ku dke esa fy;k tk jgk gS rks tks
Vscy cusxh og MsVkcsl ds orZeku dusD’ku rd gh miyC/k jgsxh tSls gh dusD’ku lekIr gksxk Vscy Hkh
lekIr gks tk;sxhA
column-name fdlh Hkh Vscy es a vf}rh; gksrk gSA data-type }kjk ml dkWye esa fdl izdkj dk eku j[kk tkuk gS crk;k
tkrk gSA Vscy dk fuekZ.k fdlh vU; nwljh Vscy ls Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS ;fn ge nwljh Vscy ds dkWyEl dks dke esa ys
jgs gaSA
NOT NULL/NULL dk mi;ksx QhYM esa MsVk gksuk vko’;d gS vFkok ugha] bls iznf’kZr djrk gSA
DEFAULT option dk mi;ksx Lor% fl) eku dks fu/kkZfjr djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA

98
Integer MsVk VkbZi okys dkWye es a AUTO-INCREMENT attribute dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS tks buiqV
NULL gksus ij vius&vki gh dkWye ¼QhYM+½ ds eku dks ,d ls c

99
modify file (NAME=sample1, SIZE=10MB);
Vscy Vscy esa esa cnyko cnyko ¼
¼Altering ¼
the Table½% ½%
½%
Vscy esa cnyko dk lkekU; Syntax fuEu izdkj ls gsS
ALTER TABLE tbl_name alter_specification [, alter_specification] ...
ALTER TABLE dek.M }kjk ge Vscy ds LVªDpj esa cnyko dj ldrs gSA
bl dek.M }kjk ge Vscy ds dkWyEl dks tksMuk] cnyuk rFkk gVk ldrs gS] index dks fØ;sV vFkok gVk ldrs gS]
dkWye dk vFkok Vscy dk uke cny ldrs gSA fuEu mnkgj.kksa }kjk ge Vscy ds fofHkUu cnykoksa dks le> ldrs gSA
Vscy dk uke cnyus ds fy,
ALTER TABLE old_name RENAME TO new_name;
SHOW tables;
mDr dek.M dk ifj.kke student rFkk marks gksxkA
ALTER TABLE student RENAME to student_data;
SHOW tables;
mDr dek.M dk ifj.kke student_data rFkk marks gksxkA
fuEu mnkgj.k Vscy esa u;k dkWye tksMus dks iznf’kZr djrk gS
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD column_name column_type;
vf/kd vf/kd dkWye dkWye tksMus tksMus ds ds fy,
fy,
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD (column_1 column_type, column_2 column_type);
DESCRIBE student;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Rollno Int (10) insigned NO PRI
Studentname Varchar (30) YES
Fname Varchar (30) YES
dob datetime YES
Class CHAR (10) YES
ALTER TABLE student
-> ADD Age numeric (3);
DESCRIBE student;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Rollno Int (10) insigned NO PRI
Studentname Varchar (30) YES
Fname Varchar (30) YES

100
dob datetime YES
Class CHAR (10) YES
Sect CHAR (5) YES
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Rollno Int (10) insigned NO PRI
Studentname Varchar (30) YES
Fname Varchar (22) YES
dob datetime YES
Class CHAR (10) YES
Sect CHAR (5) YES
Age Decimal (3,0) YES
fuEu mnkgj.k Vscy ls dkWye gVkus ¼DROP½ dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
ALTER TABLE tbl_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
DESCRIBE student;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Rollno Int (10) insigned NO PRI
Studentname Varchar (30) YES
Fname Varchar (22) YES
dob datetime YES
Class CHAR (10) YES
Sect CHAR (5) YES
Age Decimal (3,0) YES
ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN Age;
DESCRIBE student;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Rollno Int (10) insigned NO PRI
Studentname Varchar (30) YES
Fname Varchar (22) YES
dob datetime YES
Class CHAR (10) YES
Sect CHAR (5) YES
MsVkcsl MsVkcsl dks dks gVkuk gVkuk gVkuk ¼ ¼¼Dropping
¼ the Database½% ½%
DROP DATABASE SCHOOL:
bl dek.M dk iz;ksx lko/kkuh ls djuk pkfg, D;ksafd ;g lEiw.kZ MsVkcsl dks gh gVk nsrh gSA dsoy dqN
fjdkMZl~ dks gVkus ds fy, DML dh DELETE command dk iz;ksx gksrk gSA
MsVkcsl dks DROP djus dk syntax fuEu izdkj gS%
DROP {DATABASE | SCHEMA} [IF EXISTS] db_name;

101
mDr dek.M MsVkcsl dh Vscy lesr MsVkcsl dks lekIr dj nsrk gSA ;fn “ IF EXISTS” option dke esa ugha fy;k
tk jgk gS rFkk MsVkcsl miyC/k ugha gS rks Error message iznf’kZr gksxkA
ekuk fd geus emp1 uke dk MsVkcsl fØ;sV fd;k gqvk gSA
SHOW DATABASE;
mDr dek.M dqy MsVkcsl dh fyLV emp1 ds lkFk iznf’kZr djrk gSA
DROP DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS EMP1;
SHOW DATABASE;
mDr dek.M emp1 ds vykok miyC/k MsVkcsl dh fyLV iznf’kZr djsxh] D;ksafd emp1 MsVkcsl gV x;k gSA
Vscy Vscy Vscy dks dks dks gVkuk gVkuk gVkuk ¼
¼Dropping ¼ the Table½% ½%
½% Data Definition Language dh fu.kkZ;d dek.M gS DROPA ;s
dek.M MsVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l dks gVkus ds dke vkrh gSA
Vscy Drop djus dh dek.M dk Syntax fuEu gSA
DROP [TEMPORARY] TABLE [IF EXISTS] tbl_name;
;g dek.M MsVkcsl ls ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd Vscy dks gVkus ds dke vkrh gSA ;g dek.M Vscy ds MsVk rFkk ifjHkk"kk
nksuksa dks gh gVk nsrh gSA ;fn “ IF EXISTS” option dke esa ugha fy;k tk jgk gS rFkk Vscy miyC/k ugha gS rks Error
message iznf’kZr gksxkA ;fn TEMPORARY keyword dke es a fy;k tk jgk gS rks dek.M vLFkk;h Vscy ¼temporary
tables½ dks gVk;sxkA ;g dek.M py jgs dk;Z lEiknu dks lekIr ugha djrk gS rFkk ;g vfHkxe vf/kdkj ¼access right½
dks Hkh tkap ugha djrk gS D;kasfd temporary table dsoy client ij gh n’kZuh; gS blfy, vfHkxe vf/kdkj dh tkap
vko’;d ugha gSA ;fn TEMPORARY keyword dke esa ugha fy;k
tk jgk gS rks DROP TABLE command Lor% gh orZeku esa lfØ; vfHkxe ¼transaction½ dks Commit dj nsrk gSA
Example:
DROP TABLE MARKS;
DROP TABLE STUDENT;
mijksDr dek.M ls marks rFkk student Vscy gVk fn;s x;s gSA
Vscy Vscy dk dk uke uke cnyuk cnyuk ¼
¼Rename ¼
the Table½% ½% Vscy dk uke cnyus dk lkekU; Syntax fuEufyf[kr gS%
RENAME TABLE tbl_name TO new_tbl_name, tbl_name2 TO new_tbl_name2 ...
bl dek.M }kjk ge ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd Vscy ds uke cny ldrs gSA uke cnyus dk dk;Z Lor% gh bl izdkj gksrk
gS fd uke cnyrs le; dksbZ vU; thread Vscy dks ,Dlsl ugha dj ldrkA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SHOW TABLES;
mDr dek.M MsVkcsl esa mifLFkr lHkh Vscy dh fyLV dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
ekuk emptemp uked Vscy dks emp_temp1 uke ls ifjofrZr djuk gS rc fuEu dek.M dk mi;ksx gksxkA
RENAME TABLE EMPTEMP TO EMP_TEMP1;

102
;g dek.M emptemp dk uke emp_temp1 uke ls ifjofrZr dj nsxkA
Index:
ges a cgqr cMs MsVk dks fcuk le; u"V fd;s ,Dlsl djuk gksrk gSA Index }kjk Vscy ls MsVk dks 'kh?kzrk ls ,Dlsl djuk laHko
gSA fdlh Vscy esa Index iafDr;ks dks vfr’kh?kzrk rFkk fuiq.krk ls ,Dlsl djus ds fy, fØ;sV fd;s tkrs gSA fdlh Hkh Vscy
esa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd dkWye ij Index fØ;sV djuk laHko gS rFkk izR;sd Index dks uke nsuk vko’;d gSA mi;ksxdrkZ
¼Users½ Indexes dks ugha ns[k ldrs gSa] os dsoy DoSjht dh xfr rst djus ds fy, budk mi;ksx djrs gSa
Unique Index:
;s dek.M Unique Index fØ;sV djus ds dke vkrh gSA ;gak Unique Index dk eryc gS fd fdUgh nks iafDr;ks
ds Index dk eku leku ugha gksrkA
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name);
“column_name”ml dkWye dk uke gS ftl ij Index fØ;sV fd;k x;k gSA
Simple Index:
;s dek.M Vscy es a Simple Index fØ;sV djus ds dke es a vkrk gSA ;agk UNIQUE keyword gVk;k x;k gS vr% Index
ds eku dh iqujkZo`fr ¼ duplicate values ½ laHko gSA
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name);
Index dks dks gVkuk gVkuk: gVkuk gVkuk
Index dks gVkus ds fy, DROP INDEX dek.M dke esa yh tkrh gSSA
DROP INDEX [ON ];
Index dks fØ;sV djus ds fy, vko’;d Alter dek.M fuEu izdkj ls gS%
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD INDEX index_name (column_list): ;g lkekU; Index gS
ftlesa dksbZ Hkh eku ,d ls vf/kd ckj vk ldrk gSA
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD UNIQUE index_name (column_list): ;g dek.M ,slk Index
fØ;sV djrh gS ftles a Index ds eku vyx&vyx (unique) vko’;d gS ¼ijarq NULL eku ,d ls vf/kd ckj
vk ldrs gSa½
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_list) : ;g dek.M PRIMARY
KEY fØ;sV djrh gSA ftldk rkRi;Z gS KEY esa vyx&vyx (unique) eku gksxs a rFkk dksbZ Hkh eku NULL
ugha gksus pkfg,A
ALTER TABLE tbl_name ADD FULLTEXT index_name (column_list): ;g ,d fo’ks"k
FULLTEXT index fØ;sV djrk gSA tks fd text-searching esa dke vkrk gSA
egRoiw.kZ egRoiw.kZ fcUnq
fcUnq
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y% ,lD;w,y ,d ukWu izkslhtjy Hkk"kk gSA ;g MkVkcsl ij dfBu DoSjh nsus dh lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA SQL esa
mi;ksxdrkZ ¼;wtj½ dksa crkuk gksrk gS fd D;k MkVk pkfg,] fcuk ;g crk;s fd MkVk
dSls izkIr fd;k tk;sA ,l-D;w-,y- dk iwjk uke LVªDpMZ DoSsjh ySsaXost gS vkSj ;g MkVkcsl ls dE;wfudsV djus ds mi;ksx
esa yk;h tkrh gSA ;g vesfjdu us’kuy LVSs.MMZ baLVhV~;wV ¼ANSI)
ekud dEI;wVj Hkk"kk gS tks fd fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe ds fy;s MkVk ,Dlsl ,oe~ MkVk ds cnyko
ds mi;ksx esa yk;h tkrh gSA ,l-D;w-,y- LVsVesUV~l dk mi;ksx MkVkcsl esa MkVk ds viMsV ;k ns[kus ¼fjVªho½ ds fy;s

103
fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustesaV flLVe ds lkFk dke djrh gSA fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esustesaV flLVe esa
MkVk VscYl esa ,df=r ¼LVksj½ fd;k tkrk gSA MkVkcsl VscYl dk ,d laxzg.k gSA Vscy esa fjdkWMZ gksrs gS ,oe~ fjdkWMZZ esa
QhYM gksrs gSaA Vscy ds izR;sd fjdkWMZ dk LVªDpj leku gksrk gSA
,l-D;w-,y- MkVkcsl ds fofHkUu izksxzkeksa tSls ,e-,l- ,Dlsl] bUxzsl] Mh-ch-2] buQksfeZDl] ,e-,l-,l-D;w-,y- loZj]
vkWjsdy] lkbZcsl ,ao ,lD;w,y vkfn ds lkFk iz;ksx dh tkrh gSaA ekud ,l-D;w-,y- dek.M tSls fd lysDV] viMsV] fMyhV]
fØ;sV ,oe~ MªkWi vkfn dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% MkVkcsl dh lHkh vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA
,l-D;w-,y- dks lkekU;r% rhu mi Hkk"kkvksa esa ckaVk tk ldrk gSA MkVk MsfQus’ku ySXaost ¼DDL) esa lkekU;r% fØ;sV
,oe~ MªkWi dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVkcsl ,oe~ MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV ¼VscYl] O;w] bUMsDl½ vkfn cukus ds dke vkrs gSaA ,d
ckj MkVk LVªDpj r; gksus ds i’pkr~ ;wtj MkVk es Suhiqys’ku ySs aXost ¼DML) dk mi;ksx djrk gS ftlesa fd lkekU;r% bUlVZ]
fjVªho ,oe~ eksMhQkbZ dek.M gksrs gSa tks fd MkVk dks ekWMhQkbzZ djus ds mi;ksx esa fy;s tkrs gSaA MkVk dUVªksy ysaSXost dk
mi;ksx MkVkcsl ds j[k&j[kko ds fy;s gksrk gS ftlesa fd xzkUV ,oe~ fjoksd dh Lohd`fr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds fy;s nh tkrh
gSA
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y %
%
,d fjys’kuy MkVkcsl esSustes aV flLVe ¼vkjMhch,e,l½ gSA bldks eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ¼Open Source license½
ds rgr tkjh fd;k x;k gSA blesa ekud Lrj dh ,lD;w,y ¼LVªDpMZ DoSjh yS aXost½ dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks fd MkVkcsl
esa MsVk Mkyus ds fy,] ns[kus ds fy, ,ao izfd;k ds fy, mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA ,lD;w,y cgqr gh rst] lqjf{kr] fo’oluh;
,ao yphyh Mhch,e,l gSA ftldk mi;ksx O;olkb;ksa ,ao vU; izfr”Bkuksa }kjk fd;k tk jgk gSA ;g ,d cgqr gh izfl)
eqDr L=ksr vuqKki= ds rgr tkjh dh xbZ MsVkcsl gS D;ka sfd ;g eqr esa ¼fcuk dksbZ ewY; fn;s½ miyC/k gSA ,ao ;g fHkUu
fHkUUk vkWijsfVax flLVe ij dk;Z djrh gSA ,lD;w,y dk mi;ksx fHkUu fHkUu izdkj ds dk;ks Z ¼,Iyhds’kUl½ esa fy;k tkrk gS
ysfdu bldk eq[;r% mi;ksx osc ,Iyhds’kUl ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
MkVk ds izdkj-
Character (String)
CHAR(M)
VARCHAR(M)
BLOB OR TEXT
TINYBLOB OR TINYTEXT
MEDIUMBLOB OR MEDIUMTEXT
LONGBLOB OR LONGTEXT
ENUM
SET
Numeric
TINYINT
SMALLINT
INT
BIGINT
MEDIUMINT
FLOAT
DECIMAL
DOUBLE
Datetime
DATE
DATETIME
TIMESTAMP

104
TIME
YEAR
Constraint specifications }kjk fdlh Hkh Vscy esa vfrfjDr 'krsZ@izfrcU/k@pSd yxk;s tk ldrs gS vkSj budks Mh-ch-
,e-,l- Lor% gh ykxw djrk gSA
ß Primary key
ß UNIQUE
ß REFERENCE
ß CHECK
ß NOT NULL
,lD;w,y ,lD;w,y QaD’kUl
QaD’kUl
Sql Functions
Functions, SQL/Sql dh eq[; fo’ks"krk gS vkSj bls fuEufyf[kr dk;ksZa dks djus ds fy;s iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gsSA
¸ MkVk ij fofHkUu x.kuk;sa djus ds fy,
¸ fdlh fof’k"V MkVk lsSV vFkok MkVk lsSV ds lewg dks ifjofRkZr djus ds fy,A
¸ fdlh fof’k"V iafDr vFkok iafDr;ks a ds lewg dks ifjoZfrr djus ds fy,A
¸ dates and numbers ds izn’kZu ds fy, QkjesfVax djukA
¸ data types ds dUotZu ds fy,A
Function rFkk Operator leku :i ls dk;Z djrs gaSA nksuksa gh ,d vFkok vf/kd ifj.kke n’kkZrs gSa vkSj 'kwU; vFkok
vf/kd argument ysrs gaSA
la[;kRed la[;kRed la[;kRed QaD’ku QaD’ku (Numeric Functions) :
;g dsoy numeric input ysrs gaS rFkk numeric output nsrs gssSa bu functions dks select statement rFkk
vU; statements ds lkFk iz;qDr dj ldrs gaSA
ABS() Function
QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dh fuisZ{k eku fudkyus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
tSls fd SELECT ABS(-30)(
bldk ifj.kke 30 izkIr gksxkA
CEIL() Function
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dk U;wure baVhtj eku ysus ds fy;s djrs gS tks fd nh gqbZ la[;k ds
cjkcj ;k vf/kd gksrk gSA tSls fd SELECT CEIL(10.6)+(
bldk ifj.kke 11 izkIr gksxkA
FLOOR() Function
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k dk vf/kdre baVhtj eku ysus ds fy;s djrs gS tks fd nh gqbZ la[;k ds cjkcj
;k de gksrk gSA tSls fd SELECT FLOOR(10.6)+(
bldk ifj.kke 10 izkIr gksxkA
SELECT FLOOR(-10.6);
bldk ifj.kke &11 izkIr gksxkA

105
MOD() Function
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx 'ks"kQy fudkyus ds fy;s gksrk gS tks fd izFke la[;k esa f}rh; la[;k ds Hkkx nsus ds i’pkr
'ks"k jgrh gSA tSls fd SELECT MOD(25,10) (
bldk ifj.kke 5 izkIr gksxkA
POWER(m,n) Function ;k ;k POW(m,n)
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx la[;k (m)ds ?kkr (n) dk ifj.kke izkIr djus ds fy, djrs gSA tSls fd SELECT
POWER(4,2) (
bldk ifj.kke 16 izkIr gksxkA
ROUND(n[,m]) Function
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dks ¼m½ LFkku rd jkm.M djus ds fy;s gksrk gSA blesa m dk baVhtj
gksuk vko’;d gSA tSls fd SELECT ROUND(10.645,2) +(
bldk ifj.kke 10-64 izkIr gksxkA
SIGN(n) Function
QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dk eku &1 nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 'kwU; ls de gksrk gS] n dk eku 0
nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 0 gks vkSj 1 nsrk gS ;fn n dk eku 0 ls vf/kd gksA tSls fd SELECT SIGN(-30) (
bldk ifj.kke &1 izkIr gksxkA
SQRT(n) Function
QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) ds oxZewy dk eku nsrk gSA tSls fd
SELECT SQRT(16) (
bldk ifj.kke 4 izkIr gksxkA
TRUNCATE(n[,m]) Function
QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fdlh Hkh la[;k (n) dks n’keyo ds m LFkku rd NksMdj i’pkr dh leLr n’keyo fcUnqvksa dks
gVk nsrk gSA tSls fd
SELECT TRUNCATE(10.645,2) (
bldk ifj.kke 10-64 izkIr gksxkA
SELECT TRUNCATE(10.645,0);
bldk ifj.kke 10 izkIr gksxkA
fLVªax fLVªax QaD’ku QaD’ku (String Functions) :
;g dsoy character input ysrs gS rFkk numeric o character output nsrs gssSa bu functions dks select
statement rFkk vU; statements ds lkFk iz;qDr dj ldrs gSA bu QaD’kUl dks uhps of.kZr LVwMsUV Vscy dk mnkgj.k ysdj
le>k;k x;k gSA
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10001 VINOD SHRI DL AGRAWAL 07/10/1965 MBA

10002 MANAN
106
SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
10003 SURESH SHRI DL AGRAWAL 25/06/1960 XII
10004 RUBAL DR. VINAY GOYAL 27/11/1989 XI
10005 DHRUV SHRI SHIV KUMAR 06/11/2000 I
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
Case Conversion function:
LOWER() Qyu Qyu ¼Function½
bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh‘'kCn ;k iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks NksVs v{kjksa esa cnyk tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT LOWER(FNAME ) FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO=10005;
mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk LVwMsUV Vscy ls FNAME ij ;g QaD’ku yxk;k x;k gS lkFk gh ,d 'krZ ;g yxkbZ x;h
gS fd ifj.kke dsoy mlh dk ns ftldk ROLLNO 10005 gksA bldk ifj.kke fuEu izkIr gksxkA
FNAME
shri shiv kumar
UPPER() Qyu Qyu ¼¼¼Function½
¼¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh 'kCn ;k iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks cMs+ v{kjksa esa cnyk tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% SELECT UPPER (FNAME ) FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO=10003;
mijksDr dek.M ds }kjk LVwMsUV Vscy ls FNAME ij ;g QaD’ku yxk;k x;k gS lkFk gh ,d 'krZ ;g yxkbZ x;h
gS fd ifj.kke dsoy mlh dk ns ftldk ROLLNO 10003 gksA bldk ifj.kke fuEu izkIr gksxkA
FNAME
SHRI DL AGRAWAL
String Manipulation function
Concat() function
bl QaD’ku dk mi;ksx fofHkUu QhYMks ls izkIr ifj.kkeksa dks tksMus ¼Combine½ ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
CONCAT(str1, str2, str3, ...);
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SELECT CONCAT(‘My’, ‘S’, ‘QL’);
Output:
Sql
INSTR(STR, SUBSTR) Qyu Qyu ¼Function½
bl QaD’ku ls fdlh Hkh 'kCn@iafDr esa pkgs x;s v{kj dh izFke ckj mifLFkfr dh fLFkfr dk irk yxk;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
INSTR(STR, SUBSTR) INSTR(‘HARDDISK’, ‘DISK’) 5

107
INSTR(‘COMPUTER’, ‘HARDDISK’) 0
LENGTH() Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk fdlh Hkh 'kCn@iafDr dh yEckbZ crkbZ tkrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
LENGTH(char) LENGTH(‘alpha’) 5
mijksDr mnkgj.k iafDr dh dqy yEckbZ crkrk gSA
LPAD() Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk ck;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj ;k v{kjksa ds lewg dh HkjkbZ (insert) dh tkrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
LPAD(char1,n,[char2]) LPAD(‘alpha’,10,’*’) *****alpha
gSA
mijksDr mnkgj.k es a char1 ds ck;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj char2 dh HkjkbZ dh x;h gS rFkk char1 dh dqy yEckbZ n(10)
LTRIM() Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
;g QaD’ku fdlh Hkh 'kCn dss igys ds [kkyh LFkkuksa dks gVk nsrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
LTRIM(STR) LTRIM(‘ HOLIDAY’) ‘HOLIDAY’
mijksDr mnkgj.k es a char ds ck;ha rjQ ds v{kj set ls rhu LFkku rd feyrs gSA ftudks mijksDr QaD’ku }kjk gVk;k
x;k gSA
REPLACE() Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
;g QaD’ku iafDr ds lHkh v{kjksa dks vkWI’ku 2 ls cny nsrk gS tks v{kj iafDr esa vkWI’ku 1 ls feyrs gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT

108
REPLACE(line,option1[,option2]) REPLACE (‘man & woman’,’a’,’e’) men & women
mijksDr mnkgj.k es a line es fLFkr option1 esa miyC/k v{kj dks option2 ds v{kj ls cnyk x;k gSA
RPAD() Qyu Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk nk;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj ;k v{kjksa ds lewg dh HkjkbZ dh tkrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
RPAD(char1,n,[char2]) RPAD(‘alpha’,10,’*’) alpha*****
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char1 ds nk;ha rjQ vfrfjDr v{kj char2 dh HkjkbZ dh x;h gS rFkk char1 dh dqy yEckbZ n(10)
gSA
RTRIM() Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
;g QaD’ku fdlh Hkh 'kCn ds vUr esa fLFkr [kkyh LFkkuksa dks gVk nsrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
SELECT RTRIM(STR) RTRIM(‘HOLIDAY ‘) ‘HOLIDAY’
SUBSTR() Qyu Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk fLVªax es a ls lc&fLVªax fudkyh tkrh gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
SUBSTR(char,m,[n]) SUBSTR(‘RAMSITA’,2,3) AMS
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa char ds LFkku 2 (m) ls lcfLVªax dh yEckbZ 3 (n) v{kj dh ysdj ifj.kke fn;k x;k gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SELECT SUBSTRING(‘MATHEMATICS’,5,6);
RESULT - ‘EMATICS’
Date Functions :
lHkh date functions }kjk date data type ifj.kke fn;k tkrk gS dsoy month_between function dks
NksMdj tks fd vadh; la[;k esa ifj.kke nsrk gSA

109
LAST_DAY() Qyu Qyu Qyu ¼ ¼¼Function½
¼
bl QaD’ku }kjk crk;s x;s ekg dh vfUre frfFk dks Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
SYNTAX EXAMPLE RESULT
LAST_DAY(n) LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) 31-JAN-2006
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa SYSDATE tks fd tuojh ekg lu~ 2006 dh gS }kjk tuojh 2006 ds ekg dh vfUre frfFk tks
fd 31 tuojh 2006 Kkr dh x;h gSA
SELECT LAST_DAY(‘2006-01-31’)
RESULT NULL
CURDATE() Qyu Qyu ¼Function½
;g QaD’ku }kjk orZeku rkjh[k dks ‘YYYY-MM-DD’ ;k ‘YYYYMMDD’ QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
select curdate();
2009-01-03
CURTIME() :
;g QaD’ku }kjk orZeku le; dks ‘HH:MM:SS’ or ‘HHMMSS’ QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
select curtime();
18:38:09
DATEDIFF(expression1,expression2) :
expression1 vkSj expression2 nksuks fnukad ;k fnukad le; QksjesV esa gksrs gSaA ;g QaD’ku nksuks fnukadks ds
vUrj dks fnukas dh la[;k ds :i esa crkrk gSA dsoy fnukad okyk Hkkx gh x.kuk esa dke vkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
select datediff(‘2007-2-10 17:33:25’,’2007-1-1');
40
DATE_ADD(datetime, INTERVAL expression datetimetype)
;g QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku ¼INTERVAL½ dks fnukad ¼datetime½ esa tksM+ dj iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select date_add(‘2007-1-13’, interval 15 day);
2007-01-28
ADDDATE(‘2008-1-10’,INTERVAL 10 DAYS);
‘2008-01-20’
ADDDATE()rFkk DATE_ADD functions lekukFkZd gSA

SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit), SUBDATE(expr,days)
;g QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku ¼INTERVAL½ dks fnukad ¼datetime½ esa ls ?kVk dj iznf’kZr djrk gSA
110
select date_sub(‘2007-1-14’, interval 10 day);
‘2007-01-04’
DAYNAME(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds fnu ds uke dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select dayname(‘2010-04-22’);
Thursday
DAYOFMONTH(date) or DAY(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds fnu dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 31 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA QaD’ku DAY() rFkk
DAYOFMONTH() lekukFkZd gSA
select dayofmonth(‘2007-01-04’);
4
DAYOFWEEK(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds lIrkg ds fnu dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 7 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select dayofweek(‘2007-01-03’);
4
DAYOFYEAR(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad dks o"kZ ds fnu ds :i es a ¼1 ls 366 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select dayofyear(‘2007-07-09’);
190
MONTH(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds eghus dks vad ds :i esa ¼1 ls 12 ds chp½ iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select month(‘2007-09-09’);
9
MONTHNAME(date) :
;g QaD’ku nh xbZ fnukad ds eghus ds uke dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
select monthname(‘2007-09-09’);
September

111
NOW() :
;g QaD’ku orZeku fnukad o le; dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA ftldk QksjesV ‘YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS’ or
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
select now();
2007-01-04 14:56:15
STR_TO_DATE(str,format)
;g QaD’ku str esa nh xbZ iafDr dks format esa fn;s x;s QksjsesV ds vuqlkj fnukad ;k le; ;k fnukad rFkk le; ds
:i esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA ;fn str iafDr esa fnukad ;k le; ds vuq:i eku ugha gS rks null eku iznf’kZr gksrk gSA ;g
QaD’ku DATE_FORMAT()ds foijhr gSA
SELECT STR_TO_DATE(’01,5,2003’,’%D,%M,%Y’);
‘2003-05-01’
mijksDr mnkgj.k ds QksjesV esa %D fnu dks ,%M eghus dks rFkk %Y lky dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
DATE_FORMAT() function
;g QaD’ku fnukad rFkk le; ds MsVk dks fofHkUu QksjesV esa iznf’kZr djrk gSA
DATE_FORMAT(date,format)
mijksDr syntax esa date ,d ekU; fnukad gS rFkk format fnukad dks iznf’kZr djus dk QksjesV gSA
Format Description
%b eghus ds uke ‘'kCnksa esa
%d eghus dk fnu vadks esa (00-31)
%m eghuk vadks esa (00-12)
%Y o"kZ pkj vadks esa
Example: DATE_FORMAT(NOW(),’%m-%d-%Y’)
Result : 11-04-2008
Example: DATE_FORMAT(NOW(),’%d %b %y’)
Result : 04 Nov 08
Data type conversion functions
;s QaD’ku fn;s x;s eku dks fofHkUu mi;ksxksa ds fy, ,d MsVk VkbZi ls nwljs MsVk VkbZi esa cnyus ds dke vkrs gSaA
;g QaD’ku select rFkk vU; dFkuksa ¼ statements ½ ds lkFk mi;ksx esa vkrs gSA
bEifyflV bEifyflV ¼¼¼Implicit)
¼ :ikUrj.k :ikUrj.k ¼ ¼¼Conversion½:
¼
;g :ikarj.k os gS tks fcuk CAST ;k CONVERT QaD’ku ds dke esa vkrs gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ% ,d iafDr (string) dks iw.kZ la[;k esa cnyuk
SELECT 1+’12’;
13

112
;gak iafDr (string) *12* dks la[;k(Numeric) es a cny dj in ¼expression½ dk ifj.kke 13 Hkh la[;k esa izkIr gqvk gSA
mnkgj.k % la[;k dk iafDr es a :ikraj.k
SELECT CONCAT(1,’ ALPHA’);
‘1 ALPHA’
,DlfIyflV ,DlfIyflV ¼ ¼¼Explicit)
¼ :ikUrj.k
:ikUrj.k
;s :ikraj.k os gS tks CAST ;k CONVERT QaD’ku dks dke esas ysdj fd;s tkrs gSA
CAST(expr AS type) QaD’ku
CAST() QaD’ku ,d MsVk Vkbi ds eku dks ysdj nwljs MsVk Vkbi ds eku esa cnyrk gSA
mnkgj.k % la[;k dk iafDr es a :ikraj.k ;k Casting
SELECT 12, CAST(12 as CHAR);
12, ‘12’
CONVERT(expr,type) QaD’ku
CONVERT ,d in ls eku ysdj nwljs MsVk Vkbi es a cny nsrk gSA
1)SELECT (‘1999-05-15 00:00:00’ AS date) as DATE1
Date1
1999-05-15
Aggregate QaD’ku
QaD’ku :
;s QaD’ku dbZ records ls eku ysdj ifj.kke dh x.kuk djus ds dke esa vkrs gSA
;s eq[; ikap izdkj ds gksrs gSaA
1. COUNT(x) x dh Hkjh gqbZ ekuksa dh x.kuk djrk gSaA
2. SUM(x) x ds ekuksa dks tksMrk gSA
3. AVG(x) x ds ekuksa dk vkSlr fudkyrk gS] null values dh mis{kk djrs gq,
4. MIN(x) x ds U;wure eku dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
5. MAX(x) x ds vf/kdre eku dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ%
1. SELECT COUNT(*) FROM marks WHERE marks >90;
5
2. SELECT sum(marks) as ‘TOTAL’ FROM marks ;
WHERE rollno=10002;
TOTAL

357
3. SELECT AVG(marks) FROM marks;
91.43
4. SELECT MIN(marks) FROM marks;
80
5. SELECT MAX(marks) FROM marks;
99
xzqi xzqi QaD’ku QaD’ku ¼ ¼¼Group
¼ Functions½ ½ % %
%
113
xzqi QaD’ku }kjk izkIr ifj.kke ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd iafDr;ksa ds lewg ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;g QaD’ku select rFkk vU;
dFkuksa ¼ statements ½ ds lkFk mi;ksx esa vkrs gSA
fjdkWMZl fjdkWMZl dk dk lewg lewg cukuk cukuk %
%
Group by Clause -
The GROUP BY clause }kjk fdlh Vscy dks ,d ;k vf/kd milewg es a feyk djds] ml milewg es a dksà Hkh expr
leku gksrk gS vkSj ml milewg es a dksà eku gksrk gSA GROUP BY clause es a ,d ls vf/kd dkWye gks ldrs gS aA mnkgj.kkFkZ
uhps fn;k x;k gS fd fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks d{kk] oxZ] ,oe~ fo"k;kuqlkj mi lewg esa cuk;k tk ldrk gS&
SYNTAX
SELECT * from student GROUP BY CLASS
lc lc DoSjh DoSjh ¼ ¼¼Sub
¼ Query½:
lc lc DoSjh DoSjh SQL/Sql dk fodflr :i gSa rFkk Sql }kjk lefFkZr gSA lc DoSjh esa ,d DoSjh dk ifj.kke nwljh DoSjh
dk Hkkx gksrk gSaA ;g okLro esa ,d select statement ds vUnj nwljk select, insert, update ;k delete statement
gksrk gSA
Subquery egRroiw.kZ gS D;ksafd -
ß Subquery }kjk ;g vklku gks tkrk gS fdlh Hkh DoSjh dks VqdMksa esa foHkDr djuk ,oa VqdMks a dks iqu% tksMdj ,d
djukA
ß dqN Dosjht dks fcuk lcDosjh dk mi;ksx fd;s Sql esa ifjHkkf"kr ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ
SELECT * FROM MARKS
WHERE ROLLNO = (SELECT ROLLNO FROM student WHERE
SUDENTNAME=’MANAN’);
mDr mnkgj.k esa geus student table esa ls euu dk jksy uEcj fy;k gS rFkk izkIr ifj.kke dh rqyuk marks table
ds jksy uEcj ls dh gS D;ksfad marks table esa uke miyC/k ugha gSA blfy;s geus uke ds vk/kkj ij jksy uEcj dks student
table ls fy;k gS rFkk jksy uEcj dks marks table es buiqV dh rjg iz;qDr fd;k gsA izkIr ifj.kke uhps fn;k x;k gSA
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10002 SCIENCE 90

10002 MATHS
114
85
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 85
,dkf/kd ,dkf/kd VscYl VscYl ls ls MkVk MkVk dk dk izn’kZu izn’kZu djuk@ djuk@ izkIr izkIr djuk
djuk
gekjs ikl nks VscYl student rFkk marks ifjf’k"V esa fn;s x;s MkVkuqlkj gS&
nksuksa esa gh vf}rh; key rollno gSA fuEu Dosjh dh lgk;rk ls MkVk dk fMLiys nksuksa Vscy ls fd;k tk ldrk gS
SELECT student.rollno, student.studentname, marks.marks, marks.subject FROM student,
marks WHERE student.rollno=marks.rollno;
izkIr ifj.kke uhps fn;k x;k gSA
rollno studentname marks subject
10001 VINOD 60 HINDI
10001 VINOD 75 ENGLISH
10001 VINOD 55 MATHS
10002 MANAN 90 SCIENCE
10002 MANAN 85 MATHS
10002 MANAN 90 ENGLISH
10002 MANAN 85 HINDI
bl izdkj ,dkf/kd Vscy ls MkVk dk fMLiys fd;k tk ldrk gSA
ge comparison operators dk iz;ksx 'krkasZ esa dj ldrs gaSA
1. = equal to
2. > greater than
3. < less than
4. >= greater than or equal to
5.

