LUCRĂRI ŞTIIN IFICE - Revista Lucrari stiintifice - Seria Agronomie

PRINT ISSN: 1454-7414 

ELECTRONIC ISSN: 2069-6727 

UNIVERSITATEA DE ŞTIINŢE AGRICOLE 

ŞI MEDICINĂ VETERINARĂ 

“ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI 

LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE 

SERIA AGRONOMIE 

VOL. 55, NR. 1 

EDITURA “ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI 

2012

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi 

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3 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, Nr.1/2012, seria Agronomie 

COORDONATORII REVISTEI ,,LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’’ 

Redactor responsabil: Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi 

Redactor adjunct: Prof. dr. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi 

Membri: 

• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi 

COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE AL SERIEI ,,AGRONOMIE’’ 

Redactor şef: Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi 

Redactor adjunct: Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi 

Redactori: 

• Prof. dr. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany 

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, România 

• Prof. dr. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium 

• Prof. dr. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping 

and Classification Larissa, Greece 

• Prof. dr. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România 

• Prof. dr. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria 

• Prof. dr. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia 

• Prof. dr. Mike RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA 

• Prof. dr. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic 

• Prof. dr. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic 

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Adriano CIANI , Perugia University 

• Prof. dr. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA -University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania 

• Prof. dr. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia 

• Dr. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania 

REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI: 

• Prof. dr. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Costică AILINCĂI – US AMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Mihail AXINTE – US AMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Daniel BUCUR – U SAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi 


• Prof. dr. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi 

ISSN 1454-7414 

Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării 

© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice - vol. 55, Nr. 1/2012, seria Agronomie


COORDINATORS OF JOURNAL “LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’ 

Manager Editor: Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi 

Assistant Editor: Prof. dr. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi 

Members: 


• Prof. dr. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi 

EDITORIAL BOARD OF “AGRONOMIE’’ 

Editor- in -chief: Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi 

Assistant Editor: Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi 

Editors: 

• Prof. dr. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany 

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, Romania 

• Prof. dr. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium 

• Prof. dr. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping 

and Classification Larissa, Greece 

• Prof. dr. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România 

• Prof. dr. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria 

• Prof. dr. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia 

• Prof. dr. M. RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA 

• Prof. dr. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic 

• Prof. dr. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic 

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova 

• Prof. dr. Adriano CIANI , Perugia University 

• Prof. dr. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA -University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania 

• Prof. dr. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia 

• Dr. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania 

SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS: 

• Prof. dr. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Costică AILINCĂI – US AMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Mihail AXINTE – US AMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Daniel BUCUR – U SAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi 


• Prof. dr. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Prof. dr. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi 

• Conf. dr. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi 

ISSN 1454-7414 

Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării 

© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice - vol. 55, Nr. 1/2012, seria Agronomie 

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CONTENTS 

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Mihail AXINTE, Teodor ROBU , Corneliu ONISCU, Marius ZAHARIA, Iuliana ANDRIEŞ, 

Carmen ŢIBULCĂ-GHIŢĂU , Aglaia MOGÂRZAN 

POSSIBILITIES OF PRODUCTION INCREASE OF THE WHEAT CARIOPS 

UNDER REGULATORS INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT BIOSTYMULATORS 

CONCENTRATIONS..................................................................................................................................9 

Ioan ROTAR, Florin PĂCURAR, Anca BOGDAN, Roxana VIDICAN 

THE INFLUENCE OFMINERAL AND ORGANIC LONG-TERM FERTILIZATION 

UPON THE FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF Festuca rubra L.-Agrostis capillaris L. 

GRASSLAND IN APUSENI MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA.......................................................................13 

Roxana VIDICAN, Iancu PINTEA, Ioan ROTAR, Florin PACURAR,Valentina SANDOR 

THE INFLUENCE OF CITY SLUDGE FERTILIZATION UPON SOIL RESPIRATION 

WITH WITH ALFALFA, AT BOLDUŢ (CLUJ COUNTY) ...................................................................21 

Teodor ROBU, Marius ZAHARIA, Corneliu ONISCU, Mihail AXINTE, 

Carmen GHIŢĂU-ŢIBULCĂ, Iuliana ANDRIEŞ 

THE INFLUENCE OF BIOSTYMULATORS SULFONAMIDES CONCENTRATION, 

APPLIED IN DIFFERENT BIOPHASES, ON WINTER WHEAT PRODUCTION...............................25 

Ancuţa NECHITA, Valeriu V. COTEA, Marius NICULAUA, Bogdan NECHITA, 

Cintia Lucia COLIBABA 

STUDY OF SOME POLYPHENOLIC EXTRACTS OBTAINED FROM PRESSED 

GRAPE SKINS .........................................................................................................................................29 

Tamara LEAH 

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AND LITHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PEDOGENESIS 

AND SPACE DISPERSAL OF CHERNOZEMS STAGIC IN REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA .................35 

Marius Cornel ANTONESCU, Teodor ROBU, Mihai Tălmaciu, Cristina ANTONESCU, 

Marius Sorin ZAHARIA 

RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS NUMBER 

OF TUBERS/NEST ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AT SC ASTRA Trifesti SRL, IASI.......................41 

Florin Daniel LIPŞA, Eugen ULEA, Nicoleta IRIMIA 

SEROLOGICAL DETECTION OF GRAPEVINE FANLEAF VIRUS (GFLV) 

IN AMPELOGRAPHIC COLLECTION FROM USAMV IAŞI (ROMANIA) .......................................45 

Doina TARCĂU, Simona CUCU-MAN, Mihai STAVARACHE, Costel SAMUIL, 

Vasile VÎNTU 

MINERAL VERSUS ORGANIC FERTILIZATION. EFFECT ON THE QUALITY 

OF FORAGES PRODUCED ON A GRASSLAND OF Nardus stricta L. ..............................................49 

Mihai STAVARACHE, Vasile VÎNTU, Costel SAMUIL, Iulian MUNTIANU, Aida ALBU, 

Doina TARCĂU, Constantin Iulian POPOVICI, Ciprian CIOBANU 

QUALITY OF ALFALFA(Medicago sativa L.), IN THE FIRST YEAR OF VEGETATION ................55 

Gabriela SURMEI-BALAN, Vasile VÎNTU, Costel SAMUIL, Mihai STAVARACHE 

INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZATION ON NITROGEN DYNAMICS AT THE SPECIES 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. .......................................................................................................................61


Ana Andreea GURIŢĂ, Daniel BUCUR, Ramona Carla CIOCINTA, Ana Maria IACOB 

GEOMORPHOLOGY STUDY OF BAHLUIEŢ CATHMENT FROM MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU ......67 

Aurel CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU, Benedicta DROBOTĂ, Arsenoaia VL.-N. 

CROP STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION, THE WAY TO ENSURE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY 

IN VEGETAL PRODUCTION (CASE STUDY AT S.C. AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. 

DOCHIA, JUD. NEAMȚ)..........................................................................................................................71 

Cristina ANTONESCU, Mihai TĂLMACIU, Teodor ROBU, Marius Cornel ANTONESCU, 

Marius Sorin ZAHARIA 

COMMENTS ON THE USEFUL AND HARMFUL ENTOMOFAUNA ACCORDING 

TO SOME TREATMENT SEED CORN AND WHEAT LOTS OF YEARS, 2011-2012 

TRIFESTI SC ASTRA SRL, IASI.............................................................................................................77 

Gheorghe Virgil ATODIRESEI, Romen BUTNARU,Elena Ancuța TULBURE, 

Nicolae ISCHIMJI 

STUDY ABOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF DYEING NATURAL PROTEANFIBRES (WOOL), 

WITH NATURAL PIGMENTS EXTRACTED FROM SAFFRON FLOWERS 

(Carthamus tinctorius L.) ..........................................................................................................................81 

Gheorghe Virgil ATODIRESEI, Elena Ancuta TULBURE,Nicolae ISCHIMJI, 

Anca Mihaela MOCANU 

NATURAL DYES, OF VEGETAL ORIGIN, USED IN THE FOOD......................................................85 

Mariana VOLF 

CADMIUM PRESENCE IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS FROM IASI METROPOLITAN AREA .........89 

Stejărel BBREZULEANU, Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU, George UNGUREANU, 

Roxana MIHALACHE 

CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN CATERING UNITS.............93 

Stejărel BBREZULEANU 

STRATEGIES OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING ON COMPARTMENTS 

IN INTEGRATED AGRICULTURAL UNITS ........................................................................................97 

Dan BODESCU, Ionela Iulia APETRII 

PRICE STRATEGIES IN TRAVEL SERVICES ................................................................................... 101 

Dan BODESCU, Ionela Iulia APETRII 

ELABORATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TRACEABILITY ASSURANCE SYSTEMS 

SUNFLOWER......................................................................................................................................... 105 

Viorel POP, Mircea POP 

SOME ACTUAL ISSUES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT........................ 111 

Mirela Adriana RUSALI 

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT THE CAPITALIZATION OF FARMS WITH PRODUCTION 

MEANS AND ANALYSES ON FIELD SURVEY ............................................................................... 117 

Diana Elena BOLOHAN, Mariana VOLF 

ZINC - MICROELEMENT OF REFERENCE IN APPLE NUTRITION.............................................. 123 

Adina Alina POSTOLACHE (BURLACU) 

THE STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION OF CEREAL GRAINS CULTURE IN IASI COUNTY 

(CASE STUDY IN SUBURBAN AREA OF IAŞI) .............................................................................. 127 

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Alexandru-Marian CHIPER, Sorin-Mihai CÎMPEANU, Roxana Dana BUCUR, 

Valentina CHIPER (MIHALCEA) 

LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT SCHEDULED FOR IMPROVING THE 

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY BY CREATING GREEN SPACES IN THE CITIES....................... 131 

Laura-Diana RADU 

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN THE FIELD OF INFORMATION 

AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT ....................................... 141 

Corina ANDREI, Dumitru BECEANU 

THE STUDIES ON THE DYNAMICS CONTENT OF NITRATES AND NITRITES FROM 

TOMATOES AND PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW 

OF OBTAINING TOMATO JUICE ...................................................................................................... 147 

Florina DODOLOI 

THE USE OF BARREN LANDS – SOURCE OF IMPROVING FORAGE BASE IN ORDER 

TO ENSURE THE OPTIMUM MILK CONSUMPTION...................................................................... 151 

Gheorghe DONCEAN 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER IN A MICROWAVE FIELD 

AND MASS TRANSFER DURING THE DRYING OF DENSE TEXTILES .................................155 

Gheorghe DONCEAN 

COLOUR SPACES IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ............................................................................... 159 

Dănuţ CIUBOTARIU, Vasile NECULĂIASA 

CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE STUDY OF THE BRAKING SYSTEM OF CARS ............. 165 

Dănuţ CIUBOTARIU, Vasile NECULĂIASA 

BREAKING WITH THE COUPLED ENGINE..................................................................................... 171 

Alina DRAGOMIR 

AGRICULTURAL CONSULTING SERVICE IN SOUTH MUNTENIA REGION 

DURING 2009-2011 ............................................................................................................................... 173 

Marilena DONCEAN 

INTELLIGENT COMPUTING FOR EVOLVING SYSTEMS............................................................. 177 

Marilena DONCEAN 

THE PRINCIPLES AND VALUES OF MANAGEMENT ETHICS..................................................... 181 

Alina Petronela HALLER 

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE CONTEXT 

OF KNOWLEDGE ................................................................................................................................ 185 

Lucian TANASĂ 

NEAMT COUNTY TOURIST AREA ZONING .................................................................................. 191 

Lucian Ciprian MELUŢ, Vasile MATEI 

PERSPECTIVES FOR MODERN AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN ROMANIA..................... 197 

Lucian Ciprian MELUŢ, Konrad KRÄLING, Tobias WULF, Florin PAIU, 

László PIUKOVICS, Darko KEREC, Marek JAKUBEC 

PERFORMANCE OF WINTER RAPESEED HYBRIDS MAXIMUS® IN EUROPEAN 

CONTINENTAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ....................................................................................... 203 

Corina MATEI GHERMAN


DAILY NEED CONSUMER FEEDERS - A PROBLEM OF WASTE ? ............................................. 209 

Corina MATEI GHERMAN 

LABELS AND MARKING ORGANIC PRODUCTS .................................................................. 213 

Marius Mihai MICU, Valentina TUDOR, Nicolae STERGHIU, Monica PANDELEA 

STUDY REGARDING THE PERSPECTIVES OF ARGES COUNTY AGRICULTURE 

THROUGH THE FARMERS’ VISION ................................................................................................. 217 

Marius Mihai MICU, Florentin BERCU, Eugenia ALECU, Mariana BURCEA 

ROMANIAN ASSOCIATION AGRICULTURAL PRODUCERS PRIMACY, 

POWER EUROPEAN EXAMPLE......................................................................................................... 221 

Ştefan VIZITEU 

PARTICULARITIES REGARDING THE EVOLUTION OF ROMANIAN 

BAKERY MARKET IN THE CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC CRISIS ................................................... 225 

Mădălina Oana VASILIU 

ASPECTS REGARDING THE PROMOTION OF FRUIT, VEGETABLES AND FRUIT 

AND VEGETABLES PRODUCTS IN ROMANIA .............................................................................. 229 

Sabina Cristiana NECULA 

ROMANIA’S INNOVATION CULTURE: THE QUEST FOR THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE...... 233 

Daniela POPESCUL 

PROCESS INNOVATION IN THE ROMANIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. 

OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 239 

Laura Monica DALE, Ioan ROTAR, Andre THEWIS, Roxana VIDICAN, 

Vasile FLORIAN, Anamaria CIURE 

DETERMINATION OF ALFALFA CRUDE FIBER, NDF, ADF AND LIGNIN 

CONTENT BY NIR SPECTROMETRY ............................................................................................... 245 

Aurel CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU, Benedicta DROBOTĂ, George UNGUREANU, Toma DIMA 

INTEGRATION - BASIC FACTOR FOR ENSURING ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF 

AGRICULTURAL UNITS (CASE STUDY AT S.A. „AGROIND” BEREZENI, 

VASLUI COUNTY) ............................................................................................................................... 251 

Elena GÎNDU, Aurel CHIRAN, Benedicta DROBOTĂ, George UNGUREANU, T. DIMA 

LIVESTOCK - MAJOR GOAL IN CONSOLIDATION AND EFFICIENCY OF 

AGRICULTURAL UNITS (CASE STUDY AT S.A. „AGROIND” BEREZENI, 

VASLUI COUNTY) ............................................................................................................................... 257 

Benedicta DROBOTĂ, Aurel CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU, Ionuţ DROBOTĂ 

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR REPLACING OLD MACHINERIES 

IN CEREAL FARMS ............................................................................................................................. 261 

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Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 55/2012, seria Agronomie 

POSSIBILITIES OF PRODUCTION INCREASE OF THE WHEAT CARIOPS 

UNDER REGULATORS INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT BIOSTYMULATORS 

CONCENTRATIONS 

Abstract 

Mihail AXINTE 1 , Teodor ROBU 1 , Corneliu ONISCU 2 , Marius ZAHARIA 1 , 

Iuliana ANDRIEŞ 1 , Carmen ŢIBULCĂ-GHIŢĂU 1 , Aglaia MOGÂRZAN 1 

e-mail: teorobu@uaiasi.ro 

In the ecological conditions on the farm Ezăreni-Iaşi was organized research regarding the effect of some biodegradable 

biostymulators at concentrations of 50 ppm, 25 ppm and 12.5 ppm in the period 2008-2011. The treatments were 

performed with biostymulators BCO-4 K (potassium salt of the acid-amido-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic sulfonyl), with and 

without zinc acetate and BCO - 4 DMA (dimethylamine salt of the acid chloride 4 2 amidosulfonil - phenoxyacetic) to 

varieties Boema, Crina and Flamura 85 (in 2010 to 2011 variety Arieşan). The research was conducted on a cambic 

chernozem soil, climatic conditions are favorable wheat, especially in 2010-2011. Research results revealed that on 

average three years, the highest yield of 7569 kg/ha was recorded in biostymulators BCO - 4 K + zinc acetate, with a 

production increase of 23.47% from control variant (water treatment) and 7.57% compared to the control variant 2 

(BCO - 4 DMA). Averaged over three years, the concentration of 50 ppm achieved the highest yield of 7506 kg/ha and 

to Boema variety 7568 kg/ha. The best interaction between factors was found BCO - 4 K + acetate Zn x 25 ppm x 

Boema with 7942 kg/ha, averaged over three years, with 14.85% higher than in control variant (BCO - 4 DMA x 12 , 5 

ppm x Flamura 85). Use of biostymulators for winter wheat is a sustainable action. 

Key words: biostymulators, concentrations, wheat 

Increasing safety and food security of the 

population is a concern for both producers and 

processors of raw vegetables (Gherghen et al. 

1988; Goian 1986). 

By using new biodegradable and nontoxic 

stimulators worldwide and in Romania, along 

starter fertilizer with preparate containing primary 

nutrients (N,P,K), secondary (Ca, Mg, S) and 

micronutrients (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn), to obtain 

significant production increases, quantitative and 

qualitative (Goian, 1986; Kleijer et al., 2011; Favre 

et al. 2006; Oniscu and Trofin 2002). 

Wheat cultivars, their genetic qualities, more 

productive, to be and baking quality, protein 

content, wet gluten and starch as influenced by 

treatments applied (Kleijer 2002; Fossati, 1990; 

John Ionela 1990). 

Conception and development of new 

chemical structures of class sulphonamides used as 

regulators of growth substances innovative is a 

continual research, to use in different cultures, 

including the wheat (Oniscu 2002). 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi 

2 “Gh. Asachi“ Technical University of Iasi 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

In the period 2008-2011 on the farm Ezăreni - 

Iaşi take place at research on the effect of 

biostymulators, recently obtained in different 

concentrations on the biology and production of three 

Romanian winter wheat varieties. 

The biostymulators used were obtained from 

the Technical University "Gh. Asachi" of Iasi, the 

sulfonamides of phenoxyacetic derivatives and their 

salts, being biodegradable, acting through the 

application extraroot in different concentrations of 50 

ppm, 25 ppm and 12.5 ppm. 

Extraroot application of plant growth 

advantage is to avoid their immobilization in the soil, 

the possibility of applying different biofaze of plants, 

using small quantities and with herbicides or 

pathogens control products. Sulfonamide is today a 

major class of chemicals, with effect or growth 

regulator herbicides, lack of toxicity to humans, 

animals, bees, fish, whilst being biodegradable. 

For treatment with biostymulators were used: 

potassium salt of the acid-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic 

amidosulfonil (BCO-4K), without and with zinc acetate 

and dimethylamine salt of the acid chloride 4phenoxyacetic 

2 amidosulfonil (BCO-4DMA) 

cosncentrations of 12.5 ppm, 25 ppm and 50 ppm.


Has been made three varieties of wheat expreriente: 

Boema, Crina and Flamura-85. 

In 2010-2011 Flamura-85 variety was replaced 

with Arieşan variety. Boema variety within the group 

to early varieties with high productivity. Crina variety 

is a variety of early, high yielding, resistant to winter 

and variety Flamura 85 is a early variety, with good 

milling and baking characteristics. All three varieties 

have been created to ICCPT Fundulea. Arieşan 

variety was obtained from SCDA Turda, is winter 

resistant, productive and suitable for Moldova and 

Transilvania. Climatic conditions during the 

experiment were favorable for winter wheat, standing 

out in terms of favorability for wheat crop year 2010- 

2011.The soil that was experienced was a cambic 

chernozem, with a pH of 7.05, 30.03% humus, 

0.156% total nitrogen, 69 ppm P and 366 ppm K. 

10 

Calculation of results was done by variance 

analysis method. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Analyzing wheat production obtained, from 

table 1, that the agricultural year 2008-2009 were 

recorded production of 6045 kg/ha to control 

variant, treated with water and 7458 kg/ha treated 

variant with biostymulator BCO-4K + acetate zinc; 

production in 2009-2010 ranged from 5868 kg/ha 

in the variant treated with water and 7147 kg/ha in 

variant BCO-4 K+Zn acetate, in 2010-2011, 

production was 6479 kg/ha in control variant of 

water and 8102 kg/ha in variant BCO-4 K + zinc 

acetate. 

Table 1 

The influence of biostymulator on the production of wheat in 2008-2011 

Biostymulator 

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

Average 

2008-2011 

% of CV-1 Diff. (kg/ha) % of CV-2 

Diff. 

(kg/ha) 

BCO-4K+Zn 7458 7147 8102 7569 123.47 1439 ** 

107.57 533 

BCO-4K 7455 6943 7978 7458 121.66 1328** 105.99 422 

BCO-4DMA 7214 6802 7094 7036 114.77 906** 100.0 CV-2 

Water 6045 5868 6479 6130 100.00 CV-1 87.12 -906 

LSD 5 % - 546.0 kg/ha 

LSD 1 % - 905.5 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% - 1691.2 kg/ha 

Averaged over three years, most production 

was in the variant treated with BCO-4 K + acetate 

Zn, 7569 kg/ha, and the lowest in the variant 

treated with water, 6130 kg/ha. In the treated 

variants with BCO-4 K+zinc acetate and BCO-4 

K, the production differences were very significant 

to control variant treated water. Compared to 

control variant two, BCO-4 DMA, production 

differences biostymulators were not statistically 

assured, and in the water treatment variant the 

difference was distinct significant. 

Biostymulator 

concentration 

(ppm) 

It follows that biostymulators compare with 

them, production not differ statistically assured, as 

happens when it relates to water treatment. 

In the average on three years, concentration 

of 50 ppm biostymulators was found best, with a 

significant difference from control variant by 12.5 

ppm (table 2). The biostymulators concentrations 

of 25 ppm and 12.5 ppm are similar effect on the 

production, in the bellows biophase applies of 

winter wheat. 

The concentration of biostymulators on wheat production in 2008-2011 

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

Average 

2008-2011 

% of CV 

Difference 

(kg/ha) 

Significance 

50 7449 7230 7838 7506 103.64 264 * 

25 7506 6811 7631 7309 100.92 67 

12.5 7172 6851 7704 7242 100.00 CV 

LSD 5 % - 235.8 kg/ha 

LSD 1 % - 331.0 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% - 467.3 kg/ha 

Wheat varieties responded differently to 

application of biostymulators, first, that level of 

production, being Boema with 7568 kg/ha, 

averaged over three years, followed by Flamura 85 

(in 2011 Arieşan variety) to 7300 kg/ha (table 3). 

The interaction of three factors revealed 

cariopse largest production in 2010-2011, with 

Table 2 

7725 kg/ha, followed by production in 2008-2009, 

with 7376 kg/ha from 2009 to 2010 to 6964 kg/ha 

(table 4). The observed influence of climatic 

conditions in the three years of experimentation, 

especially rainfall.

11 


Table 3 

The variety influence on wheat production in 2008-2011 

Variety 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

Average 

2008-2011 

% of CV 

Difference 

(kg/ha) 

Significance 

Boema 7694 7123 7886 7568 103.67 268 *** 

Flamura 85 7285 7022 7616 7300 100.00 C.V. 

Crina 7148 6748 7672 7189 98.47 111 

LSD 5 % - 149.6 kg/ha 

LSD 1 % - 200.4 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% - 264.5 kg/ha 

Production increases obtained were very 

significant to the interaction between BCO - 4 

DMA x 12.5 ppm x Flamura 85 (6915 kg/ha). 

The interaction of two factors observed the 

two concentrations influence (50 and 25 ppm), the 

two biostymulators (BCO - 4 K and 4 K + BCO- 

Zn acetate) and a variety Boema, which led to the 

best effect on production . 

Biostymulator 

BCO –4 

DMA 

BCO – 

4 K 

BCO- 4K + 

zinc acetate 

In experience with more factors, interaction 

between factors fairest the highlights production 

obtained. Thus, the first place in three years 

average was the interaction BCO-4 K + acetate Zn 

x 25 ppm x Boema, with 7942 kg/ha, followed by 

BCO-4 K x 50 ppm x Boema, with 7890 kg/ha . 

Table 4 

The influence of interaction between biostymulators x biostymulators concentration x wheat varieties 

Biosty-mulator 

concentra-tion 

(ppm) 

50 

25 

12.5 

50 

25 

12.5 

50 

25 

12.5 

Variety 

on production in 2008-2011 

Production 

(kg/ha) 

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

Average 

2008- 

2011 

% of CV 

Difference 

(kg/ha) 

Boema 7513 6849 7347 7236 104.64 321 

Crina 7201 6895 7417 7171 103.70 256 

Flamura 85 7086 7766 6943 7265 105.05 350 

Boema 7424 6606 7133 7054 102.00 139 

Crina 7417 6487 7030 6978 100.90 63 

Flamura 85 6977 6957 7130 7021 101.53 106 

Signif. 

Boema 8018 6968 7546 7510 108.60 595 * 

Crina 6061 5900 6580 6180 89.37 -735 00 

Flamura 85 7231 6794 6720 6915 100.00 Mt. 

Boema 7821 7404 8447 7890 114.09 975 *** 

Crina 8074 7032 8110 7738 111.90 823 *** 

Flamura 85 7301 6274 7282 6952 100.53 37 

Boema 8027 6857 7895 7593 109.80 678 * 

Crina 7064 5900 6946 6636 95.96 -279 

Flamura 85 7822 7374 8377 7857 113.62 942 *** 

Boema 6984 6939 7996 7306 105.65 391 

Crina 6757 7530 8536 7607 110.00 692 

Flamura 85 7246 7182 8220 7549 109.16 634 * 

Boema 7644 8009 8007 7886 114.04 971 *** 

Crina 7386 7230 8371 7662 110.80 747 *** 

Flamura 85 7016 7615 8623 7751 112.08 836 *** 

Boema 8094 7352 8380 7942 114.85 1027 *** 

Crina 7315 6780 7794 7296 105.50 381 

Flamura 85 7415 6992 8000 7469 108.01 554 * 

Boema 7729 7128 8230 7695 111.27 780 ** 

Crina 7055 6979 8260 7431 107.46 516 

Flamura 85 7471 6244 7253 6989 101.07 74 

Average 7376 6964 7725 kg/ha 

LSD 5% 561.7 702.6 412.9 518.1 kg/ha 

LSD 1% 749.0 941.4 703.5 694.3 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% 975.4 1242.5 1155.5 916.3 kg/ha 

CONCLUSIONS 

Following three years of research in 

agricultural on the Ezăreni farm we draw the 

following conclusions: 

• among the three investigated biostymulators 

(BCO-4 K + zinc acetate, BCO - 4 K and 

BCO - 4 DMA) no significant differences; 

• comparing the yields obtained with the 

three biostymulators treated with variant water 

difference is made up 23.47% to 14.77%;


• biostymulators concentrations between 50 

and 25 ppm were achieved higher production 

increases compared to 12.5% concentration; 

• varieties Boema, Flamura 85 and Arieşan 

responded with higher production under the 

influence of growth regulators than Crina variety; 

• the interaction between the investigated 

factors caused most production BCO-4 K + acetate 

Zn x 25 ppm x Boema, with a very significant 

increase of 14.85%. 

REFERENCES 

Favre G., Zimmermann A., Charles R., 2006 – 

Pratiques de la fumure azotée en grandes 

cultures (1992 à 2004). Revue suisse 

d’Agriculture 38 (6), 315-321. 

Fossati A., 1990 – Evolution des tehniques et des 

variétés de blé. Reflexion d’un selectionner. 

Revue Suisse d’agriculture, vol.15. 

12 

Gherghen I., Goian M., Pusca I., Borza I., Lazureanu 

A., Vâlceanu R., 1988 - Utilizarea 

bioregulatorilor în producţia vegetală. Ed. Facla , 

Timişoara. 

Goian M., 1986 – Biostimulatori la grâu. Ed. Facla, 

Timişoara. 

Ioan Ionela, Ciolpan Ghenuţa, 1997 – Capacitatea de 

producţie a unor soiuri şi linii de grâu de toamnă 

în condiţiile ecologice din Moldova. Cercetări 

agronomice în Moldova, vol.1, p.37 – 45. 

Kleijer G., 2002 – Selection des variétés de blé pour la 

qualité boulangèrse. Revue suisse d’Agriculture 

38 (6), 315-321. 

Kleijer G., Dossenbach A., Städeli G., Rychener M., 

Weisflog Th., 2011 – Gluten humide des 

varietés de blé en condition extenso et PER. 

Recherche Agronomique suisse, 2 (5), 2006-211. 

Oniscu C., Trofin Alina, 2002 – Influenţa tratamentelor 

cu biostimulatoru din clasa acizilor sulfonilfenoxialchil 

carboxilici asupra procesului de 

germinaţie la seminţe de tomate. Cercetări 

agronomice în Moldova, 3-4 (120).

13 


THE INFLUENCE OFMINERAL AND ORGANIC LONG-TERM 

FERTILIZATION UPON THE FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF Festuca rubra 

L.-Agrostis capillaris L. GRASSLAND IN APUSENI MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA 

Abstract 

Ioan ROTAR 1 , Florin PĂCURAR 1 , Anca BOGDAN 1 , Roxana VIDICAN 1 

e-mail: rotarioan52@yahoo.fr 

The semi-natural grasslands in Apuseni Mountains are particularly important for the sustainable development of this 

region. The future development strategies must take into consideration the conservation of grassland plant diversity. In 

Apuseni Mountains there are numerous caves and a traditional landscape, these forming the area’s wealth. Their joining 

with agro-tourism and performing a sustainable agriculture would significantly level up the wellbeing of the local 

population, who are in need of new income sources considering that the wood resources are more and more reduced. In 

Gârda de Sus there are considerable areas of semi-natural grasslands which lately have been traditionally used. 

Nowadays, some of them have been abandoned and others irrationally intensified. Therefore, the objective of this paper 

was to evaluate the effects of organic fertilization upon the sward in order to recommend certain versions which have 

minor repercussions upon the plant diversity. The research was carried out in Apuseni Mountains, in an experimental 

field with one experiences with organic fertilizers (T1 control, T2 10 t ha -1 manure, T3 20 t ha -1 manure, T 4 30 t ha -1 

manure). Giving organic fertilizers caused installation of Festuca rubra L. and Trisetum flavescens L. at the treatment 

using 10 t ha -1 manure and Trisetum flavescens L. at using 20 and 30 t ha -1 manure. The treatment with 10 t ha -1 manure 

induced a growth of the plant diversity and by raising the manure quantity did not cause important changes with respect 

to the species’ number. For future management actions that are meant to maintain the plant diversity in Apuseni 

Mountains, the organic fertilization with 10 t ha -1 manure quantities annually administrated or once in two years is 

recommended. 

Key words: mountainous grassland, organic fertilization, plant diversity, frequency of the species, abundance of the 

species 

Mountain grasslands include some of the 

most important high nature value areas in Europe, 

and high-biodiversity mountain farmland can 

increase tourism incomes and is a potential seed 

source for local biodiversity restoration (Hopkins, 

2011). The grassland system can provide 

ecosystem services such as soil conservation, water 

quality protection, biodiversity conservation, 

medicinal plants, pleasing landscapes, soil carbon 

storage and greenhouse gas mitigation (Sanderson 

and Wätzold, 2010). Grassland biodiversity is an 

important consideration in many agrienvironmental 

policies (Orth et al. 2010). The 

grasslands in Europe suffer a dramatic loss of 

biodiversity features because of fertilization, land 

abandonment or the transformation of grassland 

into cropland (European Environment Agency, 

2007). The first systematic assessment of Europe’s 

most vulnerable habitat types and species has 

already shown that grasslands in particular have an 

unfavourable conservation status (Bruchmann and 

Hobohn, 2010). In less-favoured areas, this can 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca 

take form of preserving plant diversity, e.g. 

through low-input farming system (Duru et al, 

2010). Semi- natural grasslands need a 

management system which supports biodiversity 

conservation (Rotar et al., 2010). Being one of the 

most diverse plant communities, mountain 

meadows are the habitat for many rare species 

(Zarzycki and Misztal, 2010). Manure fertilization 

contributes to grasslands phyto-diversity, while 

spring overgrazing or frequent mowing are 

disadvantageous (Nettier et al., 2010). Questions 

remain as to what level of organic fertilization 

optimally maintains the plant diversity of 

meadows. Organic fertilization and rational use of 

fertilizers can produce substantial increases of the 

production and biodiversity and fodder quality 

improvement (Vîntu et al., 2008). In the central 

part of Apuseni Mountains, fertilization by manure 

is the most important component of the traditional 

management that means to increase the biomass 

yield, species diversity and identity of the cultural 

landscape. Nowadays, in Romania, on the


grasslands of Apuseni Mountains, a management 

that involves manual labour, with horses-drawn 

carts and great consumption of time still is 

performed. This type of management has created 

over time great plant diversity (Auch, 2006). The 

meadows present within the perimeter of the Gârda 

de Sus commune, Apuseni Mountains, Romania, 

are highly plant diversified, due to traditional 

management performed over long periods of time. 

Most of the traditional management techniques use 

organic fertilization via manure combined with the 

mixed uses (Gârda, 2010). The recent changes 

(access roads improvement, better livelihood etc.) 

will influence the grasslands maintenance manner. 

Our paper’s objective was to evaluate the effects of 

organic fertilization upon the sward in order to 

recommend certain versions which have minor 

repercussions upon the plant diversity. 


The experimental field is located in the 

Ghetari, Gârda de Sus village, Alba County, Apuseni 

Mountains, at 1130 m elevation and it was founded in 

2001, using the random blocks method. The 

experiment fields included 4 treatments in 4 

1 

manure, T3 20 t ha -1 

replications (T 1 control, T 2 10 t ha - 

manure, T 4 30 t ha -1 manure). Each plot measures 10 

m 2 . The technological inputs administration took place 

annually in early spring. The organic fertilizer came 

from cattle and horses having the following elements 

content: 0.40 N, 0.39 P and 0.45 K. The experimental 

field was placed on Terra Rossa soil having the 

following features: soil pH 5.34, N total 0.212 %, P 

mobile 3 ppm, K 25 ppm. Thus, a medium supply in N 

and extremely low in P and K are noticed. The floristic 

studies were performed according to Braun-Blanquét 

method. For floristic data we have used PC-ORD 

program which performs multivariate analysis of 

ecological data entered in spreadsheets 19 . Our 

emphasis is on nonparametric tools, graphical 

representation, randomization tests and bootstrapped 

confidence intervals for analysis of community data. 

We also used the MRPP (Multi Response 

Permutation Procedures), which is a nonparametric 

procedure for testing the hypothesis of no differences 

between two or several groups of entities. The 

method implies the statistic T-test which describes 

the separation among the groups, meaning the more 

negative is T, the stronger is the separation. The 

agreement statistic A describes within - group 

homogeneity, compared to the random expectation. 

Also, Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) 

was used, which is an ordination method well suited 

to data described as not normal or arbitrary, 

discontinuous, or otherwise questionable scales. 

NMS is generally the best ordination method for 

community data. NMDS does not alter the ordination 

too much and is replacing the correlation coefficient 

by the frequently used Bray-Curtis index which 

changes the result considerably 20. A Monte Carlo 

test of significance was included. The orderabundance 

and order- frequency correlations give us 

14 

a synthetic view and are extremely useful in 

comparative studies 21. 


Administrating organic fertilizers produced 

a vegetation ordination in 4 floristic groups 

specific to each treatment (figure 1). Control 

floristic composition was much differentiated from 

the swards structure of all applied treatments 

(p

insurance (p>0.05). Cyperaceaes-Juncaceaes 

decreased and showed statistical insurance at the 

treatment with 30 t ha -1 manure (p


Table 1 

The pairwise comparison with MRPP (T – the t test, A – group homogeneity, p – the statistical significance) 

Treatments T A P 

control vs 10 t ha -1 manure -4.04161127 0.27468564 0.00610061 



10 t ha -1 manure vs 20 t ha -1 manure -2.02769523 0.12006600 0.04461151 

10 t ha -1 manure vs 30 t ha -1 manure -3.00087974 0.17128965 0.01249794 

20 t ha -1 manure vs 30 t ha -1 manure 0.91097218 -0.05960591 0.81752838 

Table 2 

The floristic structure of the grassland types under the influence of organic inputs (dominant species and 

economic groups, Fr - Ac = Festuca rubra L.- Agrostis capillaris L., F.r - T.f = Festuca rubra L. - Trisetum 

flavescens L., T.f = Trisetum flavescens L., Mt. = control, * =p

17 


Figure 2 Ordination of floristic composition on types and species depending on the organic treatments (Ttreatments, 

T1- control, T2-10 t ha -1 manure, T3- 20 t ha -1 manure, T4-30 t ha -1 manure, R-replication, F-grasslands 

types, F1 = Festuca rubra L. – Agrostis capilllaris L., F2 = Festuca rubra L. – Trisetum flavescens L., F3 = 

Trisetum flavescens L., Achimill = Achillea millefolium L., Agrocapi= Agrostis capillaris L., Alchvulg= Alchemilla 

vulgaris L., Anthodor= Anthoxanthum odoratum L., Arnimont = Arnica montana L., Brizmedi = Briza media L., 

Campabie= Campanula abietina Griseb., Centpseu = Centaurea pseudophrygia C. A. Mey., Colcautu = Colchicum 

autumnale L., Crepbien = Crepis biennis L., Cynocris = Cynosurus cristatus L., Festprat = Festuca pratensis L. , 

Festrubr= Festuca rubra L. , Gymncono = Gymnadenia conopsea L., Hieraura = Hieracium aurantiacum L., 

Hypemacu= Hypericum maculatum Crantz, Leonautu =Leontodon autumnalis L., Leucvulg =Leucanthemum 

vulgare Lam., Lotucorn = Lotus corniculatus L., Luzumult = Luzula multiflora Ehrh., Pimpmajo = Pimpinella 

major L., Planlanc = Plantago lanceolata L., Planmedi = Plantago media L., Polyvulg = Polygala vulgaris L., 

Poteerec = Potentilla erecta L., Prunvulg = Prunella vulgaris L., Ranuacri = Ranunculus acris L., Ranubulb = 

Ranunculus bulbosus L., Rhinmino = Rhinanthus minor L., Rumeacet = Rumex acetosa L., Scabcolu = Scabiosa 

columbaria L., Stelgram = Stellaria graminea L., Taraoffi = Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H.Wigg., Tragprat = 

Tragopogon pratensis L., Trifprat = Trifolium pratense L., Trifrepe = Trifolium repens, L., Trisflav= Trisetum 

flavescens L., Verocham = Veronica chamaedrys L., Vicicrac= Vicia cracca L., Violtric = Viola tricolor L.) 

Figure 3 Species abundance in Festuca rubra L.-Agrostis capillaris L. grassland (control, Rankabund = Rank 

abundance of the species, Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, for species names see legend of Figure 2)


Figure 4 Species frequency in Festuca rubra L. - Agrostis capillaris L. grassland (control, Freq = Frequency of 

the species, Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, for species names see legend of Figure 2) 

Figure 5 Species abundance in Festuca rubra L. - Trisetum flavescens L. grassland (treatment with 10 t ha -1 

manure, Rankabund = Rank abundance of the species, Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, 

for species names see legend of Figure 2) 

Figure 6 (Species frequency in Festuca rubra L .- Trisetum flavescens L. grassland (treatment with 10 t ha -1 

manure, Freq = Frequency of the species, Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, 


18

19 


Figure 7 (Species abundance in Trisetum flavescens L. grassland (treatments with 20 t and 30 t ha -1 manure, 

Rankabund = Rank abundance of the species,Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, 


Figure 8 (Species frequency in Trisetum flavescens L. grassland (treatments with 20 t and 30 t ha -1 manure, 

Freq = Frequency of the species, Logsum = Log base 10 of the species Sum, 


CONCLUSIONS 

The organic fertilizers administration on the 

Festuca rubra L. - Agrostis capillaris L. grassland 

type produced important changes within the sward 

depending on the applied treatments. 

Administration of 20 and 30 t ha -1 manure 

produced the installation of Trisetum flavescens L. 

grassland type. Administrating organic fertilizers 

induced plant diversity growth, especially at the 

treatment with 10 t ha -1 manure. For future 

management actions that are meant to maintain the 

plant diversity in Apuseni Mountains, the organic 

fertilization with 10 t ha -1 manure quantities 

annually administrated or once at two years is 

recommended. 

REFERENCES 

Auch, E. 2006. Überlebensstrategien waldnutzender 

Familienwirtschaften im Apuseni-Gebirge, 

Rumänien sustainable Livelihoods Analyse und 

Handlungsempfehlungen. Schriften aus dem 

Institut für Forstökonomie der Universität 

Freiburg, Band 27, Freiburg. 

Bruchmann, I. and Hobohn, C. 2010. Halting the loss 

of biodiversity: Endemic vascular pants in 

grasslands of Europe. Grassland Science in 

Europe 15:776-778. 

Duru, M., Cruz, P., Martin, G. and Theau, J. P. 2010. A 

method to assess the management of permanent 

grasslands at farm level. Grassland Science in 

Europe 15:788-790. 

European Environment Agency 2007. Europes 

Environment: The fourth assessment. EEA- 

Publications Office, Copenhagen, 452 p. 

Gârda, N. 2010. The Study of Some Mountainous 

Landscape Elements (with special regard to


grasslands ecosystems in Gârda de Sus 

commune, Apuseni Mountains). Doctoral thesis, 

USAMV Cluj-Napoca, pp. 224-227 

Hopkins, A. 2011. Mountainous farming in Europe, 

Grassland Science in Europe 16:3-12. 

Nettier, B., Dobremez, L., Orsini, M., and Fleury, P. 

2010. Practices and motivation of farmers who 

sign contracts to preserve grassland biodiversity. 

Grassland Science in Europe 15:714-715. 

Orth, D., Begon, M. and Sabatier, J. 2010. Could the 

grassland production costs be an argument for 

biodiversity? Grassland Science in Europe 

15:720-722. 

20 

Rotar, I., Pãcurar, F., Vidican, R. and Morea, A. 2010. 

The organic-mineral fertilization of Festuca rubra 

L. grassland in Apuseni Mountains. 

Sanderson, M. A. and Wätzold, F. 2010. Balancing 

trade-offs in ecosystem and service in grassland 

management. Grassland Science in Europe 

15:639-648. 

Vîntu, V., Samuil, C., Sârbu, C., Saghin, G. and Iacob, 

T. 2008. The influence of grassland management 

on biodiversity in the mountainous region of NE 

Romania. Grassland Science in Europe 13:183- 

185. 

Zarzycki, J. and Misztal, A. 2010. Abandonment of 

farming practices: Impact on vegetation. 

Grassland Science in Europe 15:133-13

Abstract 

21 


THE INFLUENCE OF CITY SLUDGE FERTILIZATION UPON SOIL 

RESPIRATION WITH WITH ALFALFA, AT BOLDUŢ (CLUJ COUNTY) 

Roxana VIDICAN 1 , Iancu PINTEA 1 , Ioan ROTAR 1 , Florin PACURAR 1 ,Valentina SANDOR 1 

e-mail: roxana.vidican@usamvcluj.ro 

In the context of global climate change and the different scenarios developed in this direction, quantifying soil 

respiration becomes an issue of major interest for both researchers and farmers. The objective of this study is to asses 

the use of city sludge as fertilizer in agriculture, with special reference to soil respiration with alfalfa grown on in terms 

of ensuring environmental protection and the integrity of human health. Number of soil microorganisms and their 

composition is an important practical point in assessing biological activity. The effect of fertilization with city sludge 

upon soil respiration on alfalfa culture was studied in an experiment with 8 variants where were applied different doses 

of city sludge and manure.Soil respiration is closely related to microbiological activity in soil. Determination of soil 

respiration allows obtaining and processing for a large number of data which will provide greater accuracy in 

estimating soil CO2 flux. Results show that the activity of soil microorganisms is much stronger in July than in October. 

In July, the biggest differences from the control, in terms of soil respiration were recorded in variants fertilized with 40, 

60 t / ha city sludge and 20 t / ha manure, which is 0.69; 0.52 and 0.24 are noted in statistically highly significant. The 

best results in terms of soil respiration were recorded in October of 2011 in the variant treated with 40 t / ha city sludge 

with a value of g/m 2 /h 2.78 and with a 0.66 g/m 2 / h difference to the version control. 

Keywords: city sludge, soil resoiration, alfalfa, environmental protection. 

Soil respiration is defined as the 

consumption of molecular oxygen and producing 

carbon dioxide in the soil (Hillel D., 1998), 

resulting in carbon dioxide emissions from the soil 

into the atmosphere in significant quantities for the 

global carbon balance (Buyanowski G., 1983). 

There are two components of soil respiration 

namely: autotrophic respiration or breathing live 

plants (mainly by roots) and heterotrophic 

respiration microbiological is a biological 

respiration and bacterial decomposition of plant 

residues (Trumbore S., 2002). 

In the presence of molecular oxygen as 

oxidants in the soil pores, the respiration is taking 

place is aerobic, but as oxygen is consumed, it may 

be insufficient, especially with lower capacity 

micropore aeration, leading to anaerobic 

respiratory processes in that acceptorul final 

electron is not oxygen, but other oxidizing agents 

(nitrates, nitrites, carbon dioxide) - but they all 

produce energy produced lower than for aerobic 

respiration. Some constituents of the soil processes 

involved in plant development may become 

unavailable due to anaerobic respiration, which 

alter their composition (Zarrnea G., 1994). For 

example, nitrates can be reduced to nitrites, toxic 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca 

to plants or molecular nitrogen, which is hardly 

usable for their growth (Leonard I., 2007). 

Anaerobic soil conditions encountered in cases of 

prolonged water saturation, compaction and 

subsidence, are unfavorable for normal 

development of crops and soil aeration by specific 

work is recommended in these situations. 


The experience has been carried out during 

two experimental years, 2010-2011, and has been 

placed on the bill faeozom from Bolduţ, Cluj County, 

owned by ARDS Turda. 

The soil is slightly alkaline with a pH of 8.07 

within the Ao horizon and a 8.39 pH within Bt horizon, 

with a rate of 0.24% N, 41 ppm P and 342 ppm K. 

The experiences have been placed using the 

latin rectangle method in 4 repetitions with 8 variants: 

V1-control, V2 - 20 t / ha sludge, V3 - 30 t / ha sludge, 

V4 - 40 t / ha sludge, V5 - 60 t / ha sludge, V6 - 20 t / 

ha manure, V7 - 40 t / ha manure and V8 - 60 t / ha 

manure.The sludge that has been used was provided 

by the wastewater from Cluj-Napoca. The sludge has 

been first fermented in methantanks and dried on 

platforms for 8 months, having the following 

characteristics: 3.56% N, 2330 ppm P, 816 ppm K 

and 7.06 neutral pH. The chemical analysis of the


sludge and the soil profile characterization were 

provided by OSPA Cluj-Napoca. 

The biological material that has been used was 

alfalfa, Madalina variety. In our experiment from 

Bolduţ, for monitoring soil respiration we used a 

closed dynamic system (U.S. company PP System). 

The principle method involves isolating a volume of 

atmosphere from soil for some time, capture CO 2 and 

then determine its alkaline solutions (Sandor M., 

2010). 


Measurement of soil respiration and soil 

evapotranspiration from our experiment were 

performed using closed dynamic system CIRAS 2 

July 2011 and October that same year. In July of 

2011 there were differences between version 

control and variants application of city sludge and 

manure. 

The biggest differences in terms of soil 

respiration were recorded in variants fertilized with 

40, 60 t / ha city sludge and 20 t / ha manure, 

which were noted in very significant statistically 

(table 1). 

The highest values in terms of soil 

respiration occurred in the variant treated with 60 t 

/ ha sludge, where he obtained a value of 3.85 

g/m 2 /h (with a difference of 0.69 g / m 2 / h to the 

version control), followed by the variant treated 

with 40 t / ha city sludge with a value of 3.68 

22 

g/m 2 /h (with a difference of 0.52 to version control 

g/m 2 /h ). In contrast stands the variant treated with 

20 t / ha city sludge with a value of 3.26 g/m 2 /h 

soil respiration (with a difference of 0.07 g/m 2 /h to 

version control). 

A second measurement of soil respiration 

was performed in October of 2011, and since 

statistically, in all experimental variants have been 

very significant increases from unfertilized control 

variant. The highest values of soil respiration in 

October of 2011 were recorded in the variant 

treated with 40 t / ha city sludge, with a value of 

2.78 g/m 2 /h (with a g/m 2 /h 0.66 difference from 

control variant) and the variant treated with 60 t / 

ha manure, with a value of 2.75 g/m 2 /h (with a 

difference of 0.63 g / m 2 / h to the version control). 

The lowest value was observed in the variant 

treated with 60 t / ha city sludge g/m 2 /h of 2.43 

(with a difference of 0.31 g/m 2 /h from version 

control) (table 2). 

Comparing the two periods analyzed, soil 

respiration values in July (range from 3.16 to 3.85 

g/m 2 /h) are much higher than in October (values 

between 2.12 to 2.78 g / m 2 / h) (figure 1). This 

shows that temperature is one of the factors 

influencing soil respiration as very high, so the 

activity of microorganisms during the warm season 

is more intense than in the coldest of the year. 

Table 1 

Soil respiration (July 2011) 

Variant 

Soil 

respiration(g/m 2 /h) 

% to control Difference Signifiance 

Duncan 

Test 

V1- control 3.16 100 0 Control A 

V2 - 20 t/ha city sludge 3.26 103.3 0.10 - A 

V3 - 30 t/ha city sludge 3.23 102.3 0.07 - A 

V4 - 40 t/ha city sludge 3.68 116.5 0.52 *** C 

V5 - 60 t/ha city sludge 3.85 121.9 0.69 *** D 

V6 - 20 t/ha manure 3.40 107.6 0.24 *** B 

V7 - 40 t/ha manure 3.25 102.9 0.09 - A 

V8 - 60 t/ha manure 3.24 102.7 0.08 - A 

LSD(p5%) 

LSD(p1%) 

LSD(p0.1%) 

0.12 

0.16 

0.21 

DS 

0.12-0.13 

Table 2 

Soil respiration (October 2011) 

Variant 

Soil 

respiration(g/m 2 /h) 

% to control Difference Signifiance 

Duncan 

Test 

V1- control 2.12 100 0 Control A 

V2 - 20 t/ha city sludge 2.61 123.5 0.50 *** D 

V3 - 30 t/ha city sludge 2.69 127 0.57 *** E 

V4 - 40 t/ha city sludge 2.78 131.2 0.66 *** F 

V5 - 60 t/ha city sludge 2.43 114.7 0.31 *** B 

V6 - 20 t/ha manure 2.53 119.6 0.42 *** C 

V7 - 40 t/ha manure 2.66 125.5 0.54 *** DE 

V8 - 60 t/ha manure 2.75 129.8 0.63 *** F 

LSD(p5%) 

LSD(p1%) 

LSD(p0.1%) 

0.10 

0.60 

0.80 

DS 

0.60-0.70

Soil respiration (g/m2/h) 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

3.16 

2.12 

3.26 3.23 

2.61 

V1- control V2 - 20 t/ha 

city sludge 

CONCLUSIONS 

2.69 

V3 - 30 t/ha 

city sludge 

3.68 

Soil respiration is the main link in the 

carbon cycle in which CO2 is fixed by 

terrestrial plants back into the atmosphere, 

being defined as the consumption of molecular 

oxygen and production of CO2 in the soil. Soil 

respiration is closely related to microbiological 

activity in soil (protozoa, algae, fungi, 

actinomycetes, bacteria) (Vidican R., 2007). 

In July, the biggest differences from the 

control, in terms of soil respiration were 

recorded in variants fertilized with 40, 60 t / ha 

city sludge and 20 t / ha manure, which is 

0.69; 0.52 and 0.24 are noted in statistically 

highly significant. 

The best results in terms of soil 

respiration in October of 2011 were recorded 

in the variant treated with 40 t / ha city sludge 

with a value of g/m 2 /h 2.78 and with a 0.66 

g/m2/ h difference to the version control. 

Activity of soil microorganisms is more 

intense in July (with values ranging from 3.16 

2.78 

V4 - 40 t/ha 

city sludge 

23 

3.85 


2.43 

V5 - 60 t/ha 

city sludge 

Experimental variants 

July 2011 October 2011 

3.4 

2.53 

V6 - 20 t/ha 

manure 

Figure 1 Soil respiration (July and October, 2011) 

3.25 3.24 

2.66 

V7 - 40 t/ha 

manure 

2.75 

V8 - 60 t/ha 

manure 

to 3.85 g/m 2 /h) from October (the 

presenting values between 2.12 to 2.78 g/m 2 / 

h). 

Temperature is one of the main factors 

influencing a very high degree of soil 

respiration. 

REFERENCES 

Buyanowski G., Wagner G., 1983. Annual cycles of 

carbon dioxide levelin soil air. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 

J. 47: 1139-1145; 

Hillel D., 1998. Environmental soil physics. Academis 

Press, New York; 

Leonard I., M. Dumitru, Nicoleta Vrânceanu, D.M. 

Motelică, Veronica Tănase, 2007. 

Metodologie de utilizare a nămolului orăşenesc 

în agricultură, Editura Solness, Timisoara; 

Sandor M., 2010. Respiraţia solului: Concept şi Metode 

de Determinare, . ProEnvironment Nr. 5, Vol.3, 

Cluj-Napoca; 

Trumbore S., J. Gaudinski, P. Hanson, J. Southon, 

2002. Quantity ecosystem- atmosphere Carbon 

excange with a 14 C label. EOS 83: 265-268; 

Vidican Roxana, 2007. Microbiologie, Editura Risoprint, 

Cluj-Napoca; 

Zarnea, G., 1994. Tratat de microbiologie generală, vol 

V., Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti.


24

Abstract 

25 


THE INFLUENCE OF BIOSTYMULATORS SULFONAMIDES 

CONCENTRATION, APPLIED IN DIFFERENT BIOPHASES, 

ON WINTER WHEAT PRODUCTION 

Teodor ROBU 1 , Marius ZAHARIA 1 , Corneliu ONISCU 2 , Mihail AXINTE 1 , 

Carmen GHIŢĂU-ŢIBULCĂ 1 , Iuliana ANDRIEŞ 1 

e-mail: teorobu@uaiasi.ro 

An experience in farm Ezăreni-Iasi organized in 2008-2011, on cambic chernozem soil, we studied the effect of 

biostymulators concentration (BCO - 4 DMA, BCO - 2 K; BCO - 2 K + acetate Zn) in three concentrations applied (50 

ppm, 25 ppm, 12.5 ppm) in three biophases (twinning, bellows, flowering) for winter wheat, variety Boema. Climatic 

conditions were favorable for winter wheat in terms of temperature and rainfall, crop year 2010-2011 the most 

favorable for wheat. Averaged over three years, comparing yields with version control treated with water, the highest 

yield was achieved with biostymulators BCO-2 K + zinc acetate, with 6322 kg / ha, 26.16% difference is very 

significant. Comparing yields with BCO - 4 DMA (control variant 2) production increase was 11.14%, distinct 

significantly in the variant BCO - 2 K + zinc acetate. In the three years average the concentrations of 12.5 ppm and 25 

ppm were found higher comparated with the concentrations of 50 ppm. Between biophases application of growth 

regulators no registered statistically differences, which requires obtaining of similar production value. The interaction 

between factors showed that the best variant BCO - 2 K x 25 ppm x flowering, with an average of 6844 kg / ha, 11.77% 

higher than the production control variant (BCO - 4 DMA x 12.5 ppm x twinning). The biostymulators used were 

potassium salt of the acid-4-chloro-phenoxyacetic amidosulfonil (BCO - 4 K), without and with zinc acetate and 

dimethylamine salt of 4-chloro acid, 2-phenoxyacetic sulfonyl amide (BCO - 4 DMA) obtained of the Proff. C. Oniscu 

from the Technical University "Gh. Asachi" of Iasi. 

Key words: biostymulators concentration, biophase, winter wheat 

Increasing agricultural production, both 

quantitatively and qualitatively, is a key concern 

worldwide and in Romania, to ensure food safety 

and security of the population. 

In the context of increasing the number over 

7 billion people of Earth in 2011 and growing 

demand for raw materials for the industrialization 

of farming, agricultural development is a primary 

goal. 

To increase the quantity and quality of 

wheat production, the main cereal bakeries are 

followed: 

- technological measures on mechanization 

of process improvement, utilization of fertilizers 

and pesticides, ecosystems protection; 

- use of new techniques in wheat crop, such 

as fertilization extraroot and use biostymulators; 

- general, economic and social measures, 

such as rational use of land, provision of material 

resources, technical and financial cooperation at 

national and European level in this area (Bîlteanu 

Gh, 2003; Borlan Z., 1989). 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi 

2 “Gh. Asachi“ Technical University of Iasi 

All these have direct impact on quality of 

life in sufficient quantities and quality of food that 

can be obtained by using biodegradable 

stimulators, increasingly require sustainable 

agriculture (Gherghen I., et al., 1988; Goian M. 

1986; Merlo L., Nuzzo, V., 1987; Neamtu G., F. 

Irimie, 1991). 

Biostymulators application extraroot wheat 

has the following advantages (GOIAN M., 1986; 

Borina, AK, 1959; Oniscu C., 1993): 

- prevents their immobilization in the soil; 

- can be applied in different biophases of 

wheat; 

- use small amounts of biostymulators; 

- is applied in conjunction with other 

substances, for weed control or pest and disease 

control; 

- apply modern means (airplane, helicopters 

etc.).



The research was conducted on a cambic 

chernozem in the Ezăreni farm in 2008-2010. 

The soil that had experienced a pH of 7.49 per 

depth 0-15 cm, humus 3.42%, 0.188% total nitrogen, 

101 mg and 594 mg KAL PAL to 100 g soil. In the 

crop year 2008-2009 temperatures recorded 

exceeded the annual average of 2 o C and rainfall was 

162 mm lower. The agricultural year 2009-2010, the 

period october 2009 - july 2010 exceeded the annual 

average temperature recorded with 0.76 o C and 

rainfall exceeded the annual average of 68.6 mm, 

since wheat is more favorable than before. In 2010- 

2011 rainfall was 40.4 mm lower than the annual 

average, but were distributed more evenly on critical 

biofazele asle wheat, recorded the highest production 

cariopse in all variants investigated. 

Experience has been placed in subdivided 

parcels, with four repetitions, with the following 

factors: 

Factor A - Biostymulators with three 

graduations: 

- a 1 - BCO-4DMA biostymulators 

- a 2 - BCO-2 K biostymulators 

- a 3 - BCO-2 K + zinc acetate biostymulators 

Factor B - concentration of promoters with 

three graduations: 

- b 1 - concentration of 50 ppm 

- b 2 - concentration of 25 ppm 

- b 3 - concentration of 12.5 ppm 

Factor C–Biophases biostymulators application 

with three graduations: 

- c 1 - twinning biophases 

- c 2 - "bellows" biophases 

- c 3 - flowering biophases 

The variety used was Boema - because it was 

the best behavior in other previous experience, with 

82 ± 0.8 cm height, 41 ± 2.6 g TSM, 77 ± 2 kg HM 

and productivity over 6 to/ha. 

A surface plot was 16 m 2 . 

The seeds were treated against pests and 

pathogens using a density of 600 g.s./m 2 at sowing. 

Common technology was used in experimental 

26 

conditions. During the vegetation phenological 

observations were made and biometric 

measurements. Statistical calculation was made by 

variance analysis method. 


Following research in three years (2008- 

2009, 2009-2010 and 2010-2011) was resulted 

important data on the use of biostymulators in the 

wheat crop, the concentrations used and biophases 

on application. 

Analyzing the influence of biostymulators 

on the production of wheat, the variety Boema, 

was found (table 1), in the year 2009-2010, was 

more favorable wheat, achieving higher production 

than in 2008-2009. In the year 2008-2009 

biostymulators BCO-2K determinated highest 

yield of wheat, 5055 kg, with 355 kg/ha higher 

than control variant (BCO-4DMA), difference is 

significant distinct. Comparated with treated water 

variant to production difference was very 

significant, of 800 kg /ha. 

In 2009-2010, the highest yield was obtained 

with biostymulators BCO-2K + zinc acetate, with 

5658 kg / ha and a difference from the control 

variant of 660 kg/ha, very significant and treated 

water variant the difference was 1260 kg / ha. 

In 2010-2011 most agricultural production 

was obtained in variant BCO - 2 K + zinc acetate, 

with 8416 kg / ha, to water treaty variant the 

difference is very significant, 2014 kg/ha. 

Averaged over three years, biostymulators 

BCO-2K + zinc acetate achieved a production of 

6322 kg/ha, with a very significant difference of 

1311 kg/ha, followed by BCO-2K to 1141 kg/ha, 

difference from control variant is a very significant 

water treated. To control variant 2 (BCO-4 DMA) 

difference was 634 kg/ha distinct significantly. 

Influence of growth regulators on wheat production. Average of the years 2008-2010 

Biostymulators 

Production (kg/ha) 

2008- 2009- 2010- 

2009 2010 2011 

Comparisons with control 

Average 

variant 1 

2008- 

2011 % of CV-1 

Comparisons with control 

variant 2 

Diff. Signifi- 

(kg/ha) cance 

Diff. Signifi- 

% of CV-2 

(kg/ha) cance 

BCO-2 K+Ac.Zn 4892 5658 8416 6322 126.16 1311 *** 111.14 634 ** 

BCO – 2 K 5033 5302 8122 6152 122.76 1141 *** 108.15 464 ** 

BCO –4 DMA 4678 4998 7389 5688 113.51 677 *** 100.00 C.V.2 

Water 4233 4398 6402 5011 100.00 C.V.1 88.09 677 ooo 

LSD 5% 316.8 212.2 262.5 263.8 kg/ha 

LSD 1% 479.1 351.9 350.0 393.6 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% 770.6 657.2 490.2 639.3 kg/ha 

The biostymulators concentration was 

determinated differently wheat production, 

depending on the weather year conditions (table 2). 

In 2010-2011 production were higher than in 2008- 

2009, driest and wettest 2009-2010. In 2008-2009, 

Table 1 

the driest, 12.5 ppm concentration caused the 

highest production of 5003 kg/ha, and in 2009- 

2010, made the same concentration, of 5704 kg/ha. 

In 2010-2011 the concentration of 25 ppm 

determined the highest yield of 8203 kg/ha.

Averaged over three years, the concentration 

of 12.5 ppm resulted in a yield of 6263 kg / ha, 

followed by concentration of 25 ppm, with 6107 

kg / ha. 

The biophase of biostymulators application 

not significantly different production (table 3). In 

2008-2009 the highest yield was obtained from the 

Concentration of 

biostymulators 

(ppm) 

27 


application of biostymulators in flowering 

biophase in 2009-2010 in the "skin" biophase, and 

in 2010-2011 in twinning biophase. On average the 

three years of maximum production was obtained 

in the twinning biophase. Differences between 

variants were not statistically. 

The concentration of biostymulators on the production of winter wheat. 

Average of the years 2008-2011 


Average 

2008-2011 

(kg/ha) 

% of control 

variant 

Difference 

(kg/ha) 

Table 2 

Significance 

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

50 4955 4812 7940 5902 94.23 361 Oo 

25 4646 5444 8203 6107 97.50 156 

12.5 5003 5704 8083 6263 100.00 C.V. 

LSD 5% 171.2 205.9 250.2 209.1 kg/ha 

LSD 1% 234.8 289.0 340.0 287.9 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% 319.6 408.0 450.1 392.5 kg/ha 

Periods of 


application 

The production of winter wheat in depending on the application of biostymulators 


Average % of control Difference 

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 2008-2011 variant (kg/ha) 

Twinning 4761 5342 8354 6155 100.00 C.V. 

Bellows 4856 5395 8059 6103 99.15 -52 

Full flowering 4969 5224 7813 6002 97.51 -153 

LSD 5% 246.5 152.8 202.5 200.6 kg/ha 

LSD 1% 328.7 204.8 250.0 261.1 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% 428.0 270.3 320.0 339.4 kg/ha 

Differences were not statistically we can say 

that in any biophase may apply biostymulators 

inquiry, but better to twinning and bellows. 

The interaction of three factors (table 4) was 

resulted in average three years, the largest 

production version BCO-2K 25 ppm x flowering, 

with 6844 kg / ha, the difference of 721 kg / ha 

compared to the control variant is significant. 

The interaction BCO-2 K + x 12.5 ppm zinc 

acetate x twinning achieved 6692 kg/ha, with a 

significant difference from the control variant, of 

569 kg / ha. 

The year 2008-2009, under climatic 

conditions influence, has made poduction more 

less than the year 2009-2010 and 2010-2011, with 

rainfall amounts greater or well distributed. 

In the year 2008-2009, the highest yield was 

achieved by the interaction BCO-2K x bellows x 

12.5 ppm, with 6092 kg/ha, and in 2009-2010 the 

interaction BCO-2K x 25 ppm x flowering, with 

6474 kg /ha. 

In the 2010-2011 highest production of 8875 

kg/ha was obtained from interaction BCO-2K + 

zinc acetate x twinning x 25 ppm, with a very 

significant difference from the control variant. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Table 3 

Significance 

The biostymulators investigated in the three 

years of experience had a positive wheat plants, 

increasing production; 

Averaged over the three years of 

experimentation highest yield was achieved with 

biostymulators BCO-2K + zinc acetate, increase 

production of 1311 kg / ha is very significant to the 

control variant - treated water; 

The concentration of 12.5 ppm resulted in 

the highest yield of 6263 kg / ha with a distinctly 

significant difference from variant 50 ppm; 

Different biophases biostymulators 

application (twinning, bellows, flowering) have not 

determined to significant differences of 

production; 

The interaction of the three factors 

highlighted biostymulators BCO-2K x 25 ppm x 

flowering, with a very significant production 

increase of 11.77% on average for three years. 

Use of biostymulators is a sustainable 

method of increasing wheat production.


Biostymulators 

BCO – 

2 DMA 

BCO – 2K 

BCO -2K 

+ Ac. Zn 

Concentration 

of 


(ppm) 

50 

25 

12.5 

50 

25 

12.5 

50 

25 

12.5 

The influence of interaction of three factors of production investigated. 

Average of the years 2008-2010 

Periods of 

application 


2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 

28 

Average 

(kg/ha) 

% of 

control 

variant 

Difference 

(kg/ha) 

Twinning 5250 4687 7687 5874 95.93 -249 

Bellows 5085 4477 7477 5679 92.74 -444 

Flowering 4908 4351 7351 5536 90.41 -587 

Twinning 3833 5684 8684 6400 104.52 277 o 

Bellows 3770 5043 8043 5952 97.20 -171 

Flowering 4837 4344 7344 5508 89.95 -615 

Twinning 5047 5661 7661 6123 100.00 C.V. o 

Bellows 4645 6318 7520 6161 100.62 38 

Flowering 4727 4421 7440 5529 90.29 -594 o 

Twinning 4152 4022 8020 5398 88.15 -725 o 

Bellows 5503 4670 7770 5981 97.68 -142 

Flowering 4990 4733 7820 5847 95.49 -276 

Twinning 4309 5360 8360 6009 98.13 -114 

Bellows 4928 5481 8200 6203 101.30 80 

Flowering 5940 6474 8120 6844 111.77 721 * 

Twinning 4586 5481 8481 6182 100.96 59 

Bellows 6092 5494 8320 6635 108.36 512 

Flowering 4791 6003 8010 6268 102.36 145 

Twinning 5044 5699 8720 6487 105.94 364 

Bellows 5023 5783 8520 6442 105.20 319 

Flowering 4632 4890 8100 5874 95.93 -249 

Twinning 4920 5875 8875 6556 107.07 433 

Bellows 4445 5089 8189 5907 96.47 -216 

Flowering 4832 5640 8020 6164 100.66 41 

Twinning 5776 5601 8700 6692 109.29 569 * 

Bellows 4291 6201 8500 6330 103.38 207 

Flowering 5064 6152 8120 6445 105.23 322 

LSD 5% 776.7 529.4 329.4 542.2 kg/ha 

LSD 1% 1041.2 709.4 509.3 753.3 kg/ha 

LSD 0.1% 1367.6 936.3 736.3 1013.4 kg/ha 

REFERENCES 

Bîlteanu Gh., 2003 – Fitotehnie, vol. I., p. 47-168. 

Borlan Z., 1989 - Fertilizarea foliară de stimulare a 

culturilor. Producţia vegetală. Cereale şi plante 

tehnice, XL. 

Borina A.K., 1959 - Influenţa biostimulatorilor asupra 

producţiei de grâu şi structurii sale. Cercetări 

privind acţiunea substanţelor stimulatoare asupra 

plantelor. Bucureşti, p.129-136. 

Table 4 

Significance 

Gherghen I. şi colab., 1988 – Utilizarea bioregulatorilor 

în producţia vegetală. Ed. Facla, Timişoara. 

Goian M., 1986 – Biostimulatori la grâu. Ed. Facla, 

Timişoara. 

Merlo, L., Nuzzo, V., 1987 – Nutrizione fogliare degli 

alberi di frutto. Rivista Frutticoltura edi 

ortofloricultura, vol. XIX, nr.4. 

Neamţu G., Irimie F., 1991 – Fitoregulatori de creştere. 

Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti. 

Oniscu C., Horoba E., Băncilă V., 1993 – Brevet RO 

109646 C1/1993.

Abstract 

29 


STUDY OF SOME POLYPHENOLIC EXTRACTS 

OBTAINED FROM PRESSED GRAPE SKINS 

Ancuţa NECHITA 1 , Valeriu V. COTEA 1 , Marius NICULAUA 2 , 

Bogdan NECHITA 1 , Cintia Lucia COLIBABA 1 

e-mail: ancuta.vasile@yahoo.com 

Due to their biologically active properties, polyphenols convert waste into attractive sources for the medical and 

pharmaceutical products, their traditional management being varied towards other technological processes. The 

identification of active principles derived from the polyphenolic extracts obtained from pressed grape marc can help 

create an alternative use and recovery of by-products of wine, fact which increases their economic value. It also helps 

assess the oenological potential of vine varieties and thus to assess their beneficial properties in maintaining metabolic 

balance and health of the human body. In this context, the research in this paper aim to characterise the extracts 

obtained from pressed grape marc by identifying and quantifying the major polyphenolic compounds in their 

composition. To study the influence of the maceration technology on the content of polyphenolic compounds from byproducts 

of the winemaking process, grape samples of Fetească neagră, Băbească neagră, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot 

and Arcaş grape varieties were processed using classical maceration, thermo-maceration, microwave maceration and 

rotary tanks maceration (ROTO-tanks). The obtained polyphenolic extracts were analyzed by high performance liquid 

chromatography (HPLC), several phenolic acids, stilbenes (trans-resveratrol) non-hydrolysable tannins (catechin and 

epicatechin), some flavones (rutin and quercitin), and a number of anthocyan compounds being identified and 

quantified. The results of the preliminary characterization showed quite similar values in the content of total 

polyphenols and tannoid matters index. The maceration variants did not affect the amount of hydroxybenzoic and 

hydroxycinnamic acids. The other polyphenolic compounds that were identified varied depending on the grape variety 

and maceration technology used. The obtained data justifies the use of pressed grape marc as raw material to obtain 

polyphenolic extracts, recommending further research on its biologically active properties (antiradical, antioxidant, 

cytotoxic and cytostatic). 

Key words: grapes, macerationa, pressed grape marc, extracts, polyphenols 

The use of plant extract as remedy source 

for different diseases has been an issue since the 

beginning of human medicine. 

The results of numerous studies show that 

the biggest part of active biologic compounds are 

polyphenols, a class of over 8000 compounds, out 

of which the majority have been identified in 

different anatomic segments of plants 

(C. Georgescu et al., 2005). 

Certain plants have the capacity to 

accumulate polyphenolic compounds belonging to 

one or two classes, as hydroxycinnamic derivates 

and anthocyans in cherries (C. F. Timberlake, 

1981; B. Möller et al., 1983). On the other hand, 

grapes store complexes mixtures of polyphenolic 

compounds, the distribution of the various 

polyphenolic compounds in chemical classes being 

almost complete (Wilfred Vermerris et al., 2006). 

In the specific literture, studies concerning 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, Romania 

2 Oenological Research Center of Romanian Academy – Iasi branch 

the biological activity of some polyphenolic 

compounds of different species are found, in tests 

in pure form or as fractionate or global extracts 

(L.H. Yao et al., 2004; A. Mittal et al., 2003; 

O.Vitseva et al., 2005; C. Savin et al., 2009; V. 

Katalinic et al., 2010). 

The multitude of data in literature regarding 

this theme is shadowed by the difficulty in efficient 

systematisation, because of the extremely varied 

experimental methodology, sources and methods 

of obtaining polyphenolic extracts and last but not 

least, their concentration and stability in time 

(Maria Escribano – Bailon et al., 2003). 

In the case of grapes, the polyphenolic 

compounds are mostly found in the seeds and skins 

of the berries, from where they reach the must and 

wine, following maceration (C. Ţardea et al., 2010; 

P. Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006). Among other byproducts 

of the wine-making process, the pressed


grape marc, due to its physical-chemical 

composition, represents an important source of 

polyphenolic compounds (L.M. De Campos et al., 

2008; D. Kammerer et al. 2004; G. Ruberto et al., 

2007). 

The pressed grape marc is the fermented or 

non-fermented residue obtained after pressing 

fresh grapes, its chemical composition being 

similar to that of the grapes, with some differences. 

The fresh (unfermented) grape marc contains 37 - 

39 % skins, 1,0 - 1,2 % stems; 0,20 - 0,25 % green 

masses (leaves, shoots); 30 - 32 % pulp, 28 - 29 % 

seeds, while the wet fermented pressed grape marc 

has 25 % skins, 13 % stems; 12 % seeds (N.I. 

Razuvaev, 1980). The present study aims at 

creating an alternative mean of use for the pressed 

grape marc, as polyphenolic extracts, upgrading 

thus its economic value. 

MATERIAL AND METHOD 

The polyphenolic extracts were obtained from 

pressed grape marc from the processing of Fetească 

neagră, Băbească neagră, Cabernet Sauvignon, 

Merlot and Arcaş grape varieties. In order to study the 

influence of the maceration technology on the content 

of polyphenolic compounds, classical maceration, 

thermo-maceration, microwave maceration and 

ROTO-tanks maceration were used on the grape 

samples. Because of insufficient quantity, the Arcaş 

grapes were processed only by classical maceration 

technology. 17 samples of pressed grape marc were 

obtained (one sample for Arcaş and four samples 

each for each grape variety, according to the used 

maceration procedures). After drying and grinding (1- 

30 

2 mm) the vegetal materials were treated with ethylic 

ether. The extraction procedure was done in a 

continuous system by using the Soxhlet device, 

having as solvent ethanol ratio 1/10 (vegetal material 

(g)/solvent (mL). The time span of the process varied 

according to the necessary time for draining of the 

vegetal material (48 – 72 hours), with a constant 

temperature of 78°C. 

In order to characterise the phenol extracts, 

the total polyphenols were determined using the 

Folin-Ciocalteau method as well as the tannoid 

matters index (I.M.T) using the method established by 

Bourzex. HPLC analysis (high performance liquid 

chromatography) identified and quantified a series of 

pehnolic acids, stilbens (trans-resveratrol), nonhydrolisable 

tannins (catechin and epicatechin), some 

flavones (rutin and quercitin), as well as a series of 

anthocyan compounds. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

The data obtained during the process of the 

characterisation of the studied polyphenolic 

extracts is presented in table 1. The analysis of the 

results shows relatively close values of the total 

polyphenolic content and tannoid matters index, 

indifferent of the grape variety. Within the same 

variety, a reduced influence is that of the 

maceration technology of the polyphenolic content. 

Therefore, the thermo-maceration and 

microwave maceration extract the lowest quantity 

of polyphenols in wine, the pressed grape marc 

being thus richer in polyphenolic compounds. 

Table 1 

Preliminary characterisation of polyphenolic extracts obtained from pressed grape marc 

Grape variety/ maceration variant 

Total polyphenols, g 

equiv. gallic acid /L 

Anthocyans, 

mg/L 

Tannoid matter 

index 

Feteasca neagra /thermo-maceration 0.4604 16.625 9.06 

Feteasca neagra/ microwaves 0.4644 4.375 8.53 

Feteasca neagra/ classical maceration 0.4046 1.750 8.17 

Feteasca neagra /roto-tanks maceration 0.3708 - 9.24 

Merlot / thermo-maceration 0.4644 2.265 9.20 

Merlot / microwaves 0.4644 1.750 8.34 

Merlot / classical maceration 0.5220 1.750 9.08 

Merlot / roto-tanks maceration 0.4968 0.875 9.12 

Cabernet Sauvignon/ thermo-maceration 0.3652 6.125 9.92 

Cabernet Sauvignon / microwaves 0.4156 11.375 9.11 

Cabernet Sauvignon / classical maceration 0.3844 - 9.03 

Cabernet Sauvignon / roto-tanks maceration 0.3724 - 8.81 

Băbeasca neagra / thermo-maceration 0.5616 4.375 9.04 

Băbeasca neagra / microwaves 0.5728 2.625 9.12 

Băbeasca neagra / classical maceration 0.3976 - 8.95 

Băbeasca neagra / roto-tanks maceration 0.4489 - 9.04 

Arcaş / classical maceration 0.4448 1.750 9.17 

The polyphenols content varies from 0.3652 

to 0.5750 g equivalent gallic acid /L, the same 

tendency being registered in the case of the tannoid 

matter index (TMI), the values being between 8.17 

and 9.20. 

The anthocyans were below the detection 

limit in the samples obtained by classical 

maceration and ROTO-tanks maceration (example

Cabernet Sauvignon and Băbească neagră 

samples). For the other extracts, the anthocyans 

content was reduced, varying from 0.875 to 11.375 

mg/L. The extracts from Merlot showed low 

quantities of anthocyans, in all maceration 

methods. This can be because of the low content of 

anthocyans of the grape samples used in the 

experiment. 

HPLC analsysis determined a series of 

phenolic acids in the studied extracts, such as 

31 


hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. One 

notices that vanillic acid is predominant (figure 1), 

with lowest values in Babeasca neagra extract 

(0.816 mg/L) and Cabernet Sauvignon extract 

(0.857 mg/L), and highest in Merlot (2.240 mg/L) 

and Arcaş extract (2.174 mg/L). The most frequent 

hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, did not vary 

significantly regarding the grape variety, having 

values from 0.345 mg/L (Cabernet Sauvignon) to 

0.663 mg/L (Arcaş). 

Figure 1 Variation of the hydroxybenzoic acids’ content identified in the polyphenolic extracts 

obtained from the pressed grape marc 

Comparing the extracts obtained from seeds 

and skins and the extracts obtained from pressed 

grape marc, in the latter the m-hydroxybenzoic 

acid was not identified, being probably degraded 

during the maceration process. 

The salicylic acid could not be well 

evidenced, because of tannin interference. Gentisic 

acid, formed during the fermentation process, was 

found only in the extracts from Merlot. 

Regarding the maceration methods, it was 

registered that they do not influence the quantity of 

the hydoxybenzoic acids from the polyphenolic 

extracts. So, the predominant hydroxybenzoic acid 

in the case of all the samples obtained by the four 

maceration methods was the vanillic acid (figure 

2). 

From the hydroxycinnamic acids, only the pcumaric, 

ferulic and clorogenic acid were 

identified in the polyphenolic extracts (table 2). 

Cafeic acid was identified only in Arcas 

extract (0.256 mg/L). The hydroxycinnamic acids 

have subunit values, the maceration variants as 

well as the grape variety having a non significant 

influence on their content.


Figure 2 Variation of the hydroxybenzoic acids’ content identified in the polyphenolic extracts 

obtained from the pressed grape marc of Fetească neagră grape variety according to maceration variants 

Table 2 

Hydroxycinnamic acids identified in the polyphenolic extracts obtained from the pressed grape marc 

Grape variety / maceration variant 

p-cumaric acid, 

mg/L 

ferulic acid, 

mg/L 

clorogenic acid, 

mg/L 

Feteasca neagra /thermomaceration 1.228 0.015 0.149 

Feteasca neagra/ microwaves 0.925 - 0.054 

Feteasca neagra/ classical maceration 0.567 0.000 0.047 

Feteasca neagra /roto-tanks maceration 0.372 0.018 0.033 

Merlot / thermomaceration 0.958 0.166 0.063 

Merlot / microwaves 0.150 0.050 0.076 

Merlot / classical maceration 0.834 - - 

Merlot / roto-tanks maceration 0.079 0.007 

Cabernet Sauvignon/ thermomaceration 0.114 0.153 0.157 

Cabernet Sauvignon / microwaves 0.244 0.065 0.037 

Cabernet Sauvignon / classical maceration 0.653 0.010 0.020 

Cabernet Sauvignon / roto-tanks maceration 0.562 - 0.023 

Babeasca neagra / thermomaceration 0.431 0.011 - 

Babeasca neagra / microwaves 1.279 0.018 - 

Babeasca neagra / classical maceration 0.884 - 0.032 

Babeasca neagra / roto-tanks maceration 0.776 0.013 - 

Arcas / classical maceration 0.561 - 0.047 

Besides the phenolic acids, in the 

polyphenolic extracts, trans-resveratrol was 

analysed as well (figure 3). It is one of the main 

active principles, determining the bioactive values 

of the extracts. 

The data in figure 3 show that the thermomaceration 

sample has the highest content of trans 

– resveratrol in the case of the polyphenolic 

extracts obtained from the pressed grape marc of 

the Fetească neagră, Cabernet Sauvignon and 

Băbească neagră grape varieties. The extract 

obtained from Merlot and Arcaş, trans – resveratrol 

is predominant in the classical maceration samples. 

The HPLC analysis of the polyphenolic extracts 

showed the presence of non-hydrolysable tannins, 

such as catechin and epicatechin. 

32 

The catechin content from the pressed grape 

marc extracts varies between 0.8 mg/L in the 

Cabernet Sauvignon extract, to 15.2 mg/L in the 

Merlot extract. These values represent the same 

maceration technology, the classical one. 

In the case of epicatechin, higher quantities 

were identified in the extract from Fetească neagră 

and Merlot (figure 4). 

Other identified active principles from the 

polyphenolic extracts of the pressed grape marc 

were rutin and quercitin (table 3). 

The extracts obtained from the Feteasca 

neagră pressed grape mark are registered, with an 

average content of 6.54 mg/L rutin and 2.52 mg/L 

quercitin as well as that of Arcaş with 5.58 mg/L 

rutin and 2.05 mg/L quercitin.

33 


Figure 3 Variation of the trans-resveratrol content in the polyphenolic extracts 

obtained from the pressed grape marc according to the maceration variant 

Figure 4 Variation of the concentration of non-hydrolysable tannins in the polyphenolic extracts 

obtained from the pressed grape marc of the studied grape varieties 

Flavones identified in the polyphenolic extracts obtained from the pressed grape marc 

Grape variety / maceration variant 

rutin, 

mg/L 

quercitin, 

mg/L 

Feteasca neagra /thermomaceration 6.510 3.452 

Feteasca neagra/ microwaves 5.222 1.923 

Feteasca neagra/ classical maceration 4.963 2.006 

Feteasca neagra /roto-tanks maceration 9.467 2.716 

Merlot / thermomaceration 3.420 0.220 

Merlot / microwaves 4.374 0.237 

Merlot / classical maceration 4.791 1.841 

Merlot / roto-tanks maceration 11.564 1.614 

Cabernet Sauvignon/ thermomaceration 5.347 5.781 

Cabernet Sauvignon / microwaves 4.709 4.638 

Cabernet Sauvignon / classical maceration 5.256 5.252 

Cabernet Sauvignon / roto-tanks maceration 1.773 4.071 

Babeasca neagra / thermomaceration 3.120 0.425 

Babeasca neagra / microwaves 2.941 0.596 

Babeasca neagra / classical maceration 1.870 0.084 

Babeasca neagra / roto-tanks maceration 3.646 1.528 

Arcas / classical maceration 5.575 2.045 

Table 3


CONCLUSIONS 

The study of the extracts obtained from 

pressed grape marc underlined the presence of 

non-hydrolysable tannins (catechin, epicatechin) 

and of flavones (rutin) in important quantities. 

The phenolic acids and the trans – 

resveratrol were identified in low quantities, 

having subunit values, except vanillic acid. 

The maceration variants used (classical 

maceration, thermo-maceration, microwave 

maceration and ROTO-tanks maceration) does not 

significantly influence the polyphenolic 

compounds content’ from the pressed grape marc. 

The identified active principles stand proof 

for the use of pressed grape marc for obtaining 

polyphenolic extracts. An alternative use of the byproducts 

of the wine-making process is created, 

increasing their economic value. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This study was supported from the European 

Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme 

Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project 

number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 "Postdoctoral School 

in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area". 

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Abstract 

35 


GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AND LITHOLOGICAL FEATURES 

OF PEDOGENESIS AND SPACE DISPERSAL OF CHERNOZEMS STAGIC 

IN REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA 

Tamara LEAH 1 

1 Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection „Nicolae Dimo”, MD-2070, Chisinau, Ialoveni str.100, 

Republic of Moldova 

e-mail: tamaraleah09@gmail.com 

As a result of large-scale soil research in Central part of Republic Moldova was established that chernozems stagnic are 

spread on the uniform horizontal surfaces of the river Răut basin or on the inconsistent interfluvial hills, lithological 

substrate of which is represented by clays. Landscape elements that formed these soils are the primary denudation areas 

that outcome of raising Alpine territory nowadays occupies absolute altitudes of 200-250 m. Pedogenesis of stagnic 

chernozems determined by non salinization clay texture of parental rocks. Chernozems stagnic differ from the zonal 

chernozems by presence of a gleyic horizon in the lower bioaccumulative layer, clay texture, higher cation exchange 

capacity and humus content. They have a high fertility potential, but not always give the corresponding results due to air 

– humidity regime in the years with abundance rainfall or due to hard tillage during the dry autumns. 

Chernozems stagnic are a difficulties object for use in arable. In view of risk the stagnic chernozems are capability, 

primary for perennial grasses, apple and plum plantation, if the gleyic horizon is located deeper than 70-80 cm; 

secondary – for winter grain crops: in the third – for weeding crops. Chernozems stagnic tillage is recommended only to 

corresponding humidity of soil physical maturity. Average soil rating of chernozems stagnic consists 85 points. 

Key words: chernozem stagnic, clay texture, gleyic horizon, pedogenesis 

Soil water stagnation is a phenomenon of 

keeping in the soil or the soil surface an excess of 

water from precipitation, present above an 

impermeable layer, which usually is a soil horizon. 

In Republic of Moldova specific researches to 

assess genesis, nomenclature and classification of 

stagnic chernozem gleyic in depth were not 

performed. These soils occupy horizontal surfaces 

draining on local interfluvial heights (Чербарь 

В.В., 2007b). Stagnic chernozems are not 

highlighted in the existing system of classification 

and evaluation, and their genetic and production 

features are not studied. On the previous maps, the 

surfaces of stagnic chernozems were incorrectly 

entered into the zonal land areas. Concomitant 

incorrectly was calculated the rating note and their 

suitability for different agricultural use. No 

highlight the chernozems stagnic on the map can 

be explained by the fact that in the Russian 

naturalist classification used in the country, stagnic 

soils are not present (Cerbari V., Leah T., 2010, 

Leah T., 2010b, Чербарь В.В., 2007a). 

Stagnogleic aquatic properties of soils 

formed as a result of wetting stagnic character are 

used as a diagnostic properties system of soil 

classification FAO UNESCO (Почвенная карта 

мира, 1990) and in the last Romanian system of 

soil taxonomy (2003). These properties relate to 

soil material that continuously or periodically are 

saturated with water from precipitation and which 

present manifestations of the reduction and 

segregation of iron and have a specific color. 

The Romanian system of soil taxonomy 

emphasizes the need to distinguish between 

pedogenesis and geological gleyzation. The first is 

a biochemical process that in addition to water 

saturation is conditioned by the presence of 

organic matter, temperature higher than 0° and 

favorable reaction conditions to development 

reducing microorganisms. Pedogenesis gleyzation 

- is standing on the bases of the bioaccumulative 

horizon. Gleyzation in the deeper layers of soil and 

subsoil is relict and determined by geological 

processes as soon as soil. Stagnic soil properties 

into the Romanian system of taxonomy are 

separated at the stagnosoils type as the class 

“hydrosoils”.



Research objects are chernozems stagnate 

spread on the wide interfluvial peaks within Raut river 

basin, the absolute altitude 200-250 m (profile 5 and 

6) and parallel ordinary chernozems (profiles 7 and 8) 

on the same sole and altitudes: 

Profile 5. Chernozem stagnic, humifere, 

weakly carbonate, gleyic in depth, clay, arable (village 

Chiştelniţa); 

Profile 6. Chernozem stagnic, humifere, 

semicarbonatic, gleyic in depth, clay, arable (village 

Ordasei); 

Profile 7. Chernozem ordinary, humifere, 

semicarbonatic, clay-loamy, arable (village Ordasei); 

Profile 8. Chernozem ordinary, moderate 

humifere, semicarbonatic, loamy-clay, arable (village 

Chiştelniţa). 

Stagnogleic pedogenesis processes are 

widespread in soils of Moldova. Anagogic soils are 

also found in other parts of the country, but most 

commonly spread of stagnic chernozems is 

characteristic for that territory. 

Collection of samples was performed on the 

quasi horizontal areas of watershed located adjacent 

to the river valley. For all profiles was performed 

morphological description, soil sampling of on genetic 

horizons, determination of apparent density for Ahp1, 

Ahp2, Ah horizons (up to 50 cm of depth). The soil 

samples were performed using the analysis required 

by existing conventional classic methods. 

REZULTATE ŞI DISCUŢII 

Geomorphologic and lithological features 

of soil formation and dispersal space of 

Chernozems stagnic in r. Rãut basin 

Chernozems stagnic of river Rãut basin in 

Central Moldova are spread over uniform surfaces 

(horizontal) or weak inconsistent interfluvial 

peaks, lithological substrate of which is 

represented by clays. Landscape elements that 

formed these soils are the primary areas of 

denudation that outcome of raising Alpine territory 

now occupies absolute altitudes 200-250 m 

Pedogenesis of stagnic chernozems mostly is 

determined by clay texture of the parental rock. 

Clay on the plateaus differs from marine clay, that 

appearing on the slopes, the lack of salinization. It 

is possible limnisch or alluvial - limnic origin of 

this clays. Information on the geological structure 

of territory located in the basin of river Rãut, 

where soil samples were collected for research is 

very limited in volume. 

According to geological research, at the end 

of the Pliocene on the territory of Central and 

Southern Moldova is established the continental 

climate regime, forming alluvial plain, sedimentary 

deposits which were now preserved only on the 

highest elevation areas of relief (Покатилов B., 

1983). Leveled surface sediments are particularly 

36 

altered psammyte-clay deposits of lakes and 

lagoons with low water level. In composition of 

clays mainly prevails the montmorillonite deposits. 

Most clay rocks are dense and the composition of 

chlorito-montmorillonito-hydromicaceous 

(Геоморфология Молдавии, 1978). 

Contemporary relief formation was based on 

alluvial-limnic plain of Pliocene which served as 

the original initial surface. In Moldova the alluvialdelta 

plains of the middle Pliocene replaced marine 

deposits of Middle Sarmatian. Composition of 

deposits shows a weakly fragmented landscape. 

Fauna was found in the middle Pliocene 

(mastodons, rhinoceroses, etc.) proves in favor of a 

savanna landscape type and a warm climate 

interspersed with high humidity phase (Билинкис 

Г., 2004). Morphogenesis at the stage between 

middle Pliocene and Pleistocene is characterized 

by periodic changes of cold and warm climate 

cycles. The same time is initiated delta formation 

of a powerful flood flow and wide floodplain 

associated with lakes and moods. 

In late Pliocene and Eopleistocen stands 

gradual lifting of the territory, dividing unique 

river into two large flows. In the Pleistocene 

tectonic movements are amplified, forming 

mountains with small altitudes of the woods, 

named “Codri”; is born contemporary river 

network. At the same time is formed Dniester 

Plateau, its ramifications constitutes is watershed 

on surfaces which have been studied soil profiles 

(Билинкис Г., 2004). 

River Rãut during his middle and upper 

Sarmatian discovered lower sublevel deposits of 

(N1S1), which are represented by calcareous rocks, 

marl and clay, less commonly sandstone. 

Currently sedimentary deposits on the 

surface of Rãut river basin is a complex of 

Pliocene-Quaternary eluvial formations non 

disrupted on the surface of watershed and early 

river terraces (eN2-Q); upper Quaternary 

formations of contemporary eluvial-deluvial 

deposits, etc. (Атлас Молдавской ССР, 1978). 

Geological research confirms origin of 

alluvial-limnic of clay that formed the chernozems 

stagnic on the local interfluvial peaks in Rãut river 

basin. Bottom part of soil profiles formed on clays 

is temporarily saturated in stagnant rainwater and 

presents events gleyzation processes. Properties 

stagnic correlate with provided aquatic condition 

of "episaturation" defined as soil water saturation 

in one or more layers (horizons) in the first 200 cm 

of mineral soil surface. Saturation zone is 

composed of water suspended from a relatively 

waterproof layer. Stagnogleic properties are note 

with the "g" when color reduction-oxidation up to 

50% of the gleyied horizon and “G” when the

color reduction - oxidation occupies over 50% of 

the surface horizon (Leah T., 2010a). 

In the field mostly areas of clay stagnic 

chernozems are adjacent to areas with zonal 

chernozems with texture - loamy and sandy loam, 

located at slightly higher altitudes. All these 

affirmations confirm the alluvial-limnic origin of 

deposits that have formed these soils. 

Genetic characteristics and properties 

of Chernozems stagnic located in the zone of 

ordinary chernozem, altitude 200-250 m 

Morphometric indices include data on 

thickness and morphology of the genetic horizons 

of investigated soil profiles (tab. 1). 

Parental rocks are limnic deposits formed in 

Pliocene. Profile depth - 160 cm. Effervescence - 

from 30 cm. Carbonates as veined - from 60 cm 

and bieloglasca - from 75 cm to 142 cm. Profile 

have genetic horizons: Ap1 - Ap2 - Ah - AB - BG - 

BG - BCG-Cg – C. Gleyzation start at 75 cm, high 

gleyzation - from 125 cm (fig.1, 2). 

Comparative analysis of morphometric 

indices and morphological characteristics of the 

studied profiles of chernozems stagnic gives 

opportunity to make the following conclusions: 

The thickness of the humus profile varies 

from 80 cm up to 100 cm. 

Horizon Ah and/or ABh is distinguished by 

black pronounced gloss aggregates faces 

In basis of humus profile outlined a clay 

horizon, marl, gleyic, well developed, which 

also is a horizon of carbonate accumulation 

as bieloglasca. 

37 


Greenish-yellow clay under gleyic horizon is 

less gleyied and often located on eluvial 

compact limestone rocks. 

