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<strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong>, Regents Park, <strong>London</strong> NW1 4RY<br />
www.zsl.org<br />
Registered Charity no. 208728<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> B
ZSL Conservation Report No.10<br />
A <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, Guyana<br />
July 2009<br />
Rob Pickles<br />
Niall McCann<br />
Ashley Holland
Published by: The <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong>, Regents Park, <strong>London</strong>, NW1 4RY<br />
Copyright: © <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong> and contributors 2009.<br />
All rights reserved. The use and reproduction <strong>of</strong> any part <strong>of</strong> this<br />
publication is welcomed for non-commercial purposes only,<br />
provided that <strong>the</strong> source is acknowledged.<br />
ISSN: 1744-3997<br />
Citation: R. Pickles, N. McCann, A. Holland (2009)<br />
A <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, Guyana.<br />
ZSL Conservation Report No. 10. The <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong>,<br />
<strong>London</strong>.<br />
Key Words: Guyana, <strong>Rewa</strong>, biodiversity, threatened species, conservation, giant<br />
otter, logging, mining, ecosystem services<br />
Front cover: Jaguar photographed in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> © Gordon Duncan 2004<br />
Page layout: candice@chitolie.com<br />
The <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong> (ZSL), founded in 1826, is a world-renowned<br />
centre <strong>of</strong> excellence for conservation science and applied conservation (registered<br />
charity in England and Wales number 2087282). Our mission is to promote and<br />
achieve <strong>the</strong> worldwide conservation <strong>of</strong> animals and <strong>the</strong>ir habitats. This is realised<br />
by carrying out field conservation and research in over 80 countries across <strong>the</strong><br />
globe and through education and awareness at our two zoos, ZSL <strong>London</strong> Zoo and<br />
ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, inspiring people to take conservation action.<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this Conservation Report series is to inform people <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work that<br />
ZSL and its partners do in field conservation. Results <strong>of</strong> work carried out in field projects<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten only reported in unpublished technical reports. This series seeks to bring<br />
this grey literature into a more accessible form to help guide conservation<br />
management and inform policy. The main intention is to report on particular<br />
achievements, especially where lessons learnt form <strong>the</strong> field can benefit o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
conservation pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. The results <strong>of</strong> field surveys will also be disseminated<br />
through this series.<br />
The primary audience for <strong>the</strong>se reports is ZSL’s conservation partners. These<br />
include government departments, private sector actors and conservation<br />
organisations. In some cases this type <strong>of</strong> report will also be useful for local<br />
communities. This series will be published in English and o<strong>the</strong>r languages as<br />
appropriate. Because only a limited number <strong>of</strong> hard copies will be produced,<br />
electronic versions <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong>se reports will be available through <strong>the</strong> ZSL library.<br />
(https://library.zsl.org)
A <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, Guyana<br />
July 2009<br />
R.S.A. Pickles<br />
N.P. McCann<br />
A.P. Holland
Co n t e n t s<br />
Executive Summary 3<br />
Acknowledgements 4<br />
Team 5<br />
Introduction 6<br />
Background to <strong>the</strong> expedition 6<br />
The Guianan Shield 6<br />
Situation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 7<br />
Human occupancy and visits above Corona Falls 8<br />
The Expedition 10<br />
Chapter 1. Mammal Species Diversity and Relative Abundance 11<br />
Flagship Species: The Giant Otter 11<br />
Camera Trapping Survey 13<br />
Observations 17<br />
Chapter 2. Bird Species Diversity and Relative Abundance 20<br />
Mist Netting Survey 20<br />
Drift Spot Count Survey 22<br />
Chapter 3. Reptile Species Diversity 24<br />
Chapter 4. The Future State <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>:<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> Stakeholders 26<br />
Chapter 5. Conservation 31<br />
Conservation Recommendations 32<br />
References 34<br />
Appendix 1. Mammalian Diversity 37<br />
Appendix 2. Avian Diversity and Relative Abundance 39<br />
Appendix 3. Reptilian Diversity 47<br />
Appendix 4. EPA permission to conduct biodiversity research 48<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 1
Figure 1. Jaguar (Pan<strong>the</strong>ra onca) Photograph taken by Gordan Duncan in 2004. During that six<br />
week trip <strong>the</strong> water level was exceptionally low and 10 jaguar were observed.<br />
Figure 2. Goliath bird-eating spider (Theraphosa blondii), one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> giants <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s interior.<br />