115
2. SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO>10005;
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
3. SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO=10004;
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10004 RUBAL DR. VINAY GOYAL 27/11/1989 XI
10005 DHRUV SHRI SHIV KMAR 06/11/2000 I
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
6. SELECT * FROM student WHERE ROLLNO

10002
116
MANAN SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
10003 SURESH SHRI DL AGRAWAL 25/06/1960 XII
10004 RUBAL DR. VINAY GOYAL 27/11/1989 XI
7. SELECT * FROM student WHERE FNAME LIKE ‘SHRI VI%’;
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10002 MANAN SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
Mathematical operators
1. + Addition
2. - Subtraction
3. * Multiplication
4. / Division
5. % Modulo
Mathematical operators ds ds mnkgj.k mnkgj.k uhps uhps fn;s fn;s x;s x;s gaS
gaS
1. SELECT * FROM marks where (marks+2) =100;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 MATHS 98
2. SELECT * FROM marks where (marks-2) >90;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 MATHS 99
3. SELECT * FROM marks where marks*2

117
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 88
4. SELECT * FROM marks where marks/2>45;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 MATHS 99
5. SELECT * FROM marks where (marks+2) =100;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 88
DISTINCT keyword dk dk iz;ksx iz;ksx djds djds nksgjko nksgjko nksgjko dks dks dks gVk;k gVk;k tk tk ldrk ldrk gSA
gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ
1) SELECT DISTINCT rollno FROM marks;
ROLLNO
10001
10002
USE AND, OR TO SPECIFY MULTIPLE CONDITIONS
mnkgj.kkFkZ
2) SELECT *
FROM marks
WHERE marks > 90
OR rollno =’10002’;

118
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 88
3) SELECT *
FROM marks
WHERE subject=’HINDI’
AND marks < = 90;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 90
10002 HINDI 88
4) SELECT *
FROM marks
WHERE marks BETWEEN 95 AND 99;
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 MATHS 99
Sorting of data
5) SELECT *
FROM student
ORDER BY studentname;
* By default fjsdkMZl dks c

119
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGARWAL 1965-07-10 Ph.D
10004 RUBAL VINAY GOYAL 1989-11-27 XI
10003 SURESH SHRI DL AGARWAL 1960-06-25 XII
10001 VINOD SHRI DL AGARWAL 1965-07-10 MBA
MkVk MkVk eSuhiqys’ku eSuhiqys’ku ySXaost
ySXaost
Data Manipulation Language
MkVk eSuhiqys’ku ySXaost Data Manipulation Language (DML) }kjk MkVkcsl dh lwpuk dks fjVªho] tksM ,oe~
cny ldrs gSA DML dek.M~l dk mi;ksx mi;ksxdrkZ }kjk fu;fer MkVkcsl ds dk;Z ds nkSjku fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh rFkk
viMsV dek.Ml SQL ds DML dk Hkkx gS rFkk MySQL }kjk lefFkZr gSA lkekU; rkSj ij dke vkus okys DML dek.M~l
fuEu gS&
n SELECT - Database es a laxzfgr lwpuk dk retrieval.
n UPDATE - Database esa laxzfgr lwpukvksa dks modify djukA
n DELETE - Database esa ls lwpukvksa dks delete djukA
n INSERT INTO - Database esa u;h lwpukvksa dks Mkyuk ¼insertion½
SQL }kjk }kjk lefFkZr
lefFkZr DML dFku%
dFku%
INSERT
MySQL esa INSERT dek.M dk mi;ksx orZeku Vscy esa fjdkWMZl dks tksMus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ekuk fd ge
student table esa fdlh student dk fjdkWMZ tksMuk pkgrs gS rks gesa fuEu izdkj ls dek.M fy[kuk gksxk&
INSERT INTO STUDENT
VALUES (10001,’VINOD’,’SHRI DL AGRAWAL’,’07/10/1965’,’MBA’ );
mijksDr dek.M ls LVwMsUV Vscy ds ROLLNO, STUDENTNAME, FNAME, DOB, CLASS QhYMks a es a Øe’k%
10001,’VINOD’,’SHRI DL AGRAWAL’,’07/10/1965’,’MBA’ ds eku bUlVZ gks tkrs gSA
blh izdkj vU; fjdkWMZl Hkh tksMs tk ldrs gSaA vU; fjdkWMZ bUlVZ djrs gq;s fuEufyf[kr Vscy cuk;saA
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10001 VINOD SHRI DL AGRAWAL 07/10/1965 MBA
10002 MANAN SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
310003 SURESH SHRI DL AGRAWAL 25/06/1960 XII
10004 RUBAL DR. VINAY GOYAL 27/11/1989 XI
10005 DHRUV SHRI SHIV KMAR 06/11/2000 I
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
blh izdkj ekDZl Vscy esa Hkh MkVk bUlVZ dj ldrs gSA
INSERT INTO marks
values (10001,90,’Maths’);
mijksDr dek.M ls ekDlZ Vscy ds ROLLNO, SUBJECT, MARKS QhYMksa esa Øe’k% 10001,90,’Maths’ ds
eku bUlVZ gks tkrs gSa A

120
blh izdkj vU; fjdkWMZl Hkh tksMs tk ldrs gSA blh izdkj fjdkWMZ bUlVZ djrs gq;s fuEufyf[kr Vscy cuk;saA
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 88
SELECT
SELECT dek.M dks lkekU;r% MySQL esa cgqrk;r ls iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;g fdlh Hkh vkWijs’kuy MkVkcsl ls
mi;ksxdrkZ ¼users½ dks okafNr MkVk retrieve djus ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gSA ge School database esa student table
dk ,d mnkgj.k ysrs gSaA uhps of.kZr mnkgj.k Vscy esa miyC/k leLr lwpuk dks fn[kkrk gSA ;gk¡ asterisk (*) dk mi;ks ax
MySQL esa wild card dh rjg fd;k tkrk gS ftlls fd Vscy esa miyC/k leLr lwpuk dk p;u gks tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k 1
. SELECT *
FROM student;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10001 VINOD SHRI DL AGRAWAL 07/10/1965 MBA
10002 MANAN SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
10003 SURESH SHRI DL AGRAWAL 25/06/1960 XII
10004 RUBAL DR. VINAY GOYAL 27/11/1989 XI
10005 DHRUV SHRI SHIV KMAR 06/11/2000 I
10006 RANJANA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 19/04/1971 Ph.D
10007 RADHIKA SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 14/08/2003 PLAY
mnkgj.k 2
SELECT *
FROM marks;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 88

121
;fn vki fdlh lwpuk dk dsoy dqN gh fgLlk pkgrs gSa rks vki mldks fuEufyf[kr dek.M }kjk izkIr dj ldrs gaSA
mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn vki 10005 ls de vFkok cjkcj rollno okyks a dh lwpuk student table ls pkgrs gS rks fuEu dek.M
}kjk izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE ROLLNO=90;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxk
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARK
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
blh izdkj fuEu mnkgj.k esa ge student Vscy dk og fjdkWMZ pquuk pkgrs gSa ftlesa STUDENTNAME QhYM
dk eku ‘MANAN’ gSA
SELECT * FROM student
WHERE studentname=’MANAN’;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
ROLLNO STUDENTNAME FNAME DOB CLASS
10002 MANAN SHRI VINOD AGRAWAL 16/11/1995 V
UPDATE
UPDATE command dk iz;ksx lkekU;r% fdlh iafDr ds fdlh QhYM ds eku dks cnyus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
;fn ge izR;sd fo|kFkhZ dks izR;sd fo"k; esa 2 vad crkSj cksul ds nsuk pkgrs gSsa rks fuEufyf[kr dEkk.M }kjk bl dk;Z dks
'kh/kz fd;k tk ldrk gSA

mnkgj.k 1
UPDATE marks
SET marks=marks+2;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
122
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 92
10001 ENGLISH 97
10001 MATHS 100
10002 SCIENCE 82
10002 MATHS 101
10002 ENGLISH 92
10002 HINDI 100
mijksDr ifj.kke ds QhYM MARKS dks ns[kus ij ;g izrhr gksrk gS fd izR;sd jksy uEcj ds ekDlZ esa iwoZ ds vadksa
esa nks vad tksM+dj ifj.kke fn[kk;k x;kA
mnkgj.k 2
blh izdkj ;fn ge iqu% ekDlZ Vscy esa fn;s x;s ekDlZ esa ls nks vad de djuk pkgrs gaS rFkk iwoZ dh fLFkfr es a Vscy
dks j[kuk pkgrs gSa rks fuEu dek.M }kjk ;g dk;Z fd;k tk ldrk gSA
UPDATE marks
SET marks=marks-2;
mijksDr dek.M ls fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
10002 SCIENCE 80
10002 MATHS 99
10002 ENGLISH 90
10002 HINDI 98
mijksDr dek.M ls ekDlZ QhYM dk ifj.kke mnkgj.k 1 esa n’kkZ;s x;s vadksa ls nks vad de gSA
DELETE
bl dek.M dk mi;ksx fdlh fjdkWMZ ;k fjdkWMZ ds lewg dks gVkus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA ;fn ge rollno 10002
ds fjdkWMZ dks gVkuk pkgrs gS rks DELETE command dks WHERE clause ds lkFk iz;qDr djds ekDZl Vscy ls gVk;k
tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s fuEu dek.M mi;ksx esa ysxs&
DELETE FROM marks
WHERE rollno=10002;
blds i’pkr SELECT * FROM MARKS dek.M dks nsus ij fuEu ifj.kke izkIr gksxkA
ROLLNO SUBJECT MARKS

123
10001 HINDI 90
10001 ENGLISH 95
10001 MATHS 98
mijksDr ifj.kke ls ;g fofnr gksrk gS fd Vscy esa iwoZ esa miyC/k jksy uEcj 10002 dk MkVk [kRe gks x;k gSA bl izdkj
Vscy ls MkVk dks gVk;k tk ldrk gSA
O;w O;w (View):
O;w dk mi;ksx Vscy esa ls MkVk fjVªho djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh okLrfod MkVk ij dk;Z djrh gSa tks fd Vscy
esa LVksj jgrk gSA O;w ,d opqZvy Vscy gksrh gS tks fd lysDV LVsVesUV
}kjk rS;kj gksrh gSA O;w esa iafä ,oa dkWye nksuksa gh gksrs gSa tSlk fd Vscy esa gksrs gaSA O;w esa ogh QhYMl gksrs gSa tks QhYM
okLrfod Vscy esa gksrs gSaA QhYMksa dh la[;k Select dFku ij fuHkZj djrh gSA O;w ls MkVk dks i

124
jsUt ds varxZr MsVkcsl vkbZVe fMLd ij ikl&ikl LVksj ugha gksrs D;ksafd muds Hash eku cgqr fHkUurk fy;s gq, gks ldrs
gSA
2- 2- B+tree indexes:
B+tree indexes rqY;rk [kkst ¼Equality search½ rFkk jsat DoSjht nksuksa ds fy, fuiq.krk ls dk;Z djrh gSA ;|fi ;s
rqY;rk [kkst ds fy, Hash indexes ftrus rst xfr’khy ugha gSA
MkVkcsl MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l vkWCtsDV~l (Database Objects) :
Database Objects dk la/kkj.k RDBMS }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA eq[;r% lkjs gh Database Objects MkVkcsl esa
txg ?ksjrs ga SA dqN MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV nwljs MkVkcsl ds vkWCtsDV~l dks Hkh j[krs gSA VscYl gh ,slk MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV gS ftlesa
;wtj dk MkVk j[kk tkrk gS vkSj ;wtj VscYl dks lh/ks gh ,Dlsl dj ldrk gSA MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l dk uke cukrs le; fn;k
tkrk gS vkSj budk uke fu;ekuqlkj fn;k tkrk gSA lHkh MsVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ,d fØ;sVj rFkk vkWuj j[krs gS
fuEufyf[kr MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l gSa %&
ÿ clusters
ÿ columns
ÿ constraints
ÿ database
ÿ database links
ÿ indexes
ÿ rollback segments
ÿ savepoints
ÿ tables
ÿ tablespaces
ÿ users
ÿ views
MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV ds uke nsus ds fu;e
¸ MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV dk uke 64 64 djsDVj ls T;knk yEck ugha gksuk pkfg,A
¸ dksVs’ku ekdZ uke esa mi;ksx ugha gksrk gSA
¸ uke dh 'kq:vkr v{kj ls gksuh pkfg,A
¸ uke MySQL fjtoZ oMZ~l esa ls ugha gksuk pkfg,A
¸ uke esa v{kj tSls fd A-Z,0-9,_,#,$ gks ldrs gS aA ¼#,& dk mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg,s½
¸ mlh uke dk iqu% mi;ksx ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg, ;fn iwoZ es a mlh vkWuj }kjk fdlh MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV dk uke mi;ksx
esa ys fy;k x;k gSA
vU; vU; tkudkfj;ka tkudkfj;ka %&
%&
ß iwjs ,oe~ o.kkZRed uke dk mi;ksx djsaA
ß ,d opuh; (Singular) uke dk mi;ksx djsaA
ß fdlh Hkh ,d ,fUVVh dks n’kkZus ds fy;s ,d gh uke dk iz;ksx djsaA
SQL DDL/DML Syntax

125
Statement Syntax
AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE (add column) ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
ALTER TABLE (drop column) ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias for column) SELECT column_name
AS column_alias
FROM table_name
AS (alias for table) SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name
(column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,.......)
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name
ASSELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE FROM DELETE FROM table_name
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!) or
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE database_name
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name
DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name
GROUP BY SELECT column_name1,SUM(column_name2)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name1

126
HAVING SELECT column_name1, SUM(column_name2)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name1
HAVING SUM(column_name2) condition value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_nameIN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2,....) or
INSERT INTO table_name
(column_name1, column_name2,...)
VALUES (value1, value2,....)
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT INTO (used to create SELECT *
backup copies of tables) INTO new_table_name
FROM original_table_name or
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name
FROM original_table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE(deletes only TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
the data inside the table)
UPDATE UPDATE table_name
SET column_name=new_value
[, column_name=new_value]
WHERE column_name=some_value
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
egRoiw.kZ egRoiw.kZ fcUnq
fcUnq

127
MkVk esU;wiqys’ku ySXaost ¼DML)
SELECT - Database esa laxzfgr lwpuk dk retrieval djukA
UPDATE - Database esa laxzfgr lwpukvksa dks modify djukA
DELETE - Database esa ls lwpukvksa dks delete djukA
INSERT INTO - Database esa u;h lwpukvks a dk insertion djukA
View- O;w dk mi;ksx Vscy esa ls MkVk fjVªho djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA DoSjh okLrfod MkVk ij dk;Z djrh gSa tks fd
Vscy es a LVksj jgrk gSA O;w ,d opqZvy Vscy gksrh gS tks fd lysDV LVsVesUV }kjk rS;kj gksrh gSA O;w esa iafä ,oa dkWye nksuksa
gh gksrs gSa tSlk fd Vscy esa gksrs gaSA O;w esa ogh QhYMl gksrs gSa tks QhYM okLrfod Vscy esa gksrs gSaA QhYMksa dh la[;k Select
dFku ij fuHkZj djrh gSA O;w ls MkVk dks i

128
vfr vfr y?kqÙkjkRed y?kqÙkjkRed iz’u
iz’u
1 lysDV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\
2 viMsV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\
3 fMyhV dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\
4 Vscy dk LVªDpj ns[kus gsrq dkSulh dek.M dk mi;ksx djsxsa \
5 Vscy]MsVkcsl rFkk dkWye ds uke dh vf/kdre yEckbZ fdrus v{kjksa dh gS\
6- MEDIUMINT MkVk VkbZi dk mi;ksx D;k gSS\
7- VARCHAR MkVk VkbZi dk D;k mi;ksx gS\
8- MsV MsVk VkbZi esa TIMESTAMP dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\
y?kqÙkjkRed y?kqÙkjkRed iz’u
iz’u
1 bUlVZ bu Vw dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gS\
2 O;w D;k gksrk gS\
3 fdlh Vscy ds leLr fjdkWMZl dks iznf’kZr djus ds fy, dek.M fy[kssa\
4 MySQL }kjk mi;ksx fd;s tkus okys indexes ds izdkjksa dk o.kZu dhft,\
5- dULVªsUV D;k gksrs gSa\
6- vkYVj dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\
7- MªkWi dek.M dk D;k mi;ksx gksrk gS\
fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed iz’u
iz’u
1 VscYl esa ls dqN MkVk dks dSls fjVªho fd;k tkrk gS\ mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsaA
2 Mh-,e-,y- dek.M~l dk foLr`r o.kZu dhft,A
3 MkVkcsl vkWCtsDV~l ds uke nsus ds fu;eksa dk o.kZu dhft,A
4 VIEW dks mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb;s\
5- Sql ds D;k ykHk gSS\
6- ekbZ-,l-D;w-,y- dk o.kZu dhft,A
7- Sql ds fofHkUu MkVk VkbZi dkSu&dksSu ls gS\
8- ,d Vscy cukb, ftlesa izkbZejh dh ds lkFk&lkFk ,d vU; QhYM ij ukWV uy dk izfrcU/k fn;k x;k gksA
mnkgj.k lfgr o.kZu djsaA
9- fuEu dh O;k[;k dhft,A
(i) ;wfud dkULVªsUV
mÙkjekyk
mÙkjekyk
(ii) jsQjsUlst dkULVªsUV (ii) ukWV uy dkULVªsUV
1 v 2 ¼c½ 3 ¼v½ 4 ¼c½ 5 ¼v½

129
v/;k;&6
v/;k;&6
cwfy;u cwfy;u ,ytscjk
,ytscjk
(Boolean Algebra)
cwfy;u ,ytscjk loZizFke tktZ cwfy;u ds }kjk lu~ 1849 esa izfrikfnr fd;k x;kA cwfy;u ,ytscjk ,d rF;kRed
,ytscjk gS rFkk lkekU;r;k rkfdZd vkWijsVj NOT, AND, OR vkfn es a iz;qDr gksrk gS aA ykWftdy pj dsoy nks eku TRUE
(1) vFkok FALSE (0) xzg.k dj ldrk gSA cwfy;u ,ytscjk ykWfTkd lfdZV dks iznf’kZr djus ds fy;s iz;qDr gksrk gSA
;g ,d fMftVy ykWftd lfdZV dks cukus rFkk ,usykbt djus dk cgqr 'kfDr'kkyh vkStkj gSA cwfy;u ,ytsfczd O;atd
dks Kkr ,oa ljy djus ds fy;s cwfy;u ,ytscjk iz;qDr gksrk gS ftlls dfBu fMftVy fudk; dks lLrk] ljy rFkk HkjkslseUn
cuk;k tk ldrk gSA vk/kkjHkwr ykWftdy vkWijs'kUl dks cukus ds fy;s tks bysDVªkfud ifjiFk iz;qDr gksrs gS mUgs ykWftdy
xsV dgk tkrk gSA
cwfy;u cwfy;u fLFkjkad fLFkjkad %&
,ytscjk ds vo;oksa vFkkZr~ FALSE (0) rFkk TRUE (1) dks cwfy;u fLFkjkad dgk tkrk gSA
cwfy;u cwfy;u pj pj %&
,ytscjk vo;oksa dks iznf'kZr djus ds fy;s tks ladsr dke es a vkrs gS mu ladsrks dks cwfy;u pj dgk tkrk gS ;s
pj dsoy 0 vFkok 1 eku xzg.k dj ldrs gS mnkgj.kkFkZ tSls X, Y, Z vkfnA
cwfy;u cwfy;u vkWijsVj vkWijsVj vkWijsVj ¼ykWftd ¼ykWftd xsV½ xsV½ xsV½ %&
rhu izdkj ds vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV AND, OR ,oa NOT gSA bu ykWftd xsVksa dks vk/kkjHkwr cwfy;u vkWijsVj Hkh
dgk tkrk gSA ,d fMftVy ifjiFk tks fd ladsrks (Signals) dks tkus nsrk gS vFkok jksdrk gS xsV dgykrk gSA ;g xsV
ladsrks dks rHkh tkus nsrk gS tc dqN rkfdZd 'krasZ larq"V gksrh gaS blfy;s bls ykWftd xsV Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
AND GATE%& ;g xsV nks vFkok vf/kd buiqVks dk rkfdZd xq.ku djrk gSA ;g xsV nks vFkok nks ls vf/kd buiqV rFkk
,d vkmViqV j[krk gSA bl xsV dh vkmViqV 1 (High) rHkh gksrh gS tc bldh lHkh buiqVsa 1 (High) gksA
nks buiqVksa (A, B ) ds AND xsV dh vkmViqV (Y) fuEu izdkj iznf'kZr dh tk ldrh gSA
Y=A.B
tgk¡ MkWV (.) AND vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA nks buiqVksa ds AND xsV ds rkfdZd ladsr dks fp= la[;k 1
rFkk buiqV ,oa vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh& 1 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
A
B
fp= 1 AND xsV
Y=A.B

Truth Table AND Gate
130
lkj.kh 1
fp= 2 AND xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk
AND xsV ds fLofpax ifjiFk dks fp= la[;k 2 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA bldh dk;Ziz.kkyh esa ge ns[krs gS fd cYc rHkh
tysxk tc A rFkk B nksuks a fLop cUn gksaxs vU;Fkk cYo ugha tysxkA ;g ifjiFk A AND B xsV dh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks Bhd izdkj
ls le>krk gSA
OR GATE %& nks vkSj vf/kd buiqVksa dk ykWftdy ;ksx OR xsV
_ Vds
}kjk fd;k tkrk gSA OR xsV nks vkSj nks ls vf/kd
buiqV rFkk ,d vkmViqV j[krk gSA OR xsV dh vkmViqV 0 (low) dsoy rc gksrh gS tc OR xsV dh lHkh buiqVs (Bulb) a 0 (low)
Output
gksrh gSA OR gate dh nks buiqVksa (A,B) dh vkmViqV (Y) dks fuEu izdkj iznf'kZr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Y = A + B
tgk¡ Plus (+) OR vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA nks buiqVksa ds OR xsV dk ykWftdy ladsr fp= la- 3 es a n'kkZ;k
x;k gS ,oa buiqV vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh& 2 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
A
B
Y=A+B
+
Truth table of OR GATE
fp= 3 lkj.kh 2

131
fp= fp= 4 4 OR xsV xsV dk dk fLofpax fLofpax lfdZV
lfdZV
OR xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk ¼fp= la- 4½ OR xsV dh dk;Ziz.kkyh dks n'kkZrk gSA mijksDr ls ge ns[krs gS fd dksbZ
Hkh buiqV fLop A vFkok B ds can ¼1½ gksus ij cYc ty tk;sxkA nksuksa fLopksa A rFkk B ds can gksus ij Hkh cYc tysxk ysfdu
nksuksa fLopksa ds [kqys ¼0½ gksus ij cYc ugha tysxkA
NOT GATE %& ;g xsV buoj'ku (Inversion) vkWijs'ku iwjk djrk gSA bldks dkWEiyhesUVj (Complementor) ds uke
ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;g mPp ¼1½ ykWftd ry dks fuEu ¼0½ ykWftd ry esa rFkk fuEu ¼0½ ykWftd ry dks mPp ¼1½ ykWftd
ry esa ifjorZu djrk gSA ;g ,d buiqV dk xsV gSA bl xsV dh vkmViqV (Y) dks buiqV (A) esa fuEu izdkj n'kkZrk gSA
Y=A'
;gk¡”A', NOT vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djrk gSA ;fn NOT xsV dh buiqV A gS rks bl xsV dh vkmViqV A' gksxhA
NOT xsV dk ykWftdy ladsr fp= la- 5 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS ,oa buiqV] vkmViqV lEcU/k dks lkj.kh &3 esa n'kkZ;k
x;k gSA
A
Truth Y=A table of NOT B gate
fp= 5
fp=
V
V
+
-
lkj.kh lkj.kh 3
3
fp= fp= fp= 6 6 NOT xsV xsV dk dk fLofpax fLofpax lfdZV
lfdZV
A
B
A
(Bulb)
Output Y (Bulb)
Y Output
NOT xsV dk fLofpax ifjiFk fp= la- 6 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS bl ifjiFk esa cYc rFkk fLop dks lekukUrj esa tksM+k x;k gS tc
fLop [kqyk (A=0) gksxk rc cYc tysxk Y=1 gksxk rFkk tc fLop cUn (A=1) gksxk rc cYc ugha tysxk vFkkZr Y=0
gksxkA

132
;wuholZy ;wuholZy ;wuholZy xsV xsV (Universal Gates) %&
%&
os ykWftd xsV~l ftudh lgk;rk ls fdlh Hkh dkWEchus'kuy ifjiFk vFkok fMftVy fudk; dks fcuk fdlh vU; xsV
dh lgk;rk fy;s dsoy ,d gh xsV ls cuk;k tk ldrk gS rks mu ykWftd xsVksa dks ;wfuolZy xsV dgrs gSA ;s gSA
(i) NAND Gate
(ii) NOR Gate
NAND Gate %& ;g xsV AND xsV rFkk NOT xsV ds la;kstu ls curk gS vFkkZr~ ;g AND xsV dh vkmViqV dk O;qRØe
(Complement) gksrk gS fp= la- 7 esa NAND xsV dk ladsr iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gSA NOT vkWijs'ku dks iznf'kZr djus
ds fy;s ccy (Bubble) iz;qDr fd;k x;k gSA nks buiqVksa ds NAND xsV dk cwfy;u O;atd (Expression) Y=(A.B)'
gksxkA buiqVksa ,oa vkmViqV dk lEcU/k lkj.kh&4 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
A
B
fp= fp= 7
7
Truth Table NAND Gate
Y=(A.B)'
lkj.kh A 4
Y=(A+B)'
NOR xsV
xsV%& xsV
NOR xsV] OR xsV ,oa NOT xsV ds la;kstu ls Bcurk
gS ;g OR xsV dk O;qRØe (Complement) gksrk gSA
NOR xsV dk ladsr fp= la- 8 es a fn[kk;k x;k gS ;g OR vkWijs'ku ds i'pkr~ NOT vkWijs'ku dks n'kkZrk gS NOT vkWijs'ku
dks n'kkZus ds fy;s ccy (Bubble) iz;qDr gqvk gSA nks buiqVksa ds NOR xsV dk cwfy;u O;atd (Expression) Y=(A+B)'
gksxkA buiqVksa ,oa vkmViqV dk lEcU/k lkj.kh&5 es a n'kkZ;k x;k gSA
cwfy;u cwfy;u ,ytscjk ,ytscjk ds ds fu;e
fu;e
NOR xsV
fp= 8
lkj.kh&5
dfBu cwfy;u O;atdksa dks gy djus ds fy;s dqN fuf'pr ,oa vPNh rjg fodflr fu;eksa dh ikyuk djuh gksrh

133
gSA fdlh Hkh cwfy;u O;atd esa de ls de pjksa dh la[;k] ykWftd ifjiFk ds ewY; rFkk dfBurk (Complexity) dks
/kVkrh gSA cwfy;u fu;e fuEu izdkj le>k;s x;s gaS &
Øe Øe Øe fofues; fofues; (Commutative) fu;e fu;e%& fu;e ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd vkWijsVj ij ykxw pjksa dk Øe cnyus ij mldk ifj.kke
ugha cnyrk gS vFkkZr~ ;fn A o B pjkas dks vkil esa cny fn;k tk;sa rks vkmViqV (Y) dk eku ifjofrZr ugha gksxkA ;g
fuEu izdkj le>k tk ldrk gS%&
Y =A+B = B+A
Y =A.B = B.A
lkgp;Z
lkgp;Z (Associative) fu;e fu;e%& fu;e ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd tc ,d ckbujh vkWijsVj ¼$ ;k - ½ nks ls vf/kd pjkas ij ykxw
gksrk gS rks fdUgh Hkh nks pjksa dk lewg cuk;s tkus ls mlds ifj.kke eas dksbZ ifjorZu ugha gksxkA bl fu;e dks lkgp;Z fu;e
dgrs gSaA ;g fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS &
A + (B+C) = (A+B) +C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
caVu caVu dk dk fu;e fu;e (Distributive Law) %& ;g fu;e n'kkZrk gS fd ,d pj ,oa nks pj tks fd $ vkWijsVj ls tqMs gSa ds chp
xq.ku ¼-½ vkWijsVj gS rks bldk ifj.kke ogh gksxk tks fd ,d pj xq.ku vkWijsVj ¼-½ ls nwljs nksuks a pjka s ds xq.ku ds i'pkr~ cwfy;u
;ksx ls vkrk gS vFkkZr~ bls fuEu izdkj le>k tk ldrk gSA
A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
cwfy;u cwfy;u ,ytscjk ,ytscjk ,ytscjk dh dh vk/kkjHkwr vk/kkjHkwr F;ksje F;ksje F;ksje (Theorems)
(i) A+0=A
(ii) A.1=A
(iii) A+1=1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A+0 A
0 0+0=0 0
1 1+0=1 1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A.1 A
0 0.1=0 0
1 1.1=1 1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A+1 1
0 0+1=1 1
1 1+1=1 1

(iv) A.0=0
(v) A+A=A
(vi) A.A=A
(vii) A+A'=1
(viii) A.A'=0
(ix) (A')'=A
(x) A+AB = A
L.H.S. = A+AB
= A (1+B)
=A [Q (1+B)=1]
134
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A.0 0
0 0.0=0 0
1 1.0=0 0
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A+A A
0 0+0=0 0
1 1+1=1 1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A.A A
0 0.0=0 0
1 1.1=1 1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A+A' 1
0 0+1=1 1
1 1+0=1 1
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A A.A' 0
0 0.1=0 0
1 1.0=0 0
Truth Table
Input L.H.S. R.H.S.(Output)
A (A')' A
0 (0')'=0 0
1 (1')'=1 1

135
(xi) A+A'B = A+B
L.H.S. = A+A'B
= A.1+A'B
=A(1+B)+A'B
= A + AB + A'B
= A + B (A+A')
= A + B [ A + A' = 1]
(xii) A+BC = (A+B) (A+C)
L.H.S. = A+B.C
= A.1+B.C
= A(1+B) +B.C
= A + A.B + B.C
= A (1+C)+ AB+BC
= A+AC+AB+BC
=A.A+AC+AB+BC
= (A+C) (A+B)
fMeksxZu fMeksxZu dh dh F;ksje F;ksje (Theorem)
fMeksxZu dh izFke F;ksje crkrh gS fd nks ;k vf/kd Qpjksa
ds xq.kuQy dk O;qRØe (Complement) izR;sd pj ds
O;qRØeksa ds ;ksx ds cjkcj gksrk gSA vFkkZr~
(A.B.C....)'=A'+B'+C'...
fMeksxZu dh f}rh; F;ksje crkrh gS fd nks ;k vf/kd pjks ds ;ksx dk O;qRØe izR;sd pj ds O;qRØe ds xq.kuQy
ds cjkcj gksrk gS vFkkZr~
(A+B+C....)'=A'.B'.C'...
bu F;ksjeksa dks Truth Table dh lgk;rk ls fl) fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Duality F;ksje F;ksje ;k ;k Duality dk dk fl)kUr% fl)kUr%& fl)kUr%
cwfy;u ,ytscjk dh vk/kkjHkwr F;ksjeksa ds izs{k.k ls /;ku vkrk gS fd ,d O;atd dks nwljs izk:i ds O;atd esa
ifjofrZr fd;k tk ldrk gS
(i) vkWijs'ku *$* dks vkWijs'ku - ,oa vkWijs'ku - dks ^$^ }kjk cnyus
,oa
(ii) 0 dks 1 ls cnyus ,oa 1 dks 0 ls cnyus ij
bl izdkj ge dg ldrs gS fd
(i) $ dks - ls cnyus
(ii) - dks $ ls cnyus
(iii) 0 dks 1 ls cnyus

136
(iv) 1 dks 0 ls cnyus
bl izdkj ,d izdkj ds O;atd ls nwljs izdkj dk O;atd cuk;k tk ldrk gS tks F;ksje bl izdkj lec) gS
mu F;ksjeks dks Dual F;ksje rFkk bl fl)kUr dks duality fl)kUr dgrs gSA
fuEu dks fl) dhft;sA
Eg.1 (AB+AC)' +A'B'C=A'+B'C'
gy% L.H.S.= (AB+AC)'+A'B'C
=(AB)'.(AC)' +A'B'C [Demorgan's Theorem]
=(A'+B').(A'+C')+A'B'C
=A'.A' +B'.A'+A'.C' +B'.C'+ A'B'C
=A' +B'.A'+A'.C' + A'B'C +B'.C'
= A'(1+B'+C'+B'C)+B'C' = A'+B'C'
Eg. 2 (AB'(C+BD)+A'B').C=B'C
gy% L.H.S.=(AB'(C+BD)+A'B').C
=(AB'C+AB'BD+A'B')C
=(AB'C+0+A'B')C
= AB'CC+A'B'C
= AB'C+A'B'C
[QBB'=0]
= B'C(A+A') [ A+A'=1] Q
=B'C = R.H.S Hence Proved
Eg. 3 (AB+BC+CA)' = A'.B'+ B'.C'+A'.C'
L.H.S. =(AB+BC+CA)'
= (AB)'.(BC)'(C.A)'
= (A'+B') (B'+C')(C'+A') [ (AB)'=A'+B']
= (A'B'+B'B'+B'C'+A'C') (C'+A')
=A'B'C'+A'B'A'+B'B'C'+B'B'A'+B'C'C'+B'C'A'+A'C'C'+A'C'A'
= A'B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+A'B'C'+A'C'+A'C'
= A'B'C'+A'B'+B'C'+C'A'
= A'B'(C'+1) + B'C'+C'A'
= A'B' +B'C' + C'A' = R.H.S. Hence Proved.
Eg. 4 AB+CD=(A+C) (B+C) (A+D) (B+D)
gy% L.H.S. = AB+CD
= (AB + C) (AB + D) [
= (C+A.B) (D+A.B)
= (C+A) (C+B)(D+A)(D+B)
X+YZ = (X+Y) (X+Z)]

=(A+C) (B+C) (A+D) (B+D) = R.H.S.
fuEu dks ljy dhft;s
Eg. 5 Y=AB+AB'
gy Y=AB+AB'
= A(B+B)'
= A [
Y = A
Eg. 6 Y = (A+C) (A'B'+B) (C'+AB)'
(B+B')=1]
137
gy: Y= (A+C) (A'B'+B) (C'+AB)'
= (AA'B'+CA'B'+AB+BC) (C'+AB)'
= (0+A'B'C+AB+BC) (C'+AB)'
= (A'B'C+AB+BC) ((C')'.(AB)')
= (A'B'C+AB+BC) (C.(A'+B'))
= (A'B'C+AB+BC) (CA'+CB')
= A'B'CCA'+ABCA'+BCCA'+A'B'CCB'+ABCB'+BCCB'
= A'B'C+0+A'BC+A'B'C+0+0
= A'C(B'+B+B')
Eg. 7
= A'C
Y= ((AC+B')((A+C)'+B))'
Q
gy Y= ((AC+B')((A+C)'+B))'
=((AC+B')(A'.C'+B))'
=(ACA'C'+ABC+A'B'C'+B'B)'
=(0+ABC+A'B'C'+0)'
= (ABC+A'B'C')'
=(ABC)' . (A'B'C')'
= (A'+B'+C').(A+B+C) [Demorgan's Theorem]
Eg. 8
=(A'+B'+C').(A+B+C)
fuEu cwfy;u vfHkO;fDr dks ljy dhft;s ,oa ykWftd ifjiFk fp= cukb;s
Y=AB'+(AC)'+A'B'C'
= AB'+A'+C'+A'B'C'
= AB'+A'+C'(1+A'B')
= AB'+A'+C'
= (A+A') (B'+A')+C'
= 1.(B'+A')+C'
Y=A'+B'+C'
[ X+YZ = (X+Y) (X+Z)]

A
B
C
Y=A'+B'+C'
138
Eg. 9 fuEu cwfy;u vfHkO;fDr dks ljy dhft;s ,oa ykWftd ifjiFk fp= cukb;sA
Y=C((ABC)'+AB'C)
gy: Y= C((ABC)'+AB'C)
= C(A'+B'+C'+AB'C)
= A'C+B'C+CC'+AB'CC
= A'C+B'C+0+AB'C
= A'C+B'C(1+A)
= A'C+B'C
= C(A'+B')
= C (AB)'
fofHkUu fofHkUu ykWftd ykWftd xsVksa xsVksa dks dks NAND xsVksa xsVksa }kjk }kjk cukuk
cukuk
xsV
NOT xsV A (A.B)'
AB
Y=A' Y=A+B
B
Y
AB
C
;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
A
AND xsV
xsV
OR xsV
xsV
A B Y=A.B
Y=(A.A)'=A'
;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
;g xsV NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
Y=((A.B)')'=A.B

A
B
A'
B'
139
Y=(A'.B')'=A+B
fofHkUu fofHkUu ykWftd ykWftd xsVksa xsVksa dks dks NOR xsVksa xsVksa }kjk }kjk cukuk
cukuk
NOT xsV
xsV
AND xsV
xsV
;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
A Y=(A+A)'=A'
A B Y=A.B
;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
OR xsV
xsV
A AA
A
B
A' A' Y=A'
A
B
Y=A+B
CB
B
C (BC)' B'
;g xsV NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls fuEu izdkj cuk;k tk ldrk gS%
A
B
(A+B)' Y=((A+B)')'=A+B
Eg. 10 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NAND xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;saA
Y= (A+BC)
Y=(A'.(BC)')' Y=A+BC
=A+BC
Y=(A'+B')'=A.B