Chernozems ordinary differ from the 

Chernozem stagnic by lack gleyic horizon stagnic 

and gleyied horizons. 

Figure 1 Location of Chernozems 

stagnic, profile 5, Chişteliniţa 

Figure 2 Profile 5. Chernozem stagnic 

Table 1 

Average statistical parameters of the morphometric indices of arable stagnic chernozems studied the 2006-2010 

Horizon and depth, cm 

within Rãut river basin, district Teleneşti 

X s V, % m P, % n 

Thickness of genetic horizons, cm 

Ahp 0-33 33 3 9,4 1 3,0 10 

Ahk 33-50 17 6 34,7 2 11,2 10 

ABhk 50-75 25 12 50,0 4 16,0 10 

Bhkg 75-102 27 12 45,9 4 14,4 10 

Gk 102-127 25 5 21,6 2 6,8 10 

Ckg 127-175 38 20 40,6 6 12,8 10 

2CRgk >175 - - - - - 3 

Texture Pedogenesis of chernozems stagnic 

is determined by clay texture of the parent rock. 

Physical clay content in investigated soils varies 

from 70% to 80% and clay - from 48% to 57%. 

The fine texture is characteristic for parental rock. 

Physical clay content in the underlying horizons of 

the profiles is 76-79% and clay - 53-57%. The high 

percentage of clay in the parent material can be 

formed only in alteration of underwater rocks in 

warm weather conditions. Size composition of 

parent material that is formed alluvial chernozem 

stagnic confirms origin alluvial-limnic of late 

Pliocene, established by geological research 

During normal hydrothermal regime in 

early spring crumb structure with small aggregates 

and fluffy state of arable layer of chernozem 

stagnic ensures the possibility of soil material to 

destroy in the contrasts of temperature and wetting 

conditions. The references often indicate that soils 

with high clay content are vertic soils. Case studies 

show that not all vertic processes can be assessed 

by high clay content in soil (Крупеников, 1990). 

Ordinary chernozem (profile 7, 8), located 

on the same plots with chernozems stagnic


(polygon 5, 6), is characterized by loamy-clay 

texture. Texture of these soils differs from 

chernozems formed on the loess by a high 

percentage of sand, as a result of joint aerial global 

accumulation process of loess deposits with local 

process of deflation of Pliocene alluvial deposits, 

sometimes spread over the highest peaks. 

High content of sand, in the recent 

destruction of the arable layer of typical 

chernozems, provides for clayey, sandy-clay soils 

more favorable physical and mechanical 

properties, which gives way to more easily work 

the soil and create a favorable germinating bed 

crops in any year. Completely different situation is 

characteristics for clay chernozem stagnic. 

Structural composition Chernozems 

stagnic clayed have high content of fine clay in 

years with wet autumn is tillage comparatively 

easy. As a result of frost and thaw arable layer is 

structured, which gives way to accumulate large 

reserves of water in the soil and create a favorable 

germinating bed of spring crops. Also these soils 

are resistant to spring drought. 

In the end of summer and dry autumn, 

because the blocks structure, loamy stagnic 

chernozem working very hard, plowing on these 

soils is extremely rough, creating a favorable 

germinating bed is impossible both for winter 

crops and for the spring (fig.3). 

a) b) 

Figure 3 Structural state chernozem stagnic 

in dry condition of the summer 2007. 

Territory of Chiştelniţa, Telenesti; 

a) - blocks structure, b) - cracks on the surface 

During heavy rainfall, due to high water 

field capacity, these soils dries hard and slowly 

reach physical maturity status. As a result the 

rhythm of agricultural work is disturbing with bad 

consequences for crop yields. 

Physical characteristics Average statistics 

data confirm that chernozems stagnic clay is 

characterized by high values of the hygroscopic 

coefficient within the limits of 7-12%. So in the 

soils the high water reserves are also inaccessible 

to large plants. 

Density average statistical values of soil 

material are ranges: from 2.62 to 2.65 in stagnic 

humifere horizons, up to 2.70 to 2.75 in gleyied 

38 

clayey underlying layers. The density of these 

horizons is comparatively low due to the high 

content of humus. 

A full index of physical quality status of the 

soils is apparent density. The values of this 

indicator for investigated soil profiles range from 

1.20 to 1.30 g/cm³ in the arable layer of 

chernozems stagnic to 1.50 to 1.60 g/cm³ in 

gleyied clay parent rock. Total porosity, while it is 

large in arable layer of these soils and very low in 

the underlying gleyied layers. 

Apparent density values for arable layer 

within 1.1 to 1.3 g/cm³ to consider optimal. So, 

stagnic arable layer of chernozems are 

characterized by comparatively favorable physical 

properties and underlying gleyied layers - the 

physical unfavorable attributes. 

Generally, in terms of texture and physical 

properties, chernozems stagnic are a difficult 

object for use in arable both in dry years and in 

years with heavy rainfall. 

In the normal hydrothermal regime of 

chernozems stagnic the arable layer in early spring 

in some extent can be seen as too loose and then, 

after sowing requires easy rollers. 

In years with dry autumn is hard to work 

these arable soils and crushing layer to create a 

favorable germinating bed. 

In years with abundant rainfall during the 

vegetation period growing danger to forming in 

these soils an aerobic deficit regime. 

Long term preservation of favorable state of 

physical quality of stagnic chernozems is possible 

through measures that would help ensure 

continuous flow of organic matter in arable layer 

of their soil for forming an agronomic valuable 

structure. 

Chemical and physical-chemical 

characteristics The studied soils are characterized 

by a neutral reaction from the surface horizons (pH 

= 6.9-7.3) and underlying horizons slightly alkaline 

(pH = 7.8 to 8.3). For gleyic horizons there is a 

trend towards a slightly alkaline reaction than the 

surrounding horizons. Surface horizons of 

chernozems stagnic are decarbonatat or weak 

carbonate. Maximum carbonates content are 

characteristic for gleyic horizons and altered 

material of limestone rocks, shown in clays, profile 

5, 6 (Leah T.,2010b, Leah T.,2011). 

Investigated soils are low content of 

phosphorus. Total phosphorus content in the 

profile is range from 0.10 to 0.11% in arable layer 

to 0.05 to 0.06% in the parent rock. 

Humus content (statistical average) in 

chernozem stagnic equals 4.5 to 4.6% in the Ahp, 

3.0 to 3.9% in Ah non plowing, 2-3% in ABh and 

1-2% in Bh2. Humus profile ends rather abruptly,

ut the following horizon practically non humifer, 

meet black humifer languages, formed as a result 

39 


of mechanical flow humus material above the 

crack of horizons (tab. 2). 

Table 2 

Average statistical indexes (X ± s) of chemical properties of standards genetic horizons of arable stagnic 

Horizon and 

depth, cm 

chernozems studied in 2006-2010, Rãut river basin, district Telenesti 

pH 

Mobile forms, 

g/100 g soil 

% g/g P2 O5 K2 O 

CaCO3 P2 O5 total Humus N total 

Ahp 0-33 7,1±0,2 0,3±0,9 0,127±0,054 4,35±0,21 0,226±0,021 1,8±0,5 38±9 

Ahk 33-50 7,3±0,3 2,2±2,7 0,103±0,036 3,80±0,21 0,190±0,016 0,9±0,2 27±6 

ABhk 50-75 7,6±0,3 5,5±3,5 0,073±0,009 3,04±0,46 0,138±0,027 - - 

Bhkg 75-102 7,9±0,1 11,9±5,8 - 1,52±0,25 - - - 

Gk 102-127 8,1±0,1 18,1±5,0 - 0,65±0,20 - - - 

Ckg 127-175 8,0±0,2 12,1±7,3 0,061±0,014 0,36±0,19 - - - 

CRkg >175 7,9±0,2 28,1±3,6 - 0,09±0,05 - - - 

Humifer profile is black; the surface of 

aggregates from humifer profile is characterized by 

a characteristic gloss anthracite coal. 

The C: N in the arable layer and underlying 

humus is 10-13. Increases in value ratio C: N in the 

underlying horizon, indicating carbonatization of 

organic matter in underlying horizons of these 

soils. Soils are rich in potassium mobile (30-40 

mg/100 g soil) and low in mobile phosphorus (2.0 - 

2.5 mg/100 g soil). 

Chernozems stagnic have high cation 

exchange capacity in the humifer horizons and 

middle in the gleyied horizons and parent rock. 

There is a gradual increase in depth of the Mg 

content. Stagnic chernozems are characterized by 

chemical characteristics favorable for plant growth. 

Chernozems ordinary investigated parallel, 

located on the same plots as stagnic, are 

moderately humifer (humus content in arable layer 

varies within 3.0 to 3.5%) and is characterized with 

lower cation exchange capacity. However, due to 

more favorable texture, these soils are more easily 

work, by tillage in them creates favorable regimes 

for plant growth and as a result, yields on these 

soils are higher than on the stagnic chernozems. 

The stagnic chernozem productivity 

The productivity of chernozems stagnic was 

determined by the methods of plots with 

surface of 1m² of green mass. In parallel, the 

same method was determined harvest level on 

zonal ordinary chernozem, spread on the same 

area. This made it possible to compare the 

productivity of crops on ordinary chernozem 

and stagnic chernozems in analogical 

agrotechnical conditions (tab.3). 

Peculiarities of agriculture 2008: dry autumn 

(2007), warm winter with precipitation deficit, dry 

spring, drought summer. Soils were plowed 

autumn, but autumn drought has not allowed the 

work to prepare the soil quality and favorable 

germinating bed for crops, particularly on the land 

with clay stagnic chernozem that early autumn 

arable layer structure turned into blocks. For zonal 

ordinary chernozem, soils with coarse texture, they 

managed to create a germinating bed. 

Table 3 

Harvest of green mass on soil plots, surface, 1m² 

Soil 

Average harvest, 

t/ha 

Polygon 5. Chernozem stagnic 3,8 t/ha 

Polygon 6. Chernozem stagnic 4,5 t/ha 

Polygon 7. Chernozem ordinary 2,6 t/ha 

Polygon 8. Chernozem ordinary 2,3 t/ha 

Assessment of winter wheat harvest was 

estimated on the polygon were located the 

chernozem stagnic. Also, on the same field, was 

determined the yield of winter wheat for zonal 

ordinary chernozem (Cerbari V.,Leah T.,2010, 

Leah T.,2011, Чербарь В.В.,2007b). 

The results of measurements in 5 repetitions 

on the surface of 1 m² plots was established that 

the winter wheat crop is 27.4 q/ha on the 

chernozems stagnic and for the same ordinary 

chernozems - 32 q/ha, with 14 -15% higher. 

Corn harvest on these soils was only 15.8 

q/ha, on the ordinary chernozems on the same lot – 

35 q/ha, 55% higher. 

Given the fact that agrotechnical factors less 

influenced crop yields on investigated soils was 

consider that the difference in harvest of winter 

wheat on zonal and stagnic chernozem can be used 

in calculating the rating note of chernozems 

stagnic, which can be assessed about 85 points. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Chernozems stagnic differ from the typical 

area of zonal soils by the presence of a gleyic 

horizon in the lower part of bioaccumulative layer, 

clay texture, higher cation exchange capacity, high 

humus content.


Gleyzation in profile is distinguished at the 

depth 50-100 cm from the surface, gleyzation 

processes occur due to excess moisture derived 

from rain water and lead to accumulation of free 

iron compounds in gleyic horizon. 

Stagnation excess moisture in the lower 

profile of chernozem stagnic is subject to their clay 

texture. In the cold period the soil clay profile 

humidity are gradually and achieve total water 

capacity. During warm period water losses by 

evaporation in clay soils are not high. Evaporation 

leads to loss of water, but only in the top of soils 

(0-50 cm), due to low speed of water movement to 

surface in the fine textured soil profile. 

Dry clay soils leads to their surface cracks of 

3-7 cm. Cracks are important in the genesis and 

hydric regime of these soils. During summer heavy 

rains the surface water flows through cracks, 

leading to maintain excess water in the bottom of 

the soil profile. In drought years, when the cracks 

are wide and deep in the bottom of soil profile 

penetrates (flows) humus material from the upper, 

leading to the formation of a transitional nature 

glossic horizon with humifer “languages”. 

Stagnic chernozems have a high potential for 

fertility, but not always give the corresponding 

results due to aerohydric defective regime during 

heavy rainfall or due to issue their work in years 

with dry autumn. 

Chernozems stagnic are a difficult object for 

use in arable, in years with dry autumns, because 

of the structure in blocks of arable layer is hard to 

create a germinating bed for autumn crop quality. 

In years with dry spring these soils, resulting in 

high field capacity water, are resistant to drought, 

but if drought is prolonged and summer, spring 

crop harvest may be lost. 

In terms of risk stagnic chernozems are 

suitable: I – for perennial grasses, apple and plum 

plantation, if the gleyic horizon is located deeper 

than 70-80 cm, II – for winter grain crops, III – for 

weeding crops. 

During normal hidrotermic regime the 

harvest crops on these soils differs little from that 

of the zonal soil and is only 10-15% less. 

Tillage of chernozems stagnic is advisable to 

work only to appropriate humidity of soil physical 

maturity. Average rating note of chernozems 

stagnic is 85 points. 

For chernozems stagnic gleyied in depth 

were developed a set of measures and 

recommendations, performing and implementation 

which will have both economically and 

40 

environmentally effect, will lead to long-term 

preservation of their quality status and increase 

their production capacity at least 20%. 

REFERENCES 

Билинкис Г.М., 2004 - Геодинамика крайнего югозапада 

Восточно-Европейской платформы в 

эпоху морфогенеза, «Бизнес-элита», 

«Lextoria». Кишинев, 184 с. 

Cerbari V. Leah T., 2010 - Chernozems stagnic from 

Moldova – result of combination between 

litogenesis and solification processes of Pliocene 

and quaternary soil formation În: „Agricultura şi 

mediul înconjurător‖. Lucrări ştiinţifice. Seria A. 

Vol. LIII. Agronomie, 2010, ISSN 1222- 

5339. Bucureşti, p.16-21. 

Kрупеников И. А., 1990 - Слитые почвы Молдавии. 

Кишинев: Штиинца, 167с. 

Leah T., 2011 – Proprietăţile chimice ale cernoziomurilor 

stagnice. Академику Л.С. – 135 лет: Сборник 

статей. Бендеры: Есо-ТIRAS, ―ELAN 

POLIGRAF‖, Бендеры, p.46-49. 

Leah T., 2010a – Conţinutul şi formele chimice ale 

fierului în cernoziomurile stagnice gleice. In 

„Ştiinţa Agricolă‖, nr.2. ISSN 1857-0003. pag.3-7. 

Leah T., 2010b – Условия формирования и 

естественноисторическое образование 

стагни-ковых черноземов Молдовы. Сб.: 

Генезис, география, классификация почв и 

оценка почвенных ресурсов. Сибирские 

чтения. Материалы VIII Все-российской 

научной конференции, посвященной 150летию 

со дня рождения Н.М.Сибирцева 

Arhangelsc, c. 69-73. 

Покатилов В.П., 1983 - Геолого-лито-логические 

структурно-геологические факторы, 

определяющие инженерно-геологические 

условия Северной Молдавии // Геология 

четвертичных отложений Молдавии. Штиинца, 

Кишинев, c. 89-100. 

Чербарь В.В., 2007a - Черноземы стагни-ковые – 

результат сочетания современного и 

реликтового процессов почвообразования и 

выветривания. Почвоведение и Агрохимия. 

№ 1. Минск, с. 37-46. 

Чербарь В.В., 2007b - Строение профиля, состав и 

свойства черноземов стагниковых – 

результат сочетания современного и 

реликтового процессов почвообразования и 

выветривания. Труды II Национальной 

конференции ―Проблемы истории, 

методологии и философии почвоведения‖ 

//Организация почвенных систем. 2 том, c. 

351-354. 

***Атлас Молдавской ССР., 1978 - М., 131 с. 

***Геоморфология Молдавии., 1978 - Кишинев, 

c.188. 

***Почвенная карта мира, 1990 - ФАО ЮНЕСКО. 

Пересмотренная легенда. Рим. 

***Romanian system of soil taxonomy, 2003 - 

ESTAFALIA, Bucharest.

Abstract 

41 


RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS NUMBER 

OF TUBERS/NEST ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 

AT SC ASTRA Trifesti SRL, IASI 

Marius Cornel ANTONESCU 1 , Teodor ROBU 1 , Mihai Tălmaciu 1 , 

Cristina ANTONESCU 1 , Marius Sorin ZAHARIA 1 

antonescu_marius_cornel@yahoo.com 

In this paper we propose to determine the number of tubers / nest from three potato varieties grown in organic 

conditions Bivolari micro area, village Trifesti The experience was located within Agricole Society Trifesti Astra, 

company standard of agriculture in Romania. From a climate perspective, the area is characterized by cold winters and 

hot summers.It was installed on trifactorial experiences in 3 repetitions of the type 4Ax3Bx2C, being studied five 

varieties of potato. In this paper we present partial results of three varieties Factors are studied, A Factor – Foliar 

fertilizing, with graduations, a1- not fertilized,a2 – NPK,a3- ECO 1,a4- ECO 2, B Factor– Foliar fertiliozing : b- Adora 

A, România, variety, b2 - Adora E, Olanda, variety, b3- Velox A, Factorul C – vegetation treatment with organic 

herbicide: c1- treatment with Novodor ( 4l/ha),c2 treatment with NeemAzal (2l/ha). The analysis of data, it was found 

that the three varieties, Adora A, România, variety, b2 - Adora E, Olanda, variety, b3- Velox A,România, behaved 

positively registering positive differences from not fertilized var. 

Key words: fertilisation,nest,potato 

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is grown on 

every continent, but particularly in Europe, which 

has about 50% of the world. (Bîlteanu Gh, 2001) 

Potato is given great importance both in 

Romania and globally. 

In Romania in 2010 cultivated area reached 

246,982 ha, but in 2009 was peaked at 260,317 

ha. 

In to the production is noted that in 2010 

3,283,870 tons were produced in 2009 was peaked 

at 4,003,980 t. 

The amount of boiled potatoes 200g body 

provides 16-18% of protein for 24 hours. 

Composition of potato protein has a broad 

spectrum of essential amino acids and free, the 

most important of which are tryptophan, lysine 

and isoleucine. (Berindei M., 1995) 

In this research have been studied three 

varieties of potato, as follows: VELOX, which is 

a kind of high production, very early, and french 

fries consumption. 

The variety has large tubers, long oval 

yellow shell, smooth, very beautiful, ideal for 

washing and packing. 

It is a resistant variety Wart race 1, UCP Ro 

1, 4. common scab, rozoctonioză, Erwinia, manna 

from tubers. 


It's love and adore very early to early tubers 

- large, oval, round, uniform shape, yellow skin, 

eyes without great depth. Good resistance to 

crushing, dry matter content is average, fairly 

good resistance to degradation tubers, the turning 

leaves rezisteta moderate, good resistance to virus 

A, fairly good resistance to virus X, good 

resistance to virus Yn, the plant is high up the 

average semi-erect stems grow, thick up to 

normal, weak to moderate anthocyanin 

discoloration, large green leaves and open, with 

the figure to open the half closed, numerous 

flowers, red-purple berries to moderate one. 

Potato is one of the most important crops, 

which have a high ecological plasticity, is grown 

on all continents, in over 140 countries, which are 

grown mainly for food, but also for industrial and 

animal feed. 

For human food potato occupies the fourth 

place in the world after wheat, rice and corn, 

using fresh or as dried and cooked. 

It was studied and a the Netherlands potato. 

Potato is an important crop for Netherlands 

agriculture industry. 

It occupies almost one quarter of the 

country's arable land and nearly half of total


production value achieved on farms with arable 

land (van der Zaag, 1992) 


The research was conducted in 2011 in SA 

Astra Trifesti, village Trifesti, the micro Bivolari who 

are in an area with temperate climate and is 

characterized by cold winters and hot summers with 

irregular winds, more frequent in the north-west and 

north - winter and south-east and east - especially in 

spring, sufficient rainfall - especially in early summer. 

For realization of this study, we used three 

varieties of potato. 

In this micozonă, 5% of the area is planted 

with potatoes, from which most of them remains with 

the company Astra Trifesti. 

Experience is trifactorial carried out in three 

repetitions of type AxBxC being studied five varieties 

of potato. We present partial results of the three 

varieties. 

The factors studied are: 

Factor (A) – fertilization: 

- a1- nefertilizat 

- a2 - NPK 

- a3- ECO 1 

- a4- ECO2 

Factor (B) – variety: 

- b1- Adora A, România – martor 

- b2 - Adora E, Olanda 

- b3- Velox A, România 

Factor (C) – ecological vegetation herbicide 

treatment: 

- c1- treatment with Novodor ( 4l/ha) 

- c2 -treatment with NeemAzal(2l/ha) 

At harvest were sampled to determine the 

number of tuber-nest all 4 variants, in three 

repetitions of the three varieties. 

Using ecolologice products is a plus because 

the trend worldwide is expanding and the demand 

for agricultural products is growing. 

Statistical data processing was performed 

using analysis of variance. This paper presents the 

results obtained from potato varieties studied in 2011 


Regarding the influence of fertilization 

treatments and analyzing data in Table 1 kind 

notice that the largest number recorded in the 

variant fertilized tubers classic variety Adora is 

the difference from the control is 276.42%. 

42 

With regard to organic fertilization, it 

appears that the version which applied ECO1 

ecological product, number of tubers per nest 

tubers increased very significantly from the 

control,% 171.82% as compared to the control the 

variety Adora E. 

Using organic products was beneficial 

recorded significant increases in the number of 

tubers per nest in all varieties that have been 

applied. 

From Table 2 the shows that in both of 

which have used these products have obtained 

increases Relevant to version control, so the 

variety is the difference from the control loves 

being 164.84%. 

All three varieties used have performed 

well, both classical fertilization and organic 

fertilization 

From tables 1,2,3 and 4 shows that the three 

varieties used, the volume is performed best. In all 

variants of fertilization. 

Regarding the influence of variety on the 

number of tubers in 2011, is seen from Table 3, 

loves the variety that is, to obtain the highest 

yield% compared to the control was 112.67% 

Analyzing Table 4, it is noted that the 

variant fertilized with NemAzal classic 

combination to obtain the largest production 

increase 210.99% 

CONCLUSIONS 

The data presented can draw the following 

conclusions. 

Taking account that the world is putting 

great emphasis on using organic products, it is 

found that potato and they give a good 

performance compared with conventional 

products. Two. 

Influence of fertilization on the number of 

tubers classic in 2011, was manifested by 

production increases significantly compared to 

version control. 

In all three varieties of potato used, 

variance analysis by F test, reveals that the 

number of tubers per nest was significantly 

influenced by classical fertilization and organic 

fertilization.

43 


Influence of fertilization treatments and variety, the number of tubers / potato in 2011 

Var. 

tub/nest 

(kg/ha) 

% Dif. 

significanc 

e 

Adora A Control 4.6 100.00 Control 

Novodor Adore E 5.2 112.74 0.6 

Unfertilized 

Velox 

Adora A 

5.4 

4.9 

117.62 

107.15 

0.8 

0.3 

NeemAzal Adore E 5.5 120.00 0.9 * 

Velox A 5.9 127.37 1.3 ** 

Adora A 9.4 204.34 4.8 *** 

Novodor Adore E 12.8 276.42 8.1 *** 

NPK 

Velox A 

Adora A 

9.6 

9.8 

207.59 

213.01 

5.0 

5.2 

*** 

*** 

NeemAzal Adore E 13.1 284.55 8.5 *** 

Velox A 9.2 199.46 4.6 *** 

Adora A 7.5 161.52 2.8 *** 

Novodor Adora E 7.9 171.82 3.3 *** 

ECO 1 

Velox A 

Adora A 

6.7 

8.0 

145.80 

172.36 

2.1 

3.3 

*** 

*** 


Velox 6.8 147.43 2.2 *** 

Adora A 7.3 157.18 2.6 *** 

Novodor Adore E 7.4 160.98 2.8 *** 

ECO2 

Velox A 

Adora A 

6.6 

8.0 

143.63 

173.44 

2.0 

3.4 

*** 

*** 


Velox A 6.9 149.05 2.3 *** 

MEAN 8 

LSD 5% = 0.8 tub/nest 


LSD 0.1% = 1.5 tub/nest 

Table 1 

Table 2 

Interaction between fertilization and variety on the number of tubers / nest in 2011 

fertilization variety tub/nest % Dif (kg/ha) significance 

Adora A Control 5 100.00 control 

Unfertilized Adore E 5 112.35 0.6 

Velox A 6 118.26 0.9 * 

Adora A 10 201.47 4.8 *** 

NPK 

Adore E 13 270.80 8.2 *** 

Velox A 9 196.49 4.6 *** 

Adora A 8 161.17 2.9 *** 

ECO 1 

Adore E 8 164.84 3.1 *** 

Velox A 7 141.55 2.0 *** 

Adora A 8 159.60 2.8 *** 

ECO 2 

Adore E 7 153.06 2.5 *** 

Velox A 7 141.29 2.0 *** 

MEAN 8 




Influence of variety on the number of tubers / nest in 2011 

variety tub/nest % Dif. significance 

Adora A Control 7 100.00 control 

Adore E 8 112.67 3.1 *** 

Velox A 7 96.04 1.9 *** 




Table 3


Influence the interaction between fertilization and foliar treatments 

fertilization foliar treatment tub/nest % Dif. significance 

Unfertilized Novodor 5 100.00 comtrol 

NeemAzal 5 107.32 0.4 

NPK Novodor 11 208.37 5.5 *** 

NeemAzal 11 210.99 5.6 *** 

ECO 1 Novodor 7 145.04 2.3 *** 

NeemAzal 8 148.15 2.4 *** 

ECO 2 Novodor 7 139.79 2.0 *** 

NeemAzal 7 144.87 2.3 *** 

MEAN 8 




REFERENCES 

Bîlteanu, Gh., 2001 - Fitotehnie, Editura Ceres 

Bucureşti, p. 215-218 

Berindei, M., 1995 – Cultura cartofului, Editura 

Fermierul Român, Bucureşti, p. 9-10 

44 

Table 4 

Jităreanu,G., 1994 – Tehnică experimentală – Curs 

litografiat, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, 

Van der Zaag.,D.E., 1992 – Cartoful şi cultivarea lui în 

Olanda, Editura Postbus, Olanda, p. 4-6

Abstract 

45 


SEROLOGICAL DETECTION OF GRAPEVINE FANLEAF VIRUS (GFLV) 

IN AMPELOGRAPHIC COLLECTION FROM USAMV IAŞI (ROMANIA) 

Florin Daniel LIPŞA 1 , Eugen ULEA 1 , Nicoleta IRIMIA 1 

e-mail: flipsa@uaiasi.ro 

Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) is one of the most severe virus diseases in vineyards worldwide. It causes extensive 

leaf yellowing, stem and leaf deformation, reduced fruit quality, substantial crop loss and shortened longevity of 

vineyards. GFLV is transmitted specifically from grapevine to grapevine by the ectoparasitic nematode Xiphinema 

index, and belongs to the genus Nepovirus in the family Comoviridae. During 2009 and 2011 a sanitary survey was 

conducted in the ampelographic collection of the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi 

(Romania) on 170 cultivars belonging to Vitis spp. Our objectives were to determine the presence and distribution of 

GFLV across the ampelographic collection, and to find out if the virus titre fluctuation is cultivar specific. Leaf samples 

were taken during spring season from vines exhibiting virus-like symptoms or general vine decline. Three mature leaves 

including the petiole from different sections of the vine, keeping between the first and fifth node from the base of the 

vine were collected in dry, cool weather. The results of DAS-ELISA test confirm that virus was present in 29 grapevine 

cultivars (17.1% of total) from the ampelographic collection. Infected vine cultivars with the highest OD (optical 

density) values were Gordan, Newburger, Cioinic, Galbenă de Odobeşti, Blauerzweigelt and Merlot. 

Key words: Vitis spp., GFLV, ELISA, Romania 

Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) is one of 

the most destructive pathogens of grapevine 

worldwide. It causes extensive leaf yellowing, 

stem and leaf deformation, reduced fruit quality, 

substantial crop loss (up to 80%) and shortened 

longevity of vineyards (Andret-Link et al., 2004). 

Among 58 virus species that can infect grapevine, 

GFLV belongs to the plant virus genus Nepovirus 

of the family Comoviridae (Mayo and Robinson, 

1996) with genome consisting of two singlestranded 

positive sense RNAs, separately 

encapsidated (Fritsch et al., 1993, Wellink et al., 

2000). The soil-borne virus is transmitted 

exclusively by the ectoparasitic nematode 

Xiphinema index Thorne and Allen, which can 

survive in vineyard soils and retain GFLV for 

many years with or without host plants 

(Demangeat et al., 2005; Martelli, 2006). 

Vineyards viruses control is currently based 

on preventive measures and cultural practices. 

Prophylactic measures intend to prevent 

introduction of diseased vine varieties in healthy 

vineyards, and cultural practices try to reduce the 

vectors population (Laimer, 2009). GFLV is 

controlled by soil disinfection with nematicides, 

but this procedure is only partially efficient and in 

many countries forbidden because of 


environmental toxicity (Demangeat et al., 2005; 

Raski and Goheen, 1988). 

The aims of this study were to determine the 

presence and distribution of GFLV across the 

ampelographic collection of University of 

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 

(USAMV) Iaşi, and to find out if the virus titre 

fluctuation is cultivar specific. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

During 2009 and 2011 a sanitary survey was 

conducted in ampelographic collection belonging to 

USAMV Iaşi (N-E Romania) on 170 genotypes 

belonging to Vitis spp. 

Leaf samples were taken each year during 

spring season from 34 vines exhibiting virus-like 

symptoms or general vine decline. Three mature 

leaves including the petiole from different sections of 

the vine, keeping between the first and fifth node from 

the base of the vine were collected in dry, cool 

weather. Totally, 368 samples of symptomatic leaves 

from surveyed varieties were collected, put into 

separate plastic bags, frozen with liquid nitrogen, 

transported to the laboratory, and stored at −80ºC 

until analysed. 

Symptomatic grapevine samples were used for 

detection of GFLV by a double-antibody sandwich 

ELISA (DAS ELISA) using monoclonal and polyclonal 

antibodies. ELISA was performed with commercial


kits (ADGEN Phytodiagnostics, UK), according to the 

manufacturer recommendation. Crude grapevine 

extracts were prepared by grinding 1 g leaves in 10 

mL of ELISA extraction buffer. Leaf extracts were 

centrifuged at 2,000 g for 15 min and the supernatant 

was used as the antigen in DAS ELISA. 100 µL were 

loaded in each well on microtiter plates (Nunc 

Immunoplate I, Nunc, Denmark). Incubation steps 

lasted overnight at 4°C in closed dark boxes. 

Reactive were preincubated to the plate temperature. 

Intermediate washings were done with 

PBS/Tween buffer. Values were recorded measuring 

absorbance at 405 nm with a microplate reader 

Sunrise (Tecan, Austria) powered by Magellan data 

analysis software. 

DAS ELISA results were taken as mean 

absorbance value of three replicates per sample. 

Positive and negative controls were supplied with the 

kit. Each value was considered GFLV-positive when 

the average value was at least three times greater 

than the mean of healthy control. 

46 

Statistic was performed with Microsoft Office 

Excel 2007. Analysis of variance was performed with 

the use of One-Way ANOVA test. A P value of less 

than 0.05 was considered to indicate statistical 

significance. 


The incidence of GFLV disease on 

ampelographic collection of USAMV Iaşi was 

visually monitored between 2009 and 2011. Out of 

336 grapevine samples collected from 34 varieties 

with characteristic symptoms 279 were infected 

with Grapevine fanleaf virus. GFLV was present in 

29 grapevine cultivars (17.1% of total) from the 

ampelographic collection. Foreign grapevine 

cultivars showed a higher sensitivity to GFLV in 

comparacy with the indigenous grapevine cultivars 

(Table 1). 

Occurrence of GFLV as determined by DAS ELISA on grapevine samples 

collected from ampelographic collection of USAMV Iaşi 

Indigenous grapevine 

cultivars 

No. total 

of 

samples 

GFLV 

positives 

No. % 

Foreign grapevine 

cultivars 

No. total 

of 

samples 

GFLV 

positives 

No. % 

Ardeleanca 12 8 66.7 Aligoté 12 10 83.3 

Armaş 12 8 66.7 André 12 10 83.3 

Bicane 12 10 83.3 Andrevit 12 8 66.7 

Cioinic 12 12 100.0 Bastarde de Magaraci 12 9 75.0 

Creaţă de Banat 12 11 91.7 Blauerzweigelt 12 12 100.0 

Fetească albă 12 7 58.3 Chasselas Doré 12 10 83.3 

Fetească regală 12 9 75.0 Decabriski 12 8 66.7 

Frîncuşa 12 8 66.7 Dimiat 12 7 58.3 

Galbenă de Odobeşti 12 12 100.0 Gamay Beaujolais 12 8 66.7 

Gordan 12 12 100.0 Merlot 12 11 91.7 

Grasă de Cotnari 12 10 83.3 Newburger 12 12 100.0 

Napoca 12 7 58.3 Pinot Noir 12 11 91.7 

Răzăchie 12 7 58.3 R6/Chasselas Doré 12 12 100.0 

Regina viilor 12 7 58.3 Riesling Aromat 12 11 91.7 

Traminer roz 12 12 100.0 

TOTAL 168 128 76.2 TOTAL 168 151 83.9 

The results show that not all cultivars with 

virus-like symptoms are caused by GFLV. Leaf 

yellowing, stem and leaf deformation could be 

caused by physical injury or some other disorder 

(fungicide, herbicide, insecticide). GFLV causes 

the grapevine fanleaf degeneration worldwide and 

severe losses up to 80%, poor fruit quality and 

reduced grapevine longevity (Andret-Link et al., 

2004). 

Infected foreign cultivars with the highest 

OD (optical density) values measured at 405 nm 

were Blauerzweigelt, Merlot and Newburger. 

Infection with high OD was also confirmed in 

some indigenous cultivars as Gordan, Cioinic and 

Galbenă de Odobeşti (Figure 1). 

Table 1 

Differences in sensitivity to GFLV are 

known among cultivars of V. vinifera; some are 

resistant to infection and others recover one year 

after the appearance of symptoms. A fundamental 

importance in the development of the disease is 

played by environment and growing area, because 

the number of infected grapevines in vine 

plantations will increase dramatically in the 

presence of infected vineyards. 

ANOVA did not reveal statistical 

differences among the mean values of extinction in 

GFLV-infected cultivars during 2009 and 2011 

(data not show). 

These results could be used for improving 

detection protocols to test grapevine propagative 

material in Romania and to eliminate the risk of

long distance spreading during international 

exchange of plant material. 

47 


Figure 1: Average values of extinction with DAS ELISA for indigenous cultivars and foreigner grapevine. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Grapevine cultivars from ampelographic 

collection of USAMV Iaşi (N-E Romania) have 

been examined by visual symptom assessment for 

typical GFLV symptoms between 2009 and 2011 

and serological tests (DAS ELISA) revealed that 

incidence of GFLV disease ranged 17.1%. 

Infected grapevine plants from the 29 

varieties should be removed and replaced after 

reducing of vector populations. Also, the usage of 

clean planting material and surveying the 

neighbouring viticulture areas are measures that 

should be implemented to maintain the disease 

under control. 


This work was cofinanced from the European 


Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project


number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 ,,Postdoctoral Schole 

in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area‖. 

REFERENCES 

Andret-Link, P., Laporte, C., Valat, L., Ritzenthaler, 

C., Demangeat, G., Vigne, E., Laval, V., 

Pfeiffer, P., Stussi-Garaud, C., Fuchs, M. 2004 

- Grapevine fanleaf virus: still a major threat to 

the grapevine industry, Journal of Plant 

Pathology 86, p. 183-195. 

Demangeat G., Voisin R., Minot J.C., Bosselut N., 

Fuchs M., Esmenjaud D. 2005 - Survival of 

Xiphinema index in vineyard soil and retention of 

Grapevine fanleaf virus over extended time in the 

absence of host plants, Phytopathology 95, p. 

1151–1156. 

Fritsch, C, Mayo, M., Hemmer, O. 1993 - Properties of 

the satellite RNA of nepoviruses, Biochimie. 75, 

p. 561-567. 

Laimer, M., Lemaire, O., Herrbach, E,. Goldschmidt, 

V., Minafra, A., Bianco, P., Wetzel, T. 2009 - 

Resistance to viruses, phytoplasmas and their 

48 

vectors in Europe: a review, Journal of Plant 

Pathology 91, p. 7-23. 

Martelli, G.P. 2006 - Grapevine virology highlights 

2004–2005. Extended abstracts 15th Meeting of 

ICVG, Stellenbosch, South Africa, p. 13–18. 

Mayo, M.A., Robinson, D.J., 1996 - Nepoviruses: 

molecular biology and replication. In The Plant 

Viruses, vol. 5: Polyhedral Virions and Bipartite 

RNA Genomes. Edited by B. D. Harrison & A. F. 

Murant. New York: Plenum Press. 

Raski D.J., Goheen A.C., 1988 - Comparison of 1, 3dichloropropene 

and methyl bromide for control 

of Xiphinema index and grapevine fanleaf 

degeneration complex. Am J Enol Vitic. 39, p. 

334–336. 

Wellink, J., Le Gall, O., Sanfacon, H., Ikegami, M., 

Jones, A.T., 2000 - In: van Regenmortel MHV, 

Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Carstens EB, Estes 

MK, Lemon SM, Maniloff J, Mayo MA, McGeoch 

DJ, Pringle CR, Wickner RB (Eds) Virus 

Taxonomy. Seventh report of the International 

Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic 

Press, San Diego, Ca, p. 691-701.

Abstract 

49 


MINERAL VERSUS ORGANIC FERTILIZATION. EFFECT 

ON THE QUALITY OF FORAGES PRODUCED 

ON A GRASSLAND OF Nardus stricta L. 

Doina TARCĂU 1 , Simona CUCU-MAN 2 , Mihai STAVARACHE 1 , 

Costel SAMUIL 1 , Vasile VÎNTU 1 

e-mail: doinatarcau@yahoo.com 

The study aimed to assess the quality of forages obtained from a permanent grassland of Dorna Depression (Romania) 

under the influence of organic versus mineral fertilization. The experiences were monofactorial in three repetitions, 

located on a grassland of Nardus stricta L. to follow the effect of fertilization with 20-50 t ha -1 manure, applied annually 

or every 2 years and N100P100, N140P140 and N200P200, on the chemical composition of the forage. It was observed for 

experience with organic input, crude protein (CP) content increased from 6.38% to 9.32%-13.14%, NDF and ADF 

decreased from 74.71% to 50.08%-60.20%, and from 47.09% to 43.11%-37.47%, respectively, and in experience with 

chemical fertilization CP increased from 6.48% to 6.59%–14.08% while NDF and ADF, decreased from 72.25% to 

59.28%–51.92%, and from 45.64% to 39.79-32.10%, respectively. The values of the investigated parameters indicate an 

improvement in forages quality. 

Key words: organic input, mineral fertilization, permanent grassland, nutritional value 

Permanent grassland area of Romania covers 

over 4.8 million hectares, of which more than a 

half are located in upland areas and the grassland 

area, dominated by Nardus stricta L., covers 

300,000 hectares at 400 – 2200 m altitude on acid 

soils, replacing more valuable grasslands, 

especially those of Agrostis capillaris and Festuca 

rubra (Vintu et al. 2011). Permanent grasslands are 

an important part of Romania's natural resources. 

These grasslands serve multiple purposes which 

harmoniously combines many functions that can be 

used to benefit people and animals: provide habitat 

and food source for animals, protect soils against 

erosion, provide biodiversity for at least 70% of all 

species of plants, make the beautiful environmental 

and also a great part of the biomass can be 

converted into unconventional energy. Forages 

obtained from these permanent grassland represent 

an important source for animals feed due to the 

cultivated surfaces and the high yields of good 

quality obtained from them (Avarvarei and 

Chelariu, 2011). For a long-term period no 

elementary management measures were applied on 

permanent meadows in Romania, estimating that 

they could get efficient yields without 

technological inputs. The fertilization of mountain 

grasslands with organic fertilizers leads to an 

1 University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi 

2 Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry "Al.I.Cuza" University of Iasi 

improvement in terms biodiversity, productivity 

and quality (Ansquer et al., 2009; Schellberg et al., 

1999). Fertilization with organic and mineral 

fertilizers is one of the main means by which we 

can increase the yield of permanent grasslands and 

have a strong influence on forage quality by 

modifications in floristic composition, chemical 

structure, consumption and digestibility with 

implications on nutritive and energetic values 

(Avarvarei and Chelariu, 2011; Păcurar et al.2012; 

Štýbnarová et al. 2012). 

The first aim of this study was to investigate 

the effect of mineral and organic fertilization on 

the nutritional value of forages from a permanent 

grassland of Nardus stricta L. located in Dorna 

Depression (north-eastern Romania). The second 

aim of the study was to establish the best dose of 

fertilization in order to improve the quality of 

forages on the permanent grassland. 


The study was carried out on a Nardus stricta 

L. permanent grassland situated at an altitude of 840 

m in the Cosna region, Romania. For studying the 

influence of fertilization on forages’ quality the 

experiments were set up as a random block system in 

three replications, with the variants presented in table


1. The first experience was in 3 repetitions. The 

surface of each variant of fertilization was 20 m 2 (4 × 

5m). The repetition block area was 180 m 2 and the 

surface of the experience was 540 m 2 . The second 

experience was also in 3 repetitions with the surface 

of each variant of fertilization of 20 m 2 (4 × 5m). The 

repetition block area was 140 m 2 and the surface of 

the experience was 420 m 2 . 

The manure with a content of 0.42% total N, 

0.19% P 2O 5 and 0.27% K 2O was manually applied, 

early in spring, at the beginning of grass growth. 

Freshly harvested hay samples were dried in a forced 

air-oven at 60°C and milled through a 1-mm screen 

for chemical analysis. 

The dry matter (DM) of forage was determined 

at 105°C for 5 h, crude protein (CB) was determined 

by the Kjeldahl method using a device Inkjel P and 

distillation Behrotest WD20, Labor Technik, 

Germania, ether extract (EE) by the Soxhlet method, 

ash content was measured gravimetrically by igniting 

samples in a muffle furnace at 500 o C. The Fibretest 

50 

system was used to analyse fibre content by 

treatment with neutral detergent (NDF), fibre content 

by treatment with acid detergent (ADF), sulphuric 

lignin content (ADL), according to the procedure of 

Van Soest (1963) and the photometrical method for 

the determination of total phosphorus. The analyses 

performed allowed the calculation of parameters for 

assessing the quality of the feed, such as the total 

digestible nutrients (TDN), net energy of lactation 

(NEL) and relative nutritional value (RFV). Calculation 

of these parameters was performed with the following 

formulas (A Nutritional Guide, 1990). 

TDN = 82.38 – (0.7515 × %ADF) 

RFV = (DDM×DMI)/1.29 

DDM = 88.9 – (0.779 × %ADF) 

DMI = 120/%NDF 

NEL: Mcal/lb = (TDN % x 0.01114) – 0.054 

Statistical analyses were performed applying the 

Least Significant Difference (LSD) test and principal 

component analysis using Statistica 8. 

Variants of organic and mineral fertilization on permanent grassland of Nardus stricta L., 

Cosna region, Romania 

Experience 1: Organic fertilization Experience 2: Mineral fertilization 

V1 Unfertilized control V1 Unfertilized control 

V2 20 t ha -1 manure applied every year V2 N100P100 



V5 50 t ha -1 manure applied every year V5 N100P100 + N40P40 

V6 20 t ha -1 manure applied every 2 years V6 N100P100 + N100P100 

V7 30 t ha -1 manure applied every 2 years V7 N80P80 + N60P60 

V8 40 t ha -1 manure applied every 2 years 

V9 50 t ha -1 manure applied every 2 years 


Data characterizing forage quality in 

accordance with fertilization variant are given in 

Table 2. In the first experience (organic 

fertilization), the content in crude protein of the 

forages obtained from Nardus stricta L. permanent 

grassland increased from 6.39% at unfertilized 

variant to 12.03% for variant where was applied 30 

t ha -1 manure at every two years, 12.80% for 

variant where was applied 40 t ha -1 manure at 

every two years and 13.14% for variant where was 

applied 50 t ha -1 at every two years. In the second 

experience (mineral fertilization), crude protein 

increased from the 6.48% at unfertilized variant to 

14.08% at N100P100 + N100P100 variant. The 

concentration of crude protein significantly 

increase with intensity of fertilization, in 

accordance with studies from the literature 

(Butkuvienė and Butkutė, 2007; Kirkham et a. 

2008; Avarvarei and Chelariu, 2011; Vintu et al. 

2011). The highest content of crude protein was 

obtain for variant where was applied 50 t ha -1 

manure every two years (Table 2). Neutral 

Table 1 

detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre content 

also affect the quality of grassland and its effect on 

animal nutrition. 

These parameters could be also used in 

prediction equations for nutritive value calculation 

(Jarrige, 1989), because cell-wall components – 

cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are fully 

separated (Štýbnarová et al. 2012). The average 

content of NDF decreased significantly from 74.71 

% for unfertilized variant to an average of 50.08 – 

60.20 %, depending on fertilization for experience 

where was applied manure. The low content of 

NDF was obtained at variants where was applied 

40 t ha-1 manure every year (50.08%), followed by 

variant where was applied 50 t ha -1 . For experience 

with mineral fertilization the lowest value for NDF 

content was obtain for N200P200 (51,92%), followed 

by N100P100 + N100P100 (54,18) and N100P100 + N40P40 

(55.28%) variants. NDF is the most accurate 

characteristic of the total fibre content and it 

closely correlates with dry matter intake and 

rumination activity. The feed intake by ruminants 

decreases with extensive way of grassland 

management as the consequence of the high

concentration of NDF (Štýbnarová et al. 2012). For 

both experiments, organic fertilization and mineral 

fertilization the NDF contents are in comparable 

levels. Another measure of fibre is acid detergent 

fiber (ADF), a subset of NDF. cid detergent fibre 

contains the poorly digestible cell wall 

components, namely, cellulose, lignin, and other 

very resistant substances. Due to its nature, ADF is 

often used to predict energy content of feeds. ADF 

is a good indicator of feed quality; higher values 

within a feed suggest lower-quality feed. 

A goal would be to have < 35% ADF in 

either legume or grass forages The average of ADF 

51 


content in forages from Nardus stricta L. 

permanent grassland shows a significant decrease 

from 47.09% for unfertilized control variant at 

37.47% for 30 t ha -1 manure applied every year 

(table 1). 

Also, forages obtained from variants where 

was applied mineral fertilization show significantly 

decreased value of ADF content from 45.64% for 

unfertilized variant at average value between 32.10 

– 39.79 % DM for variants with different quantity 

of mineral fertilization. 

Influence of organic and mineral fertilization on chemical composition of the fodder 

Âobtained from Nardus stricta L. grasslands (% DM) 

Variant CP A EE NDF ADF ADL P 

Experience 1: Organic fertilization 

V1 Unfertilized control 6.38 

V2 20 t ha -1 every year; 9.32 *** 

V3 30 t ha -1 every year; 11.53 *** 

V4 40 t ha -1 every year; 9.73 *** 10.53 *** 

V5 50 t ha -1 every year; 10.75 *** 10.21 *** 

V6 20 t ha -1 every 2 years; 11.70 *** 8.80 ** 

V7 30 t ha -1 every 2 years; 12.03 *** 9.03 *** 

5.45 1.64 74.71 

9.78 *** 1.97 ** 

60.20 *** 

8.98 ** 1.64 55.12 *** 

1.94 ** 

2.17 *** 

50.08 *** 

53.80 *** 

1.67 57.49 *** 

1.28 ** 

V8 40 t ha -1 every 2 years; 12.80 *** 9.42 *** 1.34 ** 

V9 50 t ha -1 every 2 years; 13.14 *** 10.02 *** 

57.78 *** 

55.93 *** 

1.46 54.78 *** 

47.09 

38.44 *** 

37.47 *** 

38.48 *** 

40.71 *** 

37.65 *** 

39.41 *** 

38.56 *** 

43.11 *** 

10.96 

10.40 * 

10.40 * 

10.38 * 

9.92 *** 

9.92 *** 

9.48 *** 

9.60 *** 

9.20 *** 

Table 2 

0.07 

0.15 * 

0.22 *** 

0.18 ** 

0.31 *** 

0.41 *** 

0.20 ** 

0.23 *** 

0.43 *** 

LSD 0.05 0.88 1.86 0.22 0.66 0.67 0.43 0.08 

LSD 0.01 1.22 2.57 0.30 0.91 0.93 0.59 0.11 

LSD 0.001 1.67 3.54 0.41 1.25 1.27 0.81 0.15 

Experience 2: Mineral fertilization 

V1 Unfertilized control 6.48 7.65 2.74 72.25 45.64 10.22 0.07 

V2 N100P100; 6.59 *** 6.29 *** 

3.01 ** 59.17 *** 34.37 *** 9.64 ** 0.14 ** 

V3 N140P140; 8.08 *** 6.24 *** 3.12 *** 58.81 *** 33.23 *** 9.80 * 

V4 N200P200 10.13 *** 7.07 ** 3.19 *** 51.92 *** 33.28 *** 9.50 ** 

V5 N100P100 + N40P40 11.47 *** 6.01 *** 

2.96 * 

55.28 *** 33.79 *** 9.71 * 

V6 N100P100 + N100P100 14.08 *** 7.26 * 3.28 *** 54.18 *** 32.10 *** 10.54 0.28 ** 

V7 N80P80 + N60P60 11.05 *** 6.17 *** 

2.59 59.28 *** 39.79 *** 9.62 *** 

0.18 *** 

0.17 *** 

LSD 0.05 0.21 0.32 0.18 1.23 0.69 0.40 0.05 

LSD 0.01 0.29 0.44 0.26 1.73 0.97 0.56 0.07 

LSD 0.001 0.41 0.63 0.37 2.44 1.37 0.80 0.10 

CP - crude protein; A – ash; EE - ether extract; NDF- neutral detergent fibre; ADF - acid detergent fibre; ADL - 

sulphuric lignin content; P - total phosphorus; * =p< 0.05; **= p< 0.01; ***= p< 0.001 

Lignin is a polymer formed from monolignols 

derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway in 

vascular plants. It is deposited in cell walls of plant 

as part of the process of cell maturation. Lignin is 

considered an anti-quality component in forages 

because of its negative impact on the nutritional 

availability of plant fibre (Moore and Jung, 2001). 

Therefore, lignifications has a direct impact on the 

digestibility energy value of the forages. ADL 

0.13 ** 

0.29 ** 

content of forages from this study show significant 

differences between unfertilized variants, 10.96% 

for experience with organic fertilization, 10.22% 

for experience with mineral fertilizations, 

respectively and fertilization variants 9.20% - 

10.40% for organic fertilizations variants and 

9.50% - 10.54% for mineral fertilizations. The 

lowest value for ADL was obtain for variant where 

was applied the highest quantity of both organic


fertilizants 9.20% (variant where was applied 50t 

ha-1 manure at every 2 years) and mineral 

fertilizations variant, 9.50% (variant with N200P200). 

For fertilization with different rates of manure 

(Table 2) could be observed that content of total 

phosphorus increased form 0.07% for unfertilized 

variant to average value between 0.15% and 0.43% 

depending on the variant fertilization. The largest 

increase was observed for the variants when were 

52 

applied 20 tones of manure per hectare every two 

years (0.41%) and 50 tones of manure per hectare 

every two years (0.43%). In case of variants with 

mineral fertilization, was also observed an increase 

of total phosphorus content from 0.07% for 

unfertilized variant at 0.28% and 0.29% for 

variants where was applied N100P100 + N100P100 and 

N80P80 + N60P60, respectively. 

Table 3 

The influence of fertilization on quality of the forage from a Nardus stricta L. permanent grassland in 2010. 

Variant DDM 

Experience 1: Organic fertilization 

(% DM) 

DMI 

(% DM) 

RFV 

(% DM) 

CPD 

(% DM) 

NEL 

(Mcal/lb) 

TDN 

(% DM) 

V1 Unfertilized control 53.35 1.61 65.01 2.02 0.50 49.89 

V2 20 Mg ha -1 every year; 62.12 *** 1.99 * 

91.11 *** 4.70 *** 

0.61 * 59.53 *** 

V3 30 Mg ha -1 every year; 63.01 *** 2.18 ** 100.77 *** 6.70 *** 0.62 ** 60.60 *** 

V4 40 Mg ha -1 every year; 62.98 *** 2.40 *** 

V5 50 Mg ha -1 every year; 62.58 *** 2.23 *** 

109.45 *** 5.07 *** 0.61 * 59.48 *** 

98.88 *** 5.99 *** 0.58 * 57.00 *** 

V6 20 Mg ha -1 every 2 years; 63.89 *** 2.09 ** 96.38 *** 6.85 *** 0.62 ** 60.40 *** 

V7 30 Mg ha -1 every 2 years; 57.91 *** 2.08 ** 93.70 *** 7.15 *** 0.60 * 58.45 *** 



LSD 0.05 0.82 0.31 0.87 0.56 0.08 0.15 

LSD 0.01 1.13 0.43 1.20 0.77 0.12 0.21 

LSD 0.001 1.56 0.59 1.65 1.06 0.16 0.29 

Experience 2: Mineral fertilization 

V1 Unfertilized control 53.35 1.66 68.68 2.12 0.50 51.51 

V2 N100P100; 54.33 *** 2.03 ** 97.67 *** 2.22 *** 0.61 * 64.05 ** 

V3 N140P140; 55.22 *** 2.04 ** 99.67 *** 3.57 *** 0.62 ** 65.33 *** 

V4 N200P200 55.19 *** 2.31 *** 112.83 *** 5.43 *** 0.61 * 

65.27 *** 

V5 N100P100 + N40P40 54.79 *** 2.17 ** 105.29 *** 6.64 *** 0.58 * 64.70 *** 

V6 N100P100 + N100P100 56.10 *** 2.21 *** 109.69 *** 9.01 *** 0.62 ** 

V7 N80P80 + N60P60 57.91 *** 2.02 ** 90.87 *** 6.27 *** 0.60 * 

66.58v 

58.03 ** 

LSD 0.05 0.34 0.06 1.43 0.15 0.04 0.77 

LSD 0.01 0.47 0.09 2.01 0.21 0.05 1.09 

LSD 0.001 0.67 0.13 2.83 0.30 0.07 1.53 

DDM - digestible dry matter; DMI- dry matter intake; RFV- relative nutritional value CPD- digestible crude 

proteine; NEL- net energy of lactation; TDN- total digestible nutrients; * =p< 0.05; **= p< 0.01; ***= p< 0.001 

Water, protein and energy are the nutritive 

elements that are required by the grazing animals 

in higher quantities for proper growth and 

production (Mountousisa et al. 2011). Often it has 

been suggested that the quality of feeds depends 

primarily on the energy content of them and 

particularly the component of metabolizable 

energy (Mlay et al. 2006). Thus, the influence of 

organic inputs and mineral fertilizants on the 

energy content of feed produced from a permanent 

grassland of Nardus stricta L. can be observed 

from the calculated quality parameters for the 

produced forages (table 3). The Relative Feed 

Value index estimates digestible dry matter (DDM) 

of the forages from ADF, and calculates the DM 

intake potential (as a percent of body weight, BW) 

from NDF. The index is then calculated as DDM 

multiplied by dry matter intake (DMI as a % of 

BW) and divided by 1.29. The total digestible 

nutrients (TDN), relative nutritive value (RVF) and 

net energy of lactation (NEL) increased 

significantly (p

the other variants fertilized with different doses of 

organic fertilizer and also, for the experience 

PC 2: 24,14% 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

-0,5 

-1,0 

-1,5 

-2,0 

E1-V1 

E1-V2 

E1-V4 

E1-V5 

E1-V3 

E1-V6 

E1-V8 

E1-V7 

E1-V9 

-2,5 

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 

PC 1: 58,27% 

53 

PC 2: 26.38% 


where was applied mineral fertilizer (figure 1). 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

-0,5 

-1,0 

-1,5 

-2,0 

-2,5 

-3,0 

-3,5 

E2-V1 

E2-V7 

E2-V2 

E2-V5 

E2-V3 

E2-V4 

E2-V6 

-4,0 

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 

PC 1: 56.58% 

Figure 1 Factor loadings for variants of organic and mineral fertilization 

In experience where was applied manure 

was a difference between variants where manure 

was applied every year (V2-20 t ha -1 , V3- 30 t ha -1 , 

V4-40 t ha -1 , V5- 50 t ha -1 ) and variants where 

manure was applied at every two years (V6-20 t ha - 

1 , V7- 30 t ha -1 , V8-40 t ha -1 , V9- 50 t ha -1 ). In the 

experience where was applied mineral fertilization 

significant difference was between V6 variant 

(N100P100 + N100P100) and the other variants with 

different dose of chemical fertilization. 

CONCLUSION 

While on permanent grassland of Dorna 

Depression have been conducted numerous studies 

to increase their productivity, the studies on 

nutritive value of these forages are rather few and 

incomplete. 

The fertilization of Nardus stricta L. 

grasslands with organic and mineral fertilizers 

significantly improves its quality by increasing CP, 

total phosphorous content and by decreasing NDF, 

ADF and ADL levels. No significant differences 

between the use of organic and mineral 

fertilization were observed. This sustain the use of 

organic fertilizers, considering that currently 

agricultural practices recommend reducing the use 

of chemical fertilizers and promote other sources 

of fertilizer. The most advantageous variant of 

organic fertilization is V4 (40 Mg ha -1 every year). 

Relative feed value continues to be widely 

used as an index to assess quality, compare forage 

varieties, and forages price. However, differences 

in the digestibility of the fibre fraction can result in 

a difference in animal performance when forages 

with a similar RFV index are fed. The results for 

the relative nutritional value indicate average 

quality forages produced on the fertilized variants. 


This work was financed from the European Social 

Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme Human 

Resources Development 2007-2013, project number 

POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 ,,Postdoctoral Schole in 

Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area‖ 

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Abstract 

QUALITY OF ALFALFA(Medicago sativa L.), 

IN THE FIRST YEAR OF VEGETATION 

55 


Mihai STAVARACHE 1 , Vasile VÎNTU 1 *, Costel SAMUIL 1 , Iulian MUNTIANU 1 

Aida ALBU 1 , Doina TARCĂU 1 , Constantin Iulian POPOVICI 1 , Ciprian CIOBANU 1 


* Coordinator 

email: mihaistavarache@uaiasi.ro 

In a bifactorial experience, during March-October 2010, at the Research Station Ezăreni from Iasi, we studied alfalfa in 

the first year of vegetation, analizing the effect of seed inoculation with symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium meliloti Dangeard 

and the effect of fertilization on the dry matter (DM) yield, the amount of crude protein per hectare, the leaves/stems 

ratio and the forage quality indicators (CP - crude protein content, NDF - neutral detergent fiber content, ADF - acid 

detergent fiber content and RFV - relative feed value). The results showed that under experimental conditions, the 

interaction of two factors led to DM yields ranging from 5.04 to 7.75 t·ha -1 and a quantity of crude protein of 1121-1539 

kg·ha -1 . CP content in leaves ranged from 24.04 to 30.29% and 10.51 to 19.80% between the strains, the leaves/stems 

ratio having the biggest influence on CP content of the whole plant. Analyzing the data, we observed that seed 

inoculation had an insignificant influence on the forage quality indicators. Fertilization positively influenced DM yield 

and amount of CP produced and had a negative impact on the leaves/stems ratio, plant content in CP, NDF, ADF and 

RFV. 

Key words: alfalfa, inoculation, fertilizer, productivity, quality 

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is one of the 

most valuable forage due to high production of 

green mass or hay and high quality forage. 

Lucerne has a high quality potential and 

ability to control factors can affect the quality and 

will improve production quality. Factors affecting 

quality are represented by soil fertility, cultivar, the 

presence of other species in culture, the use of 

pesticides, climatic conditions, harvesting (season, 

time of day and stage of development at harvest) 

and the method of preservation (Lloveras J. et al., 

2004; Stancheva I. et al., 2008; Dragomir Carmen 

and Moisuc A., 2007). 

Evaluating the amount of crude protein 

produced per unit area, alfalfa can not be surpassed 

by any other forage crop in specific agroecological 

conditions of our country. 

Inoculation of seeds and providing the 

necessary nutrients through fertilization (mineral 

or organic) are two important technological links 

to improve productivity and quality of alfalfa 

(Oliveira W. S. et al., 2004; Berg W. K. et al., 

2009; Dragomir N. and colab., 2010). 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

The research was conducted during March- 

June 2010, on the Ezăreni farm (47°05'-47°10' North 

latitude and 27°28'-27°33' East longitude), farm 

belonging to the University of Agricultural Sciences 

and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi. The soil from the region 

is a cambic chernozem characterized by the indicators 

presented in table 1. 

Physico-chemical characteristics of soil that was placed experience 

Table 1 

Horizon Clay (


bifactorial, with a design type 2x4, arranged in 

subdivided plots in three replications, which have a 10 

m 2 harvesting area (2m x 5m). The factors were as 

follows: A-seed inoculation with two graduations (a 1uninoculated 

and a 2-inoculated) and B-fertilization with 

four graduations (b 1-unfertilized, b 2-N 50P 50, b 3-N 75P 50 

and b 4-30 t·ha -1 manure). 

Yield production was determined by weighing 

the yield harvested from an area of 10 m -2 then 

reported per hectare. 

Dry matter was determined by treating samples 

at 105°C for 3 hours. 

The leaves/stems ratio was determined by 

separating the stem, leaflets, buds and flowers by the 

stem, weighing them separately and report their 

amount to the amount of strain (leaves/stems ratio). 

Nitrogen content was determined by Kjeldahl 

method, and NDF and ADF content were determined 

by Van Soest method. 

The amount of CP per hectare was calculated 

based on DM production per hectare and its content 

in the CP. 

RFV was calculated using the formula 

(Sheaffer C.C. et al., 1995; Boman R. L., 2010): 

RFV 

88. 

9 

( 0. 

779 

1. 

29 

120 

ADF) 

NDF 

Depending on the content CP, NDF, ADF and 

RFV, alfalfa hay can be classified into six quality 

classes (table 2), used by many authors (Mirzaei- 

Aghsaghali A. et al., 2007; Kiraz A.B., 2011; Redfearn 

D. and Zhang H., 2011). 

The biological material used was represented 

by Sandra alfalfa variety (F 660-94) registered in 

2003 to I.N.C.D.A. Fundulea. (Schitea Maria and 

Martura T., 2004). 

Table 2 

Quality standards of grasses, legumes 

and grasses-legumes mixtures 

Quality 

standard 

CP NDF ADF 

(% from DM) 

RFV 

0-Prime >19 55

57 


Table 3 

Production of dry matter (DM), alfalfa culture in the first year of vegetation 

Dry matter production (kg·ha 

Experimental plot 

-1 ) % as 

First 

cut 

Second 

cut 

Third 

cut 

Total 

Diferences 

reffered to 

control 

a1- without 

inoculation 

(control) 

b1- unfertilized (control) 

b2- N50P50 

b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

1.87 

2.25* 

2.73*** 

2.39 

2.79*** 

3.53*** 

0.77 

0.88 

0.97* 

5.04 

5.92** 

7.23*** 

control 

0.88 

2.19 

100 

118 

144 

-1 manure 2.24* 3.04*** 0.88 6.15*** 1.12 122 

b1- unfertilized 2.00 2.63** 0.79 5.42 0.39 108 

a2- inoculated 

b2- N50P50 

b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

2.41** 

3.02*** 

3.03*** 

3.73*** 

0.88 

0.99* 

6.31*** 

7.75*** 

1.28 

2.71 

125 

154 

-1 manure 2.41** 3.27*** 0.89 6.57*** 1.54 131 

5% 0.33 0.16 0.17 0.46 

LSD 1% 0.47 0.22 0.24 0.64 

0.1% 0.66 0.31 0.34 0.91 

37.6% 48.4% 14.0% 

First cut Second cut Third cut 

Figure 1 The proportion of each cut from total DM production 

Research has shown that the leaves/stems 

ratio was different, depending on the experimental 

plot analyzed and the number of cut. 

At each of the three cuts, the leaves/stems 

ratio was better (meaning a higher percentage of 

leaves), for the unfertilized and organically 

fertilized plots (table 4, figure 2). Percentage of 

leaves was lower in mineral fertilized plots, due to 

more vigorous strains and larger strains diameter. 

Influence of interaction between inoculation and fertilization on the alfalfa leaves/stems ratio 


First cut 

Leaves/stems ratio 

Second cut Third cut 

a1- without 

inoculation 

(control) 


b2- N50P50 

b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

1.30 

0.97ºº 

0.85ºº 

0.90 

0.87 

0.71ºº 

1.86 

1.81º 

1.72ºº 

-1 manure 1.07º 0.88 1.76ºº 

b1- unfertilized 1.25 0.83 1.76ºº 

a2- b2- N50P50 0.88ºº 0.74ºº 1.81º 

inoculated b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

0.81ºº 0.67ººº 1.63ººº 

-1 manure 1.08º 0.79º 1.68ººº 

5% 0.11 0.07 0.03 

LSD 1% 0.26 0.16 0.09 

0.1% 0.56 0.23 0.16 

100% 

75% 

50% 

25% 

0% 

50.31 

49.69 

44.23 

55.77 

63.68 

36.32 


Figure 2 Cycle of vegetation influence on the leaves/stems ratio 

The leaves/stems ratio varied depending on 

the number of cut. Thus, at the first cut the average 

percentage of leaves was approximately equal to 

that of strains, to the second cut leaves were 10% 

less than the stems, and at the third cut the leaf 

Leaves 

Stems 

Table 4 

percentage was 27% higher than that of strains. 

The results confirm the research of other authors in 

similar experimental conditions (Bender A. and 

Tamm S., 2010; Stanćev Vidica et al., 2010). 

The leaves/stems ratio is an important


quality indicator, because of this depends quality 

of hay obtained. Percentage of leaves is desirable 

to be as high as possible, because in the leaves are 

found a crude protein content at least twice then in 

the strains, as shown by many authors (Popovic S. 

et al., 2001; Petkova D. and Panayotova G., 2007). 

Following results were found, although 

fertilization positively influenced the content of the 

Experimental 

plot 

a1 

-c 

a2 

LSD 

58 

leaves and stems in CP. CP content in plants was 

lower in fertilized plots due to leaves/stems ratio, 

negatively affected by fertilization (table 5). 

Although plants CP content in the fertilized 

variants was lower, the amount of CP was higher, 

statistically assured, due to higher yields obtained 

from these plots (table 6, figure 3). 

Table 5 

Influence of interaction between inoculation and fertilization on the alfalfa CP content 

CP content (% from DM) 

Leaves Stems Whole plant 

First Second Third First Second Third First Second Third 

cut cut cut cut cut cut cut cut cut 

b1-c 24.04 26.26 28.98 10.51 14.09 19.57 19.28 22.13 29.95 

b2 24.30* 26.69* 29.63*** 10.76 14.28 19.71*** 19.19 20.85ºº 28.65 

b3 24.51** 27.80*** 30.29*** 11.09** 14.45* 19.73*** 17.92ºº 20.17ººº 27.45ºº 

b4 24.19 26.25 29.84*** 10.77 14.22 19.73*** 18.55 21.60 28.22º 

b1 24.20 26.88** 29.59*** 10.59 13.90 19.71*** 19.55 22.24 28.66 

b2 24.44** 26.95** 29.67*** 10.87 14.30 19.75*** 17.98ºº 20.85ºº 27.17ººº 

b3 24.48** 27.17*** 30.14*** 11.06** 14.48** 19.80*** 17.67ºº 19.89ººº 26.51ººº 

b4 24.36* 26.46 30.03*** 10.77 14.17 19.72*** 18.84 20.97º 27.66ºº 

5% 0.25 0.41 0.30 0.38 0.27 0.07 0.84 0.89 1.33 

1% 0.36 0.57 0.43 0.54 0.38 0.09 1.17 1.24 1.87 

0.1% 0.50 0.81 0.60 0.76 0.54 0.13 1.66 1.75 2.64 

Table 6 

Anount of crude protein (CP), alfalfa culture in the first year of vegetation 

Amount of CP (kg·ha 


-1 ) % as 

First 

cut 

Second 

cut 

Third 

cut 

Total 

Diferences 

reffered to 

control 

a1- without 

inoculation 

(control) 


b2- N50P50 

b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

361 

430 

488** 

528 

581* 

711*** 

231 

253 

267 

1121 

1265* 

1466*** 

control 

144 

346 

100 

113 

131 

-1 manure 416 656*** 247 1318** 198 118 

b1- unfertilized 390 584* 226 1200 79 107 

a2- inoculated 

b2- N50P50 

b3- N75P50 

b4- 30 Mg·ha 

432* 

533*** 

632*** 

742*** 

239 

263 

1302** 

1539*** 

182 

418 

116 

137 

-1 manure 455* 685*** 247 1387*** 266 124 

5% 70 46 54 117 

LSD 1% 98 64 76 164 

0.1% 139 91 107 231 

33.1% 48.3% 18.6% 

By analyzing the influence of inoculation 

and fertilization on alfalfa fiber content and 

relative feed value, it appears that inoculation had 

little influence on these indicators of quality feed. 

The results confirm the research of other authors 

who have come to similar conclusions, in 

conditions close to those present study 

(Hristozkova M. et al., 2009; Stevoviš Vladeta et 

al., 2010). 

Organic fertilization showed a statistically 

positive effect on the content of plant leaves and 

stems in NDF and ADF. The same trend was 

manifested in the case of mineral fertilization 


Figure 3 Amount of crude protein (CP) distribution 

strains except the ADF content, where the 

influence was reduced at the first and third cut 

(table 7, 8). 

Relative feed value of alfalfa plants and 

leaves was negatively influenced and very 

significant to all of fertilization treatments (table 

9). These trends, in terms of quality alfalfa under 

the influence of organic and mineral fertilization, 

confirming the results of research by other authors 

(Showalter J., 2000; Ketterings Q.M. et al., 2008). 

The forage obtained from the first and third can be 

classified as prime class (0), while the forage from 

the second cut can be classified as class 2.

59 


Table 7 

Influence of interaction between inoculation and fertilization on the alfalfa NDF content 

NDF content (% from DM) 

Experimen- 


tal plot First Second Third First Second Third First Second Third 


b1-c 18.0 29.9 24.3 56.3 56.9 42.1 35.2 43.1 30.7 

a1 b2 19.1*** 30.6* 25.2** 57.8* 59.7*** 43.6*** 38.7*** 45.6*** 31.6** 

-c b3 20.2*** 32.2*** 25.8*** 58.8** 61.2*** 44.2*** 40.9*** 48.7*** 33.3*** 

b4 19.5*** 30.6* 24.7 57.8* 59.2** 42.3** 38.2*** 45.1*** 31.5* 

a2 

LSD 

b1 18.2 29.7 24.5 56.8 58.1 41.4 36.1 44.0 31.8 

b2 19.4*** 30.6* 25.3** 57.8* 60.7*** 41.7*** 39.4*** 47.2*** 31.7** 

b3 20.4*** 31.6*** 26.5*** 59.0*** 60.9*** 44.2*** 41.7*** 48.7*** 33.7*** 

b4 19.4*** 30.1 24.9* 57.8* 59.5** 41.3** 38.1*** 45.4*** 32.6*** 

5% 0.4 0.7 0.6 1.3 1.4 1.0 0.9 1.1 0.6 

1% 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.8 1.9 1.4 1.2 1.5 0.9 

0.1% 0.9 1.3 1.1 2.5 2.6 1.9 1.7 2.0 1.2 

Table 8 

Influence of interaction between inoculation and fertilization on the alfalfa ADF content 

ADF content (% from DM) 

Experimen- 




b1-c 13.9 19.5 19.6 46.1 47.7 36.0 28.5 33.1 27.5 

a1 b2 15.1*** 20.6*** 20.8*** 46.8 48.9* 35.8 30.6*** 35.4*** 28.6*** 

-c b3 16.3*** 21.6*** 20.9*** 47.4* 51.4*** 36.1 31.5*** 36.2*** 29.4*** 

b4 15.0*** 19.9 19.7 46.1 50.4*** 36.1 30.1*** 34.4** 28.5*** 

a2 

LSD 

b1 13.8 19.1 19.4 44.7º 48.8 35.5 29.1 34.0* 28.6*** 

b2 15.3*** 20.7*** 20.1* 46.4 50.5*** 35.8 30.6*** 35.3*** 29.7*** 

b3 16.4*** 21.4*** 21.0*** 46.0 53.1*** 36.4 32.0*** 37.5*** 30.9*** 

b4 15.3*** 20.1** 20.0 44.5ºº 50.4*** 35.7 29.9*** 34.5** 30.5*** 

5% 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.5 

1% 0.5 0.7 0.6 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.7 

0.1% 0.7 0.9 0.9 2.0 2.2 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.0 

Table 9 

Influence of interaction between inoculation and fertilization on the alfalfa relative feed value (RFV) 

RFV 

Experimen- 




b1-c 404 230 282 88 85 134 176 136 205 

a1 b2 377ººº 221º 268ººº 85 79ºº 130 157ººº 125ººº 196ºº 

-c b3 352ººº 208ººº 262ººº 82ººº 74ººº 128ºº 146ººº 116ººº 185ººº 

b4 369ººº 223º 277 85 78ººº 133 160ººº 128ººº 197ºº 

a2 

LSD 

b1 400 232 280 88 81º 138 171º 132º 195ººº 

b2 368ººº 221º 269ºº 85 76ººº 136 154ººº 121ººº 193ººº 

b3 348ººº 213ººº 255ººº 84º 73ººº 128ºº 143ººº 114ººº 179ººº 

b4 369ººº 226 274º 87 78ººº 138 160ººº 127ººº 186ººº 

5% 9 6 7 3 3 4 5 4 5 

1% 13 8 10 4 4 6 7 6 7 

0.1% 18 11 14 6 6 8 9 8 9 

CONCLUSIONS 

The first year alfalfa, inoculation resulted in 

no significant differences in productivity and 

quality of alfalfa, because the farm Ezăreni 

conditions (soil containing calcium by 3 ‰) 

Rhizobium meliloti Dangeard symbiotic bacteria 

has a sufficient presence in the soil. 

Research has shown that the leaves/stems 

ratio was different, depending on the experimental 

plot analyzed and the number of cut. At each of the 

three cuts, the leaves/stems ratio was better 

(meaning a higher percentage of leaves), for the 

unfertilized and organically fertilized plots 

Following results were found, although 

fertilization positively influenced the content of the 

leaves and stems in CP, CP content in plants was 

lower in fertilized variants, do to leaves/stems 

ratio, negatively affected by fertilization. Although 

plants CP content in the fertilized variants was 

lower, the amount of CP was higher due to higher 

yields obtained from these plots. 

Fertilization showed a statistically positive 

effect on the content of plant leaves and stems in 

NDF and ADF (lower values of these indicators).


Relative feed value of alfalfa plants and leaves was 

influenced distinctive significantly and very 

significantly in all of fertilization plots. 

The forage obtained from the first and third 

can be classified as prime class (0), while the 

forage from the second cut can be classified as 

class 2. 

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Abstract 

61 


INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZATION ON NITROGEN DYNAMICS 

AT THE SPECIES Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. 

Gabriela SURMEI-BALAN 1 , Vasile VÎNTU 1 *, Costel SAMUIL 1 , Mihai STAVARACHE 1 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi 

* Coordinator 

email: mihaistavarache@uaiasi.ro 

Biological nitrogen fixation is one of the most important biochemical reaction for life on earth. This paper presents the 

influence of the simple mixtures of perennial grasses and legumes and of the fertilization on dry matter production, 

quantity of nitrogen biological fixed. In this respect, we have experienced three mixtures consisting of Onobrychis 

viciifolia with Bromus inermis in different proportions, which were applied to three types of mineral, organic and 

vinassa fertilizer. The results obtained showed that under experimental conditions, total dry matter yields ranged from 

6.43-9.99 t ha -1 , the highest production was obtained from version A3b2, plant total nitrogen content (Nt) ranged from 

3.09 - 3.47%, total nitrogen the specific consumption (CSTN) of culture Onobrychis viciifolia (Scop.) ranged from 

43.65 to 47.31 kg t -1 DM, intake of specific nitrogen-fixing microorganisms (ASNF) ranged between 55.99 – 76.00 kg 

ha -1 and nitrogen remaining in the soil (NRS) ranged from 10.75 to 15.74 kg ha -1 . 

Key words: grasses, legumes, fertilization, nitrogen symbiotic 

Concerns for increased agricultural 

production, while switching to organic farming and 

reduction of fertilizer produced by industry, is one 

of the major problems of contemporary agriculture. 

Temporary meadows are the most effective 

sources of fodder for livestock farms. Fertilization 

is one of the main measures to increase production 

on these pastures, so that by cultivating legumes in 

mixtures decreases the amount of fertilizers used 

on lawns to achieve high yields. Organic 

fertilization and rational use of fertilizers can 

produce substantial increases of the production and 

biodiversity and fodder quality improvement 

(Vintu et al. 2008). 

Research aimed at studying and 

intensification of the fixation of atmospheric 

nitrogen by bacteria living in symbiosis with 

leguminous plants are of great importance 

(Hardarson et al. 1993). 

The estimation of nitrogen fixed to 

permanent and temporary grasslands differs from 

one country to another, from one pasture to another 

and depending on the floristic composition of the 

pasture (Carlson et al. 2003, Danell Huss et al. 

2007, Hansen et. al. 2002). 

Biological N2 fixation is regarded as a 

renewable resource for sustainable agriculture as it 

helps to reduce fertilizer N requirements and thus 

increases economic returns to producers 

(Hardarson et al. 2003; Jensen et al. 2003; Russelle 

et al. 2004; Walley et al. 2007). The substitution of 

forage legumes for inorganic-N fertilizer will save 

non-renewable resources required to manufacture 

and distribute fertilizer, provide deep-rooting 

systems and permanency of cover to improve soil 

structure, and hence reduce erosion, and limit the 

development of salinity in Mediterranean areas , 

and clean up soils suffering from excessive 

fertilization (Rochon et al., 2004). 

The aim of this work was to follow mixing 

and fertilization influence on the amount of 

symbiotically fixed nitrogen, determined by 

indirect method, by species Onobrychis viciifolia 

Scop. is part of neophyte species commonly found 

in Moldavia, being a vegetable appreciated by 

large productions that are obtained (Sirbu, 2012). 

Organic and mineral fertilizers 

administration on the meadows, induce major 

changes on made productions (Pacurar et al. 2012, 

Vintu et al. 2011). 

Application of nitrogen fertilizer is indicated 

only in the establishment of vegetable crops in 

small doses to meet expectations of plants with 

symbiotic nodes that are not formed yet. High 

doses of nitrogen applied later are not effective 

because they reduce the activity and increase 

symbiotic nodules of production costs, while yields 

and quality remain the same (Oliveira et al., 2004).



The research was conducted in Ezăreni Farm 

(47°05' - 47°10' north latitude and 27°28' - 27°33' 

longitude east) belonging to the Didactic Station of 

the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary 

Medicine, during 2008-2010. Soil that the experiment 

was installed is a molded cambic with pH 6.7-6.8, 

with a humus content between 2.73-2.93%, 21-25 

ppm PAL, KAL and 226-232 ppm calcium content of 

112-139 ppm. Factors studied were: Factor A mixture 

of 3 graduations: A1-70% Onobrychis viciifolia + 30% 

Bromus inermis, A2- 50% Onobrychis viciifolia + 50% 

Bromus inermis, A3- 20 % Onobrychis viciifolia - 80% 

Bromus inermis. 

Factor B - fertilization with 4 graduations: blank 

B1, B2-N100P100 kg / ha, B3-5 t / ha vinassa, B4-30 

t / ha manure. 

Vinassa, manure and phosphorus fertilizer 

were applied in the fall of 2005, and nitrogen 

fertilizers were applied before sowing spring. Vinassa 

is a by-product obtained during production of bakery 

yeast. Vinassa has a complex chemical composition, 

being rich in total nitrogen (3.0 to 3.2%), very rich in 

potassium (5-7%) and low in phosphorus (0.3 to 

0.5%). Chemical composition of manure was the 

following 5 kg N, 3 kg P 2O 5 and 7 kg K 2O per ton of 

garbage. 

Mass production was determined by weighing 

green harvested area of 10 m2 and then reported to 

the hectare. Dry matter was determined by drying in 

an oven at 105 º C for 3 h (ISO 6496). Nitrogen 

content of plants was determined by the Kjeldahl 

method. Humus content in soil was determined by 

Walkley-Black method in changing Doughnut, wet 

oxidation method and dosage titration. Statistical 

calculation was performed by analysis of variance. 

That way, were determined the total nitrogen 

the specific consumption of culture (CSTN), the 

specific contribution of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms 

(ASNF) and residual nitrogen in the soil (NRS) with 

relations (Borlan M. et al., 1994, Rusu M. et al., 

2004): 

- the total nitrogen the specific consumption of 

culture, 

Ns 

CSTN 10 Nr (kg t 

Rs 

-1 S.U.); 

- the specific contribution of nitrogen-fixing 

microorganisms, 

ASNF 

ha -1 ); 

10 Nr 

Ns 

Rs 

10 Nr 

10 Rs 

Rs 

(kg ha 

Ns 

-1 ); 

Ns 

Rs 

- residual nitrogen in the soil, NRS (kg 

where: N - nitrogen content of the hay 

produced (% of DM), 

Rs - expected yield (t ha -1 DM), 

Ns - the supply of nitrogen in the soil humus 

obtained by mineralization (kg ha -1 N), 

amount of nitrogen intake produced by 

mineralization of humus soil (determined by nitrogen 

62 

index - IN), is 20 kg ha -1 year (RUSU et al., 2004), 

plus the contribution made by applying nitrogen 

fertilizer: 100 kg ha -1 to version b2, 140 kg ha -1 variant 

b3, 15 kg ha -1 in version b4. 

The biological material used was the variety of 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.- SPLENDID and variety of 

Bromus inermis L. - DOINA. 


The organic and mineral fertilizers cause 

significant changes in the structure of vegetation 

cover and production of temporary grassland 

(Nyfeler et al. 2008, Smit et al. 2008). Productions 

were similar to those obtained by Dragomir C., 

2009 in similar conditions of culture. In all three 

types of mixtures studied were observed increases 

in dry matter production in fertilized compared to 

control variant versions. Thus, the mixture of 20% 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop., production increased 

from 6.43 t ha -1 DM in variant without fertilization, 

the fertilization DM 7.42 to 5 t ha -1 vinassa and 

7.64 t ha -1 DM in version N100P100 kg ha -1 . 

While the mixture consisting of 50 % 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. and 50 % Bromus 

inermis L. dry matter production increased from 

8.67 t ha -1 DM in variant without fertilization, to 

8.72 t ha -1 DM to 30 t ha -1 manure, it went up to 

9.35 t ha -1 DM at fertilization with N100P100 kg 

ha -1 (figure 1). After the mixture x fertilization 

interaction, the highest productions were obtained 

at the mixture of 70 % Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. 

the variant fertilized with N100P100 kg ha -1 . 

The study analyzing the influence on total 

nitrogen content of plants shows that this index 

was positively influenced by the application of 

fertilizers (figure 2). Compared with variants 

without fertilization increased the percentage of 

nitrogen fertilization N100P100 kg ha -1 from 3.27 

% to 20 % Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. mixture to 

3.47 % at mixture with 70 % Onobrychis viciifolia 

Scop.. Fertilization with 5 t ha -1 vinassa total 

nitrogen content in plants was between 3.20 % to 

20 % Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. mixture and 3.46 

% to 70 % Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. mixture 

(Fig. 2). 

Specific contribution of nitrogen-fixing 

microorganisms (ASNF) ranged from 65.4 - 75.97 

kg ha -1 , the variant without fertilization (figure 3). 

After the mixture x fertilization interaction highest 

values were obtained from the mixture with 70% 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. on variant b2, namely 

89.46 kg ha -1 . Vinassa fertilization and manure 

resulted in getting close to those amounts from 

fertilization N100P100 kg ha -1 .

63 


Figure1 The influence of mixture x fertilization interaction on dry matter production (t ha -1 ) 

Figure 2 The influence of mixture x fertilization interaction on total nitrogen content 

of feed in the first year of vegetation 

Application of fertilizers (organic or 

mineral) significantly reduced symbiotic activity 

which fixes atmospheric nitrogen, most of the 

plants using non symbiotic nitrogen so the 

efficiency of nodes is reduced. Total specific 

nitrogen consumption in leguminous culture 

(CSTN), the first year of vegetation, ranged from 

43.65 to 47.31 kg t -1 DM (Fig. 4.). Application of 

organic fertilizers and caused a greater 

consumption of nitrogen to produce a kg of dry 

matter, to version control (unfertilized). At the


doses of fertilizer applied, CSTN differences are 

significant (figure 4). 

Quantities of nitrogen remaining in the soil 

after the first year of vegetation, ranged from 10.75 

64 

- 15.74 kg ha -1 . The fertilized variants of residual 

nitrogen in the soil (NRS) were lower compared to 

the variant without fertilization in the first mixture 

(figure 5.). 

Figure 3 The influence of mixture x fertilization interaction on specific contribution 

of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms (ASNF) 

Figure 4. The influence of mixture x fertilization interaction on total specific nitrogen consumption (CSTN), 

in first year of vegetation

65 


Figure 5 The influence of mixture x fertilization interaction on residual nitrogen in the soil (NRS), 

in first year of vegetation 

At A2 and A3 mixtures, there were small 

differences between the amounts of nitrogen left in 

vinassa and manure fertilized variants of soil 

compared to b1. On the b2 variant the values 

obtained were lower compared to all mixtures 

studied in the variant without fertilization. At the 

amount of organic nitrogen fertilizer remaining in 

the soil, determined by calculation, is added the 

amount of nitrogen in manure because, in practice, 

the coefficient of nitrogen in manure is, in the 

application year, between 30-50%. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Analyzing the influence of mixture x 

fertilization interaction, the highest productions 

were obtained from the mixture with 70% 

Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. on variant with 

N100P100 kg ha -1 . Production increases were 

recorded for fertilization with manure and vinassa 

regardless of the percentage of legumes in the 

mixture. Following research observed that 

fertilization had a positive effect on the total 

nitrogen content of plants and specific contribution 

of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms (ASNF), 

specific consumption of culture total nitrogen 

(CSTN) and residual nitrogen in the soil (NRS). 

Symbiotically fixed nitrogen ranged from 50.19 to 

76.3 kg ha -1 and nitrogen remaining in the soil after 

the first year of vegetation ranged from 10.75 - 

15.74 kg ha -1 . 


This Work Was Cofinanced From The European 

Social Fund Through Sectorial Operational Programme 

Human Resources Development 2007-2013, Project 

Number Posdru/I.89/1.5/S62371 „Postdoctoral School In 

Agriculture And Veterinary Medicine Area‖. 

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145

Abstract 

67 


GEOMORPHOLOGY STUDY OF BAHLUIEŢ CATHMENT 

FROM MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU 

Ana Andreea GURIŢĂ 1 , Daniel BUCUR 1 , Ramona Carla CIOCINTA, Ana Maria IACOB 

e-mail: ciocinta_ramona@yahoo.com 

This study is intended to review the geomorphological basin Bahluiet for determining the height and slope exposure. 

This stage is important in terms of erosion and methods to combat them. Studies on problems of soil erosion have 

become current because reduction of agricultural areas and of the phenomenon in declining of productivity. Among the 

factors that influence the erosion we can mention landscape, climatic conditions, soil type, vegetation and human 

activity. The landscape has a special role because it influences water movement on slopes, water being the active 

separation, dispersion and transport of soil particles factor. Within each river basin, soil erosion varies depending on 

slope characteristics (shape, angle, length, exhibition, area) being lower or stronger. Based on detailed study of the 

natural environment and categories of usage, is established the method for reduction of soil erosion. In this study, we 

determine the maps for the slope categories, the share of the slope exhibitions and also the structure of the categories of 

usage in the considered river basins perimeter. 

Key words: land use, degradation, GIS, erosion control technique 

Bahlueţ River Basin is located in the 

Moldavian Plateau, in an area of transition between 

Suceava Plateau to the west, Central Moldavian 

Plateau to the south and the Moldavian Hilly Plain 

to north and east. From the total area of Bahluiet 

basin, about 569.83 km 2 , over 15% are represented 

by landslides and slope geomorphological 

processes. In this region, the natural conditions and 

human activities have resulted in increased 

erosion. 

The landscape, by inclination, length, area 

and slope form, largely conditions the surface 

runoff and soil water infiltration, triggering and 

maintaining erosion. When to determine the 

cultures’ structure on slopes with different 

exhibitions, one should be aware that the southern 

exhibition slopes receive more heat and light as the 

northern ones. Baloi et al. (1986) estimated that the 

southern and western slopes are 30-40% more 

eroded than those with northern exposition. Guş P. 

found that the southern slopes are heated by 3-5 °C 

higher than those with northern exposition. Soil 

erosion is characterized by the release of the land 

surface of soil and rock particles, their carriage 

from the place of origin and their placement 

elsewhere. This is a natural process comprising 

three phases, which are made by two main agents: 

water and air in motion, whose sources are solar 

radiation energy and gravity. 


Accepting that erosion is inevitable 

considering soil loss tolerance level of 2-5 t / ha / 

year, corresponding to an annual rate of natural 

soil recovery, technologies to be applied must 

control these limits (Ionescu, 1977; Motoc et al. 

1979, 1982, 1999; Savu 2002; Bucur 2006, 2007). 

Compared with the diversity of geomorphological 

and pedo-climatic factors in Romania, research on 

soil erosion processes were performed in very few 

areas. 

Research on potential erosion, which is 

conditioned by geomorphological and pedoclimatic 

factors, showed that the NE region average soil 

erosion losses are 18.3 t ha -1 year -1 , values 

corresponding to moderate erosion risk (Ionita 

2000, Bucur and Ailincai 2006). Research on 

effective erosion, which were based on direct 

measurements and complex analysis, which 

integrated the effect of vegetation and antierosion 

works have shown that effective erosion 

throughout the NE region has an average of 4.6 t 

ha -1 year -1 . 

Taken together, the consequences of erosion 

and sliding of the slopes of the Plain of Moldavia 

on the environment, nature and human 

communities are real, very damaging to future 

generations so that scientific research and public 

awareness activities on ways to improve, protect 

and use degraded lands are extremely necessary.



This study was made for Bahluiet Basin which 

also includes Scobâlteni basin in which antierosion 

agrotechnics field is located, where the research was 

conducted. 

Using GIS techniques and orthorectified 

photos allows a diachronic analysis on very large 

surfaces. To acquisition of this images, have been 

used topographic maps 1:50.000 and implement 

methods of scanning-vectorization. The next step was 

to geo-referencing maps which mean determining 

geographical coordinates for a particular type of 

cartographic projection. 

A complex analysis in relation with erosional 

factors was made starting from the Digital Elevation 

Model and the thematic maps, realized with TNTmips 

software. 

Slope length was obtained using SAGA 

software (System for Automated Geoscientific 

Analyses), which allows multiple operations with 

raster files with great applicability in geomorphometry 

and hydrology. 


Geological, landscape, climate, 

hydrography, vegetation and especially 

anthropogenic intervention conditions, found 

throughout the Bahluiet basin led to the evolution 

of erosion on large areas. The soils are most 

affected by these processes, large amounts of 

material that comes mainly from the fertile surface 

horizon, being transported to the slopes. 

Surface erosion develops in all places where 

there is a small slope as that to permit a diffuse 

leakage of water. The decline of productivity 

produced by erosion leads to changing the soil 

characteristics such as soil fertility down. 

Simultaneously with experiments at standard plot 

level, research at slope and river basin level was 

made, obtaining valuable results. 

In terms of conditions that favor the surface 

erosion in the area, the arable land located on 

slopes greater than 5% are the most exposed 

surfaces (Motoc, 1983). 

As the factors of soil erosion control, 

rainfalls are the primary agent, especially the 

torrential rainfalls from May to June. Thus, both 

the rain water and snow melt are the active factors 

of soil erosion. 

Another factor causing and developing 

erosion is the landscape of the terrain, taking into 

account that its structure depends on the speed and 

the force of flowing water. Because the strongest 

erosion processes occur on slopes, it should be 

noted that the land slopes differ as slope, length, 

shape, exhibition and surface. 

68 

The microclimate with western slopes 

exhibition is characterized by a plus of heat during 

the day, snow depth smaller, lower humidity. 

As a result of stronger insolation and more 

intensive evapo-transpiration, soil water deficit is 

greater. These slopes are more exposed to cold 

winds, temperatures are higher therefore are more 

favorable for some crops. Microenvironment of 

low inclined plateaus is characterized by a strong 

sun exposure, large diurnal temperature variation, 

low humidity and winds with higher intensity. 

Depending on slope land, are established use 

categories, agro-technical methods and soil erosion 

control works. 

Erosion works to achieve its purpose, must 

be designed in complex on hydrographical basins 

together with a complex of works including: 

organization planning, agropedoameliorative 

works, arrangement works of slopes, agrotechnical 

works, planning and stabilization of the flux and 

land slipped. 

For the struggle against erosion is more 

efficient, there is still necessary a series of 

measures to complete the positive effect of the 

methods which are imposed. These measures 

include location and method of planting crops on 

sloping land. The main crop systems on sloping 

land are culture system strips, buffer strips culture 

system and culture system with agrotesase. 

Figure 1 Slope land categories from BH Bahluiet 

For the Bahluiet basin, the slope categories 

are presented in Fig. 1. In agricultural terms, the 

map of slope categories is very important taking 

into account that the suitability of land on low 

slopes, unchanged by the geomorphological 

processes, can lead to the establishment of 

effective methods in preventing soil erosion. 

In figure 1 can be observed that the largest 

area of land has slopes between 5-8%, while over 

18% slopes occupy small areas especially in the 

south of the basin. In the north of the basin studied, 

the slopes are calling 5%. Overall, the Bahluiet 

basin dominates the land with slope values ranging 

from 9-19%, thus showing that slopes create the 

dominant landscape of the area studied (Fig. 1).

Under these values, lands from the Bahluiet basin 

fall mostly in the typology of low / moderate 

slopes. However, even for such low angle slopes 

but with a predominantly agricultural use (with 

specific hill-valley plowing) surface erosion 

occurs, washing fertile horizon rich in humus, 

causing significant damage to agricultural 

production. 