Gordon Duncan.<br />
2 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
ex e C u t i v e su m m a r y<br />
The reason for <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
This report lays out <strong>the</strong> findings <strong>of</strong> a six week expedition above Corona Falls to<br />
<strong>the</strong> split between <strong>the</strong> East and West River <strong>Rewa</strong> in Guyana’s Upper Takutu-Upper<br />
Essequibo Region, documenting <strong>the</strong> fauna observed along 60 river miles. The <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
flows between <strong>the</strong> Conservation International Upper Essequibo Concession and<br />
<strong>the</strong> proposed Kanuku Mountains Protected Area, feeding <strong>the</strong> biologically important<br />
Rupununi Basin. Yet despite <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> appearing to be preserved in a pristine<br />
state it has not been explored scientifically to assess its conservation value. The<br />
initial focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> expedition was <strong>the</strong> endangered giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis),<br />
but alongside <strong>the</strong> giant otter research we set up a line <strong>of</strong> camera traps and mist-net<br />
stations as well as conducting drift surveys to record <strong>the</strong> riparian and forest fauna.<br />
Major Findings<br />
A line <strong>of</strong> camera traps positioned in <strong>the</strong> 25 miles immediately above Corona Falls<br />
recorded a total <strong>of</strong> 17 mammal species, including puma (Puma concolor), margay<br />
(Leopardus wiediii), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and Brazilian tapir<br />
(Tapirus terrestris). In total, 33 mammal species were recorded during <strong>the</strong> course<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> expedition including all 8 <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s monkey species. Mist netting and<br />
drift spot counts yielded a total <strong>of</strong> 187 bird species from 47 families. With <strong>the</strong><br />
inclusion <strong>of</strong> Smithsonian Institution data from 2006, <strong>the</strong> species list for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
<strong>Head</strong> rises to 251. These include 10 Guianan Shield endemics, two species <strong>of</strong> which<br />
had particularly small ranges: Todd’s antwren (Herpsilochmus stictocephalus) and<br />
<strong>the</strong> little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus); as well as <strong>the</strong> rare and charismatic<br />
harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis). We also saw<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> threatened bush dog (Speothos venaticus), yellow-footed tortoise<br />
(Geochelone denticulata) and giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus). In total, 50%<br />
<strong>of</strong> Guyana’s threatened species were observed above or immediately below Corona<br />
Falls. Goliath bird-eating spider (Theraphosa blondii) was recorded in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
and <strong>of</strong> particular note, 5 green anacondas (Eunectes murinus) over 15ft long were<br />
encountered. One individual measured was found to be 18’2”. Wildlife, particularly<br />
game species, was found to be naïve, with tapir, paca and black curassow allowing<br />
us to approach within several metres without fleeing.<br />
Birds: 251 species<br />
Mammals: 33 species<br />
Threatened fauna: 14 species<br />
Conservation Recommendations<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> this brief survey reveal <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> to be biologically rich and an<br />
important region for threatened lowland rainforest and riparian fauna. It is also <strong>the</strong><br />
headwater <strong>of</strong> an important tributary feeding <strong>the</strong> Essequibo. The <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> is currently<br />
under no protection and although <strong>the</strong> government has recently outlawed small-scale<br />
gold mining from <strong>the</strong> river, <strong>the</strong> area does constitute a logging concession which<br />
may well be developed in <strong>the</strong> coming years. Due to <strong>the</strong> ease with which charismatic<br />
rainforest fauna such as tapir, anaconda and harpy eagle can be seen; <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong><br />
potential for developing a modest, regulated tourist industry with <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> and Yupukari. The infrastructure already in place in <strong>the</strong>se villages could play an<br />
important role in establishing programmes <strong>of</strong> scientific investigation in <strong>the</strong> area for<br />
exploring <strong>the</strong> biodiversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Guianan Shield ecoregion as well as <strong>the</strong> distribution<br />
and biology <strong>of</strong> endangered species.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 3
aC k n o w l e d g e m e n t s<br />
Many thanks go to Diane McTurk for help and advice, allowing us to stay in Karanambu<br />