140
Eg. 11 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;saA
Y(A, B, C) = (A + B + C) (A + C)
A
B
C
A
C
(A+B+C)'
(A+C)'
((A+B+C)'+(A+C)')'
=(A+B+C).(A+C)
Eg. 12 fuEu Qyu dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA
A
Y= AB+BC
A'
B B'
C
C'
B B'
egRoiw.kZ egRoiw.kZ egRoiw.kZ fcUnq fcUnq
fcUnq
(A'+B')'=A.B
(C'+B')'=C.B
(AB+BC)'
((AB+BC)')'
=AB+BC
cwfy;u cwfy;u ,ytscjk% ,ytscjk% ,d rF;kRed ,ytscjk gSA
cwfy;u cwfy;u fLFkjkad fLFkjkad % % FALSE (0) rFkk TRUE (1) cwfy;u fLFkjkad gSA
cwfy;u cwfy;u pj% pj% ,ytscjk vo;oks dks iznf'kZr djus okys ladsr cwfy;u pj dgykrs gSA
vk/kkjHkwr vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd ykWftd xsV xsV % % rhu izdkj ds vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV NOT, AND ,oa OR gSA
;wfuolZy ;wfuolZy xsV% xsV% fdlh Hkh fMftVy fudk; dks dsoy ,d izdkj ds xsVksa ls cuk;k tk ldrk gS rks ml xsV dks ;wfuolZy
xsV dgrs gS ;s nks gksrs gSA
(i) NAND (ii) NOR
cwfy;u cwfy;u cwfy;u fu;e% fu;e%
fu;e%
1- 1- Øe Øe fofues; fofues; fu;e fu;e fu;e A+B=B+A vFkok A.B=B.A
2- 2- lkgp;Z lkgp;Z fu;e
fu;e fu;e A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C vFkok A.(B.C)=(A.B).C
3- 3- caVu caVu dk dk dk fu;e fu;e fu;e A.(B+C) = A.B+A.C
4- 4- fMeksxZu fMeksxZu F;ksje F;ksje (A.B.C. .....)' = A'+B'+C'+ ......
,oa (A+B+C+ .....)' = A'.B'.C'. .......
cgqp;ukRed cgqp;ukRed iz'u iz'u
iz'u
1- fuEu esa ls cwfy;u fLFkjkad gS&
¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 1
¼l½ mijksDr nksuks ¼n½ dksbZ Hkh ugha
2- fuEu esa ls cwfy;u pj dk eku gks ldrk gS&
vH;kl vH;kl iz'u
iz'u

141
¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 5
¼l½ 4-3 ¼n½ x
3- AND xsV dh vkmViqV gksrh gS ftldh buiqV A o B gS&
¼v½ A+B ¼c½ A.B
¼l½ (A.B)' ¼n½ dksbZ ugha
4- ,d OR xsV ftldh buiqV A o B gS dh vkmViqV gksxh&
¼v½ A.B ¼c½ A'+B'
¼l½ A+B ¼n½ A'.B'
5- fuEu esa ls vk/kkjHkwr ykWftd xsV gS&
¼v½ NAND ¼c½ NOR
¼l½ XOR ¼n½ AND
6- fuEu esa ls ;wfuolZy xsV gS&
¼v½ AND ¼c½ OR
¼l½ NOT ¼n½ NAND
7- ;fn Y=A+A' gks rks Y dk eku gksxk&
¼v½ 1 ¼c½ 0
¼l½ A ¼n½ A'
8- ;fn Y=A+A gks rks Y dk eku gksxk&
¼v½ 0 ¼c½ 1
¼l½ A ¼n½ 2A
9- ;fn (A.B.C......)' = A'+B'+C'+.... gks rks ;g F;ksje dkSulh gS&
¼v½ Øe fofues; ¼c½ vk/kkjHkwr F;ksje
¼l½ caVu fu;e ¼n½ fMeksxZu F;ksje
10- ;fn Qyu Y=A+1+A'+1 gks rks Y dk eku gksxk&
¼v½ 1 ¼c½ 0
¼l½ A
vfry?kqÙkjkRed vfry?kqÙkjkRed iz'u
iz'u
11- Duality F;ksje D;k gSa\
12- fMeksxZu F;ksje D;k gS\
13- vk/kkjHkwr xsV dkSu&dkSu ls gS\
14- ;wfuolZy xsV fdls dgrs gS\
¼n½ A'
15- NAND, NOR ds ykWftdy ladsr D;k gS\
y?kqÙkjkRed y?kqÙkjkRed y?kqÙkjkRed iz'u
iz'u
16- AND xsV ds fLofpax ifjiFk dks le>kb;saA
17- OR xsV dks ;wfuolZy xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA
18- Øe fofues; fu;e dks T.T. (Truth Table) dh lgk;rk ls le>kb;sA
fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed iz'u
iz'u
19- Qyu Y=A+BC' dk ykWftd ifjiFk cukb;sA
20- Qyu Y=AB+A'B'+AB' dks ljy dhft;sA
21- AND ,oa OR dks dsoy NOR xsV dh lgk;rk ls cukb;sA
mÙkjekyk
mÙkjekyk
1- l 2- v 3- c 4 l 5-n 6-n 7- v 8- l 9- n 10- v

142
v/;k;&7
v/;k;&7
dE;wfuds’ku dE;wfuds’ku vkSj vkSj usVodZ usVodZ dh dh vo/kkj.kk,as
vo/kkj.kk,as
(Communication and Network Concepts)
Evaluation of Network:
Computer Network ;k ;k Network : & Computer network, different izdkj ds computer rFkk devices dk
collection gksrk gS tks vkil esa ,d nqljs ls communication channels }kjk connected gksrs gSA ;s different computers
rFkk devices vkil esa data dk vknku iznku djrs gS rFkk resources dh sharing Hkh djrs gSA
Networks dks mudh characteristics ds vuqlkj dbZ izdkj ls ckWV ldrs gS&
Connection method ds ds ds vuqlkj
vuqlkj
1. Wired technologies
2. Wireless technologies
Physical scope ds ds vuqlkj
vuqlkj
1. LAN – Local Area Network
2. MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
Backbone Networks
1. Global area networks
2. Internet
3. Internets and extranets
4. Overlay networks
Purpose of Network : – Network dh vko’;drk ;k network ls ykHk fuEu gSA bUgh vko’;drk ds dkj.k
network dks use fd;k tkrk gS&
1) Facilating communications : Network ds }kjk nks ;k nks ls vf/kd computers ;k other electronic devices ds
chp data ;k lqpuk dk vknku iznku fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2) Sharing Hardware: Network ds }kjk fdlh Hkh hardware device tks network esa connect gks dks sharing dj
ldrs gSA ex-shared network printer dh lgk;rk ls document dks print djukA
3) Sharing files, data and information: Network }kjk fdlh Hkh computer ( tks dh network ls tqMk gks) dh file rFkk
mlesa j[kk data ,oa information dks share fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4) Sharing software: Network ls tqMs computers ds software dh vkil esa sharing dh tk ldrh gSA
5) Information Preservation: Preservation dk vFkZ gksrk gS& safe djuk ;k lqjf{kr j[kuk vr: network }kjk ,d
computer dh information dks nqljs computer ij share djds lqjf{kr j[k ldrs gSA vxj ,d computer [kjkc Hkh gks tkrk
gS rc Hkh bldh information nqljs computer ij lqjf{kr fey tk;sxhA
6) Security: Network ds }kjk dsoy selected users dks gh allow djds ge network dh security cM+k ldrs gSA
7) Speed-up: D;ksfd network esa ,d ls vf/kd computers gksrs gS vr: network es a izR;sd work speedly perform gksrk
gSA
Computer network ds fuekZ.k dh ’kq#vkr 1969 esa gqbZ Fkh rFkk blls igys 1960 esa united states dh Advanced
Research Project Agency (ARPA) }kjk united states ds lqj{kk foHkkx ds fy, ,d network cuk;k xk;k Fkk ftls
Advanced Research Project Agency Network(ARPANET) uke fn;k x;kA ;g nqfu;k dk lcls igyk computer
network FkkA

143
ARPANET:
;g nqfu;k dk loZizFke network Fkk tks packet switching ij based FkkA
;g packet switching, Lincon Laboratory ds Lawrence Roberts }kjk design dh xbZ Fkh rFkk bl network dks United
states ds Department of Defense Advance Research Project Agency (DARPA) rFkk Massachusetts Institute of
Technology us feydj cuk;k FkkA
Internet : Internet, Internetwork ’kCn dk short form gSA Internet dks WWW ;k World Wide Web ds uke ls Hkh
tkuk tkrk gSA
Internet : Internet different networks dk network gS tks network gS tks millions of computers dks vkil esa
connect djrk gSA ;k millions of computers,100 ls vf/kd countries esa QSys gS tks data, news rFkk opinions dk vknku
iznku djrs gSA
Internet esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk centralized control ugha gSA vr: internet dh design decentralized izdkj dh gSA
Internet ls connect izR;sd computer dks host, end system, end point dgrs gSA
Internet ds fy, standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Internet ds }kjk world ds dbZ private, public, academic, business rFkk government network
vkil esa connected gSA
Internet ds }kjk use vkus okyh common services fuEu gS&
WEBSITES BLOGGING
Instant Messaging Internet Forums
Social Networking Online Shopping
Supply Chains Business to- Business Services
Financial services
Internet ij gksus okyk lEiw.kZ dk;Z websites ds }kjk gksrk gS rFkk fdlh Hkh website dks internet ij run djus ds fy,
fuEu vko’;drk gksrh gS %&
1) Domain Name System: Website dk uke tks fd WWW. ls izkjaHk gksrk gSA
2) IP Address: Internet Protocol Address tks fd fdlh Hkh computer dk iqjs world esa unique no. gksrk gSA
;g vko’;drk ISP (Internet Service Provider) }kjk iw.kZ dh tkrh gSA ISP izR;sd website dks URL (Unifrom
Resource Locator) iznku djrk gS tks fd Domain name system (DNS) }kjk website ds uke ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA
INTERSPACE:
bldk iq.kZ uke Interactive System For Pattern Analysis, Classification and Extrasment gSA ;g lsok forfjr
communities esa iqjs concept dks navigate djrk gSA 1997-2000 esa DARPA }kjk izkstsDV ij fjlpZ fd;k x;kA bl izkstsDV
ds rgr okLrfod fo’o dh lwpukvksa ds lxzag dh flesaUVhd cukus dk dk;Z fd;k x;k gSA
Interspace prototype ds ds fuEu fuEu pkj pkj component gS&
gS&
Concept Space Services
Automatic domain specific
Categary Map services.
Concept Extractor
Interspace ds Prototype ls intractive,semantic ,scalable ,d fo"k; dk domain,type and size dh lwpuk iznku
djrk gS A Intenet rFkk ARPANEN ds }kjk ge file rFkk dqN lwpuk Packet ds form esa ,d flLVe ls nwljs flLVe
rd VªkalfeV dj ldrs gS Aijarq interspace ls ge lHkh izdkj dh information concepts dh ,d lkFk iwjh community
esa navigate dj ldrs gS A blesa lHkh fo’o dh lwpukvksa dk semantic index cuk;k x;k gS A Interspace lkWQVos;j
dh lgk;rk ls ,d space domain dh lwpuk navigate dj ldrs gS A

144
fp= 1 & baVjusV dk fodkl
Switching Techniques :
Switch : – Switching ,d technique gksrh gS ftlds }kjk computer network esa ,d computer ls izkIr data
dks nwljs computer network rd switch ;k send fd;k tkrk gS A
Computer network eas data dh switching gsrq fuEu switching techniques dke esas yh tkrh gS %
1½ Circuit Switching
2) Packet Switching
3) Message Switching
4) Cell Switching
1½ Circuit Switching:
Circuit switching esa nksuksa devices (source rFkk destination device) vkil eas physically connected gksrs gSaA
Example: public phone network
blesa nksuks devices ds chp communication channel ( ;k circuit) curk gSaA
budsa chp communication gksrk gSaA vr: bls circuit switching dgrs gSaA
circuit switching esa constant bit delay gksrk gSA
fp= 2 & lfdZV fLofpax
2) Packet switching:
Packet switching esa nksuks devices (source rFkk destination device) vkil esa physically connected ugha gksrs gS
rFkk nksuks devices dsa chp communication channel (;k circuit) dk fuekZ.k Hkh ugha gksrk gSA
Packet switching esa nksuks devices dsa chp data dk vknku iznku packets dsa :i esa gksrk gSaA
Example: x.25 Technique, TCP/IP
Packet switching, ,d digital networking communication method gSa tks all transmitted data dk group cukdj mls
suitable size dsa blocks esa divide djrk gSa ftUgsa packet dgrsa gSa rFkk bu packets dks vyx&2 bit rate ij shared network
dh lgk;rk lsa ,d computer ls nqljs computer rd transmit djrk gSaA
Packet switching dsa fuEu nks method gks ldrs gSa&
Connection oriented packet switching
Connection less packet switching

145
fp= 3 & isdsV fLofpax
Message switching:
Message switching okLrfod :i ls data communication esa use yh tkrh gSaA
Example: “store and forward” paper tape relay system E-mail delivery voice-mail delivery
ftl izdkj computer communication esa packet switching dke esa dh tkrh gSaA mlh izdkj tele communication esa
message switching dke esa yh tkrh gSaA
1) Cell switching:
Cell switching, packet switching ds leku gh gksrh gSa ijUrq blesa packet dh size fuf’pr ugha gksrh gSaA cell based
networks tSlsa ATM (Asynchronous transfer mode) vkfn dsa fy, cell swiching dke esa yh tkrh gSaA
Cell switching dsa }kjk digital voice rFkk data signal nksuks izdkj ds signals dh switching possible gSaA
CONCEPT OF CHANNEL
Communication channel source rFkk destination dks ,d iFk ls tksMrk gS tks MkVk ;k flXuy dk MkVk gkbos gksrk
gSA pSuy dk MkVk transmission rate, baud rate ls ifjHkkf"kr djrs gSA izR;sd pSuy viuh ,d MkVk transmission dh {kerk
j[krk gS ftls ge bit rate ;k bandwidth dgrs gSA
pSuy fuEu #i ls iznf’kZr fd;s tk ldrs gSA
,d system ls nqljs system ds e/; connection gksrk gSA
;g ,d transmission media gks ldrk gSA
;g source rFkk destination ds e/; ,d rkfdZd (logical) connection Hkh gks ldrk gSA
;g ,d radio frequencies dk lewg gks ldrk gSA
;g nks system ds e/; wireless ls tksM ldrk gSA
;s lHkh channel nks ikVhZ;ksa ds e/; fuEu modes ls data transfer dj ldrk gSA
Simplex: bl fo/kh esa dsoy izs"kd MkVkA lqpuk dk izlkj.k dj ldrk gSA xzkgh bl fof/k es izs"kd dks MkVk Hkst ugh
ldrk gS vFkkZr bl fof/k esa MkVk dk transmission ,d gh fn’kk esa gksrk gSA
fp= 4 & flEIysDl eksM
Half Duplex mode: bl esa MkVk dk transmission nksuks rjQ dj ldrs gS ijUrq ,d le; es dsoy ,d gh fn’kk
es MkVk transmission dj ldrs gSA
fp= 5 & v)Z MqIysDl eksM
Example:
Waki-taki }kjk ckrphr
Full Duplex Mode: bl fof/k esa ,d gh le; esa nksuks fn’kkvksa esa MkVk dk vknku&iznku fd;k tk ldrk gSA

146
fp= 6 & MqIysDl eksM
CONCEPT OF BANDWIDTH
fdlh signal dks ge time-domain ;k frequency domain esa iznf’kZr djrs gSA Bandwidth ,d Frequency dh ijkl
gS tks signal dh High/Low Frequencies dk varj gksrk gS A vFkkZr nks frequency ds e/; ds varj dks Bandwidth
dgrs gS A
fp= 7 &csaMfoFkz xzkQ
Bandwidth = F2 – F 1
Bandwidth dusD’ku dh {kerk iznf’kZr djrh gS A ftl dusD’ku dh cSaMfoFk vf/kd gksrh gS rks vf/kd frequency
band ikl dj ldrk gS A vr% vf/kd performance vkrh gS A bldks ge Hz esa ekirs gS A ,d second fdrus cycle
ikl dj ldrk gS A
Hz : ;g ’kCn1930 es a international Electronical commissiom }kjk fn;k x;k Fkk A tks frequency ds ekius dk ek=d
gSA ,d lsd.M es pSuy ls xqtjus okys signal cycle dh la[;k gksrh gS A
KHz ;- pSuy 1000 pdz ¼cycle) ,d second esa pass djuk gS A
MHz 1000 KHz dks 1 MHz dgrs gS vFkkZr~ ,d fefy;u cycle dks ,d lSd.M esa ikl djrk gSA
Bit Rate:
fMftVy flXuy ds fy, bandwidth dh rjg data transfer dks bit rate dgk tkrk gSA MkVk transmission dh rate bit
dh la[;kvksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA
,d second esa transmited bits dh la[;k dks ml channel dh bit rate dgrs gSA bls ge bit per second (bps) esa ekirs
gSA
Apriodic digital signal esa bit internal dh term esa MkVk dh jsV ekirs gSA
Bit interval: Bit interval ,d bit dks transmit djus es yxs le; dks dgrs gS vr:
Kbps: Kilo Bit Per Second vFkkZr 1000 bps ,d second esa 1000 bits transmit gksrh gSA

147
Mbps: Mega bit per second vFkkZr 1000 kilo bit per second transmit gksrh gS ;k 1000×1000 bit per second Hkh
fy[k ldrs gSA
Gbps: Giga bit per second = 1000Mbps = 1000×1000Kbps = 1000×1000×1000 bit per second transmit gksrh gSA
Tbps: Tera bit per second vFkkZr 1000 Gbps gksrh gSA
Baud Rate: ;g rate analog signal ds fy, ifjHkkf"kr dh tkrh gSA signal voLFkk ifjoZru (Rate of change of state
of the signal) dgykrk gSA lkekU;r: bldh xfr 19200 baud gksrh gSA
;g MsVk dh xfr ekius ds fy, “ ,d second esa lapkfjr electrical ladsrksa dh la[;k” dks ,d baud dgrs gSA ge
MkVk jsV rFkk baud rate esa lEcU/k fuEu rjg ls ifjHkkf"kr dj ldrs gSA
S = C × N × 1/r
N= Data rate (MkVk jsV ) bps
R = Signal element
C= Case factor
S= Baud rate
Transmission Media
nks ;k nks ls vf/kd flLVe ds Communication ds fy, gesas Physical Media dh vko’;drk jgrh gS tks fd ISO/
TCP/IP Protocal ds Physical layer ij operate gksrk gS A
fp= 8 & Vªkalfe’ku ehfM;k
Vªkalfe’ku ehfM;k dks ge nks Categories esa ckV ldrs gS A
1½ Guided media
2½ Unguided media
Guided media: - Guided media ds }kjk ge nks system dks Physical connect djrs gS A blesa izdkj ds ehfM;k
mi;ksx djrs gS A
1½ Twisted Pair Cable
2½ Coaxial Cable
3½ Fiber optics
1½ Twisted Pair Cable : -
;g dscy nks pkyd ¼lkekU;r% dkWij½ ls cus wire ls cuh gksrh gS A nksuks wire pkyd ds Åij insulator yxk
jgrk gS A mu nksuks wire dks twist dj fn;k tkrk gS A
blesa ls ,d wire source ls destination rd data signal ysdj tkrk gS rFkk nwljk Ground gksrk gS A Twisted
Pair dks ge fuEu izdkj ls oxhZd`r dj ldrsa gS-
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair):- ;g Cable lkekU;rk% mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A bl dh lajpuk fp+=kuqlkj %& nks
pkyd ij insulator yxk jgrk gsS rFkk mudks twist vFkkZr Zig-Zag Pattern esasa cukdj ml ij IykfLVd ds Cover ls
overlap dj nsrs gS ftlls ge shield dh rjg dke ysrs gS A ;g ehfM;k lLrk gksrk gSA

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fp= 9 & Unshielded Twisted Pair
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) :-
Shielded Twisted Pair IBM (International Business tool) daiuh ds }kjk Develop dh xbZ bl rjg dh cable esa
nks conductor dks insulator ls cover dj djrs gS vkSj twisted cable cukdj ml ij ,d metal shield /kkrq doj ls seal
dj nsrs gS rFkk metal shield ij plastic cover p

149
fp= fp= 10 & Coaxial Cable
Standards : Radio Government (RG) us coaxial cable ds ekud Js.khxr fd;k x;k gS A izR;sd RG uEcj (Cable)
,d unique HkkSfrd specification dk set gksrk gS A
Category Impedance Use
RG-59 75 Cable –TV
RG-58 50 ‘ Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 Thick Ethernet
Coaxial cable Connector :vkt
dy coaxial cable ds bayone –Neill-concelman (BNC) Connector mi;ksx gksrk gS A ;s rhu izdkj ds gksrs
gS A
1½ BNC 2½ BNC-T 3) BNC –Terminator
Performance : TP ls Coaxial cable dk attenuation cgqr vf/kd gksrk gS A vr% ;g TP ls mPp Bandwith ij
dke djrk gS A Performance of Coaxial Cable fp=kauqlkj ns[kk tk ldrk gS A
Attenuation(dB/miles)
Application : (1) Coaxial Cable izkjaHk esa telephone network esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS tks ,d coaxial
10,000 voice channel rd ys tk ldrh gS A
¼2½ RG 59 TV dsoy ds :i mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A
¼3½ RG-58 rFkk RG-11 Ethernet yksdy ,fj;k net work ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS Aftuls mPp bandwith vksj mPp
MkVk jsV ij dke dj ldrs gS A
fp= 11 & Coaxial Cable dk mi;ksx esa telephone network

150
¼3½ ¼3½ ¼3½ Fiber optics :-
Fiber optics dscy cgqr iryh gksrh gS A ftldks dh dkWp dh iryh uyh ;k IykfLVd dh iryh uyh dk mi;ksx
djrs gq, signals dks izdk’k ds :i esa lapfjr djrs gS A
Optical Fiber dh lajpuk %& ,d glass ;k plastic core dks Cladding tks fuEu ?kuRo dk dkW¡p gksrk gS ds }kjk doj
fd;k tkrk gS A tc nks fHkUu ?kuRo ds inkFkksZ esas izdk’kh; signal dks Hkstk tkrk gS rks fHkUu ?kuRo ds dkj.k Light che
viorZu dh ctk; ijkoZfrr gks tkrh gS A Fiber Optics iw.kZ vkUrfjd ijkoZru dh vo/kkj.kk ij vk/kkfjr gS A
Propagation Mode :- orZeku rduhd esa fibre optics nks rjg ds ljap.k rjhds gS A
(I) Multi mode :- bl rjhds es ,d ls vf/kd Light beam core esa ls fofHkUu iFk ls Propagate gksrs gS A ;s nks izdkj
ds gksrs gS A
I) Step- Index multimode :- blesas core inkFkZ dh ?kuRo dsUnz ls fu;r jgrk gS A izdk’kh; fdj.k lh/kh pyrh gS
A tc rd oks core rFkk cladding ds interface rd uk igqpus rd tc core rFkk Cladding dh lgr ij igqprh gS
rks ijkorZu dks.k ls ijkofrZr gks tkrh gS A ;g vpkud ijkofrZr izHkko ds dkj.k bldks step index dgk tkrk gS A
II) Graded index :- bl izdkj ds mode essa core inkFkZ dh ?kuRo core ds dsUnz ls lrg dh vksj tkus ij fujUrj
?kVrk tkrk gS] ftlds dkj.k izdk’k dh fdj.k dk ijkoZru dks.k vpkud u gksdj ,d lr~r ifjoZru gksrk gS ]ftlls signal
esas overlapping vk tkrh gS vFkkZr~ step-index dh ctk; graded-index esas signal de ’kq) gksrk gS A
fp= fp= 12 12 %& %& Optical Fiber
¡¡¡¡~~
fp= fp= 13 13 & & Single Mode (b) Step indexing mode (c) Graded index
2½
2½ Single Mode : - blesas ge Step indexing mode dks gh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsS ftlesa core inkFkZ dk diameter
¼O;kl ½ de gksrk gs S A buesa highly focus Light source ls izdk’k dh fdj.k dks Single mode fiber optics esas mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gS A ftlls {kSfrt fn’kk esa signal path esa travel djrk gS A
Advantages :-
1) Fiber optic mPp MkVk jsV rFkk cs.MfoFk ds signal transmit djds ds dke vkrs gS A
2) blesasa signal dh rhozrk esas dksbZ deh ugha gksrh A yach nwfj;ksa dk Hkh bl ij dksbZ vlj ugha gksrk gSA
3) Signal esa fdlh izdkj dk fo|qr pqEcdh; izHkko gLr{ksi ugha gksrk A
4) ;g cgqr gYdh rFkk iryh ufydk gksrh gS A
Disadvantage
1) Fiber optics ,d ubZ rduhd gSA vr% installation and Maintenance ij vf/kd [kpkZ rFkk dq’ky vfHk;ark dh

151
vko’;drk gksrh gS A
2) vU; media dh rqyuk bldh ykxr vf/kd gksrh gS A
Unguided Media
Electromagnatic wave dks fcuk fdlh Physical media dh lgk;rk ls gh lapkfjr fd;k tkrk gS A bl izdkj ds
Communication dks wireless lapkj dgrs gS A blesa electronics LisDVªe fp= esa n’kkZ;k x;k gSA
1] Ground (Hkw&lapj.k Hkw&lapj.k Hkw&lapj.k) Hkw&lapj.k jsfM;ksa rjaxs i`Foh dh fuEu okrkoj.k ds }kjk lpafjr gksrh gSA blesa ge 2MHz vko```fr ls
de ds Signal dh Strength ij fuHkZj djrk gS A
2. Sky Propagtion ¼vkdka’kh; ¼vkdka’kh; lpj.k½ lpj.k½ Radio rjax ls Åij dh vko``fr;ksa dks vk;u e.My esa fodfjr djrs gS rFkk
vk;u e.My esa mifLFkr vk;uksa ds dkj.k singal ijkofrZr gksdj i`Foh ij vkrs gSA bl izdkj ds lpaj.k ls vf/kd nwjh rd
fuEu power Signal Hkst ldrs gSA
3. Line of sight ¼ykbZu ¼ykbZu vkWQ vkWQ lkbZV½ lkbZV½ lkbZV½ %& %& bless mPpko`fr ds ladsr lh/ks ,d ,sfUVuk ls nwljs ,sfUVuk ds e/; signal
VªkalfeV fd;s tkrs gS A blessa nksuksa ,fUVuk ,d fn’kk esa fu;r gksrs gS A
fp= 14 & Communication using terrestrial microwave
Radio:- fo|qr pqEcdh; LisDVªe esa Radio wave rFkk Micro wave dh frequency ds vuqlkj oxhZd`r fd;k
x;k gS A 3 KHz ls 1 GHz rd lkekU;rk% Radio wave dgykrh gS A ;g waves omini directional gksrh gS A
tc ,fUVuk Radio wave VªkalfeV djrk gS rks ;s signal lHkh
fn’kkvksa esa lpafjr gksrk gS A vr% sender rFkk receive ,fUVuk dks fdlh fo’ks"k fn’kk esa fLFkj ;k position djus dh
vko’;drk ugha gksrh gS A Radio rjaxs fo’k"ksdj os rjaxs tks Sky Propagation use djrh gS A mudh yach nwjh ds broad
casting ds dke vkrh gS A tSls FM Radio .
Low and medium vko``fr;ka jsfM;ksa wave fnokj dks ikj dj ldrh gS A ;g xq.k dk ykHk Hkh gS A tc AM Use djrs
gS rks vkSj gkfu Hkh gksrh gS A tc bldks digital signal esa use djrs gS A
Application :- Ominidirection vfHky{k.k ds dkj.k Radio wave broad casting rFkk FM,AM,TV,Corldless Phone
and Paging system esa dke vkrh gS A
Microwave :- Electromagnetic LisDVªe esa 1GHz ls 300 GHz dh ijkl dks microwave dgrs gS A ekbZØksoso
;wuhMkbjsD’kuy ¼Unidirectional½ gksrh gS A tc microwave dks ,sfUVuk ls lpafjr fd;k tkrk gS rks ,fUVuk dks ,d fn’kk
esa fLFkj fd;k tkkrk gS A
;s wave LOS ¼ykbZu vkWQ lkbZV½ lapj.k djrh gS A vr% ,fUVuk ;qDr Vkojksa dks ,d nwljs ds fn’kk esa mPp vko``fr
dh rjaxs fnokj dks ikj ugha dj ldrh vr% receiver building ds vanj gksus ij budk mi;ksx ugha dj ldrk gS A
Antenna – Microwave dks Unidirection ,fUVuk dh vko’;drk gksrh gS tks ,d fn’kk esa signal dks Hkstrh gS A ;s
nks izdkj dh gksrh gS %

152
1½ Panabolic isjkcksfyd fM’k
2½ Horn dish ¼gkWu fM’k½
1½
1½ Panabolic dish : - ijoy; dh ‘T;kfefr ij vk/kkfjr gS A lHkh lkekUrj :i ls vkus okys Signal dks ;g dish
ijkofrZr dj ,d txg focus dj nsrk gS A
2½
2½ Horn dish :- ;g dish fn[kus esa ,d gksuZ dh rjg gksrh gS A blds oØkdkj flj ls ,d izdk’kh; signal deflect
gksdj lekUrj fdj.ks signal ds :i esa lpfjar gksrh gS A
fp= 15 & Point-to-Point link via satellite microwave
Appication: Microwave dk mi;ksx Cellular ,Satellite rFkk radar ,WLAN ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A
3½
3½ Infrared :- Infr Red Signal dh vko``fr 300GHz -400 IHz gksrh gS rFkk budh rjaxns/;Z 1mm ls 770 mm gksrh
gS rFkk blfy, bUgsa short range communication ds fy, mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A High Frequency dh otg ls fnokj
ugha Hksn ldrs gS a bl y{k.k ls ,d System ls nwljs System esa gLr{ksi ugha gksrk gS A ge infrared dks ge building ds
ckgj use ugha dj ldrs gS A D;ksafd lw;Z fdj.kksa esa buQzkjsM fdj.ks gksrh gS tks communication easa ck/kk iznku djrh gS
A
mi;ksx %& blds }kjk ge fMftVy MkVk dks mPPk MkVk jsV ds signal dks transmit dj ldrs gS A
Ir DA ( Infrared Datea Association) us infrared ds dqN ekud fn;s gS rFkk budks wireless Keyboard .mouse
vkfn devices esa mi;ksx fy;k x;k gS A
mnkgj.k% dqN manufacturer PC esa dqN fo’ks"k iksVZ iznku djkrk gS tks 75 Kbps rFkk 8mt. rd dke djrk gS A
vkt dy bl iksVZ dh Data rate 4 Mbps gS A

153
Network Devices
Network devices dks network equipments Hkh dgk tkrk gSaA
& Network devices osa devices, equipments ;k unit gksrs gS tks computer network esa data dk vknku iznku djusa
ds fy, use fy, tkrs gSaA
Example: Router, bridge, switch, hub, repeater, etc.
&Network devices esa ge fuEu devices dk v/;;u djsaxsaA
1)Modem
2)RJ 45 Connector
3)Ethernet card
4)Hub
5)Switch
6)Gate way
1) MODEM: (Modulator-demodulator)
Modem ’kCn modulator lsa Mo rFkk demodulator lsa dem dks vkil esa tksM dj cuk;k x;k gSaA
Modem ,d device gksrk gSA tks analog carrier signals dks modulator dj digital information esa encode djrk gSa
rFkk iqu: digital information dks demodulator analog carrier signal esa decode djrk gSaA
Modem dk eq[; m)s’; gksrk gS ,sls signals produce djuk ftUgsa ,d computer lsa nqljs a computer rd vklkuh
lsa rFkk de [kpsZ lsa Hkstk tk ldsaA
Example: Voice band modem: ;g Modem personal computer (PC) dsa digital data dks telephone channel dh
voice frequency range esa electrical signals, telephone libes ds }kjk ,d computer lsa nqljsa computer rd vklkuh lsa
transmite fd;sa tk ldrsa gSa ,oa receiver side ij vklkuh lsa demodulator dj original digital data izkIr fd;k tk ldrk
gSA
fp= fp= 16 16 & & ekWMse
ekWMse
2) RJ 45 Connector –
RJ 45 = Registered Jack 45
(Diagram RJ 45 Connector)
RJ 45 ,d Physical connecting device gS tks Local exchange carrier ;k Long distance carrier ds fofHkUu
izdkj ds telecommunication vkSj data equipment dks vkil esa connect djus ds fy, use fy;k tkrk gS A Registered
Jack ds vU; mnkgj.k gS RJ 11, RJ 14, RJ 21, RJ 48
RJ 45 single line connector gS A
RJ 45 connector, commonly network cabling rFkk telephone application ds fy, use fy;k tkrk gS A
RJ 45 dks vf/kdre use 10 base –T rFkk 100 Base –T X Ethernet connections ds lkFk fd;k tkrk gS A
RJ 45 essa total 8 pin gksrh gS A ftUgsa Pin 1 to Pin 8 ls tkuk tkrk gS

154
fp= fp= 17 17 & & RJ-45 Connector
1. Request to send
2. Data Terminal Ready
3. Ground
4. Transmit Data
5. Receive Data
6. Data carrier Detect
7. Data set ready
8. Clear to send
3) Ethernet Card –(NIC)
Ethernet card dks network interface card ¼NIC) Hkh dgk tkrk gS A Ethernet card hardware device ;k ,d izdkj
dk network adapter gksrk gS tks Ethernet standard ds high speed network connection dks support djrk gS A
Purpose :– Ethernet card dh lgk;rk ls ,d computer network ls communicate dj ldrk gS A ;g device
OSI Model esa layer 1 (Physical Layer) rFkk Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS A ;g MAC Addresses
dh lgk;rk ls Low Level addressing System iznku djrk gS A
MAC Addresses :– izR;sd Ethernet card dk unique 48 bit serial number gksrk gS A tks MAC Address
dgykrk gS A ;g MAC Address (IEEE) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers }kjk ekU;rk izkIr gS A
;g Card,Physical Layer rFkk data link layer standards }kjk required electronics circuitry dks implement djrk
gS A
fp= fp= 18 18 &usVodZ &usVodZ baVjQsl baVjQsl dkMZ
dkMZ
bl card esa RJ 45 ,BNL ;k Sockets cus gksrs gS tgka network cable dks connect fd;k tkrk gSA
bu card ij LED Hkh yxh gksrh gS tks ;g indicate djrh gS fd card ij yxk network active gS ;k deactive :
4½ Hub :-
Hub dks Ethernet hub ,active hub ;k repeater hub ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gS A
Hub ,d device gksrk gS tks multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices dks vkil esa tksMrk gS rFkk
bUgsa signle network segment Provide djrk gS A Hub OSI Model esa Layer 1 (Physical Layer) ij dk;Z djrk gS A
Hub ,d Multiport reporter dh rjg dk;Z djrk gS tks ,d computer ls izkIr data dks hub ls connected vU;
lHkh computer dks transmit djrk gS A

155
fp= fp= 19 19 & & gc
gc
D;ksafd hub vius ikl vk;s lHkh funsZ’k (data and information) dks lHkh computer dks transfer dj nsrk gS vr%
;g fdlh Hkh izdkj ls network transfer dks control ugha djrk gS A vr% hub ls cus network dh size rFkk ,d network
esa yxs maximum hub dh limit fix gksrh gS A vkt dy market esa dual speed hubs Hkh miyC/k gS tks fd switch dh
lgk;rk ls 10 Mbps dh speed iznku djrs gS A
(5) Switch :-
Switch dks network switch ;k switching hub ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gS A
Switch – Switch ,d computer networking device gS tks fofHkUu network
Computer (different computer & other devices) dks vkil esa connect djrk gS A
fp= fp= 20 20 & & 24 24 iksVZ iksVZ fLop fLop
fp= fp= 21 21 & & 48 48 iksVZ iksVZ fLop
fLop
Switch dh dh inks inks category cuk;h cuk;h tk tk ldrh ldrh gS gS A
A
1½ Network bridge
2½ Multi Switch
1½
1½ Network bridge :- os Switch tks OSI Model dh Layer 2 (data link Layer) ij data dh Processing
;k routing djrs gS A Network bridges dgykrs gS A
2½
2½ Multi Switch :- os Switch tks OSI Model dh Layer 3 (Network Layer) ;k above ij data dh Switching
djrs gS A Multi Layer switch dgykrs gS A
Switch dh working lk/kkj.k hub dh working ls vyx gksrh gS A tgka hub esa ,d source ls izkIr data ;k
information hub ls connected lHkh devices dks send dh tkrh gS ogha switch esa source computer ls izkIr data ;k
information destination address ds vuqlkj dsoy destination computer ;k destination device dks gh transmit dh tkrh
gS A Switch dh lgk;rk ls Network ds traffic dks Hkh control fd;k tk ldrk gS A OSI Model dh different layer
s ds vuqlkj fuEu Swithes miyC/k gS %
1) Layer 1 Switch
2) Layer 2 Switch
3) Layer 3 Switch