For the considered territory, slopes are 

considered within a large range of values, from 

areas with less than 2% slope in meadow areas and 

up to 45% in cornices areas that border some the 

slopes at the top. Lowest values of the field 

gradients (45% 

Camp experimental Scobalteni 

Bazin Bahluiet 

Figure 2 Weight of slope categories 

in Bahluiet and Scobalteni catchment 

Depending on slope land, usage categories, 

agro-technical methods and soil erosion control 

works are established. Antierosion works, in order 

to achieve its purpose, must be designed in 

complex, on river basins, together with a set of 

works including: land organization, agropedoameliorative 

works, works relating to slopes, 

agrotechnical works, planning and stabilization of 

torrents and land sliding, etc. Antierosion works 

ensures soil protection and protects the whole area 

of the river basin when are designed, built and 

filled with appropriate agrotechnical works, 

primarily ameliorative crop rotation, fertilization 

systems and tillage. Some of these categories of 

works must be provided by the land beneficiaries 

but in large river basins, where soil antierosion 

works predominate, hydroameliorative specialized 

systems must operate. 

Extent of erosion is determined by the slopes 

exhibition. In figure 3, we present for 

exemplification the slopes exposition from 

Bahluiet basin. 

69 


Figure 3 Exposition of sunny slopes 

in Bahluiet and Scobalteni catchments 

Analyzing data from Fig. 3, we find that 

largest share of the E (22%) and S (17%) 

exhibition is due to orientation of the river 

monoclinal surface landscape. 

Exhibition of slopes in percentage is 

presented in figure 4. 

% 

25,00 

20,00 

15,00 

10,00 

5,00 

0,00 

N NE E SE S SV V NV 

B H Scobâlțeni B H Bahluiet 

Figure 4 Exposition of slopes in percentage 

from Bahluiet and Scobalteni cathment 

In figure 4, it is establish that in Scobalteni 

basin, sunny slopes (S and SW) have the largest 

share of orientation (35%), followed closely by the 

semisunny (SE V - 31%) and those semishaded (N, 

E - 29%). Shaded slopes (N, NE) have the lowest 

percentage (5%). 

If on low land slopes, up to 7-8% angle, 

lower erosion control can be achieved by methods 

which means agro soil tillage on the contour, crop 

rotation or fertilization, on lands with a slope of 8- 

12% is required the introduction of antierosional 

system of crop strips and with a slope of 12-20%, a 

grass strip culture system. 

CONCLUSIONS 

In Bahluiet basin, both components of the 

natural and the human, have maintained a steady 

erosion over time. Overall, in the Bahluiet basin 

dominate the lands with slope values ranging from 

9-19%. With increasing slope, the crops structure 

must increase the cultivation share of good and 

very good protection crops against erosion, so that 

losses of soil erosion does not exceed the tolerable 

limit. Based on morphometric analysis indicators it


can be seen that most of the Bahluiet basin 

landscape is of hilly type. 

By analyzing factors of erosion control in 

conjunction with land use method as benchmarks, 

it could be obtained a number of indices to express 

the real degradation of soils in the current context 

of land use. Thus, a system of sustainable 

agriculture that is conspicuous by the presence of 

an extraordinarily large number of small farms, 

within a highly fragmented landscape, 

characterized by the dominant presence of slopes 

with high instability, expresses a general trend of 

soil degradation in this basin. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This work was supported by the European 

Social Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the 

Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational 

Programme for Human Resources Development 2007- 

2013 [POSDRU/88/1.5/S/52176]. 

And by the European Social Fund in Romania, 

under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the 

Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources 

Development 2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/CPP 107/DMI 

1.5/S/78342]. 

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influence of irrigation and fertilizers in Moldova 

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on irrigated sloping land from Moldavia Plain, 

Lucr. st., Seria Agr., vol. 49, US.AM. Iasi, ISSN 

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Ailincai Despina, Mercus A., 2007 - Influence of 

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71 


CROP STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION, THE WAY TO ENSURE ECONOMIC 

EFFICIENCY IN VEGETAL PRODUCTION (CASE STUDY AT 

S.C. AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. DOCHIA, JUD. NEAMȚ) 

Abstract 

Aurel CHIRAN 1 , Elena GÎNDU 1 , Benedicta DROBOTĂ 1 , Arsenoaia VL.-N. 2 

e-mail: achiran@uaiasi.ro 

Crop structure is a component of the agricultural production. Intensive production structure can be characterized by a 

higher share of production in gross added value (example: 62.0% - in Germany, 50.9% - in France, etc.) or extensive, 

practiced, usually in cereal or small farms. The areas share of main crops in the structure of arable land has changed 

considerably, so that, at the country level, the share exceeded 64% of cereal grains, having a negative effect on the 

achievement of rational rotations and maximum weight in rotation, in many cases by setting up monoculture, with 

consequences for decreasing the productive power of soil and yields. Therefore, to ensure economic efficiency in crop 

production, crop structure optimization is necessary, to combine food safety, increasing the size of farms and their 

profitability. The authors have proposed using a case study to demonstrate that through optimal crop structure, among 

other technological factors, of advanced management and marketing, can provide a high level of overall economic 

efficiency, especially in vegetal production. 

Key words: crop structure, optimization, efficiency 

Component of production, crop structure is 

influenced by many factors, including soil which 

plays a key role (Chiran A., 1998). 

Also, in the choice of crops and cultivated 

areas, a special role have the economic, 

organizational, biological and social factors, 

covering: the requirements of national economy, 

technical and material resources of the unit, labor 

resources, distance from resources supply centers 

and products recovery, farm size, crop self 

affordability cultures, economic efficiency (Chiran 

A., 2001, 2002, Crăcăleanu Maria, 1994, 

Davidovici I., 1993). 

Economic efficiency of each culture should 

be a basic factor, its level being considered by a 

technical-economic indicators system, which may 

contribute to the development of optimal structural 

variants of crops (Dona I., 2000). 

Optimizing crop structure is a 

consequence of the need for plant production 

scheduling in territorial profile, which means a 

judicious zoning and rational combination of 

cultures. 


The case study was conducted at S.C. 

AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. DOCHIA, NEAMT 

County and covered the period 2010 – 2011. 


2 S.C. Agricola Beesarsen S.R.L. Dochia, Jud. Neamt 

S.C. AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. 

DOCHIA, is one of the most representative 

companies of Neamt county agriculture, being 

among the top three companies producing cereals 

and technical plants. 

Main object of unit activity is agricultural 

production, represented by culture and storage of 

grain and other agricultural products, livestock, and 

other secondary activities and trade. 

To highlight the influence of optimizing the 

crops structure in arable land on crop production 

economic efficiency, the analysis focused on cereals 

and technical plants. 

For this purpose, the authors based on a 

system of technical and economic indicators, which 

highlight the following: supply of grain and oilseed 

production, production per hectare, cost of 

production, unit cost, selling price, commodity 

production, income and turnover, market share, profit, 

profit rate, etc. 


The crop structure has changed 

permanently, so that now, cereals and technical 

plants are operating in three vegetable farms with 

1270 hectares of arable land. 

In addition to cereals (wheat, barley, rye, 

triticale, oats and corn) that occupy the largest 

share in crop structure, in recent years has given


special attention to technical crops cultivation 

(rapeseed, sunflower, sugar beet). 

In 2011, the turnover showed an upward 

trend, both in total and by product (table 1). 

Cereals turnover had a positive 

development, so that compared to 2010, the growth 

72 

was 43.8%. Furthermore, for wheat, was registered 

the highest turnover and at S.C. AGRICOLA 

BEESARSEN S.R.L. DOCHIA, in 2011, the 

minimum values were registered in soybeans and 

corn. 

Table 1 

Turnover on the product and the DAS in 2011 

N Indicators Wheat Rapeseed Corn Soybean Sunflower 

o. 

(das1) (das2) (das3) (das4) (das5) 

1 Turnover of the enterprise- lei 1,588,160 159,896 121,639 52,946 277,711 

2 Branch turnover – lei 12,450,000 6,560,000 8,234,500 565,000 6,943,560 

3 Turnover of the most important 

competitor - lei 

2,654,320 1,345,360 195,660 150,000 356,500 

4 The turnover of market segment 

served – lei 

9,956,450 4,565,490 5,897,800 364,060 5,450,600 

5 Absolute market share (%) 12.75 2.43 1.47 9.37 3.99 

6 Relative market share (%) 59.83 11.88 62.16 35.29 77.89 

7 Specific market share – (%) 15.95 3.50 2.06 14.54 5.09 

The degree of market concentration is 

estimated by the following indicators: 

- partial market concentration index, 

which indicates the average market share held by 

the first 4, 8, 12 companies; 

- market concentration index, which is 

used as a possible indicator of market power or 

competition between firms. It measures market 

concentration by summing the squares of market 

shares of all firms in the sector; 

- HT index express the degree of market 

concentration taking into account the market share 

of dominant competitor, so that the higher its 

market share is close to 1, the market is even more 

concentrated (Chiran A, 2007; Gîndu Elena, 2006; 

Pekar V., 1995). 

Compared to main competitors, S.C. 

AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. DOCHIA is 

leading in wheat, rapeseed and maize (Table 2). 

For assessing the competitive position of 

companies is using the assessment scales (table 3). 

For developing these scales is required the 

following steps: 

• identify the key success factors; 

• prioritizing them based on important 

coefficients; 

• evaluating these criteria for the case 

analyzed; 

• assessing the competitive position of the 

company on a weighted average grades (Medrihan 

G, 1997; Manole V., 1993). 

SC AGRIFARM SRL, Bălănești, Neamt 

county is the main competitor in the area of S.C. 

Agricola Beesarsen S.R.L. Dochia. 

From the data presented in the above table it 

was noted the favorable competitive position of 

S.C. Agricola Beesarsen S.R.L. Dochia, which is 

better placed than SC AGRIFARM SRL Balanesti 

with a competitive advantage deviation represented 

by the weighted average mark of 2.35 to 3.15. 

Company's competitive advantage is 

provided by its superior performance in research - 

development, production cost, quality and 

distribution of promotional campaign. 

Total income is the sum of all revenue 

(operating, financial and extraordinary ones). 

Compared with the 2010, in 2011, total revenue 

had a positive development, with a total increase of 

12.1% (table 4).

Market share of products in S.C. AGRICOLA BEESARSEN S.R.L. 

Dochia and the main competitors 

Company name Absolute market share - % 

1.S.C. AGRICOLA 

BEESARSEN S.R.L. 

DOCHIA 

2.S.C AGRIFARM S.R.L. 

Bălănești 

3.SC AGROTRADE SRL 

Piatra-Neamț 

4. S.C. AGRO-BOMIGA 

S.R.L. Piatra-Neamț 

5. S.C. AGRO-IULIA 

S.R.L.Bălănești 

6.S.C. IULSIMPROD S.R.L 

Bahna 

7.S.C. TEHNOIND S.R.L 

.Ghigoiești 

Wheat market 

(A) DAS1 

Rapeseed 

market 

(B) DAS2 

73 


Corn market 

(C) DAS3 

Soybean 

market 

(D) DAS4 

Sunflower 

market 

(E) DAS5 

40 35 25 12 10 

30 25 22 21 15 

20 15 12 19 17 

10 8 6 17 22 

- 7 15 10 25 

- 5 10 10 6 

- 5 10 11 5 

Table 2 

Table 3 

Evaluation grid of competitive position of the company S.C. AGRICOLA BEESAREN S.R.L. DOCHIA 

The average weighted grade 

The company 

The key success 

factors 

1. The relative 

market 

2. Cost of 

productiondistribution 

3. The quality 

distribution 

4. The potential of 

research - 

development 

5. The marketing 

activity 

6. The geographical 

area 

7. The company 

image 

The average 

weighted grade 

Weighting 

coefficient 

S.C. Agricola 

Beesarsen 

S.R.L. 

Dochia 

SC 

AGRIFARM 

S.R.L. 

Bălănești 

S.C. Agricola 

Beesarsen 

S.R.L. Dochia 

SC AGRIFARM 

S.R.L. Bălănești 

0.25 3 2 0.75 0.5 

0.20 4 3 0.8 0.6 

0.15 14 3 0.60 0.45 

0.10 4 3 0.40 0.30 

0.15 2 2 0.30 0.30 

0.05 3 2 0.15 0.10 

0.10 1 1 0.10 0.10 

- - - 3.15 2.35 

The structure of total revenues achieved at SC Agricola Beesarsen SRL Dochia (lei) 

Specification 31.12.2010 31.12.2011 % of total 

Exploitation revenues 3,211,027 3,565,527 99.1 

Financial revenues 262 33,412 0.9 

Extraordinary revenues 

- - 

Total Revenues 3,211,289 3,598,939 100.0 

The financial revenues are from favorable 

exchange rate differences related to foreign 

- 

Table 4 

currency, available funds in bank and obtained 

discounts from permanent suppliers.


Commodity production highlights the 

contribution of cereal grains, occupying 62.2% of 

74 

the cultivated area, providing about 2700 tonnes 

for capitalization (table 5): 

The commodity production achieved at SC Agricola Beesarsen SRL Dochia, on culture (2011) 

The product The cultivated area 

Yield 

The commodity 

- hectare- 

- kg/hectare - 

production -tone 

Wheat 350 3500 1.225 

Triticales 200 2500 500 

Rye 30 2500 75 

Rapeseed 100 1700 170 

Sunflower 100 2000 200 

Corn 150 5000 750 

Soybean 50 1500 75 

Barley 40 2800 112 

Oats 20 1800 36 

Sugar beet 100 30000 3.000 

Potato 30 15000 450 

TOTAL 1270 - - 

Cost analysis is a technique for enterprise 

performance evaluation that helps at reflect the 

usage of material and human potential of the 

company and identify cost reduction of existing 

stocks in the company. 

Structural analysis of costs provides an 

opportunity now to act on that category of 

spending that has an undue share (Chiran A, 2004; 

Olaru Adriana, 1994; Pânzaru L., 1994). 

S.C. Agricola Beesarsen S.R.L. Dochia, as 

commercial enterprise, is different in terms of fee 

structures and different categories of expenditure 

share in total as follows: 

-materials costs 60%, 70% - goods cost;wage 

costs 20%; 

-distribution costs 15% - 5% overheads;financial 

costs 5%; 

-research and development expenses 5%. 

Total expenditure in 2011 had the following 

structure (Table 6). 

Profit analysis can provide information on 

absolute profitability of the company. To get the 

ability to produce profit, profit comparison is 

required with other sizes, especially sizes 

expressing broad effort to obtain profit, releases 

thus rates of return which, in terms of analysis, 

have a greater information capacity. 

Relative profitability is a ratio between the 

economic and financial obtained effects and efforts 

to achieve them. 

In the economic and financial analysis of 

company results, the rates of return allow making 

comparisons between groups of firms in relation to 

developed standards. 

Table 5 

The invested capital efficiency of all the 

material, financial resources involved in enterprise 

activity, are presented by economic rate of 

return. 

The economic rate of return must be 

assessed according with the inflation rate. An 

economic rate of return higher than inflation will 

preserve "economic substance" of the company 

and even economic renewal and growth of its 

assets, in a short period. 

Economic rate of return should exceed the 

inflation rate to be possible to pay the capital 

invested at a minimum average rate of the 

economy and the level of economic and financial 

risk assumed by those who invested. 

Operating results are determined as the 

difference between operating revenues and 

expenses, for a calendar year. 

The net result of the exercise is the profit 

to be distributed for dividends, the part from the 

taxable profit of the trader and entrepreneur returns 

(shareholder or member). 

The final results obtained by SC Agricola 

Beesarsen SRL Dochia were positive, but the size 

indicators was influenced by massive investments 

achieved for modernization of production 

capacities (tractors, harvesters, seeders, plows) 

performance with which the unit will manufacture 

products at lower cost and can be competitive on 

both domestic and the European market.

75 


Table 6 

The structure of total expenditures registered at SC Agricola Beesarsen SRL Dochia (2011) 

Expenditures name Value (mii lei) % of total 

I Total operational expenses 3263.2 92.9 

1. Expenditure on raw materials and consumables 1592.1 45.3 

2. Other material expenses 45.8 1.3 

3. Other expenses outside the unit (power and water) 10.7 0.3 

4. Expenditure on goods 143.2 4.1 

5. Personnel expenses 291.3 8.3 

6. Other operating expenses 1180.1 33.6 

II Total financial expenses 249.8 7.1 

6. Financial expenses 249.8 7.1 

III Total extraordinary expenditure - - 

Total cost of production 3.513.0 100.0 

CONCLUSSIONS 

S.C. Agricola Beesarsen S.R.L., Dochia, 

Neamț County realized during 2005 - 2008, 

massive investments in production technology and 

improvement of land quality to achieve high yields 

per hectare and reduce the cost per tonne of 

product. 

Average yield per hectare has increased by 

17.65% at rapeseed and at sunflowers by about 

25%. 

As a result of optimizing the structure of 

crops, plant products were obtained at lower cost 

and by the optimal storage and recovery period, it 

can be realized additional revenue and higher 

profits. 

The increased revenue and profitability of 

vegetal products is explained by the high 

percentage of quality seeds obtained. Thus, the 

return rate was 214.6% for rapeseed, 123.2% for 

sunflower, etc. 

To increase the efficiency of the company, 

the management team role is to develop and 

implement successful strategies which determine 

market opportunities and competitive advantage, 

based on control of marketing results, highlighting 

the risks, favorable circumstances, strengths and 

weaknesses of organization. By translating them 

into practice it must be createed such a system of 

relationships between business and environment to 

ensure its placement in the best possible position in 

dealing with competitors. 

REFERENCES 

Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Ștefan G., Banu A., 1998 - 

Optimizarea tehnologiilor și a structurii culturilor în 

fermele private (studiu de caz). în vol. 

Managementul întreprinderii agricole românești în 

tranziția către economia de piață. Ed. 

Universității „Al.I.Cuza‖, Iași. 

Chiran A. și colab., 2001 – Considerații privind eficiența 

economică a producției vegetale în perioada de 

tranziție la economia de piață(studiu de caz la 

S.C. AGROMIXTĂ S.A. Ograda, județul Ialomița). 

lucr. șt. USAMV Iași, vol. 344, seria Agronomie. 

Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena- 

Adina., 2004 – Piața produselor agricole și 

agroalimentare – abordare teoretică și practică. 

Ed. CERES, București.. 

Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 

Murariu Cornelia, 2002 – Posibilități de 

rentabilizare a producției vegetale prin 

optimizarea structurii culturilor (studiu de caz în 

arealul Vetrișoaia-Berezeni-Fălciu, județul Vaslui. 

Lucr. șt.USAMV București, vol. 1, Managementul 

agricol. 

Chiran A. și colab., 2007 – Marketing în agricultură. Ed. 

Alma Print, Galaţi. 

Crăcăleanu Maria, Patraș J., 1994 – Posibilități de 

creștere a eficienței economice la culturile de 

câmp în exploatațiile agricole.Lucr. șt. U.A. Iași, 

vol. 37, seria Agronomie. 

Davidovici I., 1993 – Ajustarea structurală – prioritate a 

restructurării agriculturii românești.Rev. Tribuna 

economică, nr. 9, București. 

Dona I., 2000 - Economie rurală. Ed. Economică, 

București. 

Gîndu Elena, 2006 – Marketing – organizare, strategii, 

decizii, comportamentul consumatorilor. Ed. 

Tehnopress, Iaşi. 

Manole V., 1993 – Mix-marketingul produselor 

agroalimentare. Revista „Tribuna economică‖, nr. 

4 şi 20. 

Medrihan G., Bucur-Sabo Mariana, Boier Rodica, 

1997 – Marketing. Ed. Gama, Iaşi. 

Olaru Adriana, 1994 – Formarea preţurilor pe diferite 

tipuri de pieţe. Revista „Tribuna economică‖, nr. 

25-27. 

Pânzaru L., Barbu C., Pană D., 1994 – Piaţa 

concurenţială perfectă, cauzele imperfecţiunii 

pieţelor și tipurile de preţuri practicate în cadrul 

economiei de piaţă. Analele Universităţii din


Craiova, vol. XXV (XXXV), seria Biologie, 

Agronomie, Horticultură. 

76 

Pekar V., 1995 – Strategii de marketing. Ed. Sedcom 

Libris, Iaşi.

77 


COMMENTS ON THE USEFUL AND HARMFUL ENTOMOFAUNA 

ACCORDING TO SOME TREATMENT SEED CORN 

AND WHEAT LOTS OF YEARS, 2011-2012 TRIFESTI SC ASTRA SRL, IASI 

Abstract 

Cristina ANTONESCU 1 , Mihai TĂLMACIU 1 , Teodor ROBU 1 , 

Marius Cornel ANTONESCU 1 Marius Sorin ZAHARIA 1 

e-mail: antonescu_cr@yahoo.com 

In this paper we propose to make some observations on the useful and harmful entomofauna semnicere two lots and two 

lots of wheat seed corn. Observations were made in 2012. The culture of wheat seedlings, observations were made in 

spring varieties and drop, and two varieties of corn produced by a multinational. The research was took place and 

during 2012, especially Phases of growth 0 – (Sprouting - East) Phases of growth 0,5 - (two leaves fully formed) Phases 

of growth 1 - (four leaves fully formed). The study was conducted in order to track and have followed the main pests of 

this crop, it was made regular observations directly on the farm. In addition to direct observations on the farm, also 

harvesting samples and evidence using the beeing method and traps soil type Barber. Specify that in the stationary from 

the SC Astra Trifesti, Iasi County, samples collected was made from different seed lots in terms of cultivation 

technology. 

Key words: pests, seed crops,chemecal tratament 

Wheat plant with great significance in terms 

of food. Wheat is grown in over 100 countries, 

feeding 35 to 40% of humanity. The main use is 

the bread and various products are made from 

flour. 

The predominant composition of wheat 

grain carbohydrates - 62-75% of the fresh grain, 

formed more than 90% of starch, dextrin and the 

remainder other simple carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates are accumulated mainly in the 

endosperm. 

Wheat humpbacked beetle attack (Zabrus 

tenebrioides, Goeze), is very dangerous and 

should be avoided on land infested wheat location 

and also treat the seed before sowing. In extreme 

cases, while in autumn there is a strong attack 

humpbacked beetle larvae, we recommend 

treatment with insecticide chlorpyrifos (Dursban 

480 EC, 2.0 l / ha; Basudin EW 600, 2 l / ha), the 

warning of pest economic threshold (PED) is 5% 

of plants attacked 

Against grain bugs (Aelia spp spp 

Eurygaster) of treatment against the adults 

hibernate, the warning, a 7-PED exemplare/m2 

and only after more than 80% of the bugs left 

wintering areas (forest), usually in the second 

decade of April, when the temperature exceeds 10 

° C. 


Corn has a high production capacity by 

about 50% ri ¬ dictated to other cereals, has a 

high ecological plasticity, which allows a wide 

distribution area, giving high yields and relatively 

constant, less fluent deviations in ¬ climate, is an 

herb hoe, good run for most crops. (L.S. Muntean, 

2003) 

Losses in agricultural crops vary as follows: 

the grain varies between 27-36% of the pests to 

return between 8-15%. (Tălmaciu M., 2005). 

The purpose of these Researches, is to 

cause harmful entomofauna four seed lots, two 

corn and two of wheat, of SC Astra Trifesti, Iasi 

County. 

The main pests of these crops: corn leaf 

weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis), beetles 

firecrackers (Agriotes spp), Owl crops (Scotia 

segetum Schiff), Sfredilitorul maize (Ostrinia 

nubilalis Hb), corn root worm (Diabrotica 

virgifera virgifera Le Conte), steppe beetle 

(anoxia villosa L), humpbacked beetle (Zabrus 

tenebrioides, Goeze), cereal bugs (Aelia spp spp 

Eurygaster (Tălmaciu M., 2005) 


Observations were made in 2012 in SC Astra 

Trifesti Ltd, which is the micro-area Bivolari 

Gathering material was ground with type 

Barber traps.


Traps were placed in four different seed lots, 

two wheat and two maize which we call Group I, 

Group II, Group III, group IV. 

This research is a continuation of research 

begun in 2011. 


The research was conducted in 2011 and 

2012. In all seed lots were made treatments Karate 

Zenon, Lamba active ingredient cyhalothrin 50 g / 

l, the dose of 0.15 l / ha. Seed in the four groups 

(Group I, Group II, Group I, Group II) fauna 

collected in 2011 and 2012 the traps and 

harvesting are as follows 

78 

Group I (Table 1) – Corn 

- 2011: two original and two copies Tanymecus 

dilaticollis Agriotes spp 

- 2012: a copy and a copy Tanymecus dilaticollis 

Agriotes spp 

Group II (Tab.2) – Corn 

- 2011: a copy Agriotes spp 

- 2012: a copy Tanymecus dilaticollis. 

Group I (Table 3), wheat 

- collection 2011: a copy Zabrus tenebrioides - 

collection 2012 a copy Zabrus tenebrioides. 

Group II (Table 4), wheat 

- collection 2012: two Zabrus tenebrioides 

Statement of species and number of specimens collected in group I seed corn, 

the average of the years 2011-2012 About Astra Trifesti 

year Name of species Number of copies trap Number of 

copies 

1 2 3 4 5 6 species 

2011 1.Tanymecus dilaticollis 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 

2.Agriotes spp. 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 

3.Scotia segetum Schiff 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

4.Ostrinia nubilalis Hb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

5.Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

6.Anoxia villosa L 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Total x specii 4 


2.Agriotes spp. 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 





Total x species 2 

Statement of species and number of specimens collected from group II seed corn, 



1 2 3 4 5 6 

copies 

species 


2.Agriotes spp. 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 







2.Agriotes spp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 






Regarding the frequency of species (tab.5) in 

the four seed lots of corn and wheat (Group I, 

Group II, Group I, Group II) were found: 

Total 

copies- 

Average 

2011/2012 

3 

Total 

copies- 

Average 

2011/2012 

2,5 

Table 1 

Table 2 

- The average corn and 1.5 dilaticollis 

triplicate Tanymecus Agriotes spp 

- Harvesting wheat: a-Zabrus tenebrioides

Total (average) specimens collected in the 

four groups was 7.5, five of the first harvest and 

two in the second harvest. 

79 


Given the number of collected specimens, 

we can say that the technology used in the SC 

Trifesti Ltd, the micro Bivolari for corn and wheat 

seed production is modern and highly professional 

Statement of species and number of specimens collected from wheat seed group I, 


year Name of species eciei Number of copies trap Number of 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

copies 

species 

2011. 1.Zabrus tenebrioides, Goeze 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

2. Calandra granaria 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 

3. Anisoplia Sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 


2012 1.Zabrus tenebrioides, Goeze 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

2. Calandra granaria 0 0 0 0 0 0 

3. Anisoplia Sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 


Statement of species and number of specimens collected from group II seed corn, 



1 2 3 4 5 6 

copies 

species 

2011. 1.Zabrus tenebrioides, Goeze 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 


3.Anisoplia Sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 


2012 1.Zabrus tenebrioides, Goeze 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 


3. Anisoplia Sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 


Total 

copies- 

Average 

2011/2012 

1 

Total 

copies- 

Average 

2011/2012 

1 

Table 3 

Table 4 

Table 5 

Structure and abundance of four seed lots (corn and wheat) to SC Astra Trifesti years 2011 and 2012 average 

Name of species Total 

I II Total/medie 

Corn 1.Tanymecus dilaticollis 4 2 3 

2.Agriotes spp. 3 0 1.5 

3.Scotia segetum Schiff 0 0 0 

4.Ostrinia nubilalis Hb 0 0 0 

5.Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte 0 0 0 

6.Anoxia villosa L 0 0 0 

Total x species 4.5 

Wheat 1.Zabrus tenebrioides, Goeze 1 0 1 

2. Calandra granaria 0 0 0 

3. Anisoplia Sp 0 0 0 

Total x species 1 1 

CONCLUSIONS 

The data presented can draw the following 

conclusions: 

1. The highest number of Agriotes spp (2) 

was collected in five harvesting; 

2. Cel largest number of Tanymecus 

dilaticolis., (2) was collected in collection 3; 

3. In the four groups is observed that in 

terms of pest control technology used is of the 

highest class. 


―This work was co-financed by European Social 

Fund, Operational Programme Human Resources 

Development 2007-2013, the number 

POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 "Postdoctoral School in 

Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine‖.


REFERENCES 

Muntean, L.S., Roman, Gh.V.,Borcean, I.,Axinte, M.,- 

Fitotehnie, Editura Ion Ionescu de la Brad, p. 

160-161 

Tălmaciu M., 2005 – Entomologie Agricolă, Editura Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi, p. 3-8 

Tălmaciu M., 2003 – Protecţia plantelor entomologice, 

Editura Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi, p. 83-99 

80

Abstract 

81 


STUDY ABOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF DYEING NATURAL PROTEAN 

FIBRES (WOOL), WITH NATURAL PIGMENTS EXTRACTED FROM 

SAFFRON FLOWERS (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 

Gheorghe Virgil ATODIRESEI 1 , Romen BUTNARU 2 , 

Elena Ancuța TULBURE 1 , Nicolae ISCHIMJI 3 

e-mail: atodiresei_virgil@yahoo.com 

This paper shows the results obtained for dyeing protean fibers (wool) with carthamin, which is a natural pigment 

extracted from saffron flowers (Carthamus tinctorius L.). We aimed mainly for the optimisation of the dyeing process 

in terms of investigation of the quantity of natural pigment ingrained on wool fiber. The used method for this study was 

the multiple regression method which through data processing on computer has lead to the getting of a curve in space 

and in plan which allowed the establishment of optimal parametres for dyeing: pigment concentration, temperature of 

dyeing bath and duration of dyeing process. 

Key words: : dyeing natural, carthamin, multiple regression method, protean fibres 

Saffron, Carthamus tinctorius, L., is an 

annual plant, which is cultivated mainly for oil 

which is extracted from akenes (fruits), used in 

food industry because of high concentration of 

saturated fatty acids and especially of linoleic acid 

(vitamin F). 

Flowers of this plant are used to extract 

carthamin (a very durable red pigment, also called 

“Safflower Red”) and a yellow pigment 

(“Safflower Yellow”), which is supposed to be 2 

geometrical isomeres, quite unstable (“Safflomin 

A” and “Safflomin B”), of wide use in food, 

pharmaceutical, cosmetic and textile industries. 

In terms of chemistry these pigments belong 

to flavones class, and in terms of technology they 

have a structure close to that of dispersion 

pigments. In Colour Index we find the carthamin in 

position C.I. Natural Red 26-75140 (Colour Index, 

1982) (figure1). 

In terms of structure, the carthamin holds 

in its molecule 5 carbonyl groups (>C=O), which 

form the chromophores ( they are groups of atoms 

which colour the substance, groups “which bring 

colour”) and 13 hydroxyl groups (-OH) which play 

the role of auxochromes (they are groups of atoms 

which intensify the colour). 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi, Romania 

2 “Gh. Asachi“ Technical University of Iasi, Romania 

3 Technical University of Moldova, Chisinau, Rep. Moldova 

Figure 1 Structure carthamin 

The first informations about use of vegetal 

pigments date around 2650 B.C. In China. Since 

then and until now, man has been always interested 

in using these natural resources, close to him, for 

dyeing and decorating textile materials both for 

utilitarian interest and aesthetic reasons and also 

for killing boredom of daily life. (Jolin&Margaret 

Cannon, 1994,). 

Of all the protean natural fibers, wool – 

because of its complex physical-chemical 

composition- presents an exceptional elastic and 

tinctorial behaviour. 

Therefore through the presence of 

polypeptide bonds (-NHCHRCO-) and isopeptide 

bonds and disulfide bonds -bonds which are


created during the growth of fibre through the so 

called process of keratinisation -and also of ionic 

bonds ( type salt bonds) between lateral acyclic 

bonds (carboxylic) and basic (amic) which give an 

amphoteric character to wool fibers, make wool 

fibers a textile support with a superlative 

behaviour. 


For this study there have been used samples 

of sheep fur, of endemic production, with a length of 

wool yarn of 15 mm. 

We aimed mainly the optimisation of dyeing 

process in terms of investigating the quantity of 

natural pigment ingrained on wool fibre. For that we 

used as experimental instrument the mathematical 

modelling, using factorial programming in a central 

composite rotatable 2k program, considering the use 

of a mathematical model with three independent 

variables to be expressive and efficient because 

these have the quality of taking in account a 

reasonable number of technological parametres, with 

a higher degree of covering and conclusions can be 

applied with a higher degree of probability (Mihail, 

R.,1976; Gluck, A., 1971; Ciocoiu Mihai, et al., 2002). 

The general form of mathematical model is: 

82 

k k k 

2 

yb0 ixb 

i ii xb i ijixxb 

j 

i1 

i1 

i1 

j1 

The general form of mathematical model with 

three independent variables is: 

y = b0x0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3+ b12x1x2 + 

2 2 2 

b13x1x3 + b23x2x3+ b11x1 + b22x2 +b33x3 

Coded and real values of independent variables 

As independent variables we chose dyeing 

duration, pigment concentration and temperature of 

dyeing bath, and as dependent variable we chose a 

quantity which reflects the two major aspects in the 

process development, respectively tinctorial 

characteristics and those regarding textile material 

integrity, namely the pigment quantity ingrained on 

wool fibre, Y. 

Through this method we aimed to obtain 

statistical mathematical models which can correlate 

the variation module of investigated coefficients with 

development parametres of tinctorial process, method 

which holds two consecutive directions of work: the 

programming of experiments and the analysis of 

experimental data. 

For this study we have taken the parametres 

presented in Table 1. which show the values of these 

in coded and real units. 

Parameter U.M. -1.682 -1 

Coded Value 

0 

Real Value 

+1 +1.682 

Dyeing duration, X1 min 40 50 65 80 90 

Pigment concentration, X2 g/l 0.184 0.360 0.600 0.840 1.016 

Dyeing temperature, X3 °C 39.4 46.0 55.0 64.0 70.6 

For the establishment of independent 

variables limits we chose a temperature interval 

between 39,4 °C and 70,6°C because in the 

scientific literature it is stated that at temperatures 

higher than 65-68 °C, the red pigment (carthamine) 

becomes unstable, the colour going for yellow. 

The determination of pigment quantity 

ingrained on wool fiber (from fur) has been realised 

with the help of a spectrophotometer 

SPECTROFLASH SF-300- Data Color through the 

measurement of K/S proportion ( function Kubelka- 

Munk which represents a relation between the 

optical properties of dyed textile materials and the 

concentration of pigment in material, respectively the 

concentration of pigment used for dyeing, using the 

optical properties of dyeing – light scattering and 

absorption – and luminance at the wave length 

where the absorption of light energy is maximised, 

λ max) (Pustianu, M., et al., 2002), at wave length of 

520 nm. For the difference of colour we used the 

relation DE*CIELAB. 

Table 1 

Data obtained from measurements is 

presented in column Y măs of experimental matrix 

and have been processed with the help of library 

program MATHLAB (found in the facilities of lab), 

which carries out the following: 

Calculus of the values of coefficients of regression 

equation; 

Check-out of the signification of numeric 

coefficients, b, by Student test; 

Check-out of the adequacy of obtained 

mathematical model, through Fisher test. 

Graphic representation in 2D and 3D. 


The experimental plan and results for the 

pigment quantity ingrained on wool fiber, for each 

method are presented in table 2:

Experimental matrix and results 

83 


Nr. 

crt. X1cod X2cod X3cod X1real X2real X3real Ymeasuriment 

1 -1 -1 -1 50 0.360 46.0 47.11 

2 +1 -1 -1 80 0.360 46.0 44.23 

3 -1 +1 -1 50 0.840 46.0 41.13 

4 +1 +1 -1 80 0.840 46.0 35.67 

5 -1 -1 +1 50 0.360 64.0 46.22 

6 +1 -1 +1 80 0.360 64.0 43.09 

7 -1 +1 +1 50 0.840 64.0 43.18 

8 +1 +1 +1 80 0.840 64.0 33.84 

9 -1.682 0 0 40 0.600 55.0 39.09 

10 +1.682 0 0 90 0.600 55.0 39.97 

11 0 -1.682 0 65 0.184 55.0 34.12 

12 0 +1.682 0 65 1.016 55.0 57.77 

13 0 0 -1.682 65 0.600 39.4 40.24 

14 0 0 +1.682 65 0.600 70.6 48.49 

15 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 49.76 

16 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 41.65 

17 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 40.42 

18 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 52.67 

19 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 45.33 

20 0 0 0 65 0.600 55.0 46.21 

After verifying the signification of multiple 

correlation coefficients, by applying the Fisher 

test, whose calculated value is F=30,742 and by 

elimination of inconsistent terms, by the smallest 

squares method, we obtained the following 

regression equation: 

Y =41,1856+3,7574x1+3,3548x2+7,8359x3 +1,1738x1x2 

+0,7938x1x3 +4,1113x2x3+0,7610x1 2 – 3,8733x3 2 

To follow the influence of independent 

variables exerted on dependent variable Y, on the 

base of presented data in table 2 we realised 3D 

representations of response surfaces (figures 2 ÷ 

4), diagrams which contain the representation of 

dependencies Y=f(X1,X2), Y=f(X1,X3) și 

Y=f(X2,X3), when the 3 rd independent variable is 

constant and equal with the adequate value of 

experimental field center. 

Figure 2. Influence of parametres X1 and X2 on 

variable Y 

Table 2 


variable Y 


variable Y


Both in resulted mathematical model 

equation and in graphical representations we can 

see that all three independent variables exert a 

positive influence on variable Y, but from all the 

temperature (X3) is the most important for 

increasing the quantity of pigment ingrained on 

wool fibre. This can be observed most clearly 

when we analyse the variation of ingrained 

pigment quantity for a single parametre, the other 

two being constant (figure 5). 

Figure 5. Influence of the three variables on purpose 

function Y 

We can see that purpose function Y has the 

following values: 

x1 cod = 0 x1 real = 65 minutes 

x2 cod = +0,5 x2 real = 0,720 g/l 

x3 cod = +1 x3 real = 64 °C 

So, we can say that the maximum effective 

power for carthamin quantity absorbed by wool 

fiber has been obtained in the above conditions. 

The overhaul of 64 °C (x3 cod = +1) temperature, 

leads to a decrease of tinctorial effective power, 

which can be explained by the fact that at 

temperatures higher than 65 °C takes place a 

turning of colour from red to yellow. 

84 

CONCLUSION 

Both from the analysis of obtained 

mathematical model equation, and from diagrams 

we can can see that the influence of parametre x3 

(temperature) is higher on the effective power of 

reaction of dyeing wool fibres with carthamine. 

We established the optimal values of 

investigated parametres to obtain a maximum 

effective power of dyeing: 

x1 = 65 minutes 

x2 = 0.720 g/l 

x3 = 64 °C 

The mathematical modelling of dyeing 

process of natural protean fibres (wool) with 

natural pigments, has shown the fact that the 

quality index doesn't increase constantly with the 

increase of the values of the three investigated 

parametres, dependencies presenting both 

minimum and maximum points.de bază 





number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371, ‖Postdoctoral 

Schole in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area‖. 

REFERENCES 

Ciocoiu Mihai, Ciocoiu Malina, Antoniu, Gh., 2002, 

Strategia cercetarii, Ed. Performantica, Iasi 

Gluck, A., 1971, Metode matematice in industria 

chimică, Ed. Tehnică, București 

Jolin&Margaret Cannon, 1994, Dye plants and dyeind, 

Ed. Royal Botanic Arden Kew, UK 

Mihail, R.,1976, Introducere în strategia experimentării 

cu aplicații din tehnologia chimică, Ed. Științifică 

și Enciclopedică, București 

Pustianu, M., Butnaru, R., Puşcaşu, E.L., 2002, 

Verificarea experimentală a teoriei Kubelka- 

Munk în condiţiile vopsirii fibrelor de lână cu 

coloranţi acizi, în Revista Română de Textile- 

Pielărie, nr. 3-4, p. 62-66 

*** Colour Index, 1982, The Society of Dyers and 

Colorists – The American Association of Textile 

Chemists and Colourists, Third Edition,Vol. 3

Abstract 

85 


NATURAL DYES, OF VEGETAL ORIGIN, USED IN THE FOOD 

Gheorghe Virgil ATODIRESEI 1 , Elena Ancuta TULBURE 1 , 

Nicolae ISCHIMJI 2 , Anca Mihaela MOCANU 3 

e-mail: atodiresei_virgil@yahoo.com 

Research undertaken over the past decades have shown that due to the antioxidant capacity of natural pigments, their 

use in the food industry represents an immeasurable therapeutic potential for maintaining human health by preventing 

cardiovascular diseases, the risk of cancer and other imbalances caused by daily stress and by the disorganized lifestyle 

of modern man.Plants are established sources of industrial, pharmaceutical and aromatic compounds, which have been 

for milleniums the main source for obtaining bioproducts essential for the survival of the fauna. Dyes are natural or 

synthetic organic coloured substances, which absorb light in the visible part of the spectrum and have the property of 

colouring the substrate they are applied to. 

Key words: natural dyes, food industry, food dyes 

Always the inanimate nature has represented 

true bio-chemical factories which provided 

phytochemical compounds used in different 

industries like pharmaceutical products, food, 

cosmetics, agrochemical products. 

The natural dyes are natural organic or 

coloured synthetical substances, which absord light 

in the visible domain or UV of spectrum and have 

the property to adhere and colour the supports 

where they have been applied. 

At the moment there are homologated and 

spread more and more functional foods ,drinks 

,seasonings, special prepared products etc, which 

include in their manufacturing recipes some natural 

substances, dyes also, with invigorating, 

stimulating or protective medicamentary effects, 

extracted from the best known or appreciated 

cultivated plants or wild flora (Beceanu, D., 2010). 

Because the food processing takes place at 

high temperatures and because the natural dyes are 

not stable enough in these conditions, from 

commercial reasons in food industry and not only, 

there are dyes added to them to improvise the 

color and reduce the effects of its dissipation. 

The first used natural dyes were those of 

vegetal origin like: red obtained from roots of 

plants from Rubiaceae family, indigo extracted 

from plants from Indigofera family, blue extracted 

from campeachy wood and less those of animal 

origin. 


2 Technical University of Moldova, Chisinau, Rep. Moldova 

3 “Gh. Asachi“ Technical University of Iasi, Romania 

The dyes have their colour because in their 

molecule exist groups of atoms capable to absorb 

selectively components of white light. The 

radiations which are not absorbed are reflected, 

creating the sensation of colour. These groups 

which give the substance its colour are called 

chromophore groups, groups „bringers of colour”. 

There are also groups which intensify the colour of 

certain auxochrome groups. 


For this paper we reviewed a vast specialty 

bibliography about the industry of vegetal pigments 

used in food industry, comprising both internet pages, 

specialty databases and scientific papers presented 

at different symposyums from our own country and 

abroad. 


Food dyes are part of the food additives 

category, classified according to CEE schedule and 

have codes from E100 to E200. Some are 

separated from natural sources, for example 

curcumin E100, is an yellow dye known as „Indian 

saffron”, E120, red dye obtained from teguments 

of some insects. Other dyes are synthetical 

(Cercasov, C., 2005). 

Extracts from vegetak tissues contain lots of 

substances with phenolic functional groups, which


are part of different classes of organic compounds. 

Their systematization provides difficulties, because 

most of the natural compounds have mixed 

functions and can be ascribable to different classes 

at the same time. 

From a chemical point of view, the vegetal 

dyes are vegetal substances of secondary origin 

and can be classified in: chlorophyllian or 

porphyrian (green pigments from green plants), 

carotene pigments (yellow pigments from fruits 

and vegetables), flavones dyes, quinone pigments 

and indole pigments (Pascal, S.M., Veronique, C., 

2006). 

Chlorophyllian dyes (E140) (fig. 1) are 

extracted from green raw materials (leaves) as 

deficient in proteins as possible, which are a source 

of contamination. 

Figure 1 Chlorophylle structure 

Usually it is obtained from nettles or spinach 

by extraction with the help of acetone, ethanol, 

methyl ketone and dichloromethane. 

It is used in oils, chewing gum, instant 

soups, sweets. 

Carotene dyes (E160) represent a group of 

pigments which are obtained in various forms and 

compositions and have colours from yellow to red, 

being represented by pro-vitamin A (alfa– figure 2, 

beta and gama carotene). 

Some products are more expensive and some 

are cheaper, like crocin from saffron (Crocus 

sativus), or oleoresin extracted from paprika, with 

capsanthin, have a high price. At the opposite pole 

there are lycopene from tomatoes, an yellow 

pigment extracted inclusively from residual peels 

resulted from tomato paste manufacturing (Cotrău, 

A. cited by Beceanu, D., 2009). 

86 

Figure 2 α-carotene structure 

Multiple studies emphasized that for the 

animal life, the main role of carotenes is that of 

predecessor in synthesis of vitamin A, which is an 

essential component in daily human diet, because it 

is implied in preventing cancer and cardiovascular 

diseases. In USA the average daily consumption is 

of aproximatively 6.5 mg/person and in Europe of 

aproximatively 14 mg/person (Socaciu, C., 2008). 

In carrots there accumulated around 7-8 

mg/100 g carotenes, of which 4 mg betacarotene. 

Yellow genera contain a smaller quantity than the 

red ones. 

They are used for colouring butter, 

margarine, in coffee cakes, sweet drinks or milk 

products. 

Flavone dyes are secondary metabolites 

with the widest spread from vegetal polyphenols 

category which contain in their molecule a pyran 

or furan condensed heterocycle with a benzene 

ring. Another benzene ring is coupled to the 

heterocycle (fig. 3). The rings have hydroxyl 

groups, which determine the phenole character of 

these pigments. These compounds determine the 

colour of flowers, fruits and even leaves: 

chalcones, dihydrochalcones, aurones, flavones, 

flavanoles, (yellow compounds), dihydroflavanoles, 

flavones, flavanoles, flavonoids (leucoantocianidins), 

antocianidins (red, blue or violet 

compounds). 

Figure 3 Flavylium cation's structure and numbering 

Antocyanin dyes (E163) are natural 

glycosides which in plants are represented by six 

compounds: cianidin-3-glucoside (E163a) – red 

colour; delphinidin-3-glucoside (E163b) blue; 

malvidin-3-glucoside (E163c) mauve; 

pelargonidin-3-glucoside (E164d) orange;

peonidin-3-glucoside (E164e) red-brown and 

petunidin-3-glucoside (E165f) dark red. 

Antocyanins are the widest spread pigments. 

These pigments exist abundantly in nature and are 

responsible for the red,blue or violet colour of 

flowers and fruits (Devies, K. D., 2004). 

Their colour is due to the degree of 

hydroxylation or methoxylation. Those with 

hydroxyl groups have a ruby red colours and those 

with methoxyl groups have a blue colour (Țârdea, 

C., 2007). 

The daily dosage authorised by European 

Union for E163 is of 200 ppm pure pigment 

(Pascal, S.M., Veronique, C., 2006). 

The industrial sources for obtaining the 

E163 dye are: peel and mash of red grapes, 

cabbage and beet, cranberries, blackberries, 

cherries, raspberries etc. 

E163 dye is used for colouring alchoholic 

and non-alchoholic drinks, natural juices, in pastry. 

Xantophyll (E161) are a group of yellow 

dyes, except E161(g) which is orange. They are 

obtained from plants by extraction with the help of 

hexane. In this category are: flavoxanthin (E161a), 

lutein (E161b), cryptoxanthin (E161c), rubixanthin 

(E161d), violaxanthin (E161e), rodoxanthin 

(E161f) and canthaxanthin (E161g). Excepting 

lutein and canthaxanthin, they are not found on 

market, but they are part of a normal diet. They are 

harmless, except canthaxanthin which damages 

retina. 

Chalcone dyes (curcumin E100) 

It's a yellow-orange dye, obtained from the 

root of Curcuma longa (indian saffron), insoluble 

in water, but soluble in ethanol and acetic acid. It 

can be obtained synthetically also. 

It is used as polysorbate of curcumin or 

curcumin powder disolved in alcohol. 

It is used for pickles, mustard, cheese, 

margarine, sweets or fish products, meat products, 

jam, marmelade. 

For the purpose of protecting population's 

health, food dyeing should be realised only with 

dyes accepted by current laws. 

Conditions for a dye: 

should not be toxic or carcinogenic at different 

levels of use; 

should not contain toxic contaminants; 

should have solubility adapted to its 

incorporation in watery phase and/or in lipid 

phase from food product; 

should not give the food product where is 

introduced a particular taste or smell; 

should be stable at light when it is introduced in 

product; 

87 


should not be affected by the temperatures at 

which it is made the termal treatment 

(pasteurization, boiling, sterilisation); 

should be stable during the storage of the 

product where it was introduced; 

can be emphasized in the food product by 

adequate analytic techniques; 

should be available and rather economical price 

wise; 

should be approved by the current health 

legislation. 

Practically, the dyes are chosen according to 

affinity because generally food contains both 

hydrophilic and lipophilic components. That's why 

it was opted for initiation of studies for the purpose 

of obtaining food dyes with mixt function, 

hydrophilic-lipophilic with tinctorial polyphasic 

effect. 

The industrial sources of obtaining natural 

dyes for use in food industry are: 

from peel and mash of red grapes, beet and red 

cabbage, blueberries,cranberries, blackberries, 

cherries, raspberry (anto-cyanin); 

cayenne (capsanthin); 

tomatoes (lycopene). 

CONCLUSIONS 

Despite many challenges, the inanimate 

nature continues to represent the main supplier of 

phytochemical compounds used both in food 

industry and in other industries. 

Despite the disturbance of natural balance 

and unlimited exploitation of these resources, a rise 

of work force cost and technical or economical 

difficulties of plant cultivation from spontaneous 

flora, in some developed countries they are more 

and more interested in obtaining natural pigments 

by unconventional methods through new 

biotechnologies and modern techniques of cell and 

vegetal tissues cultures. 

Obtaining positive results represents the first 

step in elaborating applicable methods on an 

industrial scale in food, pharmaceutical, textile or 

cosmetic industries. 

Until now, in Romania, the production of 

natural dyes on an industrial scale has been 

completely neglected by concerns which have as 

object of activity vegetable and fruit processing, 

from their residues, like it is done in most of the 

developed countries from Europe and in the world.






number POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371, ‖Postdoctoral Schole 


REFERENCES 

Beceanu, D., 2010, Tehnologia produselor horticole, 

Partea a I-a, Ed. Pim, Iași 

Beceanu, D., 2009, Tehnologia prelucrării legumelor și 

fructelor, Ed. ―Ion Ionescu de la Brad‖, Iași 

Cercasov, C., Popa, V.C., 2005, Compuși naturali cu 

acțiune terapeutică – (Natural compounds with 

therapeutic action), Partea I, Editura Universității 

din București 

88 

Devies, K. D., 2004, Plant Pigments and their 

Manipulation, vol. 14, Ed. Blackwell CRC Press 

Pascal, S.M., Veronique, C., 2006, Les polyphénols en 

agroalimentaire, Ed. TEC&DOC, Paris 

Socaciu, Carmen, 2008, Foods colorants: chemical and 

functional propertis, Ed. Boca Raton; London- 

New York: CRC Press 

Țârdea, C., 2007, Chimia și analiza vinului, Ed. ―Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad‖, Iași 

Thomas Bechtald, Mussak, R., 2009, Handbook of 

Natural Colorants, Ed. John Wiley and Sons, UK 

http://www.scribd.com/torrent100/d/27661514-ADITIVI- 

ALIMENTARI-C2-coloranti - accessed on 

January 2012 

http://www.scribd.com/doc/47330655/COLORANTI- 

NATURALI-alimentari – accessed on January 

2012.

Abstract 

89 


CADMIUM PRESENCE IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS 

FROM IASI METROPOLITAN AREA 

Mariana VOLF 1 

e-mail:mariana.volf@uaiasi.ro 

The work is part of an extensive study, conducted over two years, which followed the main monitoring mechanisms and 

relationships involved in the trophic chain soil-plant-animal in an determined area, and continuing with the 

determination of quality indices of agro-livestock production, as it is known that for agricultural products, food value 

and quality are assessed by the content of nutrients. Food security depends on the efforts of each partaker in the food 

chain, from farmer to consumer. The first step is the manufacturer's control, maintaining standard requiring specific 

methods and techniques with adequate supervision, which verifies food quality, provenience and processing technology 

used for obtaining it. This paper presents results of the cadmium content in agricultural soils from two locations 

neighboring Iasi, forage crops area belonging to the Research Station for Cattle Growth Dancu and SC "Daniela" SRL 

Răducăneni-Iasi. It is widely recognized accumulation of cadmium in the environment due to activities of non-ferrous 

metal industries and the burning of fossil fuels. Due to the high bioavailability of Cd to plants, plants absorb easily 

translocated metal in soils containing 2-15 ppm Cd. The present study focused on the determination of cadmium in the 

first level from the trophic chain - soil, Cd accumulation over limits has a harmful effect in animal nutrition. For both 

sites, cadmium concentration exceeded the maximum permissible ground level but not the alert value of 3.0 mg / kg -1 . 

This is why the study undertaken, the research starts cadmium concentration in soil, taking into discussion two adjacent 

areas of Iasi, where are areas with a potential risk of exceeding the permissible limits, forage crops being influenced 

from industrial emissions. 

Key words: cadmium, soil, forage 

Heavy metals - Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb, Cr, Co, Ni, 

Mn, Fe – known as trace elements due to its low 

content in plants and soil, are chemical elements 

common to all soils (Budoi, Gh., 2001). Their level 

of abundance is between the percentages (%) and 

parts per million (ppm). In some cases, their 

concentration in soil exceeds the maximum 

concentration range where the effect is beneficial, 

causing disturbances of nutrition and thus 

inhibiting normal processes of growth and 

development of plants. The negative effect of 

heavy metals depends on their concentration and a 

series of physical and chemical properties that 

define soil such as: organic matter content, texture, 

reaction, redox potential (Davidescu Velicia., 

Davidescu D, 1999). 

Determination of cadmium in the soil and 

maintaining its normal limits, thus preventing 

uncontrolled translocation in plant crops, which 

can be harmful in high concentrations and can be 

taken by the consumer as food or as forage by 

animal. Blood concentration of Cd ( human body) 

is 0.5 μg/100 ml and the process of removing it 

from the body is extremely slow. Ingestion of food 


containing heavy metals increase their 

concentration in tissue and occurs a series of 

metabolic dysfunction. 

This is why the undertaken study, starts with 

cadmium concentration in soil research, taking into 

discussion two adjacent areas of Iasi, where forage 

crops quality are influenced by industrial 

emissions, areas with a potential risk of exceeding 

the permissible limits. 

In blood, concentration of Cd is extremely 

low and stays low even if there is an excessive 

intake. Besides, Cd disappears rapidly from the 

blood which limits the diagnose of this parameter 

value. Human blood concentration is 0,5 Cd 

µg/100 ml, in urine from 2-22 µg /l, and may grow 

by more than 20 times for exposed persons. A 

maximum concentration of Cd is situated in renal 

cortex and testicular tissue. When you manage its 

concentration changes the Cd oral biopsy and its 

concentration in the kidneys, liver, hair and nails 

satisfactorily reflect exposure to Cd as opposed to 

the bone tissue, muscle and nervous systems that 

are protected against the original excess of Cd.


Cadmium can be absorbed in significant 

quantities and accumulated in different tissues and 

organs: heart, blood vessels, liver, kidneys, 

digestive tube, lungs, pancreas, bone marrow. 

Large quantities of cadmium are found in the blood 

(fixed by erythrocytes). In the muscle is small 

content, but enough to be dangerous to humans as 

durable. It induces proteinuria - the presence of 

excess proteins in the urine. Removal of cadmium 

from the animal takes place mainly through the 

feces and urine, bile and therefore less milk. 

Disposal from human body is extremely slow, 

about 20 years, fact that determine its increase in 

tissues as well as several metabolic dysfunctions. 


The research took place at the Research 

Station for Cattle Dancu that the administrative point 

of view is on land of the commune Holboca territory 

and on municipality of Iasi, in wich main soil types are 

chernozems, with typical subtypes, bills of exchange 

and argic, prevailing subtype classically cambic 

chernozem, mezocalcaric poorly degraded and into 

sheep farm Raducaneni, SC. Daniela Ltd. 

Raducaneni-Iasi dominated by an aluviosol gleyic, 

salt pelic, proxicalcaric, clay loamy / clay lutoasa, 

evolved on a gleisol cenic. Soil samples were 

collected from the upper horizon (0-20 cm) of 

agricultural land in two locations, Dancu (6 samples) 

and Raducaneni (7 samples). 

Sampling of soil, the most important operation, 

harvesting was done on plots with agrochemical 

probe, the depth of 0-20 cm. Each composite sample 

of soil samples consisted of 25 to 30 part, in the best 

area of land cultivated with some crops. Area that has 

been a mixed sample ranged from 2-5 ha to field 

crops and pastures and hay fields 5-20 ha depending 

on the relief. 

90 

Samples were dried in oven for 3 hours at 105 

° C, then brought to a grain size ≤ 0.02 mm. 

Disaggregation of soil samples for cadmium 

determination: treatment with perchloric acid 

concentrated and nitric acid concentrated, in two 

stages, on a sand bath with 400-450 ° C temperature. 

The solutions were brought into 100 ml volumetric 

flask with nitric acid 2%. In each flask was added, 10 

ml CsCl 1% concentration, before being brought to 

the 100 ml volume. Cadmium has been determined 

through several methods: 

*Determination by atomic absorption 

spectrometry with flame ionization (ASA-FL). 

Camera: ASA-FL spectrometer Vario 6.0 

monoelement lamp. Flame: acetylene / air. 

Wavelength: 283.30 nm. The lamp current intensity: 

3.00 mA. Acetylene flow: 65 L / hour. The 

stoichiometric C / O flame: 0.13. Flame height: 9 mm. 

Nebulizer: 1.3. Ionization buffer: 0.1% CsCl. 

Interference: Cu (216.5 nm), Fe (216.7 nm) We 

(216.6 nm), Sb (217.6 nm), Pt (216.5 nm). ( 2 

samples average )* 

*Determination by X-ray fluorescence 

spectrometry Camera: X-ray fluorescence 

spectrometer Epsilon 5 model. Standard working 

conditions after the device’s technical manual. (an 

average sample ) 

*UV-VIS Spectrophotometric determination. 

Device: UV-VIS spectrophotometer model MPM 

1500, quartz cuvettes with 1 cm thick. Dithizone 

method, extraction in chloroform. Spectro Dithizone 

method, extraction in chloroform. Spectro at 500 nm 

(an average sample ). 


After performing the analysis, the cadmium 

concentration values were exposed in tab. 1 and 2. 

Table 1 

Cadmium content in soil, in Dancu and Raducaneni area (µg/g) 

No Area 

No. 

Labora- 

Cd ( µg/g ) 

tory test AAS AAS XRF UV-VIS Average 

1 Raducaneni (Corn of Beslegii) AV-1 2.4980 2.7020 3.0474 2.1058 2.5883 

2 Raducaneni (Ostrov 1 ) AV-2 2.6023 2.4809 2.7116 2.3093 2.5260 

3 Raducaneni (Canal 2) AV-3 2.2884 2.0002 2.6022 2.4077 2.3246 

4 Raducaneni(after Pompa) AV-4 2.6362 2.4775 2.5007 2.7123 2.5817 

5 Raducaneni (after Pompa) AV-5 2.4944 2.5896 2.5568 2.6624 2.5758 

6 Raducaneni (Ostrov 2 ) AV-6 2.8273 2.6842 2.8388 2.7537 2.7760 

7 Raducaneni (Canal 2) AV-7 2.1514 2.0364 2.0616 2.2073 2.1142 

1 Dancu (Sole Aron Voda I ) AV-8 1.8889 1.7755 2.0035 1.9295 1.899402 

2 Dancu (sole Chirita) AV-9 1.9721 1.8577 1.8633 2.0619 1.938778 

3 Dancu(sole Securitate I ) AV-10 1.8805 1.9373 1.7309 2.0628 1.902921 

4 Dancu(sole Aron Voda II ) AV-11 2.15912 2.2015 2.1094 2.2531 2.180817 

5 Dancu (sole Bazin) AV-12 1.987774 1.8993 2.1145 2.1026 2.026064 

6 Dancu(sole Securitate II ) AV-13 2.0220 1.8805 2.0502 2.1180 2.0177

91 


Specifications 

Specifications Cd 

Average deviation 0,1402 

Standard deviation (mean square error) 0,2178 

Dispersion selection 0,1338 

Mean squared error of the mean selection 0,1061 

Average Average deviation: 

Standard deviation (mean square error): 

Dispersion selection : 

Mean squared error of the mean selection: 

Maximum permissible values in cadmium 

concentration in soil, through which major 

changes occur over plant growth and 

development, established by Kloke (1980) are 

d 

s 

s 

2 

S X 

n 

i 1 

i 1 

n 

n 

i 1 

s 

X 

n 

i 

n 

X 

X 

n 

n 

i 

i 

X 

1 

1 

X 

X 

2 

2 

Table 2 

used in different countries, including our country. 

(fig. 1). Maximum permissible values for 

cadmium is 1 mg·kg -1 

. 

Figure 1 Cadmium evolution in soil, in Dancu and Raducaneni area


According to this value, is found that in 

Raducaneni location for all sampling points are 

significant overruns values, respectively 0.8994 

and 1.1808 for AV8 and AV4 sample. For location 

Dancu, overtaking from the maximum permissible 

values are also larger and ranges from 1.1142 to 

2.7760 for sample AV7 until AV6. 

Maximum permissible values in cadmium 

concentration in soil, through which major changes 

occur over plant growth and development, 

established by Kloke (1980) are used in different 

countries, including our country. (fig. 1). 

Maximum permissible values for cadmium is 1 

mg·kg -1 . 

In this research, is found in location 

Raducaneni like all sampling points are significant 

over runs, respectively 0.8994 and 1.1808 for AV8 

sample AV4. For location Dancu, overtaking from 

the maximum permissible values are also larger 

and ranges from 1.1142 to 2.7760 for sample AV7 

until AV6. 

It is worth noting that for both locations, the 

values of cadmium content in soil do not exceed 

the alert level is 3.0 mg • kg-1 (Fig. 1) 

CONCLUSIONS 

Cadmium is a potentially toxic metal, high 

cumulative and accumulate in the environment, 

mainly due to the activities of non-ferrous metal 

industries and the burning of fossil fuels. 

In the Raducaneni area cadmium 

concentration ranged inside 2.1142 µg/g and 

92 

2.7760 µg/g and in the Dancu, the concentration 

ranged from 1.8994 µg/g and 2.1808 µg/g. For 

both sites is not exceeded the alert level of 3.0 mg 

• kg -1 . 

These values give us the right to affirm that 

fodder plants growing in these areas, acquired and 

stored over the limits cadmium that is placed in 

normal insurance state of soil and there is the real 

danger to be ingested by feeding the animals which 

induce multiple malfunctions. 

Enrich the soil with Cd over the normal 

range may be due to various factors: anthropogenic 

pollution caused by industry, fertilizer use in 

agriculture, the upward movement in soils due to 

repeated precipitancy (Dumitru M., et al.,1994). 

REFERENCES 

Budoi, Gh., 2001. Agrochimie, vol I − II., Editura 

Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucuresti. 

Davidescu Velicia., Davidescu D, 1999, Compedium 

Agrochimic., Editura Academiei Romane, 

Bucuresti. 

Dumitru M., Rauta C., Toti M., Gamet Eugenia, 1994, 

Evaluarea gradului de poluare a solului. Masuri 

de limitare a efectului poluant. Publicatiile 

SNRSS, rol 28E, 33-56. 

Vries, W., Lofts, W., Tipping Groenenberg, S., 

Schutze J.E., 2007, Impact of soil properties on 

critical concentrations of cadmium, lead, copper, 

zinc and mercury in soil and soil solution in view 

of ecotoxicological effects , Reviews of 

Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 

191 - ISSN 0179-5953 - p. 47 - 89.

Abstract 

93 


CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN 

CATERING UNITS 

Stejărel BBREZULEANU 1 , Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU 1 , George UNGUREANU 1 , 

Roxana MIHALACHE 1 

e-mail: stejarel@uaiasi.ro 

Catering undertakes, by size and its characteristics, an important work load. Achieving economic and social functions is 

directly related to available material and human resources. The defining role of human resources is dependent on 

meeting the needs of consumers, on the one hand, economic performance and efficiency, on the other. An important 

role in achieving the tasks assigned to the food sector is the preparation and structure of staff recruited and trained to 

perform operations of making dishes and serving consumers. Staff selection must be made so as to meet present and 

future requirements for each function, to ensure human adaptation to his work, his job. In "Bolta rece" restaurant, the 

main skills required by managers are: physical and sensory skills (physical harmonious constitution, speed reaction, 

agility and motor skills, visual acuity and color); intellectual ability (good observation, demonstrating initiative, clearly 

in thinking, good memory, ability to think rationally, specific, fast, rich language, coherent, convincing) professional 

skills (general knowledge). Rezumatul redactat în limba engleză (10-15 rânduri, cu referire expresă la rezultatele 

cercetărilor). 

Key words: catering, human resources management, recruitment, skills 


For carrying out the work it was called for case 

study, as a major research strategy and the analysis 

of firm level performance using Bolta Rece restaurant 

manager interview in Iasi. For data collection and 

analysis we used qualitative research techniques and 

instruments, analysis of internal documents, job 

descriptions and interviewing employees in the 

departments. 


Catering issues and its role in national 

economy can not be separated from the functions 

which it fulfills. Viewed from a social perspective, 

the catering meet major the goal for public health 

care. The catering sector has, due to the work that 

it carries an important place in economic and social 

life in household consumption needs. Addressed in 

terms of labor policy catering is, on the one hand, a 

way to increase jobs, and on the other hand, one of 

the most effective ways to train the female 

population in social and economic activities 

(Brezuleanu, S., și colab., 2011). 

Due to its more complex character, under 

the many factors that currently exist in the 

economic and social life, restaurant business takes 

a number of features which completes the 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi 

scientific objectives and tasks and different 

perspective but from other sectors of the trade 

(Dionisie C., 2002). 

Catering peculiarities arise from specific 

activities and this means that: is essentially a 

consumption outside the home (house), is 

influenced in a very important phenomenon of 

tourism, such a pronounced seasonal prices and the 

policy is the specific complex catering business 

(which includes production processes, marketing 

and service) and prices need to differentiate from 

one unit to another, depending on their specificity, 

the degree of employment and quality of services 

(Emilian R., 1999). 

Knowing that a number of features derive 

from the very content of catering processes (forms, 

methods and tools of accounting and control, the 

expenditure pattern of movement), we note that 

learning and knowledge of these features have vital 

importance in establishing principles and criteria of 

management and the organization of catering 

business because they directly reflect the efficiency 

indicators used in the catering of “Bolta rece” 

restaurant Iasi. 

“Bolta rece” restaurant is a local (Romanian) 

restaurant, classified in category I, under certificate


no. 216/25.04.1994 issued by the Ministry of trade 

and tourism. 

BOLTA RECE is a restaurant that has 

inherited the building, an name and fame of old 

local of Iasi and frequente in different periods, by 

well known cultural and artistic personalities. The 

neighborhood has historical monuments such as St. 

Theodore Church, Mihai Codreanu Memorial 

House, University of Medicine and Pharmacy. 

The unit is located in an area near the city 

center, advantage diminished, however, by the 

inconvenient access (narrow streets and little 

known), especially for foreigners from the city. 

The catering complex comprises: restaurant, 

cellar, terrace with seasonal use. 

The unit has 140 seats in the restaurant and 

wine cellar, 60 seats on the terrace. 

Table 1 

Staff structure 

Personnel Number 

restaurant manager 1 

Headwaiter 1 

Economist – accountant 1 

Waiters 4 

Waiters - cellar 4 

Waiters - garden 4 

Master chef 2 

Chefs 2 

Chefs - buffet 2 

Bartenders 2 

Laborers 3 

Besides these, there are a number of features 

in the design and foundation plans and indicators 

referred. These are specific indicators, their content 

and methods of determination of their scope and 

importance to the restaurant activity. From the 

discussions with the restaurant manager it shows 

that the main indicator to characterize the activity 

is "the catering sales volume". In developing and 

funding this indicator, the manager shall, with 

familiar elements (study the customers 

requirements, their financial possibilities, 

analyzing the results of earlier periods), the need to 

provide attractive menus, rational people, the 

changes report that food needs are personal 

household satisfied by purchases of goods and 

services through catering. 

Catering undertakes, by size and its 

characteristics, an important work load. Achieving 

economic and social functions is directly related to 

available material and human resources. The 

defining role of human resources is dependent on 

meeting the needs of consumers, on the one hand, 

economic performance and efficiency, on the 

other. 

In this context, employing specialized 

personnel, in compliance with its optimal 

proportions and structures, ensuring a level of 

94 

preparedness, the catering acquires new values. 

Results of analyzed catering unit depend on how 

the human potential of forces acting on material 

and financial interdependence. For this to be 

solved, the issues of selection and coverage of 

division of labor and organization of the best workteams. 

To ensure a climate of detente and mutual 

respect, the employed workers in the hall for 

serving consumers must meet certain qualities: 

moral, psychological, intellectual, and physical 

training. These criteria take into account the 

formation manager, personnel selection and 

promotion used unit he leads. 

In deciding the recruitment, the human 

resources manager is considering staffing needs for 

each department. This is determined by the 

following components: capacity restaurant sales 

volume and structure, workload and time required 

for serving and preparing dishes. 

Personnel manager selection is made so as to 

meet current and future requirements for each 

function provides human adaptation to work, the 

specifics of his job. Whenever the manager is a 

choice between two people, we can say that 

practically make a selection criterion when 

considering the preparation, the skills for that job 

and workplace characteristics. 

Professions in the catering sector are 

evolving and being able to expand or shrink 

according to economic phenomena, influencing 

various social and technical sectors. For example, 

the profession of waiter knows significant 

numerical reduction as a result of new forms of 

sale: self-serving, comet by automatic, units with 

payment at sale etc.. At the same time, the appear 

trades in November about precisely these forms of 

service. 

Recruiting human resources also has in view 

the job analysis and design work, because the 

results of these activities, thus job descriptions and 

specifications are essential in the recruitment 

process. This means that the person who recruits or 

hires must have the necessary information on job 

characteristics, and qualities of the future owner. 

For recruitment, restaurant manager of 

"Bolta Rece" appeals to two distinct ways, namely: 

individual orientation to employment in the 

catering sector, which is based on skills and 

knowledge to find his job and the best selection (as 

opposed to orientation) requires knowledge of the 

job for which you should seek the most suitable 

one. For successful selection of a training manager 

made the greatest number of candidates, thus 

giving people a choice appropriate for each post. 

For selection the law in force is used in several 

forms and procedures such as aptitude tests,

quizzes, review the evidence base work, post 

certificate etc. 

The recruitment logically follows the 

planning of human resources as aimed at 

identifying and attracting the competitive 

candidates to fill the net or additional personnel. 

This means that the restaurant recruitment efforts 

and methods used are dependent on human 

resource planning process and the specific 

positions to be filled. Knowing in advance or as 

anticipation the need of staff, due to human 

resource planning process, allows a smooth 

running and more likely successful recruitment 

process. 

Selection of personnel is one of the basic 

activities of human resource management, is 

usually made in the personnel department, but 

which is the responsibility of managers at different 

levels. Restaurant management has always been 

concerned with selection of staff, as this activity 

can be very expensive if you hire people who 

ultimately are considered inadequate. 

Therefore, the selection of staff is 

considering the fact that people differ from one 

another through a series of qualities, and posts, in 

turn, differ by a number of requirements they 

impose to candidates. 

In the Bolta Rece restaurant, recruitment and 

selection of human resources is in line with 

recruitment policy of the company. 

Criteria of behavior used for employees are: 

punctuality, acceptance and respect for the work 

program, delays and absences recorded frequency, 

presentation and order at work - correct attire and 

behavior, professional discipline and work, team 

spirit - supporting colleagues own initiative, labor 

relations, collective attitude towards work, maturity 

and behavior generally calm, self-control, 

adaptability to various works, presence of mind, 

proper performance of duties, dignified behavior at 

work. 

The manager of the catering unit recruits, 

selects and makes proposals or approves hiring. 

There are certain requirements to be fulfilled by 

the persons to be engaged: 

• Temperament traits that relate dynamic 

events, how to respond to different stimuli, rapid 

movements and activities. Usually, everyone has 

great possibilities, but each is the owner of certain 

qualities that can only ensure maximum efficiency 

in some activities. In the restaurant business, the 

95 


main features of temperament which the worker 

must meet are: sociability, communicative, 

efficiency, dynamism, optimism, self-adaptation, 

calm and patience in dealing with people, 

volubility; 

• Skills that are the sentimental side or the 

means by which the individual personality and 

abilities include those human, that it can achieve 

maximum social efficiency. In "Bolta rece" 

restaurant, the main skills required by managers 

are: physical and sensory (physical constitution 

robust and harmonious, reaction speed, agility and 

motor skills, visual acuity and color); intellectual 

ability (good observation, demonstrating initiative, 

clearly in thinking, good memory, ability to think 

rationally, specific, fast, rich language, coherent, 

convincing) professional skills (general 

knowledge). 

All these skills are specified for each 

function of the restaurant, according to table 2. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The catering sector occupies an important 

place in economic and social life in household 

consumption needs. Catering has an important role 

in production of products and dishes, and selling to 

the public. 

The successful application of human 

resource management system involves 

recruitment, a system of performance 

evaluation of a system of incentives to reward 

employees and results. Recruitment is the 

process of searching, locating, identifying and 

attracting potential candidates, the candidates to 

be selected, eventually representing 

professional characteristics necessary or best fit 

the requirements of current and future 

vacancies 

The restaurant staff qualification of Bolta 

rece is high, each being a high school or 

professional school graduate in catering, which 

provides excellent services. 

At this restaurant, the serving at the table is 

done by waiters who have specific Moldavian 

uniforms, composed of: shirt specific to the area, , 

classic black trousers, specific to the area, classic 

shoes. Serving techniques are used as class unity 

and vary according to the menu, ordered in 

advance or a la carte.


Table 2 

Professional duties specific to jobs of Bolta Rece restaurant Iasi 

Function Role Professional 

experience 

Professional capacity Skills Responsabilities 

witted, good 

management techniques; 

select suppliers 

communication; 

in charge of school graduate culinary technology 

directs management 

managing 

organization, skilled in catering; restoration technology, services, 

deposits made out 

Restaurant 

ability; 

management and graduate foreign languages-English, 

regulations on minimum 

manager 

spirit de 

functioning of the management French, 

benefits for all aspects 

observant; 

restaurant training course. buying and selling techniques, 

restaurant compliance 

rigor, 

human resources management 

controls; 

perseverance 

organizes services in 

responsible for 

organizing and 

conducting 

Head-waiter 

services in 

restaurant 

lounges 

graduate school 

specializing in 

catering 

salons 

pleasant 

restaurant serving techniques 

controlling the handling 

appearance and 

culinary connoisseur, techniques 

and preparation and 

dressing; 

of catering, sommelier 

distribution services 

managing ability 

knowledge, good organizer of 

fixed shifts 

and 

human resources 

controls the mise-en- 

rigor;observant; 

place and courtesy the 

tables and salons; 

high school 

responsible for 

graduate 

Master chef organizing the 

graduate of chef 

culinary process 

training course. 

artistic sense; 

culinary technology - cooking; 

taste and smell organizes culinary 

personnel management 

- good; production activities; 

techniques 

hygiene care; offers recipes and 

norms and rules of hygiene; rules 

sense of order follows their making 

and techniques of food storage 

and discipline; 

pleasant provide the necessary 

appearance and drinks in the bar 

dress; responsible for the 

Bartender 

qualification in very good knowledge of bar 

in charge of 

basic job skills in service techniques; 

organization and 

the vocational very good knowledge of bar 

working service 

school, vocational mixes; 

bar 

training course sommelier knowledge 

tamina, good 

memory and 

professional 

tact; 

leading ability; 

polite, 

existence of inventory in 

good condition; 

ensure the existence of 

the bar indicating the 

price list; 

recommends that 

observant, customers receive 

commercial appropriate beverages; 

spirit; 

preparing mixed drinks; 

Waiter 

Arrange and 

maintain 

restaurant, 

performing the 

services 

selling techniques, to attract 

customers; 

correct knowledge and skills to 

arranging meals and performing 

basic qualification 

services 

in high school 

thorough knowledge in serving, 

the cuisine, the menu structure 

techniques, hygiene and 

protection. 

Physically fit, 

engaged in the mise-en- 

elegance, 

place; 

flexibility; 

know the composition of 

skill and 

lists of dishes and drinks; 

dexterity; 

to advise clients and to 

well-developed 

help the desired choice; 

sense of sight 

to establish or verify the 

and hearing; 

correct preparation of 

sobriety, 

bills 

provided; 

Volume, structure and characteristics of 

service operations are different, being influenced 

by the specific nature and beverages prepared and 

served. Thus, the types of meals offered by Bolta 

rece and beverage service may occur at plate or 

platter. The service varies by time of day and the 

preparations offered: 

To increase the unit outcomes it is 

recommended to replace worn assets and carrying 

out repairs to premises whose life has ended. 

The entertainment unit is adapted especially 

for seniors; therefore they should used means of 

recreation for young and playgrounds for children. 

96 

REFERENCES 

Brezuleanu, S., și colab., 2011 - Curs de Administrator 

pensiune turistică. Proiect POSDRU /13/5.2/S/11- 

Dezvoltarea pieței muncii prin promovarea 

ocupațiilor neagricole în mediul rural.. 

U.S.A.M.V. București. 

Dionisie, C., 2002 – Managementul turismului. Structuri 

de concepţie şi organizare- Editura Junimea, Iaşi. 

Dobrescu, E., Bălănescu, C., Morjan, G., 1995 – 

Tehnica servirii în unitaţile publice de alimentaţie- 

Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică – Bucureşti. 

Emilian, R., 1999 – Managementul firmei de comerţ şi 

turism- Editura A.S.E., Bucureşti.

97 


STRATEGIES OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING ON COMPARTMENTS 

IN INTEGRATED AGRICULTURAL UNITS 

Abstract 

Stejărel BBREZULEANU 1 

e-mail: stejarel@uaiasi.ro 

Strategic planning of human resources estimates the expected future demand of employees both qualitatively and 

quantitatively compares the application referred to human resources and the surplus or deficit of existing staff on 

organizational objectives. Human resources should be regarded as a factor in the evolution of an agricultural holding, 

under present conditions, where technological and managerial changes are imposed by the market with great rapidity. 

In these conditions, a good manager must manage material and human resources very precisely, form a working 

framework attractive to develop productive and creative capacities of his employees. 

In the company Comcereal S.A. Vaslui, the overall strategic planning is done early and its main objective is the 

development of production systems, continuous improvement of management systems and not least, specializing the 

personnel through continuous training in the workplace. Strategic planning of human resources is paramount, 

contributing to business strategy by identifying opportunities to better use existing human resources and showing how 

the lack of human resources application may adversely affect the proposed business plan, if no action is taken . 

Key words: strategies, human resource management, integrated farming units 


To present the results obtained by SC 

Comcereal SA Vaslui, there were used statistics in 

the unit records and official documents, and for 

processing and interpretation there were used 

diagnostic method analysis, investigation and 

correlation. 


Comcereal is a joint stock company a part of 

the Racova Com Agro Pan Vaslui firms. 

Racova Com Agro Pan Vaslui is a group of 

agricultural companies in Romania, which operates 

about 40,000 hectares of farmland in Vaslui 

County and surrounding areas with its silos with a 

storage capacity of about 300,000 tons. 

S.C. Comcereal S.A. Vaslui is one of the 

most representative Romanian companies for 

agriculture, having a leading position among the 

companies in the industry. The investment in 

upgrading storage facilities and purchase of 

agricultural machinery performance over 10 

million in recent years, the company is a leader 

in agriculture and permanent concern of society 

is the increase of cultivated areas and apply 

appropriate technologies for the recovery 

agrotechnical land and obtain high yields. 


S.C. Comcereal S.A. Vaslui operates under 

Law 15/1990 and Law 31/1990 on organization 

and management companies, with multiple tasks to 

achieve market products such as: developing 

design studies and programs on the future 

development of the company and its products , 

studying the market and society issues related to: 

raw materials, equipment, labor, financial and 

informational resources, research and utilization of 

all existing reserves, application of modern 

management, system objectives established 

periodically and approve the work program on how 

to achieve it, draw up specific programs to enhance 

the capitalization of resources, rational use of 

production capacity, size of labor productivity, 

reduce costs of production and circulation, ensures 

the production according to market demand 

Collaborates programs, provide staff worker with 

protective equipment specific work and jobs with 

high risk 

The labor force consists of employees with 

permanent personal contract and seasonal 

employees with fixed-term employment contract. 

Given the nature of agriculture, the 

employees work in the plant, during spring - 

summer - autumn, day light and on Saturdays, 

Sundays, according to weater needs and time.


The livestock program is also adapted to the 

specific, the employees work in the morning from 

5-9 and afternoon, from 14.30 to 19.00 and on 

Saturday and Sunday in shifts. 

The strategies in the field of human 

resources start both from the overall strategic 

objectives defined at farm level and from the 

content of human resource management, but does 

not eliminate the major problems arising in 

previous years and which were only temporary 

solutions. 

This increase in staff may be placed on 

account of three existing positive aspects to the SC 

Comcereal S.A. Vaslui i.e.: go on developing the 

productive sector and not in terms of areas where 

there is a constant in recent years, but follows the 

line quality of products obtained in the SC 

Comcereal S.A. Vaslui investments in the 

98 

productive sector through the purchase of 

equipment performance is reflected in the structure 

because staff must be qualified to work with these 

machines, the administrative staff are to better 

management of material and financial resources 

that the society has. 

The staff has been increasing in the last 

three years and not only at the administrative level 

but also in the productive sector. If in 2009 the 

total was 532 people, in the year 2010 it reached 

543, and in the next year the number of staff 

reached 552 people, the growth is higher although 

the number of administrative staff directly 

involved in production increased more (fig. 1) 

Overall and by staff, the human resources of 

SC Comcereal S.A. Vaslui can be structured as 

shown in table 1. 

Figure 1 Evolution of employment in the years 2009 to 2011 in SC Comcereal S.A. Vaslui 

Evolution of personnel staff at SC Comcereal S.A. Vaslui 

Qualification level 2009 2010 2011 

Management and administrative staff 85 85 85 

Management staff 5 5 5 

Economists 58 58 58 

Administrative staff 22 22 22 

Technical staff 37 41 41 

Engineers 10 11 11 

Sub-engineers 10 12 12 

Technicians 17 18 18 

Workers 410 417 426 

Directly productive 322 327 333 

Indirectly productive 63 65 68 

General service 25 25 25 

TOTAL STAFF 532 543 552 

In the company Comcereal S.A. Vaslui the 

overall strategic planning is done early and its 

Table 1 

main objective is the development of production 

systems, continuous improvement of management

systems and not least, specialized personnel 

through continuous training in the workplace. 

This process is quite difficult because 

production activity in this area is closely linked to 

environmental conditions, so planning can be made 

only at estimates but consider the potential risks 

that such activity is subject productive. 

The planning for the society is preceded by 

an intermediate step is to find the best ideas for 

improving the system through a form that each 

employee brings to the three proposals which it 

belongs. The operation is done in an organized 

manner, that the responsibility lies not only for 

managers but it gradually delegates the following 

hierarchical levels, thus, enabling the process to 

improve the overall system, involving all 

employees. 

The data collected by line managers are 

centralized (at the plant culture, the bread factory 

and the farm livestock), are analyzed and retained 

only those ideas that can be implemented and can 

improve the system as a whole. 

The personal strategies are defined as the 

intentions HRD Manager at SC Comcereal S.A. 

regarding the development, directions and needs or 

99 


requirements to be met in this area, to facilitate 

organizational goals. 

The directions of development strategies 

pursued by the management staff of the SC 

Comcereal S.A. Vaslui, are: ensuring and 

selection, training and employee development, 

performance evaluation, reward employees, 

relations with employees 

The human resource planning includes the 

following actions necessary within the 

organization: staff qualification analysis, the 

average age of staff organization analysis, analysis 

of staff turnover. 

In the Comcereal S.A., the staff of the 

company is one of 552 persons, of which over 85% 

have a qualification in a particular area whether we 

refer to those directly productive, or adjacent to 

those involved in the production process. 

The workforce skills analysis focuses on two 

aspects, the basic characterization qualification 

situation at a time, progress, and how skilled labor 

is used. These matters may structure the types of 

training staff and improving skilled labor. 

For synthetic characterization of the level of 

the personnel will analyze the data in table 2 Table 2 

Coverage of personnel of the S.C. Comcereal S.A. between 2009-2011 

Coverage of personnel 

Number of workers Dynamics % 

2009 2010 2011 2011/2009 2011/2009 

unskilled workers 77 77 80 103,8 103,8 

graduates of training courses 22 22 25 113,6 113,6 

graduates of vocational schools 250 258 259 103,6 100,3 

graduates of specialized secondary schools 148 150 150 101,3 101,3 

graduates of higher education 35 36 38 108,5 105,5 

Total 532 543 552 

The evolution of the number of people in 

society Comcereal SA can be found in 2011 on 

each floor of training, more pronounced for those 

with specialized studies in a particular field. This 

can be explained by a permanent staff adapt to new 

agricultural market trends or the bakery, where 

evolution is an extremely fast. 

In terms of age, S.C. staff Comcereal S.A. 

fits the best age for that sector. It intersects each 

department of activity as people with professional 

experience and some with little experience but 

with plenty of initiative, creative spirit and keen to 

progress professionally. 

For a more precise analysis it should be 

examined the labor movement, i.e. movement of 

personnel over a period (inputs and outputs) 

determined by socio-economic reasons such as 

retirement, death, transfer, activity restriction 

(table 3). 

The number of persons left in S.C. 

Comcereal S.A. Vaslui although it is growing in 

the year 2011, total negative impact on the 

dynamics of movement, which in the same year 

2011 decreased from the previous year, this being 

possible due to increased inflows of 10.9%. 

Strategic planning in S.C. Comcereal S.A. 

takes place in several stages: identifying mission of 

SC Comcereal S.A. Vaslui, examining the external 

environment, internal analysis, forecasting 

organization development, implementation and 

review of development plans.


Nr. 

crt. 

Stability of staff at S.C. Comcereal S.A. Vaslui between 2009 – 2011 

Indicators 2009 2010 2011 

100 

Dynamics % 

2011/2009 2011/2010 

1. Total employees 532 543 552 103,7 101,6 

2. Average number of entries 42 55 61 145,2 110,9 

3. Average number of departures 44 44 52 118,1 118,1 

4. Entry coefficient 0,078 0,081 0,110 141,0 135,8 

5. Departure coefficient 0,082 0,081 0,091 110,9 112,3 

6. Total movement coefficient 0,161 0,182 0,204 126,7 112,0 

The structure of staff S.C. Comcereal S.A. 

we see a continuous specialization of those active 

in society, with the year 2011 a total of 25 

personnel in order to conduct business in a most 

professional responsibilities and the business 

decisions that executed. Besides these there are in 

the organization an internal training through 

training programs, where employees are trained in 

a sector so that it can replace at any time a fellow 

professional on the same line. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Large farms and structure are more flexible 

and integrated human resource management as a 

strategic activity, and this is reflected in a reduced 

conflictualitate good economic and financial 

results. It requires robust policies promoting staff 

motivation in farms. 

The concept of strategic planning in SC 

Comcereal S.A. is defined as the forecast of 

business organization that allows it to determine, 

quantify and continuously maintain a permanent 

connection between resources and objectives on 

the one hand and market opportunities on the 

other. 

Table 3 

Research conducted at S.C. Comcereal S.A. 

Vaslui has shown that this very important aspect of 

management. Management is needed at farm level 

to consider human resource as a strategic asset and 

to integrate human resource management in the 

strategic management of the company. 

REFERENCES 

Brezuleanu, S, 2005 - Management agricol – teorie şi 

practică, Editura Performantica, Iaşi. 

Brezuleanu, et col., 2011- Management Diagnosis- 

Method of increasing the viability potential of 

agricultural farms from the Central Moldavian 

Plateau.- Management of techological changes. 

Proceedings of the &th International Conference 

on Management of Tehnological Changes, , 

Alexandrouplolis Greece, Book 2 pp 625-628, 

ISBN 978-960-99486-3-0. 

Mathis, R.L., Nica, P.C., Russu, C., 1997 - 

Managementul resurselor umane, Editura 

Economică, Bucureşti. 

Russu, C., Gheorghe, Ileana, 2004 - Managementul 

resurselor umane, Editura Tribuna Economică 

București. 

Ticu, C., Stoica, Constantin, A., 2002 - 

„Managementul resurselor umane”, Editura 

Institutul European, Iași.

Abstract 

PRICE STRATEGIES IN TRAVEL SERVICES 

Dan BODESCU 1 , Ionela Iulia APETRII 

e-mail: dbodescu@uaiasi.ro;apetrii.ionela@yahoo.com 


101 


The purpose of this paper is to identify ways to increase economic performance accommodations by implementing 

effective strategies. In this price range strategies were analyzed weekly, prices vary according to season, prices and 

prices associated with loyalty. Each of these methods were analyzed in a case study in a unit of a unit of travel. The 

results obtained showed the need to consolidate and develop their own strategies for marketing of tourism services. 

Key words: services price, economic efficiency, economic security 

The price is influenced by supply and 

demand characteristics and the power relations 

between them. The relationship between demand 

and supply of services meet two situations (Kotler 

Ph. And Armstrong G , 2008). 

The elasticity of demand for a large part of 

the services is high, the greater market power is 

held by customers. They can choose to buy certain 

services to and make it their own if the price is too 

high. The price of these services will be influenced 

mostly by customers. 

In the second situation is vital to customer 

service and a high degree of difficulty. In this case 

customers are relatively powerless in relation to 

which this time bidders have the strength to 

determine the price (Plumb I. and Ionescu 

Manuela, 2004). 

However, all bidders are those who tempers 

prices through competition. However, for many 

services such mental association is found in the 

customers' service quality - great price "and even 

reverse" high price - quality services. This is the 

effect of psychological factors determining the 

market (Moga T. and Carmen Valentina 

Rădulescu, 2003). 

Pricing services is a constant concern of 

service providers because it is the means of valuing 

their effort. Its interest is to obtain as high a price 

to cover costs and achieve a profit margin. Buyer 

interest is to obtain services at the lowest possible 

price. It considers utility fee based disposable 

income and the effort and it makes one (Ioncică 

Maria, 2006). 


The working method used in this work has 

focused on economic analysis and case study on a 

tourist units. Unit that is the case study was 

researched in the paper this paper coauthored by 

undergraduate graduation. 

The results presented were the economic 

scenarios based on different marketing strategies. 

Used information from the unit's own documents 

researched and published documents on the official 

website of the Ministry of Finance. 


Economic analysis has sought ways to 

increase the economic performance of tourism 

facilities in ways to adapt prices to demand and its 

peculiarities. 

Given weekly price range of this strategy 

were determined five different thing. The first 

option is Vo-current version of a common tariff of 

75 lei per room during the weekend and on 

weekdays and a total of 460 tourists. In this 

situation shows that profit is 7.170 lei, with a profit 

rate of 24,2% and 30,6% safety margin. In this 

case tourism unit would record an annual profit of 

7.170 lei. 

If we consider the variant V1-variant when 

they differentiated prices on rooms for the 

weekend (80 lei), and during the week (60 lei), will 

be a disadvantage, since some customers coming 

weekend will be attracted by prices of the week 

and will accommodate at this time.


Prices differentiated by week 

Economic results 

0 1 

Option 

2 3 4 

price weekend (lei/ room) 80 80 80 80 

price middle of the week (lei/room) 60 60 60 60 

common price (lei/ room) 75 

number of days / room 460 

number of days / room w 360 360 380 380 

number of days / room md 100 160 180 220 

income (lei) 34.500 34.800 38.400 41.200 43.600 

fixed costs (lei) 16.290 16.290 16.290 16.290 16.290 

variable cost (lei/ room) 24 24 24 24 24 

total expenses (lei) 27.330 27.330 28.770 29.730 30.690 

gross profit (lei) 7.170 7.470 9.630 11.470 12.910 

profit rate (%) 26,2 27,3 33,5 38,6 42,1 

margin of safety rate (%) 30,6 23,0 31,9 36,8 41,0 

If we take another option to see how much 

pension will increase revenue, we can take V2variant 

version incorporating a great advantage. It 

could be that some tourists who come to the 

weekend tourist unit, will remain here another 1-2 

days, or will come 1-2 days earlier. 

There is also the possibility that some 

potential customers to come because of lower 

prices during the week. 

This version is slightly different from the 

previous one, although prices are the same and on 

weekends and weekdays. The difference lies in 

increasing the number of tourists during the 

coming week but the number is the same weekend. 

Because of this, there was a profit of 9.630 lei, 

higher than the original version, and than the 

version V1. The profit rate is 33,5% recorded 

increasing profitability threshold being 354, and 

the safety margin recorded a value of 31,9 %. 

Prices vary according to seasons 

102 

Table 1 

Besides these two types of efficiency, also 

include others, such as for example the variant V3drive 

tourists come from customers who calculate 

their average price per room on a tourist staying at 

the unit and will accommodate a common period, 

weekends and weekdays. This time it increases the 

number of tourists who come to drive tourists on 

weekends from 360 persons to 380 persons and the 

number of people who come during the week to 

160 people to 180 people. We observe that as the 

number of tourists increases both weekend and 

weekend will be an increase in all economic 

performance. Gross profit will record a value of 

11.470 lei, the profit rate will be 38,6% and the 

safety margin will record a value of 36,8%. And if 

this variant prices are the same as previous 

versions, that is 80 lei per room during the 

weekend and 60 lei per room during the week, the 

price per room / night. 


0 1 

Option 

2 3 4 






number of days / room md 0 60 50 150 

income (lei) 34.500 32.200 31.000 34.700 39.700 



total expenses (lei) 27.330 27.330 27.330 28.530 30.930 


profit rate (%) 26,2 17,8 13,4 21,6 28,4 

margin of safety rate (%) 30,6 1,6 1,6 11,3 25,8 

In this case will only increase the number of 

people who come during the week to 180 people, 

as were predecessor to 220 people. Profit made on 

the last version is 12.910 lei, and the profit rate of 

42,1% safety margin is 41.0%. Gross profit 

Table 2 

increases from one version to another, from 7,170 

lei from the original version to version 12.910 to 

V4. 

B. Prices vary according to season is 

differentiated pricing for different periods: specific

price in season and extra season specific price. 

Like the other strategy, note that this may 5 

pension options to maximize performance. Here 

we took into account a rate of 70 lei / room in 

season, and 50 lei / room in low season. The first 

variant V0 is the same as the previous scenario 

since remained a common price for the season and 

the season, achieving the same economic results. 

Next version, V1-one which requires that all 

visitors are interested to come to drive tourist 

season, and nobody wants to come during the 

season. Then it is apparent that the economic 

performance of the pension will fall to 4.870 lei, 

with a profit rate of 17,8%. 