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4) Layer 4 Switch
5) Layer 7 Switch
bu lHkh switches dh working mudh layer ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx gksrh gS A
(6) Gate way:
Computer Network esa dke vkus okys devices tSls protocol translators ,Impedance Matching devices ,Rate
Coverters ,Fault Isolators ,signal Translators vkfn gateway dgykrs gS A
Generally Protocal Covertor dks Gate way dgk tkrk gS A
Protocal Convertor ,d device gksrk gS tks ,d protocol stack dks nwljs Protocal stack esa convert djrk gS
A
Protocal Convertor ,OSI Model dh lHkh Layers ij dk;Z dj ldrk gS A
Gate way ,d Network Ponit dh rjg gksrk gS A tks fd nwljs Network ds fy, entrance dh rjg dk;Z djrk
gS A Host computer ;k gateway fdlh Hkh Internet ds fy, node ;k stopping point dh rjg dk;Z djrs gS A
;fn nks ,sls networks dks vkil esa connect djuk gS tks fd vyx&vyx Protocol stack ij based gks rks muds
chp network gateway yxkuk vfrvko’;d gS A Example : Internet to bit Gateway .
Topology – (Network topology)
Network ;k computer Network: Different computer rFkk devices dk collection tks vkil esa interconnected gks,
,d nqljsa ls vusd channels ds }kjk communicate djrs gks rFkk users ds chp resources dh sharing iznku djrs gks
network ;k computer network dgykrk gSaA
Network topology: Network topology ,d layout pattern gksrk gS tks computer network ds fofHkUu elements dsa
chp interconnection dks n’kkZrk gSA
& (fofHkUu elements- different computers and other devices tks network esa connected gks)
& Network topology nks izdkj dh gks ldrh gSA
Physical topology, logical topology
& Physical topology dk vFkZ gS network dh physical design ftlesa different devices, mudh location rFkk cable
installation ‘’kkfey gSaA
& Logical topology dk vFkZ gS network esa data fdl izdkj transfer gksrk gSA
& Network topology fuEu izdkj dh gks ldrh gS&
1) Bus (point-to-multipoint) topology
2) Star topology
3) Tree topology
Bus topology:
& tc LAN esa bus topology use dh tkrh gS rks izR;sd machine single cable ds lkFk connected gksrh gSA
& izR;sd computer ;k server single cable ls fdlh izdkj ds connector ls connect gksrk gSA
& source computer ls Hkstk x;k signal nksuks fn’kkvksa es a bus cable ls connected lHkh computers dks tc rd
transmitte fd;k tkrk gS rc rd fd MAC address ;k IP address okyk destination computer mu signals dks receiver
u dj ysA
& D;ksafd bus topology esa dasoy ,d cable gh lHkh machines gks vkil esa connect djrh gS vr: ;g topology de
[kfpZyh gS, ysfdu dsoy ,d cable gksus dh otg ls [kjkc gksus ds chances Hkh c

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fp= 22 & cl VkWiksyksth
Star topology:
tc LAN esa star topology use dh tkrh gS rks izR;sd host ,d central hub ds }kjk connect gksrk gSA
izR;sd network host rFkk central hub ds chp point to point connection gksrk gS A
star topology esa fofHkUu computer ds chp transmitte fd;k x;k laiw.kZ data central hub ls gksdj xqtjrk gSA
Advantages :–
1) Star topology esa u;s computer dks connect djuk T;knk vklku gSA
2½ Design rFkk implementatioin esa ;g easisest topology gSA
Disadvantages :–
1) D;ksafd laiw.kZ data single hub ls gksdj tkrk gsS rks hub ds [kjkc gksus ls laiw.kZ networking can gks tkrh gS A
Star topology nks izdkj dh gksrh gS A
fp= fp= 23 23 & & LVkj LVkj VkWiksyksth
VkWiksyksth
Extended star,
Distributed star
Extended star topology :- ,slh star topology ftlesa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd hub gksrs gS tks central hub dh
rjg dk;Z djrs gS A vxj ;g hub [kjkc gks tk;s rks networking :d tkrh gS A
Distributed star topology :- ,slh star topology ftlesa ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd hub gksrs gS ysfdu dksbZ Hkh
hub,central hub dh rjg dk;Z ugha djrk gS A vr% fdlh ,d hub ds [kjkc gksus ls networking ij vlj ugha iMrk
gS a
Tree topology
Tree topology dks hierarchy Network ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gsS A
* Tree topology es ,d central root node gksrk gS A tks ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd nodes ls connected gksrk gS A
Root node ,top level of hierarchy rFkk connected nodes,one level of hierarchy dgykrs gS A bl izdkj nodes
ds chp ,d hierarchy maintain dh tkrh gS A
;s one ¼;k first½ level of hierarchy node ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd vU; nodes ls connected gksrs gS tks second level

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of hierarchy dgykrs gS A bl izdkj nodes ds chp ,d hierarchy maintain dh tkrh gSA
fp= fp= 24 24 & & Vªh Vªh VkWiksyksth
VkWiksyksth
Network dks tree topology esa connect djus ds fy, de ls de 3-level of hierarchy gksus t:jh gS D;kasfd
vxj dsoy ,d root of hierarchy gksus t:jh gS D;ksafd vxj dsoy ,d root node vksj ,d hierarchy gksxh rks og
topology,star topology dgyk;sxh A
Tree topology esa No.of nodes ,no. of hierarchy level ds cjkcj ;k de ugha gks ldrk gSA
Tree topology es a nks nodes ds chp cuus okys point to point connection dh la[;k Hkh total nodes dh la[;k
ls de gksuh pkfg, A
Tree topology esa nks lower nodes ds chp gksus okyk data transfer ,d higher level node las gksdj xqtjrk
gS A
Categories of Network :- dEI;wVj usVodZ dks mls nwjh ds vuqlkj oxhZd`r fd;k tk ldrk gS A ;s rhu rjg ds
gksrs gS
1) LAN – (Local Area Network) :- LAN esa fdlh guided media dk mi;ksx djds nks ;k nks ls vf/kd dEI;wVj
system dks HkkSkfrd :Ik ls tksMrs gS A ;g ,d izkbZosV usVodZ gS ftldks ge ,d building ;k company Campus ;k
College/University Campus esa Setup dj ldrs gS rFkk izkjafHkd es a LAN esa data transmission rate 4 to 16 Mbps gksrh
Fkh A vkt LAN ds }kjk fofHkUu Js.kh ds }kjk 10-100 Mbps rd lapkfyr gksrk gS A mnkgj.k LAN ds fofHkUu :i ls
10 Mbps ls 100 Gbps rd MkVk VªkalQj dj ldrs gS tSls & Ethernet,token bus ,token ring ,FDDI vkfn ds }kjk
ge ;g MkVk jsV achive djrs gS A
fp= fp= 25 25 & & & ykWdy ykWdy ykWdy ,fj;k ,fj;k usVodZ usVodZ
usVodZ
LAN Personal Computer rFkk workstation ds e/; fjlkslZ Harware,software rFkk data dks share dj ldrs
gS A fdlh Hkh system dks tksMus ds fy, system ,d Network Interface Card dh vko’;drk gksrh gS A ftlls RJ-
45 connector yxk jgrk gS a
MAN :- Metropolitan Area Network tks LAN rFkk WAN ds e/; dk Network gS A ;s Network ,d
city ;k town dks doj djrk gS A MAN Kilometer rd implement fd;k tk ldrk gS A ;g user dh high speed

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connectivity dh vko’;drk dks iwjk djrk gS A mnkgj.k % Telephone companies MAN dk ,d Hkkx gS tks user dks
high speed DSL Line miyC/k djokrh gS A bles a Transsmission media ds :i esa Coaxial cable dk mi;ksx dh tkrh
gS A Mostly MAN internet ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS A ftlesa ISP (Internet Services Provider) viuh services dks enduser
rd MAN ds }kjk iznku djrk gS A tSls DSL ,Lease line rFkk Fibre optics Lines vkfn
WAN : Wide Area Network :- ;g Network iwjs Geographical Area dks cover djrk gS A bls nks rjg ds Network
esa oxhZd`r fd;k tk ldrk gS A
1½ Switched WAN
2½ Point to Point WAN
Switched WAN :- tks end system dks tksMrk gS rFkk lkekU;r% Router rFkk Switched dk mi;ksx djrs gq,
fofHkUu LAN s rFkk WAN’s dks tksMrk gS A
Point to Point WAN :- ;g end system dks ISPs dh ykbZu ls fofHkUu izdkj ds LANs vkSj MANs dks tksMrk
gS A
fp= fp= 26 26 & & okbZM okbZM ,fj;k ,fj;k usVodZ usVodZ
usVodZ
PROTOCOLS
Computer Communication esa ,d system ls nwljs system rd data transfer djus ds fy, ;k nks ikfVZ;ksa ds e/
; lwpuk vknku&iznku djus ds fy, muds e/; interface gksuk vko’;d gS A vr% data ;k information tranasfer djus
ds fy, bl concept dh vko’;drk gksrh gS ftls Protocal dgrs gS A
Defination: - Protocol is a setup of rules and regulation of transmission of data .
Protocal :- lwpuk ;k MkVk dks transfer djus dk rules and regulation dk laxzg gksrk gS A
Protocal : ds fuEu vo;o gksrs gS
1) Syntax
2) Semantic
3) Timing
Syntax :- ;g data dks represent djus dk structure vkSj format gksrk gS A ftldks nwljs system follow djus
gS A tSls ,d eSlst infamas esaa first 8-bit data receiver dk address j[krk gS A ckdh information dh rjg gksrh gS A
Semantic :- ;g information bits dks interpret djus ds fu;e ifjHkkf"kr djrk gS A
Timing :- ;g protocol dh sending vkSj receive speed dks define djrk gS A
ISO/OSI Model :- ISO reference modal 1984 esa ,d ;wjksi dh international organization for standardization
}kjk cuk;k x;k aA blesa 7 Layer architecture cuk;k ftlls izR;sd Layer nwljh Layer dks serivces iznku djrh gS
A bls ge OSI open system interconnection Hkh dgrs gS A
Physical Layer :- ;g Layer lcls uhps jgrh gS A ftl ij Physical media connected jgrk gS A ;g Layer
data bits stream dh electrical signal esas ifjofrZr dj mls physical media raw bits transfer djrh gS A
1½ Physical media dks devices ls interface djokrh gS A ;g ys;j Physical ehfM;k dh define djrh gS A
2½ Data dks bit dh form esa iznf’kZr dj tks ,d 0 o 1 dh stream curh gS vkSj bls electrical form esa physical
media ij Hkstrh gS A
3½ Data rate : ;g ys;j transmission dh data rate dks ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A vFkkZr~ ;g Layer define djrh gS

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dh per second fdruh bit transmit djuh gS A
4½ Physical Layer line configuration tSls Pont to Point connection ,multi point commed rFkk share link cukuk
gS A
5½ ;g layer data transmission os rjhds Hkh ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A tSls data simplex mode ,Half duplex,full
duplex,mode vkfn A
fp= 27 & ISO/OSI Layer Models
Data Link layer : - ;g 2 uEcj dh ijr gS A ;g MkVk dh error free cukrh gSA bllas fuEu dk;Z gksrs gS:-
1½ Forming :- Data link Layer vius Åij dh layer tks network layer gksrh gS A mlls data stream ysrh gS vkSj
fuf’pr bits dk group cukrh gssS A ftUgsa frame dgk tkrk gS a
Physical addressing :- ;g ys;j destination dk physical address header ds :i esa MkVk ds lfgr attach
djrh gS A ftlls ;g fuf’pr gksrk gS fd packets ;k frame ckgjh network dk gS ;k leku Network dk gS aA
Flow of Control : TData ds flow dks control djrk gS A Sender dh data rate rFkk receiver dh data
rate ls de gS rks data rate dks manage djrh gS A
Error Control :- data dks fo’oluh;rk ls VªkalQj djrs ds fy, Data link layer mrnk;h gksrh gS A ;fn dksbZ
frame damage gks tkrk gS ;k [kks tkrk gS rks data link layer mldks recognize djrh gS rFkk re-transmission djrh
gS a
Network:- source ls destinatioin system ds e/; packet dk Vªkalfe’ku dh ftesnkjh network layer dh gksrh
gS A bl ys;j dk dk;Z network ij packet dh delivery reliabitly ds lkFk VªkalfeV djus dk gS A fuEu dk;Z djrh gsS &
1½ Logical addressing :- Physical address pakets dk data link layer ifjHkkf"kr djrh gS A ;fn packet ,d
network boundry ls ikj gksrk gS rks physical address implement djus esas ck/kk vkrh gS rks network physical address dks
change dj ,d logical address implement djrk gS A
2½ Routing :- nks ;k nks ls vf/kd network dk lewg gks rks mUgsa tksMus ds fy, network
Device router dk mi;ksx ysrs gS tks packet dks travel@tkus dk iFk iznku djrk gS A Destination rd igqapus
dk path network layer }kjk device fd;k tkrk gS A
Transport Layer :- ;g protocol dh fourth layer gS tks message dks process to process deliver djus dk
mrjnk;h gksrh gS A Process ,d aplication gksrh gS tks source machine ;k ,d system ij fu"ikfnr gksrh gS A ftl
izdkj network layer ,d packet dh deliver djus dk dk;Z djrh gS mlh rjg transport layer iwjs message dks delivery
ds fy, mrjnk;h gksrh gS A
dk;Z dk;Z %
%
1- Service point addressing :- Computer izk;% cgqr ls program ,d lkFk run ¼fu"kikfnr½ djrk gS A vr%

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transport layer ,d fdlh process dks ,d dEI;wVj ls nwljs dEI;wVj ij VªkalQj djrk gS A ftldh entry transport layer
leader esa gksrh gS ftldks Service point address dgrs gS A
2- Connection Control :
;g ijr connection oriented vkSj connectionless approach provide djkrh gS A Connection oriented igys
destinatioin ls dusD’ku session cukrk gS rFkk packet dks transfer djus ds ckn Ssession dks terminal djrk gS A
3- Segmentation and reassembly :- Message dks ;g ijr Segment esas ckaVrh gSAgj Segment dk ,d
sequence number gksrk gS ftlls receiver system dks transport layer bl segaments dss sequence number ds vuqlkj
O;ofLFkr dj message dks receive djrs gS A
Session Layer :- ;g Layer Physical layer dks viuh services iznku djrh gS bls network Mk;yksx daVªksyj Hkh
dgrs gS A ;fn communication system ds e/; interaction cukrk gS A Maintain djrk gS rFkk muds e/; flUØksukbatsD’ku
djrk gS A
Presentation Layer : ;g Layer Commicatioin system ds data format,syntax o semantx dh information dks
exchange djrh gS A
Application Layer :- ;g Layer user rFkk system ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A interface djus ds chp
interfacing djokrk gS A Interface djus ds fy, vU; protocols dh lgk;rk ysrs gS A tSls E-mail,FTP,HTTP telenet,SMTP
rFkk DNS Service dk mi;ksx dj ;wtj rFkk communication entity ds e/; Bridge cukrs gS A
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocal :- ;g pkj ys;j protocol gS A fp=kuqlkj blesa igyh layer physical layer gksrh gS
tks ISO model dh layer rFkk ys;j 2 fey dj TCP/IP refernce ekWMy dh Physical layer curh gS A (ISO ds layer 2
ds Functions esa i

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12½ Error Control :- data dks fo’oluh;rk ls VªkalQj djrs ds fy, Data link layer mrnk;h gksrh gS A ;fn dksbZ
frame damage gks tkrk gS ;k [kks tkrk gS rks data link layer mldks recognize djrh gS rFkk re-transmission djrh
gS a
Network Layer : TCP/IP internet work yksdy ,fj;k usVodZ ;k okbZM ,fj;k usVodZ gks ldrk gSA TCP/IP dh
usVodZ ys;j dks fuEu izksVksdkWy Support djrs gS %
1½ IP baaVjusV izksVksdkWy
2½ ARP Address resolution protocol
3½ RARP Reverse address Resolution
4½ ICMP internet control message Protocal
5) IGMP-Internet Group Message Protocal
IP : iSdsV dks vyx&vyx :V ls Hkstrk gS rFkk bl isdsV dks datagram dgrs gS rFkk ARP vkSj RARP nksuks
Protocals yksftdy rFkk fQftdy addrss dk duotZu djrs gS A ICMP IGMP nks vyx&vyx usVodZ ij Vªkalfe’ku
esa help djrk gS A
Transport Layer :- Transport Layer message dh delivery djus dk mrjnk;h gksrk gs A blesa nks izdkj ds
izksVksdky gksrs gS A
1½ TCP (Transmission control protocol)
2½ UDP (User datagram Protocal)
TCP izksVksdkWy Connection oriented izksVksdky gksrk gS ftlesa Packets/Datagram dks VªkalfeV ds fy, Physical
connectioin cukrk gS rFkk data dk Vªkalfe’ku ds ckn connection dks VfeZusV Hkh djrk gS A UDP izksVksdky Connectionless
approach gksrh gS A ftlesa datagram dk broadcasting djrs gS A Port number ds vuqlkj datagram igqaWprk gS A
Application :- ;g Layer user rFkk system ds chp interfacing djokrk gS A interface djus ds chp interfacing
djokrk gS A Interface djus ds fy, vU; protocols dh lgk;rk ysrs gS A tSls E-mail,FTP,HTTP telenet,SMTP rFkk DNS
Service dk mi;ksx dj ;wtj rFkk communication entity ds e/; Bridge cukrs gS A
fp= fp= 28 28 & & TCP/IP Protocol Layers
FTP (file Transfer Protocal )
;g Protocal ,d e’khu ls nwljh e’khu ij QkbZy transfer djus ds fy, dke vkrk gS A ;g izksVksdky QkbZy VªkalQj
djus dh izfØ;k crkrk gS A TCP/IP supported usVodZ ij QkbZy VªkalQj lkekU;r% ;s protocol dke vkrk gS A FTP dykbaV
loZj ls vyx gksrk gs ;g protocol nksuksa remote machine ds chp nks izdkj ds connection cukrk gS A ,d cata ttransfer
djus ds fy, rFkk nwljk daVªksy information j[krk gS A connection dk session izkjaHk rFkk terminate ij control djrk gS
A FTP data ds fy, port number 20 rFkk 21 port No. control connection ds fy, use gksuk data connection izR;sd
file ds transfer ds fy, open rFkk close gksus rd data connectioin dbZ ckj open o close gks ldrk gS A bldks access

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djus ds fy, fdlh machine ds exploer ds address bar esa ftp:// navigate djus ij oks user
rFkk password ds fy, prompt djrk gS A fQj ge windows ds normal operation dj ldrs gS A Public data ds fy,
user name rFkk password dh vko’;drk ugha A
fp= 29 & QkbZy VªkalQj izksVksdkWy
Telnet :-
;g izksVksdky user dks nwljh machine ij logic djus esas lgk;rk djrk gS A Telenet – Tel- telecommunication rFkk
net –network ls fy;k x;k gS A bls network terminal protocol Hkh dgrs gS A tks internet ;k yksdy ,fj;k network
dk mi;ksx djrs gq, remote ,machine ij login djrk gS A ;g TCP/IP protocol supported user dks login djrk gS A
VsyusV ,d client server izksVksdky gS tks TCP ij vk/kkfjr gS A Client lkekU;r% port 23 ij host ;g service provide
djrk gS A
usVodZ esa security gksuk t:jh gS A vr% internet ;k public network ij telnet dk mi;ksx ugha djuk pkfg, D;kasafd
;g inecrupted session create djrk gS A
user fdlh remote machine dks access ds fy, command prompt ij ;k run tab ij tkdj fuEu command line
use djrs gS A
>telnet < host IP address>
;g user name rFkk password rFkk switch ds configure ;k setup djus ds fy, mi;ksx gksrk gS A User Logoff ;k
Logout command ls session lekIr dj ldrs gS A
fp= 30 & VsyusV izksVksdkWy
Point –to- Point Protocol (PPP) :lkekU;rk%
;g izksVksdkWy Dedicated iFk ds }kjk nks ;k nks vf/kd usVodZ dks tksMus ds fy, dke vkrk gSA orZeku esa
bldk mi;ksx VsyhQksu ykbZu ls dEI;wVj baVjusV pykus ds fy, use fd;k tkrk gS A blds fy, PPP Protocol dks Install
fd;k tkrk gS A Mk;y&vi dusD’ku bldk ,d mnkgj.k gS A fuEu inksa ls baVjusV dusDV dj ldrs gS A
1- Dial-up vkbZdkWu ij fDyd djrs gS A
2- Internet service Provider dk No. Dial djrs gS A
3- Login name vkSj Password Mkyrs gS A

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4- Password verify gksus ds ckn internet izkjaHk gksrk gS A
Internet : Internet, Internetwork ’kCn dk short form gSA Internet dks WWW ;k World Wide Web ds uke ls Hkh
tkuk tkrk gSA
Internet : Internet different networks dk network network gS tks millions of computers dks vkil esa
connect djrk gSA ;k millions of computers,100 ls vf/kd countries esa QSys gS tks data, news rFkk opinions dk
vknku iznku djrs gSA
Internet esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dk centralized control ugha gSA vr: internet dh design decentralized izdkj
dh gSA Internet ls connect izR;sd computer dks host, end system, end point dgrs gSA
Internet ds fy, standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) Transmission Control Protocil/Internet
Protocol dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Internet ds }kjk world ds dbZ private, public, academic, business rFkk
government network vkil esa connected gSA
Internet ds }kjk use vkus okyh common services fuEu gS&
WEBSITES BLOGGING
Instant Messaging Internet Forums
Social Networking Online Shopping
Supply Chains Business to- Business Services
Financial services
Internet ij gksus okyk lEiw.kZ dk;Z websites ds }kjk gksrk gS rFkk fdlh Hkh website dks internet ij run djus ds fy,
fuEu vko’;drk gksrh gSA
1) Domain Name System: Website dk uke tks fd WWW. ls izkjaHk gksrk gSA
2) IP Address: Internet Protocol Address tks fd fdlh Hkh computer dk iqjs world esa unique no. gksrk gSA
;g vko’;drk ISP (Internet Service Provider) }kjk iw.kZ dh tkrh gSA ISP izR;sd website dks URL (Unifrom
Resource Locator) iznku djrk gS tks fd Domain name system (DNS) }kjk website ds uke ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA
Mobile communication: 19 ’knkCrh esa igyh mobile services develop gqbZZA;g services cgqr fuEu quality rFkk
poor speed quality de {kerk dh FkhA Mobile comm. ,dy mPp {kerk dk VkUlehVj rFkk mPPksa Vkoj ij ,sfUVuk dsa }kjk
achieve fd;k x;kA 1970 vkSj 1980 esa mobile system NksaVk rFkk de otuh vkSj sophisticated gks x;kA blsa mobile
communication dh nqfu;k esa bls first generator dgk x;k (1 G) ftUgsa AMPS dgk tkrk gSaA
Cellular system ds a vHkko: fn;s x;s a fp=kuqlkj (MS) & Mobile station: ;g mobile handset gks ark gSa] tks nqljs a userdsa
lkFk communicate (lEizs.k) djus ds fy, mi;ksx djrs gSaA
Cell: izR;sd eksckby lsok dk ,d {ks= gksrk gSa ftls cell dgk tkrk gSaA lkekU;r: 5-20 km gksrk gSaA
Base station: izR;sd cell ds ikl ,d ,fUVuk Vkoj gksrk gSa tks NksVs vkWfQlks }kjk dUVªksy fd;k tkrk gSA
MSC (Mobile switching center): lHkh base station ,d cMs office center ds }kjk dUVªksy fd;s tkrs gSA ftUgs
eksckby fLofpxa lsUVj dgrs gSA
Mobile system transmitting and receiving: fdlh Hkh call dks transmit djus ds fy, fuEu in follow djrs gSaA
dkyWj 10 vdksa dk code (phone-number) nckdj send cVu nckdj gSaA
MS (Mobile system): [kkyh lksuy dks Ldsu djds mles strong signal Hkst dj number send djrk gSAA
Base LVs’ku uEcj dks eksckby fLofpxa lsUVj ¼MSC) dks Hkst nsark gSA
eksckby system ds }kjk dUVªksy psuy dh lgk;rk ls eksckby identification uEcj cks zM dkLV djrk gSA bls paging
dgrs gSA
MS dks reverse channel ds }kjk respond djrk gSaA
BS MSC dks ,d acknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS nksuks ds e/; handshaking ds cknA
MSC: ;s fdlh [kkyh channel dks call assign dj nsrk gS vkSj call connect gks tkrh gSA
Receiving : lHkh mobile station paging flXuy dks detect djrs jgrs gSA
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) :-
GSM ,d digital lsywyj dE;wfuds’ku system fo’o dk ekud gS ftles fuEu rhu system gksrs gksA1.

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Switching system: bl Hkkx esa GSM dsa CALL vkSj user ds functions vkrs gS tks fuEu izdkj ls gSA
Subscriber ds data dh permanently laxzfgr djrk gS A
nwljs VsyhQksu system dks tks call djus rFkk call receive djus okyksa dks da aVªksy djrk gS A
;g system eksckbZ Qhy user dh nwljs network agnet vFkkZr~ rorming lsok Hkh iznku djrk gS A
;g user dh user dh igpku dk authentication iznku djrk gS
;g [kjkc mobile station rFkk unauthorized user ds dkWYl dks ckf/kr djrk gS A
2.Base System : - bl system lHkh radio wave ds lacaf/kr lHkh dk;Z fuEu nks inksa ds }kjk fd;s tkrs gS %
1. Base station controller (BSC)
2. Base transceiver station (BTS)
1. BSC: lHkh daVªksy QD’ku rFkk Physical fyDal tks mobile swithing centre rFkk BTS ds e/; gksrk gS iznku djrk
gS A
2. BTS & ;g system eksckby station ds e/; interface dks handle djrk gS A budk xzqi BSC daaVªksy djrk gS A
budk eq[; dk;Z call dks handover djuk gS rFkk ekscy configuration data j[kuk rFkk radio frequency dks daVªksy djrk
gS A
3. Operation and support system :- bl Hkkx es a cellular network dh daVªksfyax rFkk eksfuVfjax gksrh gS A ;g usVodZ
dk overview iznku djrk gS rFkk fofHkUu operation dk GSM vyx&vyx HkkSxksfyd {kS= dk ,d cell cukrk gS tks fd
,d CGI }kjk igpkuk tkrk gS A CGI (Cell Gloal Idenlity) number fn;k tkrk gS bl cell ds xz zqi ds }kjk Locatiion iznku
dh tkrh gS
Mobile system transmitting and receiving
fdlh Hkh cell dks transmit djus ds fy, fuEu in follow djrs gS
dkWyj 10 vadksa dks code (Phone-number) send cVu nckrk gS A Ms (mibile system) [kkyh pSuy dh Ldsy djds
mles strong signal Hksatdj number send djrk gS
Base LVs’ku uEcj dks eksckby fLofpax lsaaVj (MSC) dks Hkst nsrk gS A
MSC ;g call lHkh base flLVe dks Hkst nsrk gS A
Eksckby system ds }kjk respond djrk gS A
BS MSC dks ,d aacknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS A nksuksa ds e/; handshaking ds ckn
MSC ;s fdlh [kkyh channel dks call assign dj nsrk gS vkSj call connect gks tkrh gS A
fp= 31 &GSM Communicatioin
Receving:
1.lHkh mobile station paging flXuy dh detect djrs jgrs gS A
2- isftax ds ckn MSC dks fjlhoj acknowledgement Hkst nsrk gS A
3- nksuksa MSCs handshaking dj nksuksa mobile dks connect dj nsrk gS A
Modem dks generally mudh speed ds vuqlkj ckaVk tkrk gS Modem dh speed dk vFkZ gS fn;s x;s le; varjky
esa modem }kjk transfer fd;s x;s data dk amount ftldh unit bit per second ;k bps gksrh gS A
Other exmple of modem –
Narrow –band modem (phone line dia up modem)

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Broad –band modem
Mobile Modems & Router
Radio Modems
GSM fuEu fuEu izdkj izdkj ds ds lsoka, lsoka, iznku iznku djrk djrk gS gS %
%
Voice mail
Short Message services
Braod casting
Fax mail
Call Farwarding,call hold,call waiting
Closed user fgroup etc.
DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency)
CDMA
CDMA code divison multiple access tks fofHkUu jsfM;ks rduhd dk mi;ksx dj mPp ekud ij pSuy dk
mi;ksx djrk gSaA
,d physical chennal ij multiple user dks channel dks mi;ksx djus dh lsok iznku djrk gSA blesa og fofHkUu izdkj
dh fo’ks"k dksfMxa Ldhe dh eYVhIysfDlax dj vftZr djrk gSA
tSls TDMA (time divison multiple access) tks time dks ckVrh gSaA FDMA (Frequency divison multiple access)
tks LisDVªe dh frequency dks ckVrk gks mlh izdkj CDMA ,d signaling dh form esa gksrk gS tks mPp MkVk jsV vkSj
csUMfoMFk ij dke djrk gSA
CDMA MkbjsDV sequence LizsM LisDVªe ij vk/kkfjr gSA
pSuy dk separation G chip ds }kjk fd;k tkrk gS rks gj pSuy dks ,d code ns nsrs gSA
bldk mi;ksx feyVjh esa usfoxs’ku ds fy, rFkk (GPS) Global Positiong esa System esa mi;ksx ysrs gSaA
WLL
WLL dk vFkZ gS& wireless local loop ;g service PSTN tks ?kjksa esa telephone landline phone ls a wireless services
fix djrk gS tks subscriber loop dks landline dks radio system ds lkFk tks+Mrk gSA ;g telephone connection dks fcuk cable
ds access djus dh lsok iznku sjrk gSA
WLL ,d lEizs"k.k dh fof/k gSa tks radio rjaxksa dk user rFkk service provider ds e/; transmission djrh gS ctk,
copper wire ;k optical Qkbcj dsA
WLL landline pphone lsa vPNh okW;l xq.kork iznku djusa ds fy, cuk;k x;k gSA
Wireless local loop esa ESAT business vf/kd re 6 Mbps (2 Mbps ds xq.kkad) esa iznku djrk gSA
fp= fp= 32 32 & & ok;jysl ok;jysl ykWdy ykWdy ywi
ywi
WLL dsa dsa ykHk ykHk: ykHk
;g ,d ls vf/kd services delivered djrk gSaA
;g nqljh wireless lsokvksa lsa de dher ij available gksrk gSA
;g vf/kd ek=k esa MkVk transfer djus ds dke esa vkrk gSA tSls IP rFkk Qzse fjys
;g LAN rFkk internet; enternet vkSj wide area network dks c

167
deploy dh xbZ gSA tSls bZ&yfuZx LVksd vuarj.k vkfnA;g 3Mbps rd dh data rate rd downloading speed iznku djrk
gS tks 2G technology ls vR;f/kd gSA ;g rduhd CDMA rduhd ij vk/kkfjr gS rFkk 2G orZeku esa GSM TDMA (IS-
136) rFkk CDMA (IS-45A) ekud ij vk/kkfjr gS ftlesa FkksMk vf/kd rduhd lq/kkj ls 2.5G esa GPRS rFkk EDGE
CDMAone (IS-95B) fd;k bu lHkh rduhdks ds lkFk 3G ekud esa W-CDMA, CDMA-2000, UWC-136 TD-CDMA/
TD-SCDMA, DECT technology dksa tksMk x;k gSA
fp= 33 & eksckbZy ihf

168
fp= 35 & ‘’kksVZ eslst lfoZlst iz.kkyh
Voice mail
Voice mail lsok ls ge communication dks 24 & ?kaVs online jg ldrs gSA ;g ,d mail box iznku djrk gSA ;fn ge
telephone ls fdlh dkWy dks receive ugha dj ikrs gS rks ;g caller dks ,d voice message record dk option iznku djrk
gS ftlesa caller viuk message NksM nsrk gSA tc Hkh ge phone mi;ksx djrs gS rks gesa voice message dk indication nsrk
gS vkSj mls ge play dj lqu ldrs gSA
;g answer machine dh rjg gksrk gS rFkk service provider ds loZj ij ,d memory LFkku gksrk gS tgkWa caller viuk
message save dj ldrk gSA voice mail fuEu izdkj dh lsok iznku djrk gS&fdlh vU; mail box message forward dj
ldrs gSA
fdlh Hkh voice message dks broadcast dj ldrs gSA
,d lkFk ,d lsa vf/kd O;fDr dks message send dj ldrs gSA
;s message vius storage ;qfDr ij Hkh save dj ldrs gSA
Electonic –Mail ( E-mail) :-
;g services baVjusV lfoZl izksokbMj (Provider) }kjk iznku dh tkrh gS A User viuk VsDlV Meassage dh
edit dj mls internet ij ,d e-mail address ij Hkstrk gS A ;g text message electronic signal es a ifjofrZr gksdj usVodZ
ij VªkalQj gks tkrk gs A bl lsok dks electronic mail dgrs gS A ;g ,d dusD’ku jfgr lsok gS tks TCP/IP Suite dk
mi;ksx djrh gS rFkk information packet ds :i esa VªkalfeV gksrh gS A blesa sender rFkk receiver nksuks ds ikl ,d email
address gksuk pkfg, A tks mail server ij viuk account jftLVj djuk gksrk gS A User dh lkjh lwpuk rFkk
muds esu MkVk bl mail server ij jgrk gsS A
Example : yahoo mail,G-mail.hotmail vkfn mail server lkekU;rk use gksrs gS A bu server ij igys user viuk
,dkmaVs aV cukrk gS rFkk ,d mailing address pqurk gS A
tSls sunayna@gmail.com / dishita_vipin@gmail.com vkSj server ij jftLVj gks tkrk gS A server email
address rFkk password iznku djrk gS A tks user dh lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij gksrk gS A bl ID rFkk Password ls Login
dj e-mail Hkst ldrk gS A
ykHk % Speed – E-mail ds VªkalQj cgqr gh rst xfr ls gksrk gS A dqN gh seconds esa message raceiver ds ikl
igqap tkrk gS A
2½ Low cost : bl dh dksbZ cost ugha yxrh gS iajrq tc internet pykrs gS rks mldk cost yxrk gS A
3½ ;g isij jfgr okrkoj.k iznku djrk gS A
CHAT
bls ge online textual talk Hkh dgrs gS A ;g e-mail communication ls csgrj lapkj gS A bles a sender vkSj receiver
nksuksa vkWu&ykbu VsDlV dh VªkalQj djrs gS A nks ,d nwljs ls Half duplex mode esa ,d user data transfer djrk gS
A ckn esa nwljh vkSj text type djds send djrk gS A Internet dusD’ku ds ckn chating lkWQVos;j dh vko’;drk jgrh
gs tSls yahoo messenger,gtalk,msn messenger etc vkfn vktdy bldk mi;ksx fjlpZ odZ ds fy, djrs gS A Problem
discussion / solution Internet chat ds }kjk gh gksrs gS A
Video Conferencing (VC):- fofM;ksas dkWUQzsfU’kax ,d ohfM;ksa ds leku yksdfiz; gSA ftlesa ge fo’o esa dgha ij
Hkh call dj ldrs gS A ftl ij u dsoy ge cksy gh ugha ldrs cfYd ckrphr ds nkSjku LCD ;k monitor ij ge ns[k
Hkh ldrs gS ftl rjg vktdy BSNL dh 3G lsok esa Video call esa gksrk gS A vFkkZr~ fo’o esa fdlh ls real-time connect
djrk gS rFkk blesa dksbZ ck/;rk ugha vkrh gS tSls nwjh]lhek]le; vkfn A
Video Conferencing esa nksuks user ds ikl monitor ,headphone rFkk web camera gksuk vko’;d gS rFkk high
speed internet line dh vko’;drk gS A
;g lsok fctusl esas cgqr mi;ksxh gksrh gS A ehfVax :e esa VC equipment yxs jgrs gSA tSls POLYCOM System
vkrk gS A ftlls video conferencing laHko gS A blesa ,d web camera yxk jgrk gS tks specific angles ij ?kqe ldrk

169
gS rFkk speaker rFkk ohfM;ksas monitor ;k LCD vkSj ,d caller yxk jgrk gS A
,d le; esas ge dbZ ¼Location) LFkkuksa ij VC connect djds czksMdkfLVax dh tk ldrh gS A
ykHk ykHk % % & &
&
1- fdlh Hkh O;fDr dh vfr’kh?kz ftlesas le;]LFkku dk dksbZ egRo ugha gS
2- Video conferencing dbZ LFkkuksa ij ,d lkFk conversation dj ldrk gS A
3- blesa ,d virtual white board ftl ij yksx vius&vius LFkkuksa ls vius fopkj fy[k
ldrs gS A
4-VC ds }kjk power point presentation dk foT;wvy fMLiys ds }kjk izR;sd lgHkkxh dk /;ku [khaprk gS A
gkfu gkfu: gkfu
;g facility egaxh gksrh gSaA ;fn lLrs a easa bls mi;ksx djrs gSa vFkkZr vPNsa quality ds equipments rHkk ISAN line
ugha gksrs fofM;ks rFkk vkWfM;ks dh xq.kork esa dHkh gksrh gSa ftlls vPNsa rjg lsa lEizs"k.k ugha gks ikrk gSaA
dqN rjhds tks O;fDr nqjh ds lkFk vPNs ls O;Dr ugha dj ikrs gSaA tc vki dejs esa cSBs gS rFkk presentation nsa jgsa
gks lqUus okyks ls vkidk eyes contact ugha gks ikrk gS tks ge web cam lsa izkIr dj ldrs gSaA
NETWORK SECURITY :-
Data transfer djus ds fy, ge transmission media mi;ksx djrs gS rFkk ,d computer ls nqljs computer ij MkVk
dks Hkstrs gS rFkk bu nks computer ds vykok vU; O;fDr bu MkVk dks access dj ldrk gSA vr: gesa computer network
ij MkVk dh security vko’;d gksrh gSA
ok;jl ok;jl : Computer virus
,d ok;jl [kqn dks nksgjkus okyk ,d izksxzke gS tks fdlh vU; fØ;kUo;u&;ksX; dksM ;k nLrkostksa esa Lo;a dh
izfr;ksa dks izfo"V djds QSyrk gSA vr% ,d dEI;wVj ok;jl Hkh Lo;a dh thfor dksf’kdkvksa esa izfo"V djds QSyusokys fdlh
tSfod ok;jl dh rjg gh dk;Z djrk gSA gkykafd buesa ls dqN gkfujfgr gksrs gSa ;k dsoy >kalk nsus ds fy, cuk, tkrs
gSa] ysfdu vf/kdka’k dEI;wVj ok;jlksa dks nqHkkZoukiw.kZ ekuk tkrk gSA
oeZ oeZ : Computer worm
fdlh ok;jl dh rjg] ,d oeZ Hkh Lo;a dks nksgjkus okyk ,d izksxzke gksrk gSA ,d oeZ fdlh ok;jl ls bl :i
esa vyx gS fd ;g iz;ksDrk ds n[ky ds fcuk gh dEI;wVj usVodksZ ij izlkfjr gksrk gSA ,l ok;jl ds foijhr bls Lo;a dks
fdlh iwoZ fufeZr izksxzke ds lkFk tksM+us dh vko’;drk ugha gksrhA cgqr ls yksx Þok;jlÞ vkSj ÞoeZÞ ’kCnkofy;ksa dks feyk
nsrs gSa vkSj Lor% izlkfjr gksus okys fdlh Hkh izksxzke dk o.kZu djus ds fy, bu nksuksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSaA
Vªkstu Vªkstu gkWlZ gkWlZ : Trojan horse
dkssbZ Vªkstu gkWlZ ,d ,slk izksxzke gksrk gS] tks dksbZ ,d dk;Z djrk gqvk fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] tcfd okLro esa og dksbZ
vU; dk;Z dj jgk gksrk gSA ,d Vªkstu gkWlZ dk iz;ksx fdlh dEI;wVj ra= ds fy, ,d xqIr }kj dh LFkkiuk djus ds fy,
fd;k tk ldrk gS] rkfd dksbZ ?kqliSfB;k ckn esa vfHkxe izkIr dj ldsA ¼;g uke j{kdksa dks /kks[kk nsdj vUnj ?kqliSB djus
ds vo/kkj.kkRed :i ls leku dk;Z okys Vªkstu ;q) ds ?kksM+s ls fy;k x;k gSA½
,aVh ,aVh ,aVh Likbos;j Likbos;j izksxzke
izksxzke
,aVh Likbos;j izksxzke Likbos;j ls nks rjhdksa ls eqdkcyk dj ldrh gS &
1- os Likbos;j lkWVos;j dks vkids dEI;wVj es a bLVkWy djus ls okLrfod le; lqj{kk iznku dj ldrs gSA bl rjg
ds Likbos;j lqj{kk mlh rjg ls dk;Z djrs gSa ftl rjg ,aVh ok;jl lqj{kk djrk gSA
2- ,aVh Likbos;j lkWVos;j izksxzke dk mi;ksx ,sls fdlh Likbos;j lkWVos;j dk irk yxkus ;k mls nwj djus ds
fy, fd;k tk ldrk gSA tks vkids dEI;wVj ij baLVkWy fd;k x;k gSA vkerkSj ij bl rjg ds Likbos;j lqj{kk dk mi;ksx
djuk cgqr vklku gS vkSj ;s cgqr yksdfiz; gSaA bl Likbos;j lqj{kk lkWVos;j vki lkIrkfgd] nSfud ;k ekfld rkSj ij
vkids dEI;wVj dks LdSu dj mlesa bLVkWy fd, x, fdlh Likbos;j lkWVos;j dk mldk irk yxkus vkSj dEI;wVj ls mls
nwj djus ds dke ij yxk ldrs gSaA
3- bl rjg ds izksxzke Windows iathdj.k lkefxz;ksa] izpkyu ra= Qkbyksa vkSj baLVkWy fd, x, izksxzke dk fujh{k.k
djrk gS vkSj Qkbyksa vkSj izfof"V;ksa tks Likbos;j ?kVdksa dh lwph ls esy [kk tk,] mUgsa nwj djrk gSA
Likbos;j
Likbos;j
LikbZos;j ekyos;j dk ,d izdkj gS tks dEI;wVj ij baLVkWy fd;k tkrk gS vkSj mi;ksxrkZvksa dh xSj tkudkjh esa
muds ckjs esa lwpuk,a ,d= fd;k djrk gSA Likbos;j dh mifLFkfr vkerkSj ij mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls fNih gksrh gSA Likbos;j
’kCn ls irk pyrk gS fd ;g ,d lkWVos;j gS tks mi;ksxrkZ ds dEI;wVj ij xqIr :i ls fuxjkuh j[krk gS] tcfd Likbos;j
dk dke egt fuxjkuh ls Hkh dgha T;knk gSA Likbos;j fofHkUu izdkj dh O;fDrxr tkudkjh bdV~Bk djrk gS tSls fd baVjusV
lfQZax dh vknrsa vkSj ftu lkbVksa ij tk;k tkrk gSA exj] Likbos;j vfrfjDr lkWVos;j baLVkWy djds vkSj osc czkmtj dks

170
iqu% funsZf’kr djus tSls vU; rjhdksa ls mi;ksxdrkZ ds dEI;wVj ds fu;a=.k esa Hkh gLr{ksi dj ldrk gS] ftlls dusD’ku dh
xfr] vyx&vyx gkseist dh xfr vkSj baVjusV ;k vU; izksxzkeks a dh dk;Z{kerk /kheh gks tkrh gSA
laØe.k laØe.k ds ds jkLrs
jkLrs
Likbos;j ok;jl ;k oeZ ds :i esa lh/ks fdlh dEI;wVj esa ugha QSyrkA vkerkSj ij laØfed iz.kkyh nwljs dEI;wVj
esa lapkfjr gksus dk iz;kl ugha djrh gS] blds ctk;] Likbos;j mi;ksxrkZ dh detksfj;ksa ds ek/;e ls ;k lkWVos;j dh Hks|rk
ds nksgu ds ek/;e ls iz.kkyh ij gkoh gksrk gSA
T;knkrj Likbos;j mi;ksxdrkZ dh tkudkjh ds cxSj baLVkWy fd, tkrs gSaA pwafd os Likbos;j ds baLVkWy ds izfr
pkSdl jgus gSa] D;ksafd vxj os tkurs gSa fd ;g muds dke ds ekgkSy esa [kyy iSnk djsxkA
vkerkSj ij Likbos;j ds forjd izksxzke dks mi;ksxh mikns;rk ds :i esa izLrqr djrs gSa] mnkgj.k ds fy, Þosc
xfro)ZdÞ ds :i esa ;k ,d ennxkj lkWVos;j ,tsUV ds :i esa mi;ksxdrkZ rqjUr ’kd fd, cxSj fd ;s uqdlku dk dkj.k
cu ldrs gSaA lkWVos;j MkmuyksM vkSj baLVkWy djrs gSa mnkgj.k cks ath cM+h
osc czkmtj ;k vU; lkWVos;j esa lqj{kk lqjkx ds tfj, dqN Likbos;j fuekZrk iz.kkyh dks laØfer dj nsrs gSaA tc
Likbos;j fuekZrk ds }kjk fu;af=r fdlh osc ist dk mi;ksxdrkZ ekxZ funsZ’ku djrk gS] ist esa fufgr dksM czkmtj ij geyk
dj nsrk gS vkSj Likbos;j dks MkmuyksM vkSj baLVkWy fd, tkus ds fy, ck/; djrk gSA
LiSe
LiSe
LiSe ml izdkj ds bZesy dks dgrs gSa rks Fkksd esa Hkstk tkrk gS] fcuk ekaxs ;k cqyk;s vk tkrk gS] ftlesa izk; foKkiu
Hkjs gksrs gSa tc ls bZesy dk fodkl gqvk gS LiSe ,d leL;k cuh jgh gS] [kkl rkSj ij 1990 ds n’kd ls ;s bZesy iz;ksxdjrk
dks ijs’kku djrh gS] mldk le; rFk /ku cjckn djrh gS] viSzy 2008 ds ,d v/;;u ls irk pyrk gS fd gj jkst de
ls de 100 vjc LiSe Hksth tkrh gky gh esa csgrj fQYVj lsok [kkl rkSj ij th esy is ds pyrs ;s de vkus yxh gS LiSe
Hkstus ds fy, irs pSV:e ls] osc lkbZV ls ;k ok;jl ds iz;ksx ls ,d= fd, tkrs gSaA
LiSe ls rkRi;Z bysDVªkWfud eSlsftax flLVe }kjk ,d lkFk vusd eSlst Hkstuk gSA lcls lkekU; izdkj dk LiSe
bZ&esy LiSe gSA blds vfrfjDr Hkh vusd izdkj ds LiSe gksrs gS tks fuEu izdkj gS&
¼1½ E-mail Spam ¼bZesy LiSe½ & bUgsa Unresticted Bulk Email (UBE) ;k tad esy Hkh dgrs gSA bZ&esy LiSe] ok;jl
bUQsoVsM vFkok oeZ baQsDVsM esy esa vki rd Hkstrk gSA tc mls dEI;wVj ij [kkstk tkrk gS rks ;g eSyhf’k;l izksxzkeksa dks
dEI;wVj ij bULVkWy dj nsrk gSA
CYBER LAW :-
;g law tks cyber space dks pykrk gSAcyber space dks ge fuEu izdkj ls ifjHkkf”kr dj ldrs gS&
dEI;wVj dk ,d lewg
computer ds network dk ,d lewg
internet
computer data
computer dks software dk lewg
fuEu computer ds contact dh security ds fy, cyber law cuk;k x;k gSA
Hkkjrh; cyber law lwpuk rduhd vf/kfu;e 2000 ds rgr dqN data rFkk network dks operate ds fu;e fn;sa x;sa
ftlesa lsa dqN bl rjg ls ifjHkkf"kr djus gSA
& v/;k; II vf/kfu;e ds rgr subscriber viusa electronic record ds digital signature ds }kjk affix dj ldrk gSA
dksbZ O;fDr ,d public key ds }kjk ls record access dj ldrk gSA
Chapter IV: Regulation rFkk izekkf.kr vf/kdkfjrk dks c

171
,d djksM rd dk ;k blls de pktZ djrk gSA
FIREWALL
Firewall ,d software ;k hardware gksrk gS tks fdlh computer system dks internet ls tksMus ij other system
ls data dks protect djrh gSA
Firewall internet ls local area network ;k computer ij vkus okyh lqpuk dks filter djrk gSA
system administration security ds fu;e ifjHkkf"kr dj internet ls vkus okys vpkgsa lqpuk dks jksd ldrk gS rFkk
vius system dks vuvFkksjkbTM access ls jksdrk gSA
Firewall vius private network dks public access ls jksdrh gSA
fp= fp= 36 36 &QkW;jokWy &QkW;jokWy flLVe
flLVe
Firewall lqpuk lqpuk dks dks dks fuEu fuEu fuEu izdkj izdkj izdkj ls
ls ls filter dj dj ldrh ldrh gSA
Packet filtering: ;g vkus okys rFkk tkus okys MkVk dk analysis dj network ij packets dks Hkstrk gS ;k izkIr
djrk gSA
Proxy service: vius home PC ;k network dks internet ls tksMus ds fy, ,d gateway yxkrs gS ftls proxy
server dgrs gS tks ,d firewall dh rjg gh dke djrk gSA ;g lsok ls data lh/kk sender rFkk receiver ds ikl uk tkdj
proxy server ij store gksrk gSA
IP address blocking: Firewall ls fdlh Hkh DNS rFkk system dk IP address block dj ldrh gSA
Port blocking: Firewall fdlh fo"ks’k port tSls HTTP rFkk FTP ds port 80 rFkk 20 gS rks bidh services dks block
dj ldrh gSA
Firewall fdlh fo"ks’k ’kCn ls Hkh packet filtering ds }kjk lqpuk dks jksd ldrk gSA
Firewall dds }kjk ge fjekksV yksfxu,SMTP vFkkZr E-Mail sensation dks hacking rFkk virus rFkk micro vkSj spam
mail lsa Hkh cpkrh gSA
Example:
CISCO Firewall 501
NetGear FV5318
D-Link DFL300
Netscreen 25 vkfn]
Cookies
dqfdt VsDLV dk dqN Hkkx gksrk gS tks website user dh hard-disk ij store gksrh gSA ;g lwpuk uke value pair ds
:i es a lxz afgr gksrh gSA platform esa cookies lkekU;r c:\windows\cookies es a lxzafgr gksrh gSA dqN website bu file esa user
ID store j[krh gS rFkk dqN website user ID ds lkFk &2 mudk ls’ku Hkh LVksj djrh gS fd user websites ls fdruh ckj
internet gqvk gSA
COOKIES fuEu fuEu izdkj izdkj izdkj ls ls dk;Z dk;Z dk;Z djrh djrh gS& gS&
gS&
tc ,d user explore es URL vFkkZr wensite dk address type djrk gS rks browser bldh dqfdt dks hard disk
esa nq

172
Hacker and Cracker
Computer network area esa data dh lqj{kk ,d research ds {ks= es a jgk gSA Data security dks cuk;sa j[kusa ds fy,
fofHkUu izdkj dh rduhdh mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA
gsdj ,d expert computer programer ;k hardware expert gksrk gS tks fdlh Hkh network rFkk computer system
dh security dks rksM+rk gSSA
Computer hacker ethics lhek es jgdj fdlh network dh security rksMdj mls vf/kd secure cukus ds iz;kl djrs
gS ftlls fdlh company ds network dh security dh {kerk c

173
¼l½ bysDVªksfud MkVk lpkj.ka ¼n½ mi;qZDr lHkh
13. Cookies dk mi;ksx djrs gS %
¼v½ MkVk dks VªkalfeV djus ds fy, ¼c½ osclkbZV dks lQZ djus ds fy,
l½ MkVk dks loZj esa Hkstu esa ¼n½ buesas ls dksbZ ugha A
vfryÄqRjkRed vfryÄqRjkRed vfryÄqRjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1. ARPANET dk iw.kZ uke D;k gS \
2. eSlst fLofpxa rFkk lÆdV fLofpxa esa nks vUrj crkvks \
3. ckWM jsV dks ifjHkkf"kr djks \
4. okWM jsV rFkk MkVk jsV esa lEcU/k lw= fyf[k;s \
5. vkWfIVdy QkbZcj fdl |Vuk ij dk;Z djrh gS \
6. Infrared dks LisDVªe ijkl fyf[k;s \
7. Coaixal Cable ds fofHkUu ekud dks fy[kks \
8. Gateway dk D;k dk;Z gksrk gS \
9. bFkjusV ds fofHkUu :Ikksa dks le>kvks \
10. Vªh VhikWyksth ds ykHk crkvks \
11. LAN, MAN, WAN dk iq.kZ uke fy[kks \
12. Internet rFkk Interspace esa D;k vUrj gS \
13. Point-to-Point (PPP) Protocol dk mi;ksx crkvks \
14. SMS rFkk Voice-Mail esa vUrj lfgr le>kvks \
15. Video Conferencing ds ykHkksa dks crkb;s \
16. Hackers rFkk Cracker D;k gksrs gS \
yÄqRjkRed yÄqRjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1. bUVjLisl dks le>kb;s rFkk bldk fodkl fdl izdkj gqvk \
2. lÆdV fLofpxa dks le>krs gq,s mlds ykHk dk o.kZu djks \
3. pSuy D;k gksrk gS rFkk MkVk lpj.k esa ;g fdl izdkj mi;ksxh gS \
4. MkVk jsV dks le>krs gq,s mles fofHkUu dks le>kvks \
5. vkWIVhdy Qkbcj ls lpj.k ds fofHkUu rjhdks dks le>kvks \
6. Unguided media ds LisDVªe dk o.kZu djks \
7. gc rFkk fLop ds fp= lfgr o.kZu djrs gq,s muesa vUrj dks le>kvks \
8. bFkjusV dh fofHkUu Js.kh;k crkrs gq,s mudk mi;ksx fyf[k;s \
9. dEI;wVj esa cl LVkj rFkk Vªh Vksiksyksth esa vUrjks dk o.kZu djks \
10. FTP dh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks le>kvks \
11. E-Mail D;k gSA blesa mi;ksx gksus okysa Protocols dks le>kvks \
12. SMS dh dk;Z iz.kkyh le>krs gq,s vk/kqfud fo'o esa fdl rjg ekuo thou esa mi;ksxh gS \
13. CDMA D;k gSA fdl rjg ls vU; flLVe ls vyx gS le>kb;s \
14. usVoZd flD;wfjVh D;k gS, ;g computer ds fy, D;ksa vko';d gS \
15. dqdht fdl izdkj ls mi;ksx drkZ ds fy, mi;ksxh gS \
fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed iz’u
iz’u
1 dEU;wVj usVoZd D;k g rFkk buVjusV dks le>krs gq, blds mns';ks dk o.kZu djks \
2 iSdV fLofpxa D;k gSA fp= lfgr le>kn;s vkSj og lÆdV fLofpxa ls fdl izdkj ls fHkUu gS \
3 ge VªkUlfe'ku ehfM;k dk mi;ksx D;ks djrs gS rFkk fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gSA o.kZu djks \
4 TCP/IP Protocol D;k gSA bldh lHkh layer ds dk;ksZ dks of.kZr djks \
5 usVoZd dh Js.kh;ks dks le>krs gq, LAN, MAN, WAN dk o.kZu djks \
6 Wireless/Mobile communication dks le>krs gq, budh dk;Z iz.kkyh dks le>kb, \
7 eksckby flLVe es GSM dh egRRk crkrs gq, 3G ds fodkl rFkk ykHk dks of.kZr fdth,\
8 Video conferencing D;k gS ? ;g fdl izdkj ls vk/kqfud nqfu;k esa mi;ksxh gS vkSj D;ksa \
9 lkbZcj ykW dks le>kb;sa rFkk gsdj vksj Øsdj esas vUrj crkrs gq, muds dk;ksZ ij izdk'k Mkfy,A
10 varj fyf[k;s %
1) Bandwidth & Data Rate 2) Hub & switch
3) SMS & Chat 4) FTP & Tele net

oYMZ oYMZ okbM okbM osc osc ¼WWW)
174
v/;k;&8
v/;k;&8
osc osc dk dk ifjp;
ifjp;
(Introduction to Web)
djhc 50 o"kksZa ls yksx ,d ,sls MkVkcsl dk liuk ns[k jgs Fks tks fd oSf'od Kku (Universal knowledge) ,oa
lwpukvksa dks j[krk gks rFkk ftlds ek/;e ls fo'o ds yksxksa dks vkil esa tksM+k tk ldsA ;g liuk vc iwjk gks pqdk gS]
bl rduhd dh [kkst dh tk pqdh gSA bl rduhd dk uke gS World Wide Web (WWW) A oYMZ okbM osc ,d izdkj
dk MkVkcsl gS tks iwjs fo'o esa QSyk gqvk gSA
WWW dk fopkj fLoV~t+jyS.M esa 1989 esa CERN ¼ijek.kq vuqlU/kku dk ;wjksfi; dsUnz½ }kjk iznku fd;k x;k FkkA
CERN v.kq HkkSfrd fo"k; ij vuqlU/kku djrh FkhA osc dk mn~Hko bl vko';drk dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k x;k Fkk fd
fofHkUu ns'kksa ds oSKkfud ijLij fujUrj cnyrs jgus okys MkWD;wesUV] fjiksZV] Mªkba Zx rFkk QksVkst vkfn ds lkFk leUo; LFkkfir
dj ldsaA loZizFke tqMs gq, MkWD;wesUV okys osc dk izLrko ekpZ 1989 esa CERN ds ,d HkkSfrd foKkuh fVe cuZjyh }kjk vk;kA
1994 esa CERN rFkk MIT us WWW Consortium dk lsV&vi djus ds fy;s ,d ,xzhesUV lkbu fd;kA bl laLFkk dk xBu
osc dk vkxs foLrkj djus ds fy;s] izksVksdksy ekud cukus ds fy;s rFkk fofHkUu lkbVks ds chp vkilh lkeatL; c

175
gS & dsoy vkils ,d fDyd nwjA vki fDyd djrs tkb;s vkSj ;g vkidks ,d fyad ls nwljs fyad] ,d ist ls nwljs ist
rFkk vyx&vyx lkbZV rFkk loZj rd ewo djk ldrk gSA
;g ;g ;g ØkWl ØkWl IysVQkeZ IysVQkeZ gS%
gS%
;fn vki bUVjusV ls tqM+s gq, gSa rks vki oYMZ okbZM osc dks Hkh ,lsl dj ldrs gSaA oYMZ okbZM osc fdlh ,d gh
rjg dh e'khu vFkok fdlh ,d gh dEiuh }kjk cukbZ xbZ e'khu ls c¡/kk gqvk ugha gSA osc iw.kZ :i ls Økl&IysVQkeZ gksrk
gSA Økl&IysVQkeZ gksus dk vFkZ gS fd vki osc dks fdlh Hkh dEiuh ds gkMZos;j ij fdlh Hkh vkWijsfVax flLVe ds lkFk rFkk
fdlh Hkh izdkj ds fMLIys ds lkFk ,lsl dj ldrs gSaA
osc osc osc foHkkftr foHkkftr gS%
gS%
osc bruh vf/kd ek=k esa lwpuk blfy;s iznku djrh gSa D;ksafd og bUQkWes'ku gtkjksa osc lkbZV ij fc[kjh gqbZ jgrh
gSA izR;sd osc lkbZV vius ikl miyC/k lwpuk ds fy;s Lisl j[krh gS] ckdh lwpuk mls nwljh osc lkbZV dks fyad djds fey
tkrh gSA fdlh Hkh bUQkWes'ku pkgus okys dks ek= ml osc lkbZV ij tkuk gksrk gS ftldh lwpuk og ns[kuk pkgrk gSA lwpuk
ns[kus ds fy;s vkidks mls ckj&ckj bUlVkWy djus dh ;k ckj&ckj fMLd cnyus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh cfYd mls dsoy
lkbZV ij ikWbZV djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
osc osc xfr'khy xfr'khy gS& gS&
gS&
ftu O;fDr;ksa us dksbZ lkbZV cukbZ gS] og mls dgha Hkh vkSj fdlh Hkh viMsV dj ldrs gSa D;ksfd osc ij vkus okyh
lwpuk mlh lkbZV ij gksrh gS ftlus og lwpuk izdkf'kr dh gSA ;fn vki ml lwpuk dks czkmt dj jgs gSa rks vkidks ml
lwpuk dk dksbZ u;k otZu yksM djus dh vko';drk ugha gS vkSj u gh vi&MsV bUQkWes'ku ek¡xus ds fy;s rduhdh lgk;rk
dh vko';drk gSA blds fy;s vkidks ek= viuk czkmtj [kksydj ml lkbZV dk ,Mªsl gh nsuk gSA vkids ikl Lor% dh
lkjh ifjofrZr lwpuk vk tkrh gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij vkikph (Appachi) uked osc loZj tksfd LoSfPNd yksaxks ds lewg
}kjk fodflr ,oe~ tk¡pk x;k gSA mlesa oks lHkh xq.k ekStwn gS tks ,d cM+s O;olkf;d loZj esa miyC/k gSa vkSj eq[; ckr
;g gS fd ;g fu%'kqYd miyC/k gSA
osc osc baVjsfDVo baVjsfDVo gS& gS&
gS&
baVjsfDVfoVh vius osc loZj ls ckrphr djus dh ;ksX;rk gSA Vsyhfotu ds foijhr] osc baVjsfDVo gksrk gSA bldk
vFkZ gS fd gesa osc ij dgha vkSj tkus ds fy;s ;k fdlh nwljs ist dks [kksyus ds fy;s dsoy fyad dks lysDV djuk gksrk gSA
mnkgj.k ds fy;s] istksa ds lkFk baVjsfDVfoVh djokus okys QkWeZ Hkh gks ldrk gS ftUgsa vki Hkj ldrs gS aA QkWeZ esa VsDLV ckWDl
gks ldrs gSa tgk¡ vki dqN VkbZi dj ldrs gSa] jsfM;ks cVu gks ldrs gSa ftlesa vki dbZ vkWI'ku esa ls ,d vkWI'ku pqu ldrs
gSa ;k fQj esU;w vkbZVe gks ldrs gSa ftuesa ls vki vkbZVe pqu ldrs gSaA tc ;g QkWeZ lcfeV fd;k tkrk gS rks lkjh lwpuk
ml loZj rd pyh tkrh gS tgk¡ ij oks ist cuk, x, gSaA
QkWeZ ds vfrfjDr Hkh osc ds fodkl gksus ls ;g vf/kd mUur xq.k/keZ vkSj lqfo/kk,a iznku djrk gSA tkok ,oe~ 'kkdosc
vkidks osc ist esa gh iwjk izksxzke vkSj xse 'kkfey djus fd lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA 3&Mh nqfu;k ds fodkl ds dkj.k vkidks
o vkids i

176
1- dksbZ URL ,Mªsl nsus ij og ml lwpuk dks ,lsl djus ;ksX; gksuk pkfg,A czkmt+j HTTP izksVksdksy dk mi;ksx dj fn;s
osc ,Mªsl ij dE;wfudsV dj ldsA
2- D;ksafd osc ml lwpuk dks Hkh lapkfyr djrk gS tks FTP ;k Gopher loZj esa gks] Usenet news posting esa gks ;k bZ&esy
gks vr% czkmt+j dks bu loZj ls Hkh dE;wfudsV djuk pkfg,A
osc ls MkWD;wesUV izkIr djuk ,oe~ mudh QkWesZfVax vkids flLVe ds vuqlkj djuk gh nks eq[; dk;Z gS tks czkmt+j
dh dk;Zfo/kh esa vkrs gSA ;g bl ckr ij fuHkZj djrk gS tks czkmt+j vki mi;ksx yk jgs gSa vkSj mlesa vUrZfufgr] xq.k/keZ
ftlds vuqlkj vki eYVhfefM;k QkbZy ju dj ldrs gSa] tkok ,IysV dks ns[k ,oe~ laokn dj ldrs gSa ;k vU; vf/kd mUur
xq.k/keZ mi;ksx dj ldrs gSa] tks dksbZ fo'ks"k czkmt+j iznku djrk gSA
blds vuqlkj ,d ;wtj vius LFkkuh; dEI;wVj ij czkmt+j izksxzke izkjaHk djrk gS rFkk p;fur lwpuk dks fu;fU=r
djus gsrq czkmt+j ls lEiZd djrk gSA czkmt+j lwpuk ysus ds fy, ,d DykbV dh rjg dk;Z djrk gSA gj ckj tc ;wtj czkmt+j
ds ,Mªsl QhYM esa dksbZ ,Mªsl nsrk gS rks czkmt+j mlesa fNih gqbZ lanHkZ lwpuk dks ik,s x;s gSA
1- vki loZizFke osc lkbV dk URL Vkbi ,Mªsl ckj esa djs tSls www.rajasthanboard.com
2- vkidk czkmt+j osc loZj ls lEcU/k LFkkfir djus dk iz;kl djrk gSA
3- osc loZj Request izkIr djrk gS rFkk og dqdht ;wtj dks Hkstrk gSA
4- osc lkbV ls mldk gkse ist] osc loZj ls vkids ihlh ij MkWmuyksM gksrk gSA
5- osc czkmt+j }kjk osc ist fn[kk;k tkrk gS ,oe~ czkmt+j o loZj ds e/; lEcU/k rksM+ fn;k tkrk gSA
uksV% uksV% dqdht+ loZj }kjk ;wtj ds czkmt+j ds Hksts tkus okys MkVk lewg dk VqdM+k gS ,oe~ ;g tc Hkstk tkrk gS rc ;wtj
loZj lkbZV dks foftV djrk gSA ;g ,d rjg osc fd igpku lwpuk gS] gj osc lkbZV vius izdkj ls vkidh igpku lwpuk
nsrh gS rkfd og vkidks vxyh foftV esa igpku ldsaA
osc osc loZj loZj (Web Server)
osc loZj czkmt+j dks osc ist vkSj osc lkbVl miyC/k djkus esa ,d vge~ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA osc loZj ,d ,slk
dEI;wVj vkSj izksxzke gS tks fo'o Hkj ds osc czkmt+j ls vkus okyh Request ds mÙkj nsus ds fy, mÙkjnk;h gksrk gSA dbZ cM+h

177
dEifu;ksa dk viuk Lo;a dk osc loZj gksrk gS ysfdu vf/kdka'k dEifu;k¡ osc loZj fdjk;s ij ysrh gSA osc ij HTML ist
ns[kus ds fy, osc loZj dks ,lsl djuk vko';d gksrk gSA ;g osc loZj dk gh dk;Z gksrk gS fd og baVjusV ds ek/;e ls
vkus okys osc czkmt+j ds dusD'ku dks xzg.k djs rFkk Request fd;s tkus ij mi;qDr HTML ist vius DykbaV rd igqpk
nsaA ;g dk;Z HTTP izksVksdksy ds ek/;e ls fd;k tkrk gSaA osc loZj lnSo baVjusV ls tqMk gksuk pkfg, D;ksfd baVjusV dks
ge dHkh Hkh dke esa ys ldrs gSA loZj dk dk;Z dj jgs dEI;wVj ij baVjusV dusD'ku dh xfr viS{kkd`r vf/kd gksuh pkfg,A
lkFk gh og dEI;wVj ,d lkFk vkus okyh dbZ lkjh Request dks Hkh iwjk dj ldus ;ksX; gksuk pkfg,A
og dEI;wVj tks osc istks dks] Mk;sDVªh ,oe~ Qkbyksa ds :i esa j[krk gS ,oe~ QkbZy dks i

178
miyC/k (Live) jgsA ;fn gekjs ikl Qqy VkbZe bUVjusV dusD'ku ugha gS ;k fQj ge le;&le; ij dEI;wVj cUn djuk pkgrs
gSa rks mldk mi;ksx osc loZj ds :i esa u djsaA blh rjg ls ;fn gekjh e'khu vDlj [kjkc gks tkrh gS ;g cgqr vf/kd
lkVos;j ds lkFk gS ;k vf/kd yksdy usVodZ VªsfQd ds dkj.k cgqr /kheh gks tkrh gS rks mlds oSdfYid mik; djs] tSls
,d nwljk dEI;wVj Hkh mlh lkbZV ij MsMhdsVsM loZj ds :i esa jgsA
3- le; le; %
%
osc loZj 'kq: gksus esa dqN le; ysrk gSA ;fn ge blls flQZ ists~l gh loZ ¼nsuk½ djuk pkgrs gSa rks blesa le;
rks vf/kd ugha yxrk gS ij dqN [kpkZ gSA bu ists~l gks ge MkVkcsl ls ykdj nsaxs ;k dqN nwljs ,M&bUl izksxzkEl bULVky
djs axs ;k pyk;saxs ftlesa vf/kd le; yxsxk D;ksafd istst Hkh loZ djuk gksxk o lkFk gh flD;qfjVh dk Hkh /;ku j[kuk gksxkA
4- {kerk%
{kerk%
;fn gekjk osc loZj bUVªkusV ij flQZ lkekU; HTML MkWD;wesaV~l o dqN gh xzkfQDl nsrk gS ;k fQj ;g flQZ VSLV
djus ds mn~ns'; ls gS rks ;g lc dksbZ Hkh dEI;wVj dj ldrk gSA ijUrq ;fn cgqr vf/kd VªsfQd ;k cgqr vf/kd ,lsl dh
ckr djsa rks gesa ;g /;ku j[kuk gksxk fd gekjk dEI;wVj ;g lc fu;af=r dj ldrk gS ;k ugha vkSj mls viMsV fd;k tk
ldrk gS ;k ughaA
5- csdvWi csdvWi %
%
;fn ge Lo;a dk gh loZj pyk jgs gSa rks fdlh Hkh izdkj ds fy;s ge Lo;a tokcnkj gksaxsA ;fn gekjs flLVe dh
gkMZ fMLd [kRe gks tkrh gS rks ge ,slh fLFkfr esa gksus pkfg, fd MkVk dks fdlh Hkh rjhds ls iqu% izkIr fd;k ldsA
osc osc osc izksVksdksy izksVksdksy (Web Protocol)
izksVksdksy ,d fu;e ;k dqN fuf'pr fu;eks dk lewg gksrk gS tks fofHkUu Hkkxksa ds chp dE;wfuds'ku dk okrkoj.k
iznku djrk gSA mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ekuoh; laokn ,d fuf'pr Hkk"kk o O;kdj.k ds fcuk lEHko ugha gSA izksVksdksy fuEu
lqfo/kk,a iznku djrk gS%
1- Vªkalfe'ku ehfM;k O;ofLFkr gS ;k ugha \
2- usVodZ vo;o ,d nwljs ls tqM+h gS ;k ugha\
3- fdruk vkSj dc MkWVk gLrkarfjr gks jgk gS\
osc ij lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ds fy, ftu izksVksdksy dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] mUgsa osc izksVksdksy dgrs gSA
bu izksVksdksYl ds ek/;e ls fofHkUu osc ist] osc loZj ls czkmt+j rd Hksts tkrs gSA vr% osc izksVksdksy loZj rFkk czkmt+j
ds e/; lEcU/k LFkkfir djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA lwpukvksa ds vknku&iznku ds fy, osc ij dqN izksVksdksy tSls
fd TCP/IP, PPP, HTTP, FTP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol vkfn dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A
HTTP ¼gkbij ¼gkbij VsDLV VsDLV VªkalQj izksVksdkWy½
;g mu fu;eksa dk lewg gS tks nks ;k nks ls vf/kd dEI;wVjksa ds chp gkbZij VsDLV dks VªkUlQj djrs gSaA HTTP ,d
rduhd gS] tks ;wtj ds }kjk fdlh gkbZij VsDLV fyad dks lysDV fd;s tkus ij lEcfU/kr MksD;wesUVl dks [kksyrk gS] pkgs
og dgha Hkh gksA osc MksD;wesUVl dks QkesZfVax rFkk fyafdax ds fy, HTML esa ekdZ fd;k tkrk gS osc loZj }kjk HTTP dks
bUgha HTML Coded istks dks fn[kkus ds fy, mi;ksx esa yk;k tkrk gSA HTTP ,d LVsVySl izksVksdksy gS tgk¡ dh osc czkmt+j]
oso loZj ls lEcU/k LFkkfir djrk gS ,oe~ vko';d QkbZy MkWmuyksM djrk gS mlds ckn lEcU/k foLFkkfir dj nsrk gSA
czkmt+j lk/kkj.kr;k QkbZy dh gkbZij Request HTTP ds GET Method dks mi;ksx dj TCP ds iksVZ 80 ij djrk gSA
ftlesa fd dbZ lkjh HTTP Request ,oe~ gsMj tksfd VªkUtsD'ku eSFkM~ ¼GET, POST, HEAD bR;kfn½ crykrk gS ,oe~ loZj
dks DykbaV dk lkEFkZ; n'kkZrk gSA loZj Response esa dbZ lkjs HTTP Response gsMj tksfd n'kkZrs gSa fd D;k VªkatsD'ku
lQy gS] fdl izdkj dk MkVk Hkstk tk jgk gS] loZj dk izdkj vkSj var esa ek¡xk x;k MkVk nsrsa gSA
;g ISO ekud ij vk/kkfjr ,d Nonproprietary, Platform Independent rFkk Open Document Architecture gS ;g vdsys
dEI;wVj] ysu] osu rFkk baVjusV ij leku :i ls dk;Z djrk gSA
URL ( ;wuhQkeZ ;wuhQkeZ fjlksZl fjlksZl yksdsVj
yksdsVj) yksdsVj
URL nksuks ds ckjs esa lwpuk j[krk gS] ¼djus dk rjhdk ,oe~ fjlks Zl ds ckjs esa lwpuk½A ;g osc czkmt+j ds }kjk www