The next variant, variants V2-is the 

disadvantage that some of the customers who came 

to drive tourist season decided to turn to during the 

season. Also here we see that there have been 

losses. 

So far we have illustrated situations where 

tourism unit could not obtain favorable economic 

Associated prices 

103 


results. Following will bring increases in annual 

profit. V3-version means that in addition to 

travelers to the season, there are people who will 

come in season, variant that will lead to increased 

economic performance, recording a profit of 6170 

lei per year. Last option, V4-is version that will 

increase the number of people will come and will 

accommodate the season. Thus, it will increase 

revenue per room each year. 

In this case there was a continuous increase 

in gross profit. In version 1 and version 2 that have 

recorded the lowest values of gross profit a year 

before recovering. 

C. Prices associated with the case have 

proposed three options. The first version was V1 

version which some tourists will stay another day 

at half price or where these tourists will come a 

day earlier. We note that the strategy, there was a 

profit of 11.710 lei, and a profit rate of 38,2%. 


0 1 

Option 

2 3 

price weekend (lei/ room) 80 80 80 

price middle of the week (lei/room) 40 60 60 



number of days / room w 460 460 460 

number of days / room md 140 210 340 

income (lei) 34.500 42.400 49.400 57.200 

fixed costs (lei) 16.290 16.290 16.290 16.290 

variable cost (lei/ room) 24 24 24 24 

total expenses (lei) 27.330 30.690 32.370 35.490 

gross profit (lei) 7.170 11.710 17.030 21.710 

profit rate (%) 26,2 38,2 52,6 61,2 

margin of safety rate (%) 30,6 24,6 47,1 55,7 

In addition to this model, we considered 

another variant, variant V2, which means that 

about 75,0% of tourists, to get two extra days of 

accommodation, and this situation will be further 

increases in the economic performance record. By 

using this option, tourism unit will record a profit 

of 17.030 lei, and a profit rate of 52,6%. V3 is one 

which requires that all tourists stay at tourist unit to 

stand two extra days. This option is a profit of 

21.710 lei. 

Gross profit increased from the original 

version (V0) of the 7.170 lei to V3, which saw a 

profit of 21.710 lei. 

D. Price of loyalty to gain new economic 

results, business tourism could give vouchers loyal 

tourists, aimed mainly at their return, either alone 

or accompanied by friends. 

In this case we took as reference the initial 

version, when not given vouchers and four 

variants, each generating more income as original 

Table 3 

version. We note that the prices are different from 

previous cases, so the weekend accommodation on 

a room will pay 75 lei / room, and for weekdays 

will pay 53 lei / room. 

From those presented so far, it has strengths 

and weaknesses. The first version V1 is not 

available to tourists vouchers, in which economic 

unit does not lose anything but the end result no 

further. 

The next version, V2-means that if some of 

the customers will come back with those vouchers, 

or will give to friends. Then, the unit will record 

certainly more economical results. Recorded as 

revenue of 11,730 lei, and a profit rate of 37,6%. 

Next version, V3-involves providing 

vouchers to the voucher, part of the 460 tourists, 

come with friends, and implicit in this situation, 

the voucher will double. Our gross profit in this 

situation will be 14.010 lei, and the profit rate of 

42,3%. Last option, V4-shows the highest price


during the week is equal to variable cost, in which 

case the safety margin is reduced, leading to a 

decrease in safety and business, with all that profit 

remains the same. 

In variants V0, V1, V4 gross profit recorded 

the same amount of 7.170 lei, while V2, profit rose 

to 11.730 lei, and V3 increased further to 14.010 

lei. 

E. Strategy assurance of additional 

services at the same price In this situation we 

have considered only two alternatives. 

If the first version V1 are highlighted 

additional services that are not approved by 

tourists, and therefore no additional variable costs, 

is the only indicator that will increase fixed costs 

Prices associated with vouchers 

104 

(17.290 lei). This will generate lower gross profit 

from a version to another, and lower profit rate 

from 26.2% to 21,8%. Safety margin is reduced by 

4,3%. 

The second option analyzes the situation in 

which some customers are attracted additional 

services and therefore would be a preferred tourist 

unit which that unit will increase demand for 

services. In this situation there will be a further 

variable costs increase by 5, a lei and fixed costs 

from 16.290 lei to 17.290 lei., Where customers 

will bring additional revenue at least equal to 

additional expenses. The strategy has been a 

decrease in profit from one version to another. 


0 1 

Option 

2 3 4 






number of days / room md 160 240 160 

income (lei) 34.500 34.500 42.900 47.100 38.340 



total expenses (lei) 27.330 27.330 31.170 33.090 31170 


profit rate (%) 26,2 26,2 37,6 42,3 23,0 

margin of safety rate (%) 30,6 10,9 33,9 41,5 -3,0 

Additional services at the same price 

Economic results Option 

0 1 2 

common price (lei/ room) 75 75 75 

number of days / room 460 460 460 

income (lei) 34.500 34.500 34.500 

fixed costs (lei) 16.290 17.290 17.290 

variable cost (lei/ room) 24 24 24 

aditional variable cost (lei/ room) 5 

total expenses (lei) 27.330 28.330 30.630 

gross profit (lei) 7.170 6.170 3.870 

profit rate (%) 26,2 21,8 12,6 

margin of safety rate(%) 30,6 26,3 26,3 

CONCLUSIONS 

Economic analysis summary on how the 

price fixing of tourism can lead to insurance 

company economic performance. 

Any pricing strategies can provide an 

economic advantage to a profit margin of 26,2% to 

61.2% and a safety up from 30,6% to a value of 

55,7%. 

REFERENCES 

Table 4 

Table 5 

Kotler Ph., Armstrong G, 2008 – Principiile 

marketingului, Editura Teora, Bucureşti p. 86.; 

Ioncică Maria, 2006 - - Economia serviciilor – probleme 

aplicative, Ed. Uranus, Bucureşti, p. 128. 

Moga T., Carmen Valentina Rădulescu, 2003- 

Economia industriilor si serviciilor rurale, Editura 

A.S.E, Bucureşti, p. 312; 

Plumb I. Ionescu Manuela, 2004, Reingineria 

serviciilor, Editura ASE, Bucuresti, p. 254.

Abstract 

105 


ELABORATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TRACEABILITY 

ASSURANCE SYSTEMS SUNFLOWER 

Dan BODESCU 1 , Ionela Iulia APETRII 

e-mail: dbodescu@uaiasi.ro;apetrii.ionela@yahoo.com 

The proposed work is to reveal the technical, economic and administrative systems development to ensure traceability 

chain sunflower. Components involved in these processes are to ensure traceability system design, adaptive 

management information requirements traceability, design and implement procedures for withdrawal of products, 

improving the system to ensure traceability of external verification and accreditation system to ensure traceability and 

ensuring economic efficiency specific traceability. Research methodology is centered on case study in SC Ulerom S.A. 

the city Vaslui unit that analyzed the implementation of the traceability system and economics effects of it. The results 

obtained show that traceability system implemented by the unit is functional but it costs is not justified in economic 

results achieved in the short term. 

Key words: food safety, traceability, return 

Traceability provides customers with 

traceability of a product road map to obtain raw 

materials to finished result product. It is the direct 

consequence of increasing consumer confidence in 

food purchased and therefore long term, the 

economic efficiency. Also, check the route through 

traceability of food products with a significant 

impact for end users to legislative bodies and for 

manufacturers of food processing (Mencinicopschi 

Gh., 2005). 

The main objective of traceability is to 

ensure total control over the products through 

individual and group identification, to intervene if 

the process of manufacture or market links with 

non-compliance is found or disadvantages of the 

product (Motoiu,R., 1994). 

In the food industry, traceability becomes 

particularly important because recordings are 

essential both legally and ethically. Traceability is 

important for producers and consumers. This is a 

solution for consumer protection and a means of 

control and responsibility for determining the 

product chain actors (Ioancea, L., Kathrein,I., 

1989). 

To ensure order and control over production 

achieved in the organization should implement a 

system of identification and traceability. It is 

intended to provide information about where the 

causes of nonconformities and will help reduce the 

cost of remediation, when appropriate (Banu 

C.,2008). 



The main objective of this paper is to highlight 

technical, economic and administrative development of 

systems to ensure traceability chain sunflower. 

Research methods used include: documenting 

scientific ground on ways to implement the SC system 

Ulerom SA case study on how to ensure traceability 

system unit, systematic analysis on the design and 

implementation of system components to ensure 

traceability and economic analysis focused on key 

indicators of economic efficiency. 

The information used was obtained from the 

unit's internal documents and documents published on 

the official website of the Ministry of Finance. 

Dissemination of research presented in this work 

was done by a dissertation project co-authors of this 

paper. 


Implementation of internal traceability 

About the unit Ulerom S.A. was done using codes, 

documents and records, data management tools 

and procedures for withdrawal of products. Since 

the company has no obligation to use only one 

system of traceability, but also to provide evidence 

that doing so is essential that the system is 

documented. 

Traceability system elements in the SC unit 

Ulerom S.A. are operative as part of the company 

of other procedures such as procurement, quality 

assurance, etc.. The first step in establishing a 

traceability system is to analyze current procedures 

and operations to determine what factors are


already present and identify shortcomings in the 

transfer of information needed for traceability. 

Involved in producing components for 

ensuring traceability system are: ensuring 

traceability system design, adaptive management 

information requirements traceability, design and 

implement procedures for withdrawal of products, 

improving the system to ensure traceability of 

external verification and accreditation system to 

ensure specific traceability and traceability 

ensuring economic efficiency. 

A. Plan development and implementation 

system to ensure traceability of the company 

includes the following steps: 

1. Establishing an administrative team has 

designated role, establishing authority and 

responsibility for operation of the system to ensure 

traceability. It has a technological and an 

administrative component. Designated by the unit 

team S.C. Ulerom S.A. to ensure traceability is 

represented by an engineering technologist and 

administrative manager. 

2. Achieving flow diagram - flow diagram 

provides information on technological 

transformations that drive the product suffers from 

Review existing procedures and records 

106 

purchasing raw materials to finished product 

delivery. 

3. Identify existing procedures existing 

procedures will be adapted and supplemented with 

specific procedures to ensure traceability. Existing 

procedures may include the procurement, quality 

monitoring mode, batch coding procedures etc.; 

4. Identification of existing records is the 

stage which is to identify current records and how 

they are produced in association with operations 

and products. This information is encrypted and 

written to provide the necessary documentation 

tracking system. Procedures and records include 

the name of the document and its location in 

reference to company records. 

5. Confirmation in situ confirmation that all 

information is intended to be found in some books 

or records that are kept in the manufacturing 

departments or offices. 

Structure of unit operations S.C. Ulerom 

S.A. is registered as a process diagram or a written 

record in a table that has the advantage of 

introducing references to specific written 

procedures or records. 

Operation Procedures Records 

purchase 

Purchase and transport conditions of the particular 

product 

Receiving bills and notes 

reception 

The quality Assigning a code number for the 

consignment 

Laboratory reports or records 

storage (if applicable) stock register records storage 

processing Processing procedure Records of the processing 

packing Packing procedure 

Records of packaging 

product labels 

distribution Transport of commercial units Roadmap 

All documents required to ensure 

traceability of the process are dated and signed by 

the person carrying out the operations specified in 

the protocol procedure. Nature of the information 

contained in these documents will be approved by 

the administrative team in accordance with the law. 

B. Information Management 

In general and in particular the unit 

investigated traceability is primarily related to 

information management. When a product 

undergoes a transformation operation, information 

that relates to that product undergoes a change so 

that the link between product and store 

information. Changes may change the information 

are: the transfer, the addition, unification, division. 

1. The transfer is one of the most simple 

information processing operation. In this case, the 

product identification codes are transferred to the 

product while browsing the installation. 

Table 1 

2. Addition information is required during 

the process when new components are added 

technology or product is subject to operations that 

change the product composition of chemically or 

microbiologically. In this situation, continues to 

use the product identification code which is, 

however, unique process but records are filled with 

ingredients identification codes used or the 

operation performed. 

3. Unification of information occurs when a 

process step of combining several batches, each 

with its own identification code. In this case, the 

new group obtained shall be a new identification 

code, and records indicate the identification code 

of the components. 

4. Division information is used when the 

group is divided according to the requirements of 

the technological process or structure of the 

company product offerings. In this case, for each 

unit divided resulting assigned new identification

codes. Basically, the new code is assigned to the 

next stage of processing. 

For continuing operations, record the date 

and time separate consignment enters and exits the 

process. Labels do not contain all information 

needed to ensure traceability but links to 

documents providing this information. This 

condition is usually satisfied by using individual 

and unique batch codes that are links to full 

records. 

Basically, this objective is achieved by 

adapting existing registration systems 

modernization using bar code identification labels 

on radio frequencies, scanners and computer 

systems, etc.. 

C. Procedure for withdrawal of products 

Ultimately, the realization of a traceability 

system which aimed at creating the possibility of 

withdrawal of one or more lots of products that 

proved it could endanger the safety of consumers. 

For this, it is necessary to ensure operability 

procedures for the withdrawal of products as part 

of the traceability system. 

An effective model to provide such a 

procedure is provided by the Canadian Food 

Inspection Agency. This system includes nine 

steps and is implemented in the unit studied. 

1. Management team meeting. In the 

documentation to withdraw products are specified 

identity and how to contact each member of team 

management responsibilities in this proceeding and 

appointed substitutes. The team includes members 

of senior management in departments such as 

production, quality management, distribution, 

public relations, etc.., Such as operations 

managers, lawyers and media experts. 

2. Keeping records of complaints 

(complaints file). This documentation includes a 

formal specification for recording complaints and 

noncompliance, so that the nature of complaints to 

be recorded with the actions taken by the company 

to investigate the causes and prevent recurrence of 

such events. 

3. Listing of contacts for product recalls. 

Information on individuals and organizations to be 

contacted in case of withdrawal of a product 

should be stored in a file that will be periodically 

reviewed and updated as needed. This information 

includes: 

a. competent authority to be informed, as 

required by law, the incident requiring the 

withdrawal of a product; 

b. customers - to locate product along the 

food chain and information that next tier of 

channels; 

107 


c. suppliers - for information on any product 

that does not conform to specifications, to initiate 

appropriate measures; 

d. media - if the product was distributed in 

the market and will be necessary to inform 

consumers about product details and the potential 

generated by its use. 

4. Tracking and tracing of products based 

documents including traceability procedures 

implemented by the company. 

5. Making records to supply and distribution 

records to ensure traceability, the firm should be 

able to determine that the product provider and 

where raw materials were distributed products 

were obtained from the same batch of raw 

materials. It also identified the person responsible 

for recording these documents. 

6. Setting the procedure for withdrawal is 

part of this procedure are defined various levels of 

response to non-compliance. This can range from 

reimbursement or replacement of poor quality 

product to withdraw the full amount of product on 

the market, if an incident is a serious risk to 

consumer health. If withdrawal of a product is 

important to set a clear scenario of events covered. 

For each sequence there is a written procedure 

detailing to be done, how and by whom. 

7. Registration withdrawn products. For 

reasons of accountability, records are kept of 

products withdrawn so as to ensure that all 

products have been withdrawn from the food chain 

and to measure the effectiveness of the withdrawal 

plan. Records include details about the product, the 

amount withdrawn, the date of withdrawal and 

removal product in the food chain and details on 

what to do with the product. 

8. Assessing the effectiveness of the 

withdrawal procedure. A good management 

practice, to achieve the withdrawal procedure, 

requires to evaluate and efficiency and 

improvement. 

9. Testing withdrawal plan if necessary to 

withdraw a product is late discovery that the 

system fails. It is therefore important that the 

withdrawal procedure is tested regularly. This is 

part of traceability or verification procedure can be 

done regularly. 

D. External Traceability 

External traceability allows product tracking 

throughout the food chain, ie from the raw material 

to consumer. To achieve this it is necessary that 

information held by an individual company to be 

shared and other participants in the food chain. 

This exchange of information takes place in 

parallel with product movement in the food chain. 

Administrative manager responsible for 

ensuring the traceability of the unit Ulerom SA, is


the person in charge of gathering information from 

other participants of traceability. 

Development of systems for ensuring 

effective external traceability must overcome some 

obstacles such as: 

• commercial confidentiality because 

information about the product is regarded as a 

good and companies are reluctant to provide 

information about it; 

• Identify information required to be 

transferred along the food chain - because the 

amount of information about a product should be 

determined what is necessary to ensure 

traceability. 

• Compatibility information with individual 

internal traceability systems. 

• Differences between legal provisions for a 

different product markets and therefore in different 

countries. 

External traceability is achieved by ensuring 

traceability systems alone and embedded. 

A traceability system is achieved where 

independent companies take responsibility for 

obtaining the information necessary to trace their 

suppliers and their transmission to its customers. 

All unit, so Ulerom S.A. both suppliers and 

customers realize their traceability systems, taking 

into account the information provided by other 

units of the chain. This transfer of information 

meets the minimum legal requirement of European 

legislation. This system is called "closed system". 

In such a system, a company with the object of 

processing of raw materials supply, ensure that it 

provided all information necessary to identify the 

supplier and product identification code. Usually, 

this means that receives information about the 

product as a delivery note with the product label 

attached. 

E. Verification and certification of 

traceability systems 

Traceability systems are criticized because 

the food chain information is not detailed and 

consistent. Therefore, implementation of such 

systems involve a high degree of responsibility for 

the economic actors involved in the food chain. 

We believe that a traceability system is effective 

only if the physical and security measures they 

prevent fraud. The audits, security systems are 

evaluated on the basis of performance and speed of 

providing information. 

Produce not randomly selected for testing 

must be identifiable throughout the production 

process for the removal operation to be quick and 

efficient. 

Traceability systems are checked to see if 

they fulfill many purposes such as: 

108 

• Obtaining evidence of traceability in the 

upstream and downstream of the check. 

• Establish a clear transparency of 

manufacturing production continues. 

• Include all materials and ingredients. 

• Provide a response within a relatively short 

time. 

• Provide clear and readable information for 

client or customer. 

Assessing the effectiveness of a system to 

ensure traceability is achieved through auditing, 

similar to checking the effectiveness of other 

systems, that the quality management, food safety, 

work safety and the environment. 

Auditing is an action of making an audit, 

systematic, independent and documented evidence 

of obtaining an objective measure to determine the 

extent to which audit criteria are met. The audit is 

the main way by which a company can obtain 

evidence that the system has implemented or not. 

The audit can be achieved by several types: 

• Internal Audit (first part) - that made by the 

representatives of a company's own needs or 

representatives of a unit qualified to perform this 

activity. 

• second-audit is conducted by customers of 

a company or their representatives. 

• Audit of tertiary services requires use of 

specialized external audit firms, such as 

certification companies. 

The audit is done in several stages: planning 

and preparation of audit, management audit, 

analysis results, establish corrective actions, 

verification of the corrective actions. 

Ensuring traceability systems are regarded 

as part of quality assurance management system. 

The traceability is considered to interact with 

HACCP system, but can be seen as a separate 

operating system, mainly related to the control 

system. The inspection and certification of food is 

based on the same objectives and same effect as 

the traceability system. Thus we must consider: 

• Inspection consists of examining foods or 

food control systems, raw materials, manufacturing 

and distribution process, semifinished and finished 

products testing for compliance with applicable 

standards. 

• Certification is the procedure by which the 

certification takes the responsibility that food and 

food control systems conform to standards. 

Certification of food inspection activities based on 

the flow, audit quality assurance system and 

examination of finished products. 

• Equivalence is the capability of different 

inspection and certification systems to have the 

same objectives.

Minimum information to be included on the 

label refers to: 

• provider name, 

• product description, 

• the provider product codes, 

• date of manufacture. 

Transfer information through a written 

record is considered inefficient in some cases 

because the information must be entered into the 

information system of each company making up its 

chain. External traceability system efficiency is 

greatly enhanced when information transfer is done 

109 


electronically in a format approved by all 

participants and the food chain. 

An easy way to solve this potential problem 

is the use of standardized bar codes database 

company. This involves an integrated approach to 

traceability, which can benefit the entire food 

chain. 

F. Economic efficiency of traceability 

Evaluation of economic efficiency through a 

system of indicators is a lot of information with 

regard to investment activity and production efforts 

quantifying the effects and their behavior 

Table 2 

Specific economic indicators S.C. Ulerom S.A. the lack of process conditions to ensure traceability 

Indicators / year 2007 2008 2009 2010 

net turnover (thousands lei) 64.529 96.886 108.618 126.493 

total income (thousands lei) 71.358 118.808 140.381 130.699 

total expenditure (thousands lei) 70.100 116.778 138.168 129.238 

gross profit (thousands lei) 1.258 2.029 2.212 1.223 

net profit (thousands lei) 1.072 1.725 1.913 1.223 

number of employees 185 183 183 177 

labor productivity (thousands lei/man) 386 649 767 738 

profit rate (%) 1,79 1,73 1,6 0,94 

Turnover was calculated as total revenue 

business operations conducted by the firm, 

namely the sale of goods and products in a period 

of time. Turnover of the unit Ulerom S.A. is 

increasing, from 2007 until 2010, it evolved to 

61.964 thousand, ie by 95%. 

The value of turnover was registered in 

2010 - value: 126.493 thousand, and the lowest 

turnover was achieved in 2007 - value: 64.529 

thousand. In the last balance sheet, in 2010, the 

turnover of the unit Ulerom SA, increased by 

17.874 thousand, ie 8.59%. 

Total revenues were recorded increases in 

economic benefits during the accounting period as 

inputs or decreases of liabilities, which resulted in 

increases or equity other than those resulting from 

contributions of the shareholders. 

Economic indicators Ulerom unit S.A. insurance under the traceability process 

Table 3 

Indicators / year 2007 2008 2009 2010 

net turnover (thousands lei) 64.529 96.886 108.618 126.493 

total income (thousands lei) 71.358 118.808 140.381 130.699 

total expenditure (thousands lei) 70.863 117.184 138.562 129.652 

gross profit (thousands lei) 495 1.624 1.819 1.046 

net profit (thousands lei) 416 1.364 1.528 879 

number of employees 185 183 183 177 

labor productivity (thousands lei/man) 386 649 767 738 

profit rate (%) 0,69 1,38 1,31 0,8 

The average income in the years 2007-2010 

was 115.311 thousand. Revenues are recorded and 

they increased in 2007-2009 by about 50.8%, but 

the same can be said for the year 2010 when 

revenues fell by 9.3%. 

Costs represented amounts or amounts paid 

or payable for: consumption, work performed and 

services provided by third parties, personnel 

compensation, legal or contractual obligations to 

discharge the property or unit, provisioning and 

depreciation, exceptional consumption. 

In the period 2007-2010 was spent 

approximately one thousand four hundred 

thousand every year to implement it. Although 

implementation of the traceability system costs are 

not covered and no profit is made from them, the 

advantage of this system will be noticed in time, 

when consumers will be informed far more 

specific about the route that follows the product 

before it is consumed . 

Unit Ulerom S.A. achieved profit increases 

in all years take into account, less in 2010 when 

profit was a decrease of 989.483 thousand the 

previous year. Unit profit increased by 59,3% 

between 2007-2009. According balance declared 

Ulerom S.A. no losses in any year. 

After implementation of the traceability both 

gross profit and the net income derived unit


suffered declines, which will be recovered in the 

near future. In all four years consider profit 

decreased on average by 8,25% in 2008-2010. The 

largest decrease occurring in the first year the 

system was implemented respectively in 2007, the 

unit profit decreased by 39.5%. 

Labor productivity measures the efficiency 

of work in a while. 

Average labor productivity is 635 lei / 

person, this average was exceeded in 2008-2010, 

the most effective productivity in 2009 was 

767.000 lei / person exceeds approximately 100% 

productivity in 2007 which was only 386.000 lei / 

person. 

Rate of return - the ability of firms to get the 

work they carry out a profit in terms of mobilizing 

the resources available. This, before establishing 

traceability in all four years taken into account is 

1,51% to 1,04% as profit rate after the 

implementation of traceability. Differences were 

recorded in 2007 and 2010 the rate of profit fell 

1,79% to 0,94%, it happened during the tracking 

system did not apply. 

110 

CONCLUSIONS 

Implement system to ensure traceability lead 

to improved business entities with control 

processes. 

Economically, the design and 

implementation to ensure traceability economically 

not improve results but to reduce the economic 

efficiency of this. The case study in S.C. Ulerom 

S.A. implementation of this system has reduced 

profitability from 1,5% to 1,0%. 

REFERENCES 

Banu C.,2008, Tratat de industrie alimentară I Probleme 

generale, Publisher Asab Bucureşti; 

Ioancea, L., Kathrein,I., 1989, Condiţionarea şi 

valorificarea superioară a materiilor prime 

animale în scopuri alimentare – Tehnologii şi 

instalaţii, Publisher Ceres, Bucureşti; 

Mencinicopschi Ghe., 2005 Siguranţa alimentară – 

Autenticitate şi Trasabilitate, Publisher Mirton, 

Timisoara; 

Motoiu,R., 1994, Ingineria calităţii, Publisher Chiminform 

Data S.A., Bucureşti;

111 


SOME ACTUAL ISSUES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT 

Abstract 

Viorel POP 1 , Mircea POP 1 

e-mail: leroivpop@yahoo.com 

Human society is undergoing a more profound identity crisis period, economic development based on the waste of raw 

materials, fuels and energy, contributing greatly to this crisis, having as basis the premises of wrong priorities. In order 

to avoid an ecological disaster of proportions, a series of scientific personalities, and most ordinary people - have taken 

firm attitude towards the phenomenon of pollution, from which results the deterioration of our living environment. In 

these conditions arose the concept of "sustainable development". Management is certainly the main driver of economic 

development of the world of the twentieth century, world that increasingly uses scientific knowledge, management 

being itself the result of applied scientific knowledge. As a result - the sustainable development also can enjoy the 

advantages of using techniques, functions and general approaches of management regarding the overall development 

paths, in order to achieve maximum results in the proposed goals, set at the level of local communities, states or even 

globally, in terms of reducing material consumption and pollution, to achieve the goal of welfare for all, on a clean 

planet. 

Key words: sustainable development, global issues, management. 

The development without hindrance since 

the world entered the "industrial age" now more 

than 200 years, has started from the image of 

"unlimited" dimensions of our planet and its ability 

to ensure "forever" non-renewable mineral 

resources, excellent living condition and welfare 

for a rapidly expanding population, but also the 

planet's ability to take forever pollutants from 

industrial and non-industrial activity. 

In the world literature numerous papers have 

appeared in recent decades, referring to "global 

problems" which human civilization faces now, at 

the beginning of 21st century. "Problems" are 

those who, at the Planet level, essentially influence 

all areas of social life, their non-resolving making 

impossible to address other problems, which also 

require a solution at global-planetary level. 

Industrial and agricultural production has 

spectacularly increased, based on unprecedented 

progress in science and technology, which led to a 

deepening global division of labor, expanding 

international economic and trade relations, 

emphasizing the interdependence of all countries at 

worldwide level. 

As a consequence of the process 

enlargement of industrialization, also increased the 

need of raw materials, energy and food, 

urbanization spread, reaching the maximum level 

of affordability of the planet, due to the limited 

mineral resources and the pollution phenomenon 


which inherent accompany in the current 

development conditions of human society. Thus, it 

requires more and more an efficient management 

of natural resource use (Davidescu D., 2002). 


Data and concepts from the literature were 

used as materials and methods, data which were 

processed and from which we have determined new 

original elements of interest, who came to support the 

things presented in the paper. 


The concept of sustainable development 

Lester Brown is credited to be the first to 

release – in the World watch Institute report in 

1984 - the term "sustainable development" which 

then entered in the literature as a reference term 

and became the object of all studies and policy 

documents that address issues of contemporary 

social economic development, expressing the 

increasing concerning of global communities 

regarding the fact that the current model of the 

global economic system is unsustainable in terms 

of resource use of the planet and the balance of 

environmental factors (Flavin C. 2002). 

In the 1984 report, "sustainability" was 

defined as the possible development in harmony


with nature - as an ecological concept with 

economic consequences, pointing out that a 

"sustainable society" is the one that shapes / adapts 

POPULATION 

GROWTH 

Gro Harlem Brundtland (woman) Prime 

Minister of Norway presented the report entitled 

"The future of us all" in the UN Commission on 

Sustainable Development (1987). The report 

highlights the problem created by the 

"demographic explosion", the unbalanced 

geographical distribution of population in 

connection with the available resources of the 

planet and the need of efforts to eliminate poverty, 

raising levels of culture and the development of 

human capacity to improve the efficient use of 

available resources. 

Regarding species and ecosystems, it 

highlights the need to maintain genetic diversity 

and the introduction in this target, in the center of 

political programs, the problem of protecting 

endangered species and ecosystems, proposing a 

protection program of tropical forests and 

developing an extensive international cooperation. 

In this sense, sustainable development can 

be defined as the development that can be 

sustained (maintained) in time with the limited 

resources we have. 

Essential components of a strategy for 

sustainable development include: 

Figure 1 The main "global issues" in present 

112 

its economic and social system, so that to ensure 

natural resources and life support systems not only 

for us, but for future generations. 

UNSUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT 

Waste of Air Soil Water 

resources pollution pollution pollution 

Deforestation Acid rain Desertification Toxic waste 

Ozone Global Extermination Nuclear 

depletion warming of species risks 

Increasing disparities between rich and poor 

Governments - Companies - Consumers 

- Stabilizing population and ensuring a 

decent life for all, 

- Maintaining the natural fertility of soils, 

- Protect the planet's biological systems, 

maintain biodiversity, 

- Recycling, reducing consumption of 

mineral resources. 

Regarding the demographical explosion, 

according to UN statistics, in October 2011 we 

passed the border of 7 billion people, triggering a 

new alarm that the world would move towards a 

Malthusian crisis, by depletion of natural 

resources, mainly drinking water and food crisis, 

overall environmental degradation etc. 

However we can say that the alarm is 

inappropriate, because the growth rate of world 

population slows, although the last 3-4 billion 

came in an accelerated pace, 1 billion in 12-15 

years, see Table 1: 

Compared to 1 billion people, the growth 

rate of world population declined in the last 60 

years from 20.83 million annually, to 13.88 

million, which represents a decrease in the 

percentage of population growth with 33.36%, 

despite increasing life expectancy recorded in this 

period.

113 


Dynamics of world population year 

Year 

World 

population 

Annual absolute 

increase 

Annual increase 

to 1 billion 

1956 3 mld. 

1972 4 62,51* 20,83 

1987 5 66,67 16,67 

1999 6 76,90 15,38 

2011 7 83,33 13,88 mil. 

Source: Calculated by N. Raboca „European Geography‖- 2011 

* population growth, in million inhabitants 

In the latest UN projections, the growth rate 

of world population will decrease to zero at the 

middle of this century. But the greatest challenge 

that the world will face in future is aging. It is 

known that the developed world is already 

experiencing population aging, due to falling birth 

rates and rising life expectancy. In the coming 

decades this phenomenon will include also 

developing countries. 

However, increasing to 10 billion people on 

our planet will be a very difficult exam to ensure 

decent living conditions: food, water, housing etc.. 

Particulars of sustainable 

development management 

Management is certainly the main driver of 

economic development of the world of the 

twentieth century, world that increasingly uses 

scientific knowledge, management being itself the 

result of applied scientific knowledge. 

A number of authors including Richard 

Farmer said that "management is one of the key 

factors that explain why a given country has 

become rich, or remained poor." 

The managerial process must begin with a 

correct determination of objectives, operating both 

with strategic objectives and tactical elements, to 

support achievement of the strategy. Depending on 

the nature and importance of the set objectives, 

arise the other functions. 

In defining management usually have to 

consider three essential components: 

- Setting the correct objectives, 

- Selecting methods and tools for achieving 

them, and 

- Follow to fulfill the purpose of achieving 

established performance. 

Decisions are made by analyzing the likely 

changes in the activity, according to the company 

profile, the decision being based on the optimal 

choice of the many possible ways. Determination 

of the optimal solution, is the key issue of the 

decision - after all, all management functions are 

subordinated to the same purpose - namely to take 

correct decisions. 

Table 1 

The way this function (decision) is realized 

highlights the true value of the manager, through 

the qualities that he has: competence, balance, 

judgment, courage, moral integrity, foresight etc. 

Human resource management, includes all 

management decisions and practices that influence 

directly people, regarding the sustainable 

development of those working in organizations 

concerned to improve environmental performance 

and for others who, being in the adjacent area, are 

affected by lack of economic performance or 

environmental conditions etc. 

In these conditions, of course that the 

sustainable development process can enjoy the 

advantages of using techniques, functions and 

general approaches of management regarding the 

overall development paths, in order to achieve 

maximum results in the proposed goals, set at the 

level of local communities, states or even globally, 

in terms of reducing material consumption and 

pollution, to achieve the goal of welfare for all, on 

a clean planet. 

Management functions 

in sustainable development 

Planning function - answering the question: 

"what do we want and what can be done in the 

sustainable development process" - allows us to 

result in terms of setting objectives, resources, 

means and methods (strategies) necessary to 

accomplish the objectives, elaboration of solutions 

and determine in advance the future problems 

(Burtică M., 2010): 

What do we want to realize in the 

sustainable development process: 

- When establishing the objectives, 

participation is based on the occupied position on 

the issue addressed, some objectives in the 

sustainable development process can be: 

- Progresses in eco-technology domain to 

eliminate waste of resources, 

- Providing decent material and spiritual 

living conditions to the whole population, 

- Measures taken to give future generations a 

natural environment as clean and healthy as 

possible etc.


What can be done, in the 

technological conditions that we have: 

- Our possibilities give us confidence that in 

reasonably time all these goals can be satisfying 

achieved, provided that those responsible at all 

levels, including global level, to want to achieve 

these objectives. 

Control 

Decision 

114 

Organizing function - the question: "Who 

and how contributes to achieve the objectives of 

sustainable development" - means all the 

management processes through which the activities 

to achieve the best possible conditions of the 

anticipated objectives are established and 

determined. 

Figure 2 Management functions applied in the sustainable development 

In order to achieve the objectives, participate 

those responsible for enforcement of the programs 

decided by those entitled to this end, participation 

is based on their position on the issue concerned 

(economic unit accused, companies responsible for 

implementing the action plan, nongovernmental 

organizations, people etc.) implementation 

consisting as appropriate: 

- Compliance with the legal norms of 

environmental protection, 

- Completion of the ecological rehabilitation 

of degraded areas, 

- Use of eco-technologies, avoiding waste, 

- Progress in line of alternative resources 

exploitation, 

- Economic development of states and 

backward areas, the strategy of raising the living 

standard of population etc. 

Also, scientists, NGOs and all population 

interested can participate to achieve these 

objectives. 

Coordination function - representing the 

process of dynamic organization, consists of all 

activities through which the decisions, of the ones 

Planning (goal setting, 

predicting and planning) 

MANAGEMENT 

Communication 

Organizing 

Human 

resources 

that are entitled, harmonize, in order to optimize 

the sustainable development results. 

Coordination function, answering the 

question: "how can we maximize the program 

effects, by optimizing the activity correlation of the 

ones involved..." depends largely on managers 

potential to maintain a favorable atmosphere of 

communication and collaboration of the ones 

involved in the established action regarding the 

sustainable development, success being assured by 

their knowledge and training. 

The need for management coordination 

process, mainly results from: 

- Dynamic processes involved in sustainable 

development 

- But also from the complexity and 

diversity of stakeholders’ relations, demanding a 

permanent operative "feedback", which would 

ensure adequate correlation and decision of the 

planned activities. Due to the scale and complexity 

of processes and to the many factors involved, 

coordination imposes the optimization correlation 

of actions. 

Directing function - as a management 

function, it includes all activities that stakeholders

in the process of sustainable development are 

motivated and determined to contribute to the 

objectives set. 

Directing function, answers the question: 

"How to motivate stakeholders involved in the 

sustainable development process so that their 

results to be maximum?" 

Stages of decision process, according to the 

normative methodology of substantiation and 

elaboration of decisions and the complexity of 

issues addressed are: 

- Identifying and defining problems to solve, 

- Developing possible solutions, 

- Analysis of proposed solutions and 

choosing the most favorable, 

- Implementation of the solution, 

- Analysis / evaluation of results / outcomes 

of the decision taken. 

Motivation, involves the correlation of 

satisfaction of the own interests of the factors 

involved in the sustainable development, with 

objectives achieving and tasks set. Motivation can 

be of various forms, for example: 

- Tax incentives for upgrading outdated 

technology, 

- Constraints caused by the payment of 

pollution charges to reduce emissions, 

- The community residents must take a firm 

attitude against pollution produced by the 

economic incriminated agents, 

- Taking a firm attitude by the community 

residents against pollution of economic agents 

incriminated, 

- Or incentives to increase production or for 

new investment to advantage the community under 

the social aspect of sustainable development etc. 

Control function - aims "the results of the 

activity included in the sustainable development 

program..." 

Control is the final link in the chain of 

management. Control is important because it leads 

to notification of any deviations, the causes that 

made them and establish measures to address the 

deficiencies, to improve work results. 

Control helps all those involved in 

sustainable development to recognize distractions 

factors in achieving goals, helping them to improve 

specific performance. 

By highlighting in time the violations of any 

kind, premises of possible, prompt and efficient 

interventions in order to remedy the deficiencies 

are created, keeping the chances for achieving the 

objectives originally set. 

Starting from the premise of "good faith" of 

all those involved in attaining the goals of 

sustainable development process, factors entitled to 

perform control, have also the role of guiding to 

115 


respect the standards prescribed by law and 

improving the performance of those accused of 

violating the established rules, this way the 

function of guidance and control practically 

doubles its effectiveness in achieving sustainable 

development process. 

Managerial methods 

Managerial methods - which can be found 

in the process of sustainable development, are 

based on the multitude of situations that may occur 

in this process. 

Management methods and techniques that 

can be efficiently used in this process are those that 

best fit the characteristics and peculiarities of 

sustainable development, namely: 

- Management method by objectives, 

- Responsible management method of 

creating a new product, 

- Management method by budgets, 

- Management method through participation 

etc. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This paper takes to discussion "the concept 

of sustainable development", concept led out of the 

major global problems more pressing, bringing in 

support of finding solutions, management science, 

certainly the main driver of vertiginous economic 

development of the present world, a world that 

uses more and more scientific knowledge, 

management being itself the result of applied 

scientific knowledge. 

To apply the principles and methods of 

management in terms of sustainable development, 

it is necessary customizing their fields depending 

on the specificity of these activities. 

The effectiveness of management functions, 

used to support sustainable development programs 

to maximize the effects, depends largely on 

managers potential to maintain a favorable 

atmosphere of communication and collaboration of 

those involved, the success being provided by their 

knowledge and training. 

Thus, to achieve the objectives of 

sustainable development, of decided programs , 

can and must participate besides the administration 

officials, and scientific personalities, NGOs and all 

those interested from the population. Only in this 

way, interacting on the wishes of all, working 

together we will succeed to develop in conditions 

of sustainable development concept requirements .


REFERENCES 

Lester R. Brown, Probleme globale ale omenirii, Editura 

Tehnică, Bucureşti, 1996, pag.31 

Marin Burtică, Previziune economică, Ed. Vasile Goldiş 

Press, 2010, p. 211 

Flavin Christopher, Klaus Toepfer, Starea lumii 2002, 

dau contur viitorului nostru comun, Ed. Tehnică, 

2002, p. 7 

David Davidescu, Conservarea biodiversităţii speciilor 

vegetale şi animale, Ed. Academiei, 2002 

Peter F. Drucker, Managementul viitorului, Ed. ASA 

Bucureşti, 2004 

116 

Gartner Gary şi colab., Starea lumii 2003, Ed. Tehnică, 

2003 

David Held, Transformări globale, Ed. Polirom, 2004 

Ovidiu Nicolescu, Economia, Firma şi Managementul 

bazat pe cunoaştere, Ed. Economică, 2004 

Vasile Oros, Viorel Pop şi colab., Waste Management, 

Ed. Academiei, 2002 

Viorel Pop, Cecilia Pop, Mircea Pop. Management, 

economie şi dezvoltare regională durabilă. Edit. 

Risoprint, Cluj Napoca, 2006. 

Nicolae Raboca, European Geography, Vasile Goldiş 

University Press Publishing, 2009, p. 308

Abstract 

117 


METHODS OF ASSESSMENT THE CAPITALIZATION OF FARMS WITH 

PRODUCTION MEANS AND ANALYSES ON FIELD SURVEY 

Mirela Adriana RUSALI 1 

e-mail: m.rusali@yahoo.com 

The research approaches the identification of factors generating non-farm economic performance in Romanian 

agricultural holdings. Based on evidences from field studies on equipping farms with productive capital goods, presents 

results obtained by applying a model of computation and analysis for the evaluation of farm capitalization – a 

determinant of the economic viability of farms, with sustainable contributions to competitiveness increase in the 

agricultural sector. The model allowed the evaluation of the initial and real cost of mechanical means used in the sample 

farms owned farms, an estimated replacement value of machinery obtained by calculating the value of depreciation and 

the present cost of agricultural machines, representing the average value of net investment and the average quantum by 

types of agricultural mechanical equipment and by farms. Clustering method was applied on the statistical indicators 

corresponding to the sample farms, according to the considered selection criterion. The article presents the results of 

data processing, calculations and analyses that reveal assessments on the studied farms, by regional profile and by 

holding’s legal status (legal or natural person). 

Key terms: agricultural holdings, productive capital, investment, sustainable development 

Imbalances and weaknesses in the external 

performance of the agricultural sector ground on 

several causes at the micro level (Otiman, 2009). 

The paper deals with the study of non-performance 

general factors in Romania's economy at farm 

level, by analyzing the technical capitalization of 

the holdings as, either driver, or restrictive 

determinant of competitiveness. On the 

quantitative evolution, structure and quality of 

productive fixed capital depends to a great extent 

the ability to manage and use land resources 

properly, and thus, future economic development 

of the farm. The article presents the outcome 

provided by applying a calculation model to 

evaluate farm capitalization, in the limits of the 

information provided by field surveys. 


The paper used information from field surveys 

based on statistical sample of agricultural holdings 

and includes the assessment of farms capitalization 

with productive means, by constructing and applying 

a complex model of measurement and analysis. 

The research exploited the database 

information obtained by processing the 

questionnaires in selected localities of all statistical 

regions of Romania, in 2007-2008 - for the 

information homogeneity, 406 questionnaires have 

been selected, followed by the selection of the 

1 Institute of Agricultural Economics – The Romanian Academy 

relevant variables, building and establishing the 

needed indicators and their inclusion in worksheets, 

by types of machines used in farm property (Rusali, 

2009). 

A computation model have been designed to 

evaluate the updated cost of the mechanical means 

of the sample, estimates of their replacement value, 

obtained by calculating the depreciation cost and the 

present value of machinery represented by the 

investment net value. The results reveals evaluations 

obtained by aggregating and selecting the 

appropriate indicators at regional level of analysis, at 

the farm level and by the legal status of the holding, 

namely, natural or legal persons. 

In order to estimate the production technical 

capital, it was necessary to calculate the value of the 

mechanical factors used in holdings’ property. 

Comparable prices have been obtained through 

intermediate operations required to update the prices: 

nominal purchase prices have been deflated with the 

Consumer Price Index (CPI) for non-food goods, 

provided by NIS, at 2009 reference period. The 

purchasing prices were expressed in Euros at the 

annual exchange rate of the acquisition period, 

provided by the central bank, and then adjusted to 

current exchange rate. The analyses were provided 

with the necessary information by applying the 

grouping method of the statistical indicators 

corresponding to the sample farms, according to the 

considered selection criteria (Rusali, 2010).



Tables 1-3 contain results of the evaluation 

of agricultural tractors owned in the studied farms, 

by regional profile and legal status of the holding. 

Table 1 

Regional distribution of the sample farms, 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

by tractors’ value 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 88 52 17 1091 592 869 

R2 156 54 44 4677 1105 2367 

R3 237 79 51 6888 1997 4034 

R4 35 44 6 367 56 245 

R5 155 40 8 378 111 313 

R6 73 66 7 710 206 475 

R7 201 62 54 4557 1463 3322 

R8 42 9 69 947 201 621 

Table 2 

Regional distribution of the natural person farms, 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

by tractors' value 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 18 34 6 241 60 206 

R2 18 23 11 271 87 254 

R3 28 44 3 223 44 118 

R4 24 38 4 179 38 163 

R5 26 27 5 169 73 139 

R6 33 53 3 190 32 168 

R7 37 35 26 966 148 898 

R8 2 2 3 6 1 6 

Table 3 

Regional distribution of the legal farms, 

No. 

No. 

farm 

s 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farm 

by tractors' value 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 70 18 37 850 533 664 

R2 138 31 68 4406 1018 2113 

R3 209 35 112 6665 1953 3917 

R4 11 6 14 188 18 82 

R5 129 13 13 209 38 174 

R6 40 13 24 519 174 307 

R7 164 27 90 3592 1315 2425 

R8 40 7 88 941 200 615 

The detailed results of the analysis include 

the regional distribution of agricultural holdings in 

the sample by the tractors’ value, by the types and 

classes of power, and the value of trailers, trucks 

and off-road cars - the cost of depreciation and net 

investment. The column indicating “Thousands 

RON/farm” shall mean the amount of the net 

investment per farm (agricultural holding). As 

indicated by figure 1, there are observed disparities 

between agricultural holdings concerning the level 

118 

of net investment per farm and the number of 

tractors endowment of farms, but also a nonuniform 

regional distribution relative to the amount 

of investment. 

At the individual farms, i.e. agricultural 

holdings with the natural person status, tractors’ 

capitalization is far below that of the commercial 

farms, i.e. legal entities: on the sample average the 

estimates amounted to 7618 RON on the holding, 

respectively, towards 68639 RON. The sample 

average estimated a net investment in agricultural 

tractors amounting to 30163 RON per farm. 

Tables 4, 5, 6 contain the results of the 

evaluations to the soil processing and sowing 

machines, describing the regional profile, by the 

level of studied holdings and legal status of farms 

Table 4 

Regional distribution of the sample farms, by the 

value of soil processing and sowing machines 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 194 52 4.2 446.8 114.2 218.8 

R2 378 54 18.9 2588.9 351.4 1019.1 

R3 526 79 22.5 3796.7 961.6 1777.3 

R4 89 44 2.0 114.8 20.1 87.1 

R5 197 40 3.2 155.3 37.5 128.9 

R6 120 66 1.9 182.3 45.4 123.1 

R7 398 62 13.2 1235.8 417.8 819.9 

R8 92 9 34.3 402.5 134.8 308.6 

Table 5 

Regional distribution of the natural person farms, 

by soil processing and sowing machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 39 34 0.7 61.2 11.8 24.7 

R2 44 23 3.3 123.4 21.5 75.7 

R3 52 44 1.5 82.8 15.3 64.7 

R4 65 38 1.8 81.8 16.4 68.0 

R5 56 27 3.2 107.1 28.3 86.9 

R6 120 53 2.3 182.3 45.4 123.1 

R7 78 35 2.6 108.1 36.4 92.4 

R8 39 34 0.7 61.2 11.8 24.7 

Table 6 

Regional distribution of the legal farms, by soil 

processing and sowing machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 155 18 10.8 385.6 102.3 194.1 

R2 334 31 30.4 2465.5 329.9 943.5 

R3 474 35 48.9 3713.9 946.3 1712.5 

R4 24 6 3.2 33.0 3.7 19.1 

R5 141 13 3.2 48.2 9.2 41.9 

R6 0 13 0 0 0 0 

R7 320 27 26.9 1127.7 381.5 727.5 

R8 90 7 39.6 399.7 127.0 277.1

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

R4 (S-W) 

R6 (N-W) 

R5 (W) 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

R3 (S) 

R7 (Center) 

R8 (Ilfov) 

R3 (S) 

R8 (Ilfov) 

R6 (N-W) 

R4 (S-W) 

R5 (W) 

119 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

R7 (Center) 


PERSOANĂ FIZICĂ PERSOANĂ JURIDICĂ 

Număr tractoare Nr. Exploatații Mii RON/Exploatație 

Figure 1 Regional distribution of the agricultural holdings, by agricultural tractors’ value and by legal status 

Detailed results include the regional 

distribution of agricultural holdings in the sample 

by the value of soil processing and sowing 

machines, and types – the cost of depreciation and 

net investment and the assessments corresponding 

to individual farms and legal entities. As 

synthetically presented in tables 4-6, the extremely 

low estimated values for the soil processing and 

sowing machines shall indicate a major 

shortcoming of these machines that work in 

aggregate with tractors. There are to be underlined 

the gaps between the net investments per holding 

and the number of soil processing and sowing 

machines used in farm’s property, and also a 

certain superiority concerning investment on the 

legal person holdings. It was estimated an average 

value of these machines of 2098 RON per 

individual farm, onto 26104 RON per legal farm. 

The sample average was valued at 11041 RON per 

agricultural holding. 

Tables 7 to 9 contain the results of the 

assessments on the fertilizers and chemical 

treatment spreading machines, in the regional 

profile, at the level of holdings in the sample and 

by their legal status. Fertilizing machines and 

chemical treatments machines have a similar 

situation as regional distribution, but the average 

amount per farm of the net investment is 

dramatically lower. On these machines, it was 

estimated an average value of 1165 RON per 

holding with the status of natural person and 4818 

RON per legal farm, resulting a sample average of 

2514 RON per farm. Detailed results include the 

R5 (W) 

R4 (S-W) 

regional distribution of the agricultural holdings in 

the sample by the value of fertilizers and chemical 

treatment spreading machines, by types - net 

investment and the depreciation cost assessments 

corresponding to the legal status of the holding. 

Table 7 


fertilizing and chemical treatment machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Table 8 

Regional distribution of natural person farms, by the 


R6 (N-W) 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

R8 (Ilfov) 

R7 (Center) 

R3 (S) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 35 52 0.6 48.8 15.5 32.5 

R2 91 54 3.9 396.2 85.1 212.9 

R3 99 79 4.1 554.9 118.1 322.9 

R4 7 44 0.2 11.0 2.4 9.4 

R5 37 40 0.9 55.4 19.4 36.1 

R6 38 66 3.2 284.7 145.4 211.1 

R7 99 62 3.0 326.1 66.2 185.0 

R8 16 9 1.2 16.3 2.8 11.0 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 7 34 0.2 8.3 2.0 6.5 

R2 7 23 1.0 24.7 6.0 23.3 

R3 7 44 0.1 12.5 1.3 5.7 

R4 2 38 0.0 1.2 0.2 1.1 

R5 10 27 0.2 7.0 4.4 6.2 

R6 38 53 4.0 284.7 145.4 211.1 

R7 24 35 1.3 49.5 21.2 44.3 

R8 1 2 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0


Table 9 

Regional distribution of legal farms, by the 


No. No. 

farms 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 28 18 1.4 40.5 13.5 26.0 

R2 84 31 6.1 371.5 79.1 189.5 

R3 92 35 9.1 542.4 116.9 317.2 

R4 5 6 1.4 9.8 2.1 8.3 

R5 27 13 2.3 48.4 15.0 29.9 

R6 0 13 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

R7 75 27 5.2 276.6 45.0 140.8 

R8 15 7 1.6 14.5 2.8 11.0 

Tables 10, 11 and 12 indicate the results of 

evaluations on field survey data regarding the 

combines and harvesting machines used in farms’ 

property, their regional profile, aggregated at farm 

level, and by the legal status of the farm. 

The average value of net investment per 

farm, is evidently much lower on individual farms 

than on commercial farms, given the differences in 

average physical farm’s size: from 0.3 ha (in R6, 

Region North-West) to 56 ha ( in R2, South-East), 

per individual farm, and from 66 ha (in R4, South- 

West), to 888 ha (in R3, South), per commercial 

farms. 

Table 10 

Regional distribution of the sample farms, by 

combines’ and harvesting machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 41 52 13.8 818.5 210.4 717.7 

R2 76 54 33.8 2671.5 706.7 1827.5 

R3 106 79 41.8 5063.1 859.8 3301.4 

R4 7 44 0.4 19.7 3.5 18.4 

R5 39 40 16.4 726.4 612.2 657.8 

R6 37 66 3.6 313.3 108.0 237.1 

R7 87 62 10.5 965.0 259.8 653.7 

R8 38 9 68.3 1187.9 219.3 614.4 

Table 11 

Regional distribution of the natural person arms, by 

harvesters’ and harvesting machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 11 34 3.5 130.8 59.3 118.3 

R2 14 23 28.2 722.8 11.7 648.4 

R3 5 44 1.2 96.8 18.4 52.3 

R4 4 38 0.4 18.0 3.3 16.8 

R5 10 27 4.4 126.2 108.3 117.6 

R6 16 53 0.9 52.4 13.6 48.9 

R7 33 35 3.6 138.7 45.2 125.6 

R8 1 2 1.1 2.6 0.3 2.3 

As shown in figure 2, according to records 

of survey, the level and distribution of investments 

grow in importance on combines and harvesting 

120 

machines, although there are imbalances between 

regions. 

Table 12 

Regional distribution of the legal farms, by 

harvesters’ and harvesting machines’ value 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 30 18 33.3 687.7 151.0 599.5 

R2 62 31 38.0 1948.7 695.0 1179.1 

R3 101 35 92.8 4966.3 841.4 3249.2 

R4 3 6 0.3 1.7 0.2 1.6 

R5 29 13 41.6 600.2 503.9 540.2 

R6 21 13 14.5 260.9 94.5 188.2 

R7 54 27 19.6 826.3 214.6 528.1 

R8 37 7 87.5 1185.3 219.0 612.2 

The analysis provides results on the regional 

distribution of farms in the sample by the value of 

combines and harvesters used in farms’ property, 

by type - net investment and depreciation costs and 

the estimates corresponding to farm’s legal status. 

It has been estimated an average value of these 

assets of 4414 RON per farm with status of natural 

person, and of 45987 RON per legal farm, while 

the sample average was estimated to 19773 RON 

per farm. 

In Tables 13 to 15 are presented results of 

assessments to other agricultural machines used in 

farms endowment, including fixed and mobile 

irrigation installations and milking devices. The 

results contain assessments get by aggregating and 

selecting the indicators appropriated to the 

analyses on regional profile, at farm level and by 

the legal status of the farm. 

Table 13 


value of irrigation installations and milking devices 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 5 52 0.7 41.8 8.2 37.1 

R2 61 54 15.5 1002.0 328.2 838.8 

R3 40 79 4.1 1148.0 130.8 325.5 

R4 1 44 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

R5 7 40 1.1 48.9 16.4 45.5 

R6 19 66 2.2 171.9 35.7 146.2 

R7 25 62 5.1 408.2 167.1 314.7 

R8 18 9 56.4 670.6 505.4 507.4 

Comparing to the other types of machinery 

of the farm sample, endowment with these assets 

are the lowest, numerically and as net investment. 

Results detailed on these types of facilities 

comprising the assessments based on information 

from questionnaires, show regional distribution of 

sample farms’ evaluations, by the value of 

irrigation fixed and mobile facilities and of the 

milking facilities and devices used in farms’ 

property - net investment and cost of depreciation

and the corresponding assessments on individual 

farms - with natural person status, and on those 

with legal status. 

To these categories together, the 

assessments on net investment amounted to 10476 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

R3 (S) 

R4 (S-W) 

R5 (W) 

R6 (N-W) 

R7 (Center) 

R8 (Ilfov) 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

R3 (S) 

R4 (S-W) 

R5 (W) 

121 


RON per commercial farm, compared to 2515 

RON per individual farm, while the average 

sample yielding a value of 5457 RON per 

agricultural holding. 

R6 (N-W) 

R7 (Center) 

R8 (Ilfov) 

PERSOANĂ FIZICĂ PERSOANĂ JURIDICĂ 

Număr maşini Nr. Exploataţii Mii RON/Exploataţie 

Figure 2 Regional distribution of farms, by harvesters’ and harvest machines’ value and by legal status 

Table 14 

Regional distribution of natural person farms, by the 

value of irrigation installations and milking devices 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 4 34 0.3 11.8 4.4 10.1 

R2 16 23 20.9 520.7 199.0 480.6 

R3 3 44 0.1 7.0 2.8 6.5 

R4 1 38 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

R5 6 27 0.7 19.2 14.5 17.9 

R6 15 53 0.6 38.9 8.2 30.6 

R7 15 35 2.8 154.2 51.9 97.7 

R8 1 2 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.6 

Table 15 

Regional distribution of legal farms, by the value of 

irrigation installations and milking devices 

No. No. 

Thou. 

RON/ 

farms 

farm 

Cost of 

capitaliz. 

(thou. 

RON) 

Cost of 

depreciation 

(thou RON) 

Net 

Invest. 

(thou. 

RON) 

R1 1 18 1.5 30.0 3.9 27.0 

R2 45 31 11.6 481.3 129.3 358.2 

R3 37 35 9.1 1141.0 128.0 319.0 

R4 0 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

R5 1 13 2.1 29.7 2.0 27.6 

R6 4 13 8.9 133.0 27.4 115.6 

R7 10 27 8.0 254.0 115.2 217.1 

R8 17 7 72.4 669.9 505.4 506.9 

R1 (N-E) 

R2 (S-E) 

CONCLUSIONS 

The outcome of the analyses indicate the 

lack of modernization of agricultural holdings, that 

requires massive investments, with a significant 

public component, in technical means, including 

the agricultural mechanization and the irrigation 

systems. The productive capital will facilitate the 

restructuring by the development of agricultural 

and rural households, giving them opening options 

toward agricultural, food and non-agricultural 

markets. 

The information and data on holdings’ 

endowment with own means of mechanization the 

farming activities have a poor availability in the 

published statistics. The lack in data has two main 

causes of the national methodology: the structural 

surveys in agriculture does not record detailed 

specialized data, and the individual farms do not 

have accounting system or keep farm budgets. 

The harmonized European methodology 

RICA requires accounts only for commercial farms 

included in the sample surveys, listed in the farm 

fiche (EC, 2007). 

Sustainable development means long term 

non-negative developments; at the rural level as 

well, small holdings have an economic, social and 

R3 (S) 

R4 (S-W) 

R5 (W) 

R6 (N-W) 

R7 (Center) 

R8 (Ilfov)


environmental importance, giving them a key role 

to ensure the development of regional 

competitiveness and sustainability in accordance 

with the requirements of eco-conditionality and 

social historical specificities of the zones. Within 

this context, rural sustainability implies that a 

integrating vision of these resistance structures in 

order to benefit from the support policies 

designated to the rural space, including agriculture. 

Further research relays its utility in 

identifying the real problems of the agricultural 

sustainability related to non-profit generators, with 

direct influences on the sector’s performance. 

Relevant conclusions and results can be 

substantiated by correlation with other indicators, 

such as those related to productivity and efficiency, 

and by research and analysis on the basis of other 

criteria, for example those related to the size of 

farms, production or geographic profiles a.s.o.. 


Projects financed by Ministry of Education and 

Research (Romania) in the period 2005-2008: CEEX-56 

"Modelling the agricultural holdings’ response to 

122 

integrate environment in the economic principles through 

sustainable management of land resources" and 

CNCSIS-19 "Complex research models and methods in 

Romania’s sustainable rural development". 

REFERENCES 

Otiman, P. I., 2009 - Rural Development and 

Agriculture: Opportunities to Attenuate the 

Economic and Financial Crisis and to Resume 

Economic Growth, EADR, Volume 5, Issue 3-4, 

pp. 97-128. 

Rusali Mirela, 2010 - Competitivitate şi factori 

generatori de non-performanţă în agricultură: 

delimitări conceptuale, metode de analiză şi 

evaluări asupra capitalului productiv al 

exploataţiilor. Lucrare de plan, Institutul de 

Economie Agrară, Programul fundamental al 

Academiei Române: Eco-economia şi 

dezvoltarea durabilă a României. 

Rusali Mirela, 2009 - Analiza înzestrării tehnice a 

exploataţiilor agricole, Cap. 3.7. în 

Managementul economic şi ecologic al resurselor 

de sol. Gavrilescu C. (coord.), Editura Academiei, 

Bucureşti. 

European Commission, 2007 - Definitions of Variables 

used in FADN standard results, RI/CC 882, 

DGG3 - Community Committee for the Farm 

Accountancy Data Network.

Abstract 

123 


ZINC - MICROELEMENT OF REFERENCE IN APPLE NUTRITION 

Diana Elena BOLOHAN 1 , Mariana VOLF 1 

e-mail: bolohandiana@yahoo.com 

This paper aims to present the risk of being exposed apple trees to zinc deficiency, within an bifactorial experience 

with fertilizers. Mobile Zn content in soil, on one hand and total zinc content in plant material (leaves) on the other 

hand, as mobile phosphates content in soil, represents agrochemical indices for assessing the probability of zinc 

deficiency. These indices determined during two years of experimentation, can be quantified in two synthetic indicators 

IRPM - mobile phosphates reaction index in soil, used for chernozems, that express and explain the influence of pH and 

available phosphorus content (P-AL ppm) on Zn mobility in soil and its availability to plants; and ICZn - zinc 

deficiency index, which takes into consideration the value of mobile Zn content in soil, being more significant in order 

to predict the probability of zinc deficiency appearance. Folowing the fertilization of experimental variants, we 

analyzed the data obtained during two consecutive years of experience, and noticed that available phosphorus content in 

soil increased gradually, while mobile Zn, although increasing quantity, it lies within suboptimal limits. Together these 

values and soil pH, which has the tendency to rise up to 8.00, the two indices calculated ICZn and IRPM, clearly 

indicates that the probability of deficiency in zinc appearance is medium to large, ICZn take values between 1.39 and 

3.13, while IRPM take values between 0.117 and 0.232. 

Key words: apple trees, fertilization, zinc, phosphorus, 

Zinc is an important microelement in mineral 

nutrition of apple trees, contributing to a normal 

growth and development. It plays an important role 

in fecundation, impregnating resistance to 

pathogens attack and decisively influencing the 

quality of the apple crop. Impact of zinc presence 

in the plant tissues can be translated as its 

implication in biochemical process through its role 

in enzyme activity, in photosynthesis, protein 

synthesis and not least by ensuring an adequate 

stability and permeability of cellular membranes. 

Regarding apple culture, there occurs both 

the risk of deficiency and toxicity phenomena. It is 

known that apple trees are sensitive to zinc 

deficiency and less to the toxic effect that occurs 

following the uncontrolled treatment for plant 

protection with products based on Zn, in disease 

control. There are a couple of factors that influence 

appearance of zinc deficiency in plants and must 

be taken into account: plants susceptibility, soil 

conditions, climatic conditions and also 

agricultural applied agrotechnics (Budoi, 2000). 

Soil, by its physical and chemical attributes, 

is the most representative factor in the likelihood 

phenomenon of Zn deficiency and may exercise 

this attribute, with a value exceeding seven pHH2O 

by low content of mobile Zn, the presence of 

carbonates, available phosphorus content 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi 

exceeding 50 ppm, a low content of humus, surface 

erosion, compaction and also through degradation. 

This is why the central objective of research 

in this paper is forecasting the occurrence of zinc 

deficiency phenomenon, reflected by the 

determination and calculation of simple and 

synthetic indicators that aim the insurance status of 

available phosphorus and mobile zinc in soil. This 

makes possible to limit this phenomenon through 

agricultural practice - appropriate fertilization. 

The obtained results lead to the conclusion 

that forecasted zinc nutritional disorders 

(deficiency) for apple trees is a prerequisite in the 

context of phosphate fertilization, along with 

adjusting the ionic composition of the soil and by 

maintaining the soil pH in acid to neutral field 

(Huang et al., 2000). 


Researches were carried out in „Vasile 

Adamachi‖ Farm, Iassy county, in 2010. This study 

was conducted over one crop Idared variety apple 

trees, in a 4x4m spacing. 

Fertilizing treatments were randomised within 

one block; groups of three trees; in three replications. 

In the experience were studied 9 variants of 

fertilization with mineral and foliar fertilizers, including 

the blank:


V1 - control; 

V2 -mineral fertilization - N60:P60:K60; 

V3 -mineral fertilization - N90:P90:K90; 

V4 -foliar fertilization - Pentakeep - G; 

V5 -foliar fertilization - Cropmax; 

V6 -mineral fertilization N60P60K60+Pentakeep-G; 

V7 -mineral fertilization N90P90K90+Pentakeep-G; 

V8 - mineral fertilization N60P60K60+Cropmax; 

V9 -mineral fertilization N90P90K90+Cropmax; 

NPK15.15.15 was applied 1/3 in autumn and 

2/3 in early spring. Foliar fertilizers (Cropmax and 

Pentakep-G) were applied three times, starting when 

the fruit was 5 mm in diameter, and every two weeks 

after. Soil pH was determined in water through 

potentiometric method. 

Soil and leaves samples were analysed for: 

- P-AL = available phosphorus content in soil, 

extracted by the Egner-Riehm-Domingo method, by 

spectrophotometry; 

124 

- Pt% - total phosphorus content in leaves , by 

spectrophotometry; 

- available Zn content in soil, extracted in 

EDTA 0,01 N solution, determined by atomic 

absorbtion; 

- total Zn content in leaves by atomic 

absorbtion. 


Analyzing obtained data (table 1) there is an 

increase of mobile phosphorus content in soil 

directly proportional to gradually increased doses 

of fertilizers administered on variants, but also 

there is an increase from one year to another. In 

2010, mobile phosphorus content in soil recorded 

48 ppm for unfertilized variant, up to 66 ppm for 

N90P90K90+Cropmax variant, that fits soil to a 

low state of insurance (36.1 to 72 ppm). 

Table 1 

Phosphorus content in plant and soil, over 2 years of fertilization 

2010 2011 

Fertilization variants 

Pt (%) P – AL(ppm) Pt (%) P – AL(ppm) 

in plant 

in soil 

in plant in soil 

Control (unfertilised) 0.29 48 0.32 70 

N60P60K60 0.33 56 0.32 81 

N90P90K90 0.33 63 0.33 82 

Pentakeep - G 0.28 43 0.31 71 

Cropmax 0.24 46 0.32 71 

N60P60K60 + Pentakeep-G 0.30 48 0.32 82 

N90P90K90 + Pentakeep-G 0.30 65 0.35 96 

N60P60K60 + Cropmax 0.30 64 0.32 85 

N90P90K90 + Cropmax 0.31 66 0.35 87 

In 2011 there was an improvement of 

phosphates content in soil, phosphorus content 

recorded values of 70 ppm in unfertilised variant, 

up to 96 ppm in N90P90K90 + Pentakeep-G 

variant of fertilization, insurance state of soil was 

medium (72.1 to 108 ppm). 

In table 2 are presented values of mobile Zn 

content in soil and plant material. Mobile Zn 

content in soil in 2010 and 2011 ranks at optimum 

for most variants of fertilization (> 1.4 ppm, Vintila, 

1984), while the Zn content of plant material are 

below optimal (20-200 ppm Zn, Budoi, 2000) for all 

fertilization variants. 

Zinc content in plant and soil, over 2 years of fertilization 

2010 2011 

Fertilization variants Zn (ppm) Mobile Zn Zn (ppm) Mobile Zn 

in plant (ppm) in soil in plant (ppm) in soil 

Blank 10.92 2.50 13.06 2.3 

N60P60K60 10.89 2.11 14.40 2.01 

N90P90K90 10.91 2.46 13.39 2.3 

Pentakeep - G 11.66 2.50 14.27 2.7 

Cropmax 12.26 2.11 15.01 2.3 

N60P60K60 + Pentakeep-G 10.39 2.46 15.16 2.4 


N60P60K60 + Cropmax 9.79 2.11 12.97 2.2 

N90P90K90 + Cropmax 10.90 2.46 18.99 2.3 

The literature cites the occurrence of 

critical levels of Zn deficiency hidden value 17.00 

ppm for tree species. We observe that zinc content 

Table 2 

values in leaves fall below this threshold, for all 

variants of fertilization, that indicates the risk limit

for visible manifestation of deficiencies (12-15 

ppm Zn total) 

The values presented in table 3 express the 

probability of zinc deficiency, for the apple trees, 

over two years of experience, two synthetic 

indicators quantified by reference, ICZN- zinc 

deficiency index and IRPM – mobile phosphates 

reaction index. 

Fertilization variants 

125 


For 2010 ICZn values are between 1.78 and 

3.13, values over the the threshold of 1.70. In 

2011, in most variants, ICZn values falls below 

this threshold, except Pentakeep – G fertilization 

variant, which shows that the probability of zinc 

deficiency occurence is appreciable in the first year 

and in the second year this issue is much more 

accentuated. 

Table 3 

ICZn and IRPM absolute values, over 2 years of fertilization 

2010 2011 

ICZn IRPM ICZn IRPM 

Blank 2.81 0.208 1.77 0.142 

N60P60K60 2.03 0.178 1.34 0.123 

N90P90K90 2.10 0.156 1.51 0.121 

Pentakeep - G 3.13 0.233 2.05 0.140 

Cropmax 2.47 0.217 1.74 0.140 



N60P60K60 + Cropmax 1.78 0.156 1.39 0.117 

N90P90K90 + Cropmax 2.01 0.151 1.42 0.114 

For interpretation of zinc deficiency 

occurence by IRPM, we remark that values are 

below 0.288 for all variants of fertilization, for 

both years 2010 and 2011, which shows high 

probability of zinc deficiency expression (Borlan, 

1994). 

Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4 express the values of all 

indicators, simple and synthetic, involved in 

Figure 1 Available P-AL content in soil over 2 years 

Figure 3 ICZn absolute values over 2 years 

The tendency of zinc immobilization in soil 

occurs due to the pH of alkaline soil and alkaline 

carbonates presence at 60 cm depth. 

assessing and predicting the occurrence of zinc 

deficiency, namely P-AL (ppm), mobile Zn (ppm), 

IRPM and ICZn. 

Interpreted by ICZn values, Zn deficiency in 

the apple trees is moderate in 2010 and high in 

2011, increase proportional with increasing 

phosphate in soil for 2011 compared to 2010, for 

all variants of fertilization. 

Figure 2 Mobile Zn content in soil over 2 years 

Figure 4 IRPM absolute values over 2 years 

Even if mobile Zn content in soil is normal, 

values of plant material analysis indicate a weak 

state of suply, which explains a failure in its


absorption. This indicator is used when there are 

data from foliar diagnostic which can express 

much better zinc deficiency risk, even if symptoms 

have not occurred yet 

Mobile phosphates reaction index (IRPM) is 

more general and takes into account only the level 

of phosphate content in soil and the pH. From this 

point of view, IRPM indicate a high probability of 

occurrence of zinc deficiency for both 

experimental years, drawing attention especially 

the upward trend of mobile phosphorus content in 

soil. Although P-AL values in the soil is below 

optimum, IRPM is most likely used for soils with 

pH that reach values of 8.00. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Zinc, along with other microelements are 

important in plant mineral nutrition, especially for 

those with medium and high susceptibility to 

deficiency, that disturb a series of biochemical 

processes and decisively influence plant growth 

and development. 

Apple tree is one of the susceptible species 

to the occurrence of zinc deficiency, according to 

the undertaken study where ICZn and IRPM 

126 

determined values were below the limit of 1.70, 

respectively as 0.218. 

The increase of soil phosphate content and 

alkaline pH has a negative impact on the zinc 

mobility and accessibility, inducing zinc deficiency 

initially hidden, detected by foliar analysis, and 

then visible deficiency (developing symptoms), 

more difficult to control and correct. 

In variants fertilized exclusively with foliar 

fertilizers, Pentakeep - G and Cropmax, with zinc 

besides other nutritive elements, are observed 

IRPM and ICZn values significantly higher, which 

explains extraroot nutrition as preventing measure 

of zinc deficiency. 

REFERENCES 

Budoi, Gh., 2000 – Solul si planta, Ed.Didactica si 

Pedagogica R.A., Bucuresti 

Borlan, Z. et al., 1994 – Fertilitatea si fertilizarea 

solurilor. ( Compediu de agrochimie ), Ed.Ceres, 

Bucuresti 

Huang Chunyuan et al., 2000 - Zinc deficiency upregulates 

expression of high-affinity phosphate 

transporter genes in both phosphate- sufficient 

and -deficient barley roots, Plant Physiology, Vol. 

124, pp. 415–422 

Vintila, I. et al., 1984 – Situatia agrochimica a solurilor 

din Romania-prezent si viitor, Ed.Ceres, 

Bucuresti

Abstract 

127 


THE STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION OF CEREAL GRAINS CULTURE 

IN IASI COUNTY (CASE STUDY IN SUBURBAN AREA OF IAŞI) 

Adina Alina POSTOLACHE (BURLACU) 1 

e-mail: burlacu.adinalina@yahoo.com 

Crop structure is determined according to market requirements and pedo climatic conditions of the area. Depending on 

the optimization criteria, the crops will be optimal when it ensures the achievement of maximum profitability, in terms 

of assure quantity and assortment, to meet the requirements of the national economy for agricultural products, the full 

use of land and other means of production and also in the conditions of respect the plant culture restrictions regarding 

the share in crop rotation. Critical in optimizing the structure of crops is the economic efficiency, and made profits. The 

economic efficiency is in continuously changing due to raw materials and production goods changing prices. From here 

is the necessity of optimizing the structure of crops in each cycle of agricultural production.The main indicators used in 

optimizing the structure of crops are yield per hectare, cost of production to the surface unit, gross profit per hectare, the 

unit cost, of costs in 1000 lei income rate of return. Linear programming method presents the great advantage that 

allows choosing the optimal structure variant of a multitude of possible variations. Given the large volume of 

calculations, the linear programming technique involves mandatory, the use of electronic computing.Optimizing the 

structure of crop through linear programming requires drawing up the economic-mathematical model, including 

variables, restrictions, the purpose function and free terms.The purpose function can be represented by maximizing the 

effectiveness (gross profit or economy expenditure) or minimize the effort (total spending or intermediate 

spending).The considered restrictions are: the total area cultivated with cereals, minimum and maximum area occupied 

by grains, the average obtained production.The case study was conducted in suburban area of Iaşi, which includes the 

following communes: Valea Lupului, Leţcani, Bîrnova, Ungheni, Tomeşti,Victoria, Aroneanu, Rediu, Popricani, 

Miroslava, Ciurea, Schitul Duca, Holboca. The average bonity note of arable land is 55 points AETA, which 

corresponds to an area favorable for grain culture. 

Key words: optimization, linear programming, cereal grains, suburban area 

The structure of crops is among the 

technologies of production, the main component of 

plant culture. By the structure of crops we 

understand the share occupied by each culture or 

vegetal branch in the total cultivated area. 

Structure is optimal when cultures ensures the 

obtaining of 

maximum yield in terms of quantity and 

assortment, to meet the requirements of the 

national economy in agricultural products, the full 

use of land and other means of production and in 

terms of respect the plant culture restrictions of 

sequence in time and space of the culture. 

The optimal structure of the crops undergoes 

changes due to the following influences: 

the national economy demands; 

the market demand for agricultural products in 

general; 

the insurance level of the company with the 

technical-material base; 


the productive potential of land, which by pedoameliorative 

measures may modify the 

favorability for different cultures; 

level of assuring with employment and their 

qualifications degree; 

rotation restrictions; 

central fund of agricultural products through 

which the state intervenes to ensure the 

processing industries with raw; 

materials and the company with needed 

agricultural goods (2, 6). 


The research has been conducted in the 

county of Iasi, in suburban area of Iasi and targeted 

the optimizing areas cultivated with cereals, using 

linear programming, which shows the great 

advantage that allows choosing the optimal variant 

structure of a multitude of possible variations. Given 

the large volume of calculations, the linear


programming technique, involves mandatory the use 

of electronic computing. 

Optimizing the structure of crop through linear 

programming requires drawing up the economicalmathematical 

model, including variables restrictions, 

the purpose function and free terms. The purpose 

function can be represented by maximizing the 

effectiveness (gross profit or economy of expenditure) 

or minimize the effort (total spending or intermediate 

spending). 

The variables of the model for optimizing the 

structure of cereal crops in suburban area of Iasi will 

be represented by: wheat, barley, oats and corn. 

The restrictions taken into account were: 

total area cultivated with cereals; 

minimum and maximum area occupied by 

cereals; 

an average yield obtained; 

the consumption of man-days; 

material costs per hectare. 

The optimization criteria are the achievement 

of the objectives pursued: 

the maximization of profits; 

the minimization of costs. 


The suburban area of Iasi includes the 

following communes: Valea Lupului, Leţcani, 

Bîrnova, Ungheni, Tomeşti,Victoria, Aroneanu, 

Rediu, Popricani, Miroslava, Ciurea, Schitul Duca, 

Holboca. The bonita notes of arable land is 55, 

which corresponds to an area favorable for cereals 

culture (table 1). 

In favorable areas for to the culture of 

cereals, can be obtained the following average 

productions (table 2): 

128 

Table 1 

General data on Suburban area of Iasi 

Suburban area of Iasi 

Cambic 

Predominant soil (new names) chernozem, Gleic 

chernozem 

The annual average temperature (°C) 9 

Precipitations (mm) 

400 – 500 

Arable bonita notes 

55 

Total arable surface -2011 - ha 32518 

The total surface cultivated with 

cereals 

Autumn wheat 

Corn 

17285 

Favorable area 

Favorable area 

Table 2 

The average production that can be obtained 

in Suburban area of Iasi 

Crt. 

no. 

Culture 

The average 

production (kg/ha) 

1 Wheat 3500 

2 Barley 4000 

3 Oats 2500 

4 Corn 4000 

The economic - mathematical model matrix 

to optimize the structure of cereal crops in 

suburban area of Iasi is shown in table 3. 

Following the analysis of climatic and 

economic conditions from suburban area of Iasi, 

had been stablished the following technicaleconomical 

indicators that can be achieved by 

cultivating cereals grain (table 4). 

After resolving the economicalmathematical 

model has results two variants 

(table 5). 

Table 3.a 

The economic - mathematical model matrix to optimize the structure of cereal crops in Suburban area of Iasi 

Crt. 

No. 

Restrictions 

Wheat Wheat Barley Oats for Corn for Corn 

for for seed for consump consum for 

consum consum tion ption seed 

ption 

ption 

Sign 

Free term 

V1 V2 

U.M. 

1 

Maximum area cultivated with 

cereals 

1 1 1 1 1 1 = 17.473 17.473 ha 

2 

The maximum area cultivated 

for wheat consumption 

1 ≤ 5.000 5.000 ha 

3 

Minimum area cultivated for 

wheat. consumption 

1 > 2.500 2.500 ha 

4 


for wheat seed 

1 ≤ 700 700 ha 

5 

Minimum area cultivated for 

wheat seed 

1 > 220 250 ha 

6 


with barley 

1 ≤ 2.300 2.300 ha 

7 Minimum cultivated barley 1 > 250 250 ha 

8 


with oats 

1 ≤ 1.000 1.000 ha

129 


Table 3.b 

The economic - mathematical model matrix to optimize the structure of cereal crops in Suburban area of Iasi 

Crt. 

No. 

Restrictions 

Wheat Wheat Barley Oats for Corn for Corn 

for for seed for consump consum for 

consum consum tion ption seed 

ption 

ption 

Sign 

Free term 

V1 V2 

U.M. 

9 Minimum cultivated oats 1 > 130 130 ha 


10 

with maize for consumption 

1 ≤ 13.000 13.000 ha 

Minimum cultivated for corn. 

11 

consumption 

1 > 5.000 5.000 ha 


12 

with maize for seed 

1 ≤ 1.050 1.200 ha 

Minimum cultivated for corn 

13 

seed 

1 > 300 300 ha 

The average yield for wheat. 

14 

consumption 

1 = 3.600 3.600 kg/ha 

The average yield for wheat. 

15 

seed 

1 = 4.000 4.000 kg/ha 

16 Average yield in barley 1 = 4.000 4.000 kg/ha 

17 Average production in oats 1 = 1.900 1.900 kg/ha 

The average yield for corn. 

18 

consumption 

1 = 4.000 4.000 kg/ha 

The average yield for corn. 

19 

seed 

1 = 3.850 3.850 kg/ha 

20 FO1 – TOTAL COSTS 1,90 2,50 1,90 1,70 2,40 2,93 → MIN MIN mii 

lei/ha 

FO2 – TOTAL GROSS 

21 

PROFIT 

0,22 0,82 0,66 -0,66 0,44 5,35 → MAX MAX mii 

lei/ha 

Culture 

The main technical – economical indicators in initial variant (V0) 

Surface 

hectare 

The 

average 

production 

– kg/he 

The total 

production 

- tones 

Total 

income 

per he -lei 

Total 

income - 

lei 

Total 

costs per 

he -lei 

Total costs 

– lei 

Gross 

profits per 

he–lei 

Total 

gross 

profit – 

lei 

Wheat for 

consumption 

2948,00 3600 10613 2,12 6262 1,90 5601 0,22 660 

Wheat for seed 0 4000 0 0,00 0 0,00 0 0,00 0 

Barley 226 4000 904 2,56 579 1,90 429 0,66 149 

Oats 124 1900 236 1,05 130 1,70 211 -0,65 -81 

Corn for 

consumptions 

14175 4000 56700 2,84 40257 2,40 34020 0,44 6237 

Corn for seed 0 3850 0 0,00 0 0,00 0 0,00 0 

TOTAL 17473 - 68452 2,70 47227 2,30 40261 0,40 6965 

Culture 

Wheat for 

consumption 

Wheat for 

seed 

The main technical - economical indicators resulting after maximizing the total gross profit (V1) 

Surface 

hectare 

The average 

production 

– kg/he 

The total 

production 

- tones 

Total 

income 

per he - 

lei 

Total 

income -lei 

Total costs 

per 

he -lei 

Total 

costs 

lei 

Gross 

profits 

per he– 

lei 

Table 4 

Table 5 

Total 

gross 

profit – 

lei 

5000 3600 18000 2,12 10620,00 1,90 9500,00 0,22 1120 

220 4000 880 3,32 730,00 2,50 550,00 0,82 180 

Barley 2300 4000 9200 2,56 5888,00 1,90 4370,00 0,66 1518 

Oats 1000 1900 1900 1,05 1045,00 1,70 1700,00 -0,66 -655 

Corn for 

consumptions 

8653 4000 34612 2,84 24575,00 2,40 20767,00 0,44 3807 

Corn for seed 300 3850 1155 8,28 2483,00 2,93 879,00 5,35 1604 

TOTAL 17473 - 65747 2,59 45341,00 2,16 37766,00 0,43 7575


Culture 

Wheat for 

consumption 

Wheat for 

seed 

The main technical - economical indicators resulting after minimizing the total costs (V2) 

Surface 

hectare 

The average 

production 

– kg/he 

The total 

production 

- tones 

Total 

income 

per he 

lei 

130 

Total 

income - 

lei 

Total 

costs 

per 

he -lei 

Total 

costs 

– lei 

Gross 

profits per 

he– 

lei 

Table 6 

Total 

gross 

profit – lei 

2500,00 3600,00 9000,00 2,12 5310,00 1,90 4750,00 0,22 560,00 

700,00 4000,00 2800,00 3,32 2324,00 2,50 1750,00 0,82 574,00 

Barley 2300,00 4000,00 9200,00 2,56 5888,00 1,90 4370,00 0,66 1518,00 

Oats 130,00 1900,00 247,00 1,05 136,00 1,70 221,00 -0,65 -85,00 

Corn for 

consumptions 

10793,00 4000,00 43172,00 2,84 30652,00 2,40 25903,00 0,44 4749,00 

Corn for seed 1050,00 3850,00 4043,00 8,28 8691,00 2,93 3077,00 5,35 5615,00 

TOTAL 17473,00 - 68462,00 3,03 53001,00 2,29 40071,00 0,74 12931,00 

CONCLUSIONS 

In suburban area (V0), at present time, the 

area cultivated with cereals is 17473 ha. The total 

costs are up to 40,3 million lei and gross profit 

was 6,97 million lei. 

In V1 with the purpose function to 

maximize the total gross profits, total costs were 

lower with 0,25 million and gross profit is higher 

with 0,61 million. 

In V2, which were aimed the minimizing of 

the total costs of production, had been registered a 

reduction of 0,19 mil, with a gross profit of 

12,931,000 lei (+ 186%). 

Of the two types of optimization can be 

recommend the first variant, because, can be 

realize a higher profits comparing V0 with V2. 

REFERENCES 

Axinte, M. si colab., 2003 – Fitotehnie. Ed. „Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad‖, Iasi. 

Brezuleanu, St., 2004 – Management agricol – teorie 

si practica. Ed. PERFORMANTICA, Iasi. 

Chiran, A. si colab., 1998 – Optimizarea tehnologiilor 

si a structurii culturilor în fermele private (studiu 

de caz). Vol. ―Managementul întreprinderii 

agricole românesti în tranzitia catre economia de 

piata‖.Ed. Universitatii ―Al. I. Cuza‖, Iasi. 

Chiran, A. si colab., 2002 – Posibilitati de rentabilizare 

a productiei vegetale prin optimizarea structurii 

culturilor (studiu de caz În arealul Vetrisoaia- 

Berezeni-Falciu. judetul Vaslui).Lucr. st. USAMV 

Bucuresti, vol. 1, Managementul agricol. 

Chiran, A., Drobota, Benedicta, Gîndu, Elena, 2008 - 

Tendinte pe piata cerealelor - Rev. Cercetari 

agronomice in Moldova, volumul 1, Iasi. ISSN 

0379-5837. 

Ciurea, I.V. si colab., 2001 – Management – aplicatii 

practice în fermele agricole vegetale. Ed. Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad, Iasi. 

Davidovici, I., 1993 – Ajustarea structurala – prioritate 

a restructurarii agriculturii românesti. 

Drobota, Benedicta, Chiran, A., Gîndu Elena, 2005 - 

Studiul principalilor indicatori tehnico-economici 

privind evolutia cultivarii cerealelor boabe in 

judetul Iasi, in perioada 2001-2004, Lucr. 

st.,USAMV Iasi, seria Agronomie, vol. 48. 

Drobota, Benedicta, Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena, 

Jitareanu A.F., 2008 – Aspects of zonation and 

teritorial repartization of cereal crop in Iasi 

County, Lucr. st. USAMVB, seria I, Vol X (2) – 

Management agricol. Ed. AGROPRINT 

Timisoara. 

Hartia S., 1975 – Programarea liniara în conducerea 

fermei agricole. Ed. CERES, Bucuresti. 

Merce, E., Merce, Elena, 1992 – Dimensiunea optima 

a exploatatiei agricole. Lucr. st. U.S.A. 

Cluj+Napoca, vol. 46, nr.1, seria Agricultura- 

Horticultura.

Abstract 

131 


LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT SCHEDULED 

FOR IMPROVING THE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 

BY CREATING GREEN SPACES IN THE CITIES 

Alexandru-Marian CHIPER 1 , Sorin-Mihai CÎMPEANU 1 , Roxana Dana BUCUR 2 , 

Valentina CHIPER (MIHALCEA) 3 

1 University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest 


3 University of Craiova 

e-mail: alexchiper@yahoo.de 

Improving the environmental quality by creating green spaces is a key factor in the development of populated areas by 

positive general impression and benefits of aesthetic, social, economic and public health nature in the intervention areas. 

This study analyzed the effects of "The national program to improve the environmental quality by creating green 

spaces in cities" aiming at the staged, controlled and prioritized development of green spaces to achieve the objectives 

of Romania under the accession to the European Union and to undertake the obligations under the Community 

Environmental Policy. Thus, in Romania through the implementation of this program, the national efforts have 

increased both administratively and economically and socially as regards the programming, design and execution of 

green spaces in cities, both as new sites, and as the rehabilitation or expansion of the existing ones. 

Key words: environment, planning, landscape, spaces, green, parks 

The improvement of the environmental 

quality should be treated as a quantitative and 

qualitative development factor of the populated 

areas both administratively and socially, aiming at 

the urbanization and access to the recreational and 

aesthetic factors of the population in cities (Konga, 

et al., 2010). The programming, design and 

execution of green spaces are directly dependent 

processes of the environmental factors, social 

factors and economic factors in the areas of 

application, and the objective and systematic 

analysis of these factors leads to high diversity and 

wealth of the population in those areas. 

The literature defines the green spaces as 

those areas of land systematized and arranged in 

terms of landscape, covered with vegetation and 

which usually refer to parks, public gardens, 

squares, football courts, golf courts, private 

gardens, Botanical Gardens (P.H. Gobster, 2011; 

Caspersen O.H., et al., 2006). These spaces can be 

opened both to the public use and only selectively 

to certain types of users such as the privately 

owned green spaces, inside of which one can 

access only with the acceptance of the owner (AF 

Iliescu, 3003). 

"The program to improve the environmental 

quality by creating green spaces in cities" 

hereinafter referred to as "The Program" aims at 

developing the green space infrastructure whose 

use is directed exclusively to the general public 

and their use must be open to all people who want 

to benefit of a positive ambient. 

The public green spaces created by the 

"Program" are built on the principle of their multifunctionality 

and use (Mitchell R. et al., 2008, and 

Schilling J., 2010) diversely for the recreational 

activities (Vijai Shanker, et al. 2010), of which all 

citizens present in a particular area can fully 

benefit whether they are residents or visitors in 

those areas (Olga Barbosa et al., 2007). 

The arrangement of green spaces constitutes 

a major and indispensable chapter in the evolution 

of urban and rural development at both global and 

European (Chiriac D., et al., 2009, James P., et al., 

2009) and national level for Romania, as a longterm 

national strategy to improve the 

environmental quality in the populated areas by the 

systematic elimination of stress elements (Mrkajic 

V. et al., 2010). 

"The Program" aims at the staged, controlled 

(Ianos I., et al., 2009) and prioritized development


of green spaces to achieve the objectives of 

Romania under the accession to the European 

Union and to undertake the obligations under the 

European Union Environmental Policy. In 

Romania "The Program" is legally supported by 

the Emergency Ordinance no. 59 as of June 20, 

2007 and Law no. 49 as of March 19, 2008 on its 

amendment. 


According to a study made by Richard A. 

Fuller and Kevin J. Gaston published in 2009 in 

Biology Letters and represented graphically in Figure 

1 in 2001 about 170,6 million people, almost 34% of 

the European Union population, lived in urban areas 

of the European Union and the average green 

surface rose to 18.6% of the urban surface. 

The colour points representing cities are 

coloured according to the proportional coverage of 

urban green space within the city. The Country- 

According to a release as of October 15, 2007 

of the Minister of Environment and Sustainable 

Development, currently Minister of Environment and 

Forests, the green space standard of 26 sqm/capita is 

the minimum value accepted in the European Union 

when the World Health Organization recommends an 

area of 52 sqm/capita and the European capitals 

such as Stockholm and London have at this moment 

surfaces of 83 and 64 sqm/capita while in 2007 

Bucharest had only surfaces of 9.08 sqm / capita and 

that according to data provided by the National 

Environmental Protection Agency in 2008 it increased 

132 

related areas are coloured depending on the 

coverage of green space per capita compared to the 

urban areas. The grey-shaded areas belong to the 

states with data unavailable to the countries whose 

data are being collected (Fuller and Gaston, 2001). 

At national level, according to the 2009 

Romanian Statistical Yearbook, as shown in Figure 2, 

in 2008 in Romania there were 9.73 sqm green 

spaces per capita in the cities and the total public 

green space rose to 21,124 ha. 

"The Program" selectively encourages both 

quantitatively and qualitatively the national network 

infrastructure of green spaces in cities (Ioja C.I. et al., 

2009; Ioja C.I. et al., 2010), being mainly favoured 

especially those investments in newly created spaces 

and then the extensions and refurbishments of the 

existing spaces (Patroescu M., et al., 2004). 

In this regard, it aims to increase the area of 

green space per capita in the built-up area of cities 

and the target at the national level is to exceed 26 

square meters of green space per capita by 

December 31, 2013. 

Figure 1. Green spaces in urban areas in Europe in 2001 

to 12.39 sqm/capita (source:www.mmediu.ro, 

www.anpm.ro). 

So, in the spirit of harmonizing the national 

legislation with the acquis communautaire by the 

Emergency Ordinance no. 114/2007 on the 

environmental protection, "the local authorities are 

required to ensure of the built-up land an area of 

green space of 20 sqm/inhabitant, until December 31, 

2010 (which it wasn’t fulfilled up to the moment) and 

minimum 26 sqm/inhabitant, until December 31, 

2013" (source: www.cdep.ro).

133 


Figure 2. The available green space per capita in 2008 in the counties of Romania 

Realizing the negative effects of the increased 

degradation of the quality and quantity of green areas 

in Romania at national level, the Romanian 

Government issued on June 20, 2007 the Emergency 

Ordinance no. 59 whereby a "program" was set at 

national level in the populated areas. Thus, at the 

European level, those realities have been found since 

the end of last century once with the conclusion of the 

fifth Environmental Action Programme "Towards 

Sustainability" as of on December 31, 2000 and, 

therefore, in 2002 by the Decision 1600/2002/EC of 

the European Parliament and Council, a new 

Community Action Program, aiming both to prevent 

the negative environmental effects as a result of the 

social factors and industrialization, and the reclaiming 

and continuous improvement based on legislative 

principles and population awareness was established. 

According to the general objectives of the 

European Community concerning the environmental 

priorities on the climate change control, directions for 

nature and biodiversity, environmental improvements, 

population health and quality of life, responsible 

management of natural resources and waste, 

Romania has financially supported and confirmed the 

European Environmental Policy by the Emergency 

Ordinance 59/2007. These mandatory efforts 

undertaken by the accession treaty have as general 

objectives the accession of our country to the acquis 

communautaire in terms of EU Environmental Policy. 

"The Program" was developed over a period of 

three years from 2007 to 2010, with the possibility of 

extension, and the funds allocated from the 

Environment Fund aim at the financially support of 

the "Program’s" Beneficiaries, the local authorities: 

mayors and county councils. 

The Government project was also supported 

by the legislative body of Romania by the Law 

49/2008 whereby the amount of financeable projects 

was supplemented in 2007 by the Environmental 

Fund with the amount of lei 15 million, which is 

gratifying as regards the legislative support of policy 

on the increase of quality of life by creating green 

spaces in cities. 

Although the law has changed regarding the 

content of the "Program" Financing Guide approved 

by the Order of the Minister of Environment and 

Sustainable Development no. 1166/2007 and 

amended by Order No. 1107 as of August 20, 2009 

for approval of the "Program" Financing Guide, the 

law generally followed the same objectives, namely to 

encourage the investments carried out by the 

Beneficiaries of this program namely the local 

authorities. 

During 2007 - 2011 by "The Program", 667 

projects with a total value of lei 455,922,629 were 

selected and approved by 6 Government Decisions 

as a result of four sessions for submission of projects: 

• In 2007, according to Decision no. 1256 as of 

October 17, 2007, in the session of July 27 to 

August 15, 2007, a total of 102 projects with a 

value of 58,713,055 were selected (source 

www.afm.ro). 