179
ij fdlh MkWD;wesUV ;k ist ls tksM+us vFkkZr lEcU/k LFkkfir djus ds dke vkrk gSA blesa vkidks ;g Hkh irk ugha gksrk dh
fjlksZl fQftdyh dgk¡ ij gSA ,d lk/kkj.k URL fuEu izdkj fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA
http://www.rajasthanboard.com
URL dk izFke Hkkx vFkkZr dkWyksu ¼%½ ls iwoZ dk Hkkx ,lsl djus dh fo/kh dks crkrk gSA osc ij lkekU;r;k ;g
http gksrh gS ysfdu ;g ftp ;k gopher Hkh gks ldrk gSA bldk f}rh; Hkkx tks dkWyksu ¼%½ ds ckn fjlksZl dks crkrk gS blesa
nks Lys'k ¼//½ ds ckn dk VsDLV loZj dk uke crkrk gS vkSj ,d Lys'k ¼/½ ds ckn QkbZy vFkok Mk;jsDVªh ftlls vki tqM+s
gq, gS crkrk gSA vxj vki fdlh MkD;wesUV ls tqM+uk pkg jgs gS a rks ;g lkekU;r;k -html foLrkjd j[ksxk tksfd gkbZij VsDLV
ekdZvi ysaXost+ gSA
URL ges'kk Case-Sensitive gksrs gS vr% vkidks ges'kk vij dsl] yksvj dsl ,oe~ flEcYl dk fo'ks"k /;ku j[kuk
gksxkA izR;sd ist ij osc dk ,d ;wfud ,Mªsl gksrk gS tksfd URL dgykrk gSA mnkgj.k ds :i esa mi;qDr URL fuEu Vscy
esa le>k;k x;k gSA
http://www.rajasthanboard.com / contents / admission.asp
mnkgj.k
mnkgj.k vFkZ
vFkZ fooj.k
fooj.k
http:// izksVksdksy http ,d izksVksdksy gS tks osc ist dks bl
URL ij Hkstrk gS
http://www.bser.com/ MkWeSu use ;gk¡ www vFkkZr oYMZ okbZM osc bser ,d
dEI;wVj dk uke gS tgk¡ ij loZj izksxzke ,oe~
ist j[ks gq, gSA com ,d laxBu dk izdkj gS
¼tSls .org, .edu, .gov bR;kfn½
Contents/ Mk;jsDVªh dk ikFk ;g ,d Mk;jsDVªh gS ftlesa ist j[ks gq, gSa
admission.asp QkbZy dk uke ;g pkgh x;h QkbZy dk uke gSA
gkbZij gkbZij VsDLV VsDLV ekdZvi ekdZvi ysXosat+ ysXosat+ ¼HTML½
tks ysXosat+ osc istks dks fodflr djus ¼cukus½ esa dke vkrh gS gkbZij VsDLV ekdZvi ysXosat¼HTML½ dgykrh gSA
HTML gh oks ysXosat+ gS tks czkmt+j }kjk le>h tkrh gSA osc istksa dks ge HTML MkWD;wesUV Hkh dgrs gSaA bUVjusV ds fy,
HTML dk [kkst fVe cuZlZyh us dh FkhA ;g ,d fo'ks"k dksMks dk lewg gS ftldk iz;ksx vki vius vkys[k esa lkt&lTtk
o :i dks fu;fU=r djus vkSj nwljh lwpukvks a ds lkFk fyad dk;e djus ds mn~ns'; ls djrs gSa bldh okLro es a ogha Hkwfedk
gS tks fdlh eksVj dkj dks cukus ds fy, iz;qDr LVhy vkSj ;a=ksa dh gksrh gS HTML dks ,d vU; Hkk"kk SGML (Standard
Generalized Mark Up Language) dk mi lewg dg ldrs gSaA SGML 1910 esa IBM ds }kjk fodflr fd xbZA bldk
mn~ns'; ml leL;k dks [kRe djuk FkkA tks fd MkWD;wesUVl dks fofHkUu gkMZos;j IysVQkeZ o vkWijsfVax flaLVe esa Hkstus esa
vkrh FkhA HTML ds iw.kZ Lo:i ds izR;sd v{kj dk o.kZu fuEu izdkj gSA
Hyper 'kCn ;g crkrk gS fd HTML esa vkus okyk VsDLV ,d iqLrd dh Hkkafr Linear ¼,d gh fn'kk esa½ ugha gksrk gSa bldk
vFkZ gS fd tc vki baVjusV ij dk;Z dj jgs gksrs gS vkSj vkidh viuh :ph okyk dksbZ MkWD;wesUVns[kuk gS rks vki lh/ks gh
ogka igqWp ldrs gSA ;g dk;Z gkbZij fyad ds }kjk gksrk gS bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd baVjusV ij MksD;wesUVl ns[kus dk dksbZ
fu/kkZfjr Øe ugha gksrk gS ¼,d iqLrd dh rjg½A gkbZij 'kCn Linear ,dne foifjr gSA WWW ij ge dksbZ Hkh ist ns[k
ldrs gSA
Text ;g crkrk gS fd ge ftu QkbZy ij dk;Z djrs gS muesa dsoy VsDLV gh fy[kk tk ldrk gSA
Markup dk vFkZ gS fd osc ist cukus ds fy, ge loZizFke VsDLV VkbZi djrs gS rr~i'pkr ml VsDLV dh Marking djrs
gSaA nwljs 'kCnksa esa HTML dksfMax djrs le; ;g crkuk gksrk gS fd] dkSu lk VsDLV cksYM fd;k tkuk gS] dgka ij dksbZ
best yxkuh gS bR;kfnA ;g dk;Z vki Vsx yxkdj djrs gSaA Vsx, osc czkmt+j dks ist fn[kkrs le; ;g funsZ'k nsrs gS fd

mDr ist dks dSls iznf'kZr djuk gSA
180
Language dk vFkZ gS fd ge viuk dk;Z djus ds fy;s ,d ysXosat +dks mlds lHkh izk:i ds lkFk dke esa ys jgs gSaA ;gk¡
;g xkSj fd;k tkuk vko';d gS fd ;g Basic, Fortran ;k C tSlh dksbZ izksxzkfeax ysaXost+ ugha gSaA ;g ,d fLØifVax ysXosat+
gS ftlesa Marking ds }kjk osc MkWD;wesUVdks dUVªksy fd;k tkrk gSA
HTML MkWD;wesUV fdlh Hkh VsDLV ,MhVj ¼VI ,MhVj] uksVisM bR;kfn½ dk mi;ksx djds Iysu VsDLV QkbZy ¼ASCII½
:i esa cukbZ tkrh gSA bUgsa lso djus ds fy, ge .htm ;k .html foLrkjd ds :i esa iz;qDr djrs gSaA bl rjg ;s ,d osc
ist ds :i esa lso gksrs gSa bl dk;Z ds fy, ;gk¡ dksbZ Hkh oYMZ izkslslj iz;qDr dj ldrs gSa tksfd MkWD;wesUV dks ^^flQZ
VsDLV ykbu czsDl ds lkFk^^ lso djrk gSA fdlh Qkby dks osc czkmt+j esa ns[kus ds fy, ;g vko';d gS fd lEiw.kZ .html
foLrkjd ds lkFk lso djs ;gh osc ist ds :i esa iznf'kZr gksrk gSA HTML MkWD;wesUV cukus ds fofHkUu rfjds gksrs gS ;fn
vkidks HTML vPNh rjg ls vkrh gS vki fdlh VsDLV ,fMVj dks iz;qDr dj mlds vanj HTML dksfMax dj csgn
vkdZ"kd ist cuk ldrs gSaA ;gk¡ dqN HTML ,fMVj Hkh gksrs gS tks fd gekjs fy, dksfMax Hkh djrs gSA bldsfy, gedks
dekaM+ dk flUVsDl ;kn j[kus dh vko';drk ugha gSA dqN izpfyr HTML ,fMVj gS tSls ekbØkslkWV ÝUVist] ,Mksc
ist fey] gkWVMkax bR;kfnA HTML ds cgqr ls otZu Hkh vk, gSa eq[;r% HTML 2.0, HTML 3.0, HTML 3.2, HTML
4.0 gSA
HTML MkWD;wesUV MkWD;wesUV dh lajpuk
izR;sd osc ist dbZ Hkkxks a ls feydj cuk gksrk gSaA ;g Hkkx gh fdlh HTML VsDLV MkWD;wesUV lajpuk dk eq[; vo;o
gksrs gSA HTML MkWD;wesUV ds ;g vo;o Vsx }kjk iznf'kZr fd;s tkrs gSA VSx dks ges'kk dks.kd dks"Bdks () es a cUn
fd;k tkrk gSA lkekU;r;k Vsx tksM+ks ( & ) es a miyC/k gksrs gS tksfd fdlh Vsx dh 'kq:vkr ,oe~ vUr dk funs Z'k
iznku djrs gSA tksM+ s okys Vsx es a LVkVZ Vsx () Vsx ds izHkko dh 'kq:vkr ,oe~ ,.M Vsx () blds izHkko
dks lekIr djrk gS dqN Vsx ,fdd (Singular or Stand Alone) Vsx Hkh gksrs gaS mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij () Vsx ykbu esa cz sd
Mkyrk gS bl Vsx dks fdlh lkFkh Vsx dh vko';drk ugha gSA Vsx ,d funsZ'k gS tks MkWD;wesUV ds VsDLV es a gh vUrZfufgr gksrs
gS ,d HTML Vsx czkmt+j dks ladsr nsrk gS fd mldks LØhu ij flQZ VsDLV fn[kkus ds vykok dqN vkSj Hkh djuk gSA ;g VSx
czkmt+j es a fn[kkbZ ugha nsrs fdUrq budk mi;ksx VsDLV dk vkdkj c

181
uksV uksV uksV % % dqN HTML Vsx dks vfrfjDr lwpuk dh vko';drk gksrh gS mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij ;fn dksbZ best+ dks LØhu ij j[kuk
gS rks best+ dk vykbesUV ¼VkWi] fefMy ;k ckWVe½ Hkh crk ldrs gSA HTML Vsx dks tks vfrfjDr lwpuk iznku dh tkrh gS
oks Vsx dk ,VªhC;wV ¼Attribute½ dgykrh gS ,VªhC;wV Vsx ds Bhd ckn esa Lisl NksM+dj fy[ks tkrs gSA ,d lkFk dbZ ,VªhC;wV
Hkh Lisl NksM+dj yxk ldrs gSA
izR;sd HTML MkWD;wesUV dks nks Hkkxks a HEAD ,oa BODY esa foHkDr dj ldrs gSA HEAD ist dh igpku ls lEcfU/kr lwpuk
j[krk gS BODY MkWD;wesUV dh okLrfod fn[kkbZ tkus okyh lwpuk j[krh gSA blesa iz;qDr Vsxks dk o.kZu fuEu izdkj gSA
;g n'kkZrk gS fd ,d HTML MkWD;wesUV gSA lHkh html MkWD;wesUV bl Vsx ls 'kq: vkSj
[kRe gksrs gSaA
MkD;wesUV esa tksM+us okyh esVk lwpuk,¡ tSls % MkWD;wesUV dk VkbZVy] dh&cMZ~l] lpZ
baftu Økofyax ds fy, fooj.kkRed lwpuk,¡] bR;kfn ds fy, ,d daVsuj ¼ik=½ dk
fuekZ.k djrk gSA
;g MkWD;wesUV ds fy, VkbZVy fuekZ.k dk dk;Z djrk gSA tks Hkh bl Vsx ds vUnj
fy[krs gSa] czkmt+j mls VkbZVy ckj esa fn[kkrk gSA
MkWD;wesUV ds dUVsUVl~ ¼tSls VSDLV] best bR;kfn½ ds fy, ,d daVsuj ¼ik=½ dk
fuekZ.k djrk gSA ;g og txg gS] tgka ij oks vo;o ge bulVZ djrs gSa] tks okLro
esa LØhu ij fn[kkbZ nsaA
fofHkUu fofHkUu HTML vo;o
vo;o
HTML osc osc ist ist dks dks cukuk cukuk o o osc osc czkmlj czkmlj esa esa ns[kuk ns[kuk %&
%&
HTML MkWD;wesUV dk ,d mnkgj.k uhps fn;k x;k gSA bldks Notepad esa fuEu HTML code Vkbi djsa %&
my first web page
Hello ! I Love My India
mijksDr dksfMax dks Notepad esa Vkbi djus ds ckn bldks lso dj ysaA lso djrs le; QkbZy ds uke esa .htm ;k
.html foLrkjd yxk nsa] tSls my page.htm vc czkmt+j dks bl ist esa [kksysaA
Vsx
Vsx
Vsx ,d lkekU;r;k mi;ksxh Vsx gS] ftls vki HTML nLrkost ds Hkkx esa fy[krs gSaA blesa
ist ds ckjs esa dqN ,slh vfrfjDr lwpuk gksrh gS tks Vsx es ugha fy[kh gksrh gSA vf/kdka'k lpZ baftu vkidks ;g
lqfo/kk nsrs gSa fd vki dk Vsx dk mi;ksx ist ds ckjs esa laf{kIr lwpuk rFkk dqN eq[; 'kCn ¼keywords½ ns ik,saA
Vsx dk mi;ksx ist ds ckjs esa vfrfjDr lwpuk;s a nsus esa gksrk gSA ;g lwpuk lpZ baftu }kjk ml ist dks
[kkstus es a iz;qDr gksrh gSA lpZ baftu bl lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij gh ml ist dks fcuk iwjs ist dks MkmuyksM+ fd, oxhZd`r djrk
gS rFkk mldh igpku djrk gSA
Vsx ds lkFk dqN ,VªhC;wV Hkh dke esa yk, tkrs gSa] tks fuEu gSa&

,VªhC;wV
,VªhC;wV Li"Vhdj.k
Li"Vhdj.k
182
http-equiv ;g ,VªhC;wV osc czkmt+j ;k loZj dks vkns'k nsrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] http-equiv="refresh"
,d u, ist dks Lor% gh yksM+ dj nsrk gSA
name bldk mi;ksx ;g r; djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS fd nLrkost ds ckjs esa fdl izdkj
dh lwpuk content attribute esa vk,xhA mnkgj.kkFkZ] Name="author" crkrk gS fd
ys[kd dk uke ;k ID content esa gSA
content ;g http-equiv ;k Name esa nh xbZ lwpuk dh okLrfod osY;w gksrk gSaA
VkbVy VkbVy ,oa ,oa QqVj QqVj QqVj (Titles and footers)
VkbVy VkbVy (Title)
,d osc ist dk VkbVy og gksrk gS tks mlds ckjs esa cxSj vf/kd 'kCn bLrseky djs cryk,A bls ge VkbVy Vsx
dh lgk;rk ls izkIr djrs gaSA tks VsDLV .... ds e/; fn[kk;k tk,xk ogha czkmt+j foUM+ks dh VkbVy ckj
esa fn[kk;k tk,xkA
;gk¡ VkbVy vk,xk
QqVj QqVj (Footer)
Bhd mlh izdkj tSls VkbVy dks ge czkmtj foUM+ksa dh VkbVy ckj esa n'kkZrs gS dqN ,slh lwpuk Hkh gksrh gS tks osc
ist ds QqV ¼uhps½ ij j[kh tkrh gSA lkekU;r;k fdlh MkWD;wesUV ist ds QqV ij j[kh tkus okyh lwpuk tSls dkWih jkbV lwpuk]
ist cukus okys dk lEiZd lw= vkfnA
;gk¡ QqVj vk,xk
bl Vsx dks vkn'kZ :i esa osc ist ij n'kkZ, tkus okys VsDLV lkezxh dh vfUre ykbu ds ckn j[kuk pkfg,A fdUrq
ge pkgs rks bls MkWD;wesUV ds BODY Hkkx esa dgh Hkh j[k ldrs gSA bl Vsx esa fy[kk x;k VsDLV ges'kk Italics fn[kkbZ nsrk
gSA mnkgj.k
;g VkbVy gS
-
;g QqVj gS
dyj dyj dyj lsfVax lsfVax lsfVax (Color Setting)
ge BODY Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV~l fd lgk;rk ls csdxzkmUM] VsDLV vkSj fyad dk dyj cny ldrs gSaA ,VªhC;wV~l ,sls
dksM oMZ gksrs gS tks bl vk'k; ls HTML Vsx ds Hkhrj Mkys tkrs gS rkfd mDr Vsx dk dk;Z iwjh rjg fu;fU=r fd;k tk
ldsaA Vsx fuEu ,VªhC;wV~l ysrk gSA
,VªhC;wV~l
,VªhC;wV~l Li"Vhdj.k
Li"Vhdj.k
Bgcolor fMQkYV csdxzkmUM dyj dks ifjofrZr djrk gS] tks Hkh dyj bl Vsx ds lkFk crk;k
x;k gksA ;wtj dyj dks crkus gsrq mldk uke vFkok mldk gSDlk Msfley dyj dksM+
iz;qDr dj ldrk gSA
Background bl ,VªhC;wV~l esa ml .jpg ;k .gif file dk uke fn;k tkrk gS ftls HTML MkWD;wesUV ds
i`"B Hkkx esa yxkuk gSA ;g besat laiw.kZ MkWD;wesUVij QSy tkrh gSA
Text bl ,VªhC;wV~l ls body ds characters ds fMQkYV dyj esa ifjorZu fd;k tk ldrk gSA

183
izk:i%
mnkgj.k%
vf/kdrj czkmt+j dk iwoZfu/kkZfjr csdxzkmUM dyj lQsn gksrk gS rFkk VsDLV dk dyj dkyk gksrk gSA jax fdlh Hkh
osc lkbV dks csgn vkd"kZd cuk nsrs gSaA
HTML MkWD;wesUVes a VsDLV ;k csdxzkmUM dk jax cnyus ds fy, vkidks ,d 6-digit code dh vko';drk gksrh ftlds
igys "#" fpUg gksrk gSA bl dksM+ esa "#RRGGBB dk :i fufgr gksrk gS tgka RR dk vFkZ yky jax dh vf/kdrk ls gS] GG
dk vFkZ gjs jax dh vf/kdrk ls rFkk BB dk vFkZ uhys jax dh vf/kdrk ls gSA
fdlh Hkh dyj dksM+ ds fy, gSDlk Msfley uacj flLVe (0 - 9 -A-F) ;gka FF jax dh vf/kdrk rFkk 00 U;wure gSA
uhps dqN ewy dyj dksM+ fn;s x;s gSa&
#000000 - Black
#FF0000 - Red
#00FF00 - Green
#0000FF - Blue
#00FFFF - Green + Blue = Cyan
#FFFFFF - Red + Green + Blue = White
VsDLV VsDLV QkWesZfVax QkWesZfVax (Text Formatting)
isjkxzkQ isjkxzkQ czsd
czsd
,d [kkyh ykbu ges'kk VsDLV lkexzh ds isjkxzkQ dks vyx djrh gSA tks Vsx ;g dk;Z djrk gS oks gSA bl
Vsx ds vkus ij czkmt+j ubZ ykbu ij] igyh okyh ykbu o ubZ ykbu ds e/; ,d ykbu NksM+dj vk tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
ABC Technologies 106, Shakti Appartments,
Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai - 400050.
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
ABC Technologies
106, Shakti Appartments, Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai - 400050.
ykbu ykbu ykbu czsd%
czsd%
tc VsDLV ubZ ykbu ls 'kq: gksus dh vko';drk iM+s ¼[kkyh ykbu cxSj NksM+s½ rks dks iz;qDr djuk pkfg,A
;g Vsx flQZ ubZ ykbu dh 'kq:vkr ij ys tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
ABC Technologies 106, Shakti Appartments,
Kandhi Vali (East), Mumbai – 400050.
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
ABC Technologies
106, Shakti Appartments,
Kandhi Vali (East),
Mumbai-400050.
lSD'ku lSD'ku gsfMax gsfMax gsfMax (Section Headings)
fdlh MkWD;wesUV ds ist lkekU;r;k lSD'ku o lc lSD'ku esa foHkDr gksrs gSA ¼tSls dh ist esa gSfMax o lc gSfMax gks ldrs

184
gS½ ftUgs a fo'ks"k :i ls ¼n`

vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
Welcome to our home page!
vUMjykbu vUMjykbu (Underline)
185
;g VsDLV dks vUMjykbu n'kkZrk gSA blesa ....... mi;ksx es a vkrs gSaA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
Welcome to our home page!
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
Welcome to our home page!
vU; vU; VsDLV VsDLV izHkko izHkko (Other Text Effects)
lsUVfjax lsUVfjax (Centering)
....... Vsx dk mi;ksx ge buds e/; vkus okys VsDLV] besat] :y rFkk vU; dksbZ ist
vo;o dks lsUVj djus ds fy, djrs gSA
mnkgj.k% mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
An image table or text
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
An image table or text
lc lc fLØfIVax fLØfIVax (Subscripting)
lc fLØIV vo;o dh dksfMax ds fy, o Vsx ds e/; VsDLV dks j[kk tkrk gSA tksfd lkekU; VsDLV
ls FkksM+k uhps gksrk gSA ;s vo;o xf.kfr; lehdj.kks ,oe~ lw=ksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
H2O
H O 2
lqij lqij fLØfIVax fLØfIVax (Superscripting)
lqij fLØIV vo;o dh dksfMax ds fy, o Vsx ds e/; VsDLV dks j[kk tkrk gSA tksfd lkekU;
VsDLV ls FkksM+k Åij ,oa NksVk gksrk gSA ;s vo;o xf.kfr; lehdj.kks ,oe~ lw=ksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
vkmViqV% vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
fyLV fyLV
fyLV
A2+ B2
A 2 +B 2
fyLV (List)
fcuk fcuk Øe Øe Øe okyh okyh fyLV fyLV (Bullets)
;g fyLV Vsx ls 'kq: gksrh gS ,oe~ ij lekIr gksrh gS fyLV dk izR;sd vkbaVe Vsx ls 'kq:
gksrk gSA Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV dks fuEu izdkj n'kkZ ldrs gSaA

mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
Apple
Orange
Banana
Apple
Orange
Banana
Øe Øe Øe okyh okyh fyLV fyLV (Numbering)
186
;g Øe okyh fyLV Vsx ls 'kq: gksrh gS ,oe~ ij lekIr gksrh gS fyLV dk izR;sd vkbaVe Vsx
ls 'kq: gksrk gSA Vsx ds ,VªhC;wV dks fuEu izdkj n'kkZ ldrs gSA
TYPE mi;ksx esa vkus okyh uEcfjax Ldhe dks dUVªksy djrk gS
Type = "1" (1,2,3....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA
Type = "A" (A,B,C....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA
Type = "a" (a,b,c....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA
Type = "I" (I,II,III....) okyh uEcfjax nsxkA
START uEcfjax Øe dks ifjofrZr djrk gSA dksbZ Hkh U;wesfjd osY;w lsV dj ldrs gSA ftlls
'kq: gksuk gSA
VALUE uEcfjax Øe dks ifjofrZu Øe fyLV ds e/; esa djrk gSA ;g Vsx ds lkFk crk;k
tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
Apple
Orange
Banana
vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
B. Apple
C. Orange
D. Banana
ifjHkk"kk ifjHkk"kk okyh okyh fyLV fyLV (Definetion List)
ifjHkk"kk fyLV ds eku o Vsx ds e/; fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA ifjHkk"kk fyLV nks Hkkxksa esa foHkDr jgrh gSA
ifjHkk"kk in Vsx ds ckn fn[kkbZ nsrk gS
ifjHkk"kk fooj.k Vsx ds ckn fn[kkbZ nsrk gS
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
ME
It means Mechanical Engineering
EE
It means Electrical Engineering

vkmViqV%
vkmViqV%
ME
EE
187
It means Mechanical Engineering
It means Electrical Engineering
best best ,oe~ ,oe~ fiDpj fiDpj Mkyuk Mkyuk (Inserting Image and Picture)
VsDLV ds vykok HTML fLFkj ;k Mk;usfed ,fuesVsM best dks HTML ist ij j[kus dh vuqefr iznku djrk gSA
HTML nks fiDpj QkesZV .GIF vkSj .JPG Lohdkj djrk gSA osc ist dh vko';drkuqlkj GIF dUlVªDVj ;k ,Mksc QksVks'kkWi
dh lgk;rk ls feyku djrh gqbZ bestksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSa ,oe~ buds Qkby QkesZV esa lso djrs gSaA
,d ckj ;fn best rS;kj gS vkSj mi;qDr Qkby QkesZV esa lso gSA rks bldks ge Vsx dh lgk;rk ls osc
ist esa bUlVZ dj ldrs gSa tks fd ,VªhC;wV ds :i esa best Qkby dk uke (.gif, .jpg, ;k .jpeg) ysrk gSA blds vykok osc
ist ij j[kh tkus okyh best dh Å¡pkbZ] pkSM+kbZ] ckMZj bR;kfn dks Hkh fu;f=r djrk gSA Vsx fuEu ,VªhC;wV~l ysrk
gSA
ALIGN VsDLV dk ,ykbuesUV best ds vuqlkj fu;fU=r djrk gSA
ALIGN = “TOP” n'kkZrk gS fd best ds ckn dk VsDLV VkWi ij fy[kk tk,xkA
ALIGN = “MIDDLE” n'kkZrk gS fd best ds ckn dk VsDLV Ckhp es a fy[kk tk,xkA
ALIGN = “BOTTOM” n'kkZrk gS fd best ds ckn dk VsDLV CkkWVe ij fy[kk tk,xkA
best dk ,ykbesUV oh Mh ;w LØhu ds vuqlkj fu;fU=r djrk gSA
ALIGN = “LEFT” n'kkZrk gS fd best dks LØhu ds lanHkZ es a ysV ,ykbu djuk gSA
ALIGN = “CENTER” n'kkZrk gS fd best dks LØhu ds lanHkZ es a lsUVj ,ykbu djuk gSA
ALIGN = “RIGHT” n'kkZrk gS fd best dks LØhu ds lanHkZ es a jkbV ,ykbu djuk gSA
BORDER best ds pkjks a vksj j[ks ckMZj dh lkbt n'kkZrk gSA
WIDTH best dh pkSM+kbZ fiDly es a n'kkZrk gSA
HEIGHT best dh ÅpkbZ fiDly es a n'kkZrk gSA
HSPACE best ds ysV o jkbV es a [kkyh Lisl dks n'kkZrk gSA
VSPACE best ds VkWi o ckWVe es a [kkyh Lisl dks n'kkZrk gSA
ALT ;g n'kkZrk gS fd ;fn czkmtj SRC ,VªhC;wV es a nh xbZ best dks ugha fn[kk ikrk gS rks mlds LFkku ij rks VsDLV
fn[ksA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
MkWD;wesUVksa~ MkWD;wesUVksa~ dks dks dks fyad fyad djuk djuk (Linking Documents)
HTML gesa nwljs MkWD;wesUV ,oe~ best ls fyad djus dh lqfo/kk nsrk gSA fdlh osc ist esa mifLFkr VsDLV ds Hkkx
;k best ij fDyd djus ij vU; osc ist vFkok best [kqyrh gS tks bl izdkj dk fyad iznku djrk gS og gkbij VsDLV]
gkbij fyad ;k gkWVLikV dgykrk gSA
fyad ds MhQkYV dyj cnys tk ldrs gSaA fyad ds bu dyj dks cnyus gsrq rhu ,VªhC;wV Vsx ds lkFk n'kkZ, tkrs
gS oks fuEu gSaA
LINK bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj gkbij fyad dk fMQkYV dyj cny ldrs gSaA ;wt+j
blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk ldrk gSA

188
ALINK (Active Link) bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj ,fDVosVsM gkbij fyad dk fMQkYV dyj cny ldrs
gSaA ;wt+j blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk ldrk gSA
VLINK (Visited Link) bl Vsx ds lkFk dksbZ Hkh dyj crkdj o gkbij fyad tks foftV dj fy;k x;k gS dk fMQkYV
dyj cny ldrs gaSA ;wt+j blds fy, dyj dk uke vFkok mldk gsDlkMsfley dksM crk
ldrk gSA
osc ist esa fyad Vsx ls cuk, tkrs gaSA ds e/; dqN Hkh fy[kk gks og gkbij fyad@gkWV
LikV cu tkrk gSA fdlh gkbij fyad ij fDyd djus ij] og fdlh vU; osc ist ;k best ij pyk tkrk ¼Navigate ½ gSA
ftl MkWD;wesUV ij tkuk gks mls n'kkZuk vko';d gSA blds fy, Vsx dk HREF ,VªhC;wV dk mi;ksx dj vxys osc
ist vFkok best dks n'kkZ,xsaaA
izk:i%
izk:i%
izk:i%
gkbij fyad nks izdkj ds gksrs gSa ckgjh MkD;wesUV ls fyad djuk vFkok mlh MkD;wesUV esa fdlh fo'ks"k LFkku ij fyad
djuk ¼tEi½A
ckgjh ckgjh MkWD;wesUV MkWD;wesUV lanHkZ lanHkZ (External Document References)
mnkgj.k% mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
Visit my Home Page
;gk¡ Visit my Home Page ,d gkbij fyad cu tk,xk tks fd nwljs MkWD;wesUV details.htm ls fyad dj nsrk gSA
tks fd mlh dk;Zdkjh Mk;jsDVªh esa miyC/k gSA ;fn Qkby mlh Mk;jsDVªh esa miyC/k ugha gS rks mldk fjysfVo ;k ,clksY;wV
ikFk crkuk i

189
a D;ksafd fdlh crkbZ xbZ yksds'ku ij ig¡qpuk gS vr% iwoZ dh rjg bls nks inksa esa djuk vko';d gSA tSls fd yksds'ku dks
mlds uke ls igpkuuk fQj ml uke ls yksds'ku ij ig¡qpukA ;gk¡ vUrj flQZ ;g gS fd file_name.htm vc vHkh dke
vk jgh (Current) QkbZy gSA
çk:i%
çk:i%
…………
vFkkZr file_name.htm dk # fpUg ls iwoZ ugha gksuk n'kkZrk gS fd ;gk¡ mlh leku MkWD;wesUV esa igqpuk vko';d gSA
fdUrq ;gk¡ ;g iDdk dj ys fd HTML QkbZy dk yksds'ku dk uke crk;k x;k gksA
best best gkbij gkbij fyad fyad dh dh rjg rjg (Images as Hyper Links)
ftl izdkj VsDLV gkbij fyad dh rjg O;ogkj djrk gS] mlh izdkj best Hkh gkbij fyad dh rjg O;ogkj
dj ldrh gSA tSlk ns[kk x;k gS fd Vsx ds e/; esa dqN Hkh Mkyk tk,] ;g gkWVLikV cu tkrk gSA blh
izdkj Vsx dks ds chp j[kdj ,d best dks Hkh gkWVLikV cuk;k tk ldrk gSA Vsx best
dks LØhu ij j[krk gS D;ksfd Vsx ds e/; gS] vr% ;g gkWVLikV cu tkrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
;gk¡ mouse.gif gkWVLikV dh rjg O;ogkj djxh vkSj details.htm QkbZy ij ys tk,xhA
best best esi esi (Image Map)
tc fdlh best ij gkbij fyad cuk;k tkrk gSa rks best ds fdlh Hkh Hkkx esa fDyd djus ij ;g
Vsx esa crk, MkWD;wesUVij ys tkrk gSA ;fn best cM+h gS vkSj ,d gh best ls ,d ls vf/kd MkWD;wesUV fyad djus dh
vko';drk gks rks ;gk¡ ,d rduhd gS tks best dks fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa foHkDr djrh gS vkSj gj Hkkx ls vyx MkWD;wesUV fyad
djrh gS og rduhd best esi gSA fdlh best ij best esi cuk, ,oe~ iz;qDr fd;s tkrs ga S rkfd mlesa crk, x, Hkkx fdlh
fHkUu QkbZy@best ls fyad fd, tk ldsA
fdlh best esi ds ;s fyUdM~ {ks= mlds gkWV Hkkx dgykrs gSaA izR;sd gkWV Hkkx fdlh ,d filename.htm ls lEcfU/
kr jgrk gS tc ;g gkWV Hkkx fyad gksrk gS rks czkmtj ml filename.htm ij ys tkrk gSA best esi cukuk Hkh nks inks dk
izkslsl gSA
in in ,d ,d % % best esi cukuk vFkkZr best dks fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa ckVukA blds fy, Vsx dk bLrseky djrs
gSA Vsx NAME ,VªhC;wV ysrk gS ftlds }kjk HTML QkbZy esa esi dks lanfHkZr fd;k tk ldrk gSa
çk:i çk:i %
%
Vsx ds e/; Vsx crk;k tkrk gSA ;g Vsx best ds vUnj dksbZ fo'ks"k Hkkx ifjHkkf"kr
djrk gSA Vsx fofHkUu ,VªhC;wV ysrk gSA ;s ,VªhC;wV fuEu gSA
SHAPE ml Hkkx dh vkd`fr fuEu esa ls dksbZ Hkh gks ldrk gSA jsDVsaxy] lfdZy] ikWyhxu] fMQkYVA
COORDS Åij crkbZ 'ksi fofHkUu funsZ'kkad isjkehVj ysrh gSA
,d jsDVsaxy pkj funsZ'kkad ysxk % X1, Y1, X2, Y2
,d LkfdZy nks ;k rhu funsZ'kkad ysxk% dsUnz fcUnq] lfdZy ifjefr ds funsZ'kkad o f=T;kA
,d ikWyhxu rhu ;k vf/kd funsZ'kkadks ds tksM+s tks ikyhxu ds Hkkx dks crkrs gS mls ysxkA
,d fMQkYV 'ksi dksbZ isjkehVj ugh ysrh ;g best ds ml Hkkx dks tks Vsx esa ugha

crk;k x;k gS dks n'kkZrk gSA
190
HREF ;g] .htm file dk uke, tks fdlh fo'ks"k ,fj;k ls lEcfU/kr gS] ysrk gSA
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
in in nks nks % % ;g best esi dks fdlh fo'ks"k ¼crkbZ xbZ½ best ls lEcfU/kr djrk gSA blds fy, Vsx ,d ,VªhC;wV tksfd
USEMAP dgykrk gS] ysrk gSA og best esi dk uke ,d osY;w dh rjg ysrk gS vkSj mlls lEcfU/kr best ds esi
LisflfQds'ku esa iz;ksx (Apply) djrk gSA ;g osY;w ges'kk # fpUg vius iwoZ j[krh gSA
izk:i% izk:i%
izk:i%
mnkgj.k%
mnkgj.k%
osc ist cukus dh dyk eq[;r% mlds leLr Vsx o Vsx ,VªhC;wV~l ¼tgka iz;qDr gks½ dh dk;Ziz.kkyh tkuus esa fufgr
gSA ;g dyk vko';drk vuqlkj cgqrlkjh VsDLV lwpuk dks QkesZV djus ,oe~ osc lkbV ij mi;ksx esa ysus esa vko';d gSA
blds fy, fuEu n`"VkUrh; mnkgj.k mi;ksxh gSA
Illustration Example 1
Example Program
This is heading level 1
This text is bold
This text is italics
Now this text is underlined!!
Now this text with different style!!
Output:

191
ASP (Active Server Page)
,s- ,s- ,s- ,l- ,l- ,l- ih-¼,fDVo ih-¼,fDVo loZj loZj ist½
ist½
ASP ,d microsoft technology gS tks internet vkSj web pages ds chp interaction djkrh gSA ;g dsoy HTML
Language dk ,d extension gS tks server side ij execute gksrh gSA blesa client - Browser dk use ugha gksrk gSA blesa
lkjk dke server ij gh gksrk gSA
For eg. client dh request ij server HTML page generate djrk gS ftls client directly, client Browser ij ns[k
ldrk gSA
ASP dk use djds ge web pages generate (cuk) ldrs gSa vkSj information dks dynamically display dj ldrs
gSA
ASP dk iwjk uke Active Server Pages gSA tSlk fd blds uke ls gh irk pyrk gS fd ;g ,d server side
programming application gSA ASP esa client, web-server ds ikl viuh request Hkstrk gSA server ml request dks iwjk
djrk gS vkSj vkmViqV dks client browser ds ikl Hkst nsrk gS vkSj client mls browser ij ns[k ldrk gSA
SERVER
(ASP)
PROCESSING
AT SERVER SIDE
Server - Side Processing
fp= fp= 1 1 & & Client - Side Processing
CLIENT
BROWSER

192
ASP file dk extension .ASP gksrk gS vkSj ;g file server ij Hksts tkus ls igys execute gks tkrh gS vkSj vko';d
lwpukvksa dh client side ij izLrqr djrh gSA ;g file, text editor esa (Notepad) esa cuk;h tkrh gS vkSj save djrs le;
"Filename. asp" ls IIS (Internet Information Services) ls cus folder (www root) esa save dh tkrh gSA
ASP dh dh fo'ks"krk,¡&
fo'ks"krk,¡&
1- ;g lwpuk,¡ j[kus esa enn djrk gS vkSj server ls iwjh lwpuk,¡ access djus esa enn djrk gSA
2- ;g server Lrj ij user dh vko';drkvksa ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx processes dks perform djus esa enn djrk gSA
3- ;g Active-XData objects ds lkFk dke djrk gS ftlls vfrfjDr fØ;kdyki miyC/k gks ldsA
4- ;g web ij Server application esa dke esa yh tkrh gS ftlls gesa online lqfo/kk fey tkrh gSA
5- ;g nwljh script languages dh rqyuk esa compatible gSA
ASP Code
ASP ds code rks fuEu izdkj ls fy[krs gSa&
syntax : < % ............... % >
;g delimiter dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA
ASP esa tks Hkh code fy[kk tkrk gS blh delimiter ds vUnj fy[ks tkrs gSA
Example :
< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript + % >
< % Hello World % >
< % = now %>
Note :
< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % >
bl statement ls irk pyrk gS fd ge ASP esa code fy[k jgs gSaA vxj ge ;g code dke esa ugha ysrs gSa rks ;g By
default VBScript language ekuh tkrh gSA
ASP dks close djus ds fy;s script tag dke esa fy;k tkrk gS&
Syntax :
% >
Example :-
First. asp
< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % >
< % name="yeshu"Assign the name string
Value to the name variable % >
< % "Hi" & name % >
< % = "This is my first ASP file" % >
gksrk gSA
ASP dh file By_default Active server_document ds :i esa save gksrh gS ;g icon document Left side ij cuk
fp= 2 & Output Diagram

193
ASP code dks dks execute (Run) djus djus dk dk rjhdk rjhdk &
&
ASP ds code dks dsoy server machine ij gh run fd;k tk ldrk gS ;fn ge PC ij ;g run djkuk pkgrs gS rks
gesa IIS dh vko';drk gksrh gSA IIS - (Internet Information Service) service }kjk ge PC dks local Host cukdj ASP
esa cuh gqbZ file dks client machine ij run djk ldrs gSaA
Client e'khu dks Host cukus ds fy;s fuEufyf[kr pj.kksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS&
1. Start Button - Setting option control panel vkSj Add/Remove Program Icon dk pquko djsaA
2- Add / Remove Windows Components esa ls Add / Remove window dk p;u djsaA
3- ;g window compnents dh fyLV n'kkZ;sxh blesa ls IIS ds check box dks pquuk iM+sxkA blds ckn ok ij click
djsaA
4- blds ckn Inetpub uke dk QksYMj C:\drive ;k root directory esa cu tk;sxkA
5- blds vUnj ,d sub directory gksrh gS ftldk uke wwwroot gksrk gSA
6- blds ckn ge wwwroot directory esa vius uke dk folder cuk;saxs vkSj asp esa cuh gqbZ file dks vius uke ds folder
esa save djsxsaA
7- cuh gqbZ asp file dks run djus ds fy;s ge brower window es a fuEufyf[kr URL dk mi;ksx djrs gSA
URL = "http:// localhotst/foldername/file name. asp"
8- Enter djus ij file esa cus gqbZ code dk output gesa browser ij iznf’kZr gks tkrk gSA
ASP dh dh mi;ksfxrk mi;ksfxrk &
&
1- ;g Qkbyksa dks rFkk lwpukvksa dks lk>s es a j[kus o mi;ksx djus es a enn djrk gSA bl dEI;wVj dks Server dgk tkrk
gSA
2- ;g loZj ysoy ij fdlh okafNr dk;Z ds fy;s mi;ksxh gksrk gSA
3- ;g vU; izkslsl dks djus ds fy;s ActiveX data vkCtsDV dh enn ysrk gSA
4- ;g online lqfo/kk;sa miyC/k djkus esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
5- ;g VB Script ds vykok Hkh vU; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kkvksa dks lg;ksx djrk gSA
mijksDr mi;ksfxrkvksa dk vUr ugha gS D;ksafd ASP vkt edge-marked technology ds :i esa dk;Z dj jgk gSA
PHP ¼ykbusDl ¼ykbusDl osc osc loZj loZj ij½
ij½
PHP okLro esa Personal Home page tools gS tks Hypertext preprocessor ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA bl rduhd dks
ASP ds LFkku ij Script cukus esa dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftldk Interpreter vklkuh ls miyC/k gSA ;g eq[; :i ls Linux
web servers ds fy;s mi;ksx esa ykbZ tkrh gSA PHP Script dks HTML ds lkFk dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA ftl osc loZj }kjk
PHP Scripts dks Interpret fd;k tkrk gS] og PHP loZj dgykrk gSA fdlh PHP dh QkbZy dks .PHP, .PHP3, ;k PHTML
vuqyXu fn;k tkrk gSA ASP dh gh rjg PHP dks Hkh Mk;usfed HTML ist cukus es a dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA
JSP
tkok loZj ist ,d VsDuksyksth gS ftls servlets ds lg;ksx ls web page esa dUVªksfyax o appearence ds fy;s dke esa
fy;k tkrk gSA Servelet NksVs izksxzke gksrs gSa tks web pages dks ;wtj rd Hkstus ls igys Modify fd;k tkrk gSA bls Servelet
Application Program Interface ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA
Variables & Constants
pj pj vkSj vkSj vpj
vpj
Variables :- Variables ,d container ds leku gksrs gSa ftlls ge vius data store djrs rFkk gSa mls change ¼cny½
Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Variable Declaration :-
< % dim X, Y, % >
DIM :- Variable declaration esa ge DIM commond dks use esa ysrs gSaA DIM dk iwjk uke dimensions gksrk gSA
Variabel Initialization :-
X = 20
Example :
< % DIM X, Y
X = 20 Initialization

T = X * X Manipulation
194
X = Y * X Assigning
% >
ge variable esa data dks store dj ldrs gSa initialization ds le; ijUrq variable dk declaration vkSj initialization ge
,d lkFk ugha dj ldrs gSaA tSls mnkgj.k ds fy, &
Example :
< % Roll no = 100
Name = 'Naman' % >
;gh lgh gSA
Example :
< % DIM Roll no = 100
DIM Name = "Name" % >
;g mnkgj.k xyr gSa D;ks afd blesa declaration vkSj initialization nksuksa ,d lkFk gks jgs gSaA
* Data Types :- ;g t:jh ugha gS dh tks data ge variable esa store dj jgs gSa oks ,d number ¼la[;k½ gh gksA og
data fdlh Hkh rjg dk gks ldrk gS tSls dh fdlh dk uke] irk] tUe fnukad vkfnA blfy, fdl rjg dk data ges a variable
esa store djuk gS] bls irk yxkus ds fy, gesa data type mi;ksx esa ysus iM+rs gSaA Asp language esa fuEufyf[kr izdkj ds data
type iz;ksxksa esa fy, tkrs gSaA
* Variant :- yxHkx lHkh languages esa data variables fdlh Hkh ,d specified type ds data dks gh store djrs gSaA
Example :
int X, Y;
char ch;
bl mnkgj.k esa X, Y variable dsoy integer type dh value dks gh store djsxs a vksj ch variable dsoy character value
dks gh store djsaxsA ijUrq VB script language gesa ,d ,slk feature nsrh gS] ftlesa ge ,d gh variable esa vyx & vyx
type dk data store dj ldrs gSaA
tSls dh mnkgj.k ds fy, &
< % DIM X
X = 12
X = "hello world"
% >
Note : ;fn fdlh Variable X esa ,d number value assigned dh xbZ gS rks ;g automatically gh integer data type
cu tk;sxk vkSj ckn esa blh X variable esa ,d string store djk;h xbZ gS rks ;g vc automaically or implicitly gh string
data type dgyk,xkA Bydefault ftrus Hkh variable VB scipt code esa fy[ks tkrs gSa og variant type ds dgykrs gSaA
*VB Script Data Type :
Table 1 ASP Script Data Type
________________________________________________________________________
Sub Type Range and value Description Storage Size
________________________________________________________________________
Byte Number value ranging for 0-255(no decimals) 1 byte
Integer Number value ranging for -32,768 to 32,768 (no decimals) 2 byte
Long Number value ranging for -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648 (no decimals) 4 byte
Single Floating-Point Number ranging from (-3.402823E38 to-1.401298E-45)
to (1.401298E-45 to 3.402823E38) 4 byte
Double Floating-Point Number ranging from
(1.79769313486232E to -4.94065645841247E-324) to
(4.94065645841247E-324 to 1.79769313486232E to) 8 byte
String A set/sequence of Characters that can go up to 2 billion in length 10 byte
Date Date ranging from january 1,100 to December 31, 9999 8 byte
Boolean True/False 2 byte

195
Currency Number ranging from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5808 8 byte
Object Object reference 4 byte
________________________________________________________________________
1. Integer :- Integer data type dsoy number dks gh store djrk gS] ;g n'keyo (decimal) or floating point
la[;kvksa dks sotre ugha djrk gSA
Size - 2 bytes
Range - -32, 768 to 32, 767
Example :
1,76.5, 48 ÷
22.88 ×
2. Long :- ;g data type fcYdqy integer type dk tSlk gh gksrk gS ijUrq ;g integer ls Hkh T;knk data store dj
ldrk gSA
Size - 4 bytes
Range - 2147483648 to 2147483648
Example :
71890
3. Single & Double : - ;g data types n'keyo (decimal) la[;kvks a dks store djrs gSaA
tSls dh mngkj.k ds fy, & 989
Single :-
Size - 4 bytes
Range - (3.402823E38 to -1.401298 E - 45) to (1.401298E - 45 to 3.402823 E 38)
Double :-
Size - 8 bytes
4. String :- String data type vkSj nwljs data type esa ;g varj gS dh nwljs data types flQZ numbers gh store djrs
gSa tcfd string data type alphnumeric values dks stores djrs gSaA tSls dh gesa dksbZ address ;k fdlh dk uke store djuk
gS rks ge string data type dks dke esa ysxsaA
Example :
Name - "Sahil"
Size - 10 bytes
5. Date :- ;g data type, date dks store djus ds fy, iz;ksx esa fy;k tkrk gSA data dks ges'kk # ds vUnj enclosed
fd;k tkrk gSA
Example :
Date of birth - # 04/12/1978 #
Size - 8 bytes
Note : vxj ge data dks # ds vUnj enclosed ugha djs
axs rks computer bls ,d expression le>sxk vkSj buds chp
esa tks (hash) dk fpUg gS oks Hkkx ds fpUg dh rjg dk;Z djsxkA
6. Boolean :- Boolean rjg dk data type dsoy nks gh value dks store djrk gsA og value lgh vkSj xyrA (True
or False)
Size - 2 Bytes
7. Currency :- ;g data type real uEcj vkSj floating point la[;kvksa dks gh store djus ds dke esa vkrk gS ijUrq blesa
n'keyo ds ckn dsoy 2 la[;k,¡ gh vk ldrh gSaA
Constants :- tSlk dh buds uke ls gh irk pyrk gS fd constants dh value dHkh Hkh change ugha gksrh gSA ,d
ckj tc budks value assigned dj nh tkrh gS rks iwjs program esa budh value leku gh jgrh gSA constant variable dks
declared djus ds fy, gesa const key_word iz;ksx es ysrs gaSA
Example :
< % const varname = 1967 % >

196
vc varname uked ds variable dk eku ges'kk 1967 gh jgsxkA bls ge cny ugha ldrs gSa D;ks afd ;g constant gSA
Constant Variable dk eku ges'kk declaration ds le; esa fn;k tkrk gSA
* Imiplicit & Explicit Declarations :- cgqr lkjh languages ¼Hkk"kkvksa½ ds vUnj compiler vkSj parser xyrhvksa dks
code esa iz;ksx esa ysrs gSa ij mls declare ugha djrs gSaA
Example :
< % X - 20
Y - 12
Z - X + Y % >
bl code essa X vkSj Y variable esa value assign dh tk jgh gS] tcfd blesa X, Y Variable dks declare ugha fd;k x;k
rks bl code esa compile error ¼xyrh½ crk,xkA ysfdu VB Script language bydefault gesa ,slk feature nsrh gS ftles a vxj
ge variable dks declare u Hkh djsa rks og bls implicitly declare dj nsxkA
Example :-
< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % >
< %
Rate = 20
Principal = 300
Time_yrs = 10
Simp_intrst = (Principal * Rate * Time_yrs)/100
< %
< % =Simp_intrst%>
(/HTML)
Explicit Declaration :- vxj ge code esa explicit declaration ds option dk iz;ksx djrs gS rks gesa variable dks DIM
keyword dk iz;ksx djds declare djuk t:jh gksrk gS ojuk compiler code esa xyrh crk,xkA
Example :
< % @ LANGUAGE = VBScript % >
< %Option Explicit % >
< %
DIM Rate, principal, Time_yrs, Simp_intrst
Rate = 20
Principal = 300
Time_yrs = 10
Simp_intrst = (Principal * Rate * Time_yrs)/100
< %
< % =Simp_intrst%>
Naming Conventions :- VB script ds vUnj gesa variable ds data type dks crkuk ;k fy[kuk t:jh ugha gksrkA

197
blls ge fdlh Hkh rjg dh value variable esa store dj ldrs gSaA ysfdu blls programmers dks leL;k vkrh gSA og lh/
ks ;g crk ugha ldrs dh variable us fdlh rjg ds eku dks store fd;k gSA bl leL;k ds fuokj.k ds fy, ge prefix dke
esa ysrs gSaA blesa ge variable ds vkxs ge i yxk nsA ftlls dh le> esa vk tk, dh ;g integers variable gSA
Table 2 Prefix for Different Data Types
Data Type of the variable Prefix Example
Integer i RoolNo
Long int IngSequence
Single sng sngtempratjre
Double dbl dblexpense
String str strname
Date dt dtjoining
Boolean bol/bool boolflag
Currency cur cursalary
Array arr arremployee
Object obj objcontent
Operators & Expressions
vWkijsVj vWkijsVj vkSj vkSj vkSj ,Dlizs’ku
,Dlizs’ku
Operators :- VB script ASP dh ,d default language gSA blesa dbZ operation gksrs gSA ftUgsa declare djus dh
vko';drk ugha gksrh gS mUgsa ge lh/ks gh dke esa ys ldrs gSA
Example :
< % Z = X + Y % >
;gka X, Y vkSj Z operands gS ftu ij tksM+ vkSj assignment operation fd;k x;k gS vkSj +, = nksuksa operators gS tks
fd operation (task) djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;s x;s gSA Operator og symbol ¼fpUg½ gS tks fd dqN fo'ks"k dke dks djus
ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gS tSls fd $ tksMus ds fy;s & ?kVkus ds fy;sA
Operands :Operands Variables ;k constants ;k value gksrh gS ftu ij ge operation (task) perform djrs gSA
Categories of Operators :
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. String Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators : lkekU;r% tksM (+), ?kVkuk (-), xq.kk (×), Hkkx (/) gksrs gaSA ;g ckbujh operators dgykrs
gSaA ftUgsa dke esa ysus ds fy;s nks operands dh vko';drk gksrh gaSA Unary operators og operators ftUgsa dke esa ysus ds
fy;s dsoy ,d operand dh gh vko';drk gksrh gSA
Unary operators : Unary dk vFkZ ,d Unary + operator : ;g operator variable ds igys yxk;k tkrk gS tks fd
[kqn dh value dks represent djrk gSA
Example :
10 for < % a = 10 % >
-5 for < % a = -5 % >
bl izdkj Li"V gS fd result vkSj argument dh value nksuksa leku gSA
Unary (-) operator : ;g operator variable ds igys yxk;k tkrk gS tks Negative value dks represent djrk gSA ;fn
operand dks value positive gS rks result negative gksxkA
Example :
10 for < % a = -10 % >
-5 for < % a = 5 % >

198
Binary Operators : (Binary dk dk vFkZ vFkZ nks
nks) nks
1. Addition (+) - Operator : blds fy;s nks operands dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS ,d nk;ka vkSj ,d ck;ka operand.
Example :
< % S = 10 + 27 % >
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa ck;ka operands 10 vkSj nk;ka operand 27 gS bldk ifj.kke 37 gksxkA
2. Binary Substraction Operator (-) :
blds fy;s Hkh nks operands ,d ck;ha vksj rFkk nwljh nk;ha vksj gksrs gSa dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
Example :
< % S = 27 - 10 % >
bldk ifj.kke 17 gksxkA
3. Multiplication Operator (*) :
;g operator nks operands dks xq.kk djus ds fy;s dke esa fy;k tkrk gSA
Example :
< % X = 8.5
Y = 7 * X % >
bldk ifj.kke Y = 7 * 8.5 = 59.5 gksxkA
4. Division Operator (/) :
;g operator nks operands dk Hkkx djus ds fy;s dke vkrk gSA
Example :
< % = 70 / 13 % >
bldk ifj.kke 5-38 gksxkA
5. Modules Operators, Mod ('ks"kQy 'ks"kQy 'ks"kQy) 'ks"kQy
;g operator nks operands ;k values ds Hkkx ds 'ks"kQy dks izkIr djus ds fy;s dke es a fy;k tkrk gS SA
Example :
43
3 131
12
< % = 131 mod 3 % >
11
9
2
ifj.kke 2 gksxkA tks fd 'ks"kQy gS cka;h vksj dh value dks nk;ha vksj fd value ls Hkkx nsus ij izkIr gqvkA
6. Power operator ^ :- ¼?kkr½
¼?kkr½
a
;g operator igys operand dks nk;ha vksj ds operand ds number ds cjkcj xq.kk djrk gSA
Example :
< % = 2^ 3 % >
eryc (means) 2 ^ 3 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
Comparison Operators
VB Script vkSj ASP es dbZ comparison operators gS ftUgsa Relatioship operators Hkh dgk tkrk gS tks fd rqyuk djus
ds fy;s dke esa fy;s tkrs gS ;g nks values dh rqyuk ;k lEcU/k crkus esa dke vkrs gSA
Example :
1. Greater than ( > ) ¼cMk½
2. Greater than equal to ( > = ) (cMk ;k cjkcj)
3. Less than ( < ) (NksVk)
4. Less than equal to ( < = ) (NksVk ;k cjkcj)
5. Not equal to ( < > ) (vleku)
6. equal to ( = ) (cjkcj)
;g Hkh ckbujh operators gksrs gSA

199
Table 1 Results of these comparison operation
X Y X < Y X > Y X = Y X = Y X Y
4 2 FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE
2 4 TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE
2 2 FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
Logical Operators
Logical Operators comparison operators dks tksM+us (combine) ds dke vkrs gSA ;g lk/kkj.k comparisom
expression dks tfVy expression esa cnyus ds fy;s dke vkrs gSaA
N% N% izdkj izdkj ds ds ds Logical operators gksrs gksrs gksrs gS gS tks tks tks bl bl izdkj izdkj gS&
gS&
1. AND Operator :- ;g nks comparison expression dks tksMrk gS vkSj True (1) vkSj False (0) mRrj nsrk gS tks
fd operands ij fuHkZj djrk gSA ;fn nksuksa operands true gksrs gSa rks ;g true mRrj djrk gS vU;Fkk false.
Syntax :
Left Opernad AND Right Operand
Table 2 Truth Table for AND Opertator
P Q P AND Q
FALSE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
TRUE TRUE TRUE
Example :
X > 20 AND Y < 10
If x = 10
Y = 5
(False) (True) = False
rc first condition false ¼xyr½ vkSj nwljh condition lgh gksxh ,slh fLFkfr esa AND operator false (xyr) (return)
mŸkj nsxkA
2. OR Operator :- ;g Hkh comparison expression dks tksMus ds dke vkrk gS vkSj true (1) rc return djrk gS ;fn
,d Hkh operand true gSaA ;fn nksuksa operands false gS] rks ;g false return djrk gSA
Syntax :
Left operand OR Right operand
Example :
X = 10
Y = 5
X > 20 OR Y < 10
(False) OR (True) = True
Table 3 Truth Table for OR Opertator
P Q P AND Q
FALSE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
TRUE TRUE TRUE
3. NOT Operator :- ;g ,d unary (,d) Operator gS D;ksafd ;g dsoy ,d operand ij gh dk;Z djrk gS vkSj ;g
negation operator (ukdkjkRd) gSA tks fd true dk false vkSj false dk true mÙkj nsrk gSA
Syntax :
NOT operand
Example :
< % X = 17

200
Y = 4 % >
1. < % = NOT X < Y % >
= NOT False
True
Table 4 Truth Table for NOT Opertator
Q Not Q
FALSE TRUE
TRUE FALSE
4. XOR Operator :- ;g exclusive OR dh (short form) laf{kIr :i gS ;g nks comparison operator dks tksM+us
ds dke vkrk gS vkSj output true return djrk gS ;fn ,d Hkh operand true gSA
Table 5 Truth Table for XOR Opertator
P Q P AND Q
FALSE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
TRUE TRUE FALSE
Example :
(i)
< % X = 25
Y = - 5 % >
< % = X > Y XOR Y > = 0 % >
= True XOR False
= True
(ii)
Example :
< % = X > Y XOR Not (Y > = 0) %>
= True XOR True
= False
X = 10
Y = 5
X > 20 OR Y < 10
(False) OR (True) = True
Syntax :
Left operand XOR operand
5. EQV Operator :- EQV Operator XOR Operator ls foijhr gksrk gSA ;fn nksuksa Operands True gks rks gh ;g
true return djrk gS vU;Fkk nksuksa false gks rks true return djrk gS nksuksa vyx&vyx nksuksa ij ;g false return djrk gSA
Syntax :
Left operand EQV right operand
Table 6 Truth Table for EQV Opertator
P Q P AND Q
FALSE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
TRUE TRUE TRUE
6. IMP Operator :- ;g ,d order sensitive operator gS ¼Øe ds vuqlkj½ tks fd logical implication dks perform
djus ds dke vkrk gSA Operands dk Øe bl operator ds use dks izHkkfor djrk gSA
Syntax :
Left operand Imp Right operand
Table 7 Truth Table for IMP Opertator

201
P Q P AND Q
FALSE FALSE TRUE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
TRUE TRUE TRUE
Implication esa False False gks ldrk gS] False True Hkh gks ldrk] True True gks ldrk gS ysfdu True False ugha
gks ldrkA
STRING OPERATORS
String Operators dk mi;ksx String Operands ij fd;k tkrk gSA ;g Operator dsoy String Operands ds lkFk gh
dke vkrk gSA
nks nks izdkj izdkj ds ds string operators gksrs gksrs gS&
gS&
& (For concatenation) (tksMuk)
+ (For string concatenation)
(String tksMus ds fy,)
nksuksa operators dk string dks tksMus dk dke djrs gSa ysfdu nksuksa ftl izdkj dke djrs gS og rjhdk vyx gksrk gSA
& (concatenation) operator : ;g operator nwljs operand dks igys operand ds ihNs tksMus ds dke vkrk
gSA
Example :
ifj.kke %
< % A = "Hello"
B = "World" % >
< % A & B % >
Hello World
;g operator u dsoy string dks tksMrk gS cfYd variables, uEcj vkSj data variable dks Hkh tksM ldrk gSA
Example :
< % Z = 18 % >
< % = "Anjali" & Z % >
ifj.kke
Anjali 18
+ string operator : ;g operator dsoy string operands ds lkFk gh dke gh dke djrk gS & operator dh rjg ;g
vyx&vyx data type ds lkFk dke ugha djrk gSA
Example :
< % A = "Hello"
B = "Amit" % >
< % A + B % >
ifj.kke Hello Amit
bl izdkj ;g Hkh igys operand ds ckn nwljs operand dks tksM+ nsrk gSA nksuksa dk eq[; vUrj ;g gS fd &
concatenation operator nwljs data type ds lkFk dke dj ldrk gS ysfdu string + concatenation operator dsoy string
operator ds lkFk gh dke djrk gS vU; data type ds lkFk ;g error generate djrk gSA
Expressions
Expression : tc ,d ;k T;knk operations ,d lkFk ,d gh operators vkSj operands dh form esa fy[ks tkrs gSA
operands constants vkSj varicable nksuksa gks ldrk gSA
Example :
< % Temp_fahrnht = (9/5)* Temp_ celsius) + 32% >

202
Table 8 Precedence order list of various operator
________________________________________________________________________
Precedence Operator Name of the Operator
___________________________________________________________________________________
Highest ^ Power Operator
*, /,\ Multiplication, Division and Integer Division Operators
Mod Modulus Operator
+, - Addition and subtraction Operators
&,+ String Operators
=, , =, Comparison Operators
Not Logical Negation Operator
And" Logical Conjunction operator
OR Logical Disjunction operator
XOR Logical Exclusion Operator
EQV Logical equivalence Operator
Lowest IMP Logical Implication Operator
___________________________________________________________________________________
mijksDr expression esa rhu operators mudk operation perform djrs gSaA igys (9/5) run gksxh D;ksafd og left
operand gksxh vkSj blds ckn bldk ifj.kke +operator ds lkFk run gksxk vkSj vafre ifj.kke vk;sxkA
VB Script ohchfLØIV ohchfLØIV
VBScript ,d fLØfIVax ySaXost gS] ftls fotqvy csfld uked çksxzkfeax ySaXost ls Msjkbo fd;k x;k gS] vr% ;g vU; fLØfIVax
ySaXost tSls JScript, C# bR;kfn dh rqyuk esa lh[kus esa vklku gS A VBScript ,d bUVjçsVsM ySaXost gS( vr% blesa fy[ks x,
çksxzkeksa dks mlh bUok;esUV esa ju fd;k tk ldrk gS] ftlesa bldk bUVjçsVj bUlVky gks A VBScript dk ç;ksx dj istksa dks
bUVªSfDVo cukus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS A VBScript ds dksM dks HTML ds lkFk lfEefyr :i ls ç;ksx dj istksa ds dUVsUV~l
dks LVSfVd ds ctk, ,fDVo cuk;k tk ldrk gS A fofnr gks fd VBScript, ASP istks a dks fØ,V djus ds fy, fMQkYV yS aXost gS A
vki VBScript ds lkFk mi;qDr daVªksYl dk ç;ksx dj osc istksa ij 3-D ,fues’ku çHkkoksa dks Hkh fØ,V dj ldrs gSa] ftlls vki
vius osc istksa dks dgha vf/kd vkd"kZd cuk ldrs gSa A VBScript vkSj HTML dk la;qDr ç;ksx dj fØ,V fd, ,d osc ist dks
n’kkZ;k x;k gS] rFkk bl osc ist ds dksM dks n’kkZ;k x;k gS] tks ;g n’kkZrk gS fd bUVªSfDVo osc istksa dks fØ,V djus ds fy, fdl
rjg VBScript dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS A
vH;kl vH;kl iz'u
iz'u
ww
cgqp;ukRed cgqp;ukRed iz'u
iz'u
1- www gS \
(v) MkVk csl (c) bUVjusV
(l) v vkSj c (n) dksbZ ugh
2- ml izksVksdksy dk uke crk;s tks ij MkVk ,lsl djus ds fy, iz;qDr gksrk gSA
(v) HTML (c) HTTP
(l) v vkSj c (n) dksbZ ugha
3- fuEu esa fo"ke (Odd) oLrq NkfV,\
(v) bUVjusV ,DlIyksjj (c) usV Ldsi usfoxsVj
(l) foMkst+ 2000
4- ,d osc dusD'ku j[krk gS\
(n) eksts+d
(v) MsaLdVkWi ;k DykabV dEI;wVj (c) baVjusV ,lsl izksokbZMj
(l) dE;wfuds'ku usVodZ (n) mijksDr lHkh
5- gkWLV dEI;wVj MsLdVkWi dEI;wVj ls bl izdkj fHkUu gS fd ;g lHkkyrk gS\
(v) eYVhIyl dusD'ku (c) flaxy dusD'ku
(l) uks dusD'ku
6- osc ist cukus ds fy, D;k vko';d gS\
(n) mijksDr lHkh
(v) VsDLV ,fMVj (c) osc czkmtj

203
(l) v vkSj c (n) dksbZ ugh
7- fuEu esa ls fdl Vsx dh lgk;rk ls isjkxzkQ cuk, tkrs gS\
(v) (c)
(l) (n) dksbZ ugha
8- fuEu esa ls dkSu lk Vsx bVkfyDl djus ds fy, gS\
(v) (c)
(l) (n) dksbZ ugha
9- osc ist ds fdl Hkkx esa Vsx mi;ksx esa vkrk gS\
(v) gSfMax (c) ckWMh
(l) QqVuksV
10- Vsx fdrus izdkj ds gksrs gS\
(n) dksbZ Hkh txg
(v) 4
11- HTML Vsx can jgrs gS\
(c) 3 (l) 2 (n) 1
(v) dks.kd dks"Bdksa esa (c) dks"Bdksa esa
(l) ea>ys dks"Bd esa
vfry?kqmRrjkRed vfry?kqmRrjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1- URL dk mnkgj.k fy[ks\
(n) dksbZ ugha
2- fofHkUu osc czkmt+j ds uke lwph c) djsa\
3- fuEu laf{kIr izk:i dk foLrkj fdft,\
(v) URL (c) HTTP (l) FTP (n) WWW
4- osc lkbZV dks dgk¡ ij j[kuk pkfg,\
5- osc loZj D;k gS\
6- osc ist esa fiDpj bUlVZ djus ds fy, dkSu lk Vsx mi;ksxh gS\
7- fdlh osc ist esa vki lcfLØIV fdl izdkj fy[k ldrs gS mnkgj.k fnft,\
8- osc ist esa QkesZfVax ds fy, mi;ksxh dekaM lwph c) djs aA
9- HTML esa dkSu ls fiDpj QkWesZV ekU; gS\
y?kq y?kq mRrjkRed mRrjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1- fdrus izdkj ds lsD'ku gSfMax gksrs gS] mnkgj.k nhft,\
2- Vsx fdl izdkj dk;Z djrk gS] mnkgj.k ls le>kb,\
3- Øe okyh fyLV cukus dk izk:i fyf[k;s ,oe~ blds uEcfjax Øe dks cnyus dk ,VªhC;wV Hkh crkbZ,A
4- Vsx ds leLr ,VªhC;wV~l ds lkFk izk:i fyf[k,\
5- best esi }kjk dkSu dkSu lh 'ksi ys ldrs gS crkb,\
fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed iz'u
iz'u
1- ,d MkWD;wesUV dk fuekZ.k fdft, ftlesa ckgjh MkWD;wesUV ds nks fyad gks ftlesa igyk fyad ckgjh MkWD;wesUV ds izkajHk
ij ys tk, ,oe~ nwljk fyad crkbZ xbZ fdlh fo'ks"k txg ij ys tk,A vko';d Assumption bLrseky djsaA
2- fdlh HTML MkWD;wesUV cukus ,oe~ ju djus ds fy, vko';d in crk,A
3- fuEu osc ist dks cukus ds fy, vko';d HTML fLØIV fy[ksaA
List1 List2
A. Part 1 ® Part 1
B. Part 2 ® Part 2
C. Part 3 ® Part 3
4- osc czkmt+j ds D;k dk;Z gS\ ;g fdl izdkj dk;Z djrk gS\
5- WWW in dks ifjHkkf"kr fdft,A blds fofHkUu xq.k/keZ D;k gS\
6- URL in ls vki D;k le>rs gS\ dkSu dkSu ls Hkkx feydj URL fuekZ.k djrs gSaA mnkjg.k lfgr le>kb,A
7- osc loZj pquus ds eq[; vk/kkj fy[ks\ osc loZj] osc czkmt+j ls fdl izdkj fHkUu gS\
mRrjekyk
mRrjekyk
1 (v) 2- (c) 3 (l) 4- (n) 5- (v) 6- (l) 7- (l) 8- (l) 9- (v) 10- (l) 11- (v)

204
v/;k;&9
v/;k;&9
vksiu vksiu lkslZ lkslZ lkWVos;j
lkWVos;j
Open Source Software(OSS)
le; ds lkFk bUQksjes’ku VsDuksyksth ds {ks= esa egRoiw.kZ ifjorZu vk jgs gSaA VsDukyksth ds u, fl)kUr] tSls osc lsok,¡
vkSj fxzM daI;wfVax] mUufr ds vfro`gr lqvolj izznku dj jgs gSaA bu uohu izkS|ksxhdh dk lkeF;Z] bysDVªksfud O;olk; ds
:ikarj.k esa] vf}rh; gSA blh izzdkj vkus okys le; esa] vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j Hkh u, fo’o esa izk.kk/kj ¼vfr egRowi.kZ½ Hkqfedk
fuHkk,xsaA
ekuo thou ds lexz bfrgkl esa foKku vkSj dyk dk fodkl] dYiuk] fl)kUrksa] vuqla/kku] fparu vkSj fopkjksa ds
lgHkktu dk gh ifj.kke gSA dYiuk dhft,] vxj egku oSKkfud tSls vYcVZ vkbUlVhu] Fkksel ,Mhlu] eSMe ekWjh D;wjh
vkfn vxj vius vkfo"dkjksa ij ekfydkuk ¼izksizkbVjh½ gd j[krs] vius vkfo"dkjksa dks VªsMekdZ ;qDr djrs rks D;k vkt ekuo
bruh mUufr dj ikus esa l{ke gks ikrkA
iqjkru dky ls Kku dk vknku&iznku djus dh] Kku dks lkoZtfud djus dh ijEijk jgh gS vkSj ;gh otg gS fd ekuo
us Kku&foKku vkSj izkS|ksfxdh ds {ks= esa vn~Hkqr izxfr dh gS ijUrq vkt dEI;wVj lkWVos;j ds {ks= esa ykblsal lkWVos;j
dk mi;ksx] Kku dh LoNanrk Nhu jgk gSA vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dEI;wVj Kku dks ijk/khurk ls LoPNanrk dh vksj ys tkus
okyk ,d vfr fof'k"V vkUnksyu gSA
mnkgj.k % ykbuDl vksijsfVax flLVe] fxEi] VDl isUV] MySQL, vksiuvksfQl-org, vkfnA
lk/kkj.kr% vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j og dEI;wVj izksxzke gS ftldk lkslZ ¼lzksr½ dksM mi;ksxdÙkkZ ¼;wtlZ½ vkSj MsosyilZ
}kjk iz;ksx vkSj :ikUrj.k ds fy, miyC/k gSA lkekU;r% vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dk fuekZ.k yksd lgdk;Z ls gksrk gS vkSj vksiu
lkslZ lkWVos;j Lora=rkiwoZd miyC/k Hkh gksrk gSA vU; 'kCnksa esa] vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dks fuEufyf[kr rhu vis{kkvksa dk
vuqlj.k djuk pkfg,A
1- forfjr fd, x, lkWVos;j dk iqufoZrj.k fcuk fdlh izfrcU/k ds fd;k tk,A
2- lkWVos;j dk lkslZ dksM miyC/k gksuk pkfg, ftlls fd lkWVos;j izkIr djus okyk O;fDr@ny mlesa bPNkuqlkj
cnyko dj lkWVos;j dks :ikarfjr dj vius mi;qDr cuk ldsA
3- ewyHkwr lkWVos;j ds :ikarfjr izk:i (version) dks ewyHkwr lkWVos;j ls vyx uke fn;k tk,A
vksiu vksiu lkslZ lkslZ lkslZ lkWVos;j lkWVos;j ds ds ykHk ykHk %
%
1- 1- :ikarj.k :ikarj.k dh dh lqfo/kk lqfo/kk % dbZ O;kikfjd laxBu ;k ljdkjh egdeksa dks lkWVos;j esa fo'ks"khd`r la'kks/kuksa
dh vko';drk gksrh gS ftlls fd lkWVos;j fof'k"V vis{kkvksa dks iwfjr djus es a l{ke gks ik,A vksiu vksiu vksiu lkslZ lkslZ lkslZ lkWVos;j lkWVos;j ;g
lqfo/kk iznku djrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, NSA (National Security Agency) us Lo;a dk lqjf{kr fyuDl izk:i rS;kj fd;k
gSA

205
2-
2- Cost effectiveness : OSS ds mi;ksx ls ykblsal Qh ls lxBuksa dks eqfDr fey tkrh gSA bl cpr dks laxBu
viuk ewyHkwr lqfo/kkvksa dks lqn`

206
FSF - Free Software Foundation Ýh lkWVos;j
QkmUMs'ku ,d ykHk&fujsis{k laLFkk gS tks 4 vDVwcj] 1985 dks fjpMZ LVkWyeSu }kjk laLFkkfir dh xbZ FkhA bl laLFkk dk y{;
gS] Ýh lkWVos;j vkanksyu tks ,d dkWfiysV&vk/kkfjr vkanksyu gS] dks izksRlkfgr djukA
fjpMZ fjpMZ LVkWyeSu
LVkWyeSu
dEI;wVj lkWVos;j dks cukus] forj.k djus vksj :ikUrj.k djus dh loZHkkSe vktknh dk izpkj djuk gh bl vkanksyu
dk y{; gSA FSF, eklkpqlsV~l] USA esa fuxfer gSA
OSI - Open Source Initiative
OSI ,d ykHk&fujis{k laLFkk gS tks vksiu lkslZ O;k[;k dh ns[k&js[k vkSj izpkj esa lefiZr gSA ;g laLFkk Qjojh] 1998
esa czwl isjUl vksj ,fjd jse.M }kjk xfBr dh xbZ FkhA
vksiu lkslZ dk ewy fl)kUr cM+k gh ljy gSA tc dbZ izksxzke fo'o ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa ls] baVjusV }kjk] feytqydj lkslZ
dksM dks i