• In 2008, according to Decision no. 482 as of May 7, 

2008, in the session of January 3-31, 2008 a total 

of 97 projects with a total value of lei 59,992,056.55 

were selected (source www.afm.ro). 

• In 2009 according to Decision no. 1588 as of 

December 16, 2009 and after two sessions of 

submission, the session as of January 3-31, 2008 

and August 25 to September 5, 2008, 35, 

respectively 148 projects with a total of lei 

122,669,355.04 were selected (source 

www.afm.ro). 

• In 2010 according to Decision no. 626 as of June 

30, 2010 the amounts related to the submitted 

projects approved by Decision no. 1588 as of 

December 16, 2009, were ratified in sessions as of 

January 3-31, 2008 and August 25 to September 5, 

2008, where a total of 35, respectively 148 projects 

were corrected and approved but with a total value 

of lei 123,283,498.68. The difference of lei 

614,143.64 compared to the GO 1588/2009 

consisting of the introduction and removal of 

various expenses considered eligible and ineligible 

- "The Program" (source: www.afm.ro). 

• In 2010 according to the Decision no. 110 as of 

February 9, 2011, as a result of the session as of 

September 21, 2009 - October 12, 2009 a total of 

285 projects with a total value of lei 214.548.162 

were selected (source: www.afm.ro). 

According to Order no. 1107 as of August 20, 

2009, between the size of the green space created by 

"The Program" and the number of inhabitants of the 

administrative units, there must be a close bondage. 

As seen in Table 1, the funds allocated for the 

development of green spaces networks are directly 

proportional to the size of cities and type of 

arrangements.


Table 1 

Encouraging by score the funded projects depending on the number of city inhabitants 

Administrative unit 

Inhabitants 

No. 

New construction 

Limit Score 

Refurbishment and 

extension 

Limit Score 

Refurbishment 

Limit Score 

Cities/large 

municipalities 

Over 100.000 2.000.000 lei 10 points 1.500.000 lei 7 points 1.000.000 lei 5 points 

Cities/medium 


Between 

20.000 and 

100.000 

1.500.000 lei 7 points 750.000 lei 5 points 550.000 lei 4 points 

Cities/small 


Till 20.000 1.000.000 lei 5 points 500.000 lei 3 points 400.000 lei 3 points 

Large villages Over 3.000 1.000.000 lei 3 points 500.000 lei 2 points 400.000 lei 2 points 

Small villages Till 3.000 500.000 lei 2 points 250.000 lei 1 point 200.000 lei 1 point 

Source : Order 1107/ 2009 

The amounts allocated depending on the 

projects’ location were thus designed to encourage 

the growth of green space per capita in poor areas, 

giving priority to those locations where it is necessary 

to increase this report. The given score is consistent 

with that presented in Table 2. 

Table2 

Encouraging by score the projects according to the 

created green space 

Over 20.000 m 2 

10 points 

Between 15.000 and 20.000 m 2 

7 points 

Between 10.000 and 15.000 m 2 

5 points 

Between 500 and 10.000 m 2 

3 points 

Source : Order 1107/ 2009 

The quality and type of components is also an 

important factor in project selection financed by "The 

Program", giving priority to those projects that provide 

the majority investments in plants and organic 

products, and provided with facilities for irrigation with 

sprinklers and lighting panels with photovoltaic poles. 


The green spaces are considered by experts 

in sociology, health (Maas J. et al., 2006), 

economics, culture, education, as real energy tanks 

in the standard of living and environmental quality 

development and growth mechanism (Ioja C. et al. 

2011). 

According to the study "Recreational Values 

of Public Parks" (Robert Manning & Thomas 

More) the users’ interest in parks can be gradually 

seen by the many positive effects that they offer. 

These are proportional in Table 3. 

In this respect, the multi-functionality means 

that the newly created, extended or refurbished 

green spaces should offer a variety of public utility 

services such as recreational activities, social 

activities, educational, cultural activities and all of 

them according to the specifics and needs of these 

areas (Byrne and Neil Sipe, 2010). 

134 

The variety intends that on the area of green 

spaces a large number of useful components are 

grouped functionally and recreational, components 

which are applied to all potential users and 

beneficiaries thereof (Clark P. and Jauhiainen J.S., 

2006). 

In this regard, the programming, design and 

execution of green spaces should take into account 

all components of a recreational space such as: a 

diversified vegetation with lawns, paths and access 

roads, lighting, irrigation systems, information 

elements, urban furniture, leisure furniture, 

playgrounds, outdoor fitness equipment, space and 

users protection elements, fauna elements and 

aquatic ecosystems, fountains, drinking fountains, 

lakes, garbage collection areas, sports grounds, and 

any other useful items in the administrative areas 

and those available to the public (Fanhua Kong et 

al., 2010; Ziyu T. et al., 2011). 

The arrangement of green spaces should 

encourage all recreational activities with 

appropriate spaces for walking; resting in nature, 

sports, play grounds, social spaces but also 

economic activities by the existence of terraces, 

restaurants, bicycles renting spaces, boats whereby 

the landscape arrangements can make that space 

more valuable. An important factor of quality and 

durability of the landscape works is their 

equipment with irrigation systems smartly and 

cost-effective designed so that they can be 

exploited later responsibly and economically 

(Zazueta F.S. et al., 1995). 

By the statistical data analysis and 

processing, we, the authors, have observed that the 

largest investments in green spaces achieved by the 

program have been made in Calarasi, Neamt, 

Bihor, Mures, Constanta counties, and the least 

significant investments were made in Mehedinti, 

Caras-Severin, Valcea, Alba and Ialomita counties 

as presented in Table 4 and Figure 3.

135 


Table 3 

Recreational values of parks 

Value of interest 

(1) (2) 

Level of significance (%) 

(3) (4) (5) (6) 

Recreational 64,4 27,9 5,7 1,1 0,9 0 

Aesthetics 60,4 29,5 6,6 2,4 1,1 0 

Educational 31,8 31,6 24,1 7,2 4,8 0,4 

Moral / Ethics 31,0 31,4 19,7 8,3 5,2 4,4 

Economic 23,2 36,9 23,9 10,8 3,5 1,7 

Ecological 33,6 25,5 18,5 11.3 6.1 5.0 

Therapeutic 24,0 28,2 26,4 11,6 7,1 2,7 

Historical /Cultural 20,1 28,5 20,1 17,9 9,1 4,4 

Scientific 16,0 18,7 29,3 19,6 9,6 6,9 

Intellectual 17,8 19,6 22,2 17,0 16,5 6,8 

Spiritual 9,9 14,6 15,8 20,0 20,3 19,4 

*1= very important; 2=important; 3= moderately; 4= satisfactory ; 5= less important; 6= insignificant 

Source:―Recreational Values of Public Parks‖ (Robert Manning & Thomas More, 2002) 

Comparison between the extreme limits of the absorption of funds through the "Program" 

Counties with a low rate of absorption of funds 

Counties with a high rate of absorption of funds 

Absorption 

Absorption 

Pl. County Total value from total Pl. County Total value from total 

funds 

funds 

42 Mehedinţi 1.902.483 lei 0,4173% 5 Constanţa 18.519.996 lei 4,0621% 

41 

Caras- 

Severin 

4.095.169 lei 0,8982% 4 Mureş 19.475.514 lei 4,2717% 

40 Vâlcea 4.307.119 lei 0,9447% 3 Bihor 22.675.646 lei 4,9736% 

39 Alba 4.919.206 lei 1,0790% 2 Neamţ 23.191.845 lei 5,0868% 

38 Ialomiţa 5.183.273 lei 1,1369% 1 Călărasi 24.922.696 lei 5,4664% 

Figure 3 The total value of investment in green spaces in funded counties during 2007-2011 by "The Program" 

By analyzing the obtained data with the 

demographic ones it can be noticed that the report 

is relatively disproportionate by the fact that 47% 

of the Romanian population lives in rural areas and 

53% in urban areas. 

Following the analysis at the level of 

geographical developing regions, results 

summarized in Table 5 and Figure 5, we can see 

that Region 3 South is the area where most funds 

were absorbed, most of these funds being 

concentrated in Calarasi, Giurgiu and Prahova 

counties. 

Table 4 

The lowest investments in relation to the 

number of inhabitants and surface were conducted 

in South-West Region 4, where the counties of this 

region have attracted only 6.19% of the total 

available funds. 

By analyzing the data presented in Table 6, 

it is also observed at county level that Mehedinti 

and Caras Severin have attracted the least funds in 

creating green spaces, while Calarasi, Neamt and 

Bihor counties have applied more aggressive 

county policies for the creation of green spaces, 

data presented schematically in Figures 6 and 7.


Geographical 

developing 

regions 

Region 1 

(North-East) 

Region 2 

(South-East) 

Region 3 

(South) 

Region 4 

(South -West) 

Figure 4 The total value of investments in green spaces attracted by 

the "Program" during 2007-2011, according to the cities’ administrative form. 

The total value of investments in green spaces attracted by 

"The Program" according to developing regions. 

Amount of funds 

Degree of 

absorption 

79.994.569 lei 17,55% 

60.849.232 lei 13% 

95.345.490 lei 20,91% 

28.204.724 lei 6,19% 

136 

Geographical 

developing regions 

Region 5 

(West) 

Region 6 

(North-Vest) 

Region 7 

(Center) 

Region 8 

(Bucuresti -Ilfov) 

Figure 5. The disposal of investments in green spaces (2007-2011) made by 

"The Program" in the developing regions 

Table 5 

Amount of funds Degree of 

absorption 

36.574.750 lei 8,02% 

71.927.902 lei 15,78% 

67.329.054 lei 14,77% 

15.696.907 lei 3,44%

County 

137 


Figure 6. The percentage of investments in green spaces (2007-2011) made 

by "The Program" in the developing regions 1-4. 

The value of investments in green spaces (2007-2011) made by 

"The Program" in the developing regions 1-8 

Investment Degree of 

Investment 

Region County 

value absorption value 

Table 6 

Degree of 

absorption Region 

Botoşani 8.773.811 lei 1,92% 1 Gorj 7.445.383 lei 1,63% 4 

Bacău 8.987.074 lei 1,97% 1 Dolj 

Total 

8.106.352 lei 1,78% 4 

Vaslui 9.180.505 lei 2,01% 1 Region 4 28.204.724 lei 6,19% 

Iaşi 13.820.917 lei 3,03% 1 Caras-Severin 4.095.169 lei 0,90% 5 

Suceava 16.040.418 lei 3,52% 1 Timiş 6.262.751 lei 1,37% 5 

Neamţ 23.191.845 lei 5,09% 1 Hunedoara 10.148.623 lei 2,23% 5 

Total Region 1 79.994.569 lei 17,55% Arad 

Total 

16.068.207 lei 3,52% 5 

Tulcea 6.042.135 lei 1,33% 2 Region 5 

Bistriţa- 

36.574.750 lei 8,02% 

Brăila 8.237.127 lei 1,81% 2 Năsăud 5.897.011 lei 1,29% 6 

Buzău 8.361.700 lei 1,83% 2 Cluj 6.955.626 lei 1,53% 6 

Vrancea 9.823.779 lei 2,15% 2 Maramureş 9.202.249 lei 2,02% 6 

Galaţi 9.864.494 lei 2,16% 2 Sălaj 11.327.823 lei 2,48% 6 

Constanţa 18.519.996 lei 4,06% 2 Satu Mare 15.869.547 lei 3,48% 6 

Total Region 2 60.849.232 lei 13% Bihor 

Total 

22.675.646 lei 4,97% 6 

Ialomiţa 5.183.273 lei 1,14% 3 Region 6 71.927.902 lei 15,78% 

Argeş 10.446.504 lei 2,29% 3 Alba 4.919.206 lei 1,08% 7 

Dâmboviţa 10.448.793 lei 2,29% 3 Covasna 7.014.808 lei 1,54% 7 

Teleorman 12.896.156 lei 2,83% 3 Sibiu 9.951.941 lei 2,18% 7 

Prahova 14.061.730 lei 3,08% 3 Harghita 10.578.391 lei 2,32% 7


Giurgiu 17.386.340 lei 3,81% 3 Braşov 15.389.195 lei 3,38% 7 

Călăraşi 24.922.696 lei 5,47% 3 Mureş 19.475.514 lei 4,27% 7 

Total 

Region 3 95.345.490 lei 20,91% 

138 

Total 

Region7 67.329.054 lei 14,77% 

Mehedinţi 1.902.483 lei 0,42% 4 Bucureşti 5.800.000 lei 1,27% 8 

Vâlcea 4.307.119 lei 0,94% 4 Ilfov 

Total 

9.896.907 lei 2,17% 8 

Olt 6.443.387 lei 1,41% 4 Region 8 15.696.907 lei 3,44% 

Total of Regions (1-8): 455.922.629 lei 

Figure 7 The percentage of investments in green spaces (2007-2011) made by 

"The Program" in the developing regions 5-8. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The performed studies confirm that the 

"Environmental quality improving program by 

creating green spaces in cities" through its 

nationwide implementation has largely met the 

overall objective to increase the area of green 

space available per capita in cities, but it should be 

noted that this increase has resulted in at an uneven 

national level, with significant differences between 

the values of funds absorbed by the administrative 

units in different regions and counties or 

administrative organization. 

At the same time, we need to emphasize that 

at the political and governmental decision level, 

they should be implemented with the release of 

collateral measure programs that can support the 

potential Beneficiaries and provide them the 

capacity to attract funds uniformly and equitably at 

national level. 


Paper done with the support of POS- 

DRU/88/1.5/S/52614 and POSDRU/CPP107/ 

DMI1.5/S/78421 programs and the teaching staff of the 

Faculty of Land Reclamation and Environmental 

Engineering in Bucharest and the Faculty of Law and 

Administrative Sciences in Craiova.

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**** Communication from The Commission to The 

European Parliament, The Council, The european 

economic and social committee and The committee of 

the regions; Options for an EU vision and target for 

biodiversity beyond 2010. 

140 

***** Ministry of Environment and Forests & 

Environmental Protection Agency: National Inventory 

Report (2008; 2009; 2010). 

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Mediu (AFM). 

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*** www.insse.ro; Institutul National de Statistica 

(INSSE). 

*** www.mmediu.ro; Ministerului Mediului and 

Pădurilor (MMP). 

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Protecția Mediului (ANPM). 

*** www.fao.org; Food and Agriculture 

Organization.

Abstract 

141 


THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 

IN THE FIELD OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION 

TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT 

1 Alexandru-Ioan Cuza University, Iasi 

Laura-Diana RADU 1 

e-mail: glaura@uaic.ro 

The social and economic evolution of the last decades has led to the general use of information and communication 

technologies (ICT) with direct and indirect impact on environment. The current trend is to focus on the development of 

less invasive hardware for environment and software that should support the monitoring and protection activities of the 

human ecosystem. Beyond the amazing facilities provided by the technological innovations, the users’ behaviour should 

be rational and by means of individual and collective measures, it should result in positive medium- and long-term 

actions, so that the following generations might benefit from life standards at least decent from this perspective. The 

technological “explosion” in the ICT field should be used both for the improvement of life standards and for favourable 

actions on the environment, the more so as the specific achievements may be the key to solve these problems. This 

paper aims to identify the main influences of the innovations in the field of information and communication 

technologies upon environment, the way in which they could be used in pro-environment measures and to state 

recommendations in view of mitigating the negative effects of these technologies on the human ecosystem. 

Key words: information and communication technologies, technological innovation, environment 

The information and communication technologies 

(ICT) have evolved very much in the last decades, 

influencing directly and indirectly all fields of the 

activity. In less than half of a century, mankind has 

become addicted to them. Their omnipresence 

under various forms, mobile phones, PDAs, 

notebooks, traffic and electricity control systems, 

media communication, etc, all connected to the 

Internet, have changed the way people live and 

work and have led to the creation of new products 

and services, such as employment opportunities, 

hard to be imagined before the ICT development. 

Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine for a large part 

of the population life without various equipment 

and specific applications. This spectacular 

evolution and the major influence they have at 

economic and social level have made ICT to be 

considered our collective nervous system— a 

platform for helping to solve some of our greatest 

economic, social and environmental challenges. 

(World Economic Forum, 2009). Their 

contribution to the economic growth has been the 

topic of numerous studies and the general 

conclusion has been that ICT determined the 

acceleration of economic development in all fields 

and countries, with larger influences in the 

developed ones and smaller in the developing 

countries. 

From the perspective of the economic 

theory, there are three factors causing the 

productivity growth, through the use of ICT: (1) 

the use of more performing equipment, (2) the 

increase in work quality considerably influenced 

by the easy access to information and knowledge 

and (3) the technological innovation manifested in 

the creation, distribution and use of new 

knowledge (Kozma, B., R., 2008) Currently, the 

world is hyper connected by means of the Internet 

and other ICT. This phenomenon triggers chain 

reaction of progress or downturn, leading to the 

disappearance of certain areas and activities and to 

the creation of others as a result of technological 

innovation. One of the most significant merits of 

technological innovation is represented by the 

disappearance of geographical barriers, enabling 

globalization and the almost unlimited access to 

information and knowledge. These represent 

premises and consequences of the technological 

innovation which, directly or indirectly, 

contributes to the economic and social progress. As 

far as environment is concerned, the ICT influence 

is complex and bidirectional. The dramatic 

evolution of the computational power offers


exceptional facilities for collecting and processing 

of information that strongly exceed the individuals’ 

ability, in time intervals much superior to the 

human life and being able to comprise the entire 

earth system from the bottom of the oceans to the 

highest atmosphere layers (ITU, 2008). The 

estimation of human activity effects and climate 

changes they determine can be performed 

nowadays with an acceptable precision, by means 

of interconnected computational platforms and by 

the access to the information stored in high 

capacity data warehouses. On the other hand, the 

production and use of ICT imply the use of nonreusable 

resources, causing pollution, while the 

decommissioning of equipment generates large 

quantities of non-biodegradable waste. The efforts 

made in the last decades focus on finding and 

applying solutions in this field in order to 

maximize the advantages of ICT use and to 

minimize the negative effects on the human 

ecosystem. 


The research was conducted by observing and 

analysing the main contributions of technological 

innovation within the ICT to the economic and social 

evolution with direct and indirect influences on the 

human ecosystem. The ICT study on environment is 

a relatively new preoccupation, their negative effects 

being much outstripped by the favourable results of 

their use in economy and social life. In comparison 

with other fields of activity, where the amount of 

waste, energy generated and non-reusable resources 

used or air pollution are at very high peaks, the 

outcomes of ICT production and use are, apparently, 

rather small. The spectacular evolution in the field, 

bringing about considerable decrease in prices and 

easy access to technology, has determined a 

substantial growth of negative, direct or indirect 

effects and has drawn the attention of authorities and 

public towards environment-friendly ICT. The 

developers have also reached a degree of evolution 

which allowed them the allocation of considerable 

human, financial and material resources for the 

analysis of side effects of ICT development and use 

and the search for alternative solutions. In this 

respect, the developers are interested in finding the 

least invasive production methods, inclusively in 

terms of used raw materials and stimulation of 

product development which should support the 

environmental protection activities. 


The ICT interfere in the environment by 

means of their two forms of existence: hardware 

and software. While the negative influence of 

hardware components is direct and obvious 

(energy consumption, resources used for their 

production, waste, pollution), in terms of 

142 

applications the negative effects are indirect and 

the positive ones are multiple and direct. 

In our opinion, the ICT negative effects 

which are fairly conclusive are translated in the 

following results: 

o The global information and communications 

technology (ICT) industry accounts for 

approximately 2 percent of global carbon 

dioxide (CO2) emissions, a figure equivalent to 

aviation. (Gartner, 2007); 

o 18% of office workers never switch off their PC 

at night or weekends, and a further 13% leave it 

on some nights each week, producing about 

700,000 tons of CO2 emissions (equivalent to 

the annual emissions of a typical gas-fired power 

station) (World Economic Forum, 2009); 

o With the fast growth of ICT application in 

business operation and people’s daily life, that 

energy use by these devices will double by 2022 

and increase threefold by 2030 (International 

Energy Agency, 2009); 

o A photocopier left on overnight uses enough 

energy to produce over 1500 copies. (NCB, 

2011); 

o The total footprint of the ICT sector – including 

personal computers (PCs) and peripherals, 

telecoms networks and devices and data centres 

– was estimated at 830 MtCO2e, about 2% of 

the estimated total emissions from human 

activity in 2007. Even if the efficient technology 

developments are implemented, this figure 

seems to grow at 6% each year until 2020. The 

carbon generated from materials and 

manufacture is about one quarter of the overall 

ICT footprint, the rest coming from its use. It 

was also estimated that ICT has the potential to 

reduce global emissions by 15% by 2020. 

(SMART 2020 Report, 2008); 

o The cost of running data centre facilities is rising 

by as much as 20% a year, far outpacing overall 

IT spending, which is increasing at a rate of 6% 

(World Economic Forum Green Technology 

2009 Report); 

o A data centre with 1000 servers uses enough 

electricity in a single month to power 16,800 

homes for a year. (Forrester Research, 2009); 

o At least 240 kilograms of fossil fuels, 22 

kilograms of chemicals and 1,500 kilograms of 

water are required to produce one desktop 

computer. (The ITAM Review, 2012); 

o Only 20 percent of total energy use goes into 

running a computer; the rest is in its 

manufacture. (Williams, E., 2003). 

As it can be noticed, the negative incidence 

on environment is mainly determined by the 

hardware components, while the favourable results 

are generated by the use of software whose

functioning is impossible without the adequate 

devices. In its turn, this last one may be used either 

directly for environment matters, either for the 

economic and social activity from various fields, 

ICT – part of problem 

143 


thus generating economic growth with favourable 

or unfavourable impact on environment (Figure 1). 

Environmental impact of hardware Environmental impact reduced by 

software and hardware 

Negative effects on environment Positive effects on environment 

Use of energy for the production 

and use of equipments 

The large volume of waste caused 

by the decommissioning of 

equipment 

Use of non-reusable resources in 

the production process 

The CO 2emissions from production 

and use 

Figure 1 The ICT effects on environment - by means of equipments and services provided 

Nowadays, the economic growth allows the 

allocation of resources and interest in the 

development of products and production methods 

able to generate as little damage as possible to the 

human ecosystem. The companies are interested in 

the reduced consumption of raw materials, in the 

reduction of expenses by means of virtual 

activities, or replacement of some tangible goods 

with some intangible ones. The innovations in the 

ICT field have an important role in this respect 

since they allow the development and 

implementation of some alternative production 

methods and products, the performance of 

simulations in order to determine the effects on 

environment, the easier and quicker dissemination 

towards partners and other interested users. 

ICT – part of solution 

Reduction in the number of travels 

by means of virtual environment 

communication 

Easy access to information and 

knowledge 

Increase in the efficiency of 

organisations’ economic activities 

Improvement of life standard 

Efficient monitoring of environment, 

possibility to communicate in real 

time and increase in the speed of 

intervention in case of natural 

disasters 

Change of lifestyle by becoming 

aware of environment and education 

problems 

The technological innovation in the ICT 

field is strongly oriented towards the development 

of devices and applications enabling the 

environment monitoring and finding solutions for 

the existing problems, generated either by man or 

by natural phenomena. In table 1 we present some 

of the ways in which the ICT devices and 

applications are used for the efficient management 

of the relationship between man and environment. 

The degree of ICT use is different, mainly 

according to the economic level of each region and 

country. The interest in their use is also various in 

terms of environmental protection measures. In the 

present, after an explosive evolution period in the 

production and entrance in the economic and social 

life of specific ICT equipment and applications, 

after the buzz specific to the pioneering period, a


rational and balanced approach is needed where 

the attention should move from the super- 

144 

demonstrated beneficial economic effects, to the 

social effects also reflected in environment. 

Table 1 

ICT for the efficient management of the relationship with the environment (adaptation after ITU, 2008) 

The use of hardware and software components for environmental matters can be performed as follows: 

Hardware: Software: 

Satellite and direct sensor technology that provide the 

ability to record and store massive amounts of 

geographical and historical information with increasing 

resolution and geographic coverage. 

Increasingly faster and available microprocessors 

which have provided computational power as well as 

increasingly intelligent algorithms that have allowed 

modeling of environmental systems and thus a better 

understanding of the complexity of the physical and 

biological systems that are part of the environment. 

Geographic information systems (GIS) that allow the 

visualization and interpretation of the datasets made 

available through these observation systems. 

Increasing bandwidth and very rapid distributed 

communications, processing and storage capabilities 

that facilitate data sharing and undertaking 

computationally-intensive tasks through the use of 

Grid and Cloud computing; 

Rapid, inexpensive and increasingly high capacity 

storage devices networked directly to one another and 

to users who may want to exploit these data sets. 

Currently, ―…storage density doubles every 12 

months‖. 

Wireless technologies that allow broadband rates of 

data exchange and the linking of devices to form 

networks or clouds of sensors for monitoring and 

recording environmental phenomena of various sorts. 

Increasingly rapid and sophisticated chip sets and 

processors containing an increasing number and 

density of transistors operating at an increasingly 

rapid number of transactions per second using 

increasingly rapid data buses and working 

collaboratively and in parallel to manipulate the data in 

concurrent streams and power software. 

An increasing number of intelligent physical and 

embedded devices that are connected through the 

Internet — sometimes known as the ―Internet of 

Things‖. These devices will be ―…integrated into 

larger systems, where they will perform control 

functions and communicate with one another over the 

Internet‖. These include: 

o Smart tags using radio frequency 

identification (RFID) technology; 

o Smart devices: including devices embedded 

in sensors for telemetric data collection and 

remote sensing, in appliances of all sorts, in 

testing and medical equipment, etc.; 

o Smart offices where ―roomware in the 

workplace will ensure greater efficiency and 

better working conditions‖. 

The national and international policies must 

support such attitudes and measures and 

Software such as database management systems 

(DBMSs) that can manipulate digital data. This 

includes geographic information systems (GIS); 

specialized database management systems that use 

textual, numeric, alphanumeric and imagery data 

including especially maps. Of particular use are spatial 

imagery and data and the possibility of linking data 

sets and images to map coordinates. 

Web-based services: a new class of Internet-based 

services based on open standards and resource 

sharing which have a ―service orientation‖. 

Software development: 

o Environmental observation : terrestrial (earth, 

land, soil, water), ocean, climate and 

atmospheric monitoring and data recording 

technologies and systems (remote sensing, data 

collection and storage tools, telemetric systems, 

meteorological and climate related recording and 

monitoring system), as well as geographic 

information systems (GIS) as it applies to data 

recording and georeferenced data formats. 

o Environmental analysis: once environmental data 

has been collected and stored, various 

computational and processing tools are required 

to perform the analysis and comparison of data 

available. 

o Environmental management and protection: 

environmental policy and strategic direction set 

during planning must reach the implementation 

phase in order to have a direct impact on the 

environment. In the area of climate change, 

management and protection deals with issues 

related to mitigating the impacts of climate 

change as well as adaptation to climate change. 

o Environmental capacity building: the end results 

of any efforts to improve environmental 

conditions rely on the actions of individuals and 

organizations in order to be fully effective. 

o Impact and mitigating effects of ICT utilization: 

ICT use can mitigate environmental impact 

directly by increasing process efficiency and as a 

result of dematerialization also and indirectly by 

virtue of the secondary and tertiary effects 

resulting from ICT use on human activities which 

in turn reduce the impact of humans on the 

environment. 

discourage the sometimes less responsible actions 

of producers and users. The organisational,

national and international strategies, applied to 

ICT, should mitigate the impact on environment by 

encouraging the following actions and behaviours 

(ITU, 2008): 

o Travel replacement using technologies such as 

videoconferencing and audio-conferencing, 

tele-education, tele-medicine, tele-care/remote 

assistance services, flexi-work, intelligent 

living: flexible car ownership, e-Commerce, e- 

Government and e-Business in general; 

o Reducing energy and material consumption: 

o Intelligent building design; 

o Intelligent building management 

including controlling the internal 

environment (heating and air or 

climate conditioning) of buildings 

through the use of intelligent building 

system (IBS); 

o e-Commerce, e-Government and e- 

Business in general which enhance 

process efficiency; 

o De-materialization: virtual answering 

machines, online billing, web-taxation, video 

on demand, music on demand; 

o Virtual meetings that could reduce CO2 

emissions by around 24 million tonnes / year. 

This would include audio and visual 

conferencing applications in lieu of travel. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The interest in the environment-friendly ICT 

and in those serving the studies in this field is 

increasing. In the last years, the concept of green 

ICT has become popular, aiming to reduce the 

energy consumption and CO2 emissions by using 

ICT and mitigating the impact generated by the 

waste resulted from the products specific to this 

field. In spite of this, we are still in an expansion 

period, and the attempts to reduce the negative 

effects are considerable, but still in the process of 

being identified and implemented. The advantage 

of the current period is that the measures to 

counterbalance the negative effects spread with the 

same speed as the performances in this area. The 

disadvantage is that they have a more reduced 

economic and social impact, because they are less 

spectacular in comparison with the technological 

progress and the facilities offered by the new 

technologies to the end user. 

In the present context, the position of 

national and international organisations as well as 

the social awareness is very important. The first 

ones may interfere by setting measures that should 

stop the development of products harmful for the 

environment or offer incentives, under various 

forms, while the population, through common or 

145 


individual attitudes and actions, may regulate the 

offer through demand. The development level of 

each country and region is also decisive in this 

field. 

Taking into consideration the aspects 

presented in the paper, we find useful to set some 

recommendations in order to mitigate the direct 

negative effects on the environment, applicable for 

ICT producers and/or users: 

The efficient management of equipment and 

the integration, whether it is possible, of 

recyclable or biodegradable components; 

The promotion of recycling by the 

establishment of specialised collection centres 

and the education of population in this 

direction; 

Offering less invasive alternatives for 

environment, such as the online 

communication instead of travels, the ecommerce 

and e-business, the promotion of 

experiences and training in the virtual 

environment; 

The promotion of introduction of 

environmental protection measures towards the 

equipment producers which should stimulate 

the reduction in the use of non-reusable 

resources, the pollution reduction generated by 

the use of devices and energy consumption; 

The reuse of equipment by distributing them to 

the interested persons and companies, the 

stimulation and encouragement of transactions 

from this category in the electronic 

environment, leading to the increase in product 

lifespan. 


This work was supported by the project "Post-Doctoral 

Studies in Economics: training program for elite 

researchers - SPODE" co-funded from the European 

Social Fund through the Development of Human 

Resources Operational Programme 2007-2013, contract 

no. POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61755. 

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2008, 

ftp://download.intel.com/education/EvidenceOfIm 

pact/Kozma_ICT_Framework.pdf 

World Economic Forum, 2009, ICT for Economic 

Growth: A Dynamic Ecosystem Driving The 

Global Recovery, 

https://members.weforum.org/pdf/ict/ICT%20for% 

20Growth.pdf


World Economic Forum, 2009, Green Technology: 

Driving Economic and Environmental Benefits 

from ICT, 

https://members.weforum.org/pdf/ip/ittc/Green%2 

0Technology%20Report.pdf 

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ICTs for e-Environment – Guidelines for 

Developing Countries, with a Focus on Climate 

Change, http://www.itu.int/ITU- 

D/cyb/app/docs/itu-icts-for-e-environment.pdf 

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Laboratories), Technology for Estimating 

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ctservice/index.html 

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Accounts for 2 Percent of Global CO2 Emissions, 

http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=503867 

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low carbon economy in the information age, 

http://www.smart2020.org/_assets/files/02_Smart 

2020Report.pdf 

146 

Forrester Research in Global Action Plan, 2009, 

Green ICT Handbook A Guide to Green ICT, 

http://www.globalactionplan.org.uk/sites/gap/files/ 

Green%20ICT%20Handbook.pdf 

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Gigawatts: Policies for Energy Efficient 

Electronics, 

http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/giga 

watts2009.pdf 

NCB, 2011, Green ICT Guidelines for Businesses, 

http://www.gov.mu/portal/sites/GreenIT/download 

s/NCB%20Guideline%20Green%20ICT%2022.11 

.11.pdf 

The ITAM Review, 2012, Computer Aid International: 

„Donating PCs Is Green”, 

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%28Aug10%29.pdf

Abstract 

147 


THE STUDIES ON THE DYNAMICS CONTENT OF NITRATES 

AND NITRITES FROM TOMATOES AND PRODUCTS RESULTING 

FROM TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW OF OBTAINING TOMATO JUICE 

Corina ANDREI, Dumitru BECEANU 1 

e-mail: corinandrei84@yahoo.com 

The purpose of this study was to monitor the level of nitrates and nitrites in raw tomatoes for industrialization in the 

S.C. Contec FOODS S.R.L.Tecuci. The analyses carried out to assess the dynamics of the level of nitrates and nitrites in 

the raw material, the technological flow samples and finished product. 

Concentrations of nitrates and nitrites have been quantified by molecular absorption spectrometry method. The level of 

nitrates tomatoes varied between 7.14-8.11 mg/kg and in tomato juice between 5.04-5.27 mg/kg, these values are under 

safety limit set by legislation. The level of nitrites in all cases (tomatoes, chopped tomatoes thermal treated, residue of 

skin and seed, tomato juice) are less than 1 mg/kg. The highest concentrations of nitrates and nitrites after processing 

tomatoes have been found in the skin and seed, obtained as residue from the processing of tomatoes. 

The values obtained were below the maximum permissible concentrations of legislation in force. 

Key words: (nitrates, nitrites, tomato, tomato juice) 

In recent years, an increasing interest 

concerning determination of nitrate levels in food 

products has been observed, essentially due to the 

potential reduction of nitrate to nitrite, which is 

known to cause adverse effects on human and 

animal health. Therefore, the monitoring and 

surveillance of the quality of vegetal products need 

to be enhanced. 

Nitrates and nitrites may accumulate in 

plants tissues and are very dangerous substances 

for human health, leading health disturbances 

(methemoglobinemia). Some epidemiological 

studies linking intake of nitrate and nitrite with 

gastric cancer in humans indicated a positive 

correlation. 

Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of 

either ammonium (NH 4+ ) or nitrate (NO 3– ), and its 

accumulation is influenced by a series of factors 

that are depending on the species, cultivar, age and 

soil conditions. Once nitrate is absorbed by plants, 

it has to be reduced by the enzyme nitrate 

reductase to ammonium and assimilated via 

glutamate. The concentration and amount of 

nitrates levels in plants will vary depending on the 

type of vegetable, the temperature that it is grown 

at, the sunlight exposure, soil moisture levels and 

the level of natural nitrogen in the soil. 

In relation to age, preferential tomatoes 

absorb at the beginning of vegetation form 


ammonia NH + after using nitric form [Vasilica, 

Simion, Câmpeanu, Gh., Gina, Vasile, Mihaela, 

Artimon, Luminiţa, Catană, Mioara, Negoiţă, 

2008; Davidescu, D., Davidescu, Velicica, 1987]. 

Vegetables tend to concentrate nitrate ions, 

especially if they are grown by using a high 

application of nitrogen fertilisers. If nitrate levels 

in vegetal products are too high, farmers must 

reduce the amount of nitrogen fertilizers they use, 

though the problem from the farmer point of view 

is that by reducing nitrogen applications is likely to 

obtain lower yields. 

Also, it is known that molybdenum is a 

component of nitrate reductase enzyme, which has 

an important role in plant nitrate metabolism. 

Lower concentrations of molybdenum in 

plants lead to nitrate accumulation in tissues and 

sometimes, a higher level of nitrate is a 

consequence of this wait. 

The major contribution of the intake of 

nitrates in food comes from vegetables. Nitrates 

are natural components of plants and are present in 

large quantities in many vegetables. 

As a result of many factors that influence the 

process of accumulation of nitrates in vegetables, 

data from the literature usually indicates a large 

variation of content of nitrates. Concentrations of 

nitrates in tomatoes varies between 10-100 mg/kg.


The amount of nitrates in general decreases 

as plant, green maturing have higher levels of 

nitrates than mature. 

Accumulation of nitrites in the fresh 

products of vegetable origin is reduced, they 

represent a transitional stage in the processing of 

nitrates by endogenous reductases. As the nitrites 

is formed by the action of the enzyme nitrate 

reductase, they shall be reduced further with the 

same speed of nitrite reductase, oxides of nitrogen 

ammoniacal nitrogen up to. The process takes 

place in the leuchoplasts of the root or in the 

chloroplasts of leaf. The degree of reduction 

depends on genetic factors and the role of electrons 

from NADPH+H + . So it explains why different 

quantities of nitrates in vegetables are much higher 

than the amounts of nitrites. 

After harvesting the vegetables kept in 

inadequate conditions favouring the development 

of microorganisms, leading to the accumulation of 

large amounts of nitrites by reducing nitrates. This 

fact is explained by the decrease of nitrite and 

nitrate reductase increase in activity of endogenous 

or microbial origin. In this case the concentration 

of nitrites can reach very high values 

(approximately 360 mg/kg dry matter) (Clemensa, 

Tofan, 2001]. 

In tomatoes intended for processing are 

specific sources of pollution and contamination. 

Stagnation in manufacturing technological 

flow derivatives are also causes of conversion of 

nitrates into nitrites (Andrei, Corina, 2011). 

During the processing necessary to select 

those processes to ensure reduction of nitrates. So, 

wash with plenty of water and boiling hot 

moulding or short-lived, with removal of water, 

nitrates can reduce up to 30% of the initial quantity 

(carrots, spinach, potatoes, but not in red beets). 

The presence of nitrates/nitrites in large 

quantities in food can create a number of 

technological problems in the preservation 

industry: corrosion of metallic tin packaging, or the 

opportunity of formation of nitrogen oxide during 

sterilisation, which causes the camber boxes and 

even their explosion (Watson, D., H., 2002; 

Clemensa, Tofan, 2001). 

Because of the potential hazards to health as 

a result of high intake of nitrates and nitrites, 

determination of the content of these ions in the 

tomato was considered and measured in many 

countries (Vasilica, Simion, Câmpeanu, Gh., Gina, 

Vasile, Mihaela, Artimon, Luminiţa, Catană, 

Mioara, Negoiţă, 2008). 

148 


Biological material used for the analyses was 

the tomatoes harvested at maturity, in Tulcea County, 

and for recovery within S.C. Contec Foods S.R.L 

Tecuci. 

Figure 1 Tomatoes and tomato juice 

Samples were collected in October 2011. 

This study analyzed the levels of nitrates and 

nitrites in raw tomatoes, chopped tomatoes thermal 

treated, residue of skin and seed, and tomato juice of 

finished product. 

The obtained results were correlated with the 

limits laid down by the legislation in force (Figure 1). 

Defining stages of processing regarded as 

critical points of sampling in the analysis of the 

dynamics of the nitrates and nitrites content are 

presented in Figure 2. 

Figure 2 Stages of processing tomatoes 

for tomato juice 

Determination of the content of nitrates and 

nitrites were carried out by molecular absorption 

spectrometry method. 

Determination of nitrites is based on their 

reaction to the pH 1.9 with reagent 4-amino benzene 

sulphonamide in the presence of orthophosphoric 

acid, to form a salt of diazonium forming a complex 

with red color with N (1-naphthyl reagent) – ethylene - 

diamine, which measure the absorbance at 540 nm. 

Trace the calibration curve was made into a 

series of nine volumetric flasks of 50 ml, where 

volumes have been introduced by a standard solution 

of nitrite nitrogen concentration of 1 mg/l, indicated in 

the table below (table 1). 

It was carried out and a blank, but replacing 

the sample with ultrapure water. 

Determination of the content of nitrates is 

performed in a series of bottles of evaporation, where 

they added 1 ml, 2 ml, 3 ml, 4 ml and 5 ml nitrate and 

0.5 ml solution of sodium azide and 0,2 ml of acetic

acid. After 5 minutes added 1 ml of sulphuric acid, to 

dissolve the residue in the flask. Added 10 ml of 

distilled water and 10 ml of the alkaline solution. 

Volume of 

standard 

nitrite (ml) 

Trace the calibration curve 

Mass of nitrite 

nitrogen, expressed 

in mN (µg) 

Table 1 

The optical 

path of the 

cells (mm) 

0.00 0.00 10 and 50 

0.50 0.50 50 

1.00 1.00 10 and 50 

1.50 1.50 50 

2.00 2.00 50 

2.50 2.50 10 and 50 

5.00 5.00 10 

7.50 7.50 10 

10.00 10.00 10 

The mixture obtained has been into a 

volumetric flask at 25 ml and put in water bath at a 

temperature of 25°C, for 10 minutes, and then it was 

brought up to the mark with water. The absorbance 

measured at wavelength of 415 nm in cells with 

optical path 40 mm or 50 mm, with reference to 

distilled water. 


The results obtained from samples allow us 

to state that they are much smaller than the 

maximum permissible concentrations (CMA) by 

the legislation in force. 

Results on the content of nitrates and nitrites 

in tomatoes and products from the technological 

flow are presented in table 2. 

Table 2 

The concentration of nitrates and nitrites ions 

Sample 

Tomatoes 

Chopped 

tomatoes 

thermal treated 

Rezidues 

(skin and seed) 

Tomato juice 

from the samples studied 

Values obtained (mg/kg) 

NO2 - 

NO3 - 

0,030 8,02 

0,051 7,14 

0,026 8,11 

0,022 7,70 

0,014 5,23 

0,032 5,18 

0,011 5,26 

0,013 5,28 

0,030 7,16 

0,033 7,23 

0,026 6,80 

0,031 7,12 

0,011 5,04 

0.016 5,13 

0,020 5,27 

0,012 5,07 

Level of nitrates in tomato juice looked 

varied between 5.04-5.27 mg/kg, with an average 

of 5.12 mg/kg. The average highest nitrate was 

found in raw tomatoes (7.74 mg/kg), which 

subsequently dropped after washing (2 washing 

149 


with cold water, 2 showers) and preheating 60- 

70 ° C, with a concentration of 5.25 mg/kg (figure 

3). 

Figure 3 The effect of processing 

on the content of nitrates, mg/kg 

This quantity of nitrates leachate dropped 

due to the composition of the heat treatment 

(preheating to 60-70° C for 4 minutes) after which 

the NaCl was added at the rate of 0.35%. 

Surveys say that nitrates are stable chemical 

substances and which do not fall under the action 

of oxidants and temperature, but is characterized 

by a high solubility in water (Tărâţă, V., 1992). 

Nitrates, a dangerous compound for the 

quality of finished product, measured in it are well 

below 150 mg/kg (CMA as specified in the 

Ordinance the Government Romania No. 1/2002) 

on all samples. 

The same situation is found and to nitrites, 

where the values of this compound are well below 

3 mg/kg. 

The level of nitrites in tomatoes and 

products resulting from technological flow are very 

small, less than 1 mg/kg (figure 4). Anyway, the 

content of nitrites in plant products are generally 

lower than those in the nitrate. 

Figure 4 The effect of processing 

on the content of nitrites, mg/kg 

Content of nitrites in tomatoes vary between 

0.022-0.051 mg/kg, with an average of 0.032 

mg/kg. 

Content of nitrites in tomato juice is lower 

by about 50% in raw material, while the content of 

the highest technological steps to be taken in the


study was obtained in skins and seeds obtained as 

residue from the processing of tomatoes. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Influence of processing steps taken in the 

study on the nitrate content of lowering their 

concentrations at a level of 7.74 mg/kg in raw 

tomatoes, at a value of 5.12 mg/kg in the finished 

product. 

As regards the content of nitrites in tomato 

juice (0.014 mg/kg) it is lower than for the 

corresponding content of tomatoes was 0.032 

mg/kg. 

High concentrations of nitrates and nitrites 

was recorded in skin and seed obtained as residue 

from the processing of tomatoes. 

Analysis of nitrates and nitrites shows a 

tomato juice containing normal in these 

compounds, so a good quality for human 

consumption and marketing. 

150 

REFERENCES 

Andrei, Corina, 2011 - General issues concerning the 

ways of contamination on technological flow of 

processed horticultural products under 

processing, Lucrări ştiinţifice Vol 54, Nr. 2, Seria 

Horticultură, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad‖, 

Iaşi, p 365-371; 

Clemensa, Tofan, 2001 - Igiena şi securitatea 

produselor alimentare, Editura Agir, Bucureşti 

Davidescu D., Davidescu, Velicica, 1987 - Agrochimia 

în sprijinul producţiei, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti 

Dumitru, Vasilica, 2008 - Siguranţa alimentară la 

producerea şi procesarea tomatelor, Teză de 

doctorat, Bucureşti 

Tărâţă, V., 1992 – Cercetări privind conţinutul de nitraţi 

în unele legume şi evoluţia lor în procesul 

tehnologic, Lucrări ştiinţifice, Vol XXII, Bucureşti, 

p 109-115 

Vasilica, Simion, Câmpeanu, Gh., Gina, Vasile, 

Mihaela, Artimon, Luminiţa, Catană, Mioara, 

Negoiţă, 2008 - Nitrate and nitrite accumulation 

in tomatoes and derived products, Roumanian 

Biotechnological Letters, vol. 13, București, Nr. 4, 

p. 3785-3790 

Watson, D., H., 2002 – Food chemical safety, Vol I 

Contaminants, Woodhead publishing limited, 

Cambrige England

151 


THE USE OF BARREN LANDS – SOURCE OF IMPROVING FORAGE BASE 

IN ORDER TO ENSURE THE OPTIMUM MILK CONSUMPTION 

Abstract 

Florina DODOLOI 1 

e-mail: florinapopovici2005@yahoo.com 

Country's arable land is 8.4 million hectares, of which 1.26 million hectares (15%) are barren. Average recommended 

consumption of milk is 240 l/year/person, while in developed countries it is between 280 and 440 l/year/person. The 

objective of this paper is to determine whether cultivating barren lands could bring an increase of production so as to 

ensure an optimum consumption of milk and dairy products. If the barren lands from the NE area of development would 

be cultivated with forage crops, it might get a production of about 873 thousand to of fodder. In Neamt county, from the 

use of barren lands, the optimal consumption for milk and dairy products should be provided (303 l/inh.), counties such 

as Suceava and Botosani making even surplus yields (740 l/inh., respectively 528 l/inh.). In Iasi, Vaslui and Bacau 

counties, it could only be realized a minimum or a little over minimum consumption (192 l/inh, 210 l/inh., 207 l/inh.). 

Key words: forrage base, milk consumption, barren lands 

Country's arable land is 8.4 million 

hectares, of which 1.26 million hectares (15%) are 

barren. Arable land has become a geopolitical issue 

because global security is threatened by famine 

(Smith 2009). We are ranked 12th in the world 

vulnerable to hunger among African countries. 

Dairy cows fed high-quality forage produce more 

milk with less supplemental concentrate than cows 

fed lower-quality forage (Radu 2011; Vladu et al. 

2007; Weiss et al. 2007). Livestock, their health 

and productive capacity depends largely on the 

provision of fodder throughout the year, rich in 

various chemical constituents (Pop et al. 2002; 

Stoica 2006; Vaida et. al 2010). Grazing 

management has a greater effect on the pasture 

than any other part of the pasture management 

program. Poor grazing management can lead to the 

loss of some species in the pasture and the loss of 

forage yield (Barnes et al. 2007; McDowell 2009; 

Redecker et al. 2002; Vîntu et al. 2004). Cattle’s 

milk contains more of the essential vitamins and 

mineral required by the human than any other 

single food (Patton 2005; Chandan et al. 2008). In 

our country, the milk and dairy products 

consumption is quite limited, and the quantity per 

capita consumption is much lower than in other 

developed countries. The literature indicates that, 

to maintain human health, it would be necessary to 

annually consume 300 liters/capita (by WHO), 240 

l/capita (FAO), or at least 0.5 liters per day (180 

l/capita), including also butter or cheese. 


MATHERIALS AND METHODS 

The methodology used in the paper had the 

specific marketing methods and geo-economic study 

based on the investigated area, direct observation, 

agricultural statistics, analysis of comparative 

economic record, economic experiment, monographic 

method, simple division method and comparison 

method, analysis and synthesis. 

The study was conducted based on data 

reported by Romania's Central Technical Secretariat 

from General Agricultural Census, which took as the 

reference date 1st of December 2010. Barren lands 

are agricultural lands that have not been worked in 

the reference year of the census, were not included in 

the rotation system and it is not maintained in good 

agricultural and environmental conditions. The 

analysis was made on the North-East region of 

development, which includes the counties Bacau, 

Botosani, Iasi, Neamt, Suceava and Vaslui. 


Although Romania is the middle ranking of 

the largest milk producing country, with a volume 

of 232 l / capita, ahead of most markets in the 

region and on a level with England and the Czech 

Republic, local industry is insignificant in the 

market milk of European Union. Only 1 in 5 liters 

of milk reaches the processing industry and 40% 

are for self-consumption. 

According to Eurostat, the whole country, in 

2010, fallown land totaling 904,000 hectares. If it


had cultivated with forage crops could get a yield 

of about 9040000 to. This production could feed a 

herd of about 496,703 dairy cows. 

Average milk production throughout the 

country is 3528 l / head, we may appreciate that 

after cultivation of fallown land, we could get a 

surplus of milk production of about 17.522 million 

hl. 

Adding the existing surplus production 

3.944 million tons, we obtain a value of 39457.5 

million hl. This production involves milk 

consumption of about 183 l / capita, a value much 

closer to the optimal consumption of milk and 

dairy products. 

In the NE region, the largest area of fallown 

land is located in Bacau, while in Suceava County 

there is the lowest area of fallown land (figure 1). 

152 

In case the barren land would be cultivated 

with forage crops (table 1), the production 

obtained by each county would have the following 

values: 

Iasi: 7.1 • 9087.38 = 64520.4 to; 

Vaslui: 11.2 • 15886.57 = 177929.6 to; 

Bacau: 15.9 • 24225.57 = 385186.5 to; 

Suceava: 17.2 • 2320.63 = 39914.8 to; 

Botosani: 11.3 • 12514.32 = 141411.8 to; 

Neamt: 12.1 • 5312.42 = 64280.3 to. 

The total development area of forage 

production derived from barren land cultivation 

would be 873240.4 to. 

Table 1 

Data on the current situation of livestock, milk and forage yields and barren land in NE Region of development 

County 

Livestock 

(heads) 

Average yield 

(l/head) 

Barren lands (ha) 

Average fodder yields 

(to/ha) 

Population (inh.) 

Iasi 70676 2143 9087.38 7.1 829973 

Vaslui 52890 1509 15886.57 11.2 450269 

Bacau 59781 1839 24225.57 15.9 716176 

Suceava 147624 3493 2320.63 17.2 706720 

Botosani 99958 2200 12514.32 11.3 448423 

Neamt 67877 2389 5312.42 12.1 562489 

Total 498806 13130 69346.89 - 3714050 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 

9087.38 

15886.57 

24225.57 

2320.63 

12514.32 

Iasi Vaslui Bacau Suceava Botosani Neamt 

Average consumption per fed cattle is 50 kg 

fodder x 365 days = 18.2 to. In these conditions, 

the production of feed obtained from cultivation 

the barren lands can feed a herd of around 48 

thousand heads: Iasi: 64520.4 : 18.2 = 3545 

Figure 1 Situation of fallown land in NE Region (ha) 

5312.42 

heads; Vaslui: 177929.6 : 18.2 = 9776 heads; 

Bacau: 385186.5 : 18.2 = 21164 heads; Suceava: 

39914.8 : 18.2 = 2193 heads; Botosani: 141411.8 : 

18.2 = 3532 heads; Neamt: 64280.3 : 18.2 = 3532 

heads (table 2).

County 

Present 

livestock 

(heads) 

Total milk yield obtained from cultivation of barren lands 

Present 

average yield 

(l/head) 

Total yield 

(thou. hl) 

153 


Suplimentary 

livestock 

(heads) 

Total 

suplimentary 

yield (thou. hl) 

Table 2 

Total feasible 

yield (thou. hl) 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Iasi 70676 2143 1514 3554 76 1590 

Vaslui 52890 1509 798 9776 147 945 

Bacau 59781 1839 1099 21164 389 1488 

Suceava 147624 3493 5156 2193 77 5233 

Botosani 99958 2200 2199 7770 171 2370 

Neamt 67877 2389 1621 3532 84 1705 

Vaslui 498806 13130 12387 47989 944 13331 

7= 4+6 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 

Iasi Vaslui Bacau Suceava Botosani Neamt 

Total milk yield Milk yield after cultivating fallown lands 

Figure 2 Evolution of total milk production before and after cultivating fallow land (thou. hl) 

After ensuring an optimum milk 

consumption of 300 l/inh., in Suceava and 

Botosani counties can be noticed an excedent of 

440 l/inh., respectively 228 l/inh. Meanwhile, 

milk production in Neamt county could not be 

excess. In Iasi, Vaslui and Bacau counties, it 

could only be realized a minimum or a little over 

minimum consumption (192 l/inh, 210 l/inh, 207 

l/inh) (table 3). 

Consumption of milk and dairy products per capita after cultivated barren lands 

County Milk yield (thou. hl) Population (inh.) 

Consumption/inh. 

before cultivating 

barren land 

Consumption/inh. 

after cultivating 

barren land 

Iasi 1590 829973 182 192 

Vaslui 945 450269 177 210 

Bacau 1488 716176 153 207 

Suceava 5233 706720 729 740 

Botosani 2370 448423 490 528 

Neamt 1705 562489 288 303 

CONCLUSIONS 

The total forage yield derived from 

cultivation of barren lands, per total development 

area would be 873,240.4 to, production with which 

Table 3 

dairy herds could increase by about 10 %. Milk 

production obtained from this livestock would be 

of 944 thousand hl, which would ensure optimum 

consumption in the counties of Suceava, Botosani 

and Neamt and ensure a minimum consumption for


counties Iasi, Vaslui and Bacau. The highest per 

capita consumption growth is recorded in the 

county of Bacau, Vaslui county with 35 % and 

about 19 %, this due to the large surface of barren 

area. 


This work was co-financed from the European 

Social Found through Sector Operational Program 


number POSDRU /I.89/1.5/S62371 ―Postdoctoral School 


REFERENCES 

Barnes, R.F., et al., 2007 - The Science of Grassland 

Agriculture, Blackwell Publishing, Boston. 

Chandan R. et. al., 2008 - Dairy Processing and Quality 

Assurance, Blackwell Publishing, Boston. 

Dowell R.W., 2009 - Environmental Impacts of Pasture- 

Based Farming. CABI Publishing, UK. 

Patton S., 2005 - Milk: It's Remarkable 

Contribution to the Human Health and Well-Being, 

Transaction Publishing, New Jersey. 

Pop C., Pop I.M., 2002 - Optimization and profitability in 

cow milk production (in Romanian), PIM 

Publishing, Iași. 

154 

Radu R.E., 2011 - Research on Optimizing Dairy Cows 

Feeding on Private Farms Located Near Paşcani, 

Iaşi County (in Romanian). Agricultural University 

Iași, PhD Diss., Abstr. 1-7. 

Redeker B. et. al., 2002 - Pasture Landscape and 

Nature Conservation. Springer Publishing, New 

York. 

Romania. Central Technical Secretary. General 

Agricultural Census, June 2011. 

Smith A. 2009 - A Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of 

the Wealth of Nations. Digireads, Kansas. 

Stoica I., 2006 - Principles of Feeding Cattle of High 

Productivity (in Romanian), Coral Sanivet 

Publishing, Bucharest. 

Vaida Ghe. et al., 2010 - Modern Technology on Cattle 

Growth, Evaluation and Enhancement of Milk 

Production According to European Union (in 

Romanian). Artpress Publishing, Timișoara. 

Vîntu V. et. al., 2004 - Grassland and forage culture (in 

Romanian), Ion Ionescu de la Brad Publishing, 

Iași. 

Vladu M. et. al., 2007 - Dairy cattle breeder manual (in 

Romanian). University Publisher, Craiova. 

Weiss W.P. et. al., 2007 - Forages for Dairy Cattle, Ohio 

State University Extension.

Abstract 

155 


PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER 

IN A MICROWAVE FIELD AND MASS TRANSFER 

DURING THE DRYING OF DENSE TEXTILES 

1 Technical University „Ghe. Asachi”, Iasi 

Gheorghe DONCEAN 1 

e-mail: doncean_gheorghe@yahoo.com 

Microwave drying provides economic advantages based on optimised energy consumption and productivity deriving 

from the changes in physical and chemical properties of water in a microwave field: heating rate, as influenced by 

chemical composition, volume, the presence of the heat transformer; volume expansion, vapour pressure, rH, 

evaporation rate and the evaporation parameter – all measured in relation to temperature, time and power. For example, 

in the case of felt, energy consumption is reduced from 4-6 kWh in classical drying to 1.7-2.3 kWh during microwave 

drying per 1 kg of dried water. In addition, the drying period is shortened from 200-400 min. in classical drying to 60- 

140 min. in microwave drying. Thus, based on drying time alone, productivity increases 3 to 4 times. Each material 

subjected to a drying process is characterised by typical energy consumption and productivity levels. 

Key words: water, field, microwave, trensfer, drying 

The microwave heating of dielectrics in a 

cavity resonator has emerged out of the necessity 

to increase the power transformed into heat, by 

using ultra high frequencies, the intensity of the 

electrical field being limited due to dielectric 

rigidity. According to the general classification, 

microwaves are defined as the area of the 

electromagnetic spectrum ranging between f = 0.3 

GHz and f = 6.10 3 GHz ( = 0.05 - 10 3 mm); based 

on other definitions set the boundaries of the 

microwave spectrum between f = 1 and 3.10 2 GHz 

( = 1-3.10 2 mm). 

Interaction effects can be thermal or nonthermal. 

Non-thermal effects are generated at high 

potential (> 100 V/cm) and at low potential. This 

refers to: the saturation of dielectrics, the 

orientation of colloidal particles, the molecular 

resonance of microscopic-scale biological 

structures, etc. 

As regards thermal effects, the specific 

power [W/m 3 ] dissipated in the material is 

expressed by the relationship: 

PV = 0.5 ∙ ael∙E 2 + 0.5 ∙ 0∙ "∙ ∙E 2 + 

0.5∙ 0∙ "∙ ∙H 2 [W/m 3 ] 

Where ael – electric conductibility [S/m]; - 

electric permittivity [F/m]; " - magnetic 

permeability [H/m]; E, H – the intensity levels of 

the electric field [V/m] and, of the magnetic field 

[A/m] respectively. 

If ael = 0 and " = 0, : 

PV = 0.55∙10 -10 ∙ "∙f∙E 2 

with " = '.tg el and " = '.tg m. 

These values define the dielectric properties 

of a material and characterise its behaviour under 

the influence of a high-frequency field 

(microwaves), being dependent on frequency, 

humidity, temperature, etc. 

epsilon*tg(delta) 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

20 30 40 50 60 

[T [ C] 

70 80 90 100 

Figure 1 Temperature dependence of product 

( 'tg el ) for water at 2.45 GHz frequency. 

In the case of water, given the ranges f = 1 - 

10 GHz and T = 20 -100 0 C, one can calculate the 

following relationships: 

1 

tg el 

= (1,82. 10 

T 

-9 

f 

- 1,2)


, = 87 - 0,36T 

Product 'tg el reaches the maximum values 

at a frequency of 27.5 GHz. 


A laboratory set-up was assembled from 

commercial components, similar in principle to regular 

components, with maximum output power of 800 W 

and a frequency of 2450 MHz. Initial power (P) was 

set on three levels: 350, 500, 650 W. The cavity 

resonator features: 

- reaction bowl; 

- PC-linked digital thermometer for automatic 

recording during the charging break of the 

magnetron; 

- pressure manometer (0 – 300 mmHg); 

- ORP system for the simultaneous 

measurement of temperature, pH, electrode potential, 

connected to a PC and charged through a connection 

loop in the generation break of microwaves; 

- pycnometer with volumetric pipette. 

Materials 

Measurements of the cavity resonator: L x l x H 

= (350 x 228 x 343) mm and volume 27.3 l. 

Heating rate 

The power of microwaves is a key factor with a 

significant influence on the heating rate. If greater 

power is applied, then an increased heating rate of 

the object subjected to heating is to be expected. 

The dependence between the power of 

microwaves applied during heating and temperature 

increase can be rendered by the equation below: 

T 

P t 

V c 

p 

where: ΔT – temperature increase of the 

heated object; 

P – power of microwaves used for heating; 

ρ, V, c p – the density, volume, specific heat 

(kg/m 3 , m 3 , and J/(kg 0 K), respectively), t – heating 

time, s. 

The output efficiency of the set-up is 

dependent on the frequency and on the 

measurements and volume of the cavity typical of 

each set-up. 

The initial power absorbed by water (IEC 

standard IEC 705 – 1988, V = 1000 ml, T 0 = 10 ± 2 

0 C) is expressed by the previous equation adjusted 

for the given conditions: 

P 4187 

T 

t 


Temperature : T = 63.5750 + 27.7500 t + 

10.9667 P +4.3250 t P – 0.8250 t 2 – 6.8750 P 2 

t – time, min.: P - power, W 

156 

Y T( C) 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 - 500 - 650 W (s) 

0 

HEATING OF SIMPLE DISTILLED WATER 

-0.5 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

0 

0.5 

X1 time 1-5-9 min 

Figure 2 Temperature 

Heating rate 

dT/dt = 0.88-0.595 t – 0.0875 P -0.2075 t P – 

0.0925 t 2 +0.0734 P 2 


Y dT/dt ( C/min) 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 - 500 - 650 W (s) 

0 

-0.5 

-1 

Heating rate 

-1 

-0.5 

0 

0.5 

X1 time 1- 5 - 9 min 

Figure 3 Heating rate 

Heating based on a heat transformer 

(thermal runaway) 

T=59.8000 + 28.3500 t + 10.5333 P + 

+5.7000 t P – 0.7000 t 2 – 2.5500 P 2 

t – time, min.: P – power, W 

Y T( C) 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 - 500 - 650 W 

Heating based on a heat transformer (thermal runaway) 

0 

-0.5 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

Figure 4 Temperature 

0 

0.5 

X1 time 1-4-7 min 

Heating rate based on thermal runaway 

dT/dt=8.3715 – 1.7490 t + 0.7510 P – 0.6215 t P – 

1.7615 t 2 – 0.0815 P 2 


1 

1 

1

Y dT/dt ( C/min) 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 -500 - 650 W 

pV [mm Hg] 

e [%]=100*(Vt-V0)/V0 

4 

3 

2 

1 

-2 

-3 

-4 

-5 

-6 

0 

Heating rate based on thermal runaway 

-0.5 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

Figure 5 Heating rate 

Expansiunea volumica 

0 

0 

-1 

2 4 6 8 10 12 

t [min.] 

Figure 6 Volume expansion 

500 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 

T[ C] 

0 

0.5 

X1 ttime 1 - 4 - 7 min 

y500 = -0,0091x 3 + 0,0665x 2 + 0,2499x 

R 2 = 0,9831 

y650 = -0,0378x 3 + 0,3328x 2 - 0,1034x 

R 2 = 0,9972 

500 

650 

1 

Polinomială. (500) 

Polinomială. (650) 

y0 = 0,0602x2 - 1,0724x + 4,557 

R2 = 0,9893 

y350 = 0,1041x2 - 4,2719x + 63,561 

R2 = 0,9926 

y500 = 0,1062x2 - 3,7979x + 47,922 

R2 = 0,999 

y650 = 0,2188x2 - 11,072x + 155,16 

R2 = 0,9931 

Figure 7 Pressure of water vapours 

0 

350 

500 

650 

Polinomială. 

(350) 

Polinomială. 

(500) 

Polinomială. 

(650) 

Polinomială. 

(0) 

Dependence of vapour pressure on time 

and power 

pv = 44 +55.8333 t + 48.6667 P + 43.0000 t P + 

+29.000 t 2 + 17.5000 P 2 

Y pv( mm Hg) 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 - 500 - 650 W (s) 

0 

-0.5 

Vapour pressure 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

Figure 8 Vapour pressure 

0 

0.5 

X1 time 1 - 2 - 3 min 

Determining the rH for polymolecular 

water fractions 

The relative hydrogen score, rH, was first 

proposed to the research community (mostly 

inorganic chemists) by Clark in 1923, as a means 

to measure the actual reduction of hydrogen in an 

aqueous solution of simple antioxidant compounds 

and is based on a variant of the Nernst equation. 

1 

157 


The rH range is from 0 to 42, with 28 being 

the median value. Below the 28 point reduction 

occurs, and oxidation above the 28 value. The 

extreme values, 0 and 42, indicate the maximum 

reduction and oxidation rates, respectively. 

E 200 

rH 2 pH 

30 

E – recorded potential, in mV; E0 – potential of the 

reference electrode, 244.2 mV (calomel), which is 

dependent on temperature. 

E= Ei (t)+[244.2-0.72*(Ti-25)]; 

rH 

22.5 

22 

21.5 

21 

20.5 

20 

1 

0.5 

X2 Power 350 500 and 650 [W] 

Dependence of rH on the MU irradiation time and on source power 

0 

-0.5 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

0 

0.5 

X1 time [min.] 4 10 and 16 

Figure 9 rH in relation to time and power 

The regression equation: 

rH=21.4112-0.4525 t-0.4015 P-0.3407 t*P+ 

+0.0441 t 2 +0.0959 P 2 

t – time, min ; P – power, W; 

rH decreases from 22.0646 (4 min and 350 W) to 

20.3566 (15 min. and 650W). 

Modelling the water evaporation 

process 

For the various initial power values (P0 = 

350, 500, 650 W), after different irradiation 

periods, t (min.), water temperature, T ( 0 C), was 

measured and the Matlab software environment 

was used for mathematical calculations and 

graphical representations of the dependencies: 

- mass loss by evaporation, M(g); 

- water mass evaporated, M (%), in relation to t 

(min.) and P (W) ; 

- evaporation rate, dM/dt (%-min.), in relation to t 

(min.) and P (W) ; 

- evaporation rate, dM/dt (%/min.) in relation to 

the water mass evaporated, M /%) for power 

values P = 350, 500 and 650 W; 

- the initial evaporation parameter, k (min -1 ) in 

relations to P (W); 

- the evaporation parameter for volume 4 x 250 ml. 

Mass loss by evaporation 

Mev (%) = 29.1400 +29.5467 t +8.9533 P + 

8.73550 t P -5.0300 t 2 +3.7600 P 2 

t - time, min; P – power, W; volume 500 ml. 

Irradiation volume: 500 ml water. 

1


Evaporation rate 

dMev/dt [%/min.] = 0.9931 – 0.1304 t+0.1538 P + 

+0.0881 t P – 0.2981 t 2 +0.4900 P 2 

dM/dt [%/min.] = 0.9850 – 0.0300 M +0.2983P + 

+0.0950 M P -0.27 M 2 – 0.1150 P 2 

Initial evaporation parameter, kev 

[(%/min)/%] 

k ev= 0.0284 - 0.0189 t - 0.0031 P + 0.0044 t P – 

-0.0214 t 2 + 0.0123 P 2 

Y - The evaporation parameter [min. exp(-1)] 

0.05 

0.04 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

0 

-0.01 

1 

0.5 

X2 power 350 - 500 - 650 [W] 

mass fraction 

mass fraction 

0 

-0.5 

Volume 4 x 250 ml 

-1 

-1 

-0.5 

0 

0.5 

X1 time 10 - 20 - 30 [min.]) 

Figure 10 The evaporation parameter 

Materia Designation of 

l characteristic 

Felt thickness, m 

specific mass, kg/m 2 

BM thickness, mm 


bm thickness, m 


1,2 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

1 

Table 1 

Value 

0.014 

0.2 

0.05 

1.0 

0.03 

1.5 

0 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 

1,2 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

time [min.] 

Figure 11 Microwave drying of felt 

0 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 

time [min.] 

Figure 12 Convection drying of felt 

650 

500 

350 

80 [C] 

100 [C] 

120 [C] 

158 

Multiplying productivity 

4,5 

4 

3,5 

3 

2,5 

2 

1,5 

1 

0,5 

0 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 

Watt/ C [350/80; 500/100;650/120] 

Figure 13 Multiplying productivity 

y = -2,6316x 2 + 26,441x - 62,428 

R 2 = 1 

WW 

Polinomială. (WW) 

CONCLUSIONS 

Microwave drying presents economic 

advantages derived from optimised energy 

consumption and increased productivity. For 

instance, in the case of felt, energy consumption is 

reduced from 4-6 kWh in classical drying to 1.7- 

2.3 kWh during microwave drying per 1 kg of 

dried water. In addition, the drying period is 

shortened from 200-400 minutes in classical drying 

to 60-140 minutes in microwave drying. Therefore, 

based on drying time alone, productivity increases 

3 to 4 times. 

Each material subjected to a drying process 

exhibits typical energy consumption and 

productivity levels. 

REFERENCES 

DONCEAN, Gheorghe 2010 - „Procedee speciale în 

tehnologia chimică textilă. Îndrumar de laborator”, 

Editura Performantica, Iaşi. 

BUTNARIU, R, and DONCEAN, Gh. 2007, 2008, 2009 - 

―Tehnologii neconvenţionale pentru finisarea 

materialelor textile‖, volumele I, II, III, Editura 

Performantica, Iaşi, 

DONCEAN, Gh. 2000 - ―Optimizarea proceselor în 

tehnologia chimică textilă”, Editura Performantica, 

Iaşi,

Abstract 

1 Technical University „Ghe. Asachi”, Iasi 

COLOUR SPACES IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 

Gheorghe DONCEAN 1 

e-mail: doncean_gheorghe@yahoo.com 

159 


Colour is an individual visual perception that is dependent upon numerous factors. Colour cannot be measured directly 

unlike the mass of a body or its geometric characteristics (length, width, height). Using the key elements in the complex 

system of viewing/rendering/reproducing colour, which involves: the source of light, the coloured object, the observer 

(receiver), the paper presents the importance and standard of each component, highlighting the specifics of colour 

assessment, for additive and subtractive systems, including the particular steps of the direct RGB model and the 

opposite CMYK model. Based on preliminary complex mathematically processed data, the paper presents the algorithm 

for developing and structuring the various colour spaces that serve to represent colours: LMS, RGB, CIEXYZ, CIExy, 

CIELab – which has become a universal space that encompasses lightness L and two chromatic components, i.e. a - the 

green to magenta range and b – the blue to yellow, CIELuv – recommended for its uniformity, and HSB (hue, 

saturation, brightness) – typically used for dependent systems, etc. The paper emphasises the particular characteristics 

and gamut of each colour model. The variants CIEDE 1976, CIEDE 1994, CIEDE 2000 used in calculating colour 

difference are also provided. Moreover, an analysis of colour evaluation criteria is presented and, based on the 

conclusions, the adequate representation space is recommended. The author’s personal contribution is limited to the 

colour spaces for three types of soil under humidity conditions; three types of leaves and grass, four types of gladioli 

and the colour of the red cabbage extract in connection with pH – which are all characterised by natural colour. 

Key words: water, field, spaces, electromagnetic spectrum, spaces 

The visible electromagnetic spectrum 

comprises electromagnetic radiation with 

wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm. In science, 

the 380-830 nm wavelength range is used. 

Vi I A V G O R 

In obtaining colour, additive mixing (light 

shows) or subtractive mixing (printed matter, 

colour paper). 

Figure 1 Additive mix of red (R), green (G) 

and blue (B), identical with RGB (red, green, blue) 

Figure 2 CMYK subtractive mix - cyan (C), magenta 

(M), yellow - Y (yellow) and black-K (black). 

Figure 3 The complementary RGB and CMYK a 

systems 

( a The gray colours on the K (black)-W (white) 

diagonal, termed non-coloured achromatic colours 

are characterized only by light.) 

Each mix uses the primary colours R,G,B, 

or C,M,Y(K), respectively.



Relations between additive 

and subtractive colour spaces 

R 

G 

B 

C 

M 

Y 

Additive colour mixing 

starting from the R,G,B 

primary colours 

Red + Green 

Green + 

Blue 

Blue + Red 

Red + Green 

+ Blue 

- 

> 

- 

> 

- 

> 

- 

> 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

C 

M 

Y 

R 

G 

B 

Colour mixing 

Yellow 

Cyan 

Magent 

a 

White 

; 

. 

Table 1 

Additive colour mixing 

starting from the R,G,B 

primary colours 

Cyan + 

Magenta 

Magenta 

+ Yellow 

Yellow + 

Cyan 

Cyan + 

Magenta 

+ Yellow 

-> Blue 

-> Red 

-> Green 

-> Black 

LMS, CIERGB Independent colour spaces 

and the imaginary space CIEXZY. Vector analysis. 

The science of colour - colorimetry - operates 

with the LMS, CIERGB and CIEXYZ colour spaces 

that can be represented mathematically as vectors in 

3D space. Due to trichromatic vision, a colour (C) 

may be represented by a vector whose magnitude is 

proportional to the light level, while orientation is 

linked to colour. At a random point C one can 

determine the contribution of primary colours (their 

individual share). 

Figure 4 Vectorial representation of a colour (C) 

The vector C is represented in the system of 

coordinates C1, C2, C3, known as trichrome coordinates, 

in which the unitary vectors P1, P2, P3 are defined as 

representing the primary composing colours. 

C 

C 

1 

P 

1 

C 

2 

P 

2 

C 

3 

P . 

3 

160 

Any random colour can be characterised by three 

tristimulus values (L, M, S), (R, G, B), (X, Y, Z), (L*, a*, 

b*), etc. For each colour space, the three-dimensional 

contour is defined in addition to its projection on the 

horizontal plane, known as locus. 

Figure 5 Colour spaces 

Figure 6 Locus in the LMS, RGB b , XYZ spaces 

LMS space is correlated with the spectral 

sensitivity of L, M, S-type cone c (Smith-Pokorny). 

( b The RGB space has negative values, hence the 

need to resort to the imaginary CIEXYZ colour 

space.) 

( c Types of cones: L- sensitive to long wavelengths, 

560–580 nm; M – sensitive to medium wavelengths, 

530–540 nm; S – sensitive to short wavelengths, 

420–440 nm.) 

Figure 7 Cone sensitivity 

In the CIExy locus can be positioned the 

monochromatic sources in the CIERGB space with the 

wavelengths: R = 700 nm, G = 546.1 nm, B = 435.8 nm. 

Figure 8 The CIExy chromaticity diagram

In the RGB triangle the Hermann Günther 

Grassmann colour composition laws apply, for example 

in the C(r,g,b) point: 

C(r,g,b)=rR+gG+bB 

Linear transformations can be performed 

between colour spaces. 


The CIEXYZ imaginary space - each point 

corresponding to a colour in the imaginary 

CIEXYZ space or in the corresponding CIExy 

locus is determined by means of the general 

algorithm which includes as known data: the 

spectral reflection / transmission curve, the 

illuminant’s energy feature and standard functions 

of colour composition. 

where: 

X 

Y 

Z 

Figure 9 Computation elements 

for the tristimulus X, Y, Z values. 

k 

k 

k 

k 

780 

380nm 

780 

380nm 

780 

380nm 

780 

380 

x 

y 

z 

100 

normalisation factor (normalisation coefficient), 

Φ(λ) – the relative spectral distribution of the 

energy of the standard light source (the illuminants 

A, B, C, D, E (equal distribution), F1 – F12 - 

fluorescent); 

x , y , x standard colour composition 

functions (matching); 

The 

coefficient; 

reflection/transmission spectral 

In the CIEXYZ colour space, the working values x, 

y, z are defined: 

y 

d 

, 

d 

d 

d 

, 

; 

, 

161 


x 

y 

z 

X 

X 

Y 

; 

z 

X 

Y 

Y 

; 

Z 

X 

Z 

Y Z 

1 

X 

Y 

y 

x; 

Y 

Z 1 x 

y 

Derived colour spaces 

The CIELAB space 

( x 

y . 

y); 

Figure 10 Representation in the Lab space 

The Lab space is much more even than the 

XYZ space. 

L 0 1 0 X 

A 

B 

1 

0 

1 

The luminosity L may also be represented in 

relation to the coordinates: 

u' 

' 

v 

for the L′u′v′ space 

or 

X 

X 

4 X 

15 Y 

9 Y 

15 Y 

, 

3 Z 

, 

3 Z 

* 

u 

* 

13 L u' 

' 

u , 

* 

v 

for the L * u * v * space. 

13 

1 

L 

* 

0 

1 

' 

v 

Reflection/transmission spectra, 

CIEXYZ-1931, CIExy and CIELAB diagrams 

Wet and dry soils (A, B, C) 

0 

' 

0 

v 

Y 

Z 

,


Figure 11 Reflection curves of wet and dry soils 

Figure 12 Soil chromaticity diagram 

Figure 13.Soil characteristics 

in the CIELAB colour space 

Leaves (F1, F2, F3) and grass (I) 

Figure 14 Reflection curves of leaves and grass 

Figure 15 Chromaticity diagram of leaves and grass 

162 

[Leaves (F1, F2, F3) and grass] 

Figure 16 The colour position of leaves and grass 

in the CIELAB colour space 

3.3. Gladioli d (A, B, C, D) 

Figure 17 Reflection curves of gladioli 

in different colours 

( d A-yellow, B – orange, C – pink-violet, D – red.) 

Figure 18 The chromaticity diagram of gladioli 

Figure 19 The colour position of gladioli in the 

CIELAB colour space

Red cabbage extract 

(pH = 1, 3, 6 ,8,10) 

Figure 20 The absoption coefficient 

of red cabbage extract 

Figure 21 The position of the red cabbage extract 

colour for various pH values 

Figure 22 The colour position in the CIELAB 

colour space of the red cabbage extract 

Specific colorimetric data 

Wet and dry soils (A, B, C) 

XYZABCD e = 

36.6665 36.2303 14.3900 

26.8713 27.5572 24.3281 

10.1500 9.9074 8.7574 

21.4148 20.5666 5.8403 

8.5779 8.8151 7.6018 

2.8892 2.7861 2.3114 

( e The CIEXZY-1931 space.) 

xyzABCD f = 

0.4201 0.4151 0.1649 

0.3412 0.3499 0.3089 

0.3522 0.3438 0.3039 

0.4478 0.4301 0.1221 

0.3432 0.3527 0.3041 

0.4478 0.4301 0.1221 

( f The position in the imaginary space CIExy-1931;z=1-(x+y).) 

Labsoil = 

36.2303 0.4362 21.8403 

27.5572 -0.6859 3.2291 

9.9074 0.2426 1.1500 

20.5666 0.8482 14.7263 

8.8151 -0.2372 1.2133 

2.7861 0.1031 0.4747 

Colour difference from standard: 

DE1976 DE1994 DE2000 

163 


20.5635 17.7742 6.9018 

33.4816 31.6290 18.8235 

17.2084 16.5178 11.9008 

34.3150 32.5144 19.4894 

39.6877 38.0842 23.0253 

Leaves (F1, F2, F3) and grass (I) 

XYZF1F2F3I = 

7.5411 8.6759 6.7583 

13.5978 16.1239 10.6171 

19.4994 22.0202 14.0616 

12.2435 13.8465 4.5438 

xyzF1F2F3I = 

0.3282 0.3776 0.2942 

0.3371 0.3997 0.2632 

0.3508 0.3962 0.2530 

0.3997 0.4520 0.1483 

Lableaves =[8.6759 -1.1348 1.9176 

16.1239 -2.5261 5.5068 

22.0202 -2.5208 7.9586 

13.8465 -1.6030 9.3027] 


DE1976 DE1994 DE2000 

8.3840 8.5901 4.8081 

14.7134 14.8182 8.9611 

9.0274 9.1154 4.4590 

Gladioli (A, B, C, D) 

XYZABCD = 

41.7718 44.5882 26.3293 

35.2506 27.3104 12.2087 

25.1964 20.8456 35.1569 

9.5053 5.0764 9.3372 

xyzABCD = 

0.3707 0.3957 0.2336 

0.4715 0.3653 0.1633 

0.3103 0.2567 0.4330 

0.3974 0.2122 0.3904 

Labgladioli = 

44.5882 -2.8164 18.2589 

27.3104 7.9402 15.1017 

20.8456 4.3508 -14.3113 

5.0764 4.4289 -4.2608] 


DE1976 DE1994 DE2000 

20.5960 19.3910 16.9038 

40.9354 35.6722 30.4104 

46.0615 44.2185 30.4772 

Red cabbage extract 

(pH = 1, 3, 6 , 8, 10) 

XYZ = 

29.6417 69.1753 51.4233 

29.8914 45.0707 26.9924 

18.5353 19.1798 12.7273 

44.4480 38.1840 30.8594 

16.4136 7.4934 62.0555 

xyz = 

0.1973 0.4604 0.3423 

0.2932 0.4421 0.2647 

0.3675 0.3802 0.2523 

0.3916 0.3364 0.2719 

0.1909 0.4442 0.3649 

Labextract = 

69.1753 -39.5336 17.7520 

45.0707 -15.1793 18.0783 

19.1798 -0.6445 6.4525 

38.1840 6.2640 7.3246 

7.4934 8.9202 -54.5621. 


DE1976 DE1994 DE2000


34.2676 28.9263 23.6663 

78.9717 64.0117 49.0395 

104.2044 63.7949 49.6113 

175.9544 90.8679 93.3073 

Figure 23 Colour difference 

depending on pH for red cabbage extract 

CONCLUSION 

Except for two samples (cabbage extract at 

pH 3 and pH = 10), the CIE xy points are located 

in the sRGB colour rendering space. This suggests 

the fact taht further direct methods of colour 

analysis may be employed. 

Figure 24 Experimental data in the sRGB space 

Wet soils have lower L,A,B values than dry 

soils and less colour difference from standard. 

Grass is significantly more yellow than 

leaves (the highest b+ value). Over time, leaves 

become increasingly greener (higher a- values). 

In the CIELAB space, the a and b values 

cause a clear distinction between gladioli: a + - 

green, a- - red, b + - yellow, b- - blue. 

164 

In the CIEL*AB colour space, colours differ 

significantly based on their location. 

By using the CIEDE2000 formula to 

compute colour difference uniform and limited 

differences between the coloured samples are 

obtained. 

REFERENCES 

CIE, Colorimetry - 3rd edition, Publication 15.2004, 

Bureau Central de la CIE, Vienna, 2004. 

WYSZECKI G., STILES W. S. – “Colour Science: 

Concepts and Methods, Quantitative data and 

Formulae”, Second edition, John Wiley & Sons, 

1982, 

HOFFMANN Gernot - CIELab Colour Space, 

http://www.fho-emden.de/~hoffmann/ 

ielab03022003.pdf 

FAIRCHILD M. D. – “Colour Appearance Models”, 

Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1998 

YOSHI Ohno - "CIE Fundamentals for Colour 

Measurements" , 20000 

(http://physics.nist.gov/Divisions/Div844/facilities/p 

hoto/Publications/OhnoNIP16-2000.pdf). 

HUNT R. G. W. -, The Reproduction of Colour, 5th Ed., 

England: Fountain Press, 1995 

KUEHNI Rolf G. – “Colour Order from Antiquity to the 

Present”, John Wiley & Sons, 2003. 

SCHANDA János - "Tristimulus Colour Measurement of 

Self-Luminous Sources". Colorimetry: 

Understanding the CIE System. Wiley 

Interscience, 2007. 

ВОТЯКОВ Е. И. – “Свет и цвет в изобразительном 

искусстве‖, Электронное учебное пособие для 

студентов художественных специальностей, 

Красноярск, 2000 

ОМЕЛЬЯНЕНКО Е. В.- “ОСНОВЫ ЦВЕТОВЕДЕНИЯ 

И КОЛОРИСТИКИ”, Ростов-на-Дону, 

Издательство Южного федерального 

университета, 2010. 

АГОСТОН Ж - “Теория цвета и ее применение в 

искусстве и дизайне”, М., Мир, 1982. 

ИВЕНС Р. М. – “Введение в теорию цвета”, пер. с 

англ., М, 1964.

Abstract 

CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE STUDY 

OF THE BRAKING SYSTEM OF CARS 

Dănuţ CIUBOTARIU 1 , Vasile NECULĂIASA 2 

e-mail: danutciubotaru@yahoo.com 

1 Ministry of Domestic Affairs and Administration, SPCRPCIV, Botosani 

2 Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iasi 

165 


Braking process of a vehicle is complex, giving possibility to the driver to reduce car’s speed or to stop it at big speed in 

a short distance. Using the diagrams registered for the different working conditions, defined accordingly with the 

experimental plan, there have been analyzed the values of deceleration, variation of speed and the covered space for 

each specified moment of braking. As result of the experimental researches, we have reached the conclusion that a good 

behavior at cars braking is registered when the diagrams of deceleration variation in relation with braking time have a 

symmetric shape. 

Key words: vehicle stability, experimental braking process, ABS 

Braking process of a vehicle is complex, 

being defined by factors leading to different effects 

from the point of view of impact, intensity and 

duration. 

The braking system gives possibility to the 

driver to reduce car’s speed or to stop it at big 

speed in a short distance. 

Last generation cars are endowed with: 

-Service brakes; 

-Backup brakes; 

-Handbrake; 

-Auxiliary brake. 

From the point of view of the vehicle’s 

control and safety, the most important is the 

service braking system (the foot brake). 

The longitudinal deceleration ax is one of the 

main parameters of the braking system, which can 

be calculated with formula: 

(1) 

where φx is the longitudinal coefficient of 

adherence of the tires with the running path and g – 

the gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s 2 ). 

The Directive of EU 71/320 (Council 

Directive 71/320/EEC, 1971) shows that this 

criterion has to satisfy the following condition: 

(2) 

In the specialty literature, the given value for 

the adherence of the tires with the running path on 

a dry asphalt is φx = 0.8. 

Introducing this value, which applies only to 

the vehicles and tires produced until 1980, in 

relations (1) and (2), there results the deceleration 

of a vehicle in good technical conditions, at 

braking on a dry asphalt 

ax = 6.0 – 7.85 [m/s 2 ] 

In the situation of actual cars, the maximum 

coefficient of adherence has the value φx = 1– 1.2 

(Mitunevicius V., 1999) , if braking takes place on a 

running path with dry asphalt, situation when the 

deceleration of old cars with tires produced at the 

present moment can reach values in the range 

7.35÷ 9.3 [m/s 2 ]. 

The modern cars are endowed with systems 

which prevent wheels blocking (ABS) and the real 

braking distance is quite close to the calculated 

value obtained with the maximum values of the 

coefficient of adherence. In this situation, the 

deceleration can be close to g = 9.8 [m/s 2 ]. 

1. ANTI-BLOCKING SYSTEMS (ABS) 

Anti-blocking System is used at cars for 

avoiding the blocking of wheels during braking, 

for providing the stability of the vehicle and an 

optimal deceleration. 

Anti-blocking of wheels is realized by 

adapting the braking force at each wheel, function 

of the wheel’s adherence to the running path. 

The advantages of a system (Neculaiasa V., 

1996) assure keeping the vehicle under control, 

although the braking and the side forces are 

increasing, on a minimum braking distance with a 

reduced wear of tires.


Some of the conditions to be accomplished 

by an ABS are following presented: 

1. ABS must function on all the range of speeds; 

2. ABS must correspond to the conditions of 

adherence with the running path; 

3. To assure the steering of vehicle at slippages 

appearance; 

4. To recognize aquaplaning and to respond to it; 

5. To rapidly and automately correlate the 

hysteresis of tires at specific conditions; 

6. The option of engine brake to be possible; 

7. If an error at the ABS functions occurs, during 

braking, the braking system must function 

normally on classical principles. 

The functioning principle of the antiblocking 

system is based on rapid braking without 

wheels blocking, by applying short and rapid 

actions having as objective the delay of wheels 

blocking. This process is realized by the action 

upon the pressure of brake fluid from the brake 

installation, regulated to avoid the wheel blocking 

regardless the adherence to the running path. 

In figure 1 (GillespieT. D., 1992) there is 

presented the diagram of variation for the speed of 

a vehicle with ABS in relation with the braking 

time, for the four wheels of the car. 

S 

KG 

DG 

KP 

DP 1 

2 

3 

Vehicle speed 

Figure 1 Variation of speed 

in relation to the breaking time. 

When the brake pedal is acted, the value of 

wheels rotational speed is decreasing due to a true 

value depending to the vehicle’s speed (pt.1 from 

figure 1). When the force which the brake is 

pressed with is bigger or the running path is 

slippery, the rotational speed of wheels 

significantly reduces (pt.2). In pt.3, ABS is 

activated and releases the brakes. When the 

rotational speed of wheels increases again, the 

brakes are once again activated, the process being 

repeated until the vehicle is brought to the desired 

speed. 

1.1. Braking of vehicles without wheels 

blocking 

t 

166 

If the car is not endowed with a regulator of the 

braking force of the ABS, the total braking force is 

differently distributed between the vehicle’s 

bridges, from which reason the wheels of the front 

bridge and those of the rear bridge are not 

simultaneously blocked. 

In the situation that the wheels have a good 

adherence to the surface of the running path, the 

rear wheels are first blocked, context in which the 

vehicle may lose transversal stability and if the 

front wheels are blocked, the control of the 

advancing direction can be lost. 

A good behavior during braking is met when 

the motion of the car is continued in straight line at 

brake action, even for great speeds, condition 

imposed accordingly to the Directive of EU 

71/320. So, in the moment when the emergency 

brake is acted, the motion of the car must continue 

in straight line, it means a bigger relative braking 

force upon the front wheels must be provided, in 

comparison with the force acting on the rear 

wheels. 

The coefficient of distribution of the braking 

force (Illarionov, V. A., 1997) represents the ratio 

of the braking force acting on the front wheels, to 

the total braking force, acting on all the wheels. 

βT = PST1 / (PST1 + PST2) (3) 

PST1 and PST2 – represent the braking forces upon 

the front wheels and respectively upon the rear 

ones and they depend on structure of the brake 

system. This coefficient (βT) can be calculated for 

any type of vehicle [5], accordingly to the known 

parameters of the brake system. 

h 

Pz 

Pst 

L 

l l 

G 

P in 

1 

P 

z 

Pst 

Figure 2 Scheme of forces in the process 

of braking without wheelss blocking. 

In the situation of neglecting the loss of 

energy, for overcoming the resistance forces, the 

maximum of the deceleration for a vehicle at the 

limit of rear wheels blocking will be: 

ax = (4)

Where: l1 = the distance in longitudinal direction, 

between the mass center of the vehicle and the 

front wheel, L represents the distance between 

wheels (the wheelbase) and hc is the height of the 

mass center. 

The maximum deceleration of a vehicle at 

the limit of front wheels blocking is: 

ax = (5) 

Where: l2 = the distance between the rear wheel 

and the car’s mass center. 

The optimum coefficient of adherence φopt , 

will be given by relation: 

φopt = (L . βT – l2 )/ hc (6) 

In the conditions when the correct value of 

the coefficient of adherence exceeds φopt, the rear 

wheels will be firstly blocked by braking and 

relation (4) allows calculation of deceleration. In 

the situation when the value of the coefficient of 

adherence is smaller than the optimum value φopt, 

the front wheels will be the first blocked when the 

vehicle braking and the expression (5) will be used 

for calculate the deceleration. 

When φopt has a value close to zero or is 

negative, only the rear wheels will be blocked in 

any situation of motion. 

In the situation of a vehicle with unblocked 

wheels, the braking distance is calculated with 

formula: 

S0 = (t1 + t2 + 0.5 . t3) . v0 + v0 2 /2ax (7) 

In the situation when the initial speed of the 

vehicle (v0) is not known, the braking distance of a 

vehicle with unblocked wheels (unlike the case of 

blocked wheels, when the slip length can be 

measured) can be determined with certain errors 

and this circumstance can influence the correctness 

of the obtained results. 

In the situation of emergency braking, the 

braking forces acting on the vehicles’ wheels 

should not exceed the forces of adherence of the 

tires at the running path, the calculated value of the 

deceleration of a vehicle with blocked wheels will 

be smaller and the braking time and braking 

distance will be bigger, in comparison with the 

case when the coefficient of adherence is known. 

1.2. Comparison of the braking processes for 

vehicles with ABS and without ABS 

167 


From the study of vehicles’ theory, the 

deceleration of a vehicle in good technical 

conditions without ABS reaches the top, fig.3, just 

at the beginning of the braking process and then 

some decreasings are happening, due to the fact 

that the top of deceleration is reached before 

blocking the vehicle’s wheels. 

Figure 3 Diagram of braking with ABS-phase 

of starting the braking process. 

After the wheels blocking, a decrease of the 

deceleration takes place, because braking of a 

blocked wheel is less efficient [6]. 

Maximum of deceleration lasts more during 

the braking of a vehicle without ABS at a lower 

speed; at a bigger speed, when the braking time is 

greater, the top of deceleration lasts less. This fact 

explains the decrease of speed for vehicles without 

ABS when a certain displacement speed is reached. 

In fig.4 the diagram of variation of 

deceleration in relation with time is presented, 

during the period of speed variation of vehicle 

without ABS. 

In specific road conditions, the value of the 

vehicle’s deceleration may have a bigger 

correctness, which imposes an experimental 

research. 

The deceleration of a vehicle on a running 

path can be measured using a special device 

(decelerometer) or can be calculated with relation 

(Sokolovsku E., 2004), if the initial speed v0 and 

the braking distance are known. 

axn= (8)


Deceleration [m/s ] 

2 

2 4 6 8 

10 

0 

0 

a) 

b) 

Figure 4 Diagram of braking without ABS. 

a) phase of starting the braking process. 

b) phase of real braking 

2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH UPON 

VEHICLE’S BRAKE 

From those above presented, the necessity of 

developing some experimental researches upon the 

process of cars’ braking has resulted. For 

experiments, two Daewoo cars in good technical 

shape and with the following characteristics have 

been used: 

1) for vehicle without ABS 

a) Vehicle category M 1; 

b) Wheelbase of the vehicle, at dynamic test: 2360 

mm; 

c) Mass: nominal: 1050 kg, maximum: 1550 kg; 

d) Maximum speed: 190 km/h; 

e) Tires dimensions: 185/65 R 15; 

f) Service brake with two independent circuits ; 

1. Brake type : front: disk and rear : drum ; 

1 

1 

0,8 

0,6 

0,4 

0,2 

0 

168 

g) Brake with double circuit; 

h) Without ABS; 

i) Mass of vehicle to be loaded: 

-Test I: 1103 kg (667 kg + 436 kg) 

-Test II: 1558 kg (798 kg + 760 kg) 

2) for vehicle with ABS 

a)Vehicle category M 1; 

b) Wheelbase of the vehicle, at dynamic test: 2360 

mm; 

c) Mass: nominal: 1050 kg and maximum: 1600 

kg; 

d) Maximum speed : 190 km/h; 

e) Tires dimensions: 185/65 R 15; 

f) Service brake with two independent circuits ,in 

X; 

g) Mark and type of brake lining: front: ferrodo 

182 ; rear : DOW 8273 ; 

h) Brake with double circuit; 

i) Brake type : front: disk and rear: drum ; 

j) Vehicle endowed with ABS; 

The experiments have been done in the 

testing ground of Daewoo Craiova cars factory, on 

different running paths with surfaces covered with: 

asphalt dry - wet, gook, glaze, snow, car empty – 

loaded, engine clutched – declutched, and also in 

normal conditions of circulation on national roads 

in Botosani County, with the Testing Laboratory 

owned by SC ROMTURINGIA. 