207
1- osc osc lHkh lHkh ds ds fy, fy, %
osc dh lkekftd mi;ksfxrk gS fd og ekuo lapkj vkSj okf.kT; dks l{ke cukrk gS vkSj Kku ds vknku&iznku ds
lqvolj nsrk gSA W3C dk eq[; mn~ns'; bu lqfo/kkvksa dks tulk/kkj.k rd igq¡pkuk gS] pkgs os dksbZ Hkh gkMZos;j] lkWVos;j]
;k usVodZ ljapuk mi;ksx esa yk jgsa gksa] pkgs os fdlh Hkh lH;rk] fdlh Hkh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr] dksbZ Hkh Hkk"kk cksyus okys] ;k
fHkUu 'kkfjjhd ,oa ekufld {kerk ds gksaA
2- osc osc lHkh lHkh ij ij gk gks gk %
osc dks ,sDlsl ¼igq¡p½ djus okys ;=ksa dh x.kuk vc dkQh c

208
LFkkuh;dj.k LFkkuh;dj.k :
vkt cktkj es a dbZ vUrjk"Vªh; lkWVos;j miyC/k gS a tks gj izdkj ds dk;ks Za dks djus es a l{ke gaSA lkekU;r% os lHkh vaxzsth
Hkk"kk esa fufeZr gSaA tSlk fd gesa Kkr gS fd vaxzsth Hkk"kk fo'o ds dqN gh ns'kksa esa cksyh vkSj le>h tkrh gSA lkWVos;j esa
Hkk"kk ds cU/ku ds dkj.ko'k dEI;wVj foKku vkSj lkWVos;j dk mi;ksx lhfer gks x;k gSA bl Hkk"kk dh lhek dks rksM+ dj
gh dEI;wVj dks tu lkekU; ds fy, mi;ksxh cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
Localisation ;k LFkkuh;dj.k vUrjk"Vªh; lkWVos;j dks LFkku ;k Hkk"kk fof'k"V ds vuqdwy cukus dh izfØ;k gSA ;g Hkk"kk
ds vuqokn vkSj LFkkuh; ?kVdksa ds lkWVos;j esa lekos'k ls laHko gSA
UNICODE (Universal / Uniform / Unique Character Encoding) :
lkWVos;j ds LFkkuh;dj.k ds fy, lkWVos;j dk LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa izLrqrhdj.k vfuok;Z gSA gj Hkk"kk dk ,d laizrhd
leqPp; (character set) gksrk gS ftlesa ml Hkk"kk dk gj la[;k] gj v{kj lfEefyr gksrk gSA
UNICODE ,d ,dy v{kj ladsru i)fr (character oncoding scheme) gS tks gj Hkk"kk ds gj v{kj dks gj IysVQkeZ
ds fy, lfEefyr djrh gSA
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) character set 256 character dk ladsru dj
ldrk gSA tcfd UNICODE set dgha vf/kd la[;k esa v{kjksa dk ladsru dj ldrk gSA UNICODE orZeku dh eq[;r%
lkjh thfor Hkk"kkvksa vkSj oSKkfud fpUgksa dks lfEefyr djrk gS tSls vjsfcd] ckaxyk] fgUnh] Ýsap] bVSfy;u] tkikuhl] rfey]
rsyqxq vkfnA dbZ vkSj yxkrkj tqM+ jgh gSaA
OSS dh tkudkjh izkIr djus ds i'pkr~ vc dqN OSS dk v/;;u djrs gSaA
1- Linux : fyuDl ,d Ýh ;qfuDl dh rjg dk Operating System gS tks ewy:i lss Linus Torvalds }kjk fufeZr gS
ftlesa nqfu;k&Hkj ds MsoyilZ us lg;ksx fd;kA ;g lkWVos;j GNU General Public License (GPL) ds vUrxZr fufeZr
gS vkSj bldk lkslZ dksM lHkh dks Lora=rk ls miyC/k gSA
orZeku esa lSadM+ks dEifu;k¡ vkSj laxBu vkSj brus gh ,dy MsoyilZ us fyuDl esa vius vuw:i la'kks/ku dj blds
dbZ izk:i (versions) foeksfpr fd, gSaA
Linus Torvalds
fyuDl Lora=rk ls forfjr gksus ds lkFk&lkFk] fyuDl dh dk;kZRedrk] vuqdwyuh;rk vkSj et+cwrh us fyuDl dks
izksizkbVjh ;qfuDl vkSj ekbØkslksV Operating System ds fodYi ds rkSj ij LFkkfir fd;k gSA fyuDl dk mi;ksx ?kj vkSj
vkWfQl MsLdVksi Operating System o loZj Operating System esa dkQh gks jgk gSA fyuDl Operating System dks
ekbØksfpi esa lfUufgr fd;k tk ldrk gS vksj blh :i esa ;g Operating System dbZ midj.kksa vkSj ;a=ksa es a Hkh bLrseky
gks jgk gSA vksiuvkWQhl.org, eksft+yk osc czkmt+j vksj dbZ mi;ksxh ,fIyds'ku lkWVos;j fyuDl ds lkFk mi;ksx yk, tkrs
gSaA fyuDl dk baLVksys'ku Hkh vklku gS vkSj mldk j[k&j[kko HkhA
VDl
VDl
fyuDl dk 'kqHkadj izrhd] ,d fyuDl isUxfou] VDl gSA fyuDl us vxLr] 1991 ls tc Linus Torvalds us bls fufeZr
fd;k Fkk ls s vc rd cgqr izxfr dh gSA ,dy MsoyilZ] fo'ofo|ky; ds Nk=ksa] laxBuks a us viuh t:jrks a ds eqrkfcd fyuDl

209
dks la'kksf/kr fd;k vkSj ;gha ls fyuDl ds ^fMLVªhC;w'kUl* dk tUe gqvkA
fyuDl ds lSdM+ks distributions miyC/k gS vkSj dbZ vU; yxkrkj cu jgsa gSaA fyuDl fMLVªhC;w'kUl ds dqN mnkgj.k]
Red Hat Linux, Ubuntu Linux Boss (Bharat Operating System Solutions) tks fd Hkkjr esa CDA }kjk fufeZr gqvk gS]
PC quest linux vkSj dbZ vU;A
ljdkj vkSj O;olk; uhao ifj;kstukvksa esa fyuDl dks fuEufyf[kr dkj.kksa ls mi;ksxh ekurs gaS %
1- eYVhIysVQkeZ eYVhIysVQkeZ leFkZu % O;olk; vkSj ljdkjsa le; ds lkFk ,dkf/kd gkMZos;j architecture ij lkWVos;j ds
mi;ksx dh Hkwfedk le> jgs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, linux lsy Qksu ls lqij dEI;wVj rd lHkh hardware platforms ij pyk;k
tk ldrk gSA bl rjg dk yphykiu] dkWiksjsV ;k foHkkxh; foy; gsrq] lqj{kk vko';drkvksa gsrq ;k vU; fdlh fo'ks"k dkj.kksa
ls] vfuok;Z gSA
2- lqj{kk
lqj{kk % dqN O;olk;ksa vkSj ljdkjksa dk ekuuk gS fd] OSS dksM dh varfuZfgr ;kaf=dh ns[kus ds fy, l{ke dj jgs
gSa ftlls dksM dh fo'oluh;rk vkSj lqj{kk esa mudk fo'okl c

210
;gka] / user / bin og MkbjsDVjh gS ftlesa ;wlj orZeku eas dke dj jgk gSA
2- djUV MkbjsDVjh dks cnyuk] cd dek.M (change directory )
$ cd / user / games < Enter>
$ pwd < Enter>
/ user / Games
$
cd dek.M ls ;wlj dh working directory cny xbZA vc ;wlj / user / Games es dk;Z djsxkA
3- ubZ MkbjsDVjh cukuk] mkdir dek.M ( make directory)
$ mkdir Alladdin < Enter >
$
bl dek.M ls Alladdin uke dh MkbjsDVjh] djUV MkbjsDVjh esa cu tk,xhA ijUrq ;g ubZ MkbjsDVjh] djUV
MkbjsDVjh ugha curhA bls djUV MkbjsDVjh cukus ds fy, cd dek.M dk mi;ksx djsaA
4- MkbjsDVjh dks gVkuk ] rmdir dek.M ( remove directory )
$ rmdir Alladdin < Enter >
$
bl dek.M ls Alladdin MkbjsDVjh fMyhV (Delete) gks tk,xhA
,d MkbjsDVjh dks rHkh fMyhV dj ldrs gSa tc]
(a) og MkbjsDVjh [kkyh gks ¼mlesa dksbZ QkbYl ;k lc&MkbjsDVjhl u gks½
(b) og djUV MkbjsDVjh u gksA
5- MkbjsDVjh dh fo"k;&oLrq ns[kuk] ls dek.M (list)
$ ls < Enter>
bl dek.M ls djUV MkbjsDVjh esa ftrus Hkh QkbYl vkSj lc&QksYMlZ gSa] mudh lwph izLrqr gks tk,xhA
dqN dqN Qkby Qkby dek.Ml dek.Ml %&
%&
1- Qkby dh fo"k;&oLrq ns[kuk] cat dek.M ( concatenation)
$ cat data 1 < Enter>
A sample file
$
2- Qkby dks dkWih djuk ] cp dek.M (copy)
$ cp data1 data3 < Enter>
$
bl mnkgj.k esa data1 dh fo"k;&oLrqq ,d ubZ Qkby data3 eas dkWih gks tkrh gSA
3- Qkby dks gVkuk] rm dek.M (remove)
$ rm data1 < Enter>
$
bl dek.M ls data1 uke dh Qkby fMyhV gks tkrh gSA
4- Qkby dks ewo djuk] mv dek.M (move)
$ mv /user/data/data2 / user/Games/ < Enter>
$
bl mnkgj.k esa data2 Qkby Data QksYMj ls gV dj Games QksYMj esa ewo dj xbZA
bu mnkgj.kksa ls ;g Li"V gS fd fyuDl dks manage djuk dkQh ljy vkSj lqfo/kkiw.kZ gSA
Open Source OS ds v/;;u ds i'pkr~~ vkb, dqN Open Source Application lkWVos;j ds ckjs esa Kkuo/kZu djsaA
2. eksft+yk eksft+yk QkbjQksDl QkbjQksDl QkbjQksDl osc osc czkmt+j czkmt+j czkmt+j %
Mozilla Firefox ,d Ýh vksiu lkslZ web browser gS tks fd fo'oHkj esa izpfyr gSA Firefox, Microsoft Windows,

211
Linux, Mac OS X, Free BSD vkSj dbZ vU; IysVQkeks Za lfgr fofHkUu Operating System ij pyrk gSA uohure QkbjQksDl
esa VSCM czkmftax] orZuh tk¡p live bookmarking, futh browsing, MkmuyksM manager dh lqfo/kk,¡ miyC/k gSaA QkbjQksDl
esa Hkh vU; OSS dh Hkkafr :ikUrj.k lEHko gSA ,slh dbZ fo'ks"krk,¡ baVjusV ij miyC/k gSaA ;g O;kid p;u QkbjQksDl
mi;ksxrkZvksa dks vkdf"kZr djrk gSA
3. My SQL :
My SQL fo'o dk lokZf/kd izpfyr Open Source Database Software gSA vc rd My SQL dh 100 yk[k ls Hkh
vf/kd izfr;k¡ MkmuyksM vkSj forfjr dh tk pqdh gSA bldh csgrj xfr] fo'oluh;rk vkSj mi;ksx esa vklkuh ds lkFk My
SQL, Web, nwjlapkj dEifu;ks a vkSj IT eSust+lZ ds fy, ialnhnk fodYi cu x;k gSA My SQL izeq[k vM+puks a] tSls j[k&j[kko]
vk/kqfud Online applications, dk iz'kklu vkfn] dks nwj djrk gSA
nqfu;k dh lcls cM+h vkSj rsth ls izxfr djrh lxBusa My SQL dk mi;ksx dj le; vkSj /ku dh cpr djrh gSa vkSj
viuh mPp ek=k Websites, O;kikj iz.kkfy;ksa vkSj software dks 'kfDr iznku djrh gaSA m|ksx esa vxz.kh Yahoo, YouTube,
Google, Nokia, Wikipedia vkfn My SQL dk mi;ksx dj jgs gSaA
MySQL esa MkVkcsl cukuk] Vscy cukuk vkSj Dosjh cukuk ,d vklku izfd;k gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] ge ,d
SCHOOL uke ls MkVkcsl cuk,axs] mlesa ,d Vscy STUDENT cuk,axs] mlesa dqN fjdkMZl insert dj queries cuk,asxsA

PostgreSQL :
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PostgreSQL dks nqfu;k dk lcls mUur MkVkcsl ekuk tkrk gSA PostgreSQL ,d ’kfDr’kkyh vksiu lkslZ vksCtsDV&fjys’uy
MkVkcsl iz.kkyh gSA bldk 15 o"kksZa ls vf/kd le; ls lfØ; fodkl gks jgk gSA bldh lajpuk us fo’oluh;rk MsVk v[kaMrk
vkSj ’kq)rk ds fy, ,d etcwr izfr"Bk vftZr dh gSA ;g fyuDl] ;qfuDl vkSj foUMkst lfgr lHkh izeq[k vksijsfVax flLVe
ij pyrk gSA blesa QkWju dh] joins, views, triggers vkSj stored procedures ds fy, iw.kZ leFkZu gSA ;g dbZ Hkk"kkvksa esa
miyC/k gS vkSj SQL : 2008 ds vf/kdka’k MkVkVkbi tSls INTEGER, NUMERIC, BOOLEAN, CHAR,
VARCHAR, DATE vkSj TIMESTAMP blesa lfEefyr gSaA ;g fp=] /ofu ;k ohfM;ks dks Hkh lap;u djus esa l{ke gSA
blesa C / C++, JAVA, NET, PERL, PYTHON, RUBY, ODBC ds fy, izksxzkfeax baVjQsl Hkh miyC/k gSA bldk
MksD;wesUVs’ku Hkh vlk/kkj.k gSA
PostgreSQL ikbUV&bu&Vkbe fjdojh] VscyLisl usLVM VªkUlSD’ku] vkWuykbu vR;k/kqfud cSd&vi] ifj"d`r query
Iykuj vkfn lqfo/kkvksa dk nkok djrk gSA ;g MkVk dh ek=k vkSj ;wtlZ dh la[;k] nksuks a gh {ks=ksa esa vR;f/kd Scalable gSA
PostgreSQL esa eSfDlee Vscy 32 TB rd ,d fjdkMZ 1.6 TB rd] ,d QhYM 1GB rd gks ldrk gSA Postgre SQL
us vius mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls cgqr iz’kalk izkIr dh gSA blus loZJs’B MkVkcsl ds dbZ iqjLdkj Hkh vftZr fd, gSaA
5. Pango:- Pango
iSaxks ’kCn xzhd ’kCn pan] ftldk eryc gS ‘lHkh’ vkSj tkikuh’kCn ‘go’ ftldk vFkZ gS Hkk"kk ls feydj cuk gSA
iSaxksa ,d vksiu lkslZ dEI;wfVax iqLrdky; gS tks lkWQ~Vos;j MsoyilZ }kjk fo"k;&oLrq dks mPp xq.koRrk ls izLrqr djus
es mi;qDr gksrk gSA ;g lkWVos;j cgqHkk"kh fo"k;&oLrq dks leFkZu nsrk gSA bldks fofHkUu ÝUV&,.M&cSd ,s.M~l ds lkFk
iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS ftlls iSaxks dks Øzksl IysV@QkeZ mi;ksfxrk dk leFkZu feyrk gSA iSaxks ls izLrqr fo"k;&oLrq fHkUu
vkWijsfVax flLVe tSls fyuDl] ,Iiy] ekbØkslksQ~V foUMksl vkfn ij leku izLrqr gksrh gSA
iSaxks UNICODE dk lajpukRed

213
bysDVªksfud vuqokn gks tk, rks mlls osc dh lkexzh rS;kj dh tk ldrh gSA fQj mlls lkWVos;j Hkh fodflr fd, tk
ldrs gS vkSj muds fy, lkWVos;j Hkh fodflr fd, tk ldrs gSa vkSj muds fy, leFkZu Hkh miyC/k djk;k tk ldrk gSA
bl izdkj ,d Hkk"kk dks ;qfudksM ds ek/;e ls vuqokfnr djus ls vUrjk"Vªh;dj.k vkSj LFkkuh;dj.k dks izksRlkgu feyrk
gSA
nqfu;k esa 150 ls vf/kd Hkk"kk,a] 25 fofHkUu ys[ku iz.kkfy;ksa ds ek/;e ls O;Dr dh tk ldrh gSaA gj Hkk"kk ds fof’k"V
xq.k gksrs gSaA iSaxsk orZeku esa thfor fdlh Hkh Hkk"kk dks fMftVy :i esa izLrqr dj ldrk gSAA iSaxks 2004 esa open source
initiative ds fy, iqjLd`r fd;k x;k FkkA
6- 6- vksiu vksiu vksfQl vksfQl. vksfQl org
vksiuvksfQl.org] lkekU;r% OOo ;k OpenOffice ds uke ls izpfyr ,d vksiu lkslZ ,fIyds’ku lqbV gS ftlds eq[;
?kVd oMZ izkslsflax] LizsM’khV] izslsUVs’ku] xzkfQDl vkSj MkVkcsl ds fy, iz;qDr gksrs gSaA ;g lkS ls vf/kd Hkk"kkvksa esa miyC/
k gS vkSj fHkUu vkWijsfVax flLVe es a mi;qDr gks ldrk gSA ;g vklkuh ls baVjusV ls MkmuyksM fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj Lora=rk
ls fdlh Hkh dk;Z ds fy, iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g ,d varjk"Vªh; [kqys ekud izk:i esa vkids lHkh MkVk (Data) dks
i

214
vikWph VkWedSV ,d vksiu lzksr loZysV dUVsuj gS tks vikWph lkWQ~Vos;j Qkm.Ms’ku (ASF) }kjk fufeZr fd;k x;k gSA
loZysV ,d NksVk lk izksxzke gS tks loZj ij py ldsA VkWedSV lu ekbØksflLVe ds tkok loZysV vkSj tkok loZj ist+l (ISP)
ds funs’kksZa dks ykxw djrk gSA ;g ,d ’kq) tkok HTTP osc loZj okrkoj.k iznku djrk gS ftl ij tkok dksM dk fØ;kUo;u
gks ldsA
VkWedSV vkSj vikWph osc loZj es a varj gSA vikWph osc loZj HTTP osc loZj dks C esa ykxw fd;k x;k gSA VkWedSV ,d
,fIyds’ku loZj gS tks tkok loZysV~l dks dk;kZfUor djrk gS vkSj JSP dksfMax okys osc ist izLrqr djrk gSA VkWedSV dk
ckbujh vkSj L=ksr dksM izk:i] nksuksa gh vikWph osc lkbV ij miyC/k gSaA VkWedSV dks LVSaM vyksu] vkarfjd osc loZj ds lkFk
iz;ksx yk;k tk ldrk gS vkSj bls vU; osc loZj tSls vikWph] ekbØkslksQ~V dk baVjusV bUQksjes’ku lZoj (IIS) usVLdsi
,UVjizkbt+ lZoj vkSj ekbØkslksQ~V ilZuy loZj ds lkFk Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
9. PHP :
PHP ,d fLØzfIVax Hkk"kk gS tks ewyr% Mk;ukfed osc istksa dks cukus ds fy, fMt+kbu dh xbZ FkhA ;g dek.M ykbu
baVjQsl {kerk dks ’kkfey djrh gS vkSj LVSaMvyksu xzkfQdy ,fIyds’kUl esa bldk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA PHP ,d
O;kid :i ls iz;qDr lkekU; mn~ns’; okyh fLØfIVax Hkk"kk gS] tks fo’ks"k :i ls osc MsoyiesaV ds vuqdwy gS ftls HTML
ds lkFk iz;qDr fd;k tk ldrk gSA vke rkSj ij ;g osc loZj ij pyrh gS] ftldh lajpuk PHP dksM dks vkxe dh rjg
ysus vkSj osc ist dVsaV dks fuxZe dh rjg nsus ds fy, dh xbZ gSA ;g vf/kdka’k osc loZjksa vkSj yxHkx gj vkWijsfVax flLVe
,oa IysVQkeZ ij eqQ~r esa foLr`r dh tk ldrh gSA PHP 20 yk[k ls vf/kd osclkbVksa vkSj 1 yk[k osc loZjksa ij laLFkkfir
gSA
PHP lewg] mi;ksxdrkZvksa ds vius Lo;a ds mi;ksxkFkZ] fuekZ.k] euialn rjhds ls cukus vkSj foLr`r djus ds fy, iwjk
L=ksr dksM iznku djrk gS egRoiw.kZ osc lkbV PHP esa fy[ks vkSj tksM+ x, gSa tSls Qslcqd] fofdihfM;k] ;kgw] oMZizsl] ;wV~;wc
vkfnA
PHP okD;&foU;kl okD;&foU;kl ¼flUVSDl½
¼flUVSDl½
¼flUVSDl½
PHP dsoy vius ifjlhedksa ¼MhfyfeVlZ½ ds Hkhrj dksM dh in&O;k[;k djrk gSA blds ifjlhedksa ds ckgj tks
Hkh gksrk gS og lh/ks fuxZe ds fy, Hkstk tkrk gS vkSj PHP }kjk in&foU;kl ¼,fDlD;wV½ ugha gksrk gSA lcls vke ifjlhed
gS < ? PHP vkSj ? > tks Øe’k% [kqys vkSj can ifjlhed gSaA
mnkgj.k ds fy, ]
< html >
< head >
< title > PHP Trial ,
< /head >
< ? php
echo Hello, welcome to PHP ;?>
blh rjg ls]

215
< html >
< head >
< ? php
echo < title> My First PHP Script ?;
? >
This is static HTML/p>
bl PHP fLdzIV dks first.php ds uke ls lso dj osc loZj ij viyksM dj nsaA tc bl ist dks osc czkmtj esa ns[ksaxs
rks og dqN fuEu izdkj ls fn[kkbZ nsxkA
10- 10- ikbFku ikbFku %
%
ikbFku ,d lkekU; mn~ns’; mPp Lrjh; izksxzkfeax Hkk"kk gS ftldh lajpuk dksM dh fo’oluh;rk ij tksj nsrh gSA
ikbFku dk mn~ns’; mYys[kuh; ’kfDr ds lkFk cgqr Li"V flUVsDl gSA
ikbFku ,dkf/kd izksxzkfeax ifjizs{;ksa dks leFkZu nsrk gSA ;g ,d iw.kZr% xfr’khy (Dynamic) izdkj dh iz.kkyh vkSj Lor%
Le`fr izcU/ku ;kstuk dk vuqlj.k djrh gSA vU; Mkbukfed Hkk"kkvksa dh Hkkafr ikbFku dk mi;ksx ,d fLØfIVax Hkk"kk ds :i
esa fd;k tkrk gSA ijUrq ikbFku xSj fLØfIVax lUnHkksZa esa Hkh iz;qDr dh tkrh gSA
ikbFku dk fØ;kUo;u Lora= vkSj [kqyk L=kssr lkWVos;j gSA ;g ,d leqnk; vk/kkfjr fodkl ds ekWMy ij fufeZr gSA
ikbFku dk fodkl vkSj laj{k.k ikbFku lkWVos;j Qkm.Ms’ku uke dh ,d ykHk fujis{k laLFkku djrh gSA
ikbFku bUVjfizVlZ dbZ vkWijsfVax flLVe ds fy, miyC/k gSA ikbFku dh ,d egRoiw.kZ fo’ks"krk gS Mkbukfed use
jstY;w’ku tks esFkM (Method) vkSj osfj,scy (Variable) ds ukeksa dks izksxzke ,fDlD;w’ku ds le; cka/krk gSA
ge lHkh dks Kkr gS fd baVjusV Kku dk HkaMkj gSA FOSS dh mUufr es a baVjusV dk cgqr egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku jgk gSA vkb,]
ge dqN vksiu lkslZ ls lEcfU/kr osc&lkbVl dk v/;;u djsaA
www. sourceforge.net

216
;g usVodZ osclkbV vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dk dks"k gSA ;gka ij vksiu lkslZ lkWQ~Vos;j dks MkmuyksM Hkh fd;k tk
ldrk gS vkSj uohu vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds ckjs esa tkudkjh gSA bl osclkbV esa 27 yk[k MsoyilZ] 260000 vksiu lkslZ
lkWQ~Vos;j ifj;kstukvksa ij dke dj jgs gSaA izfrfnu bl osclkbV ls 2]000]000 MkmuyksM~l gksrs gSaA ;g la[;k,a fnu
izfrfnu c

217
vkidks dbZ jkg fn[kkus okys yksx feyasxsA vki bl lewg dk fgLlk cudj vius lokyksa ds tokc [kkst ik,axsA
www. linux.com
;g ,d def’kZ;y (commercial) osclkbV gS ftlesa vkidks fyuDl dh uohure [kcjsa feysaxhA fyuDl dk
MkWD;wesUVs’ku] VqVksfj;Yl] fofM;ksl vkfn vkidks bl osclkbV esa miyC/k gksxsaA fyuDl esa dSfj;j] fyuDl ds Vªsfuax izksxzkEl
vkSj Dykll] fyuDl dk O;olk; esa iz;ksx] fyuDl esa ukSdjh dh miyC/krk,a vkSj dbZ vU; mi;ksxh tkudkjh bl osclkbV
ij miyC/k gSA fyuDl ds fofHkUu fMLVªhC;w’kUl dh tkudkjh ] fyuDl dh fdrkcsa] fyuDl dE;wfuVh] CyksXl vkSj Qksje~l
Hkh ;gka ij izkIr gSaA vki bl osc&lkbV esa jsftLVj dj blds esEcj cu ldrs gSaA fyuDl dk Hkfo";] orZeku] mldh mUufr
dk ekxZ] lHkh dqN bl osclkbV ij miyC/k gSA
www.linuxindia.org
;g osclkbV fyuDl&bf.M;k laxBu dh osclkbV gS tks Hkkjr ds fyuDl ;wtlZ dh ,d laxBuk gSA bl osclkbV ij
vkidks dbZ izdkj dh esfyax fyLV~l miyC/k gksxhaA tSls fd tujy] gsYi] izksxzkEklZ] fMLd’kUl vkfnA izR;sd esfyax fyLV
esa vkidks fyuDl ds Hkkjr esa mi;ksx ls lacf/kr tkudkjh izkIr gksxhA vki pkgsa rks vki mu esfyax fyLV~l esa lcLØkbc
Hkh dj ldrs gaSA ,slk djus ls vki ml lewg dk ,d lnL; cu tk,axsA bl izdkj vkidks Hkkjr ds vU; fyuDl
mi;ksxdrkZvksa ls lEidZ esa jgus dk volj izkIr gksxkA vkidh fyuDl lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa dk gy Hkh vkidks izkIr gksxkA
;gka ij vksiu ppkZvksa esa lfEefyr gksdj fyuDl ds fo"k; esa viuk Kku&o/kZu dj ldrs gaSA
www.gnu.org

218
;g GNU ifj;kstuk laxBu dh osclkbV gSA ;gka ij vkidks GNU dh fopkj/kkjk] ykblsUl iz.kkyh] MkD;wesUVs’ku
miyC/k gksxkA GNU/LINUX fMfLVªC;w’kUl dh lwph esa ls vk;sA viuk eupkgk lkWQ~Vos;j MkmuyksM dj ldrs gSa ;gka ij
FSF ds ckjs esa Hkh lwpuk izkI; gSaAvki FSF esa ’kkfey gksdj Ýh lkWVos;j dh izxfr esa viuk ;ksxnku ns ldrs gSaA vki dksbZ
lkWQ~Vos;j fufeZr dj jgs gSa rks vkidks ;gka dbZ MsoyelZ dk lg;ksx izkIr gksxkA blds vykok GNU vksijsfVax flLVe dk
MkmuyksM Hkh ;gka ij lEHko gSA ;g osc lkbV dbZ Hkk"kkvksa tSls ikWfy’k] LiSfu’k] Mp vkfn esa miyC/k gSA
www.openrdf.org
rdf ( Resource Description Framework ) W3C ifjokj dk ,d lnL; gSA bldk mi;ksx lwpuk dk izfr:i rS;kj
djus esa gksrk gS tks fd osc ij dk;kZfUor dh tkrh gSA
;g osclkbV ,d dE;wfuVh osclkbV gS tks Sesame dh izxfr dks lg;ksx djrh gSA Sesame MkVk (data) dks LVksj]
fu"df"kZr o Dosjh djus ds fy, ,d vksiu lkslZ :ijs[kk gSA ;gka ij ;wltZ vkSj MsoyilZ fey ldrs gSa] ppkZ dj ldrs gSa]
iz’u iwN ldrs gSa vkSj Sesame ls lEcfU/kr fdlh Hkh leL;k dk fuokj.k ik ldrs gSaA
bl osc lkbV ij sesame ls lEcfU/kr lkWVos;j dks MkmuyksM Hkh dj ldrs gaSA bl ij MkD;wesUVs’ku] esfyax fyLV~l
T;knkrj iwNs x, lokyksa ds tokc] lkWVos;j IyxbUl vkSj ,DlVsa’kUl Hkh miyC/k gSA
vH;kl vH;kl iz'u
iz'u
cgqp;ukRed cgqp;ukRed iz'u
iz'u
1. ,d vksiu lkslZ dEI;wfVax iqLrdky; dk uke gS &
(a) Openoffice org (b) My SQL
(c) Unicoal (d) Pango
2. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds D;k ykHk gSa\
(a) :ikUrj.k dh lqfo/kk (b) Portability
(c) Clot effectivencs (d) mijksDr lHkh

219
3 - fuEufyf[kr esa ls dkSulk lkWVos;j] vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dk mnkgj.k ugha gS\
(a) My SQL (b) Pestyre SQL
(c) Mozilla ................... (d) Photoshop
4. fjpMZ LVkWyeSu us fuEu esa ls dkSulh laxBu dh ljpuk dh\
(a) OSI (b) FSF
(c) W3C (d) buesa ls dksbZ ugha
5. vikWph VkWedSV ,d vksiu lkslZ &
(a) osc czkmtj gS (b) ljZysV daVsuj gS
(c) fLØfIVax Hkk"kk gS (d) mijksDr esa ls dqN Hkh ugha
6. fyuDl dk fuekZ.k ewy :i ls fdUgksaus fd;k gS\
(a) fyul VksjokYM~l (b) fjpMZ LVkWyeSu
(c) fVe DuZlZ yh (d) mijksDr lHkh us
7. vksiu vksfQl .org dk mi;ksx dj ge D;k dj ldrs gSa\
(a) MkWD;wesUV cuk ldrs gSa (b) izsts+UVs'ku cuk ldrs gSa
(c) LizsM'khV cuk ldrs gSa (d) mijksDr lHkh dj ldrs gSa
8. GPL D;k gS\
(a) ,d lkWVos;j (b) ,d ykblsUl
(c) ,d vkWijsfVax flLVe (d) ,d dEI;wVj lkbfUVLV
9. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dk fyuDl ds lkFk&lkFk foUMksl vkWijsfVax flLVe ij Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
(a) gk¡ (b) ugha
10. Unicode D;k gS\
(a) ,d lkWVos;j (b) v{kj ladsru i)fÙk
(c) loZj (d) mijksDr esa ls dqN ugha
vfryÄqRjkRed vfryÄqRjkRed iz'u
iz'u
a
a
1. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dh ifjHkk"kk nhft,A
2. vkisu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds pkj mnkgj.k nhft,A
3. fuEufyf[kr dh ifjHkk"kk] nks mnkgj.kksa lfgr nhft, &
(1) ÝhjSV (2) 'kSjosj (3) izksizkbVjh lkWVos;j (4) LFkkuhdj.k (5) iquhdksM
4. fuEufyf[kr dks foLrkfjr dj fyf[k, &
(1) FOSS (2) GNU (3) OSI (4) W3C (5) FSF
5. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dh fdUgha nks osclkbV~l ds uke fyf[k,A
6. OSI dh laxBuk fdlus dh Fkh\
7. FSF dk y{; D;k gS\
8. baVjusV dk vkfo"dkj fdUgksaus fd;k\
9. fyuDl dh Com dek.M dSls dk;Z djrh gS\
10. ls dek.M ls D;k gksrk gS\
11. vkt ds ;qx esa vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dh D;k Hkwfedk gS\
12. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j IySVQkeZ&bUMisUmsUV gksrs gSaA bl okD; dk D;k rkRi;Z gS\
13. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dks ^Lora= lkWVos;j* Hkh dgrs gSaA D;ksa\
14. OSS vkSj FOSS esa D;k varj gS\
15. GNU ifj;kstuk ds fo"k; esa laf{kIr es fy[ksa\
16. FSF vkSj OSI tSlh la[;k,¡ fdl fn'kk es dk;Zjr gSa\
17. ÝhoSj vkSj Ýh lkWVos;j esa varj Li"V dhft,A
18. lkWVos;j dks izksizkbVjh djus ls D;k uqdlku gS\
19. lkWVos;j dks LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa cukus ls D;k ykHk gksxsaA
20. ASCII vkSj UNICODE esa D;k varj gS\

220
yÄqRjkRed yÄqRjkRed iz'u
iz'u
1. fyuDl ds vusd fMfLVªC;w'kUl ds miyC/k gksus dk dkj.k mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb,A
2. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds ykHk foLrkj ls le>kb,A
3. W3C la[;k ds vkn'kksZ dks Li"V dhft,A
4. ljdkjh] O;kolkf;d vkSj fuft ifj;kstukvksa ds fy, fyuDl dks mi;ksxh ekuk tkuk gSA D;ksa\
5. HySQL D;k gS\ MySQL ds izpfyr gksus ds dkj.kksa dks le>k,¡A
6. Pootgre SQL ds ckjs esa 50&60 'kCnksa esa fyf[k,A
7. PHP D;k gksrh gS\ fdl {ks= esa PHP dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA PHP dh mi;qDrrk ds dqN mnkgj.k nhft,A
8. VkWedSV vksj vkWikph osc loZj ds ckjs esa fyf[k,A
9. vksiu vkfQl] org fdl izdkj dk lkWVos;j gS vkSj bldk mi;ksx dgk¡ fd;k tkrk gS\
fucU/kkRed fucU/kkRed iz'u
iz'u
1. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds ykblsal ds ckjs esa foLrkj ls crk,¡A
2. fyuDl dh 4 Mk;jsDVjh dek.M~l mnkgj.k lfgr le>kb,A
3. www.fourceforge.net osclkbV vkius ns[kh gksxhA bl osclkbV dh mi;ksfxrk ij izdk'k MkysaA
4. MySQL esa fuEufyf[kr ds fy, funsZ'k nhft, &
(i) ,d 'company' uke dk MkVkcsl cukb,A
(ii) bl MkVkcsl esa ,d 'employees' uke dh Vscy cukb,A
Emp.no Name Age Iesignation
(iii) bl Vscy esa 6 fjdkMZ Insert dhft,A
Emp.no Name Age Iesignation
E001 Ankita Varma 30 SE
E002 Naman Dixit 23 SE
E003 Surbhi Verma 25 SE
E004 Tarun Kumar 42 TM
E005 Vinayak Sharma 38 TL
E006 Vivek Mathur 34 TL
5.
(iv) ftu employees dh age 30 ls vf/kd gS] muds uke fn[kkb,A
(v) TL designation okys employees dh lkjh details fn[kkb,A
(vi) 35 lky ls de mez okys TL designation ds employees ds uke fn[kkb,A
vksiu lkslZ vkanksyu ds fo"k; ij ,d ys[k fyf[k,A
6. vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j esa :ikarj.k dh lqfo/kk gksrh gSA bl lqfo/kk ds Qk;ns vkSj uqdlku ij izdk'k MkysaA
7. vkids fopkj ls izksizkbVjh vkSj vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j esa ls dkSu lk csgrj gS vkSj D;ksa\
8. Ýh lkWVos;j] vkisu lkslZ lkWVos;j vkSj ÝhoSj ds e/; vUrj dks Li"V djsaA mnkgj.k lfgr le>k,¡A
9. irk dhft, fd Hkkjr dh dkSulh O;kolkf;d vkSj ljdkjh laLFkk,¡ vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j dk iz;ksx dj jgh gSaA mudh
,d lwph rS;kj djsaA
10. dbZ yksxksa dk ekuuk gS vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds fy, i;kZIr rduhdh lg;ksx miyC/k ugha gSA bl fo"k; ij vki
vius fopkj izdV dhft,A
11. bl ikB esa mYysf[kr vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds vykok ¼chl½ 20 vU; vksiu lkslZ lkWVos;j ds ckjs esa irk yxkb,
vkSj mudh lwph rS;kj dhft,A