In the experiments, a device for measuring 

vehicles’ deceleration (decelerometer) type MAHA 

VZN 100 was used. The device is appropriate for 

such measurements both for vehicles with 

hydraulic and pneumatic brake system and for 

those with ABS, as in fig.5. 

The device is compound of: control board, 

for data displaying and registering; transducer 

wheel with its fixing support; flexible drive cable 

and dynamometric pedal (specific for braking 

tests). 

The transducer wheel transmits rotational 

motion by the flexible cable to the control board, 

for displaying and registering, where the 

displacement speed can be read at any moment. In 

the registering apparatus, a time base is embedded, 

which electrical signals, at a period of one second, 

are marked on the registering paper, moving by 

rolling on the internal drums, with a speed 

proportional with the speed the wheel is running on 

the ground. 

The used device measures the process 

parameters and draws the corresponding diagrams 

for speed, deceleration and the covered space, 

function of the type of braking. 

The conformity of the measuring device 

VZN 100 with the standards stipulated for the 

device’s checking is certified by the German 

Association for Technical Inspection (TUV) [5].

This device is also used by the Lithuanian centers 

for technical inspection for establishing the 

efficiency of the brake system, basing on the 

maximum deceleration. 

Using the diagrams registered for the 

different working conditions, defined accordingly 

with the experimental plan, there have been 

analyzed the values of deceleration, variation of 

speed and the covered space for each specified 

moment of braking. 

As result of the experimental researches, we 

have reached the conclusion that a good behavior 

at cars braking is registered when the diagrams of 

deceleration variation in relation with braking time 

have a symmetric shape. 

Based on the found parameters of vehicle’s 

motion, we can provide the variation of the 

maximum values of deceleration for specific 

situations. 

169 


CONCLUSIONS 

Based on the bibliographical researches in 

the considered technical field and on the 

experimental researches, certain conclusions of 

undoubted importance can be presented: 

I. In the developed experiments, the 

deceleration established for vehicles with ABS 

have varied from 8.05 m/s 2 (at the speed of 40 

km/h) up to 8.45 m/s 2 (at the speed of 80 km/h), 

and often the maximum values have been close to 

9 m/s 2 . 

For vehicles without ABS, the deceleration 

have varied from 7.05 m/s 2 (at speed of 40 km/h) 

up to 6.87 m/s 2 (at speed of 60 km/h) and up to 

6.65 m/s 2 at a speed of 80 km/h. When v0 

increases, the difference of deceleration or vehicles 

with and without ABS increases with 11.1%, 18% 

and respectively 24%. 

Figura 5 Principle scheme of a car endowed with the 5 th whell. 

II. There was calculated that the average of 

braking distance for a vehicle with ABS is smaller 

with 4.25% in comparison with those for a vehicle 

without ABS. 

If the initial motion speed is 40 km/h, and if 

v0 = 80 km/h, approximately the deceleration is 

modifying up to 15.59%; 

If v0 = 60 km/h, the braking distance for 

vehicles with ABS was of 20.80 m, and for 

vehicles without ABS it was of 22.42 m, the 

difference being of approximately 7.35%. 

III. The value of the braking distance can be 

calculated based on the braking process 

parameters, such as: braking time t3 , the value of 

deceleration axn and the initial speed v0. 

There is proposed the use of the values of 

the parameters determined within the experimental 

research for the examination of situations specific 

for traffic accidents, for a more correct defining of 

the methods for calculating the braking parameters 

for cars with or without ABS.


IV. As a result of research accomplishing, 

there has been noticed that the used cars are 

corresponding and respect the stipulations of the 

Regulations of braking R-13ECE – ONU. That is 

why the regulations of EU impose for all the cars 

built since 2011 the obligation of endowment with 

ABS. 

REFERENCES 

GillespieT.D.,1992 - Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics 

Society of Automotive Engineering, Inc.400 

Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096- 

001,1992, p.250. 

Illarionov V.A., 1997 - Expert’s examination of traffic 

accidents Moscow, Transport, 1997 (in Russian), 

p.255. 

170 

Mitunevicius V., 1999 - Application of braking 

responses of vecles for expert’s examinations of 

vehicles. Im Transbal-tica-99. Collection of 

scientific reports of the International Conference 

(Transbaltica-99,tarptautines konferencijos 

moksliniu pranesimu rinkinys, Vilnius, 8-9 April 

1999).Vilnius Technika (in Lithuanian), p.221-226; 

Neculaiasa V.,1996 - Vehicle Dynamics, Polirom 

Publishing House, Iasi; 

Sokolovsku E., 2004 - Investigation on interaction of the 

wheel with road its elements in the context of 

examination of traffic accidents, Doctor;s thesis: 

tehnological sciences: Transport engineering 

(03T) Vilnius, p.147. 

*** Council Directive 71/320/EEC 1971, on the 

approximation of the laws of the Member States 

relating to the braking devices of certain 

categories of motor vehicles and of their trailers, 

of 26 July 1971.

Abstract 

BREAKING WITH THE COUPLED ENGINE 

Dănuţ CIUBOTARIU 1 , Vasile NECULĂIASA 2 

e-mail: danutciubotaru@yahoo.com 

1 Ministry of Domestic Affairs and Administration, SPCRPCIV, Botosani 

2 Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iasi 

171 


Studies on driving led to the conclusion that many drivers stop the engine or switch off the ignition while driving in 

order to save fuel and this entails dangerous consequences. In fact the experimental determinations performed prove 

that the best braking is by having the ignition on; it reduces the braking distance, it avoids locking up the tires by 

keeping at the same time the vehicle stability. 

Key words: switched on engine, switched off engine, vehicle stability 

Part of the driving accidents is caused also 

by the fact that some drivers brake by having the 

ignition off in order to save fuel. The braking 

method used and recommended is the one with the 

engine on. 

In this situation part of the vehicle energy is 

lost in order to overcome the segments friction of 

the piston on the cylinder, the friction in bearings 

of the crankshaft and of auxiliary mechanisms; 

also a mechanical work is produced because the 

engine acts as a compressor. (Cristea P., 1966; 

Fratila G. and Marculescu, 1986; Ghiulai C., 1975; 

Untaru M. et al, 1981). 

1. BRAKING WITH THE ENGINE 

SWITCHED ON 

In case of braking with the engine switched 

on, it grows not only the braking interval but also 

the possibility of locking up the wheels due to the 

idle interval of the engine. 

The braking effect of the engine will 

increase if the vehicle is equipped by the 

manufacturer with a device able, while braking, to 

increase the resistance when exhausting the gas 

burnt. 

Thus, if during the process of braking the 

ignition remains connected to the transmission, the 

mechanical resistances of the engine determine the 

appearance of a supplementary braking interval 

which adds to the desired effect. 

In the braking interval with the ignition on, 

the absolute deceleration is given by the relation: 

afm where: 

dv 1 

= Ff Ffm 

R 

ma 

(1) 

af m= - dt 

Where: Ff -reprezents the braking force developed 

by the car brakets; Ffm -reprezents the engine 

braking force reduced to the wheeles; ∑Rreprezents 

the sum of the resistances when car 

advances; ∂-reprezents the rotation masses control 

while braking with the engine switched off; ma - 

reprezents the mass of the car. 

2. BRAKING WITH THE ENGINE 

SWITCHED OFF 

When braking on a driving surface with the 

engine switched off, the absolute deceleration will 

be as follows: 

dv 

af = - = 

dt 

1 

ma 

F f R (2) 

-Factor of the rotating masses while braking 

with the engine switched off; 

By comparing the two relations (1, 2) it 

becomes obvious that braking with the engine 

switched on is more efficient than with the engine 

switched off, situation in which 

afm>af 3) or Ffm > 

F f R (4) 

Figure 1 Presents the relation (4) for a car.


The curve Ffm was drawn according to the 

experimental determinations on stand. 

The hachured area between Ffm and Ff shows 

when breaking with the engine off is inefficient. 

3. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL 

DETERMINATIONS 

The process of checking the braking 

performances is included in STAS 11960-84 and in 

the ECE Norms ONU13/06 amendment 09. 

172 

The experimental determinations in the 

figure 1, ere realized in Testing Laboratories in 

Craiova city, Romania, by using a vehicle without 

ABS. 

The braking performances of the cars were 

determined without locking up the wheels ( the 

pressing forces on the brake pedal had the biggest 

possible values so as not to block the vehicle 

wheels). The experiment was repeated several 

times with the engine both switched on and off. 

Table 1. 

Sequence with the engine switched off 

Speed 

80 

Effort 

control 

Stopping distance Average deceleration in 

[m] 

m/s 

[daN] 

2 

Obtained Predicted Obtained Predicted 

Loaded 

Empty 

20 

16 

36.9 

32.4 

50.7 

6.6 

6.8 

5.8 

Table 2. 

Sequence with the engine switched on 

Speed Effort Stopping 

[km/h] control 

[daN] 

distance[m] 

Loaded 54 16 17.5 

100 14 67.1 

144 11 138.4 

Empty 54 14 16.0 

100 12 52.0 

144 10 

134 

CONCLUSIONS 

The experimental determinations performed 

both on stand and in the training area proved that: 

-In the case of braking with the engine 

switched on, in similar conditions, a supplementary 

Ffm force appears being caused by the frictions in 

the engine and transmission; the result of this is 

that the maxim superior force FfR at wheel braking 

is smaller than in the case of braking with the 

engine switched off. 

-The advantage of braking with the engine 

switched on is that the appearance of 

supplementary wheel braking interval MfR needs 

an Mf braking interval accomplished by the 

smaller braking system. As a consequence it 

reduces the locking up effect caused by braking 

when a total sliding of the wheel happens and poor 

stability of the car can be avoided. 

-While driving it is recommended to always 

use braking with the engine switched on because 

the inertia of the steering wheel and the 

components linked to it act as a regulating factor of 

the wheel braking force developed by avoiding 

wheel locking up and by maintaining the car 

stability. 

REFERENCES 

Cristea P., 1966 - Automobile Practice, vol.2, Technical 

Publishing House, Bucharest. 

Fratila G. and Marculescu, 1986 - Vehicle Braking 

Systems, Technical Publishing Hose, Bucharest. 

Ghiulai C., 1975 - Automobile Dynamics, Didactical and 

Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest. 

Untaru M., Potincu Gh., Stoicescu A., Peres Gh., 

Tabacu P., 1981 - Vehicle Dynamics, Didactical 

and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest.

Abstract 

173 


AGRICULTURAL CONSULTING SERVICE IN SOUTH MUNTENIA 

REGION DURING 2009-2011 

Alina DRAGOMIR 1 

e-mail: alinaadragomir@yahoo.com 

Agriculture is a branch with huge potential in Romanian economy. Its reorganization along with EU integration requires 

a series of actions in sense of modernization and production increase. Romania has a privileged position from point of 

view of agricultural resources. Arable land represents 39.5% of the total area and only five other countries in the world 

have a more comfortable position than that of our country. European funds that can be drawn by the Common 

Agricultural Policy - approximately 7.5 billion euros during 2007-2013, contribute to agricultural potential improvment. 

Full exploatation of the advantages of integration into the European Union could open new opportunities for Romanian 

farmers who can supply a population exceeding 80 million inhabitants. In conditions of a better absorption of EU funds 

with direct significant investment and with an appropriate government support, the productive potential of agriculture 

substantially increase. Agricultural Consulting Service has a significant role in agriculture modernizing through 

qualification and training activities for farmers, disseminating information on funds that can be accessed and news in 

the field, also can meet the claim of farmers, setting with these the sell strategies for marketing of products. 

Key words: agricultural advisory service, South Muntenia Region, agriculture. 

South Muntenia Region is situated in South- 

Eastern of Romania, with an area of 35,453 km2, 

representing 14.45% of its surface. Being an 

administrative structure, South Muntenia Region 

includes 7 counties (Argeş, Călăraşi, Dâmboviţa, 

Ialomiţa, Giurgiu, Prahova and Teleorman), 16 

municipalities, 32 towns and 509 communes with 

2018 villages. Agricultural surface mainly 

concentrated in the counties of South owns 71.1% 

of the total area of the region from which 80.6% is 

arable land. According to the Regional Directorate 

of Călăraşi Statistics the region's population is 

15.4% of the country population. A significant 

percentage of the populations (33.20%) perform 

activities in agriculture field. 

The social dimension of agriculture is 

important, because this sector contributes 

significantly to engaging workforce in rural areas 

and ensures a fair standard of living for farmers. 

Agricultural Consulting Service is present as 

service in South Muntenia Region from 1998, in 

2010 the Agricultural County Offices being 

reorganized into the Agricultural Chambers 

County. In the South Muntenia Region there are 

seven Agricultural Chambers that perform specific 

consulting each county, they being subordinated to 

the county councils. 

1 University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest 

The approaches that agricultural consulting 

service makes help to correct actions of farmers 

and their information, for progress and to bring 

new elements in the work they perform. The 

Agricultural Consulting Service is necessary to 

increase the decision capacity of farmers and to 

improve policy promotion through marketing 

activities so that productions can be efficiently 

exploited. 


To evaluate the role and contribution that 

agricultural consulting service has brought in the 

South Muntenia Region, we have reviewed the 

annual reports of agricultural county chambers of the 

seven counties. 


South Muntenia Region is one of the most 

important agricultural areas in Romania. 

Exploiting at the true value with protecting of 

environment can contribute significantly to the 

country's economic growth. In the 2009-2011 

period, Agricultural Chambers have developed 

various information activities and training courses. 

In this region over 600 training courses, 

qualifications, and instruction classes attended by


over 14,000 people were conducted. The large 

number of courses is due to absence of 

qualification of some farmers in the field, 

qualification necessary to access the measures of 

National Rural Development Plan. (PNDR). The 

lack of specialists in the territory is another 

problem that the agriculture is facing and to 

prevent this problem, Agricultural County 

Chambers organized training courses of instructors 

and training of specialists. 

Excessive crumbled of agricultural land is 

one of the problems that make their exploitation 

difficult. Rural population is not yet open to the 

idea of land merging and the potential benefits 

that may arise, particularly productivity growth. 

Due to the action of Agricultural Chambers were 

set up: 31 agricultural cooperatives according to 

Law no. 566/2004, 3 associations according to 

Ordinance 26/2000, 518 individual enterprises and 

authorized individuals (PFA), 3 recognized groups 

of producers, 2 companies according to Law no. 

31/1990 and 7 proffesional associations. 

Between 2009 and 2010, the consultants 

have noted reductions of the Agricultural 

Cooperative numbers, because landowners are 

reluctant, but last year the number had risen 

because of realizing association benefits. The large 

174 

number of authorized individuals, individual 

enterprises and familial enterprises is due to the 

condition imposed by Measure 141 - Financial 

support for subsistence farming and Measure 112 - 

Setting up of young farmers. 

The practical demonstration makes it easy to 

understand and then to apply technology or 

information transmitted. County Agricultural 

Consulting Offices and after 2010, Agricultural 

Chambers have conducted 262 demonstration plots 

on crop production, most of them being made in 

Dâmboviţa County (51.5% of them) and 48 

demonstration plots on animal production, 75% of 

which were made in the same County. 

According to Figure 1, activities of 

popularization are: meetings, roundtables and 

debates, followed by meetings with members of 

target groups. Counties with the most activities of 

publicizing are: Dâmboviţa, Teleorman and 

Călăraşi. Besides these actions, radio and TV 

shows took place, which were intended to inform 

farmers about the measures that can be accessed 

and about specific seasonal works of certain crops 

from area. Most information shows were registered 

in Argeş County where only in 2009 were 

broadcast over 78 television programs through 

local television, Muscel TV. 

Figure 1. Activities of popularization development by the Agricultural Chambers 

from South Muntenia Region during 2009-2011 

Special attention was given and to the 

promotion of materials like leaflets, flyers, 

brochures and articles in specialized publications. 

Consultants from county and local level 

were continuously involved in providing expert 

advice directly to farmers, particularly those of 

small and medium-sized family farms, including 

technico-economical services and specialized 

services. In addition, it was accorded individual 

consulting to interested persons at the county 

office, local, telephonic, by e-mail and 

correspondence. 

Generally, the requests for advice and expert 

technical assistance aimed at specific areas of 

agro-industry: proper application of technologies 

of production, the identification, access and use of 

inputs, proper management of production 

processes, product marketing, activities in 

accordance with specific legislation, government 

subsidies and facilities, EU regulations, the land 

fund, agricultural life annuity, milk quota and so 

on.

Figure 2. Technical assistance given to agricultural 

exploitations according to unit size. 

From the observations of the last three 

years, it was found that the vast majority of those 

175 


who seeking agricultural consultations are small 

farms. 

The distribution on activity fields of 

technical assistance during 2009-2011 was as 

follows (Figure 3): 

34008 consultations in cereals production field; 

15852 consultations in vegetables field; 

12950 consultations in horticulture field; 

1857 consultations in viticulture field; 

19159 consultations in livestock production 

field; 

14666 consultations in mechanization field; 

2756 consultations in economic field; 

19120 consultations in juridical field; 

20105 consultations in other fields (accessing 

European funds, subsidies and so on). 

Figure 3. The distribution on activity fields of technical assistance during 2009-2011 

It was found that technical assistance 

accorded to farmers varies according to farm size 

and field of activity in which they performs: 

- the cereals cultivation, 79.5% of 

consultations was offered to small farms, 14.5% of 

medium and 6% of large farms; 

- in vegetables field, 90.1% of consultations 

was offered to small farms, 9% of medium and 

0.9% of large farms; 

- in horticulture fields, 97.9% of 

consultations was offered to small farms , 1.7% of 

medium and 0.4% of the large farms; 

- in viticulture fields, 81.4% of 

consultations was offered to small farms , 14.4% to 

medium and 4.2% of the large farms; 

- in zootechnical fields, 92.5% of 

consultations was offered to small farms , 6.2% to 

medium and 1.3% of the large farms (figure 4). 

Practical demonstrations were an important 

contribution to acquiring knowledge, therefore 

Agricultural Chambers in collaboration with 

various research units have conducted 181 

demonstrations attended by 2728 people. 

Figure 4. Technical assistance granted according 

to activity fields and categories of exploitations 

Following action taken by specialists from 

the County Agricultural Chambers of Agricultural 

Consulting and Local Centres, for the 

dissemination among the rural population of the 

National Rural Development Programme 2007- 

2013 and the presentation of measures to be 

funded, many farmers were interested to accessing 

these funds. The consultants permanently monitor 

the potential beneficiaries of EU funds and take 

action to support design collectives by professional 

training, model projects and exchange of 

information.


The impact of information and publicizing 

actions realised by Agricultural Chambers from 

South Muntenia Region has led to the following 

number of projects (figure 5): 

- 61 projects with a total value of 4,644,193 

euros, which access 121 measure - Modernisation 

of agricultural farms, 

- 2882 projects totaling 17,899,500 euros, 

which accesses 141 measure - Supporting semisubsistence 

farms, 

- 853 projects totalling to 10,703,500 euros 

which accesses 112 measure - Setting up of young 

farmers. 

Figure 5. Technical assistance accorded for 

development projects to access European funds 

Accesing these measures contribute to 

adaptation of agricultural exploitations to EU 

standards, encouraging the phenomenon of 

association, increasing production and improving 

quality, increasing the number of farms and their 

economic power, improved management and 

diversification of activities according with market 

requirements. 

Restrictive elements 

Activities and performances of Romanian 

farmers are limited by several factors such as 

agricultural economic environment (which is 

unstable and less predictable), unbalanced 

competitive environment, friendly for retailers and 

distributors but unfriendly for farmers, insufficient 

profesional training of most managers from 

agricultural units in economical and financial area, 

a surplus of workforce in agriculture, the absence 

of small farms in modern trade networks of 

vegetable and animal products. 

176 

Favorable elements 

Supporting small farms contribute to 

strengthening competitiveness and maintain the 

vitality of rural areas and supply of local markets. 

Possibility of accessing European funds to 

young farmers is an opportunity to attract them in 

the agricultural sector considering the ageing 

population which is still active in agriculture, but 

also obtaining a decent income. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The majority of requests for consulting 

services come from the small exploitations and 

concern to the agro-industry specific fields. 

Most demanding areas of specialized 

tehnical assistance were given in the field crop 

production, accessing EU funds and subsidies and 

in the field of animal production. 

The partnership between farmers and 

agricultural consultants help improve the 

agricultural performances and incomes in rural 

areas. 

The lack of funds and land crumbled are 

problems that make difficult farmers activities. 

In 2009-2011, in South-Muntenia Region, 

were developed 3796 projects to access European 

funds with a value totaling over 33 million euro. 

Accessing the measures of National 

Programme for Rural Development help to adapt 

to EU standards agricultural holdings, increased 

production and product quality. 


The research has been performed in the 

elaboration of the Phd thesis funded by 

POSDRU/88/1.5/S/52614 project. 

Thanks for promptitude to Agricultural Chambers 

from South- Muntenia Region who answered to my 

request about the annual activity reports. 

REFERENCES 

Zahiu L. and all, 2010- Agricultura in economia 

Romaniei, Ed. Ceres, Bucuresti, 

***Anuar statistic al Romaniei, 2010-2011, Institutul 

National de Statistica, 

*** Rapoart de activitate anual, 2009-2011 al Camerelor 

Agricole Judeţene din Argeş, Călăraşi, Dâmboviţa, 

Ialomiţa, Giurgiu, Prahova and Teleorman. 

*** Statistici MAPDR, www.madr.ro

Abstract 

177 


INTELLIGENT COMPUTING FOR EVOLVING SYSTEMS 

Marilena DONCEAN 1 

e-mail: doncean_marilena@yahoo.com 

The intermediate results of this study add to specialised, relatively restricted, research focus of the field, which seeks to 

ascertain the mechanisms behind modern approaches in intelligent computing for evolving systems, based on theoretical 

and practical foundations and considering the fact that we are heading towards a liberal knowledge-based economy. The 

knowledge-based economy is a challenge for the future. The mathematical modelling of time-evolving systems is a 

method of the future. Due to short decision-making time, ever more companies resort to intelligent systems to assist 

managers in making key decisions. In the new knowledge-based economy, the importance of information derives from 

the advantages it offers in a deeply competitive society. 

Key words: economic decisions, intelligent computing, evolving system, artificial intelligence, fuzzy computing. 

Given the existence of numerous 

optimisation problems, pertaining to the modelling 

of complex processes that unfold over several 

periods, each one demanding the optimal solution, 

the static perspective can act as a drawback. It is 

clear that the sequence of solutions cannot be 

determined solely based on the parameters of each 

examined period separately and that it is necessary 

to identify a series of solutions that optimise the 

entire examined process. 

Evolving problems, which demand a series 

of sequential decisions, are characterised by the 

fact that a decision adopted in a certain period has 

both an immediate effect, as well as a long-term 

effect, influencing other stages. 

As is well known, many real problems 

require the simultaneous optimisation of several 

target functions. Typically, there is no single 

solution for these applications. Up until now, in 

order to solve such problems, evolutionary and 

technical algorithms, proposed as early as 1985, 

have been applied. The literature in the field 

describes many successful applications, however 

the methods based on evolutionary algorithms are 

not yet widely available. 

Because of the short decision-making 

timeframes, increasingly more companies turn to 

intelligent systems to assist managers in making 

key decisions. 

In the new knowledge-based economy, the 

importance of information stems from the 

advantages it brings to a deeply competitive 

society. 


For the purposes of conducting the present 

research, I consulted the most recent and important 

works of literature in the country and abroad. The 

methodology of the research of the paper relies on 

the utilisation of methods such as descriptive 

analysis, comparative analysis, induction, deduction, 

synthesis, comparison, correlation, evaluation, and on 

formal and symbolical constructions and solutions 

(figures). 

Intelligent computing is an area of Artificial 

Intelligence, grouping techniques aiming to solve ―illposed‖ 

problems or those for which formal models 

lead to particularly costly algorithms. 

Intelligent computing includes the following 

main directions of research (Tacu A.P. et al, 2003): 

• Neural computing - mainly employed in 

solving association problems (classification, 

approximation, prediction, etc.), relies on retrieving a 

model from examples by means of learning. Its 

source of inspiration is the structure and functioning 

of the brain. 

• Evolutionary computing - mainly applied to 

solve problems based on searching for solutions in a 

large pool of potential solutions (in particular in 

solving optimisation problems). Its inspiration lies in 

the Darwinian evolutionary principles. 

• Fuzzy computing - used when the data of 

the problem (i.e. the relationship between them) 

cannot be described accurately and there is a degree 

of uncertainty (―fuzziness‖). The basic idea is to 

replace the exact values (―crisp‖) with ―fuzzy values‖ 

described by membership functions. 

Each of the three above-mentioned directions 

involves alphanumeric processing, requiring a proper 

numerical encoding of the problem. On the other 

1 Romanian Academy – Iaşi Branch, Gh. Zane Institute of Economic and Social Research, Iasi


hand, each of the above directions attempts to 

simulate intelligent behaviour, which drives the 

presence of the intelligent term. 

The fundamental principle behind the 

evolutionary and neural computation is to develop 

intelligent computation systems starting from the 

implementation of simple rules, while the complex 

behaviour of these systems deriving in parallel and 

interactively the application of these rules. This 

bottom-up approach is in contrast with the “topdown” 

approach typical of other Artificial Intelligence 

approaches. 

Neural and evolutionary computing are part of 

the broader spectrum of natural computation which 

relies on taking cues from natural systems (physical, 

chemical, biological, ecological) in order to solve 

problems. 

The main objective of natural computing is to 

develop natural methods of solving ill-posed problems 

and problems that are unsolvable by traditional 

methods (e.g., solving NP-complete problems in 

polynomial time). 

In addition to the previously mentioned 

components, natural computation includes: 

•molecular computing (DNA Computing) 

• Membrane Computing 

• Quantum Computing. 


Evolutionary computation provides search 

mechanisms, within the framework of solutions 

based on the principles of natural Darwinian 

evolution. 

In order to find the solution, a research 

population is used. This population is subject to an 

evolutionary process, which involves selection, 

crossover, mutation. 

Depending on how the population is built 

and how evolution is implemented, the 

evolutionary computing systems fall into one of 

the following categories: 

• Genetic algorithms - mainly used to solve 

discrete optimization problems. The population is 

represented by binary coded states of the space of 

the problem (an element of the population is 

encoded as a string of bits), and the main operators 

are crossover and selection, while mutation 

operators have a low probability of application. 

Genetic algorithms were initially proposed by 

Holland. 

• Genetic programming – is used to 

develop calculation “models” (simple programs). 

The population is represented by programs that 

contribute to solving the problem. These tend to be 

described as derivation trees of the word that they 

represent in the language in which it is written and 

not as lines of code; for example, “the expressionprogram 

a + b * c” is (+ a (* bc) ). Crossover is 

performed by means of random selection sub-trees 

from the tree associated with parent programs and 

178 

performing interchanges. As with genetic 

algorithms, the mutation has a limited weight. 

Koza is widely regarded as the founder of genetic 

programming. 

• Evolving strategies - were originally 

designed to solve technical optimisation problems, 

aiming to solve continuous optimisation issues. 

The population consists of elements of the 

definition field of the target function. The main 

operator is mutation, however recombination is 

also employed. Adaptation schemes for control 

parameters (self-adaptation) have been developed 

for evolutionary strategies. Rechenberg and 

Schwefel have made significant contributions to 

the development of evolutionary strategies. 

• Evolutionary programming - is used both 

for the optimisation and the development of certain 

computing (automated) structures. The main 

operator is mutation. The foundations of the field 

were laid by Fogel. 

All these methods rely on the simulation of 

the evolution of a set (population) of information 

structures (configurations or individuals) under the 

action of processes similar to those of natural 

evolution, namely: selection, mutation and 

crossover. 

The action of these processes is controlled 

by means of a performance function (“fitness 

function”), which measures the adequacy each 

individual to the environment it belongs to. For 

example, when solving an optimisation problem 

(maximisation), the “fitness” function is essentially 

the target function of problem. 

Genetic algorithms are part of the class of 

evolutionary computation techniques, being 

stochastic search algorithms inspired by natural 

selection and genetics. The underlying principle is 

that there is a population made up of individuals, 

that make up the potential solutions to the problem 

and, in metaphorical terms, individuals are asked 

to compete against one another for survival. After 

evaluating each individual, the stronger ones are 

assigned a greater chance of participating in the 

reproduction process than the less powerful, which 

may not even be involved at all. 

Genetic algorithms typically involve the 

following steps: 

1. Random generation of an initial 

population of n acceptable solutions to the 

problem, represented by n chromosomes. 

2. The evaluation of a suitability function f 

(x) for each chromosome x in the population. 

3. Creating a new population by repeating 

the steps below until the new population is 

complete: 

a. Selection: select a pair of parent 

chromosomes according to their suitability (the

more suitable being more likely to be chosen for 

reproduction) 

b. Crossover: based on a given crossover 

probability parents are crossed with each other to 

generate a pair of descendants (if there is no 

crossover, descendants are identical copies of the 

parents). 

c. Mutation: based on a given probability 

certain positions are changed, i.e. genes in 

descendants’ chromosomes. 

4. The generated population replaces at least 

in part the old population and the resulting 

population is used to go step by step through the 

same algorithm. 

5. If the stopping condition is reached, the 

algorithm ends and retains the best solution in the 

current population, which is also the last. 

6. If the stopping condition is not reached, 

the evaluations at step 2 are resumed. 

The outline of genetic algorithms given 

above has varied consequences. One issue, as 

noted above, refers to creating chromosomes, to 

perform the encoding of individuals in a particular 

population. Based on the shape chromosomes, the 

two basic operators of genetic algorithms are 

defined, i.e. combining- crossover and mutation. 

The theoretical advances over the past two 

decades in the area of artificial intelligence 

increasingly suggest the attempt to abandon 

traditional ways of approaching and solving 

practical problems in various fields not limited to 

technical ones (economy, finance, social, etc.). In 

contrast to the (logical-symbolic paradigm (with 

applications found in intelligent software focusing 

on highly complex problems, yet in a strictly 

defined field – such as chess for example), the 

connexionist paradigm introduces the concept of 

neural computation and has given rise to artificial 

neural networks (ANN) - which are models 

inspired by the human brain structure (Docean G. 

and Docean M., 2012). 

Figure 1. Neural networks 

Artificial neural networks learn to solve a 

given problem, developing a memory that is able 

to associate a large number of input data sets with 

corresponding sets of results or effects. They have 

the ability to learn from the examples they are 

presented with, without knowing anything about 

the mathematical model and solution algorithm 

behind the model. Moreover, even if the practical 

problem is so complex that does not permit the 

179 


development of a sufficiently coherent 

mathematical model (and therefore cannot be 

approached by traditional computing means, 

regardless of the performance of the computer and 

the time available), a properly built artificial neural 

network can solve the problem satisfactorily, 

provided only there are enough examples of inputoutput 

data, which can serve to teach it. 

In a broader context, such networks may be 

integrated into “artificial intelligence”-type 

computational structures, that also draw on other 

recent techniques such as genetic algorithms, 

evolutionary programming, simulated tempering 

and fuzzy systems theory (Beiseln E.P, 1987). 

Fuzzy computing allows the handling of 

vague concepts that cannot be modelled by exact 

mathematical concepts (classic numbers, sets or 

functions). Problems in which vague concepts 

occur arise in control theory when systems are 

nonlinear character and their states can be 

described accurately only by means of statements, 

which have a degree of ambiguity. 

Neural and evolutionary computing are part 

of a broader natural computing whose principle is 

to draw ideas for problem solving from natural 

systems (physical, chemical, biological, 

ecological). The main objective of the natural 

computing is to develop methods of solving illposed 

problems and those that are unsolvable by 

traditional methods. 

In addition to the previously mentioned 

components, natural computation includes 

molecular computing (DNA Computing), 

computing using membranes (Membrane 

Computing) and Quantum Computing. While 

the first two lines are already established, the last 

three are still in the early stages of development. 

From a practical standpoint, worldwide in 

the technical field multi-criteria decision analysis 

(MCDA) and multi-objective optimisation (MOO). 

CONCLUSIONS 

The goal of reflecting the true qualities and 

structural relations of economic reality demands a 

continuous process of development of flexible 

economic and mathematical models. The 

emergence of new situations from innovative 

assumptions marks each time a new step towards 

reconciling the model with the reality (the real 

objective reflected by the model). 

Viewed in terms of the evolution of their 

trajectories, intelligent computing for evolutionary 

systems has gained in adaptability and flexibility 

and have significantly developed their 

interdisciplinary focus.


Taking into account the advances of 

computing technology, existing software 

capabilities and the constant adaptation to practical 

requirements, intelligent computing for 

evolutionary systems lies at the border of 

organisational economics, mathematics and 

computing. 

The progress made since the emergence of 

the first modelling, simulation and optimisation 

works up to the present illustrates the constant 

concern of specialists to distinguish methods and 

paths that are as close as possible to economic 

reality in order to improve decision making. Along 

these lines, in addition to traditional processes 

based on intuition and experience, very modern 

scientific decision making methods are required, 

with a strong theoretical foundation based on 

mathematical methods, while maintaining a 

general, practical and realistic focus. 

For these purposes, intelligent computing 

for evolutionary systems represents an 

advanced approach that is a prerequisites for 

decision making in a liberal knowledge based 

society. 

REFERENCES 

ANDREI, Neculai – ―Software for Mathematical 

Programming, (Sisteme si Pachete de Programe 

pentru Programarea Matematica), (in 

Romanian)”, Technical Press - Bucharest, 2002. 

ANDREI Neculai – „Sisteme şi pachete de programe 

pentru programarea matematică”, Editura 

Tehnică, Bucharest, 2002 

BEISELN, Ernst Peter – ―Optimierungsmethoden des 

operations resarch”, Editura Friedrich Vieweg, 

Braunschweig Wieshaden, 1987. 

DONCEAN Gheorghe –„Modele de evaluare tehnicoeconomică 

(technical-economic assessment 

models)”, Scientific and practical international 

conference ―Creşterea economică în condiţiile 

internaţionalizării‖ [EN: Economic growth under 

the conditions of internationalisation], Section on 

Economic growth policies and models, 5 th ed., 21- 

22 October 2010, Chisinău, Republic of Moldova, 

Institute of Economics, Finance and Statistics 

180 

DONCEAN Marilena - “The database of economic 

phenomena and effects resulting from the 

establishment of modular inventive structures in 

research and education institutions”, in the 

volume ―Lucrări Ştiinţifice‖ – vol. 53/2010, seria 

Agronomie, Editura Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iasi, 

2010 

DONCEAN, Gheorghe, DONCEAN Marilena - “Puncte 

critice în evoluţia economico-socială a societăţii 

sub influenţa factorilor pozitivi şi restrictivi” 

[Critical points in the economic and social 

evolution of society under the influence of positive 

and restrictive factors], in the volume „Progrese în 

teoria deciziilor în condiţii de risc şi incertitudine‖ 

[Advances in the theory of decision-making under 

risk and uncertainty conditions],, Editura 

Performantica, Iaşi, 2007. 

DONCEAN, Gheorghe, DONCEAN Marilena. - “Un 

model de evaluare şi implementare investiţională 

într-un sistem economic” [A model of investment 

assessment and implementation in an economic 

system], ―Ecoinvent -2007‖, 19 th international 

inventics conference on „High performance 

innovative research and technologies‖ and the 

International Salon of inventions, research and 

technology transfer in environmental protection, 

3 rd ed., Editura Performantica, Iaşi, pp. 205-216 

DONCEAN, Gheorghe, Marilena DONCEAN – 

“Nanoştiinta la început de mileniu” [Nanoscience 

at the turn of the millennium], in the volume 

―Progrese în teoria deciziilor în condiţii de risc şi 

incertitudine‖ [Advances in the theory of decisionmaking 

under risk and uncertainty conditions], 

Editura Tehnopress, Iaşi, 2010 

DRUCKER, PETER – “Eficienţa factorului decizional”, 

Editura Destin, Deva, 1994, p. 98. 

DRUKER, PETER - “Managing for the future”, Truman 

Talley Books, New York, 1992. 

DUMITRU, V. – “Programarea Neliniară. Algoritmi, 

Programe, Rezultate Numerice”, Editura 

Academiei, Bucureşti,1975. 

NEGRESCU, Cristian – “Bazele algoritmilor adoptivi de 

gradient : metode de optimizare”, Editura 

Universităţii Politehnice, Bucureşti, 1997. 

POPA, Monica 2003 – ―Bazele proiectării asistate – 

Metode de optimizare‖, Editura Universităţii 

Oradea, 

TACU, Al. Puiu; HOLBAN, Ştefan; VANCEA, Romul; 

BURCIU, Aurel; EXNER, Robert 2003 – 

“Intelligente systeme in der optimierung 

vonentschedungen”, Bonn, Germany.

Abstract 

181 


THE PRINCIPLES AND VALUES OF MANAGEMENT ETHICS 

Marilena DONCEAN 1 

e-mail: doncean_marilena@yahoo.com 

The intermediate results of this study complete the rather limited research focus of the field, which seeks to contribute 

to elucidating, based on theoretical and practical grounds, the mechanisms underlying the modern practices related to 

management principles and ethics values, as we are advance towards a liberal knowledge-based economy. The research 

undertaken as part of this study has identified the current need of the Romanian economy for practices in management 

ethics. Certainly, in Romania, it is difficult to ensure compliance with ethical standards and relational behaviour, due to 

economic and political instability, legal uncertainty, and aggressive government tax policy; nevertheless, in the future 

we expect increasingly a return to the traditional values of Romanian merchants, namely: the penchant for honesty, 

competence, democratic orientation, rational risk-taking, safe partnerships, and openness to communication. 

It is well known that ethics in management is emerging as a new discipline that aims to define the proper conduct of 

managers, focusing on what is good, just, fair, and moral in decisions made by managers. Having a good conduct means 

observing certain values, which ultimately represent the wellbeing of all people. 

Keywords: management, relational behaviour, behaviour, moral judgments, partnership. 

Behaviour represents the observable activity 

occurring during interaction with one’s 

environment. It has been proved that the body 

reacts to stimuli, mounting targeted responses. Our 

behaviours are determined by what we think and 

feel, and are not isolated, but rather they influence 

one another, both in the present and throughout the 

evolution of human persons. The cognitive 

behavioural approach links the cause, thought, 

ideas, accompanied by emotional experiences that 

trigger a particular behaviour. 

Ethics integrates biological and social 

factors, being determined by psychophysical 

responses to some stimuli, in addition to cultural 

factors and features of the social background. 

Behaviours are therefore “complex 

reactions” integrated and hierarchically organised 

according to the characteristics of the set of 

stimuli. Any behavioural act is motivated, 

regardless of whether sometimes we may not be 

aware of why we perform a particular action. 

Motivation represents the set of internal 

factors that determine behaviour and the 

mechanism that explains the effects. Under the 

effect of internal and external stimuli, motives 

drive the individual into action and support 

activities for a particular period of time, against 

any obstacles that may arise. They also may cause 

the individual to pursue a particular goal or another 

and establish a certain hierarchy of possible goals. 

RESEARCH ISSUES AND METHOD 

Management ethics seeks to understand and 

accept certain stages and behaviours in the decisionmaking 

process, assessing them in terms of moral, 

therefore focusing on the moral side of management 

practice. 

Ethics in management is a field of applied 

research targeting the moral conduct of managers, 

the views, aspirations, skills, principles, etc. 

underlying daily decision-making. The scope of 

management ethics is very broad, as it includes a 

wide array of moral issues often occurring in 

organisations’ activities, at levels of management 

functions (planning, organisation, management, 

coordination, control) and firm functions (R&D, 

production, commercial and marketing, financial 

accounting, human resources). 

Below, we present a brief inventory of some 

issues related to perceptions of ethics within an 

organisation (table 1). 

The list could go on, but we believe that the 

essence of ethics must consist in training and 

developing moral competence in managers, i.e. a 

person's ability to understand moral behaviour and 

actions, to implement them in compliance with 

existing moral law. 

1 Romanian Academy – Iaşi Branch, Gh. Zane Institute of Economic and Social Research, Iasi


Table 1 

Perceptions of ethics within an organisation 

Levels Negative values Positive values that 

Bans 

must be promoted 

1.Ethics 

in 

general 

2.Profess 

ional 

ethics 

3.Firm 

ethics 

4. Ethics 

and 

strategy 

5. Market 

ethics 

• no cheating or 

stealing, no 

betrayal of 

promises, not 

seeking revenge 

• no breaking of: 

- legal regulations; 

-confidentiality of 

information; 

- freedom of others 

• eliminate: 

- nepotism, 

discrimination of 

any kind 

- abuse of power 

- tyrannical, 

authoritarian, 

abusive work 

climate 

• avoid or detect 

and manage 

conflicts of 

interest 

• avoid strategies 

based on: 

- abusive 

marketing 

- trivial and 

transitory 

advantages 

- short-term 

benefits 

- coalitions and 

corruption 

- privileges given 

to certain people 

only 

- status quo, 

immobility 


- violence, 

intimidation 

- fraud, corruption 

- privileges, 

monopolies 

- antisocial 

practices 

• honesty, loyalty, 

truth, tolerance, 

rigour, respect for 

others and their 

work 

• respect for 

colleagues 

• normal 

hierarchical 

relationships 

• cooperation, 

transparency, 

teamwork 

• hierarchy based 

on competence; 

• clear rules, fair 

rules, fair and 

incentivising 

remuneration, 

information, 

participation, 

motivation, 

sharing success 

(profit) 

between 

participants 

• aiming for quality 

and 

competitiveness 

• long-term 


strategies based 

on: 

- development 

efforts 

- calculated risks, 

investment, 

research and 

development, staff 

training and 

development, 

innovation, 

communication 

• transparency, 

justice 

• liberalisation 

• aid given to 

people (not 

companies) 

affected by 

recessions or 

crises 

182 

6. 

Governm 

ent 

ethics 

7. Ethics 

in the 

banking 

sector 

8. Ethics 

in 

business 


- barriers to market 

entry 

- subsidised 


- kickbacks to 

political parties 

- support for 

bankrupt 

companies 

• avoid: 

- loans made to 

insolvent 

companies or 

individuals; 

- representation of 

firms with tainted 

ethical reputation 

• avoid: 

- blackmail 

- chummy 

negotiations 

- personal benefits 

derived from 

closing a deal. 

• information 

• providing a 

framework for 

real 


• social 

responsibility 

• advising clients to 

ensure proper 

management 

• conducing 

banking ethics 

reviews 

• keeping one’s 

promises, 

punctuality 

• supplier-customer 

cooperation to 

achieve mutual 

benefits 

Source: Data processed by the author 

One should not neglect the statement that any 

practical moral is both worse and better than the 

society. Worse as it contains remains troublesome 

remnants or relics, and better owing to its progressive 

elements that help us adapt to the future. 

Essentially, management ethics can be defined 

as the study of the manner in which decisions 

affect people and social groups, areas in which 

rights and duties are defined, and the rules to be 

observed by decision-makers in the organisations 

that they lead. 


One question that managers often ask 

themselves with respect to a situation and the 

action-based interpretation of the situation is What 

should I do? The analysis of this question reveals 

that a moral (ethical) position is defined as follows: 

- it is a problematic situation, as highlighted by the 

question itself; 

- it is a personal situation as the subject of the 

interrogative sentence is in the first person, 

singular; 

- it is an action (or behaviour)-driven situation 

because the object refers to a manner of 

performing or acting; 

- it is a normative statement as indicated the 

presence of the deontic factor in the question;

- it is a matter of value (choice) as the answer to 

the question involves the assessment of 

alternatives as goals and solutions; 

- it is a significant event (semiotics) as the answer 

to a question must be meaningful in relation to 

the problem and intelligible for the one judging 

the action. 

Most times, it is particularly difficult, even 

in the simplest cases, to distinguish between 

ourselves and the others, between benefits and 

obligations. 

The voice of conscience calls on us not to be 

evil, cowardly, selfish or disingenuous. Sometimes 

one must persevere in seeking the paths of justice 

and of truth, which demand on the one hand a 

measure of equality, and on the other hand a 

degree of achievement of one’s obligations, duties 

or individual preferences. One must therefore take 

decisions particularly aimed at efficiency and 

effectiveness. 

Peter Drucker stated that the manager must 

consciously take on responsibility for the common 

good and to rein in personal interest and authority 

when their exercise would be contrary to 

individual freedom and the common good. This 

conservative, demanding vision stems from the 

view of a social order based on a moral purpose, in 

which accepting responsibilities and obligations 

justifies the claims to particular rights. 

Knowing that which a person believes to be 

moral or ethical does not necessarily mean that 

such behaviour is compatible with such 

knowledge. As shown in figure 1, ethical 

behaviour is a function of judgments resulting 

from ethical reasoning, as a sum of individual and 

organisational factors. 

Moral 

judgments 

Individual factors 

Will power 

Courage 

Integrity 

Organisational factors 

Organisational culture 

Reward systems 

Organisational pressures 

Information systems 

Behaviour 

Source: Data processed by the author 

Figure 1 Moral judgments and behaviour 

Related to the above issues, Garabet 

Ibrăileanu argued that most false judgments on 

human matters are due to moral shortcomings 

and not to intellectual weakness, because man 

183 


tends to lose sense of reality on his moral side, 

rather than on the intellectual. 

A manager is able to make better decisions 

and choices as long as these match or are shared 

with those of his business partners. 

Ethics in partnerships is grounded in two 

fundamental principles: 

a) the supremacy of man; 

b) achieving goals or common good by 

observing moral principles. 

Any partnership is primarily based on trust, 

on moral and predictable behaviour and the 

partner’s capacity to cope with crisis. 

Creating strong partnerships involves the 

following ethical qualities that both part must 

share: 

• Responsibility - each member must take 

responsibility and confront difficulties and 

opportunities head on; 

• Integrity - members should follow their 

commitments and engage in an authentic way; 

• Openness - each member must express 

his/her opinion openly, without causing any harm 

or offence to another; 

• Synergy - combining the talents and 

creativity within the partnership, in order to expose 

new ideas and ways of achieving goals. 

The introduction of ethics as a priority in 

management training can be achieved in one of the 

following main ways: 

• a specific policy or a code of ethics; 

• a committee made up of board members; 

• a management development program 

which incorporates relational ethics. 

Segments of behaviour are viewed as 

forming a “torrent of ethics” that integrates such 

the motivation of human actions. 

Behaviour depends only on stimulation, 

whereas ethics also involves regulation. Ethics 

reaches different quality levels, through learning, 

as a result of the interactions between the body and 

the natural and social environment. 

Thus, the identification and communication 

of one’s principles and values one to identify and 

address sensitive situations even before they occur. 

Consequently, one can view the integrated role of 

the manager as a mediator between the interests of 

investors and employees. The manager must 

exhibit sound ethics and morals, especially in 

tackling problems and in decision making under 

sensitive crisis situations. 

1. Ethical language – below are listed some 

benchmarks that cause a management decision to 

be ethical: 

• legality, justice; 

• the search for truth; 

• fairness, impartiality;


• honesty and respect for people; 

• usefulness for the company; 

• first and foremost to do no harm; 

• getting involved, taking actions when one enjoys 

responsibility. 

A management decision is easier to make 

and assume if one applies a structured process to 

analyse the reasons for and against a particular 

solution, as follows: 

- short-term profit versus long term gain; 

- fairness, justice versus mercy; 

- truth versus loyalty; 

- individual versus community, the collective; 

- the better against the good; 

- consensus against compromise; 

- risk-taking versus personal peace of mind. 

In management decisions, less well does not 

necessarily mean bad and much better is not 

always well. 

CONCLUSIONS 

In conclusion, we reach the following 

postulates, which summarise most of the issues in 

management ethics: 

1. Without ethics there is no future for a 

manager, partnership or the present-day society. 

2. In business, management ethics above all 

refers to the moral of the use of money. 

3. Progress depends more on the practice 

and conduct of ethics and rather than on its mere 

contents. 

4. It is not enough to impose a particular 

ethic in an organisation, system of penalties is also 

needed. 

5. Transparency is the ethical weapon of our 

time. 

184 

6. Having a management ethics means 

abiding by certain values, which ultimately 

represent the common good, and certain moral 

principles. 

In the future, one can expect that the 

traditional values of Romanian merchants will be 

reclaimed, namely: the penchant for honesty, 

competence, democratic orientation, rational risktaking, 

safe partnerships, openness to 

communication. 

The motto of past entrepreneurs was “profit 

is above all, but honour above profit”. 

Nothing will change our lives unless we 

change our own behaviour. 

REFERENCES 

DRUCKER, PETER – ―Eficienţa factorului decizional‖, 

Editura Destin, Deva, 1994, pg. 98. 

DRUKER, PETER - ―Managing for the future‖, Truman 

Talley Books, New York, 1992. 

FRĂŢEANU, VASILE - „Fiinţa, devenirea, gândirea, 

limbajul - o perspectivă filosofică relaţională―, Cluj- 

Napoca, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, 1999. 

KODZABASIJA, CLAUDIA – „Comunicarea ne ajută să ne 

menţinem relaţiile”, in Jurnal PSIHOLOGIA, nr. 12 

/2002 mar-apr. 

MAXIM, ANDREI - „Perspectiva tranzacţională şi 

relaţională în combinarea eficientă a strategiilor de 

marketing“, Iaşi, Editura Universităţii Alexandru Ioan 

Cuza, 2008. 

NEACŞU IOAN – ―Civilizaţie şi conduită‖, Editura 

ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, Bucharest, 1987. 

PIROZYNSKI TADEUSZ - Introducere în psihologia 

relaţională‖, Iaşi, 1989. 

POPESCU LEONICA – ―Resurse umane– comportament şi 

management, conduită motivaţie, protocol‖, Editura 

Cimeres, Bucharest, 2001.

Abstract 

1 Academia Romana, Filiala Iasi 

185 


CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RESOURCES 

IN THE CONTEXT OF KNOWLEDGE 

Alina Petronela HALLER 1 

e-mail: hallalina@yahoo.com 

The management activity of human resources has evolved along with economy and society. Everything that 

changes involve influences the way of administrating human resources. Our analysis wishes to be a theoretical analysis 

of the main specific concepts of the activity of human resources management, starting from that of management of the 

personnel and ending with that of international strategic management of human resources. The concept evolution we 

will refer to is incurred by both a huge information flux and the economic liberalization and globalization. These 

phenomena have created and consolidated dependencies, and in a knowledge-based economy and society, the 

redefinition, adaptation and consolidation of the main economic and social processes is absolutely necessary. 

Key words: knowledge economy, economic liberalization, human resources 

The more liberal the economy grows, and 

the more pieces of information it accumulates, the 

more unpredictable becomes the way to 

administrate the personnel. Internationalization is 

decisive for an effective management of human 

resources, a necessary aspect for the integration in 

the current global economic context. 

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, 

knowledge doubles in just a few years, which leads 

to unimaginable changes in all the fields, including 

economy and society, the labour market being no 

exception. 

The management of human resources is 

defined as the totality of decisions, activities and 

practices that influence the nature of the 

relationship between organization and employees 

(Beer M. et al., 1984). 

The management of human resources is a 

vital function of organization, it involves all 

employees and needs a long run strategy that 

should have in view the traditional practices of 

human resources administration, the changes in the 

internal and external milieus of the company, so 

that the latter could take the most advantageous 

position on the market. Michael Poole thinks that 

the theoretical basis of the management f human 

resources is a combination of multi- and 

interdisciplinary elements (Poole Michael, 2000) 

and it interferes with disciplines like economy, 

occupational psychology and sociology. 

More and more managers admit that the 

personnel problems are increasingly difficult. The 

companies are forced to adapt themselves to a mix 

of organization cultures and personalities, an 

aspect that is not easy at all. 

The management of human resources means 

more than performing a function or make business. 

This is an activity with an impact upon the 

employees, upon the activities that they perform 

and, above all, upon the individual and the 

organization’s results. 


This paper is based on scientific papers 

acknowledged in the management field. It has a 

profound theoretical and applied nature and our 

intend is to develop a theoretical vision with 

applicability in the current economic period based on 

knowledge. 


From personnel management to strategic 

international management of human resources. 

Conceptual notions 

Over the last century, the human resources 

management has been submitted to important 

modifications. In Taylorism, human resources 

management was focused on the programmes of 

personnel selection and remuneration, with a view 

to controlling and stimulating the productivity of


the performing employees (It is more than 

necessary to state that the Taylorism-inspired 

management, though obsolete now, is much 

utilized. Many of the organizations that make the 

financial earning their main objective, if not the 

only one, resort to Taylorism theory and principles 

that can offer short and medium term advantages.). 

The dynamics one can analyse from the 

beginning of the 1900s to now has led to a 

modification of the conceptual notions. For 

instance, the concept of personnel management 

was a quite functional label until the 1980s; after 

that, the concept of human resources management 

started to be used. Now, in a knowledge based 

society, while the markets are characterized by a 

quasi-total degree of liberalization, other two 

concepts find their place in economic theory: the 

strategic management of human resources and the 

strategic international management of human 

resources. They reflect reality in a much faithful 

way, in its complexity and in accordance with the 

modifications brought forth by the economic 

openness. We will briefly analyse, in the 

following, these four concepts that characterize the 

activity of human resources management. 

The personnel management has a 

perspective limited to what happens in the 

organization, summing up traditional activities, 

like recruitment, selection and motivation, the 

decisions are made by the top management, work 

is individual, and the work atmosphere is 

confrontational. 

The human resources management has a 

more complex perspective. Beyond the already 

traditional activities, it includes, among other 

things, practices that are meant to solve problems 

related to environment, to professional and 

intellectual development, occupational safety and 

health. The human resources management includes 

operational and strategic activities; thus the 

orientation of decisions covers, from a temporary 

point of view, the short, medium and long run. 

Furthermore, the influence of internal factors 

(employees, material and financial resources, 

technologies and equipments, etc.) is analysed as 

well. While the personnel management only aims 

at attracting, maintaining and motivating the 

employees, the human resources management also 

purposes to raise competitiveness, profitability, the 

market share, to target new market niches, to 

obtain competitive advantages, to stimulate 

innovation, creativity, flexibility, to get over 

conflicts. Recruitment, selection and motivation 

remain fundamental activities in the human 

resources management, very important in order to 

reach the objectives. 

186 

Table 1 

Personnel management vs. 

Human resources management 

Personnel 

Human resources 

management 

management 

Internal Milieu 

Internal and 

external 

Operational 

(recruitment, 

selection, 

motivation) 

Objectives 

Complex 

(operational 

and strategic) 

Functional 

Type of 

management 

Partnership-like 

Economists/ 

Top managers 

Composition 

of department 

Economists, 

psychologists, 

sociologists 

Individual Type of work Team/group 

Confrontational 

Work 

atmosphere 

Harmonious 

Short and 

medium 

Terms 

Short, medium 

and long 

Source: Schuler S.R., 2000 

As the macroeconomic processes developed, 

and economic liberalization brought forth new 

opportunities of development and progress, a new 

concept appeared, that of strategic management of 

human resources. 

Strategic management of human resources 

represents a combination of very complex actions 

that, by the agency of the activities, policies and 

practices that are used, integrate and connect with 

each other the departments, the workstations, 

subsidiaries and branches of the organization. The 

purpose is to use the human resources as efficiently 

as possible, for the company to reach the strategic 

objectives. The strategic management of human 

resources is extended beyond the organizational 

milieu. Companies modify their strategy in the 

periods of crisis or redefine it by drawing a new 

plan for their maintenance on the market, for their 

growth, adaptation and profitability. Social 

pressure determines the organizations to make 

decisions and to act in a more responsible way. 

This social pressure is exerted from the 

organization’s outside milieus, by the partners, the 

clients, the providers, the competitors, and from 

the inside milieu, by the employees, the 

shareholders, the investors. 

The internal characteristics (like culture, 

work flexibility, the nature of the business) and the 

external ones (like the economic circumstances, 

the technical-scientific progress) determine the 

organizational necessities, whose accomplishment 

needs time and a strong relation between the 

activities of human resources and the operational 

ones. 

Economic liberalization created the 

conditions for the introduction of the concept of 

competitive management of human resources, 

taking into consideration the features of the

internal and external milieus. The specific 

characteristics of the internal milieu are the 

consequences of those coming from the external 

milieu, or, in other words, the response to what 

happens in economy and in society. 

As soon as competition intensifies, appears 

the question related to the factors that help the 

society, the economy and its organizations to adapt 

themselves to fast changes in a competitive 

environment. One of these factors is the flexibility 

of work. A deregulation of the labour market is 

made, first of all, by the pressure of the 

multinational companies. All organizations, 

regardless of their object of activity, size or field of 

activity, are forced to adapt their practices and 

activities, including the personnel ones, to the 

general tendencies. 

Another particularly important factor is 

culture. Each economy has its culture, just like 

each organization, and this influences management 

too. One of the main changes due to the 

internationalization of activities is the adaptation of 

the human resources management to different 

culture, by conceiving a strategy that takes into 

consideration cultural particularities that interfere 

within the same organization. The more a company 

is globalised and diversifies its field of action, 

product and activity portfolio, the more diversified 

grows the personnel, and its main characteristic 

feature becomes the intercultural one, and that 

requires great efforts of adaptation. Many times, 

being intercultural was a major obstacle in the 

company’s development. Cultural aspects deemed 

minor brought forward the failure of companies on 

different markets. For this reason, even if the 

economic conditions recommend one market, the 

entrance only takes place after feasibility studies 

were made, taking into consideration the specific 

cultural elements as well. For instance, it is wellknown 

that about 75% of the joint-ventures fail 

from the start-up period (the first 5 years of 

working) because of cultural maladjustment. 

Respecting the culture of the employees and 

adapting different cultures together eliminate many 

obstacles. To harmonize different cultures involves 

knowing the colleagues’ language, or a common 

language, respecting the religion, ethnicity, 

customs of the employees and of the clients as 

well. The organization forms its own culture, 

according to the employees’ human and cultural 

characteristics and to the socio-economic 

particularities of the states where the company 

works or sells products. There is no company that 

would not develop an organizational culture. 

Culture determines the manner in which activities 

(labour) take place and decisions are made. 

187 


Organizational culture includes the 

collective standards of thought, of attitude, values, 

convictions, norms and customs existing in an 

organization (www.elfconsulting.ro), i.e., visible 

elements (common behaviours and language, 

rituals and symbols) and less visible elements 

(perceptions, representations about the values of 

the organization, myths, empiric standards about 

the meaning of adequate work and conduct). A 

strong influence on the organizational culture 

comes from the management style, the decisionmaking 

style, formalism, the organizational 

pattern, the policies, the know-how and all that 

supports a certain type of work and behaviour. The 

organizational culture analyses the values and 

principles of the organization and introduces the 

company into a chain of tacit significances that 

grant specifically human meanings to all 

organizational activities and processes. Culture is 

the most important resistance factor in any process 

of change, regardless of its scope. Organizational 

culture is compared with the personality of a 

human being: it is hard to build, and even harder to 

change. The difference is that organizations, in 

order to survive, must change 

(www.elfconsulting.ro). If people do not accept 

change, and the management cannot convince 

them of its necessity, the organizational 

equilibrium becomes rather fragile. 

Under the conditions of economic 

liberalization, the traditional approaches are 

partially abandoned for an effective management 

of human resources to be reached. One of the 

factors that deeply modified the type of 

organizational management, the economy as a 

whole, society, the life styles and mentalities, is 

technology (equipments, machines, methods of 

utilization, know-how). All organizations, 

regardless of their field of activity, of their size, 

form of property, of the markets they work on, use 

technology. Technological development (physical 

components and processes) takes place in an 

increasingly faster rhythm and submits the 

organizations to a strong competitive pressure, 

determining them to acquire and implement the 

newest installations, equipments, and working 

methods. Along with the technological boom, the 

labour market has changed, as the technical capital 

has different consequences upon the human 

resources field, according to its properties: it 

creates job opportunities (if the implementation 

involves the employment of persons able to 

manipulate it), it does not modify the number of 

workplaces (the employees are able to work with 

the elements of the technical capital), it reduces the 

number of workplaces (the technical capital 

replaces the labour force). The technologies that


replace the labour are investments in productivity. 

These investments, on the medium and long runs, 

reduce costs and, once they are introduced, 

contribute in raising the productivity, justifying the 

financial effort to acquire the latest technological 

capital. 

The new technologies require methods of 

utilization involving abilities and knowledge that 

the employees do not have. The personnel, in order 

not to lose their job, must take retraining or 

development courses. If a few decades ago, an 

employee could use the knowledge he had 

acquired in school all over his active period, today 

this is not possible any more. The training periods 

are more and more frequent. The young employees 

easily accept the idea of continual professional 

development, unlike the older ones, who do not 

have the same openness to changes and, therefore, 

are a vulnerable segment of the labour market. 

Beyond the fact that the labour market demands 

persons that are open to change and easily 

adaptable, it also requires people whose training is 

a complex ones, given that skills, knowledge and 

abilities are limited. 

Dexterity is not any more an employee’s 

main quality. Physical work is replaced with 

technology. Sometimes, this means the work of 

hundreds of people. Technology eliminates the 

workplaces of people with low-qualification and of 

those who perform mechanical activities, who do 

not manage to get out of the old patterns and adapt 

to new realities. The positive effect on the labour 

market is the reduction of the unemployment rate 

among the highly qualified persons, but there is 

also a negative effect, easy to anticipate, i.e. the 

raise of the unemployment rate among the persons 

who do not accept the idea to take training or retraining 

courses in the professions that the market 

demands at a certain moment. 

The introduction, on a large scale, of the 

new technologies, destroys the organizations’ 

hierarchies, the distances between managers and 

employees, drawing thus the framework of a 

higher quality management and production. Under 

the impact of technologies as well, the 

organizational patterns become more dynamic and 

more flexible. 

Another tendency manifested under the 

influence of technology, especially the 

communicational one, is the transfer of work from 

office home, the movement of company 

headquarters to less congested areas, cheaper from 

the point of view of the costs of dues and locations, 

i.e. peripheral or rural areas. Furthermore, the 

internet and the information programmes allow an 

effective administration of the stocks and facilitate 

the relationships with the providers, the clients and 

188 

the distributors, create possibilities to sell the 

products on markets under the form of electronic 

trade, whose importance is continuously rising, and 

allows the performance of different activities 

outside the organization’s headquarters. 

Another factor modifying the way in which 

the human resources management is made is 

demography. The population growth and the 

increasing life expectancy determine the increase 

of the segment of active population and of the one 

of inactive population. The latter should be backs 

up by the work and efforts of the persons able to 

work. For both men and women, the active period 

has increased and the general tendency is to 

prolong it, to different ages from one country to the 

other, according to the economic conditions and to 

the demographic indicators. The elder employees 

are regarded as resisting change, especially when it 

comes about implementing new programmes and 

technologies, or about physical mobility, but this is 

only partially true. The employees in the second 

half of their active period are often more 

productive than the young ones, due to their 

experience, perseverance, knowledge, capacity to 

identify themselves with the company’s values, 

and loyalty to the organization. Knowledge and 

experience are fundamental factors, which 

contribute to obtaining productivity pluses. More 

and more frequent are the situations in which the 

organizations choose collaboration with mature 

persons, even persons who are theoretically not in 

the working field any more, in order to benefit 

from their experience and knowledge. 

The young and well-trained employees are 

usually proactive, and succeed in managing alone 

their careers, without making the employer 

responsible for this aspect. The proactive attitude is 

appreciated by and very helpful fro the 

organization, but there is a high risk for these 

persons to leave the company as soon as they find 

a new opportunity on the market; and opportunities 

often come from the competing companies. 

Society also changes, in its turn, and thus 

influences the labour market. The women’s role 

has modified. If, at the beginning of the last 

century, women were housewives and their only 

obligation was to take care of the house and of the 

children’s education, after World War II they had 

to enter the labour market. Today, women are 

educated, ready to work and to act. Furthermore, 

women proved their qualities in management keypositions, 

with very good results. Unfortunately, 

tendencies of change are notices in relation to 

family too. There are more and more single-parent 

families or families where both partners are first of 

all oriented towards careers. In the case of singleparent 

families, most of the times women with

children, the adult finds hard a balance between the 

responsibilities he/she has home and the ones 

he/she has at work, especially that the 

organizations demand loyalty and time spent at the 

workplace, more than fulltime. In the case of 

families where both partners are focused on career 

development, or there are no children, or their 

growth and education are delegated to other 

persons, a very visible aspect in the developed 

economies, where the age pyramids is reversed. 

The developed countries face an acute deficit of 

young population, translated by a deficit of active 

population in the future. 

Tightly related to the concepts of strategic 

management of human resources and competitive 

management of human resources is the one of 

international management of human resources. The 

concept develops naturally in a competitive, 

dynamic, volatile economy, where frontiers, in 

they exist, are fragile. The great advantages of 

economic liberalization are, among others, the 

penetration on new markets, the prolongation of 

the cycle of life of products, the acceleration of 

amortization, the increase of the turnover and of 

profit. The international management of human 

resources involves knowledge and the adaptation 

to the conditions, society and culture on third 

markets. What makes the difference between the 

international management of human resources and 

the personnel management is the complexity of the 

activities performed on markets with different 

characteristic features, by active multinational 

teams, under the umbrella of the same 

organization. 

The strategic international management of 

human resources, another relatively recent concept, 

includes the activities, policies and functions of 

administration of human resources, achieved as a 

result of the strategic activities of the organization, 

which reflect upon the objectives to reach on the 

international markets (Schuler R., 2000). This 

concept includes all the other concepts we referred 

to, being the most complex of them all. Its 

definition resembles the one of the management of 

human resources in the internal context, but allows 

the analysis of some connected factors, specific to 

the international markets. (Michael P., 2000) 

thinks that the international strategic management 

of human resources is not at all revolutionary, but 

bring the personnel function on the foreground of 

the organization’s preoccupations. Man is the most 

important link. Human resources are reconsidered, 

and the idea to label it as a component of the 

capital is given up. Hierarchies disappear, and so 

do prejudges, and the managers are involved 

together with the employees in the productive 

activity. The current characteristics of the human 

189 


resources management reflect the national, 

regional and global facets of competition and 

technological and innovation development. 

CONCLUSIONS 

In this paper, we followed the characteristic 

concepts of the activity of human resources 

management, from the simplest to the most 

complex one. The current management of human 

resources is also associated other relatively new 

concepts, like: the talents management, the 

knowledge management, the performance 

management, the rewarding management and 

probably many others, resulted from the necessity 

to analyse as adequately as possible the processes 

taking place in a company. In a dynamic, 

competitive economy, based on knowledge, 

improperly called a knowledge economy (let us not 

forget that evolution is conditioned by knowledge. 

Knowledge has accompanied us from the very 

beginnings. Today we go through a period 

characterized by two major crises, a moral and a 

spiritual one, and by a decrease at the level of 

consciousness that goes together with an 

unprecedented progress at the level of knowledge), 

the very way of administrating the personnel is 

modified too, a fact that we have demonstrated by 

focusing on the determining factors. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This paper was made within The Knowledge 

Based Society Project supported by the Sectoral 

Operational Programme Human Resources 

Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European 

Social Fund and by the Romanian Government under 

the contract number POSDRU ID 56815. 

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www.elfconsulting.ro

Abstract 

NEAMT COUNTY TOURIST AREA ZONING 

Lucian TANASĂ 1 

e-mail: lucitan2662@yahoo.com 

1 „Gh. Zane” Institute for Economic and Social Researches, Romanian Academy, Iasi Branch 

191 


The tourist area organization refers to the split of the large territory in relatively homogenous areas from the perspective 

of the tourist potential and activities, by inventorying and analyzing all the components of the tourist potential: natural 

potential, anthropic potential, accommodation infrastructure and technical infrastructure. The assessment of the natural 

potential refers to the analyses of the natural environment, of the existing protected areas, and also of the therapy 

factors. The anthropic potential can be analyzed by identifying the historic monuments of national interest, the public 

museums and collections, arts and folk traditions, and also the shows and concerts institutions. The assessment of the 

accommodation infrastructure takes into account the analyses of the tourist units, the treatment and recreation 

structures, of the infrastructure necessary for organizing conferences, and also of the sky path and of the cable-transport 

installations, of the public transport and telecommunication infrastructure. In this study the author presents the tourist 

organization of the Neamt County by developing and up-dating the study carried out at national level by The Tourist 

Department during 2005 – 2007. The finality of the current study represents the drawing out of Neamt County’ maps, 

on communes, which to highlight their evaluation from a natural and anthropic perspective, and also by taking into 

account their accommodation and technical infrastructure. According to their inventory, there have been identified the 

tourist area of Neamt County (Ceahlău – Bicaz, Piatra – Neamţ, Târgu – Neamţ, Cheile Bicazului – Hăşmaş), and also 

the new tourist sub-zones (Lacul Izvorul Muntelui, Valea Tarcăului, Valea Muntelui şi Roman). 

Key words: tourist area, natural potential, anthropic potential, accommodation, infrastructure 

The delimitation of the tourist areas and subareas 

proves to be a very benefic work instrument 

for creating a mid-time tourist development 

strategy for Neamţ County. The tourist zoning 

refers to the division of a large area into smaller 

areas relatively homogeneous from the point of 

view of the tourist potential and of tourist 

activities. This process is carried on by 

inventorying and analyzing all the elements of the 

tourist potential: natural potential, anthropic 

potential, accommodation infrastructure and the 

technical infrastructure. 

In the specialty literature regarding the 

tourist zoning of Neamţ County, there are being 

mentioned only the well-known tourist areas 

(Ceahlău – Bicaz, Târgu – Neamţ, Cheile 

Bicazului – Hăşmaş, Piatra – Neamţ), without 

being highlighted the tourist sub-zones generally 

developed after 2000 and whose accommodation 

and technical infrastructure is currently being 

developed (Izvorul Muntelui Lake, Valea 

Tarcăului, Valea Muntelui and Roman). 


The base for this zoning process are the 

methodology and the tourist development criteria 

used for evaluation in Romanian by the Ministry for 

Small and Medium Size Enterprises, Commerce, 

Tourism and Liberal Professions (Romanian 

Abbreviation - MIMMCTPL) in 2007. 

For the tourist zoning of Neamţ County, the 

evaluation criteria have been adjusted and the 

information up dated at the level of 2011 (excepting 

the technical infrastructure for which the information 

is not up-dated). 

For the evaluation and the ranking of the 

administrative and territorial units (communes) it has 

been chosen the method of the analysis trees 

according to criteria and sub-criteria, having as 

starting points the components of the county’s tourist 

attributes. The appreciation level has been assigned 

through a share from a total of 100 points as it 

follows: natural potential – 25 points, anthropic 

potential - 25 points, tourist specific infrastructure – 

20 points, technical infrastructure– 30 points. 

The 25 points offered to the natural potential 

have also been distributed to the natural environment 

(position on relief levels – maximum 4 points, 

geomorphology - maximum 1 point, vegetation: 

maximum 1 point, fauna – maximum 1 point, 

hydrographic elements – maximum 1 point and


landscape – maximum 2 points), protected areas 

(Natura 2000 SCI/SPA Network, Bird Life 

International Network and so on – maximum 5 points) 

and the natural and therapeutic factors – tourist 

resorts from the category I-IV – maximum 10 points 

(4, 2008). 

The points for the anthropic potential were 

assigned as it follows: historic monuments of national 

interest (archeology, architecture, public and 

memorial monuments) – maximum 8 points, 

contemporary architecture, museums and public 

collections – maximum 9 points, folk art and customs 

(festivals, markets, folk handcrafts and traditions) – 

maximum 4 points, and also shows and concerts 

institutions (folk groups, orchestras, and so on) – 

maximum 4 points. The up-dating of the information 

regarding the anthropic potential of the county was 

made according to the Annex to the Ord. no. 

2.361/2010 for the approval of the Annex no. 1 to 

Ord. 2.314/2004 regarding the approval of the updated 

list of historic monuments, and of the list of 

disappeared historic monuments (3, 2010). It was 

also used The Museums Guide in digital format as 

conceived by Institutul de Memorie Culturală (The 

Cultural Memory Institute) (7, 2011), up-dated with 

the information found on the official sites of the local 

councils (internet). 

To the specific tourist infrastructure was 

offered 20 points, being taken into account 5 

components: type of accommodation units – 

maximum 10 points, treatment structures – maximum 

2 points, sky path and on-cable transport installations 

– 2 points, recreation installations – 2 points, 

infrastructure for conference, meetings and 

exhibitions – 4 points. Concerning the 

accommodation infrastructure, there have been taken 

into account only those units certified by The National 

Authority for Tourism (the Romanian Abbreviation - 

ANT), the data being up-dated in 2011 by means of 

both the list of the classified tourist accommodation 

set up by The Ministry of Regional Development and 

Tourism (11, 2011), and the specialized sites 

(internet). Also, there have been considered only the 

treatment structures approved by The Health Ministry 

and the sky path and the on-cable transport 

installations homologated by ANT, respectively by 

The State Inspection for the Control of the Tanks, 

Under-Pressure Recipients and Lifting Installations 

(the Romanian Abbreviation - ISCIR). 

For the assessment of the technical 

infrastructure, there have been considered three 

components: access and transport infrastructure 

(maximum 16 points), town infrastructure – the supply 

with common household public services (maximum 9 

points) and telecommunication infrastructure – 

electronic communication services (maximum 5 

points). 

The primary data base was processed in Excel 

files, and there has been drawn the county map on 

communes for simplifying the analyze of the results. 

The points accumulated by each commune were 

shared on different intervals, each of them being 

drawn with a different intensity. 

192 


The assessment of the natural potential 

For the analysis of the county’s natural 

potential, if we take into account the natural 

environment of the communes, then, the presence 

of the two national parks – The National Park 

Cheile Bicazului – Hăşmaş and Ceahlău National 

Park and Vânători-Neamţ Natural Park (2, 2007), 

of the 12 sites of communitarian interest (5, 2007) 

and birds and fauna protected areas within Natura 

2000 Network (6, 2007) and BirdLife International 

(8, 2011), and also numerous reservations and 

natural monuments of local interest (Tanasă L., 

2010), to which there is added information 

regarding the assessment of the therapy natural 

factors existing in the county (2 tourist resorts of 

local interest – Durău and Bălţăteşti, ranked at the 

3 rd category, respectively 2 localities with 

recognized natural factors – Oglinzi and Neguleşti, 

ranked at the 4 th category ), we obtain Figure 1, 

which offers us a relevant image on the natural 

potential on communes within Neamţ County (fig. 

1). In the assessment of the natural resources on 

communes, the minimum score is assigned to 

Oniceni commune (3 points), and the maximum 

one to Ceahlău commune (18 points). 

Figure 1 The evaluation of Neamţ County 

natural potential 

Also, the communes that obtained more than 

14 points out 25 worth being taken into account: 

Ceahlău, Bicaz, Agapia, Bălţăteşti, Bicaz-Chei, 

Bicazu Ardelean, Crăcăoani, Dămuc, Gârcina, 

Pipirig, Tarcău and Taşca. For these communes the 

main strong points are the special natural 

environment, the landscape and the existence of 

the protected areas. A good score, between 11 – 

14 points, is obtained by the communes situated in 

the mountain and sub-Carpathian areas, but on 

their territory do not exist either recognized 

protected areas (Alexandru cel Bun, Borca, 

Pângăraţi, Piatra Şoimului and Poiana Teiului), or 

the hydrographic and the hunting potential are 

more reduced (Târgu-Neamţ, Brusturi, Răuceşti).

An average score, between 7 – 10 points, is 

obtained by the other communes located in the 

mountain area (Farcaşa, Grinţieş and Hangu), and 

also by the communes where sub-Carpathian relief 

is preponderant (Petricani, Grumăzeşti, 

Ghindăoani, Bodeşti, Negreşti, Dobreni, Piatra- 

Neamţ, Borleşti, Girov and Tazlău). In the same 

segment are situated the communes/localities along 

the meadow of Siret river (Doljeşti, Tămăşeni, 

Sagna, Roman, Gâdinţi, Horia, Ion Creangă, 

Secuieni and Icuşeşti). Surprising is the fact that in 

the same interval there are situated Războieni, 

Boteşti, Văleni and Bahna communes, which, 

though they have a roughly hilly relief, thanks to 

the presence of some natural monuments and 

protected areas of local interest, succeed in 

reaching the inferior limit of the interval (7/8 

points). The minimum score, the interval between 

3 and 6 points, is gained by the communes situated 

in the Central area and the Western extremity of 

the county. 

The assessment of the anthropic potential 

By overlapping the elements specific to the 

anthropic potential (historic monuments of national 

interest, contemporary architecture, museums, 

public collections, folk art and traditions, shows 

and concerts institutions), it is obtained Figure 2 

which offers a relevant imagine regarding the 

anthropic potential on communes in Neamţ County 

(fig. 2). According to the assessment of the 

anthropic resources, the minimum score is 

assigned to Boghicea, Horia, Ion Creangă, Oniceni, 

Poienari, Săvineşti, Stăniţa and Valea Ursului 

communes (0 points), and the maximum number of 

points were gained, as it was expected, by Piatra- 

Neamţ municipality (25 points). 

Figure 2 The evaluation of Neamţ County 

anthropic potential 

A very high score for a rural area, is 

obtained by Vânători-Neamţ commune (22 points), 

and also by the communes categorized in the 15 – 

19 points interval, whose anthropic patrimony is 

recognized at national level (Alexandru cel Bun, 

193 

Lucrări Stiinţifice – vol. 55/2011, seria Agronomie 

Agapia, Ceahlău, Roman, Târgu-Neamţ and 

Tazlău). 

The communes with a satisfying score, with 

a total amount of points between 10 – 14, are 

mainly situated in the Northern area (Borca, 

Fărcaşa, Poiana Teiului, Pipirig, Brusturi, 

Grumăzeşti, Bălţăteşti) and in the Central area of 

the county (Crăcăoani, Negreşti, Gârcina, 

Pângăraţi, Piatra Şoimului, Zăneşti, Mărgineni, 

Bârgăoani, Dragomireşti, Tupilaţi) and only 

isolated in the Western area (Taşca) or the 

Southern area (Români). All these communes are 

gifted with a developed anthropic potential. 

A merely lower score is detained by the 

communes in the 5-9 points interval, which can be 

identified in the Central, Western, South-Western 

and only isolated in the Eastern area. The lowest 

score was assigned with 0 to 4 points to the 

communes situated mainly in the Eastern area 

(Cordun, Icuşeşti) and isolated in the Central area 

(Ghindăoani, Dumbrava Roşie, Săvineşti, Dochia) 

and the North-Eastern area (Urecheni and 

Păstrăveni). 

The assessment of the tourist 

infrastructure 

When evaluating the specific tourist 

infrastructure of Neamţ County, there have been 

taken into account the scores obtained at the subchapters 

regarding the assessment of the 

accommodation units, the treatment and recreation 

structures, of the infrastructure necessary for 

organizing conferences, and also of the sky path 

and of the cable-transport installations. But 

analyzing Figure 3, it can be observed that the 

maximum score is gained by Piatra-Neamţ 

municipality (18 points), which has numerous 

tourist accommodation structures, endowed with 

the infrastructure necessary for organizing 

conferences, and also recreation installations, 

cable–transport and sky path. The minimum score 

was obtained by the communes located especially 

in the Eastern, North-Eastern and South-Eastern 

areas (fig. 3). 

A very high score is assigned to the 

communes neighboring Piatra-Neamţ municipality 

(Alexandru cel Bun – 13 points, Dumbrava Roşie – 

9 points, Piatra Şoimului – 7 points), Târgu-Neamţ 

municipality (14 points) and the bordering 

communes with a high tourist potential (Agapia – 

11 points, Răuceşti, Bălţăteşti – 14 points, 

Vânători-Neamţ – 7 points), Roman municipality 

(12 points), and also the West and South-East areas 

(Ceahlău – 16 points, Hangu – 13 points, Bicaz – 

14 points, Tarcău – 13 points). Though isolated, 

the same score is obtained by Tupilaţi commune (7 

points).


Figure 3 The evaluation of the tourist infrastructure 

potential in Neamţ County 

By analyzing the same figure, one can 

observe that the average score (the interval 3-5 

points) is obtained, with little variation, by the 

communes located both in the mountain and sub- 

Carpathian areas of the county and the communes 

around Roman municipality (Horia, Secuieni, 

Cordun, Dulceşti, Gherăeşti), it being crossed by 

two important roads: E85 and DN15D. 

The rest of the communes, mainly situated 

in the Eastern, North-Eastern, Central-Eastern and 

South-Eastern areas, are defective from the point 

of view of the tourist infrastructure, reason why 

they are situated in the interval 0 – 3 points. 

The assessment of the technical 

infrastructure 

In the evaluation of the technical 

infrastructure, which includes the public transport, 

the town infrastructure (water and gas supply and 

sanitation) and the telecommunication 

infrastructure, the used information are the ones 

up-dated till 2007. Hence, the investments made 

between 2007-2010 have not been taken into 

consideration, especially the modernization of the 

communal roads, through the European funds 

SAPARD, respectively FEADR. Therewith in the 

communes Drăgăneşti, Ghindăoani, Negreşti, 

Văleni, Ruginoasa, Dochia, Boghicea, Gâdinţi and 

Pânceşti there is a lack of data basis. 

The technical infrastructure is assessed in 0 

– 24 points interval. By analyzing Figure 4, one 

can observe that the technical infrastructure is 

developed mainly in the municipalities/ towns of 

the county, as well as in the neighboring 

communes (fig. 4). Expectedly Roman 

municipality has the best score (24 points), the 

town being crossed by the most important road- 

E85, that traverses the entire North-East 

Development Area, and which is about 10 km far 

from the cross of two European Roads. Very high 

scores have obtained not only the commune 

Săbăoani (20 points), but also Piatra-Neamţ, 

Târgu-Neamţ, Bicaz, Pângăraţi, Săvineşti, Taşca 

194 

(19 points) and Alexandru cel Bun and Podoleni 

(17 points). 

Therewith, the communes crossed by 

important roads gained a satisfactory score (12-16 

points): Ceahlău, Bicazu Ardelean, Dumbrava 

Roşie, Roznov, Zăneşti, Podoleni, Răuceşti, 

Timişeşti, Tupilaţi, Boteşti, Gherăeşti, Cordun, 

Dulceşti, Făurei, Trifeşti, Horia and Secuieni. The 

exception is the commune Oniceni, which, 

although is not crossed by any important road, 

comes under the same interval of points. 

The communes located in the North, North- 

East, North-West and in the centre of the county, 

are characterized by lower scores, between 6 and 

11 points, and less the ones in the South, South- 

East and East. 

The lowest score (0 – 5 points) has been 

gained by the communes with poor roads, 

urbanistic and communication net, located mostly 

in the center (Crăcăoani, Grumăzeşti, Ţibucani, 

Războieni, Dragomireşti, Ştefan cel Mare, Piatra 

Şoimului, Borleşti) and eastern area (Tămăşeni, 

Doljeşti, Bîra, Stăniţa, Ion Creangă, Icuşeşti, Valea 

Ursului), and isolated in the South (Rediu, 

Cândeşti), North - West (Fărcaşa) and South- West 

(Dămuc). 

Figure 4 The evaluation of the technical 

infrastructure of Neamţ County 

General tourist assessment 

In order to create the Figure 5, that 

corresponds to the general tourist assessment of the 

Neamţ County, there were summarized all the 

information, which were the basis of the evaluation 

of the tourist resources (anthropic and natural 

potential) and of the infrastructure (tourist and 

technical). Finally, it has been drawn up the tourist 

map of the county, marking the limits of the 

communes, and which include all the components 

of a general tourist evaluation (fig. 5). 

The final score is between 5 and 72 points, 

the highest score being assigned to Piatra-Neamţ 

municipality, and the lowest to Boghicea 

commune. The score gained by Piatra-Neamţ 

municipality is fully legitimate, because it is

situated at the top of the hierarchy, not only 

regarding the tourist resource (37 points – second 

position), but also regarding the tourist 

infrastructure (37 points – first position). 

The second place in the tourist evaluation is 

offered to Ceahlău commune with 62 points, being 

situated on the third place from the perspective of 

the tourist resources (33 points), respectively the 

fourth place at the level of tourist infrastructure (29 

points). The best score gained by Ceahlău 

commune is thanks to Durău Resort with an 

accommodation infrastructure which worth being 

envied, and also to the special natural potential of 

Ceahlău National Park. 

The third place, in the interval from 47 to 60 

points, is obtained by Roman municipality with a 

total amount of 59 points. Though the town is not 

very well situated from the point of view of the 

tourist resources (23 points), at the level of the 

tourist infrastructure it occupies the second place 

with 36 points. This is mainly due to the technical 

infrastructure in the area, the town being crossed 

by the most important road of the North-East 

Development Region which is E85, Roman being 

located at approximately 10 km from the cross of 

two European roads (E85 and E58). 

In the same interval it is also situated 

Alexandru cel Bun commune which occupies the 

fourth place in the general hierarchy, with a total 

amount of 56 points, from which 26 points are 

gained thanks to the level of tourist resources and 

30 points from the infrastructure level. 

Figure 5 The general tourist evaluation of Neamţ County 

195 

Lucrări Stiinţifice – vol. 55/2011, seria Agronomie 

The next two positions, Vânători-Neamţ 

(fifth place) and Târgu-Neamţ (sixth place) have 

both gained the same score of 47 points. This is 

due to both the special natural potential of 

Vânători-Neamţ Natural Park, and the anthropic 

potential in the area (the group of monasteries and 

hermitages) which positively influence the tourist 

infrastructure (especially the accommodation one). 

In the interval 33 – 46 points there are 

situated the communes/localities with high tourist 

potential, but not entirely used at its real value. 

They are situated mainly in the mountain area 

(Taşca – 44 points, Pângăraţi – 43 points, Agapia – 

42 points, Tupilaţi – 40 points, Bicaz – 38 points, 

Gârcina – 37 points, Bicazu Ardelean – 36 points, 

Bălţăteşti – 36 points, Pipirig – 36 points, Răuceşti 

– 34 points, Bicaz – Chei – 33 points, Borca – 33 

points). The exception is represented by Tupilaţi 

commune (40 points) and Săbăoani commune (33 

points), which are crossed by the European road 

E85, and also Zăneşti commune (33 points), 

crossed by DN15. 

A merely lower general score, situated 

between 19 – 32 points, is obtained either by the 

communes that have a poor tourist infrastructure 

(it is the case of the mountain localities – Fărcaşa, 

Poiana Teiului, Grinţieş, Hangu, Crăcăoani, 

Dămuc), or by communes that own limited tourist 

resources (it is the case of the localities situated on 

hill and field areas, in the Central and Central-East 

zone of the county).


The lowest score, between 5 and 19 points, 

is assigned to the communes with deficit both at 

the tourist resources level and the tourist 

infrastructure level. These localities are located 

mainly in East (Doljeşti, Boghicea, Stăniţa, 

Pânceşti, Gâdinţi, Poienari, Bozieni, Ion Creangă, 

Icuşeşti, Valea Ursului, Oniceni, Văleni, 

Ruginoasa), North-East (Drăgăneşti, Urecheni, 

Păstrăveni, Ţibucani) and only isolated in the 

centre (Negreşti, Ghindăoani) and South (Rediu, 

Cândeşti). 

CONCLUSIONS 

According to the presented analysis 

regarding the general tourist evaluation of its 

territory, Neamţ County can be divided in several 

zones and sub-zones. The well-known tourist 

zones, mature from the perspective of tourist 

infrastructure are: Ceahlău – Bicaz, Târgu–Neamţ, 

Cheile Bicazului – Hăşmaş and Piatra–Neamţ, and 

the sub-zones, mainly created after 2000 and which 

are now being developed are: Izvorul Muntelui 

Lake, Valea Tarcăului, Valea Muntelui and 

Roman. The tourist zones are generally situated 

around the national parks Ceahlău and Cheile 

Bicazului – Hăşmaş and Vânători-Neamţ Natural 

Park, but also in Piatra-Neamţ municipality, them 

being appreciated both at national and international 

level. In most of the cases, the sub-zones are 

complementary to the above mentioned zones, 

being mainly appreciated at the local level, but also 

at regional level, attracting numerous tourists from 

the main towns in the North-East Development 

Region (Iaşi and Bacău). 

196 

This new tourist zoning may represent a 

useful element in setting up new mid-term tourist 

development strategies for the area. 

REFERENCES 

Tanasă, Lucian, 2010 – Promovarea cicloturismului 

rural în ariile protejate din judeţul Neamţ. Studiu 

de caz: Velotransmontana, în vol. XX, Turismul 

rural românesc în contextul dezvoltării durabile. 

Actualitate şi perspectivă, ICES „Gh. Zane‖, 

Editura Tehnopress, Iaşi 

***, 2007 - Ghidul ariilor naturale protejate, Ministerul 

Transporturilor, Construcţiilor şi Turismului şi 

Autoritatea Naţională pentru Turism, Bucureşti 

***, 2010 - Anexa Ordinului Ministrului nr. 2.361/2010 

pentru aprobarea Anexei nr. 1 la Ord. 2.314/2004 

privind aprobarea listei monumentelor istorice, 

actualizată şi a listei monumentelor istorice 

dispărute 

***, 2008 - Hotărârea Guvernului nr. 852/2008 privind 

aprobarea normelor si criteriilor de atestare a 

staţiunilor turistice 

***, 2007 - Ordinul Ministrului nr. 1964/2007 privind 

instituirea regimului de arie naturală protejată a 

siturilor de importanţă comunitară, ca parte 

integrantă a reţelei ecologice europene Natura 

2000 în România 

***, 2007 - Hotărârea Guvernului nr. 1284/2007 privind 

declararea ariilor de protecţie specială 

avifaunistică ca parte integrantă a reţelei 

ecologice europene Natura 2000 în România 

http://ghidulmuzeelor.cimec.ro/seljud.asp, access date: 

March 2011 

http://iba.sor.ro/moldova.htm, access date: March 2011 

http://www.inmi.ro/lmi/erata2005/NT.pdf, access date: 

March 2011 

http://www.inmi.ro/lmi/neamt.pdf, access date: March 

2011 

http://www.mdrt.ro/turism/unitati-clasificate, access date: 

March 2011

Abstract 

197 


PERSPECTIVES FOR MODERN AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT 

IN ROMANIA 

Lucian Ciprian MELUŢ 1 , Vasile MATEI 2 

e-mail: lucian.melut@gmail.com 

To understand the importance of this work, we must understand the importance of agriculture, in the Romanian space, 

in particular. Agriculture, as a primary field of activity including plant cultivation and animal husbandry, is a major 

sector of the national and global economy. Therefore, agriculture has to obey any rules, objectives and institutions that 

govern the economic system as a whole, whereas it is itself a distinct system that is interconnected with other 

subsystems within the economy. Modern agriculture begins in a research station, where scientists have access to the 

necessary supplies, expertise, and corresponding time. But, when the package is awarded to farmers, even the best 

farms cannot compare with the results we get as researchers. The basic challenge for modern agriculture is to sustain a 

better use of internal resources available in Romania. Presently, information in agriculture at the decision-making level 

comes from suppliers, researchers and private entrepreneurs rather than from local sources. However, the use of local 

information can minimize the use of external inputs, lead to more effective regenerating, or combine both. 

Modernization of agriculture presumes to be sustainable, economically viable, and socially responsible, protect 

resources, and serve as a basis for future generations. For this work, we have consulted some of the most important 

research literature, periodicals, scientific papers, technical and economic documentation, and other sources. 

Key words: perspective, agriculture, modern, sustainable, Romania 

At this stage, our world is characterized by 

fierce competition for economic supremacy, of 

excesses in the exploitation of nature followed by 

unpredictable disturbances for existence and health 

bodies, including humans, in such a complex 

socio-economic system, it becomes imperative to 

change the conception of the use of natural 

resources in general and, in agriculture in 

particular. 

In the context of Romania’s economic 

integration into the EU economic system, reforms 

are necessary for the Common Agricultural Policy 

(CAP), in order to ensure food security for 

humans and animals, and to develop new 

perspectives and possibilities for reform 

application. 

This should allow the use of resources, in 

favorable economic conditions, to comply with the 

principles of environmental protection and the final 

consumer (man), and with the principles that 

define quality of life in general. 

This work proposes the study of aspects on 

policy of integration of Romanian agriculture in 

the West, and attempts to develop viable solutions 

capable of ensuring the functionality and efficiency 

of their practice. 


2 SC TCE 3 Brazi SRL, Brăila 


The basis from which we began this research 

included the principles and analysis of production in 

agricultureand the policies on land market. 

Analyzing field reality, we concluded that the 

methods of structure, the forms of organization in 

agriculture and the axes of their financing, underpin a 

new vision in agricultural development. 

Thus, to achieve the objectives of this paper, 

theworking method used was as follows: data 

collection, analysis, processing and interpretation. 


Modern agriculture begins with the new 

vision of development policy administration 

(figure 1). Development efforts should focus on 

improving the institutional environment, through 

education and creation of market infrastructure, 

using new production technologies, and the 

creation of financial instruments. Influential 

international institutions, including the World 

Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, 

Consultative Group on International Agricultural,


suggest that the best way to ensure public food is to continue modernization of agriculture. 

Completion of land 

tenure reform 

Middle class formation in rural 

areas by stimulating the 

transformation of peasant 

households of commercial farms 

Efficient allocation of 

budgetary resources to 

support farmers 

198 

p 

Figure 1. Prospects for agricultural development priority at the political level in Romania 

The concept of modern agriculture should 

not be regarded as a source of industrialized 

degraded, but supplemented by support, 

alternation, regenerative nature, constant and low 

external power. The modernization would like 

agriculture to become a competitive economic 

sector, even in Europe. Agriculture will be 

involved in the production of high quality food 

products, the conservation of natural landscape, 

and the development of tourism as an additional 

source of income. 

Development of sectors agriculture, 

livestock, fisheries, forestry and food, and 

overcoming structural problems will lead, in the 

medium and long term, to increase competitivenes 

and quality of life. Modernization is envisaged to 

reduce the number of people practicing 

subsistence agriculture, by creating a legislative 

framework providing for the establishment of 

specialized institutions, at government, to manage 

funds for agriculture. Thus, components can be 

simplified and can avoid errors. 

Another modern development solution, 

represents smallholder association and structural 

reform, by transforming subsistence farms into 

commercial farms; the principles should be 

oriented with the market economy, proftabile 

viable farms and the economy, and consistent 

with environmental protection. 

Agricultural Cooperative, similar to 

Western Europe, may be a modern development 

perspective. In Romania, so far, no co-created 

structures exist similar to those of old EU member 

states. Obviously there are no representation 

PERSPECTIVES ON 

MODERNIZATION OF 

AGRICULTURE 

PRIORITY IN ROMANIA 

Development and 

modernization of 

rural 

Sustainable forest 

management 

Fisheries and 

aquaculture 

development 

Supporting the recovery 

of agricultural production 

through market measures 

structures. The lack of a clear attitude of the 

political class, to be reflected in appropriate 

legislation, to stimulate the creation and 

development of cooperative, could mean for 65% 

of Romanian agriculture, not only reduces the 

opportunities to benefit from European funds, but 

also creates further deterioration of the situation 

from the application of regulation Common 

Agricultural Policy (CAP) since 2013. 

Agricultural cooperative can develop only 

if the economic, legal and social environment, is 

one that would facilitate the emergence and 

development to sustain a direction to help develop 

agriculture. The logical order of things 

recommended is first the creation of this 

environment, where the agricultural cooperative 

could bring benefits to rural area entities the 

cumulative economic component of the society. 

In our opinion, such a cooperative 

environment where the concept of agricultural 

development would likelyexist, can form only if 

clear rules are promoted on the organization, 

operation and control for important segments of 

the agrarian economy. Measures of organization 

and systematization of agricultural land, 

specialization and the development of agriculture 

credit structures, conditions for credit guarantee, 

and of insurance against natural risk factors, and 

training on the product channels for the 

functioning of food, could define a normal 

economic environment for the development of 

agricultural cooperatives. 

In 2007, 29.4% of all holdings in the EU27 

were in Romania; this highlights the high degree

of fragmentation of agricultural holdings and 

stresses the need to establish agricultural 

cooperative. 

The analysis of existing public data, in 

2010 that fewer than 10 members of cooperatives, 

The situation at the national agricultural cooperatives 

(source: processing after MADR-ANCA, 2010) 

No. CRT. County / (No. counties) No. agricultural 

199 


and the country’s total number of associate 

producers of the agricultural cooperatives was 

around 1000 people, working in 149 cooperatives 

(table 1). 

cooperatives / county 

Total agricultural 

cooperatives 

1 CJ, NT, TL, HD, VS (Nr.=5) 0 0 

2 GL, BT, GJ, CS, BN, GR (Nr.=6) 1 6 

3 IS, PH, AR, SB, MS, MM, VL, MH, AB, CV (Nr.=10) 2 20 

4 BC, SJ, HR, IF, TM (Nr.=5) 3 15 

5 BV, AG, BY, SM (Nr.=4) 4 16 

6 DJ, BR, BH (Nr.=3) 5 15 

7 SV, DB, IL (Nr.=3) 6 18 

8 CL, TL (Nr.=2) 7 14 

9 OT (Nr.=1) 10 10 

10 VN (Nr.=1) 16 16 

11 CT (Nr.=1) 19 19 

12 TOTAL - 149 

Most existing cooperatives are established 

on the principles of cooperative, motivation not 

functioning in this structure, and therefore there is 

Table 1 

no organizational performance. Cooperative 

structure on production activities reflects a very 

different coverage (table 2). 

Table 2 

The structure of agricultural cooperatives as the production activity 

(source: processing after MADR-ANCA, 2010) 

No. 

The main activity No. of Nr. CRT 

The main activity No. of 

CRT 

coop. (cont) 

coop. 

1 Vegetable production (including 

greenhouses 

23 9 Growing potatoes 3 

2 Crop production (cereals) 18 10 Pig farming 2 

3 Beekeeping 18 11 Poultry 1 

4 Sheep breeding (sheep milk 13 12 Slaughter / meat processing 3 

5 

processing) 

Cattle (production / milk processing) 10 13 Snail farming 1 

6 Horticulture 10 14 Other cooperative agr. production 30 

(mixed vegetable, animal), 

7 Wine 7 15 

processing, trade, etc. 

Agricultural services 5 

8 Fishing 5 TOTAL agricultural cooperatives 31.XII.2009 149 

Another workable solution for modernizing 

agriculture is the agricultural research. Currently 

information on the performance of agricultural 

products comes from private investors, suppliers, 

from private researchers and other foreign 

sources, but not from Romanian institutions 

financed from state budget and local authorities. 

Insitutelor research funding in agriculture, 

livestock, pisciol, forestry and food, and funding 

research in universities and specialized 

agricultural is a solution of perspective that should 

start the modernization of agriculture. 

The educational role of agriculture 

fordeveloping, involves funding research in this 

area; the opposite we have the results, which we 

have to take into consideration. Also, there is a 

need to refocus research topics; they must provide 

high value biological products, raw materials, 

technologies, appropriate knowledge that 

contribute to agricultural modernization. 

There are EU rules on subsidiesfor lands 

that are made or maintained in good agricultural 

and environmental conditions.We propose to 

stimulate their cultivation into the national 

agricultural policy, which must exist.The vision of 

funds should be more restrictiveand turns to active 

farmers. 

Cap subsidies to farmers are not yet 

completed. Supporting manufacturers and 

maintenance of the population in rural areasis the 

opposite of a company pay capital which 

investing in agriculture.Therefore, we believe that 

a middle way to set some limits could be 

explored. It means that financial support should


be found to distribute as fair and 

transparentwithout forgetting that there are large 

firms that contribute to food production. For this 

there may be other instruments, not direct subsidy 

of hundreds of thousands of euro.For example: 

subsidized loans, investments, promotion of 

products on the market, etc. 

A modern vision for agricultural 

development, applicable in crisis, is the private 

storage.Means of action when a food crisis in 

Romania are limited. The only solution remains 

private storage support. The same measure can be 

achieved by creating toolsto intervene in support 

of farmers. 

Agricultural storage may prevent prices 

falling below the intervention price market, 

ensuring a guaranteed minimum price to 

producers.In principle, storage of agricultural 

products may be subject to exceptional measures: 

public storage, withdrawal from the market, the 

resale on the community market or sale outside 

the EU. In addition to these four destinations 

surplus agricultural productsmay beexceptional 

measures : sale on the community market at 

reduced prices or even selling products free 

(especially in the context of humanitarian or 

educational), and external termination, under food 

aid programs or intergovernmental agreements. 

Prolonged use of natural resourcesleads to 

depletion of ground water (groundwater). The 

greenhouse effect has become more 

pronouncedand it leaves its mark on the low level 

of water in dry periods when the need for water in 

agriculture is the largest.In our opinion, we must 

create a system to manage the water cycle. (Ex: 

regeneration of urban water, construction of 

artificial lakes that are fed by natural rainfall, 

especially in mountainous regions where rainfall 

is higher, etc.) 

All weather conditions require eliminating 

the risk of hail. Modernization of agriculture 

proposes the creation of platforms with hail 

rockets, especially in the basins of vegetables, 

fruit and wine, major cereal and exclusive areas. 

One cannot talk about modernism without 

preserving traditional values. We refer here to 

traditional agricultural products that are regionally 

specific(Example: cheese in fir bark, rozinci wine, 

spirit tree, honey, etc.).These products should be 

encouraged and supportedthrough sales 

partnerships on markets, for local communities 

nationally and internationally, and should be 

chosen as commercial targets. 

Forests have a significant role in 

agricultural business. In this respect we propose to 

provide support for afforestation, improving and 

expanding the economic value, diversifying 

200 

production and by opening new market 

opportunities, such as renewable energy, while 

maintaining a sustainable management, and 

respect for the multifunctional role of forests. 

GMO's enjoy a contradictory development, 

from the spectacular offensive years “80-“90 to 

the more or less categorical rejection of recent 

years. In our country, activities involving 

genetically modified organisms, obtained through 

modern biotechnology, are subject to special 

treatment of regulation, authorization and 

administration according to Law No. 3 of 2008. 

These activities include: the contained use of 

genetically modified organisms, introduction into 

the environment and the market of genetically 

modified organisms, import organisms / 

genetically modified organisms. 

These activities should take place only in 

conditions of environmental protection,and human 

and animal health,because biotechnology will be 

the future global agricultural production factor of 

progress, and everything that is produced in 

agriculture. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Modern agriculture does not require using 

the latest technologies in the field and the most 

expensive inputs.A modern agriculture is 

sustainable agriculture, which governs over all 

economic systems. A modern agriculture is one 

that understands the importance of plants and 

animals for human life. 

The concept of modern agriculture involves 

changing the mentality of those who practice 

agriculture, and the legal system. Efforts to 

develop agriculture, livestock, fisheries, forestry 

and food, should focus on institutional reform. 

This includes education and creation of market 

infrastructure, the use of new techniques and 

production technologies, and the creation of 

financial instruments. 

The association of small owners and 

structural reformis a prerequisite for agricultural 

modernization by transforming subsistence farms 

in commercial farms. It must be oriented to a 

market economy and to the establishment of 

national agricultural cooperatives, and the 

development for each region separately. 

The educational role of agriculture 

fordevelopmentinvolves funding research in this 

area; the opposite we have the results, which we 

have to take into consideration. Also there is a 

need to refocus research topics; they must provide 

high value biological products, raw materials, 

technologies, appropriate knowledge that 

contribute to agricultural modernization.

Supporting producers should be as fair and 

transparent as possible, without forgetting that 

there are large firms which are contributing to 

national food production. 

Private storage is a necessitybecause the 

remedies of Romania in a food crisis are limited. 

It also may prevent the market price declinebelow 

the intervention price, ensuring a guaranteed 

minimum price to producers. 

Platforms for hail and water use 

management in agriculture are essential for 

modern agriculture.Taking into consideration the 

climate change, they should be focused on these 

issues to avoid crises. 

Maintaining traditional values 

(agricultural products) are the opposite of 

genetically modified organisms.In our opinion, we 

believe that traditional values provide an 

agricultural market image. By creating 

partnerships for sales of agricultural products 

nationally and internationally, it adds value and 

confidence to Romanian agriculture. 

We encourage the biotechnology sector, 

because we believe that this will be the future of 

world agricultural production, and increasing 

productivity in agriculture means,but we 

emphasize that they must take placeonly in terms 

of environmental protection, human and animal 

health. 

201 


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– Biotechnology - concept and regulation, 

Magazine Profitul Agricol, nr. 21. 

Lăpuşan, Al., 2010 – Agricultural Cooperative - 

prerequisite for the development of Romanian 

agriculture, Symposium on Food, National 

Institute of Economic Studies ―Costin C. 

Kiriţescu‖, Bucureşti. 

Oancea, I., 2004 – Performance technology in 

agriculture, Publisher Ceres, Bucureşti. 

Robu, T., Ticău, E., Gîlcă, I., 2007 – Perspective of 

rural area development by European fond for 

agriculture and rural development,Scientific 

papers, Animal Series, USAMV Iaşi, Publisher 

Ion Ionescu de la Brad. 

Ungureanu, G., Brezuleanu S., Brezuleanu Carmen 

Olguta, Chiran A., Gindu Elena, Ciurea I.V., 

Ignat Gabriela, 2011 – Using and developing 

models to stimulate the functioning of 

agricultural structures under CAP reform, Lcr. 

Şt., Seria Agronomie, USAMV Iaşi, Nr. 54/2011. 

Stefan, G et al., 2006 – Economy and agroalimetare 

politics, Publisher Alfa, Iaşi. 

***INS – National Institute of Statistics. 

***Law no.3/2008 on regulation, authorization and 

administration of genetically modified organisms. 

**MADR-ANCA (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural 

Development – National Agency for Agricultural 

Consultant) – National Rural Development 

Program (PNDR) 2007-2013.


202

Abstract 

203 


PERFORMANCE OF WINTER RAPESEED HYBRIDS MAXIMUS® 

IN EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

Lucian Ciprian MELUŢ 1 , Konrad KRÄLING 2 , Tobias WULF 2 , Florin PAIU 1 , 

László PIUKOVICS 3 , Darko KEREC 4 , Marek JAKUBEC 5 

e-mail: lucian.melut@gmail.com 

The choice of this topic was induced by the many uses of rapeseed and especially by the current worldwide 

preoccupations to use alternative biofuels, in contrast with conventional fuels, that nowadays are the main source of 

pollution. This paper presents the production results of winter rapeseed (WOSR) hybrids, belonging to the Pioneer 

Hi-Bred International Company (semi-tall hybrids vs. conventional hybrids), exposed to the Eastern Europe’s 

continental climate conditions. There were selected 14 autumn rapeseed hybrids for evaluation from different locations 

in Romania, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, during the years 2010 and 2011. During the analysis of the production 

capacity and oil content, there were seen differences between these two agronomic attributes, especially in terms of 

climate conditions. This paper also presents many advantages of growing MAXIMUS® rapeseed hybrids, with low 

levels of glucosinolate and erucic acid, from sowing to harvesting .These benefits that can be sustained by experienced 

farmers. The results of the conducted studies prove a great ecological plasticity and good resistance to harsh conditions 

experienced in the area of cultivation. 

Key words: performance, WOSR, Maximus, European condition 

Rapeseed (Brassica napus) occupies now a 

very important place in the world economy as a 

source of oil. The seeds of the new commercial 

hybrids have a content of oil from 48% to 51%, oil 

used both in alimentation and in industry. 

The progress made worldwide in improving 

the plant and in its multiple utilization fully 

motivates the reconsideration of rapeseed 

cultivation. The results of the plant improving 

program, based on the OGU-INRA CMS 

(cytoplasmic male sterility) hybridization system, 

and the role of DELLA proteins regarding the 

activity of the gibberellinic hormone (GA) allowed 

Pioneer Hi-Bred International INC. Company to 

obtain semi-tall hybrids, commercially named 

MAXIMUS®. 

The unique developing and the agronomic 

attributes of Maximus® hybrids, in comparison 

with the conventional hybrids is shown by the 5- 

8% additional seeds per unit area, lower vegetation 

treatments costs and the eased harvesting, reducing 

the fuel consumption and increasing the efficiency. 

The hybrid develops a strong root system and a 

fast growth even since the first stages of 

1 University of Agricultural Science and Veterinare Medicine, Iasi 

2 Pioneer Hi-Bred Service Division GmbH, Tuettendorf, Germania 

3 Pioneer Hi-Bred Termelő és Szolgáltató Zrt, Budaörs, Ungaria 

4 Pioneer Semena Holding GmbH Parndorf, Sobota, Slovenia 

5 Pioneer Hi-Bred Slovensko spol. s r.o, Mlynska, Slovacia 

vegetation, entering in the winter season in the 

stage of 6-8 leaves, forming a well developed crop. 

It is easier to apply the phytosanitary treatment 

because of the plant’s height and the frequency 

decreases due to better resistance to pathogens 

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Phoma lingam, 

Verticillium sp. and Plasmodiophora brassicae). 

Recent progresses on the improvement of 

production capacity and low content of 

glucosinolates and higher oil content have the 

effect of culture expansion and diversification of 

uses. With the discovery of genes conferring low 

heights to varieties of wheat and rice, marketing of 

semi-tall rapeseed hybrids is a part of the so-called 

Green Revolution. 


From the polifactorial experience with autumn 

rapeseed hybrids conducted in 2010 and in 2011 in 

the metropolitan network of Pioneer Hi-Bred 

International Inc., there were selected for analysis a 

number of 14 type 00 hybrids, with low glucosinolate 

and erucic acid content(4 Maximus® hybrids and 10 

conventional hybrids).


Maximus® hybrids are 44D03, 44D04, 44D05, 

44D06 and the conventional hybrids are 44W22, 

44W29, 46W09, 46W10, 46W14, 46W20, 46W21, 

46W24, 46W30 and 46W31. 

The experiment was conducted in 61 locations 

in 2010 and in 2011 in 76 locations in Eastern 

Europe, specifically in Romania, Hungary, Slovakia 

and Slovenia (covering an area of 400,730 km2 and 

serving 39,540,000 citizens). Note that experience is 

part of a test program at European level called 

PACTS (Pioneer Crop Accurate Testing System). 

The calculation and interpretation of the data 

was made by the model proposed by Ceapoiu N. 

(1986), using variance factors: hybrids, 

experimentation regions and years. The production 

and the oil content are influenced by the technology 

that the company uses, and the results are 

represented by an overall analysis under the 

influence of hybrid x year x region of experimentation. 


The subject of this research is the winter 

rapeseed hybrid production potential in the 

Eastern Europe’s climate and terrain conditions, 

during the years 2010 and 2011. 

In the area experimented for two years there 

were grown both semi tall Maximus® and 

conventional hybrids. Overall, habitat conditions 

were similar, differing only from year to year, with 

a low germination the autumn of 2009 followed by 

a cold winter, with plenty of snow that maintained 

the crop’s heath, without registering dangerous 

frosts. 

204 

The precipitations in the spring and summer 

of 2010 have been very high, almost double 

compared to a regular year. Registered losses were 

mainly because of the frequent rains accompanied 

by hail. The harvest recorded was low, the Eastern 

European average being 2.6 tons/acre. 

The rape culture sown in the autumn of 2010 

found more favorable conditions compared with 

the autumn of 2009. Significant areas were sown 

with rapeseed due to the favorable price and the 

increasing demand for biofuels. The winter of 2010 

was mild, therefore no major losses were registered 

because of frosting and the crop’s condition was 

good. 

The spring rains and the high temperatures 

registered during summer time favored plant 

growing and development. During flowering and 

grain filling have been recorded favorable 

conditions for rapeseed. The average annual 

production in 2011 in Eastern Europe was higher 

than in 2010, registering a value of 3.0 to/acres. 

(figure 1) 

The concerns regarding the performance of 

the analyzed hybrids are a major goal, so that by 

applying the newest knowledge, the contribution of 

rapeseed for oil increases annually. Therefore, we 

calculated the average of the two categories of 

hybrids during the experiment; the partially 

modified productions are presented in table 1. 

Variance analysis results are presented in table 2. 

Figure 1. Graphical representation of hybrids yields, Maximus® hybrids vs. conventional hybrids, 

during the testing period in Eastern European climatic conditions (tone/acre).

205 


Production of winter rapeseed hybrids in Eastern Europe (q/ha) 

Experimentation 

Year Hybrid type Sum 

network 

Maximus® Tall 

Romania 2010 (29 loc*) 32 29 61 

2011 (34 loc) 37 35 72 

Sum 69 64 133 

Slovenia 2010 (15 loc) 34 31 65 

2011 (8 loc) 41 38 79 

Sum 75 69 144 

Slovakia 2010 (14 loc) 34 31 65 

2011 (11 loc) 39 36 75 

Sum 73 67 140 

Hungary 2010 (3 loc) 32 29 61 

2011 (23 loc) 37 35 72 

Sum 69 64 133 

2010 (61 loc) 132 120 252 

2011 (76 loc) 154 144 298 

Sum 286 264 550 

*locations 

Variance analysis (ANOVA) 

Variance source SPA l s 2 F 

TOTAL 

188 15 

Hybrids 

30 1 30.00 100,00* 

Experimentation networks 

22 3 7.30 24,30* 

Years 

132 1 132,0 440,00*** 

Hybrids x Experimentation networks 1 3 0,33 1,00 

Hybrids x Years 

1 1 1,00 3,03 

Experimentation networks x Years 

3 3 1,00 3,03 

Remainder -1 -3 0,33 

Average production of autumn rapeseed 

hybrids and the meaning of the differences are 

presented in tablet 3. Is observed a significant 

difference in the production capacity of the 

Maximus ® hybrids reported to the two categories 

of analyzed hybrids, also, a significant negative 

difference for conventional hybrids reported to 

controls. Production differences are 8% for 

Maximus® hybrids, difference that prove a better 

adaptation to the weather conditions in Eastern 

Europe. 

Based on F test, we can make the following 

interpretations: 

Table 1 

Table 2 

1. The oscillations of hybrid production recorded 

significant differences. There is also a significant 

influence in the regions of experimentation. The 

mark of ecological conditions is very significant 

and there have been registered differences that 

can’t be provided. 

2. The interaction Hybrids x Experimental regions 

and Hybrids x Years are insignificant. 

3. The interaction Experimental regions x Years is 

also insignificant, meaning that the hybrids have a 

high level of ecological plasticity, unaffecting the 

production capacity from a region to another, in 

the same experimental year. 

Average Production of autumn rapeseed hybrids evaluated 

during 2010 and 2011 in Eastern Europe 

Hybrid Average seed production Difference 

q/acre % 

Maximus® hybrids 35.75 104 1.38* 

Conventional hybrids 33.00 

96 -1.37 o 

Control 34.37 100 

LSD 5% 0.89 q/acre 

LSD1% 1.63 q/acre 

LSD 0.1% 3.62 q/acre 

The oil content can be analyzed in a graph 

from figure 2 where it is represented during the 

two years of research. 

Table 3 

Turning attention again to the climatic 

conditions of the two years, in general, we can say 

that 2011 was a more favorable year than the 2010 

for the autumn rapeseed culture. As seen on figure


2, oil content values are relatively close, the 

differences being insignificant. Oil content is 

influenced by climatic conditions, as evidence is 

the greater percentage of oil that has been 

206 

registered in 2011, when it was a better year for 

the rapeseed culture. The oil content of 

Maximus® hybrids is slightly over the average 

percentage of tall hybrids, both in 2010 and 2011. 

Figure 2 Graphical representation of the oil content of Maximus® hybrids and 

conventional hybrids in 2010 and 2011 in Eastern Europe (%) 

Due to the large number of locations where 

this experience was conducted and due to the 

farmers, it was not possible to keep financial 

records and to perform economic analysis of the 

evaluated hybrids. However, farmers have seen a 

number of advantages of Maximus ® hybrids, 

from planting to harvesting. Recalling the 

International Conference on Harvesting and 

Processing (Louisville, Kentucky, USA) has been 

brought to the attention of farmers that only by 

taking semi tall hybrids are saving € 35 / acre 

compared with harvesting the same area, but 

cultivated with conventional hybrids. 

The root system of Maximus ® hybrids do 

best in the early stages of vegetation, and in 

spring you can see fewer losses, showing good 

resistance to winter. The rapidly increasing 

growth rate since the spring makes growing semi 

tall hybrids a better run for the autumn cereals. 

The resistance of these hybrids to the attack 

of pests and diseases has been proven by many 

farmers, growers of rapeseed, the application of 

phytosanitary treatment is easier because of lower 

plant waist, stronger branching of Maximus ® 

hybrids and therefore the number of pods per 

plant; the plant requires no growth regulators or 

desiccant, plant maturing is uniform therefore no 

losses were registered, the speed and low costs of 

harvesting , the reduction of vegetable waste 

cultivation, represent the advantages of semi tall 

Maximus ® hybrids compared with conventional 

tall hybrids. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The return of the rape seed on the European 

market thanks to its new uses, determined the 

resumption of work for improvement regarding 

the reintroduction of hybrids on the market. The 

research of the Pioneer Hi-Bred International 

Company allowed the launch of semi tall hybrids 

on the market. 

The behavior of these hybrids on the 

Eastern European market, compared to 

conventional hybrids, was the basis for 

assessment and analysis of production capacity 

and oil content, typical for these two types of 

hybrids. 

In the two years of analysis there has been 

observed both production differences and the 

ecological plasticity of the hybrids. Also, the 

numerous advantages of Maximus® semi tall 

hybrids are the basis of their performance. A 

significant difference is observed in the 

production capacity of the Maximus® hybrids 

reported at the average between the two hybrid 

types analyzed. There is also observed a negative 

difference for conventional hybrids related to 

controls. The difference of production is 8% for 

Maximus® hybrids, fact that proves a better

adaptation to the Eastern Europe climate 

condition. 

The oil content is influenced by climatic 

conditions and presents insignificant amounts 

between the two types of hybrids analyzed. 


This scientific paper has been realized with 

private funding from the Pioneer Hi-Bred International 

Inc. Company. The information has been collected from 

farmers in Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Hungary. 

REFERENCES 

Alvey, L., Harberd, N.P., 2005 – DELLA proteins: 

integrators of multiple plant growth regulatory 

inputs?. Physiologia Plantarum 123, Danemarca 

Ceapoiu, N., 1968 – Metode statistice aplicate în 

experienţele agricole şi biologice. Ed. Agro- 

Silvică, Bucureşti 

Clarke, S., 2011 – Nitrogen for oilseed rape – the latest 

thinking. Oilseed and Pulses Conference, 26 

January. East of England Showground, 

Peterborough 

207 


Duvick, D.N., 1999 – Heterosis: feeding people and 

protecting natural resources. The genetics and 

exploitation of heterosis in crops. Crop Science 

Society American, 19, USA 

Feiffer, A., Koch, J., 2007 – Winter canola: Semi 

Dwarf Varieties Coming Up. International 

Conference on Crop Harvesting and Processing, 

Louisville, Kentucky/USA 

Fleet, C.M., Sun, T., 2005 – A DELLAcate balance: the 

role of gibberellin in plant morphogenesis. 

Current Opinion in Plant Biology. North 

Carolina, USA 

Gomez, A.K., Gomez, A.A., 1986 – Statistical 

procedures for agricultural research, 2 nd edition. 

Wiley-Interscience, New York, USA. 

Kightley, S., 2009 – New oilseed varieties. Landmark – 

the journal of the NIAB association, United 

Kingdom 

Kraling, K., Pruvot, J.C., Koch, J.R., Charne, D., 

2010 – Use a green revolution gene in winter 

canola hybrids. Database of Pioneer Hi-Bred 

International, INC 

Poehlman, J.M., 1986 – Breeding field crops. AVI 

Book, New York, USA


208

Abstract 

209 


DAILY NEED CONSUMER FEEDERS - A PROBLEM OF WASTE ? 

1 „Al.I.Cuza” University, Iasi 

Corina MATEI GHERMAN 1 

e-mail: corina_matei_gherman@yahoo.co.uk 

Mottto „Each generation begins and ends with agriculture‖(Anonym) 

Continued growth in demand for agricultural products in physical quantities and quality increasing total rising to take 

into account the dynamics of the global human population growth has led to the idea of environment necessary to 

stimulate food consumption per person per day, from which we can determine the physical quantity, of food daily food 

structures to enable a person to show performance in the profession and have a good health. Or study methods and 

Eating rational about maintaining a normal body weight within the performance advantages and innovation. Also 

identified a significant waste of food and agricultural production chain all methods to combat this waste. Of the results 

need to increase production of natural and organic products quality food and agricultural research topics shift to green 

technologies and innovative performances. 

Keywords: rational, waste, ecology, innovation, performance. 

METHOD AND METHODOLOGY 

Materials used in this research are: literature, 

theme specific magazines, national and international 

conference proceedings and other publications. 

Quantitative analysis is performed on selected 

data and processed directly in the interview. The 

need to conduct this study resulted primarily from 

direct observation that in any circumstance where the 

supplying products consumer quantities offering far 

outweigh a person's calorie needs, the rest are 

discarded, although for that food or natural resources 

consumer , energy and money. 

Also out the food chain of the warranty period 

expired products is a waste. 


Continued growth in demand for agricultural 

products in physical quantities and quality 

increasing total rising to take into account the 

dynamics of the global human population growth 

has led to the idea of environment necessary to 

stimulate food consumption per person per day, 

from which we can determine the physical 

quantity, of food daily food structures to enable a 

person to show performance in the profession and 

have a good health. 

Or study methods and Eating rational about 

maintaining a normal body weight within the 

performance advantages and innovation. Also 

identified a significant waste of food and 

agricultural production chain all methods to 

combat this waste. 

Of the results need to increase natural 

production of quality organic products food and 

agricultural research topics shift to green 

technologies and innovative performances. 

Daily consumption concept is a family structure 

and composition of medium for a month. The 

average consumption (consumption basket) 

includes food and nonfood, according to the figure 

1. 

Average consumption needs to be taken as 

low or normal and is quantified in physical or 

value. 

Based on the statistical value of consumer 

basket cost indices can be determined or life index 

evolution of prices and costs of products and 

services that are necessary for public consumption. 

Cart is established for an average family of 2804 

people (NIS) and established the composition and 

value of monthly consumption basket for a month 

to ensure a minimum level of living and is a key 

element in setting the minimum wage which in 

2012 is of 740 lei. 

The analysis of prices in the year 2011 and 

first quarter of 2012, the following percentages of 

consumption:


Product feeding 

meat and meat 

products 

Milk and derivatives 

eggs 

sugar 

oil 

vegetables 

fruits 

bakery 

other 

Services 

740 roni 

Figure 1. Components of daily consumption 

S 

PNA 

PA 

Cart of consumption 

0% 20% 40% 60% 

Figure 2 Structure costs minimum basket 

consumption 

food (PA) 52% = 3.64 roni; 

non-food products (PNA) 29% = 2.03 roni; 

services (S) 19% = 1.33 roni. 

Consumer behavior 

Product non-food 

clothing 

footwear 

stationery items 

school supplies 

office 

hausehold 

hygiene 

other 

water 

electricity 

heat 

gas 

sanitation 

medical services 

transport 

taxes 

taxes 

other services 

Food basket to provide on average 2,800 

calories and 100 grams of animal protein and 

vegetable every day / person. Institute of Hygiene 

and Public Health (IISP) established according to 

the dietary habits of the Romanian population, 

levels of daily consumption / person for food 

products that have higher values than those 

established by the Government (table 1). 

Each individual has their own behavior, 

defined as all side response to certain external and 

internal stimuli that require quantities of food or 

terminate their use depends largely on innate 

reactions (instincts), previous experiences, 

customs, etc. 

210 

Table 1. 

The structure of food per day / person 

Products According to According 

feeding 

Ordinance to the 

217/2000 Institute of 

Kg annual Hygiene and 

minimum Public 

consumption Health 

Meat and meat 

products 

42,0 46,5 

Edible fats 17,4 13,3 

Milk and milk 

products 

78,6 167,3 

Eggs pieces 180,0 187,0 

Sugar and sugar 

products 

12,6 25,5 

Grain 

products 

186,4 158,8 

Potatoes 56,4 67,7 

Vegetables and 

vegetable 

products 

46,2 117,2 

Fruit and tinned 

fruit 

18,6 44,9 

Non alcoholic 

drinks (l) 

10,2 - 

Eating behaviors exist between people of 

different regions of Romania such as Moldova, 

Banat or Delta. 

Factors of eating behavior individual 

individual 

Internal factors 

physiological nature 

hunger 

thirst 

sensory (taste) 

significance food 

genetic features 

requirements for 

related heredity 


health 

certain instincts 

functioning of the 

body 

External factors 

food preference by: 

preference value 

offer market 

based on education 

after customs 

certain 

anniversaries 


appearance 

by social status 

issue individual 

preference etc. 

Figure 3 Factors of eating behavior individual 

Nutrition experts say that the human body 

has the ability to choose foods for their metabolic 

needs of the five senses - sight, hearing, smell, 

taste, tactile sensitivity are involved in food choice 

behavior from a person in choosing quality and 

quantity of food. The body needs nutrients 

continuously unlike food intake is usually 

intermittent. All information that the body he 

received from internal and external environment 

through the organs of perception are sent through 

the nerve centers in the brain where they are 

processed and answers (decisions) turn into 

requirements:

hunger is the unpleasant sensation which can not 

be eliminated. It occurs at certain times the body 

was used to have some food; 

appetite appears before hunger and anticipation 

of the need to eat foods that can be controlled by 

the preferred and previous experience; 

satiety is a euphoric and is blocking needs to 

overcome a food consumption over the body and 

its metabolic capacity; 

repulsion is loss of control by the brain needs 

food limited to normal human body and lead to the 

individual consumption of large quantities of food 

that can reach a mass 6 kg / person, to 

de1kg/person/ m which is considered normal, it 

leads to overweight, obesity, severe health 

problems; 

anorexia generally characterized by lack of 

appetite caused by an imperfect health, caused by 

digestive diseases, mental illness that lead to food 

rejection, hereditary, etc., leading to physical and 

intellectual performance loss of those persons, to 

underfeeding and chronic body weight as normal. 

The whole human body is affected by 

undernourishment; 

preference, is the property of the body to 

consume only one type of food chosen selectively 

based on subjective evaluation preference and 

previous experiences. 

Overall response R of the body needs food, 

information received from internal and external 

environment, can be expressed by the relation: 

n 

R = Σ Fi (1) 

i=1 

where: 

F - represent the response, and - the number 

of possible response; 

n = 7 in our case. 

Normal weight of a person according to his 

consumption of food items can be calculated using 

the formula: 

G 

I = (2) 

H 2 

where: 

G - weight in kg; 

H - height person m; 

I - index weight. 

Ideal weight index has different values for men 

(Ib) and women (If) as follows: for men Ib = 23 

and vary between 20.5 and 26, for women if = 21 

and vary between 19 and 23. 

Suppose that a real man weighs 74 kg and a 

height of 1.72. Body mass index will be: 

G 74 

I = = = 25,08 > 23, ideal (3) 

H 2 1,72 2 

211 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, seria Agronomie 

Ideal mass index (IBI) is defined as: 

IBI = 23 x H2 = 23 X 1.722 = 68.04 kg (4) 

The man has also: 74 to 68.04 = 5.96 kg. 

For a person to avoid the accumulation of body 

weight to lead to overweight, admitted beyond 

ideal, he must make a daily balance of calories 

gained from food (Ea) and those spent in activities 

that make within 24 hours (Ec) - (B). Overall 

energy balance (B) within 24 hours will be: 

Ea 

B = Kilocalories/24 hours (5) 

Ec 

Here we have three possible cases: 

1. B = 1, we have a balanced energy balance and 

body weight is constant; 

2. B > 1, the body has a reserve of calories that are 

deposited as fat in the body, increasing body 

weight. It may be countered by intensifying 

activity in the 24 hours, through exercise or other 

activities thermal energy; 

3. B < 1, the body lacks calories, decreases body 

weight person, health problems may arise, lack of 

professional performance. In this case consult a 

nutritionist. But food consumption varies by 

geographic region, from country to country. Rapid 

change known culinary preferences depending on 

their economic development area or country and 

the ability of everyone to have income. 

For example, italians prefer original 

preferably organic foods, pasta, piazza etc. French 

cuisine is positioned in the pleasure of eating, are 

demanding and the emphasis on taste who 

appreciate cheeses, spices, sauces, etc. using wines 

in preparation. In Germany food is a necessity for 

health and performance the profession. Americans 

and English have common habits, prefer more 

meat cooked with vegetables, pasta, corn flakes 

with milk and bread in limited quantities. Chinese 

believe food tastes a whole cosmos and their 

associated healing property, use many spices, 

prefer large amounts of natural fruit and tea are 

served in a specific ritual. Consumes only needs 

giving them a powerful and innovative work. In 

European Union countries, food is based on a 

strong traditional emphasis conservative. 

Figure 4 Processed data from the author


Changes are slow and are based on the 

appearance of a new type of consumer, claims a 

new style and quality of life. 

From a sample study of 248 people on three 

meals compliance specific to Romanian, that 

breakfast, lunch and dinner follows: 

- 33% - not respecting these three tables; 

- 29%-amended its schedule needs of three meals; 

- 18% - say that dinner is the main meal; 

- 11% - do not serve breakfast in the morning; 

- 9% - respecting these three tables. 

The tendency to abandon the traditional 

three meals daily rooted in particular times of day. 

Today, other rhythms daily arise after its own 

dynamic adaptation and after the lifestyle of 

individuals. A diet with an optimal intake of 

calories generated for individual health status and a 

good performance level. 

But research shows us that families, 

restaurants, supermarkets, the dinners, the whole 

network from raw materials - producer - consumer, 

are scattered up to 50% of healthy foods and 

supplies. Generally each EU citizen throws (waste) 

on average 179 kg of food a year. The food that 

could feed throws 79 million citizens living below 

the poverty line and 16 million people receiving 

food from charitable societies and 95 million 

people would be consuming if only Europe could 

stop wasting food. In the case of vulnerable 

persons, lack of food leads to stress. 

A European Commission study warns that if 

nations do not take action now to reduce food 

waste, it could increase by 40% by 2020, especially 

in countries based on excessive food consumption. 

In the European Union, 2011, the waste food 

products account for 89 million pounds / year, 

respectively 179 kg / inhabitant and without 

adequate measures, food waste in 2020 could rise 

to 128 million tons annually. Food waste is 

centered 42% in the households and 39% in the 

food. Parallel to fight food waste have acted and 

improving the overall quality of food products, in 

terms of producing organic food products 

providing consumers a new quality of life. 

A rational and organic food will enhance 

individual performance. The dynamics of 

population growth (9 billion in 2050) and 

reduction of agricultural land for different reasons, 

advertising to increase agricultural production and 

a drastic saving them. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Daily food consumption should be limited to 

minimum calorie / person necessary for carrying 

out professional performance and a state of perfect 

health. First consumer awareness measures to 

212 

avoid any chance of food waste that can be 

redirected to the vulnerable in terms of food. 

Excessive food consumption over energy 

needs of the body, to boost performance and 

reduce waste leads individuals related to 

intelligence (IQ) and creativity. 

Agriculture plays vital role in providing 

sufficient food quality and ever-growing 

population. Agricultural production to encourage 

green technology and environmental protection 

that gives consumers a new quality of life. It is 

necessary to focus research topics green 

technologies, performance contributing to faster 

growth in agricultural productivity to keep pace 

with continuing growth in global demand for 

consumer food products. 

Increasing food production, while reducing 

consumption to a rational recycling food waste, 

combined with other measures, will provide live 

food for a mega global human population. is a 

great challenge for the knowledge society. 

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the competitive environment agrifooud, Lucrări 

ştiinţifice , Vol.53, nr.2, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la 

Brad‖, Iaşi. 

Paicu G.,2010, Creativitatea:fundamente secrete şi 

strategii, Editura PIM, Iaşi. 

Patrick L., 2003, Cum să te aperi de stres, Editura Trei, 

Bucureşti,. 

Paraschivescu O.A., 2005, Ghidul calităţii, Editura 

Tehnopres,Iaşi. 

Segal R.,ş.a.,1983, Valoarea nutritivă a produselor 

agroalimentare, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti. 

Ştirbu E., Mixul de merchandising în promovarea 

produselor agro-alimentare, Buletin Ştiinţific, nr.4 

(2), „Gheorghe Zane‖,Iaşi, 2000. 

Terry L., Grecson O., 2009, Manual antistres, 

Editura Niculescu, Bucureşti

Abstract 

1 „Al.I.Cuza” University, Iasi 

213 


LABELS AND MARKING ORGANIC PRODUCTS 

Corina MATEI GHERMAN 1 

e-mail: corina_matei_gherman@yahoo.co.uk 

World population reached 31 October 2011 to 7 billion people, primarily to ensure their food needs. But not only in 

quantities sufficient food, three times a day but also high quality. These attributes can fulfill ecological food product, 

found in small quantities at a price hight. Technologies new, performance, innovation is expected to reduce their price 

and production cost. But, to distinguish them on the market, products food green packaging must bear a certificate 

specifies that protects environmental quality and product recognition. This mark began in Romania in the European 

Union and other countries with developed agriculture. The problem of cost and production volume organic food be 

made in accordance with the rapid development rhythm world population. It is a challenge. 

Keywords: green, renewable, eco label, sustainability, innovation, recovery. 

Food commodities are unprocessed or 

processed products that contain necessary nutrients 

the human body. Codex Alimentarius Commission 

defines organic agriculture: a holistic approach to 

marketing, production management system that 

promotes and maintains healthy development of 

agro-ecosystems, including biodiversity, biological 

cycles and soil biological activity. Emphasis is 

directed to use management practices in line with 

company use external inputs, taking into account 

regional conditions that systems must adapt. This 

is done by using, where conditions permit, 

agricultural methods, biological and mechanical, as 

opposed to using synthetic substances, to perform 

any specific function to use.The label is any 

written material, printed, lithographed, engraved or 

illustrated elements containing product 

identification and accompanying the product or its 

packaging is adhering to. Purpose of labeling is to 

convey the necessary information corresponding to 

consumer demands to know and avoid possible 

risks. ISO 1400 standards on environmental 

aspects of products and services relate mainly to 

environmental labeling and life cycle analysis of 

products in which ISO 14020-1998 remember 

basic principles for environmental marking, ISO 

14021-1999 environmental Marking - Declaration 

environmental honor, ISO 14023, eco Mark - 

Methodologies and testing and verification, ISO 

14024-1998 environmental Marking - Marking 

type I. Principles environmental guidelines and 

procedures, ISO14025 environmental Marking - 

Marking type I. Principles environmental 

guidelines and procedures. 

METHOD AND METHODOLOGY 

For this research we used to study literature, 

law and practice nationally and world wide .. Analysis 

is performed on selected data and processed based 

on a questionnaire. Motivation to perform this 

research resulted from a finding that more and more 

food products are products obtained by using 

synthetic fertilizers that are harmful to consumer 

health. Food products that are on the market are 

really natural and without eco label can not be sure 

that the product is authentic ecological respectively. 


The increasing trend of customer 

satisfaction in the highest degree led to increased 

"consumerism movement" worldwide for the 

following reasons: 

- consumers become more informed, assisted, 

demanding and sometimes capricious; 

- consumers know their rights and not limited to 

quality / food services, are more attentive to the 

impact they have on the environment and their 

health; 

- critical assessment of attitudes / activities 

consumerism in Europe and the U.S. showed a 

strong tendency to change in consumer activity in 

the future. 

This trend is reflected in the marketing 

policy on environmental product that must meet 

multiple requirements: use, handling, storage,


quality, mining, environmental impact and are the 

highest standards in the field. 

In the European Union are three Scientific 

Committees dealing with: consumer safety, public 

health and environmental protection and ecological 

products. Effects of environmental attributes of 

products is carried throughout their lifetime. 

Parallel to the development of organic 

products and competition increases. But consumers 

looking for products where the packaging stated: 

naturally occurring, biodegradable organic product 

or products, etc. 

Marking of organic products has become a 

tool for diversification of supply and promoting 

ecological marking product. In follow two 

directions: 

1.creating a green packaging; 

2.environmental labeling. 

In modern marketing, eco-labeling is the 

main agricultural firms. Labeling aims ultimately 

reducing production and consumption non 

sustainable how to obtain a higher quality of life, 

health and safety, all contained in the Declaration 

of Rio, Brazil, on environmental protection. The 

concept of labeling imposed manufacturers to 

redesign products / services so that new products 

are "friendly" relationship with the environment. 

This message can be transmitted through or burn 

marks on the product label information on 

certification, component percentages, size, etc.. 

Labeling program first began in Germany in 1977, 

expanded in Europe, Brazil, Canada, China, Israel, 

Japan, USA, Korea, as part of a global network of 

global eco labeling, created in 1994, in order to 

encourage eco labeling products, information 

exchange and harmonization of programs. In 

Romania, the procedure for granting environmental 

labeling is provided in HGnr.189/2002 and granted 

those items / groups of organic products that meet 

the following conditions: 

- have competitive advantage in the competitive 

market of organic products; 

- product demand is high enough to favor the 

company; 

-advantages favorable environment (environmental 

protection); 

- protect the health of consumers. 

To obtain the eco-label food products, 

companies, manufacturers, importers, traders, 

service providers must address environmental 

authority for approval. 

Eco labeling objectives are: 

- promote economic activities, ecological 

environment friendly; 

- allow related products greener all productive 

chain: 

214 

product distribution use 

consumption product recycling recycling 

paking 

- communicate to the consumer information exact 

product / service of ecologically; 

- promote ecological products throughout life, 

reduced environmental impact. 

Specialist studies undertaken in the 

European Union revealed the following aspects of 

eco-labeling: 

- word "packaging is recyclable" is not 

synonymous with recycling, but that the packaging 

is made from recycled paper. Interpretations and to 

avoid confusion, mention should be explained 

clearly on the label; 

- authorized environmental arguments for labeling 

should be stored in a database of manufacturer, to 

be controlled by specialized inspectors; 

- eco labeling be widely publicized to eliminate 

confusion in the minds of consumers traditional; 

- manufacturers should take measures to reduce the 

selling price of organic products; 

- ecological attributes marking products: 

individuality, guarantee originality, quality 

assurance, consumer health guarantee. 

From the study of companies dealing with 

production and processing of food products, the 

question: What do you mean eco labeling food 

organic product?, The responses of those 

interviewed are: 

NCE 

APE 

PCAS 

CPE 

DPE 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 

Figure 1. Date processed by the author 

- 42% said they eco labeling defines an ecological 

(DPE); 

-28% believe that the product characteristics 

ecological eco labeling (CPE); 

- 19% believe eco labeling a product, an element 

that ensures their health (PCAS); 

- 8% considered eco labeling as a package for an 

ecological (EPA); 

- 3% do not know anything about eco labeling 

organic products (NCE). 

Of questionnaire-based study shows that 

most consumers (70%) perceive eco labeling as an 

organic product with its essential attribute: quality 

health care. However people who had knowledge

about organic products, consumers were shown a 

keen interest in how their eco labeling 

identification. The respondents argued that 

pollution is a threat to the future and environmental 

labeling of products has become an important 

method to human health. Reducing the negative 

impact of human activity on the environment, need 

shared by 95% of citizens is seen as a key factor 

that will redefine the marketing risk management 

by undertaking tasks sustainable local, regional, 

national and global. We must be aware that The 

lack of food, water and the soil (to support 7 

billion people) could lead to outbreak of conflicts 

between nations. However organic products by 

attributes will provide the best product that gives 

about consumers looking for: a longer life. Billions 

of dollars are invested in the pharmaceutical 

industry to create products for longevity. But the 

EU and some national governments support and 

enforce measures to reduce pollution resulting 

from industrial activity and encourage consumers 

to take decision, to choose to purchase products 

"environmentally friendly - eco friendly products." 

The study conducted among managers dealing with 

the production of organic products to the question: 

How do you perceive the future trend of organic 

products? responded: 

E 

GSNJ 

NDFS 

NDC 

DL 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 

Figure 2 Data processed by the author 

- 46% foresee a slow (DL); 

-25% believe that organic production will stops at 

a certain level determined by consumers (NDC); 

-16% do not see a rapid development without 

financial support from the state (NDFS); 

-9% say eco labeling products is cumbersome, 

expensive and not defined (exactly) Legal (GSNJ); 

-4% consider organic products an experiment (E). 

And practice confirms that without financial 

support from the state, the qualitative evolution of 

organic products because of bureaucracy and high 

costs will be a slow and uncertain. But 

environmental pollution knows no boundaries and 

more and more consumers have expectations about 

the quality of life. On the other hand, managers of 

firms have realized that among their 

responsibilities multiply, we add one: the green. 

From this point of view environmental 

management and marketing approach should be a 

215 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, seria Agronomie 

strategic and integrated, based primarily on 

environmental issues, the integration of ecological 

marketing concept of "Green Marketing", based on 

a new relationship with consumers. Briefly, the 

notion of ecology (Ec), can be defined as: 

3 3 

Ec = 3C + 3R= Σ Ci + Σ R (1) 

i=1 r =1 

where: 

C1 = conservation = C2 consumption C3 = control; 

R1 = recovery, R2 = reconditioning, R3 = reuse. 

Some manufacturers stimulates recovery of 

packaging purchase bonus giving general product. 

In the 3C group calls for a fair use and the 3R lead 

to recovery strategies to reduce excessive 

consumption of natural resources. Eco-label does 

not say that these products have no impact 

environment, but a smaller impact than others in 

their category. 

Filing 

EU Comission 

Develop decision 

eco label 

For 30 days to 

appeal 

Specialized Committees 

component countries 

Regulatory committees 

European Union 

For analysis 

Contract 

authorized by 

specialized 

bodies 

Post to 

official Journal 

Agro-food 

company granting Beneficiary 

labeling 

ecologice 

Figure 3 European labeling procedure ecological 

The granting of a product eco labeling 

product's environmental impact is assessed in preproduction 

phase, production, distribution, use and 

after use, following the loss indicators, waste, soil 

pollution, water contamination, noise, energy,


natural resource consumption, effects on 

ecosystem, each giving a score indicator. The final 

result is determined as follows: 

-determine the coefficient of performance (P) as 

the geometric mean of the basic properties of the 

products (P1 + P2 + .... + Pn); 

- ecological score thus obtained is multiplied by 

the coefficient of performance (P). 

Each product to obtain eco-labeling must 

obtain a number of points between minimum and 

maximum points for the product, according to the 

rules. 

CONCLUSION 

Eco labeling products is still in its early 

stages, with development trends worldwide, 

including Romania. Organic products food costs 

are about 3% expensive than similar products and 

issue costs of environmental initiatives food firms, 

a problem still unsolved. But there are few highincome 

customers who prefer organic products. 

Although organic foods offer customers the highest 

quality of life and even extend life expectancy, 

ecological agricultural areas are experiencing a 

slow expansion. Long term and globally, I believe 

that in Romania, where agricultural land is only 

1.07 hectares per capita, an organic farming can 

not provide the necessary food for the population. 

Globally the situation is more critical, there under 

2 ha / capita and the year 2050 may reach the limit 

of about 10 billion people that I can support Tera. 

Can not provide food for many people green. 

Environmental issues including the role of 

environmental labeling of food products must be 

very well known companies in the field managers. 

Have encouraged ecological behavior of every 

citizen to protect nature, to reuse some raw 

materials. All we need food, to investigate new 

methods secure it through performance and 

innovation. 

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Integral,Barcelona,Spania. 

Anderson, T. Jr., Cunninghan, W.,H., 1972, The 

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Berkowitz, L., Lutterman, K.,G., 1968 The traditional 

socially responsible personality.Public Opinion 

Quarterly, 32, 169-185. 

Chiram,A.,Gându,E., Dima,M.,F., 2007, Marketing în 

agricultură, Editura Alma Print, Glaţi. 

Catherine de Silagny, 1994, L’agriculture biologique – 

des techniquès efficaces et non polluantes.Terre 

Vivante,France. 

Dumitru,C., 2004, Management şi Marketing Ecologic.O 

abordare strategică, Editura Tehnopress,Iaşi. 

Francisco,J.,Ries,M., 2000, Marketing ecologic, Note 

de curs, Universitatea din Granada, Spania. 

Gându E., Leonte C.,coord., 2011, Lucrări ştiinţifice, 

vol.54, nr.1.,Seria Agronomie, Editura „Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad‖, Iaşi. 

Grundey, D., Zaharia, R.,M., 2008, Sustainable 

incentives in marketing and strategic greening: 

the cases of Lithuania and Romania, Baltic 

Journal on Sustainability, 14(2), 130 –143. 

Henion, K.,E., Kinnear, T.,C., 1976, Ecological 

Marketing, American Marketing Association, 

Chicago. 

Intini, F., Kühtz, S., 2010, Recycling in buildings: an 

LCA case study of a thermal insulation panel 

made of polyester fiber, recycled from postconsumer 

PET bottles,International Journal of 

Life Cycle Assessment, 16, 306–315,. 

Karl E., Henion; Thomas C., 1976, Ecological 

Marketing. American Marketing Association. 

Kinnear, January, pp. 168. 

Luca, P.,G., Managementul Marketingului Ecologic, 

2003, Editura Gh. Asachi, Iaşi. 

Matei,G.,C., 2011, Management marketing ecologic – 

Apa esenţa vieţii, volumul simpozionului 

internaţional de ecologie „Verde înseamnă 

viaţă‖,Universitatea „Al.I.Cuza‖,Asociaţia 

Cultural Ştiinţifică „Vasile Pogor‖,Editura PIM 

Iaşi. 

Rusu,T,Albert,I.,Bodiş,A., 2005, Metode şi tehnici de 

producţie în agricultura ecologică (ecotehnica), 

Editura Risoprint,Cluj Napoca. 

Rios, M., F.J., Martinez, L., T., Molina, R., M.,A., 2008, 

How Green Should You Be: Can Environmental 

Associations Enhance Brand Performance? 

Journal of advertising research, December 2008, 

547-563. 

Suchard, H.,T., Polonski, M.,J., 1991, A theory of 

environmental buyer behavior and its validity: the 

environmental action – behaviour model. In Gilly, 

M.C. et al. (Eds), AMA Summer Educators´ 

Conference Proceedings, American Marketing 

Association, Chicago, IL, 2, 187-201,. 

*** - Danish environmental Protection Agency,30 iunie 

1994. 

*** - Codex Alimentarius Commission – Guidelines for 

the production, procesing,labeling and marketing 

of organically produced foods,CAC /GL 32-1999. 

*** - H.G.nr.106/ 2002 privind etichetarea alimentelor, 

Monitorul Oficialnr.147 februarie 2002.

Abstract 

217 


STUDY REGARDING THE PERSPECTIVES OF ARGES COUNTY 

AGRICULTURE THROUGH THE FARMERS’ VISION 

Marius Mihai MICU 1 , Valentina TUDOR 1 , Nicolae STERGHIU 1 , Monica PANDELEA 2 

e-mail: micumariusmihai@yahoo.com 

This work aims to present a study regarding the perspectives of Arges agriculture through the farmer’s vision.This 

paper will disseminate only part of the information obtained by questionnaire. People who were interviewed are 

representatives of agricultural holdings with legal form and individual exploitations without legal form. The 

questionnaire aimed to identify the opinion of farmers according to legal form on the following issues: What kind of 

agriculture is consider necessary to be practiced in the county and the means for upgrading technology. A percentage of 

66% considers that it is necessarily highly productive agriculture, of large farms that use fertilizers, herbicides, etc., and 

only 34% for the traditional organic farming. As a result, the survey revealed that the farmers who have farms with 

legal form considers that they can modernize their exploitation by mechanization (33%), using new varieties (28%) and 

using new crop technologies.The same opinions have the farmers from the individual agricultural sector, there were no 

significant differences between the farmers from the exploitation sector with legal form. 

Key words: agricultural producers, questionnaire, Arges 

Rural areas in Romania are a cardinal 

component of the evolution of the Romanian 

economy. Three rural resources need to give the 

true dimension of the restructuring of the 

agriculture and rural development in our country: 

the use of agricultural area (14.8 million ha), farm 

labor (3.5 million) and total area of the countryside 

(90% of the country) (Micu M.M., 2012). 

In this perspective, Romania has to adopt 

agricultural policies to include elements of 

accelerating the process of compatibility, 

especially in the regulation of the property rights 

and guaranteeing it, but also to improve 

infrastructure and education in this specific 

segment (Alecu I.N., 2002). 

In specifying of the agricultural policy must 

start from the fact that agriculture is not only an 

economic sector producing goods and profits, it is 

also a way of life and rural areas is not only a place 

of production, but at the same times a social and 

cultural space with complex issues concerning the 

overall state of the nation. 

Agriculture is an important component of 

Arges economy in rural areas constantly being 

introduced reform measures, including law 

enforcement in the field and of the current EU 

programs (Drăghici M. and co laboratories, 2010- 

1 University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest 

2 University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi 

2011, Popescu M., Popescu, G., 2007 Tudor V., 

2008). 

One of the main agricultural areas of the 

country, Arges County is well known for its cereal 

crops, industrial crops and fruit. 

More than half of the county's agricultural area is 

arable land. The rest is filled with orchards, 

nurseries, vineyards, pastures and meadows. 

Agricultural area, totaling 341,033 ha, is operated 

as follows: 

- 332,393 hectares in private farms 

(individual and associations); 

- 8.640 hectares in the state sector. 

Data currently available in the Arges County 

show that the situation is more delicate every year, 

the number of farmers, but also of animals is 

declining. 

Not surprising that the level reached by land 

worked is alarming, one of the causes of increasing 

costs in agriculture. 

Our data indicate that we are dealing with a 

decrease in average with 5% compared to 2002 

figures from the previous census was held. The 

number of farms fell by 5.15%. In 2010 were 

reviewed 162,858 agricultural holdings in Arges, 

of which 161,798 without legal form. Note that 

individual farmers are unrelated and yet still work 

the land to live sometimes from day to day.


Also, the use of agricultural area of the farms 

decreased by 5.5% over 2002, which means a high 

degree of division of property (in the meantime, 

some courts have split as a result of the 

inheritance). The data show that the number of 

animals in the county fell significantly by over 

10% in some cases (Manole S., 2011). 

In these conditions, this work makes a study 

on the prospects of Arges agriculture through the 

farmer’s opinion considering the theory, the 

problem and the constraints. Without a strategy is 

missing the consistency in using the funds, 

resources are wasted, especially time, that it flows 

against agricultural producers who live in rural 

areas. 


The usefulness of the questionnaires is given 

by different categories of provided information: the 

hierarchy of needs, preferences, attitudes, consumer 

habits and buying, consumer motivations and so on. 

Also regarding the utility, it refers to respondents who 

may be associated with specified categories of 

information. Thus, information on market phenomena 

or processes is circumscribed to the specific of the 

community’s reference. For example, people can 

gather information from the various segments formed 

by gender, age, education, occupation, geographical 

area, home environment, income, household 

structure and size. These data can be obtained more 

easily through the questionnaire (Colibaba D., 2001). 

The information collected through the 

questionnaires are both quantitative and qualitative, 

that can be detailed by certain criteria, thus to allow a 

deep knowledge of the market issues that cannot be 

addressed based on secondary sources. Arguments 

about the importance of questionnaire as a tool for 

gathering information about the market of goods 

consumer and services enable the formulation of the 

conclusion that development, testing and application 

of questionnaires requires complex and varied 

knowledge from the researchers. 

In practice, for various reasons, some 

communities may not be recorded with the total units 

that compose them, whether it would have required 

heavy expenditures or research results that efficiency 

is not ensured. All these reasons and others not 

specified, requires more frequent organization of 

statistical surveys such as partial records. 

Planning and execution stages of the 

questionnaire can be considered as following: 

1. Setting goals questionnaire, which is 

established for research purposes. Are specified 

operational information to be obtained and questions 

are formulated based on their questionnaire. 

2. Defining the population, in which is set the 

community studied, the unit of observation and the 

survey unit. 

3. Establish the data collection method, which 

sets the spatial coordinates, temporal and modal of 

the research. 

218 

4. Develop of a questionnaire is based on a 

previously set of objectives, questions contained in it 

that can be divided into several categories. 

Questionnaire must be clear, not vague, not to 

influence the response, does not use the same scale 

row (avoid the effect of inertia) (Savoiu G., 2011). 

The questionnaire was applied during 

September-November 2011 in Arges County in a 

number of 53 persons. The questionnaire applied was 

well structured, being divided into chapters, relevant, 

containing over 50 questions. This work will 

disseminate only part of the information obtained by 

questionnaire. People who were interviewed are 

representatives of agricultural holdings and legal form 

of individual farms without legal form. 

The questionnaire aimed to identify was the 

opinion of farmers according to legal form on the 

following: 

- What type of agriculture is necessary to be 

practiced in the County; 

- Ways of upgrading technology. 

It also took into account the following, obtained 

through the questionnaire: 

- Age of respondents; 

- Level of education of respondents; 

- Form of relief where farms are located; 

- Access development measures. 

Making the study is due also to the research, 

statistical data analysis and interpretation. This, 

together with extracts from the theoretical literature, 

enabled the assessment of certain issues raised 

throughout the work. 


In terms of age, we see that of all farmers 

interviewed in the segment with individual 

holdings, prevails the farmers aged 51-60 years. 

For farmers with legal holdings segment as 

that prevails farmers aged 41-50 years is not 

recorded a difference of age than in young farmers 

appreciate that young people continue to consider 

an important branch of agriculture economics in 

Arges County (Micu M.M., 2011). 

We believe that the questionnaire was 

conducted on farmers of all ages in order to 

observe their opinion uniformly (figure 1). 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

21 - 30 years 31 - 40 years 41-50 years 51-60 years > 60 years 

Individual holding 7 0 7 12 7 

Holding legal form 4 5 5 4 2 

Total interviewed 11 5 12 16 9 

Figure 1 Age of respondents 

Regarding the level of education of 

respondents shows that the segment of the total and 

individual farmers with farms, farmers 

predominate with high school education. 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0

For farmers with legal holdings segment that 

half of them attended university (figure 2). 

We believe that the high level of education 

of respondents, the questionnaire could be easily 

understood and completed by them. 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Primary School High school University Postgraduate 

Individual holding 4 18 8 3 

Holding legal form 0 8 10 2 

Total interviewed 4 26 18 5 

Figure 2 Level of education of the respondents 

If we talk about where the holdings are 

located those interviewed we noticed that most of 

them are coming from the hill and less 

mountainous areas. 

Farmers who own individual holdings, we 

see that 82% come from the hills, plains 12% and 

6% in the mountainous county of Arges. 

For farmers with legal holdings segment, 80% 

come from the plains and only 20% of the hilly 

district of Arges (figure 3). 

We tried applying the questionnaire in all 

three forms of relief from Arges County, namely 

plains, hills and mountains. 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Hill Plain Mountain 

Individual holding 27 2 4 

Holding legal form 4 16 0 

Total interviewed 31 18 4 

Figure 3 Form of relief where farms are located 

When asked: What type of agriculture as 

needing to be practiced in the county?, With the 

choice of response “Intensive”' or “Extensive”, 

66% believe that a high agricultural productivity of 

large farms that use chemical fertilizers, 

herbicides, etc.., and only 34% for the traditional 

organic (figure 4). 

Among farmers who own individual 

holdings are not unanimous, the difference being 

only 4% for those looking for organic farming. 

Farmers who have farms with legal form still want 

to practice intensive agriculture as percentage of 

95%. 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

219 


20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Intensive Extensive 

Individual holding 16 17 

Holding legal form 19 1 

Total interviewed 35 18 

Figure 4 What type of agriculture 

is needed to be practiced in the county? 

Following interviews on ways to modernize 

their holdings have revealed that all respondents 

agree with the modernization of farms. 

As a result of the survey revealed that 

farmers who have farms with legal form can be 

considered as holding modernize primarily by 

mechanization (33%), using new varieties (28%) 

and using new technologies. The same opinions are 

individual farmers in the agricultural sector, there 

were no significant differences for farmers in the 

farm sector with legal form (figure 5). 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

New varieties Mechanization Irrigation 

Culture 

technology 

Individual holding 25 29 14 24 3 

Holding legal form 15 17 7 14 0 

Total interviewed 40 46 21 38 3 

Figure 5 Ways to modernize 

The question: Have you received 

development measures in the last 5 years?, With 

the choice of response “Yes” or “No”, it appeared 

that 51% of farmers have not benefited from 

development measures in the past 5 years, while 

49% have accessed such measures. 

Among farmers who own individual 

holdings percentage of respondents who have 

accessed development measures is 48%, and 

among farmers who have farms with a legal form 

are registering an equal ratio (figure 6). 

CONCLUSIONS 

The analysis made regarding the farmers in 

Arges county, both the individual and legal form 

through the questionnaire, allowed to draw the 

following conclusions: 

A 66% considered that a high agricultural 

productivity of large farms that use fertilizers, 

herbicides, etc., and only 34% for the traditional 

organic farming. 

Other 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0


20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Yes Not 

Individual holding 16 17 

Holding legal form 10 10 

Total interviewed 26 27 

Figure 6 farmers who have benefited from 

development measures 

Among the farmers who own individual holdings 

are not unanimous, the difference being only 4% 

for those looking for organic farming. 

Farmers who own holdings legal form still want 

to practice intensive agriculture as percentage of 

95% 

Following the interview on ways to modernize 

their holdings have revealed that all respondents 

agree with the modernization of farms. 

As a result of the survey revealed that farmers 

who have farms with legal form can be 

considered as holding modernize primarily by 

mechanization (33%), using new varieties (28%) 

and using new crop technologies . The same 

opinions are individual farmers in the 

agricultural sector, there were no significant 

differences for farmers from the farms to legal 

form. 

A percentage of 51% of farmers have not 

benefited from development measures in the last 

five years, while 49% have accessed such 

measures. 

Among the farmers who own individual holdings 

percentage of respondents who have accessed 

development measures is 48%, and among 

farmers who have farms with a legal form to 

register a ratio of equality. 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

220 

Following interviews on whether they want to 

input a form of association, showed that 87% of 

those who were questioned and agree to reunite 

in a form of association. 


This article was developed by the project ,,Grants 

to improve the quality of doctoral young researchers in 

agronomy and veterinary medicine’’(code agreement 

POSDRU /88/1.5/ S/52614), co-funded by European 

Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources 

Development 2007-2013, coordinated by the University 

of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 

Bucharest. 

REFERENCES 

Alecu I.N., 2002, Agrarian Management in Romania. 

Past, present and future, Editure Ceres, 

Bucharest, Romania; 

Colibaba D., 2001 - Chestionarul – instrument valoros în 

cercetarea piete, Revista Informatică Economică, 

nr. 3, Bucureşti; 

Drăghici M. şi colab., 2010-2011 – Note de curs, 

Managementul Producţiei, U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti; 

Manole S., 2011 - Scădere în agricultura argeşeană, 

Profitul Agricol, Bucureşti; 

Micu M. M., 2011 - Chestionar privind asocierea 

producătorilor agricoli din judeţul Argeş; 

Micu M. M., 2012 – The impact on rural development 

programs on environment. Case study, common 

Dorobantu, county Calarasi, I.E.C.S., Sibiu; 

Popescu M. , Dimensiunea fizică a exploataţiilor 

agricole din România. Decalaje faţă de Uniunea 

Europeană, Institutul de Economie Agrară al 

Academiei Române, Bucureşti; 

Popescu, G., 2007, Cooperarea în agricultură, de la 

piaţa funciară la transferul de cunoaştere, Ed. 

Terra Nostra, Iaşi; 

Săvoiu G., 2011 – Statistică pentru afaceri, Editura 

Universitară, Bucureşti; 

Tudor V., 2008 – Gestiunea exploataţiei agricole, 

Editura Ceres, B

Abstract 

221 


ROMANIAN ASSOCIATION AGRICULTURAL PRODUCERS PRIMACY, 

POWER EUROPEAN EXAMPLE 

Marius Mihai MICU 1 , Florentin BERCU 1 , Eugenia ALECU 1 , Mariana BURCEA 1 

e-mail: micumariusmihai@yahoo.com 

This paper wants to emphasize the vitality of the association and cooperation in agriculture, food and related services in 

Romania for efficient operation and development of romanian agriculture. This phenomenon had and still has a huge 

impact for European farmers and especially romanian. The force of the countries with a strong agriculture in Europe 

and all over the glob is in the farmers association and cooperation. Romania has 1192 associations of livestock farmers, 

accounting for a total of 213,071 members. The EU agricultural producers are well represented in the European 

Parliament agriculture committee by COPA-COGECA, the organization which represents 56 national organizations 

from 25 countries out of 27 of the union. Our country must understand that without a reform aimed at streamlining the 

professional and union of a strong unified voice on national and European level, our agriculture will live from its former 

glory. 

Key words: (association, cooperation, romanian agriculture, organization) 

Farmers association in professional strong 

economic role and representation means a driving 

force for agricultural powers in Europe and the 

world. In countries with strong agricultural lobby 

and force professional organizations representing 

producers of agricultural, food and related services 

is clear that farmers have the power to decide 

strategy is in line with developments in the market 

sector. In Romania, unfortunately, is not the case 

and the well was recently highlighted during a 

symposium organized by the Institute of Social 

Economy. The only salvation for those working in 

agriculture, the state budget, but also to increase 

productivity in agricultural sector policies are not 

made on foot, but policies to strengthen 

agricultural associations and farmers' associations. 

I believe that agriculture is the only solution for 

Romania, for recovery and rural Romanian village. 

(Stefan N., 2012). 

Once born and active, professional and 

cooperative organizations may, for a smart state to 

become formidable partners for implementation of 

large agro-rural development projects for resource 

conservation and environmental protection. (Berca 

M şi colab, 2002). No country in Europe has not 

only developed a strong agricultural potential due. 

We first need consistency and stability 

(Cioloş D.,2011). 

1 University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest 


To characterize the importance of linking and 

cooperation of agricultural producers, food and 

related services in Romania have been taken into 

account a number of indicators, such as association, 

cooperation, organization of farmers, agricultural 

sector development and efficiency. 

Statistical data were collected from the Ministry 

of Agriculture and Rural Development, COPA 

(Committee of Professional Agricultural Organisations 

of the European Union) and members of the National 

Association of Agricultural Producers Youth in 

Romania, processed and interpreted, and predictions 

as existing trend, especially in Europe and the world. 


Farmers are represented at European level 

COPA (Committee of Professional Agricultural 

Organisations of the European Union) organization 

comprising 56 national organizations as follows: 

England - 3, Austria - 1 Belgium - 2, Cyprus - 4, 

Czech Republic - 3, Denmark - 1, Estonia - 3, 

Finland - 2, France - 3, Germany - 1 Greece - 2, 

Hungary - 3, Ireland - 1 Italy - 3, Latvia - 4, 

Lithuania - 4, -1 Luxembourg, Malta - 1 , 

Netherlands - 1, Poland - 6, -1 Portugal, Slovakia - 

1, -1 Slovenia, Spain - Sweden 3 and -1 

organization representative on the 21 common 

market sectors (COPA, 2012).


Unfortunately Romania is not to have a pan- 

European economic reasons and because of the 

vanity of representatives of professional 

organizations. 

Subsistence farms cover approximately 45% 

of agricultural land located in the culture with 

approximately 90% of the total number of 

holdings. This context is contrary to the general 

interests of farmers as to increase competitiveness 

must capitalize on the market agricultural products 

that meet quality and quantity. 

This can be successfully applied in a 

relatively short period only coooperarea farmers. 

Mr. Ilie Sirbu was highlighted when 

Minister of Agriculture that, ,,so that they can get 

more money from European funds and the state 

budget. Together have a greater force than 

working individually. I think it is necessary to have 

a group of farms managed by young farmers, 

especially that we have this European funds. These 

groups will form the core fact that average farm, 

with large farms are producing for the domestic 

market and even to foreign markets. " 

Farmers have little interest in professional 

organizations due to low information, low level of 

awareness, different perceptions of people 

involved in associative forms and CAP's old bad 

habits (Cooperative Agricultural Production), 

TM 

14 

AR 

7 

BH 

2 

CS 

2 

SM 

27 

SJ 

95 

CJ 

20 

AB 

5 

HD 

15 

MH 

13 

GJ 

7 

DJ 

3 

MM 

103 

VL 

48 

BN 

173 

SB 

20 

OT 

8 

MS 

179 

AG 

21 

BV 

11 

TR 

25 

222 

which did not work after Western democratic 

principles of agricultural cooperatives . 

In our country there, nine groups of 

producers and an organization for the vegetablefruit, 

one association in the seeds, nine 

organizations in the organic sector, eight groups of 

producers in the grains and oilseeds, 423 

organizations in the land improvement ( 5 

organizations and 418 organizations drainage and 

drainage of irrigation water users) and 3 

federations of land improvement organizations and 

25 groups of livestock producers. 

In the year 2012 are 1192 livestock farmers 

associations in Romania. Bihor county, Neamt, 

Arad, Alba, Caras-Severin County, Gorj, Olt, 

Dâmboviţa Vrancea, Vaslui, Buzau, Tulcea, 

Calarasi, Giurgiu and Ilfov, Bucharest has a 

number between 1 to 10 associations. Between 11 

to 30 associations found in Timis, Satu Mare, Cluj, 

Hunedoara, Mehedinti, Sibiu, Brasov, Arges, 

Prahova, Teleorman, Ialomita, Constanta, Bacau, 

Iasi and Botosani. Counties of, Valcea and 

Covasna have a number of associations between 

31-60. In Suceava, Harghita and are between 61- 

100 associations Salaj and Maramures, and Mures 

Nasaud are over 100 (figure 1.). 

BT 

SV 28 

65 IS 

16 

NT 

2 

HG 

78 

DB 

7 

NUMARUL DE ORGANIZATII PROFESIONALE ALE CRESCATORILOR DE ANIMALE 

Figure 1 Number of Animal Breeders Associations in Romania by county (MADR, 2012) 

The 1192 livestock farmers associations in 

Romania number of 213,071 members. 

Of them in Satu Mare, Bihor, Neamt, Iasi, 

Alba, Caras-Severin, Sibiu, Olt, Vrancea, Galati, 

Tulcea, Calarasi, Ialomita, Constanta, Giurgiu, 

Ilfov, Bucharest, Prahova members have until 3000 

the livestock farmers associations. In Timis, Cluj, 

CV 

49 

PH 

21 

IF 4 

B 1 

GR 

6 

BC 

24 

VR 

7 

BZ 

6 

CL 4 

VS 

4 

GL 

3 

BR 

33 

IL 13 

CT 

18 

TL 

7 

Arad, Mehedinti, Dambovita, Florida, Virginia, 

Covasna, Vaslui, Bacau, Buzau Harghita members 

are from 3000-6000. Between 6000 to 10,000 

members are in Hunedoara, Arges, Botosani, Salaj, 

Brasov. In Valcea, Braila, Suceava and Nasaud are 

between 10,000 and 20,000 members, and

Maramures Mures and over 20,000 members in these associations (figure 2.) 

TM 

4786 

BH 

1960 

AR 

4103 

CS 

1001 

SM 

2107 

SJ 

9194 

CJ 

5529 

HD 

6256 

GJ 

5580 

MM 

20554 

AB 

1343 

MH 

4435 

DJ 

2176 

BN 

12136 

MS 

22278 

SB 

1761 

VL 

11194 

OT 

2535 

223 

IF 954 

B 601 


BT 

SV 6626 

10012 IS 

2322 

NT 

2460 VS 

HG 

4900 

BV 

6288 

CV 

5902 

AG PH 

6986 DB 2787 

4053 

TR 

5336 

GR 

1042 

BC 

5850 

VR 

2056 

BZ 

3346 

3103 

GL 

1834 

IL 

1472 

CL 

1857 

BR 

10159 

TL 

1764 

CT 

2510 

NUMARUL DE ORGANIZATII PROFESIONALE ALE CRESCATORILOR DE ANIMALE 

Figure 2 Number of members of Animal Breeders Associations in Romania by county (MADR, 2012) 

Members of these associations have in 

operation a total of 518,637 bee colonies, 623,598 

head cattle, buffaloes and buffaloes, 8359 horses 

heads, 4,388,339 sheep and goats, 16,907,634 birds 

heads, 170,814 heads swine and 21,014 heads 

mixed (M.A.D.R., 2012 ). 

In addition to the above associations are 95 

representative organizations (A.N.T.P.A.R., 2011) 

covering most sectors of the field being filled with 

individual farms and other agricultural producers 

to reach the existing production capacities. 

All types of agricultural associations 

established in Romania, professional or economic 

type, operating locally and not have power of 

dialogue with the authorities (Stefan N., 2012). 

Due to decentralization structures 

agriculture ministry and the lack of clear 

legislation are difficult agricultural chambers 

functioning of Romanian agriculture (Bercu F. and 

et al, 2012). 

If political parties would switch to a type of 

strategy to support these associations with 

European money would help restore the chain of 

product as opposed to indirect financing of 

multinationals, oil operators or from outside jobs, 

if we account that over 70% of agricultural 

products coming to Romania are imported (Stefan 

N., 2012). 

Romanian agriculture needed by 2014 is to 

have associations of producers and producer 

groups on economic criteria. Ca şi plan de acţiune 

ar trebui avut în vedere următoarele(A.N.T.P.A.R., 

2011): 

Associations of producers enactment and 

empowering producer organizations with 

participation in decision measures 

(participation in measures of PNDR approval 

certificates of producers, obtaining funds 

through associations, etc.). 

Support for the state costs (500,000 euro / year 

reserve fund government) participation in 

Brussels on relevant organizations. 

Establishment of Agricultural Chambers of 

producers in their favor. Disbursement of 10 

million euro’s to set up agricultural chambers. 

Promotion program which is funded by the EU 

by 50%, the remaining funds for the Member 

State and inter-professional organizations, the 

latter must contribute at least 20%. 

Producer groups on economic criteria 

established in 2014, will receive the first five 

years of recognition based on a business plan, 

marketed production up to 1,000,000 euro’s, 

aid in annual installments of 4% (first year) 

and 10% (fifth year) of the amount approved. 

The main advantages of associative forms: 

- Facilitates communication between farmers, on 

the one hand and between their representatives 

and government institutions, on the other; 

- Helps reduce production costs; 

- Give possibility of competitive production 

technologies; 

- Planning and production changes according to 

demand quantitative and qualitative market; 

- Have a high capacity to negotiate the purchase of 

inputs such as capitalization and products.


- Facilitate access to European funds and bank 

borrowing; 

- Helps to better promote their products both 

domestically and foreign. 

Before we rest on the thought that others 

come to help us, we must help ourselves. We must 

not be indifferent about our future! To trust in 

ourselves and in God. Should we do anything at all 

we go any better (Lăpuşan A. 2011). 

CONCLUSIONS 

Professional organizations are the drivers of 

agricultural farmers of the great powers in Europe 

and even worldwide. 

The presence of one or more primary 

Romanian organization that is active-member-is 

the Committee of Professional Agricultural 

Organisations of the European Union (COPA) to 

be able to support us and promote the Romanian 

agricultural sector with its specific features. 

Many farms in Romania may be more 

efficient just by association and cooperation 

between farmers. 

Romanian farmers began to realize that the 

only chance of progress, become efficient and 

competitive market is to be united. 

Associative forms of Romania still remains 

at an early stage, the need to follow a process of 

reorganization, professionalism and efficiency. 

It is difficult but not impossible, it takes the will, 

ambition and perseverance to recover Romanian 

agriculture. 

224 


This article was developed by the project ,,Grants 

to improve the quality of doctoral young researchers in 

agronomy and veterinary medicine’’(code agreement 

POSDRU /88/1.5/ S/52614), co-funded by European 

Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources 

Development 2007-2013, coordinated by the University 

of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 

Bucharest. 

REFERENCES 

BERCA M. şi colab, 2002 - Asocierea şi Cooperarea, 

Forme de Autoajutorare a Ţăranilor şi Fermierilor 

din Romania, Date MADR; 

BERCU F. şi colab, 2012 - Cooperativele Agricole, 

Soluţie Viabilă pentru Redresarea Sectorului 

Agricol Românesc, Lucrări stiintifice, Seria I, vol. 

XIV(1), U.S.A.M.V. Timisoara, pag. 143-150; 

Cioloş D., 2011- Dacian Ciolos, despre ce-i lipseste 

agriculturii ca să fie performantă Interviu 

Ziare.com, disponibil online la: http://www.ziare. 

com/dacian-ciolos/comisar-european-agricultura/ 

dacian-ciolos-despre-ce-i-lipseste-agriculturii-casa-fie-performanta-interviu-ziare-com-i-1140597; 

Lăpuşan A. 2011 - Ne ajută Dumnezeu şi UE, dar 

trebuie să ne ajutăm, mai ales, noi insine!, 

disponibil online la : http://www.agrinet .ro/ cont 

ent.jsp?page=702&language=1;; 

Ştefan N., 2012 - Relansarea agriculturii va fi posibilă 

doar prin politici agricole pentru întărirea 

asociaţiilor agricole, disponibil online la : http:// 

www.agroinfo.ro/politic/politica-nationala /vegetal 

/agrostar-relansarea-agriculturii-va-fi-posibiladoar-prin-politici-agricole-pentru-intarireaasociatiilor-agricole; 

COPA, 2012 – Organizaţiile membre http://www.copacogeca.eu/Main.aspx?page=CopaMembers&lang 

=en; 

M.A.D.R., 2012 – Date nepublicate Ministerul Agriculturii 

şi Dezvoltării Rurale; 

A.N.T.P.A.R., 2011 – Date interne Asociaţia Naţională a 

Tinerilor Producători Agricoli din România.

Abstract 

225 


PARTICULARITIES REGARDING THE EVOLUTION OF ROMANIAN 

BAKERY MARKET IN THE CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC CRISIS 

1 University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi 

Ştefan VIZITEU 1 

e-mail: stefan.viziteu@yahoo.com 

The unstable economic environment has prompted businesses to adopt security measures or to reconfigure certain 

courses of action, marketing policies being affected by some fundamental changes in terms of increased efficiency and 

competitive pressure in order to adapt to the transformation in consumer behavior related to the goods carried. 

The economic crisis drew attention to the micro and macroeconomic indicators that behave differently depending on the 

social, political and financial context. Monitoring continuously the harmonized indices of consumer prices, 

investigating the consumption trend and the structure of consumption basket and analizing the imports and exports 

evolution it is possible to understand market situation and to forecast as accurately as possible future evolutions. 

The demand for bakery products is relatively inelastic and accordingly, manufacturing companies strategies aimed at 

diversification of the range and quality growth while focusing on the potential benefits to the consumer health. 

This paper aims to develop an diagnosis for quantitative and qualitative elements of bakery business at national level as 

response to the economic changes that have occurred and to highlight their reflection in the economic results obtained. 

Key words: bakery market, economic crisis, Harmonized index of consumer prices, turnover 

Crises are defined as situations characterized 

by a pronounced instability leading to increasing 

uncertainty. There are no fixed values that define 

an economic crisis, but recession is conventionally 

agreed that after two successive quarters when 

dealing with a lower GDP countries or regions, 

which usually decrease is accompanied by a 

decrease in individual income, reduction of 

employment, industrial production and 

consumption reduction. 

The major purpose of economic activity is 

constituted by quantitative and qualitative 

correlation of the food production with the 

consumers demand. Specific for the food products 

is highlighting the influence of consumption 

variation factors (Chiran A., et al., 2007). 

In this global agitated context, the 

companies have to learn the survival lesson and 

find their own way out of the crisis. 

The companies overcoming the economic 

crisis and having a successful comeback, are those 

with a higher adapting capacity through change. 

This means they have the capacity of responding 

quickly and effectively to a new context. 

Disregarding the market, sets in danger not only 

the recovery of the company from the crisis but 

also its survival (Pandelică Amalia, Pandelică I., 

2010). 

Economic crisis since the end of 2008, has 

affected investments in the bakery sector, 

estimated at 100 million euro for 2009. Many 

potential investors have had to resort to loans to 

make investments, a possible restriction or 

inability to obtain credit leading to bankruptcy. 

Another problem faced by the bakery 

industry, against the backdrop of economic crisis, 

is that the dealers who are granted merchandise 

credit, in the defense of problems in obtaining 

credit, they are unable to pay the freight and this 

strongly affects the sector (Oancea Olimpia, 2009). 

The bakery market value in Romania is 

estimated at 1.8 billion € in 2012 and the number 

of employees in the sector is approximately 45 000 

and this is the reason it requires careful 

monitoring. 


The paper focuses on the national bakery 

market status indicating the structural changes that 

occured in the context of economic crisis. The 

statistics were processed from National Institute of 

Statistics, EUROSTAT, European Central Bank and 

Market Access Database provided by European 

Commision. Economic results were taken from the 

balance sheet of each company in order to effectuate 

the comparison. Methods used were scientific


documentation, diagnostic analysis, analysis and 

interpretation of statistical data. 

RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS 

The economic crisis was reflected în social 

but mainly in the macroeconomic financial 

indicator like Gross Domestic Product which has 

significantly decreased in 2009 (table 1). 

GDP growth rates în Romania as a 

consequence of the crisis has decreased with 6.6% 

in 2009, with more than 2% in regard to European 

Union average, after an economic growth in 2009 of 

7.3%. 

The recovery was only recorded in 2011 

when GDP was with 2.5% greater than the level in 

226 

2010, with 1% over the European Union average. In 

Romania the bakery sector has recorded significant 

fluctuations (figure 1). 

A particularity regarding romanian bakery 

market was the fact that even if the turnover 

decreased from 1582.8 mil. € in 2008 to 1260.6 

mil. € în 2009, the number of enterprises increased 

from 4477 to 4526. 

It is clearly highlighted the change of the 

turnover curve once with crisis started. The 

economic situation has determined also a certain 

change in the consumption basket, food products 

weighting differently in the population 

consumption basket (figure 2). 

GDP growth rates în Romania, European Union and Eurozone (2006-2011) - % 

Country/ Region 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Romania 7.9 6.3 7.3 −6.6 -1.6 2.5 

European Union 3.3 3.1 0.5 −4.3 2 1.5 

Eurozone 3.3 3 0.4 −4.3 1.9 1.5 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 1 Evolution of turnover and entreprises number in the bakery sector in Romania ( 2001-2009) 

Source: own calculations using Eurostat data 

Figure 2 Evolution of consumption basket and products weight în food consumption (2010-2011) 

Source: own calculations using Eurostat data 

The unstable financial situations caused 

more careful spendings of the population and 

oriented people towards saving. The food products 

weighted in 2010 37.3% in the consumption 

basket, in 2011 slightly increasing with 0.1%. 

Regarding the structure of this percent (37%), the 

Table 1 

statistics indicate for bread a participation of 

15.55% in 2010 and of 14.71% in 2011, greater 

weight recording only meat and milk products, 

situation explained by the fact that bread is a basic 

product and consumer expenses has to cover first 

the basic needs even if price is increasing (figure

3). In comparison to the price evolution for bread 

and cereals in the European Union Romania has 

recorded an harmonized index of consumer prices 

with more than 10% greater than the average in 

2012. Imports and export of bakery products were 

also influenced by economic crisis (table 2). 

227 


The import value for bakery products both 

from/to INTRA-EU27 and EXTRA-EU27 

countries has diminished starting 2009 or recorded 

growth rate decreases, begining to slightly recover 

starting 2010 and 2011. The quantity of imports 

and exports has followed the same trend (table 3). 

Figure 3 Harmonized Indices of Consumer Prices (HICP) for bread and cereals, monthly Index, 2005=100 

Source: own calculations based using Eurostat data 

Import and export value for bread, pastry, cakes and biscuits to/from Romania (1000 EURO) 

Years Total INTRA-EU27 Total EXTRA-EU27 

Import value Export value Import value Export value 

2006 

2007 

2008 7 139.030 

2009 8 014.810 8 014.810 

2010 10 151.370 10 151.370 

2011 104 924.720 

Source: Market Access database, European Commision 

Table 2 

Table 3 

Import and export quantity for bread, pastry, cakes and biscuits to/from Romania (1000 kg) 

Total INTRA-EU27 Total EXTRA-EU27 

Year Import % to the Export % to the Import % to the Export % to the 

quantity previous year quantity previous year quantity previous year quantity previous year 

2006 20581.9 - 12922 - 2420 - 1824.1 - 

2007 35054.3 170.32 14031 108.59 5104.9 210.95 3435.9 188.36 

2008 45562.6 129.98 16499 117.59 6382.1 125.02 3394.7 98.80 

2009 45613.1 100.11 15733 95.35 5835.1 91.43 3940.1 116.07 

2010 46367.6 101.65 18370 116.76 8541.5 146.38 5549.4 140.84 

2011 54332.9 117.18 23576 128.34 14484.5 169.58 6324.2 113.96 

Source: own calculations using Access database- European Commision data 

Import quantity for bakery products grew 

only with 0.11% in 2009 related to 2008 for the 

INTRA-EU27 countries and has decreased with 

8.57% for EXTRA-EU27 countries. The exports 

diminished from 16499 to 15733 to in 2009 in 

relation to the INTRA-EU27 countries but grew 

with 16.8% for the same period relation to the 

EXTRA-EU27. 

The bread consumption in Romania (figure 

4) is 7.848 kg/person/month, being greater in the 

rural area (8.044 kg /person/month). An 

dependend variable for the bakery market is the 

wheat price (figure 5) which was the center of all 

food strategies. 

Figure 4 Monthly bread consumption in Romania 

The evolution of wheat price in Romania 

indicates two peaks, first in the first quarter of 

2008 when it reached the level of 0.84 lei/kg and


the second in the second quarter of 2011 when the 

price was 1.01 lei/kg. The fluctuations of wheat 

price has determined contantly direct changes in 

the bakery market. The main romanian bakery 

producers are VEL PITAR SA, DOBROGEA 

GRUP SA and BOROMIR PROD SA (table 4). 

228 

The economic crisis and the direct and 

indirect consequences determined a decrease in 

turnover for all three great producers in 2009 

related to 2008, only DOBROGEA GRUP SA 

recovering in 2010 with an increasing turnover of 

215279957 lei. 

Figure 5 Evolution of wheat price in Romania (2006-2012) 

Source: own calculations using data from National Institute of Statistics 

Evolution of the turnover for the main national producers of bakery products 

VEL PITAR SA DOBROGEA GRUP SA BOROMIR PROD SA 

2006 259833852 158261020 79084874 

2007 179745028 199995026 120260833 

2008 287287198 226388435 162445501 

2009 283342434 199768191 133668621 

2010 274526306 215279957 126690959 

Source: own calculations using data from annual balance sheet 

CONCLUSIONS 

Bakery market in Romania was inluenced by 

the economic crisis but less than other sectors of 

the national market. 

There are not significant change in bakery 

consumption even if the weight in the consumption 

basket has slightly changed. 

The bread consumption in Romania is by 

7.848 kg/person/month, which means an annual 

consumption of 94.176 kg/person. 

Harmonized Indices of Consumer Prices for 

bakery in Romania is much higher than the 

European Union average. 

The economic crisis has affected Romanian 

imports and exports of bakery products both in 

volume and value. 

REFERENCES 

Table 4 

Chiran A., et al., 2007 - Marketing în agricultură, Editura 

Alma Print, Galați, pp. 75-99; 

Headey D., Fan S., Reflections on the Global Food 

Crisis, The International Food Policy Research 

Institute, Washington 

Oancea Olimpia, 2009 - Marketing communication in 

the bakery industry in Romania in the context of 

current crisis, Romanian Economic and Business 

Review – Vol. 4, No. 3, Bucharest, Pitești, 

pp.159-164 

Pandelică Amalia, Pandelică I., 2010- The psichology 

behind the economic crisis, Scientific Bulletin – 

Economic Sciences, Vol. 9 (15), Management 

and Business Administration, pp.131-138 

Sîrbu Alexandrina, 2009 - Merceologie alimentară. 

Pâinea și alte produse de panificație. Editura 

Agir, București; 

Market Access database, European Commision, 

http://madb.europa.eu 

Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu 

European Central Bank Statistics, 

http://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/ 

National Institute of Statistics, http://www.insse.ro

229 


ASPECTS REGARDING THE PROMOTION OF FRUIT, 

VEGETABLES AND FRUIT AND VEGETABLES PRODUCTS IN ROMANIA 

Abstract 

Mădălina Oana VASILIU 1 

e-mail: vasiliu_madalina@yahoo.com 

The horticultural products exploitation field of study is the taking over, keeping fresh and processing of the vegetables, 

fruits and other similar products. The valorification of fruits has economical, social (employment, diversification of 

industrial activities) and alimentary importance. The study of fruit growing Romanian, European and global markets, as 

well as the study of the ways of promotions used is an extremly complex activity that requires a very well structured, 

continuous and great amount of work. This fruit market research constantly pursues the production capacities and the 

exploitation manner of fruit products. This way the farmers are no longer seen as suppliers of raw materials but as 

necessary, but not central, elements of a very complex circuit. Fruit products market is a mature market, permanently 

and strongly affected by the favorable or unfavorable developments in demand, by permanently changing consumers 

needs, by competition and by the evolution of the promotion techniques and methods. Fruit products market is 

influenced both by its specific factors, as well as by general ones, with reference to socio-political groups. 

Key words: fruit and vegetable products, fruit and vegetable industry, return on investment, promotion strategies 

The study of Romanian, European and 

global wine market as well as the research 

regarding the promotion ways used in the industry 

involve a very well structured, continuous and 

complex work, that constanly tracks the production 

capacity and manner of sale of fruit products. The 

agricultural producers are no longer seen as raw 

material suppliers, but as compulsory parts of a 

complex circuit. 

Fruit market is a mature one, strongly and 

permanently affected by favourable or 

unfavourable developments in demand, by 

consumers need that are continously changing, by 

competition as well as by technology development 

and promotion methods. 


The studies have been made during 2007 and 

2011, using as sources of information literature from 

Romania and foreign sources, as well as the Internet 

as a tool of comparison and of real time search 

results. 

The study aimed at collecting statistical data 

regarding the current consumption situation, recovery 

and promotion of fruit, vegetables and fruit and 

vegetable products in Romania. 

1 University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi, Romania 


Trees and shrubs fruits are indispensable in 

maintaining body health food ratio. They contain 

sucrose, glucose, fructose, protein, free organic 

acids, pectic substances, tanoide, based minerals K, 

Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, Al, S, P, Si, Cl, B, Cu, etc.. , 80- 

85% water, essential oils, vitamins and amino 

acids. A very important norurishmental role is 

played by products derived from fruit processing 

such as marmalade, stewed fruit, juices, syrups, 

fermented beverages (cider) r), alcohol (cherry, 

blueberry), and dry fruits 

In terms of fruit market (in our country), for 

a clear set of knowledge there are certain aspects 

that should be taken into consideration: 

The great variety of products that provides 

diversified consumption, but also the 

impossibility of achieving production within the 

same geographical area; 

The level of very different seasonality for 

different product groups, resulting un uneven 

supply, seasonal demands while the forms of the 

demand are continuously changing; 

The high degree of seasonality which requires 

operative product quantity management 

according to consumer’s demand; 

Due to suitability demand, producers (bidders) 

provide fruits and vegetables out of the season


also, but as frozen or canned fruits/vegetables, 

juices and so on; 

The zonality of fruit production alongside the 

existence of a weak trading system determines a 

high level of self-consumption; 

The high level of perishability requires decision 

making in order to develop operational programs 

on the timing and regularity of supply, 

depending on consumer demand; 

High consumption of inputs; 

On family farms lack of accounting, even 

primary one, hinders value appreciation of the 

sold production; 

Fruits have various destinations, such as: fresh 

consumption, previous storage, industrialization, 

export and so on; 

The parallel existence of peasant markets 

alongside state owned or privately held trade 

companies markets; 

Fruits market is mainly disorganized, unhygienic 

and unprofitable; 

The failure of practicing a fiscal policy, suitable 

for individual private producers (due to 

difficulties encountered by tax base instability). 

230 

Producers organizations represent the main 

players of common organization of fruits and 

vegetables markets, whose role is to focus the offer 

and to adapt it to market demand. This way the 

producers organizations act in the interest of their 

members. 

The national strategy of Romania related to 

operational programs in fruits and vegetable sector 

is defined on a 5 years period, starting January 

2009. 

In 2011 the fruit growing area (fruit 

orchards) was 155,6 thousand hectares and total 

fruit production was of 1475,3 thousands tones 

(total production of orchards plus kitchen gardens) 

(table 1) 

Annual consumption of fruits and vegetables 

per capita in Romania is around 70-80 kilos, while 

the European average goes up to 90-100 kilos. 

From the total surface of 14.7 million 

hectares that was estimated in July 2011, 218.000 

hectares are vineyards and 206.000 hectares are 

orchards and nurseries (1.4%). 

Data on area development and production 

Specs UM 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Surfaces 

Thousand 

hectares 

206 207 205 198.6 155.6 

Total Production Thousand tones 1085.8 1179.2 1323 1419.6 1475.3 

In Romania the fruit consumption level is 

lower than the European level, due to the following 

aspects (figure 1) 

The self-consumption of fruits stands at over 

30% of the yields obtained by individual 

producers; 

The practice of fruits growing on small areas by 

the individual producers that own 83% of the 

area cultivated with vegetables and fruits; 

Individual producers have limited financial and 

material resources, as well as poor mechanical 

equipment, that lead to lower productivity and 

productive potential of land; 

Lack of raw materials for fruit processing 

industry is the main reason why it works at 45% 

of its production capacity, which has 

repercussions on the whole fruit production and 

on individual fruit production. 

Fruit trade in Romania is still disorganized, 

unprofitable, unhygienic and poor (in certain 

areas), mainly due to the congestion of the state 

sector and due to the incapacity of the private 

sector to ensure the entire demand of such 

products. 

Table 1 

Related to fruits and vegetables promotion 

and the promotion of fruits and vegetables 

products, the usage of techniques to promote ease 

the correct placement of a certain fruits of fruits 

products distributors on market. The result to this 

is an optimal recovery of products plus a very good 

representation of the specific company on the 

market. 

Marketing strategy must be adapted to 

market and to the economic and social 

environment, to the technological changes. There 

must be respected a very well defined and 

documented plan of the marketing campaigns. 

The EU is an ally in developing time 

scalable marketing strategies. The budgets for 

these campaigns are also offered by the EU.

Figure 1 Scheme of fruits and vegetables chain 

This way the fresh fruits and vegetables 

producers can benefit from the decision taken by 

the EU comission the 24 of April 2010, that 

distributes aid between member states through the 

School fruit consumption program. The program 

lasts between the 1 st of August 2010 and the 31 of 

July 2011. 

Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Hungary, Italy, 

Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia 

have already communicated the commission their 

desire to participate in the EU program as well as 

to use more than the initial allocation of aid. 

Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia, 

France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, 

Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, 

Spain and the United Kingdom have also 

communicated their desire to participate in the 

program, but using the allocated resources only 

(table 2). 

Strategies to promote fruit products: 

reflect business relations with different agents; 

give an insight of the dynamic business position 

/ structure / changes / requirements and the 

market competition; 

take into account the trading systems used by the 

company. 

There are several types of strategies to 

promote fruit and food products in general: 

Mass marketing strategy(undifferentiated); 

Focused marketing strategy (differentiated); 

Offensive strategy; 

Defensive strategy; 

Self promotion strategy; 

Promotion through specialized agencies 

strategy; 

Price competitiveness strategy; 

Without price influence competitiveness 

strategy. 

231 


Table 2 

Final allocation of aid by Member State 

State 

co-financing rate 

% 

EUR 

Belgium 50 1782 500 

Bulgaria 75 2796 889 

Czech Republic 73 1988 100 

Denmark 50 2482 414 

Germany 52 9 973598 

Estonia 75 282 400 

Ireland 50 512 507 

Greece 59 1861 300 

Spain 59 6111 471 

France 51 5600 000 

Italy 58 20940 147 

Cyprus 50 384 476 

Latvia 75 450 100 

Lithuania 75 861 300 

Luxembourg 50 175 000 

Hungary 69 4 199 256 

Malta 75 277 604 

Netherlands 50 2100 000 

Austria 50 1300 000 

Poland 75 9 222 800 

Portugal 68 2872 320 

Romania 75 9 659 220 

Slovenia 75 464 193 

Slovakia 73 2502 403 

Finland 50 - 

Sweden 50 - 

United Kingdom 51 1200 000 

UE 27 58 90 000 00 

Common mistakes in marketing strategies 

are: 

Repeat the strategy from previous years without 

updating it to the new condition; 

The venture into the unknown by applying 

completely new solutions. 

Successful strategies are those which 

determine the market opportunities and 

competitive advantage, based on the results of 

marketing control. These strategies reveal risks, 

favorable circumstances, strengths and weaknesses 

of the organization. 

By translating them into practice it leads to 

needing to be created such a relationship system 

between enterprise and environment to ensure its 

placement in a good position when dealing with 

competitors. 

A successful strategy marks a defining 

period in the life of the company. This reflects the 

fact that there have been adopted the best decisions 

regarding the consumer and the ways in which his 

needs are met. 

Such a strategy indicates the essential aim 

on a certain period of time, the plan that will be 

used to accomplish these purposes and the answers 

to the fundamental questions: 

What needs to be produced and what products 

will be introduced in manufacturing;


Which is the market share that needs to be 

targeted by each product; 

Up to what level can the prices level grow; 

What needs to be communicated to the market 

segment; 

Which is the best distribution channel for a 

certain product. 

CONCLUSIONS 

EU Agriculture Ministers agreed in June 

2007 to reform the CMO for the fruits and 

vegetables sector. The sector policy must meet 

market requirements by reducing price fluctuations 

and the imbalance between supply and demand and 

to encourage the fruits and vegetables consumption 

while ensuring the competitiveness of products. 

In order to encourage the sale of fruit and 

vegetables a structured approach to promoting is 

needed. Promotion of fruit and vegetables has a 

lasting impact on consumption and is one of 

important measures that producer organizations 

must achieve. 

232 

Promoting the consumption of fresh fruit 

should be a national consumer campaign while 

derived products and wine products may take the 

brand campaign level depending on the target 

audience. 

REFERENCES 

Chiran A.,Dima F.M.,Gindu Elena, 2007 - Marketing în 

agricultură Editura Alma Print, Galați; 

Constantin M., Chiran A.,Gindu Elena, 2009 – 

Marketingul producţiei agroalimentare, Editura 

AgroTehnica, Bucureşti; 

Istudor N., 1996 - Marketingul Legumelor si Fructelor, 

Tribuna economică, nr.1-5; 

Kotler Ph., 1999 – Marketing Principles , Editura Teora, 

Bucureşti; 

Oprean Victoria, Oprean D., 1991 – Strategii 

alternative de marketing. Rev. Tribuna 

economică, nr. 13 

*** Strategia naţională pentru programele operaţionale 

în sectorul de fructe şi legumewww.madr.ro

Abstract 

233 


ROMANIA’S INNOVATION CULTURE: THE QUEST FOR THE 

DEPENDENT VARIABLE 

1 Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania 

Sabina Cristiana NECULA 1 

e-mail: sabina.mihalache@feaa.uaic.ro 

The present paper treats the problem of innovation culture. We try to identify the main variables that influence the 

innovation culture. We make use of current data available in the research field by appeal to the literature and concrete 

data from European Union report data. We are putting the focus on Romania and we are trying to discuss the historical, 

the geographical, and the economical premises that determine these variables. We discuss about entrepreneurial 

activities, public sector investments in research and development, the appetite for risk, uncertainty avoidance, the taste 

for wisdom and mediocrity. We treat also the problem of an historical horizontal shape of Romania’s destiny, full of 

compromises in the present, with lack of specialized culture. After this we discuss historical-political factors by 

appealing the subject of collectivism versus individualism and we stress the fact that although for our country it is best 

suited the spirit of collectivism and we were even put in our history to live in collectivism the gene of our country is an 

individualist one with no antrepreneurial spirit. We conclude the present paper by identifying a possible model of 

variables that we consider they influence our innovation culture. 

Key words: innovation culture, Romania’s innovation culture, R&D, saeculum 

The starting point for this paper is the quest 

for the dependent variable of Romania’s 

innovation culture. We try to identify the main 

reasons, or otherwise saying the main variables 

that influences what we will try to define as 

innovation culture and its meaning for Romania. If 

there is alot of evidence by which someone can 

admit that the taste for entrepreneurship, the will 

for making business and assuming risk is very low 

in Romania one can argue that Romania has a great 

potential in being innovative. 

We have alot of references which states that 

Romania’s culture is a minor one (Cioran, 1990, 

Patapievici 2007). In this country every gesture, 

every action, and every attitude is an absolute 

beginning. There are no constancies, rules or 

directives. No one is preceding us, no one is 

encourages us, and no one is helping us (Cioran, 

1990). 

The formal shape of our destiny is an 

horizontal one. We have not lived our gothic spirit. 

We suffer from: passivity, skepticism, self 

contempt, gentle contemplation, minor religiosity, 

un-history, and wisdom. We have a past full of 

humiliations and a present full of compromises. 

A people which has no political spirit misses 

the way to the nation and a structural change based 

on collective orientation is necessary. 

The Romanians love changing to one 

hundredth and eighty degrees, meaning the 

inconstancy in the process of things. 

Imitation is mandatory for cultural progress, 

but the imitation must happen by taking into 

consideration the saeculum (Lovinescu, 1923- 

1926). But the problem remains in identifying the 

main characteristics of this saeculum. Could it be 

the technological progress? Or maybe 

globalisation? Or perhapse the simple mediocrity? 

We will discuss in the next section the main 

method and material used for this paper. In the 

second section we will discuss the main results. In 

the end of the paper we will draw some plausible 

conclusions. 

METHOD AND MATERIAL 

Our research method is a calitative one. We 

will identify some qualitative factors that we think they 

influence the innovation culture. The material used is 

based on empirical data and facts about Romania’s 

innovation policies, innovation key indicators, and 

innovation cuture. The proposed research model is 

presented here therefore (figure 1).


Factors derived from global 

versus local development 

Specialization of culture 

Psychological factors 

Appetite for risk 

Skepticism and wisdom 

Political factors 

Collectivism/ individualism 

Mediocrity 


Innovation culture is to be understood in 

terms of attitudes towards innovation, technology, 

exchange of knowledge, entrepreneurial activities, 

business, uncertainty (Hofstede 2001), and related 

behaviour and historical trajectories. 

Herbig and Dunphy (1998) define culture, 

Hofstede presents a more definite and less flexible 

conception of culture, Brons (2006) looks into 

different definitions of culture but all conclude that 

culture is a sum of values and beliefs that 

distinguishes people of one nationality to another. 

Hofstede has a model of national culture with four 

dimensions: power distance, individualism, 

masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term 

orientation. 

The concept of „culture of innovation” is 

often overlaped with the concept of „business 

culture” with all the meanings that one can draw 

from that. 

But there are other considerents to take: 

„most people work in hope of reward” no matter 

the taste for risk of the nation to which they 

belong, religion is an important considerent in 

discussing the concept of innovation culture, and 

even the taste for skeptisicm and wisdom is an 

important factor. 

What about Romania? We have a history of 

resistance, one of deffending our teritory, to treat 

our political co-regional neighbours with 

extremely carrefull and wisdom policies, with 

compromises and we are known to be different in 

this part of the Balcan region. 

Facts supporting the factors derived from 

political spectrum 

At present, Romania does not have a 

National Innovation Strategy to define clear 

innovation policies and priorities. Therefore, 

innovation policies are addressed in some of the 

programmes of the 2007-2013 National RDI Plan. 

Figure 1 The research model 

234 

Innovation culture 

Public procurement for innovation and precommercial 

public procurement do not exist in 

Romania. 

The connection research-developmentinnovation-standardization 

is poorly developed. 

Lead market initiatives are very incipient in 

Romania. 

Support to open innovation and usercentered 

innovation are not developed. 

These facts conclude the main idea that our 

innovation culture is not a specialized one and it is 

only derived from a general framework. 

The main recommendations concerning 

research-development-innovation (RDI) policies 

that we consider necessary are: 

1. Strengthening the performance of the RDI 

system and its capacity to meet socio-economic 

needs 

2. Stimulating private RDI investment 

3. Developing the European dimension of RDI 

policies and programmes 

Evidence on effectiveness of innovation 

policy: 

- Poor policy prioritization 

- Strong disconnect between the science system 

and the production system 

- Mismatch between the allocation of RDI funds 

and the areas of national comparative advantage 

- Fragmentation and large number of public R&D 

institutes in a wide range of scientific fields and 

sub-optimal allocation of resources 

- Limited implementation oversight 

- Unpredictable budgeting given the fiscal crisis 

and uneven patterns of funding 

- Rigid budgeting and human resource 

management rules 

- Frequent changes in personnel 

- Weak incentives for performance 

- A confused legal framework and a plethora of 

actors with unclear coordination roles

- Competing for budget resources having different 

institutional priorities 

- A heavy concentration of funding in the early 

stage of the innovation value chain was 

identified, while the later stages (product 

development and product launch) are severly 

under-funded and largely ignored by the 

government. 

The Word bank’s Functional Review 

provides four main recommendations: 

1. Strengthen the governance of the RDI system 

2. Strengthen the performance of R&D activities 

within the public sector itself 

3. Accelerate the translation of R&D into 

innovation in the private sector 

4. Increase the level of private sector R&D 

The national strategy should focus on 

innovation investment. Because people perform 

innovation, all stakeholders in improving 

innovation need to focus on creating innovators. 

Developing new generations of talent takes time, 

as does regenerating our innovation pipeline that 

started to become less fit in the mid-1990. The path 

to return us to our innovation economy requires 

long sustained investments that support iterative 

innovation and create innovators as we 

concomitantly downsize inefficient government 

expenditures. 

The growth in R&D relative to economic 

output after World War II, and especially in the 

1980s, can be attributed to a number of important 

changes. The transition to a “knowledge-based 

economy” (OECD, 1999) or to “knowledgesocieties” 

(Mansell et al. , 1998) is a widely 

accepted phenomenon in developed countries, and 

has become a target for developing and transitional 

economies. The growth in R&D intensity is often 

cited as one of the indicators of the emerging 

knowledge economy, but additional indicators, 

independent of R&D, also point in the same 

direction. There has been an increase in the 

knowledge content of production, especially in the 

developed economies, over time, skills have 

become more important in production and 

education levels have risen. Industries with a 

strong science base, such as chemicals, 

pharmaceuticals, electronics and aerospace, have 

grown in relative importance while other 

industries, such as automobile production, have 

incorporated more science-based elements. For 

example, computerized components have become 

prevalent in new automobiles. Thus, many 

economies have experienced a tendency for the 

portion of value added related to skills and 

knowledge applications to rise. And this implies a 

need for more R&D to pursue further advances in 

knowledge. 

235 


Facts supporting the factors derived from 

global versus local development 

Romania is the second smallest among the 

member countries of the European Union 

regarding research and development spending 

show the European statistics office, Eurostat. 

The latest European Innovation Scoreboard 

presents Romania as one of the modest innovators 

with a below average performance (http://www. 

proinno-europe.eu/inno-metrics/ page/romania). 

Relative strengths are in Finance and 

support and Outputs. Relative weaknesses are in 

Open, excellent and attractive research systems, 

Linkages & entrepreneurship, Intellectual assets 

and Innovators. 

High growth is observed for Public R&D 

expenditure, Community trademarks and 

Community designs. A strong decline is observed 

for Non-EU doctorate students. Growth 

performance in Finance and support and 

Intellectual assets is above average. In the other 

dimensions it is below average. 

The performance of Bulgaria, Latvia, 

Lithuania and Romania is well below that of the 

EU27. These countries are Modest innovators. 

Bulgaria and Romania are the growth 

leaders of the Modest innovators. We present the 

average annual growth in innovation performance 

(figure 2). The performance of the four country 

groups across the different dimensions is shown 

bellow (figure 3). The annual average growth per 

indicator and average country growth is presented 

bellow (figure 4). 

Important measures to consider: 

- A better prioritization of RDI themes in close 

connection with the areas of national 

comparative advantage 

- Increasing the RDI capacity of Romanian 

enterprises (both SMEs and large firms) 

- Introducing an innovation culture in the 

economy 

- Better support to and monitoring of innovative 

and high-growth firms 

- Better support for entrepreneurship 

- Improved technology transfer infrastructure and 

qualified personnel in universities. 

Facts supporting the psichological factors 

From the data available and presented above 

anyone can draw a simple conclusion: Romania 

has alot of potential but her taste for skepticism 

and her appetite for wisdom are some 

psichological factors that influence what is called 

national culture. 

The only important measure to consider here 

is focusing on a culture of innovation at the 

individual level of citizen.


Figure 2 Average annual growth in innovation performance 

Source: http://www.proinno-europe.eu/inno-metrics/page/romania 

Figure 3 Country groups: innovation performance per dimension 


236

237 


Figure 4 Annual average growth per indicator and average country growth 


CONCLUSIONS 

Culture is learned. For a person this means 

education and for a nation this means adaptation to 

continual changes derived from the economical 

and geo-political medium. The main conclusions 

that can be drawn are that the investment in 

education, in R&D, in thinking a general 

framework for long-term for innovation policies 

could be the main considerents in supporting a 

nation’s innovation culture. The title of our paper 

poses a question, which has to be answered. 

We have learned that there is a reliable link 

between cultural dimensions and innovation 

policies. However, although culture undoubtedly 

plays an important role in innovation policies 

development, it should be stressed that the 

relationship is not straightforward and culture is 

not a sufficient factor for getting a notable outcome 

in having good innovation policies, indicating the 

need for further analysis. 

We have found that to be successful in 

innovation culture, a nation should have lower than 

average the level of skepticism, the appetite for 

risk. The relationship is a direct on with an inverse 

effect. Also, we have learned that we need a better 

specialization of culture. We have alot of general 

specializations and to be sincere we have alot of 

general in everything. 

The third level of factors indicated that our 

historical premises show us as being individualists 

with some anarhic influences but we liked to live 

in collectivism due to our low appetite for risk. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

This work was supported by the project "Post- 

Doctoral Studies in Economics: training program for elite 

researchers - SPODE" co-funded from the European 


Resources Operaţional Programme 2007-2013, contract 

no. POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61755.) 

REFERENCES 

Brons, L., 2006 - Indirect measurement of regional 

culture in the Netherlands, 97(5): 547-566 

Cioran, E., 1990 – Schimbarea la faţă a României, 

Editura Humanitas, 1990 

Lovinescu, E., Istoria civilizaţiei române moderne, 

1923-1926 (reeditare, Editura Minerva, 1992; 

1997) 

Herbig, P., Dunphy, S, 1998 – Culture and Innovation, 

in Cross Cultural Management: an International 

Journal, 5(4): 13-21 

Hofstede, G., 2001 – Culture’s consequences – 

comparing values, behaviors, institutions and 

organizations across nations, London: sage 

Publications


238

239 


PROCESS INNOVATION IN THE ROMANIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. 

OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Abstract 

1 „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iasi, Romania 

Daniela POPESCUL 1 

e-mail: rdaniela@uaic.ro 

This paper aims to analyze the degree of innovation of processes in the Romanian local public administration. In a first 

instance, we have mirrored, on the one hand, the positive connotation unanimously credited to innovation (summarized 

by the truism “innovation generates progress, economic growth and a better quality of life”) and, on the other hand, the 

blames of bureaucracy and enclosure traditionally addressed to local public agencies (normally regarded as noninnovator). 

Starting from this apparent set, we have analyzed the modification the information and communication 

technologies brought to the 41 city halls which are now present virtually. We have also noticed changes facilitated by 

the internet and web technologies regarding the payment of taxes and duties, filling in forms, booking services 

(marriages, public hearings, etc.), the delivery of information, and the relationship with citizens. Finally, according to 

this information, we have come to several conclusions and recommendations in order to increase process innovation in 

local administration. 

Key words: process innovation, public administration, interaction between public administration and citizens 

As we have detailed in Popescul (2011), the 

connotation credited to innovation, both at the 

organisational and at national or global levels, is 

imperatively positive. In the terms used by 

Sánchez and Rodríguez (2009, p. 384), „it has 

become a compulsory reference both in the 

economic analysis manuals and for the justification 

of different public policy actions promoting 

innovation and research, the positive effects on the 

economic growth and development of companies 

(income increase, new improved products 

enhancing the quality of life, a greater sensitivity 

to these products, etc.) and to the increase of the 

quality of life.” The authors observe that the Green 

Paper was the first underlying the social trait of 

innovation (seen as a mechanism expressing 

creativity and necessities correlated to the most 

important current issues and which should mostly 

allow us improve the living conditions and 

determined a sustained development) citing 

Mokyr (1990) for the support of their statements, 

according to whom innovation increases the total 

volume of knowledge belonging to society and, 

implicitly, its productive capacity (quantitative and 

qualitative) i.e., the economic growth and its 

capacity to regenerate well-being. Du Plessis 

(2007) draws the attention on the increasing 

complexity of innovation seen as a phenomenon 

which changed the actual nature of economic 

growth as well as on the race for novelty which 

seems to be one of the constant elements of the 

contemporary economic life. The positive impact 

of innovation on the economic growth of a nation 

or region (or on the competitive benefit, the market 

share or dimensions of the organisation), the 

complexity and the rhythm of innovation processes 

are considered by Markatou (2011) to be the 

reasons why scientific papers and articles 

belonging to the general business media on this 

subject are so abundant. Sententiously and 

truistically, Dumitrachi et.al. (2006, p. 39) states 

that „innovation is one of the main factors leading 

to economic well-being”, while Page (2012, EG), 

bringing into discussion the Solow model, 

demonstrates even that no economic growth could 

be possible without innovation. Dayer, Gregersen 

and Christensen (2011, p. 1) talk about innovation 

as being the blood flow of global economy, the 

power which radically change industries and 

generate well being. A measurable proof of the 

positive impact of innovation on various levels is 

brought by a study undertaken by General Electric 

in 2011 (GE, 2011), where they interviewed 1000 

top managers from 12 countries, all of them being 

involved in innovation, showing, almost 

unanimously, that innovation is considered to be 

the hope for a more prosperous and competitive


economy, more new jobs and for enhancing 

people’s lives, in general. 

The above observations usually stand for the 

private sector and specially refer to product 

innovation. While discussing about processes in 

local public administration, we can observe a 

certain ideological stiffness identified by Brătianu 

(2011, pp. 521-524) as an „innovation killer”, by 

excessive bureaucracy and are generally seen as 

non-innovator. The author shows that innovation 

and knowledge creation have been systematically 

discouraged during the socialist period, and then 

the only admitted source of knowledge and new 

ideas was the communist party. As a consequence 

of the lack of competitiveness in the centralized 

economic system, the employees were not 

encouraged to involve in innovator activities. This 

continues, inertial and residually, even today. In 

the same study the cited author notices that 

bureaucracy has achieved clearly negative 

connotations due to its application without limits 

during the communist period. Its excessive rules 

were implemented to support control and the 

resulting structures, hardened especially in the 

public administration and still persisting, kill any 

interest for innovation, change or new knowledge. 

The inherited hierarchies, where the advantages 

were directly proportional with the occupied 

position still generate, even today, corruption and 

underground rewarding systems, far from 

meritocracy, and discourage innovation. Adding to 

all those traits identified above the absence of 

financing, linear thinking, mechanical patterns 

based on cause-effect (which discourage 

innovation, creativity, diversity of opinions), the 

lack of cooperation between organisations, the lack 

of spaces for sharing experiences and the 

insufficient resources (especially human), we can 

design a less happy picture of the Romanian public 

administration. 

To reconciliate the two sets of opposing 

opinions, we tried to identify the way the 

traditional processes regarding the interaction of 

citizens with the city halls have modified as a 

consequence of their presence in the virtual space, 

through internet, itself a radical innovation, which 

substantially changed our lives as well as by Web 

technologies. 


In April 2012, we developed, by means of 

direct observation, a study for the 41 websites 

belonging to the city halls (including Bucharest City 

Hall). The importance of the analyzed websites derive 

from the fact that they address, directly or indirectly, 

to approximately 7.872.986 inhabitants of the urban 

area („indirectly‖ because the data taken from the 

240 

National Statistics Institute website also include 

children), who represent 37% of the total Romanian 

population. In this study we wanted to reveal the 

types of activities traditionally offered by the city hall 

which have been opened to the public by means of 

their websites, the form of presenting the information 

necessary to the public, as well as to identify the 

means of real-time interaction with citizens, and the 

level of representation of city halls in Web 2.0. 

Furthermore, we will present the main findings of the 

study. 


The main processes “renewed” by their 

“movement” into the virtual environment of the 

city halls are the following: 

Payment transactions of debts to the local public 

administration; 

Filling in forms; 

Searching for documents (functioning 

certificates, of taxi companies etc.); 

Booking city hall services (hearings, marriages 

etc.); 

Information delivery; 

Discussing with citizens. 

With reference to the payment of local 

taxes and duties, we have noticed that the 

payment at the counter is replaced, partially or 

totally, by the electronic payment. The forms vary 

from very basic ones (loading the scanned payment 

document issued by a bank on the website of the 

city hall) to those which are largely accepted in the 

business area – card payment or electronic 

payment. The main types of virtual payment offices 

for local taxes and duties are the following: 

1. Joining the Online Banking Payment 

National System (www.ghiseul.ro). This form is 

more common in 50% of the analyzed city halls 

(having to mention that some of them, on the date 

when the website was accessed, did not show on 

their website the possibility of payment through 

ghiseul.ro, the data being collected directly from 

this website). Some city halls also use their “old” 

application, which we appreciate as being positive 

in terms of comfort for the citizen who is already 

familiar with it; 

2. Applications developed by their own 

resources with different forms – E-clerks with 

structured menus, which help the user get informed 

on the activity of the city hall and be able to access 

links for payments, other applications with varied 

structures, where the authentication is either 

performed through the personal numerical code 

(for citizens) or the registration code (for 

companies), or with an account and a password 

requested online or in person, at the counter of the

agency. Applications can be found on 34% of the 

websites. 

In few cases (17%), electronic payment 

applications either do not exist or are not 

functional. 

Figure 1 Forms of virtual offices for tax and duties 

payment (2012, in the city halls, municipal city 

residences) 

Downloading scanned forms in PDF or MS 

Word is very popular on most of the visited 

websites, with only one exception (Miercurea Ciuc 

City Hall, www.szereda.ro). The offered forms are 

different from one city hall to another and the role 

of posting them is to minimise the time lost at the 

counter – the time is decreased through the simple 

completion of the form after printing it from the 

website. We appreciate that this is not the best 

way, as long as citizens still use their pens to fill in 

the printed forms, take the document to the city 

hall or scan it and send it by email, and, obviously, 

the data will be processed by a clerk into the 

information system of the city hall. 

Online searches for all types of documents 

(usually for previously filled certificates or 

requests) are present on at least 30% on the 

analysed websites and perfectly substitutes, on our 

opinion, a phone conversation of citizens with the 

city hall or a visit to the city hall. 

The reservations for hearings, marriages, 

documents etc. are present on at least 21% of 

websites, and the online petitions can be found on 

approximately 10%. 

The great majority of information is 

offered as hypertext, being accessible by means of 

structured menus differing from one website to the 

other. The information is varied and sufficient, 

updated and presented in an attractive manner. A 

good merit should also be granted to the photo 

galleries, with representative images of the city. 

The video information is offered only by 20% of 

the websites, and one city hall (Târgu Mureş) 

manages its own YouTube channel. The live 

broadcasting web cams are to be found on 

241 


approximately 30% of the websites, digital 

interactive maps on 70% of the analysed websites. 

Forms of virtual interaction with citizens 

on the analysed websites are: 

Forums, in 34% of cases. Unfortunately, not all 

forums are well maintained and part of them are 

not updated (in the sense that citizens didn’t not 

receive answers to their questions from the 

official representatives but from ... other 

citizens) and the spam are many; 

Suggestions and complaints pages which can be 

filled online; 

Messaging, either directly to the site or by email 

(all websites offer an email address at contact, in 

the diagram in figure 2 the area „Email 

messages” refers to those websites having this 

modality as the only method of interaction); 

Connexion to www.domnuleprimar.ro, website, 

which is a place for dialogue with the mayors of 

any registered city hall. 

The scales we calculated for the above types 

of interaction of citizens with the mayors are 

visible in figure 2. 

Figure 2 Virtual interaction with citizens (2012, 

municipal city residences) 

Analysing the website of several city halls 

we have noticed they actually lack on Web 2.0 

specific social networks (like Facebook, Twitter, 

You Tube, blogs etc.) – which is also visible in 

figure 3. 

Taking for example Facebook, one of the 

most popular social networking platforms and 

analysing the pages of those city halls present on 

this environment (identified as “X city hall” or 

“The city Hall of municipal X”, not to create 

confusions with the pages of cities), we obtained 

data partially confirming the observations on the 

websites of the city halls, in the sense that the 

official Facebook pages are appreciated whenever 

some clerk has a job task to update it. The rest of 

pages were either automatically created, as a 

consequence of an employment post from the 

employees, Facebook users, and received random


likes (having no content) or as individual pages, 

inaccessible without the prior consent of the owner 

or without being updates and far from being an 

official page of a public agency, from our opinion. 

Figure 3 Presence of analysed city hall in Web 2.0 

(2012, municipal city residences) 

Table 1 

Discrepancy between the number of inhabitants 

served and the number of ‚likes’ received online by 

the city halls on Facebook 

City Hall Inhabitants Likes Percentage* 

Oradea 204880 1431 0.70% 

Deva 76765 541 0.70% 

Reşiţa 94580 446 0.47% 

Râmnicu Vâlcea 118539 216 0.18% 

Bucureşti 1944451 100 0.01% 

Bacău 175867 74 0.04% 

Bistriţa 84630 55 0.06% 

Constanţa 301951 55 0.02% 

Alba Iulia 68450 46 0.07% 

Piteşti 167017 35 0.02% 

*the percentage of inhabitants pressing the ‚Like’ button 

on the Facebook page of the city hall 

There is a huge discrepancy between the 

number of inhabitants served by the city halls and 

the number of “Likes” on the Facebook page of the 

city hall (see Table 1, where we showed the 

information on pages with at least 10 “Likes”) 

which is relevant. In our opinion, public 

administration agencies should consider the 

openness towards the citizens also in these 

environments, currently more and more popular, 

and extremely visited especially by younger users. 

The web pages belonging to the analyzed 

city halls have also shown other services offered to 

users – such as survey questionnaires, blogs, online 

media (adaptable to mobile devices, in Timisoara), 

virtual tours, etc. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Following the observations gathered from 

the website of the 41 city halls, we have the 

following conclusions and recommendations: 

1. We can talk about innovation within the 

interaction with citizens due to the movement of 

242 

city halls towards the virtual environment. 

Innovation is incremental, in our opinion, in the 

sense that it does not decisively, radically modify 

the activity of city halls, but enhances citizens’ 

comfort enabling them to undertake several 

activities from home, with a minimum time due to 

the internet; 

2. Some city halls are more innovative that 

others. Our intuition is, as in the Romanian saying 

“a good farmer makes a good farm”, the difference 

lies between the human qualities of the employees 

of the city hall. In order to improve the innovation 

capacity of the agency, the city hall leadership 

shall cultivate associative thinking, permanent 

interaction with people, things, information, 

unprejudiced observation of the surrounding world, 

asking questions and finding answers destroying 

patterns, the “local optima” in problem solving – 

together, these traits form what Dayer, Gregersen 

and Christensen (2011) call the innovator’s DNA. 

In order to achieve this, the city wall working 

environment should be relaxed, allowing the 

employees to be curious and open to novelty. The 

calculated chaos is a good solution – creative ideas 

come to the light when people are encouraged to 

think differently, to have a different approach and 

make changes; 

3. The city halls seem not to collaborate and 

share new means of interaction with citizens. The 

possible explanation probably lies in the noncompetitive 

environment where they function. 

Although there have been some very interesting 

initiatives (online media adapted for mobile 

devices, their own YouTube channel, etc.), they 

are completely isolated. The unanimously adopted 

solutions are simple and ineffective, such as 

scanning the documents and upload them as PDF – 

although a cheap and simple alternative, such as 

loading MS Word documents followed by the 

export of the data filled in towards a database, 

fails to be used. Innovation and using new 

technologies do not depend only on individual 

factors but also on the interaction and synergy of 

various factors while innovator activities require an 

innovator environment needing to mutually share 

staff, scientific and technological knowledge 

specialized services and innovator stimuli. Both 

organisationally and nationally, a co-operative and 

collaborative culture is an absolute must for the 

transfer of knowledge between individuals and 

groups. Without the right mechanisms encouraging 

cooperation, the structured or technological 

interventions of knowledge transfer may be not 

functional; 

4. The city halls are not visible enough on 

Web 2.0. We recommend that the environments of 

this type shall not be ignored (according to the

newest estimations, Facebook includes over 7,5 

millions Romanians!). In Web 2.0, the 

environment itself may remodel and renew the 

message, making it attractive in form for a certain 

target audience never addressed before. 

The success and progress recipe to improve 

the relationship with citizens by means of websites 

include, we believe, a correct financing, a 

sustained, coherent and steadfast management of 

innovation, partnerships with other similar 

agencies and with the public sector. The constant 

intensification of these parameters may lead to the 

transformation of city halls from isolated island to 

network hubs of free transferable knowledge 

generating, by division, innovations supporting the 

public sector. 


This work was supported by the project ―Post- 

Doctoral Studies in Economics: training program for elite 

researchers – SPODE‖ co-funded from the European 


Resources Operational Programme 2007-2013, contract 

no. POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61755. 

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Brătianu, C., 2011 - Barriers in Innovation and 

Knowledge Management in the Romanian 

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No. 4, pp. 515-528. 

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Dayer, J., Gregersen, H., Christensen, C., 2011 - The 

Innovator’s DNA. Mastering the Five Skills of 

Disruptive Innovators, Harvard Business Review 

Press, Boston, Massachusetts. 

Du Plessis, M., 2007 - The role of knowledge 

management in innovation, in ―Journal of 

Knowledge Management‖, Vol. 11 Issue 4, pp. 20 

– 29. 

Dumitrachi, I. ş.a. (coord.), 2006 - Sistemul naţional de 

cercetare, dezvoltare şi inovare în contextul 

integrării în aria europeană a cercetării, Editura 

Academiei Române, Bucureşti. 

GE, 2011 - GE Global Innovation Barometer. An 

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1/01/GIB-results.pdf. 

Markatou, M., 2011 - Innovation and Knowledge 

Creation in Greece: An Analysis Based on Patent 

Data, „Journal of Innovation and Business Best 

Practice‖, Vol. 2011, http://www.ibimapublishing. 

com/journals/JIBBP/jibbp.html. 

Page, S., 2012 - Model thinking class, online course, 

provided by Michigan University, https://www. 

coursera.org/modelthinking/lecture/index. 

Popescul, D., 2011 - Universities as knowledge 

providers in the technological innovation. 

Romania’s situation, Proceedings of The 17th 

International Business Information Management 

Association Conference (Creating Global 

Competitive Economies: A 360-degree 

Approach), November 14-15, 2011, Milano, Italy, 

pp. 1086-1094. 

Sánchez, A.G., Rodríguez, C.V., 2009 - Cercetaredezvoltare, 

inovaţie şi tehnologie în Europa, in 

Stoica, O., Palma Martos. L. (coord.), Politici ale 

Uniunii Europene, Editura Universităţii „Alexandru 

Ioan Cuza‖ din Iaşi, 2009.


244

Abstract 

245 


DETERMINATION OF ALFALFA CRUDE 

FIBER, NDF, ADF AND LIGNIN CONTENT BY NIR SPECTROMETRY 

Laura Monica DALE 68 , Ioan ROTAR 69 , Andre THEWIS 1 , Roxana VIDICAN 2 , Vasile 

FLORIAN 2 , Anamaria CIURE 2 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine (USAMV) Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Agriculture, 

Cluj Napoca, Romania 

dale_lm@yahoo.com 

From all forage crops, which together with meadows have a major contribution in ensuring the forage base,, 

alfalfa crop (Medicago sativa L.) occupies a position of great importance. This plant is distinguished by its forage value, 

high cultivation area and high digestibility, and from the point of view of farmers and world's agricultural sciences is 

considered to be the "Queen of Fodder Herbs". In order to determine the quality of alfalfa, a series of classical analysis 

for cellulose, NDF, ADF and ADL were performed. This paper proposes a simple and nondestructive technique for rapid 

determination of these organic substances, method called „Near Infrared Spectrophotometry” (NIRS). In this purpose 

samples of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L., variety Eugenia) were obtained at the Experimental Teaching Station, Mănăştur 

and Cojocna Farm, in the years 2008-2009. Alfalfa crop was seeded by randomized block method with two experimental 

factors. The highest content of crude fiber, NDF and ADL was recorded on the phenophase of seeds formation (33.21%, 

70.31% , respectively 15.15%). The lowest content recorded (31.14%) was the ADF content during the phenophase - 

seed formation. Good results (successful results) were obtained for the calibration of NIRS device (SEP = 1.058 [CF], 

0964 [NDF], 1041 [ADF] and 1209 [ADL]). This system allows us to use NIRS technique for determining organic 

matter derived from alfalfa to feed and for other feed quality determination. 

Key words: NIRS, alfalfa, crude fiber, NDF, ADF, ADL. 

On the current agricultural vision, fodder 

production obtained from the permanent grassland, 

temporary grassland and forage crops, is an 

integral part of agricultural land management 

[Dale, 2011]. A fair assessment regarding the 

quality of forage grass originating from meadows 

requires an overall analysis on the data regarding 

the botanical composition of pastures, the nutrient 

and mineral content and digestibility of fodder 

produced [Rotar et al, 2005]. From all forage 

crops, which together with meadows have a major 

contribution in ensuring the forage base,, alfalfa 

crop (Medicago sativa L.) occupies a position of 

great importance. This plant is distinguished by its 

forage value, high cultivation area and high 

digestibility, and from the point of view of farmers 

and world's agricultural sciences is considered to 

be the "Queen of Fodder Herbs". 

From agrobiological point of view, alfalfa 

gathers a number of particularities: resistance to 

drought and low temperatures, good revaluation of 

irrigation water, high capacity for regeneration 

after mowing, high rate of competitiveness [Rotar, 

1993]. According to archaeological information or 

68 Université de Liège, Gembloux 

69 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine (USAMV) Cluj-Napoca 

ancient philosophers writings, Medicago sativa L. 

crop has been taken in culture with 4000 years î.c. 

in regions of southwest Asia. Over the actual 

territory of our country, alfalfa was grown at first 

in Transylvania and on the late eighteenth century 

in Banat. Alfalfa has a great economic importance, 

illustrated by its high ecological plasticity, high 

production recorded, of more than 50 t/ha green 

mass/3 sewn, in natural conditions and over 80 t/ha 

green mass/4 sewn under irrigation, or between 10- 

15 t/ha of hay, and also by its high digestibility. 

This paper proposes a simple, 

nondestructive and elegant technique for 

determination of quality parameters (crude fibre, 

fibre detergent neutru [NDF], fibre detergent acid 

[ADF], lignine [ADL] ), method called „Near 

Infrared Spectrophotometry” (NIRS). Crude fibre 

is the most common polyglucide composed of 

glucose residue from the plant world, being the 

main component of cell walls. It presents a 

macromolecular, homogeneous polyglucide, 

consisting of several scrap β - D - glucopiranosis, 

united by ties β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds. Crude fiber 

is found together with a several number of


substances encrusted: lignin, hemicellulose, 

pectins, resins, minerals, etc.. [Diaconescu et al, 

2007]. NDF is the amount of protective substances 

obtained from residue after boiling a fodder sample 

in neutral detergent solution. NDF residue, actually 

contains very little pectic substances, but may 

contain negligible amounts of products like starch, 

nitrogenous substances and tannins [Jarrige et al, 

1988]. The amount of protective substances 

residue obtained after boiling the sample feed with 

detergent solution is called ADF. ADF content is 

regularly higher than the crude fiber from forage, 

these features being closely related, since both are 

an estimate of the amount of cellulose + lignin. 

[Jarrige et al, 1988]. NIRS method allows a large 

number of repetitions, has accuracy and high 

precision [Dale et al., 2012]. Also, because it is 

based on the use of chemicals without the need for 

preliminary preparation of samples, is considered 

to be a "clean technology" – supporting sustainable 

agriculture dogmas. [Vidican et al., 2000]. 

MATHERIAL AND METHOD 

Alfalfa samples were obtained from the 

Experimental Teaching Station Mănăştur - Farm 

Cojocna in 2008-2009, from experience with alfalfa 

which was established using randomization blocks 

method and two experimental factors (mineral 

fertilization and period of harvest). Alfalfa (variety 

Eugenia) was sown in spring 2007 and fertilized 

with chemical fertilizers in different compositions, 

depending on the doses proposed for each variant. 

The first variant of this experience, the controlvariant 

was kept with the natural fertility of the soil. 

To assess the quality of alfalfa forage , laboratory 

samples were obtained by dividing the analytical 

(in the amount required by method) and chemical 

control was performed (crude fiber, NDF, ADF and 

ADL). Each quality parameter mentioned above 

was analyzed both by classical determinations: 

Weende (cellulose) method and Van Soest method 

(NDF, ADF and ADL) and modern determination 

(NIRS). This paper aims to highlight the 

determination of quality parameters using NIRS 

analysis and the results are based on data 

obtained by classical analysis. For NIRS technique 

samples were prepared after the standard model, 

that have been ground to smaller than 1 mm. 

These were scanned before being subjected to 

classical analysis. A part of the results obtained by 

classical analysis were used for model calibration 

and another part for model validation. 


Total crude fiber content, and the protein 

varies between very wide limits, and it mostly 

depends on the phase of development which makes 

harvesting alfalfa. Cellulosic substances are 

organic residue obtained after two consecutive 

hydrolysis (one in an acidic environment, the other 

246 

in alkaline medium) [Dale, 2011]. Content in cell 

walls (NDF), crude fiber and hemicellulose that is 

intensified with increasing vegetation, ie with 

increasing age [Jarrige et al, 1988]. Holland et al, 

2008, believe that to obtain a high quality harvest, 

alfalfa should be harvested in development stage in 

which the leaves are present in greatest amount 

before to develop strains, cell walls deposits. The 

analysis regarding ADF content was originally 

intended as a preparatory step to determine lignin 

and cellulose determination [Van Soest, 1994]. 

Weak acid reagent dissolve hemicellulose, leaving 

most of the cellulose. Determination of NDF and 

ADF content is often used in order to estimate the 

hemicellulose. Holland et al, (2008) states that 

leaves suffer small changes during the growing 

process of alfalfa and that cellulose and lignin 

content, ie content of ADF, and the stem is 

increased significantly. Several methods have been 

used to isolate or to oxidize lignin in ADF, 

prompting acid detergent lignin (ADL). 

Digestibility of NDF content and ADF content are 

highly variable mostly due to the composition of 

lignin [De Boever et al, 1999]. Pecetti et al, (2001) 

states that there is a close connection between 

cellulose content and lignin content. 

Table 1 presents the calibration picture, the 

calibration curve for crude fiber, NDF, ADF and 

ADL made for alfalfa, the number of samples used 

in calibration (N), average value of raw pulp, 

minimum and maximum amount which has been 

taken for making the model of calibration 

calculation, standard error (SD), standard error of 

calibration (SEC), coefficient of multiple 

determination (R 2 ), standard error of cross 

validation (SECV), standardized error of prediction 

(SEP) and coefficient of determination (1-VR). 

The calibration curve for cellulose has a standard 

error for cross validation of 1.35, a low coefficient 

of multiple determinations for calibration (0.92) 

and a report SECV/SD of 0.28. The calibration 

results are similar to those of other authors for the 

same type of biological material: thus crossvalidation 

standard error obtained Iantcheva et al, 

(1999) is 3.12, and the regression coefficient 

obtained is similar to that of Brogna, et al, (2009) 

ie 0.87. NDF calibration curve has a large standard 

error for cross validation (1.70), a low coefficient 

of multiple determination for calibration (0.93) and 

a report SECV/SD of 0.23. 

The calibration results are similar to those 

of other authors for the same type of biological 

material: thus cross-validation standard error 

obtained Iantcheva et al, (1999) is 2.88, Sheaffer et 

al, (2000), obtaining 8.10 , Brogna et al, (2009) 

2.45, and the regression coefficient obtained is 

similar to that of Sheaffer et al, (2000) 0.98,

Brogna et al, (2009) .93. ADF calibration curve 

results shows a cross-validation standard error 

greater (1.46), a moderate multiple coefficient of 

247 


determination for calibration (0.94) and a report 

SECV/SD of 0.25. 

Calibration models for Alfalfa 

Content CF NDF ADF ADL 

N 771 357 318 205 

Mean 27.67 43.92 31.89 7.36 

SEC 1.32 1.57 1.35 0.6 

R 2 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.93 

SECV 1.35 1.7 1.46 0.68 

SEP 1.058 0.964 1.041 1.209 

SD 5.37 7.31 5.72 2.24 

SD/SEC 3.97 7.69 6.15 2.46 

SECV/SD 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.3 



material: thus cross-validation standard error 

obtained Iantcheva et al, (1999) is 2.97 Sheaffer et 

al, (2000), obtaining 9.80, Brogna et al, (2009) 

1.56; and the regression coefficient obtained is 

similar to that of Sheaffer et al, (2000) 0.98, 

Brogna et al, (2009). NDF calibration curve has a 

large standard error for cross validation (1.70), a 

low coefficient of multiple determination for 

calibration (0.93) and a report SECV/SD of 0.23. 



material: such cross-validation standard error 

obtained Iantcheva et al, (1999) is 2.88, Sheaffer et 

al, (2000), obtaining 8.10 , Brogna et al, (2009) 


similar to that of Sheaffer et al, (2000) 0.98, 

Brogna et al, (2009) .93. ADF calibration curve 

result shows a higher cross-validation standard 

error (1.46), a moderate multiple coefficient of 

determination for calibration (0.94) and a report 

SECV/SD of 0.25. results calibration obtained are 

similar to those of other authors for the same type 

of biological material: such cross-validation 

standard error obtained Iantcheva et al, (1999) is 

2.97 Sheaffer et al, (2000), obtaining 9.80, Brogna 

et al, (2009) 1.56, and the regression coefficient 

obtained is similar to that of Sheaffer et al, (2000) 

0.98, Brogna et al, (2009) .91. ADL calibration 

curve result has a standard error of cross validation 

of 0.68, a moderate multiple coefficient of 

determination for calibration (0.93) and a high 

ratio SECV/SD of 0.30. The calibration results are 

similar to those of other authors for the same type 

of biological material: thus cross-validation 

standard error obtained by Brogna et al, (2009) is 


0.89. Total crude fiber content, and the protein 

varies between very wide limits, mostly 

dependsing on the phase of development which 

Table 1 

makes harvesting alfalfa. The NIRS analysis of the 

crude fiber content of alfalfa obtained higher 

values on phenophase - seed formation between 

18.33% and 46.06%, phenophase - flowering 

between 17.56% and 38.47%, harvest 9.53% and 

35.06%, but lower the phenophase - average size 

30 cm plants which are between 15.96% and 

33.61%. NDF content has, in samples of alfalfa, 

small values on phenophase - average size 30 cm 

plant between 41.84% and 50.29%, the 

phenophase - germ values between 44.33% and 

54.08% , the phenophase - flowering between 

45.20% and 56.97%, and the phenophase - seed 

formation between 52.25% and 70.31%. ADF 

content consists of cellulose and lignin content, so 

alfalfa has higher values in phenophase - seed 

formation between 39.25% and 51.65%, the 

phenophase - flowering between 32.13% and 

42.05%, the phenophase - germ, between 32.96 % 

and 39.33%, and the phenophase - medium size 

plant 30 cm between 31.14% and 37.54%. ADL, or 

lignin content in alfalfa is higher in phenophase - 

seed formation between 9.15% and 15.15%, the 

phenophase - flowering between 7.28% and 

10.49%, the phenophase – germ between 7.53% 

and 10.33%. The phenophase - size average 

plant 30 cm between 7.02% and 10.04%. Good 

results (successful results) were reached in order to 

calibrate NIRS device (SEP = 1.058 [CF], 0.964 

[NDF], 1.041 [ADF] and respectivelly 1.209 

[ADL]). This system offer us the posibibily to use 

NIRS technique in determination of organic 

substances not only from alfalfa forage but also in 

other determination regarding forage quality. 

Results regarding alfalfa’s quality in different 

vegetation phenophasses were reached by NIRS 

technique and there are distinguished on the 

scheme and the new system used by the classical 

method. As it can be observed the results we obtain


are similar to those reached by different 

researchers from our country and abroad. (tabel 2). 

Table 2 

Results reached for Alfalfa’s quality in different phenophases of vegetation (phenophase of early bloom, 

phenophase of flowering and seed formation phenophase) 

Harvest Weende Scheme Van Soest System 

stage 

Crude fiber NDF [%] ADF [%] ADL [%] 

28.70 (Varga, 37.50 (Sheffield, et al. 2000) 26.85 (Homolka et al., 2000) 20.40 (Yu et al, 

1973) 

48.80 (Yu et al, 2003) 31.60 (Sheaffer et al., 2000) 2003) 

21.40 (Vintilă, 35.20 (Marković, et al., 2007) 32.10 (Yu et al, 2003) 4.20 (Marković et al, 

Bud 

1989) 

36.00 (Holland, et al., 2008) 

25.49 (Homolka et 35.10 (Homolka, et al.,2008) 

34.10 (INRA, 2006) 

16.58 –42.62 (Marković et 

2007) 

9.27 (Homolka et al, 

al., 2008) 

al., 2007) 

2008) 

33.40 (INRA, 

2006) 

26.00 (Holland et al, 2008) 

31.03 (Varga, 42.70 (Sheaffer, et al., 2000) 31.81 (Homolka et al, 2000) 19.90 (Yu et al, 

1964) 

46.90 (Yu et al, 2003) 35.90(Sheaffer et al, 2000) 2003), 

28.50 (Vintilă, 55.20 (INRA, 2006) 

29.40 (Yu et al, 2003) 4.64 (Marković et al, 

Flowering 

1989) 

43.59 (Marković et al, 2007) 

29.66 (Homolka et 37.00 (Holland et al, 2008) 

35.60 (INRA, 2006) 

17.65 – 47.19 (Marković et al, 

2007) 

8.98 (Homolka et al, 

al., 2008) 41.12 (HOMOLKA et al, 2008) 2007) 

2008) 

35.70 (INRA, 

2006) 

28.00 (Holland et al, 2008) 

34,46 (Varga, 49.20 (Sheaffer et al, 2000) 28.89 (Homolka et al, 2000) 21.30 (Yu et al, 

1964) 

49.6 (Yu et al, 2003) 

41.40 (Sheaffer et al, 2000) 2003) 

32.00 (Vintilă, 53.70 (INRA, 2006) 

31.00 (Yu et al, 2003), 4.90 (Marković et al, 

Seed 1989) 

47.67 (Marković et al, 2007) 34.20 (INRA, 2006) 

2007) 

formation 40.18 (Homolka et 42.00 (Holland et al, 2008) 18.74 – 49.94 (Marković et al, 11.31 (Homolka et 

al., 2008) 43.03 (Homolka et al, 2008) 2007), 

al, 2008) 

33.60 (INRA, 47.50 (Vintu et al., 2012) 32.00 (Holland, et al., 2008) 

2006) 

42.30 (Vintu et al., 2012) 

CONCLUSIONS 

The analyze system using NIRS technique 

can be successfully applied for determination of 

forage quality, meaning: crude protein, crude ash, 

crude fat, crude fiber, content of NDF, ADF 

content, lignin content, organic matter 

digestibility corn for silage, alfalfa and feed on 

natural pastures. The work detailed in this paper 

illustrates that it is possible, using FT-NIR 

spectroscopy, to determine a certain number of 

crude fiber, NDF, ADF and ADL content in 

BIBLIOGRAFIE 

BROGNA, N., PACCHIOLI, M. T., 

IMMOVILLI, A., RUOZZI, F., WARD, R., & 

FORMIGONI, A., 2009 - The use of near-infrared 

reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) in the prediction of 

chemical composition and in vitro neutral detergent 

fiber (NDF) digestibility of Italian alfalfa hay, Italian 

Journal of Animal Science, 271-273. 

DALE, L., M., 2011 – Determinarea calităţii 

furajelor prin metode destructive şi non-destructive, 

Teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, 2011. 

DALE, L., M., THEWIS, A., BOUDRY, C., 

ROTAR, I., DARDENNE, P., BAETEN, V., 

FERNÁNDEZ PIERNA, J. A., 2012 – Hyperspectral 

imaging applications in agriculture and agro-food 

product quality and safety control: A review, Applied 

Spectroscopy Reviews, Taylor & Francis, doi: 

10.1080/05704928.2012.705800. 

DEBOEVER, J., COTTYN, B., DE 

BRABANDER, D., VANCKER, J., & BOUCQUE, 

C., 1999 - Equations to predict digestibility and 

energy value of grass silages, maize silages, grass 

248 

alfalfa samples with accuracy similar to the 

reference method. 

Based on the samples supplied, it has been 

shown that NIR and PLS can be used to determine 

crude fiber, NDF, ADF and ADL content of 

alfalfa with good correlation coefficients and low 

errors. This preliminary study proves that NIR 

spectroscopy is an extremely reliable, nondestructive 

and rapid technique for the prediction 

of quantitative chemical and physical properties. 

hays, compound feeds and raw materials for cattle, 

Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, 69, 835–850. 

DIACONESCU, I., ARDELEAN, D., 

DIACONESCU, M., 2007- Merciologie Alimentară, 

Calitate și Siguranță, Editura Universitară București, 

București. 

HOMOLKA, P., KOUKOLOVÁ, V., NĚMEC, 

Z., MUDŘÍK, Z., HUŢKO, B., & SALES, J. , 2008 - 

Amino acid contents and intestinal digestibility of 

lucerne in ruminants as influenced by growth stage, 

Czech J. Anim. Sci., 53 (12), 499-505. 

HOLLAND, T., CLIVE, & WES, K., 2008 - 

Alfalfa Hay Management, Western Beef Resource 

Committee, Library Range and Pasture Section (pp. 

580-1 - 580-4). The CSU Beef Group. 

IANTCHEVA, N., STEINGASS, H., TODOROV, 

N., PAVLOV, D., 1999 - A comparison of in vitro rumen 

fluid and enzymatic methods to predict digestibility and 

energy value of grass and alfalfa hay, Animal Feed 

Science and Technology, 81, 333-344.

JARIGE, R., 1988 - Alimentation des bovins, 

ovins & caprins, Paris: INRA. 

MARKOVIŠ, J., RADOVIŠ, J., LUGIŠ, Z., & 

SOKOLOVIŠ, D., 2007 - The effect of development 

stage on chemical composition of alfalfa leaf and stem, 

Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry, 23 (5-6), 383 - 

388. 

PECETTI, L., BERARDO, N., ODOARDI, 

M.,PIANO, E., 2001 - Forage Quality Components in 

Grazing-Type Lucerne (Medicago sativa L. complex), 

Journal Agronomy & Crop Science, 145-152. 

ROTAR, I. , 1993 - Cercetări privind coacţiile 

de competiţie în culturi pure şi asociate de Medicago 

sativa şi Dactylis glomerata în condiţii de fertilizare 

diferenţiată cu azot, Teza de doctorat, Cluj – 

Napoca. 

ROTAR, I., CARLIER, L., 2005 - Cultura 

pajiştilor, Ed. Risoprint , Cluj – Napoca.. 

SHEAFFER, C. C., MARTIN, N. P., LAMB, J. 

F., CUOMO, G. R., & JEWETT, J. G., 2000 - Leaf 

and Stem Properties of Alfalfa Entries, Agronomy 

Journal, 733–739. 

VANCKER, J., & BOUCQUE, C., 1999 - 

Equations to predict digestibility and energy value of 

grass silages, maize silages, grass hays, compound 

249 


feeds and raw materials for cattle, Nutrition 

Abstracts and Reviews, 69, 835–850. 

VAN SOEST, P., 1994 - Nutritional Ecology of 

the Ruminant 2n, Ithaca, Cornell University Press. 

VARGA, P., MOGA, I., KELLNER, E., BĂLAN, 

C., & IONESCU, M., 1973 – Lucerna, Ed. Ceres, 

București. 

VIDICAN, R., ROTAR, I., SIMA, N., 2000 - 

Tehnica NIRS (Near Infrared Reflectance 

Spectroscopy) si aplicaţiile sale în analiza calităţii 

furajelor, Simpozion ―Agriultura si alimentaţia‖, USAMV 

Cluj Napoca, 187–191. 

VINTILĂ, M., 1986 - O metodă eficientă de 

conservare a nutreţurilor, Revista de creşterea 

animalelor , Nr. 7. 

VINTU, V., STAVARACHE M., SAMUIL C., 

MUNTEANU, I., 2012 - Chemical composition 

dynamics of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) at different 

plant growth stages, EGF Symposium, Lublin, 394-396. 

YU, P., CHRISTENSEN, D. A., MCKINNON, 

J. J., & MARKERT, J. D. , 2003 - Effect of variety 

and maturity stage on chemical composition, 

carbohydrate and protein subfractions, in vitro 

rumen degradability and energy values of timothy 

and alfalfa, Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 

279-290.


250

251 


INTEGRATION - BASIC FACTOR FOR ENSURING ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY 

OF AGRICULTURAL UNITS (CASE STUDY AT S.A. „AGROIND” BEREZENI, 

VASLUI COUNTY) 

Aurel CHIRAN 1 , Elena GÎNDU 1 , Benedicta DROBOTĂ 1 , George UNGUREANU 1 , Toma DIMA 2 

1 U.S.A.M.V. Iași, achiran@uaiasi.ro 

2 S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County 

Abstract 

Integration is a modern form of agricultural production organization, which can provide a positive economic effect. 

By agrifood integrating can be established simple and efficient functional connections between production, 

capitalization and consumption, leading to the development of integrated chains (partially or totally) on products or 

product groups. 

Vertical integration aims to manage one or more products, from raw material to finished product, through specialized 

channels, controlled by a decision center. 

The authors have proposed based on a case study to highlight the effects of integration on economic efficiency of 

agricultural units. 

Key words: agrifood integration, economic efficiency, agrifood product 

Integration is the activity of regulation 

and coordination of interdependent processes, 

involving several integrated units under the same 

integrator pole (Avarvarei I., Macovei Gh., 1987; 

Bidilean V., Bidilean O., 1998, Chiran A., Gîndu 

Elena, 2007; Fruja I., Csosz I., Creț N., 1994). 

Integration is a modern form of organizing 

production and distribution of food products, 

which are creating coordination, on a contractual 

basis or under one center of decision making, of 

different activities. 

Agrifood integration may take place at both 

macroeconomic and microeconomic level, and 

aims the same type of activities (production, 

processing, recovery) between units located on the 

same rung of the economic chain (horizontal 

integration) and between units upstream or 

downstream of agricultural production (vertical 

integration) (Cojocaru C., 1998; David. N., 

Istudor N., 2000; Petrache A., 2003; Popescu D. 

Maria, 1998). 

In practice we can find different 

organizational forms of integration, which appear 

as a necessity of diversification of agricultural 

units and effective cooperation with agricultural 

companies and individual producers. In this 

context, revitalizing agriculture, requires the 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary medicine Iasi 

2 S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County 

adoption of sustainable agriculture concept, 

sustainable and effective locally integrated, 

territorial. 


The case study has been conducted at S.A. 

AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County and aimed at 

highlighting the integration role played in the 

development and effectiveness of the unit. 

The authors used a system of indicators that 

were related to technical equipment, total income, 

equity, gross profit, investments, bank loans and 

subsidies. 

The analysis covered the last 10 years, with 

the reference years: 2002, 2005 and 2011. 


S.A. AGROIND Berezeni has an 

agricultural area of 3727 hectares, of which arable 

crops in 2012, occupies 3290 hectares The 

structure shows the share of arable crops in cereal 

grains (54.0%), followed by technical crops 

(30.9%) and fodder plants (15.1%). 

Technical equipment is the main structure of 

agricultural machinery, warehouses and silos for 

drying and storage of agricultural products, animal


shelters, mill for processed wheat, mill for 

processing corn, bakery, etc. (tab. 1). 

252 

Table 1 

Technical equipment of S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County 

Specification U.M. 2002 2005 2011 % against 

2002 

Physical tractors pieces 36 34 32 88.9 

Tractor plows pieces 34 34 32 94.1 

Seeders pieces 7 7 6 85.7 

Disc harrow pieces 12 12 14 116.7 

Cultivators pieces 4 4 6 150.0 

Fertilizer spreading machines pieces 2 4 4 200.0 

Grain harvesters pieces 4 4 4 100.0 

Different trailers pieces 14 14 16 114.3 

Trucks pieces 6 6 4 66.7 

Mill for processed wheat 10t/24h 1 1 1 100.0 

Mill for processing corn 24t/24h 1 1 1 100.0 

Area for milk preparation 2000 l/24h 1 1 1 100.0 

Bakery 1000 Kg/24h 1 1 1 100.0 

Animal shelters no./m2 12/9600 12/9600 12/9600 100.0 

Warehouses no./tone 3/2000 3/2000 5/4500 166.7/225.0 

Fixed assets – total mil.lei 3614280 4825358 9808096 271.4 

Current assets –total mil.lei 866480 1223159 4383925 505.9 

Analyzing the data presented, it appears 

that, a physically tractor back 102.8 hectares, with 

the mention that high-powered tractors, and the 

value of fixed assets increased 2.7 times and of the 

current assets 5 times. 

Integrating agricultural production is a 

higher level of intensive development of 

agriculture, a new stage of the process of vertical 

cooperation. General characteristic of this process 

is increased specialization of production, 

separation from agriculture activities and their 

takeover by the upstream and downstream sectors 

of agriculture. Separating these activities will bring 

them together in a unique complex of branches, 

which run as one, linked together in terms of 

technology. 

Concrete implementation of the integration 

process is achieved by measures of organization, 

planning and management (fig. 1). 

It requires a new approach to major 

problems of agriculture, which requires the 

establishment of firm sizes allowing the practice of 

sustainable agriculture, able to apply advanced 

technologies and lead to profitability and 

efficiency, to strengthen them economical and 

organizational. 

Integrating agriculture is considered as part 

of the mechanism of economic development, 

including locally. Therefore, the transition from 

traditional agriculture (extensive), in a sustainable 

and efficient agriculture, priority approach requires 

integration of agricultural and food units in a 

complex economic system. 

Integration in agriculture acts as a major 

process that provides ample opportunities to 

introduce scientific and technical progress for the 

modernization and production development for 

profitable units and raising the living standard. 

Investments in S.A. AGRO Berezeni, 

Vaslui county took place in several stages: 

• in 1995: 

- have acquired 15 tractors U-650 and 5 

Romanian combine; 

- two mills were built: one for processing 

wheat and one for processing corn; 

• in 2008: 

- modernization of the two mills for 

processing grain (wheat and corn); 

• in 2006: 

- purchase of two tractors Valtra - 210 hp, 

two plows with five furrows, two seeders for 

cereals, fertilizer, two combiners, two balers; 

• in 2008: 

- modernization of 5 stables for dairy cows 

(roofs, paths for feeding and manure removal); 

- milking room arrangement computerized 

with 20 stations - DeLaval; 

- adduction of water - with modern cattle 

watering system; 

- platform for collecting garbage and manure 

pits; 

- livestock equipment (emptying, 

technological trailer, multifunctional tractor); 

- construction of three silos with modern 

dryer, electronically weighting machine, controlled 

ventilation system, modern unloading and handling 

systems;

-purchase of two Valtra tractors -110 hp, 

two Fend combine, two corn seeders, two rippers, 

two plows with five furrows, two manure 

spreading machines (MIG); 

Sector of 

mechanization and 

automatization 

Crop Sector (large 

culture) 

Vegetable sector 

Vineyard sector 

Sector for forage 

crops 

Bakery 

Oil plant 

253 


• in 2011: 

- rehabilitation of irrigation system Albita- 

Falciu (1.2.5 Measure). 

Figure 1 Organization design of integrated agricultural production in rural area Berezeni 

Agricultural products recovery involves 

several steps such as: reception, conditioning, 

shipping or storage for different time periods (if 

applicable). Grain delivery can be achieved either 

directly by the producers (free market) or through 

intermediaries, domestic or foreign. 

In the horticultural products recovery, the 

flow begins with the collection, which includes a 

variety of operations that depend on maintaining 

product quality. 

Recovery of animals for meat is provided 

by the farmers on a free market (live or fresh) or 

through intermediaries, who buy live animals from 

producers, which directs them either to their own 

slaughter or other beneficiaries (fig. 2 ). 

Milk processing 

plant 

Food Holding 

(integrator) 

Meat products 

area 

Wine Sector 

Plant for 

compound feed 

Sector for grow 

dairy cows and 

sheep 

Sector of growth and 

fattening pigs 

Slaughterhouse 

Cold storage 

facilities 

Sector for own 

stores 

Sector of 

distribution 

Consumers Grand 

distribution 

Milk recovery is made by producers, 

directly on the open market (fresh milk or dairy 

products) or indirectly, by points or organized milk 

collection centers in the localities, either directly 

from milk processing units (fig. 3) . 

In farms specialized in raising dairy cows, 

milk is delivered in the "franco farm" system, the 

collection and transport is provided by the 

processing plants. 

In the distribution circuit of agricultural and 

/ or food products must be taken into account a 

number of key elements such as: 

specifications; 

manner of dispatch; 

production and storage capacities;


number of warehouses, the 

regional warehouses and 

platforms; 

number of transport means; 

economic and financial 

justification of warehouses, 

regional warehouses and 

platforms; 

areas of influence; 

customers (structure, 

geographical distribution, trend, 

PRODUCERS 

Individual 

households 

Purchase points 

Fattening units of meat 

processors 

Purchase bases 

Free market 

254 

seasonal, supplies, constraints) 

etc. 

The integration process had a positive 

effect on financial results of the unit (tab. 2). 

Figure 2 Recovery circuit of animals for meat 

Table 2 

Evolution of total revenues and financial results S.A. AGROIND Berezeni during 2002-2011-mil.lei 

Specification 2002 2005 2011 %/2002 

Total revenues, of which: 21684850 4966724 13090485 60.4 

from agriculture 20287839 3824285 10412965 51.3 

from other activities 612400 138853 127806 20.9 

financial incomes 120 218 125522 104.6 

Subsidies 784500 1003368 2424192 309.0 

Gross profit – total 44750 41125 200095 447.1 

Net profit – total 34816 25276 144473 415.0 

Net profit rate - % 0.21 0.83 1.55 + 1.35 

As it can be seen from the data presented, 

although 2011 hasn’t met very favorable 

conditions for agricultural production, efficiency 

of production costs was higher so that total gross 

profit was 4.5 times higher than in 2002, and the 

rate of return of 7.4 times. 

Family farms, private associations, 

other units 

Slaughterhouses 

Processing plants 

EXPORT 

Commercial 

magazine and 

sales points 

Consumers 

It is also remarkable that the social capital 

of the unit in 2011 was 2, 3 times higher than the 

reference year, total investments increased by 

12.3 times, bank loans, 12.9 times, EU funds 

(grants) attracted 9.5 times, and subsidies, of 3.1 

times.

PRODUCERS 

Individual households (milk and dairy 

products) 

CONCLUSIONS 

Free market 

1. S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County 

is an agricultural unit, with a complex 

structure, oriented to a semiintegrat 

production. 

2. The transition from traditional production 

system, in which the unit was providing 

agricultural inputs, to a European modern 

system, in which the production, 

processing, distribution and recovery is 

made by S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, could 

be achieved through modern 

management, advanced, which targeted a 

new approach to organization and 

management system of production, the 

attraction of European funds and their 

orientation towards development and 

strengthening of unit was essential. 

3. Conducting the investment was made in 

stages and resulting in building two mills 

of wheat and corn processing, purchase of 

agricultural machinery and livestock, the 

modernization of two mills for processing 

wheat and maize, 5 stables for dairy cows, 

arranging a computerized milking room - 

Figure 3 Recovery circuit of milk and dairy products 

255 


Family farms and private associations 

(milk and dairy products) 

Points of purchase 

Factories for 

processing milk 

Final processed 

products 

EXPORT 

CONSUMERS 

Procurement 

center 

with 20 seats for dairy cows, construction 

of three modern grain silos, irrigation 

system rehabilitation, etc.. 

4. The integration process of agricultural 

production had a positive effect on 

strengthening and streamlining the unit, 

so that, in 2011, the total profit (gross and 

net) was over four times higher than in 

2002, and the efficiency and cost 

materialized in a profit growth rate of 7.4 

times 

5. In the future, the unit must continue the 

integration process by modernizing milk 

processing plant (currently in storage), the 

construction of a plant oil, a fodder 

factory, a wine sector, establish a growth 

sector and fattening pigs, meat processing 

workshop, a district of own stores, etc. 

BIBLIOGRAFY 

Commercial 

magazine and 

sales points 

1.Avarvarei I., Macovei Gh., 1997 – Agricultura 

și economia de piață în contextul integrării europene. 

Lucr. șt. U.A.m.V. Iași, vol. 40, seria Agronomie. 

2. Bidilean V., Bidilean O., 1998 – Exigențe ale 

integrării agricole europene. Rev. Tribuna economică, 

nr. 42, București. 

3.Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Zooeconomie 

– ediția a II-a, Ed. Performantica, Iași.


4.Cojocaru C., 1998 – Integrarea pe produs (IP) 

– o posibilă soluție de creștere a producției 

zootehnice.Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 12, București. 

5. Crețu Raluca, 2000 - Principiile și obiectivele 

dezvoltării durabile. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 17, 

București. 

6. David N., Istudor N., 2000 – Cooperativele 

de valorificare a produselor agricole. Rev. Tribuna 


7. Fruja I., Csosz I., Creț N., 1994 – Integrarea 

agriculturii – prezent și viitor. Lucr. șt. U.A.M.V. Iași, vol. 

38, seria Agronomie. 

8.Hartia S., 1978 – Folosirea optimă a 

resurselor în agricultură. Ed. CERES, București. 

9. Iosif N. Gh., 2000 – Un exemplu de 

dezvoltare integrată a producției agricole : S.C. 

“Combinatul agroindustrial” Curtici. Rev. Tribuna 


256 

10.Miron D., 1998 – Economia integr[rii 

europene. Ed. A.S.E., București. 

11. Păduraru I., 1998 – Integrarea pe produs 

(IP) și realitatea românească. Rev.Tribuna economică, 

nr. 39, București. 

12. Petrache A., 2003 - Integrarea 

agroalimentară. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 14, 

București. 

13. Popescu D. Maria, 1998 – Integrarea – 

soluție universal valabilă. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 

39, București. 

14. Știrbu Verona, 1998 - Integrarea 

europeană și probleme ale agriculturii românești.Rev. 

Tribuna economică, nr. 30, București.

257 


LIVESTOCK - MAJOR GOAL IN CONSOLIDATION AND EFFICIENCY OF 

AGRICULTURAL UNITS (CASE STUDY AT S.A. „AGROIND” BEREZENI, VASLUI 

COUNTY) 

Elena GÎNDU 1 , Aurel CHIRAN 1 , Benedicta DROBOTĂ 1 , George UNGUREANU 1 , T. DIMA 2 

1 U.S.A.M.V. Iași, egindu@uaiasi.ro 

2 S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, jud. Vaslui 

Abstract 

Economic efficiency of livestock farms is directly influenced by many factors among which their dimension. 

Ensuring economic efficiency of farms is a major objective in developing strategies in agriculture, in which livestock is 

an essential factor. 

From these aspects the authors have proposed to highlight the role of livestock in strengthening and improving 

agricultural units, based on a case study conducted at Agricultural Society „AGROIND” Berezeni, Vaslui County. 

Key words: economic efficiency, strategies, livestock units 

Agricultural production structure is found 

at all levels of economy: macroeconomic 

mezoeconomic and microeconomic. 

Whatever level is approached, the concept 

of production structure refers to production 

sectors, the links between them, and the 

proportions are developed [Timariu Gh., 2001, 

Valorosi F., 2002 ]. 

Production structure is a system that may 

include the following activities: culture structure, 

livestock structure, technological structure, 

ownership, land structure, the dimensional 

structure of agricultural holdings, consumption 

structure, down to the structure of varieties, breeds 

and hybrids [Roux P., 1986, Samochiș B. et. al, 

1997 ]. 

Production structure can be regarded as a 

combination of multiple choices; the answer to this 

combination will be reflected in efficiency. 

The variants of production structure that can 

develop due to this combination are multiple, due 

to actual conditions variability, conditions to be set 

off by the structure process [Chiran A., Gîndu 

Elena, 2000, Leonte Marie - Jaqueline, Bălănică 

S.,1998, Voicu R., Dobre Iuliana, 2003]. 

Therefore, the structure of production 

involves the selection of agricultural activities as a 

branch of national economy and the various types 

of agricultural units. 

It includes a diverse number of branches to 

form a structure with different levels of intensity: 

plant branches have, except vegetables, extensive 


2 S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui 

character and animal production is characterized 

by an intensive type structure. 

We can have an intensive structure, given 

by the largest share of animal production in 

gross value added or an extensively structure, in 

which crop production is predominant, 

especially grain production [Crăciun A., 1995, 

Chiran A. et. al., 2000, Davidovici I., 1993, Ștefan 

Marcela, Tănăsescu Rodica et. al., 1997]. 

One of the indicators for determine the 

proportions of branches in the production structure 

is "gross added value", which recorded the 

following shares in plant and animal production in 

the example of several countries in Western 

Europe (tab. 1). 

The gaps between Romania and the 

agriculture of developed countries are large, they 

depend on general level of economic development 

and the differences between agricultural structures 

(ownership structures, production structures, 

structures of economic organization, farm size, the 

structure of factors of production used, the 

structure of agricultural production services, the 

structure of production and especially applied 

technologies, marketing structures, financing 

structures and agricultural support systems, social 

protection systems, etc.) [Bold I., Gheorghe P., 

2001, Zahiu Letiția et. al., 2003].


Gross added value by branches - % 

The country Vegetal production Animal production 

France 49.1 50.9 

Italy 60.6 39.4 

Germany 38.0 62.0 

Belgium 39.5 60.5 

Spain 57.8 42.2 

Netherlands 44.2 55.8 

Romania 62.9 37.1 

Source: L’Observateur de l’OCDE, Edition 1996 

Thus, the average of the two main 

branches of agriculture (crop and livestock), in 

the value of agricultural production reveals a 

development of agriculture. Not until 1990 the 

share of animal production was not at the crop 

level, representing only 47% of total agricultural 

production, but in 1997 reached 37.1%, due to 

drastic reduction of livestock after 1989. Thus, the 

published data shows that from 1989 until now, the 

number of cattle fell by over 55%, pigs by over 

2/3, over 62% sheep and poultry by 70%. 

European Commission EEC recommended 

since 1950, the size of commercial farms to be 

over 60 hectares for field crops, or 30-50 cows, 

150-200 fattening cattle, 450-600 pigs, etc. 

258 

Table 1 

MATERIAL AND METODS 

The case study has been conducted at S.A. 

AGROIND Berezeni, Vaslui County and aimed to 

highlight role of changing the structure of livestock 

production and increase economic efficiency. The 

study period was 20 years (1992-2011), with 

reference points in 1992, 2002 and 2011. 


Livestock at S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, 

Vaslui County, except pigs and horses, had an 

increasing evolution (tab. 2). Thus, compared with 

1992, in 2011, the numbers of cattle growth 

registered an increase of 100 head (+ 41.7%), the 

dairy cows reached 172 head (72.0%) and young 

cattle increased by 20.0%, etc. The unit gave up at 

breeding and fattening pigs and horses. 

Table 2 

Evolution of livestock during 1992-2011 (heads) 

Species or category of animal 1992 2002 2011 2011 % against 1992 

Cattle - total, of which: 240 280 340 141.7 

- cows and heifers 100 120 172 172.0 

- young cattle 140 160 168 120.0 

Pigs - total 41 43 - - 

Sheep - total 1200 1200 1100 91.7 

Horses - total 37 10 - - 

In the 20 years of existence, in livestock 

farming, the unit was profiled on growth dairy 

cows (in closed circuit) and sheep so that we assist 

in obtaining additional revenue from the sale of 

animal products: cow milk, sheep milk, wool, beef 

in live, sheep meat in live (tab. 3). 

The total production realized and incomes 

were higher than 1992. The highest increases were 

recorded in live beef (+ 500.6%), sheep in live (+ 

45.8%) and cow milk (+ 34.8%). 

Total income increased very significantly to 

6.5 times higher than in 1992, with obvious 

differences in product categories: 21.3 times 

(maximum) - in live beef and 257.9% (minimum) - 

from sheep milk. 

In terms of economic efficiency in the 

analyzed period, animal products obtained in S. A. 

AGROIND Berezeni was profitable, with 

differences in products and in time (tab. 4). 

In the structure of gross profit derived from 

livestock, in 1992, the largest share (76.8%) held 

the milk cow, followed by wool and sheep's milk, 

while meat production in live (cattle and sheep) 

had a reduced contribution (7.1%.), which shows 

that the unit had a production structure that held a 

majority share of crop production.

259 


Table 3 

Evolution of the total production and livestock income during 1992-2011 

The product U.M. 1992 2002 2011 %/1992 

Cow milk hl 4600 4900 6200 134.8 

thousands lei 105.8 254.8 713.0 673.9 

Sheep milk hl 151 163 151 100.0 

thousands lei 7.6 12.7 19.6 257.9 

Beef in live Kg 2495 7496 14985 600.6 

thousands lei 3.24 14.99 68.93 2127.5 

Sheep meat in live Kg 4627 4120 6745 145.8 

thousands lei 12.96 18.54 67.45 520.4 

Greasy wool Kg 5040 5400 5170 102.6 

thousands lei 7.56 10.26 20.68 273.5 

Total income thousands lei 137.16 311.29 889.66 648.6 

Table 4 

Evolution of gross profit on products of animal origin obtained at S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, during 1992 – 2011 

The product U.M. 1992 2002 2011 %/1992 

GROSS PROFIT – TOTAL 

Total animal products of which: thousands lei 29.96 70.21 101.69 339.4 

Cow milk thousands lei 23.0 58.8 62.0 269.6 

% of total profit 76.8 83.8 61.0 - 

Sheep milk thousands lei 2.3 2.9 1.5 65.2 


Beef in live thousands lei 0.75 3.75 23.98 32 


Sheep meat in live thousands lei 1.39 2.06 12.14 873.4 


Greasy wool thousands lei 2.52 2.7 2.07 82.1 


The evolution demonstrates that the unit was 

concerned for livestock development, acting 

mainly on performance, with a tendency to align to 

countries with developed animal husbandry, in 

which livestock are an important part of 

agricultural production. 

Currently, even if there was a clear increase 

in revenues from livestock, the share of 

agricultural production structure is still low due to 

the fact that the unit recovered animal products as 

raw material without investing for the milk (milk 

processing unit is in conservation – due to 

unfulfilled rules imposed by European standards) 

or meat. In the future, etc. S.A. AGROIND 

Berezeni, Vaslui County should be concerned for 

development of livestock, including pigs growth 

and to direct investment in processing units and 

recovery of finite products of animal origin. 

CONCLUSIONS 

S.A. AGROIND Berezeni is one of the key units of 

Vaslui County, with an activity beyond 20 years of 

existence. 

Livestock had an increasing trend, except for pigs 

and horses, which the unit gave up to. 

Total production (milk, meat, wool) and recorded 

incomes were growing, the biggest increases 

realizing in cow's milk. 

Significant are also the total revenue from the sale 

of products, provided that the unit has yet to invest 

for the design of processing units for milk and 

meat, for the recovery of finite products of animal 

origin, incorporating high added value. 

In terms of economic efficiency, even when the 

unit capitalize the production as raw material 

(milk, meat, wool), it was found an appropriate 

level of gross profit, with a rate of return, which in 

some years reached nearly 30%. 

REFERENCES 

Bold I., Crăciun A., 1995 –Exploatația agricolă – 

organizare, dezvoltare, exploatare. Ed. Mirton, 

Timișoara. 

Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2000 – Zooeconomie și 

marketing. Ed.‖Ion Ionescu de la Brad‖, Iași. 

Chiran A. și colab., 2000 – Aspecte privind 

eficiența economică a producției de lapte de vacă (studiu 

de caz la S.A. AGROIND Berezeni, jud. Vaslui). Lucr. șt. 

U.S.A.M.V. Iași, vol. 43, seria Agronomie. 

Davidovici I., 1993 – Ajustarea structurală – 

prioritate a restructurării agriculturii românești. Rev. 

Tribuna economică, nr. 9, București


Gheorghe P., 2001 – Exploatațiile asociative – 

vector al agriculturii performante. Rev. Tribuna 


Leonte Marie - Jaqueline, Bălănică S.,1998 – 

Structuri de producție agricolă în Uniunea Europeană. 

Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 45, București. 

Roux P., 1986 - Economie agricole. Ed. 

Technique et Documentation, Lavoisier, Paris, France. 

Samochiș B. și colab, 1997 – Opțiuni în 

dezvoltarea structurilor agrare. Ed. Risoprint, Cluj- 

Napoca. 

Ștefan Marcela, 2000 – Necesitatea unei 

agriculturi performante. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 17, 

București. 

Tănăsescu Rodica și colab., 1997 – 

Managementul în unitățile agricole. Ed. Licorna, 

București. 

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Timariu Gh., 2001 – Consolidarea societăților și 

asociațiilor agricole. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 4, 

București. 

Valorosi F., 2002 – Lo sviluppo del sistema 

agricolo nell’economia post-industriale. Ed. Franco 

Angeli S.R.L.,Milano, Italy. 

Voicu R., Dobre Iuliana, 2003 – Organizarea și 

strategia dezvoltării unităților agricole. Ed. A.S.E., 

București. 

Zahiu Letiția și colab., 2003 – Structurile agrare 

și viitorul politicilor agricole. Ed. Economică, București.

Abstract 

261 


DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR REPLACING OLD MACHINERIES IN 

CEREAL FARMS 

Benedicta DROBOTĂ 1 , Aurel CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU, Ionuţ DROBOTĂ 

e-mail: bdrobota@yahoo.com 

Farmers take daily decisions with direct impact on farm performance and also on the environment. 

Negative environmental consequences are visible in the long term, imposing measures to prevent pollution, and in the 

same time, do not affect the economic viability of the farm. The project aims to develop a computerized decision 

support system, to assist farmers, in taking decisions regarding replacing old machineries with new ones, in cereal 

farms. The research methodology involved: intelligence phase (data collection, problem identification), design phase 

(formulate a model, set criteria for choice, search for alternative, predict and measure outcome) and choice phase 

(solution to the model, selection of best alternatives, and plan for implementation). The decision support system can 

further be used to simulate different scenarios as well as to estimate the economic and environmental impacts. 

Key words: efficiency, agriculture, pollution, environment 

Agriculture fulfills a variety of functions, 

such as: it contributes to the supply of citizens 

with safe and quality food, maintain cultural 

landscapes through sustainable land management 

and help rural areas to remain attractive and viable 

(Situation and prospects for EU agriculture and 

rural areas, 2010). 

Agriculture is an important employment 

generator in rural areas where unemployment is 

generally higher than in urban areas and generates 

jobs in a wide range of farm-related upstream 

businesses (veterinarians, equipment dealers, 

mechanics, feed and crop supply businesses, etc.) 

and downstream businesses (food processors, 

transportation, retailers, etc). Also, farms provide 

trainings in a wide range of skills such as practical 

problem-solving skills applicable in many spheres 

of daily life (Scott Jennifer et al., 2008). 

Developing decision support systems in 

agriculture is not easy and requires different skills 

(agriculture, economics, computer science, etc.), 

so that the system developed to be efficient and 

easy to use by farmers. In the 1960s, researchers 

began to study the use of computerized 

quantitative models to assist in decision making 

and planning. In the 1970s, both practice and 

theory issues related to decision support system 

were discussed at academic conferences. 

Beginning in 1980s many activities associated 

with building and studying the decision support 

system occurred in universities and organizations 

1 Unversitatea de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina Veterinara Iasi 

that resulted in expanding the scope of decision 

support system applications. Decision support 

system practice, research and technology continue 

to evolve. By 1996, it had been identified five 

specialized types of decision support systems, 

including text-oriented, database-oriented, 

spreadsheet-oriented, solver-oriented, and ruleoriented 

(Power, 2007). 

Simulation models estimate what will 

happen in the future under different scenarios. 

The tool involves the manipulation of large 

amounts of data. A decision support system can 

help convert data from models into knowledge 

that describes the likely results of alternative 

courses of action, and apply that knowledge in a 

framework that helps decision-makers (Heilman 

et al. 2005). To design a decision support system, 

one has to determine who the decision-makers 

are, what decisions are to be made, and what 

information is needed to make those decisions. 

Advances in information technology are 

creating the potential to create much greater net 

benefits from agricultural research. The decision 

support system allows farmers to ask "what if" 

questions and simulates results. In the twenty-first 

century, agricultural professional using 

information technologies play an increasingly 

important role in crop production and natural 

resource management. Increasingly, agricultural 

decision support systems are used by producers,


agricultural consultants, or agribusiness (Ascough 

et al. 2002). 

A new approach is used different from the 

classic one in which only the economic profit 

prevails as a basic indicator. The new approach is 

to relate investments with the sustainable ecodevelopment 

concept and the new economy based 

on information society concept (Banacu, 2004). 

In their studies, Subić (2006) and Vasiljević 

(2007) explain the importance of efficiency 

analysis of investments in agriculture. The main 

indicators are: Cash flow Return on Investment, 

Discounted payback, Internal Rate of Return, Net 

Present Value, etc. (Subic et al. 2010). The 

investment project model must be automatized in 

order to reduce errors (Mackevičius, 2011). 

The aim of the current researches is to 

develop a computerized decision support system, 

to asist farmers, in taking decisions regarding 

replacing old machineries with new ones, in 

cereal farms. 

The results of the research will answer to 

a few questions: 

What is the need of founding and loan 

repayment schedule for a new 

investment? 

What is the economic efficiency of a new 

investment? 

What is the energy efficiency of a new 

investment? 

What is the best investment decision 

regarding agricultural machineries in a 

specific cereal farm? 

How can the agricultural sector work 

smarter by considering more options? 


A decision support system provides a tool 

to evaluate the complex systems, perform ―whatif‖ 

scenario analyses, and aid in choosing an 

appropriate solution. 

Tjia (2009) relates modelling to creative 

abilities and art, because it is developed to 

automate the process and doesn’t represent a 

strictly defined research method. 

The decision process, used for this 

research, was divided into three phases (Singh et 

al. 2008): 

Intelligence phase: search and scanning 

procedure, data collection, problem identification, 

problem ownership, problem classification, 

problem statement; 

Design phase: formulate a model, set 

criteria for choice, search for alternative, predict 

and measure outcome; 

Choice phase: solution to the model, selection of 

best alternatives, plan for implementation. 

262 

The indicators used to calculate the 

economic efficiency of a new investment were: 

Total investment without VAT, Annual increase of 

turnover, Turnover, Annual increase of production 

costs, Production costs, Loan costs, Total costs, 

Cash flow of the period, Cash flow at the end of 

the period, Return on Investment (ROI), Discount 

rate, Discounted payback, Return on invested 

capital, Coverage rates by cash flow, 

Indebtedness rate, Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 

and Net Present Value. The indicators used to 

calculate the energy efficiency of a new 

investment were: Total Gas/Diesel oil 

consumption, CO2 emissions, CH4 emissions, 

N2O emissions. 


The created tool (Excel spreadsheet) has the 

following modules: Interface, Old machineries, 

New machineries, Founding, Economic efficiency 

and Energy efficiency (figure 1). Only white cells 

must be filled in. The rest of the cells will be 

automatic calculated. 

In order to validate the model, it was 

calculated the economic and energy efficiency of 

replacing an old tractor in a cereal farm with a 

new one. 

The following data were considered for 60 

days of plowing: costs with fuel, costs with other 

consumables, costs with taxes, insurance, other 

costs (personnel, depreciation costs, other costs), 

incomes, the purchase price of a new tractor and 

the income from selling the old machinery. 

Variant 1: Old tractor U650 with plow 

Productivity: 4 hectare/day, 

Fuel consumption: 25 litre/hectare, 

Cost with fuel: 1.4 euro/litre, 

Costs with other consumables: 1260 euro, 

Costs with taxes, insurance: 50 euro, 

Other costs (personnel, depreciation costs, 

other costs): 750 euro, 

Price for plowing 1 hectare: 100 euro, 

Incomes: 24000 euro. 

Variant 2: New tractor with plow 

Purchase price: 50000 euro, 

Productivity: 6 hectare/day, 

Fuel consumption: 18 litre/hectare, 

Cost with fuel: 1.4 euro/litre, 

Costs with other consumables: 1360.8 

euro, 

Costs with taxes, insurance: 500 euro, 

Other costs (personnel, depreciation costs, 

other costs): 5750 euro, 

Price for plowing 1 hectare: 100 euro, 

Incomes: 36000 euro, 

Income from selling the old machinery: 

3500 euro.

The difference of productivity comes from: 

the working speed, front-wheel drive advantage, 

less time resting, easy handling and increased 

comfort. 

The sources of founding are: 

self-financing ( income from selling the 

old machinery): 3500 euro, 

bank loan: 46500 euro (120 months, 9% 

interest rate) (figure 2). 

Figure 1 - The interface of the created tool 

263 


Based on those data, it was automatic 

calculated the economic efficiency of the new 

investment. The main indicators are: 

Discounted payback (Should be 

maximum 10 Years): 3.86 years, 

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) (Should be 

greater than the interest rate, in this case 

9%): 27,70%, 

Net Present Value (Should be positive): 

100000 euro (figure 3). 

Figure 2 - The sources of founding for a new investment


The following data were considered for 

calculated the energy efficiency of the new 

investment for 100 hectare of plowing: Total 

Gas/Diesel oil consumption, CO2 emissions, CH4 

emissions, N2O emissions. The emissions 

coefficients of 1 tonne of Gas/Diesel oil 

consumption are (GHG emissions from stationary 

combustion (English) Version 4.0, 2010): 

CO2 emissions: 2,676492 tonnes 

CH4 emissions: 0,0003612 tonnes 

Figure 3 - Economic efficiency of a new investment 

Figure 4 - Energy efficiency of a new investment 

264 

N2O emissions: 0,000021672 tonnes 

The energy efficiency of the new 

investment for 100 hectare of plowing is (figure 

4): 

Total Gas/Diesel oil consumption: 

0,70000 tonnes/U.M. 

CO2 emissions: 1,87354 tonnes 

CH4 emissions: 0,00025 tonnes 

N2O emissions: 0,00002 tonnes

CONCLUSSIONS 

The obtained results show the importance 

of replacing old machineries in cereal farm, not 

just because of high economic efficiency but also 

of energy efficiency. 

The created tool has the following 

advantages: 

Has high applicability at farm level, 

Can be used personalized database and 

the user have direct control of the 

simulation, 

Takes into account the short and long 

time horizons in calculating the main 

indicators of the investment, 

Can improve the personal efficiency and 

speed up the process of decision making. 

It can be tested one or more variants of 

investment. 

Can create a competitive advantage over 

competition by choosing the best 

alternative of investment after conducting 

scenario analysis. 

The results emerging from the research 

confirm the utility of the created tool and show 

that the investment is justified, not only 

economically but also from pollution point of 

view, conserving environment and improving 

farmer’s life. 


„This work was cofinanced from the 

European Social Fund through Sectoral 

Operational Programme Human Resources 

Development 2007-2013, project number 

POSDRU/I.89/1.5/S62371 ,,Postdoctoral Schole 

in Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine area.‖ 

―The authors contributed equally to the 

realization of this paper‖. 

REFERENCES 

Ascough J.C. II, Hoag D. L., McMaster S., Frasier 

W. M., USDA, ARS, 2002 - Computer use and 

satisfaction by Great Plains producers: ordered 

logit model analysis. Agronomy Journal. v. 94 

(6), p. 1263-1269. 

Banacu C. S., 2004 - Investments and risks for 

sustainable development. ASE Editure, 

Bucuresti. 

265 


Heilman P., Stone J., Sanchez Cohen I, Macias 

Rodriguez H., Mann R. S., 2005 - Working 

Smarter: Research and Decision Support 

Systems in Mexican Agriculture. Texas A&M 

Press. 

Mackeviţius J., Tomaševiţ V., 2011 - Model for 

Evaluating the Economic Efficiency of 

Investment Projects: Architecture and Main 

Aspects of Application. ISSN 1392-1258. 

Ekonomika Vol. 90(4), pg. 133-149. 

Singh M., Singh P., Singh S. B., 2008 - Decision 

Support System for Farm Management. World 

Academy of Science, Engineering and 

Technology 39, 346 – 349. 

Power D. J. 2007 - A Brief History of Decision Support 

Systems. DSSResources.COM, World Wide 

Web, http://DSSResources.COM/history/ 

dsshistory.html, version 4.0, March 10, 2007. 

Scott Jennifer, Ronald C., 2008 -The GPI soils and 

agriculture accounts - Towards a healthy farm 

and food system: indicators of genuine progress. 

Measuring Sustainable Development, GPI 

Atlantic. 

Subiš J., 2006 - Financing of investment projects in 

agriculture. Proceedings of the International 

Symposium on Entrepreneurial Culture 

Development for a Performing Management 

Based on Investments and Knowledge, 

Academy of Commerce Satu Mare, 

Management Financing Bank Faculty. 

Subic J., Done I., Vasiljevic Zorica, Dusmanescu D., 

Andrei J., 2010 - The Evaluation of Economic 

Investments' Efficiency in the Context of a Green 

Economy. A Case Study for Apple Trees 

Plantation. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture, 67(2). 

Pag. 245-252. 

Tjia J. S., 2009 - Building Financial Models. New York: 

McGraw-Hill. 

Turban E., Aronson J. E., 2000 - Decision support 

systems and intelligent systems. 6th ed. 

Available online at http://cwx.prenhall.com/ 

bookbind/pubbooks/turban2/. Prentice Hall, 

Upper Saddle River, NJ. 

Vasiljeviš Z., Subiš J., Šejvanoviš F., 2007 - Risk 

Management In Agricultural Investments. 1000th 

Seminar of the EAAE, 21st-23rd June 2007, 

Novi Sad. 

.***), 2010 - GHG emissions from stationary combustion 

(English) Version 4.0 (Oct 2010). UK 

Department for Environment, Food and Rural 

Affairs (DEFRA) Data, 

http://www.ghgprotocol.org 

***), 2010 - Situation and prospects for EU agriculture 

and rural areas. European Commission 

Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural 

Development. 

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/situationand-prospects/2010_en.pdf


Consilier editorial: Vasile VÎNTU 

Tehnoredactori: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI 

Corector: Costel SAMUIL 

Bun de tipar: 20.05.2012 

Apărut: iunie 2012. Format 210x297 

Editura: ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi 

Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490 

Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650 

E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro 

ISSN: 1454-7414 

PRINTED IN ROMANIA 

Tipar Digital realizat la Tipografia PIM 

Şoseaua Ştefan cel Mare nr. 11 

Iaşi – 700498 

Tel./fax: 0232-212740 

e-mail: editurapim@pimcopy.ro 

www.pimcopy.ro

Editorial Consultant: Vasile VÎNTU 

Technical Editors: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI 

Reader: Costel SAMUIL 

Imprimatur: 20.05.2012 

Published: June 2012. Format 210x297 

Publishing House: “Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi 

Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490 

Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650 

E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro 

ISSN: 1454-7414 

PRINTED IN ROMANIA 

PIM Digital Printing Press 

Şoseaua Ştefan cel Mare nr. 11 

Iaşi – 700498 

Tel./fax: 0232-212740 

e-mail: editurapim@pimcopy.ro 

www.pimcopy.ro 

Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 55, Nr. 1/2012, seria Agronomie

LUCRĂRI ŞTIIN IFICE - Revista Lucrari stiintifice - Seria Agronomie

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