while analysing our data and collecting samples from her Rupununi otters. Thanks<br />
to Margaret Chan-a-sue for logistical support in Georgetown and to Peter Taylor<br />
for sound advice, tireless energy and for pointing us in <strong>the</strong> right direction. We are<br />
extremely grateful to Graham Watkins for criticism and advice and to Nicole Duplaix,<br />
for introducing us to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> to begin with. This expedition was funded through<br />
generous grants from <strong>the</strong> Linnaean <strong>Society</strong>’s Percy Sladen Memorial Foundation, ZSL’s<br />
Daisy Balogh Travel Award and through NERC expedition funds. The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition costs were self-financed.<br />
4 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
te a m<br />
Rob Pickles. BSc Zoology<br />
Rob and Niall first worked toge<strong>the</strong>r on giant otters in a Royal Geographical <strong>Society</strong><br />
funded expedition to Bolivia in 2003. Following on from this in 2006 Rob began a<br />
PhD investigating <strong>the</strong> population genetics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> giant otter at <strong>the</strong> Institute <strong>of</strong> Zoology,<br />
<strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong> (ZSL) and <strong>the</strong> Durrell Institute <strong>of</strong> Conservation and<br />
Ecology (DICE) at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Kent. He is now in his third year <strong>of</strong> study.<br />
Niall McCann. BSc Zoology<br />
After finishing his degree in zoology at Bristol University, Niall worked as a research<br />
assistant on ZSL’s jackal project in Namibia and is about to embark on a PhD studying <strong>the</strong><br />
population connectivity <strong>of</strong> Baird’s tapir in Honduras based at <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Cardiff.<br />
Ashley Holland<br />
Ash has worked with both <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institute and <strong>the</strong> BBC and was <strong>the</strong> local expert<br />
and naturalist as well as providing <strong>the</strong> logistical support to get up to <strong>the</strong> survey area.<br />
He has explored <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> on several occasions and worked with Conservation<br />
International during <strong>the</strong>ir Rapid Assessment Programme to <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus after<br />
working at Karanambu Ranch for many years and is currently <strong>the</strong> manager <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> black<br />
caiman research project in Yupukari.<br />
Kevin Alvin<br />
Kevin is a resident <strong>of</strong> Katoka village and knows <strong>the</strong> river well, working with <strong>the</strong><br />
Smithsonian Institution mist netting and with <strong>the</strong> BBC in <strong>the</strong> filming <strong>of</strong> ‘Lost land <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Jaguar’ and ‘Planet Earth’ series. He has worked with Ash for over five years.<br />
Ryol Merriman<br />
Ryol is a resident <strong>of</strong> Yupukari and has been working with Ash for over 10 years and has<br />
visited <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> on several occasions, working with <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian and BBC.<br />
Fernando Li<br />
Nando is <strong>the</strong> manager <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> black caiman project at Yupukari, funded by <strong>the</strong> Rupununi<br />
Learners Foundation. It is a long-term ecological study looking at <strong>the</strong> ecological role<br />
<strong>the</strong> species plays as well as sustainable resource use by local villages.<br />
Doris Merriman<br />
Doris was <strong>the</strong> expedition cook<br />
Figure 3. Ryol and Doris Merriman and bowman ‘Nando Li.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 5
in t r o d u C t i o n<br />
Background to <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
The expedition was initially conceived as a sampling trip to collect faecal samples from<br />
<strong>the</strong> giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) to obtain DNA for use in a phylogeographical<br />
study being carried out by Rob Pickles at <strong>the</strong> <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong> and <strong>the</strong><br />
University <strong>of</strong> Kent. The <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> was purported to have evaded <strong>the</strong> depredations <strong>of</strong><br />
hunters during <strong>the</strong> trade in giant otter fur and due to its isolated nature has witnessed<br />
little human impact over <strong>the</strong> centuries. It was recommended by Nicole Duplaix who<br />
conducted <strong>the</strong> first study on giant otters in <strong>the</strong> 1970s in Suriname. Due to <strong>the</strong> unexplored<br />
and unprotected status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, it was decided to maximize <strong>the</strong> time spent<br />
above Corona Falls by conducting coincidental biodiversity studies, namely camera<br />
trapping, mist-netting and spot-count transects.<br />
The Guianan Shield<br />
Figure 4. The Guianan Shield straddles five countries in nor<strong>the</strong>rn South America and its streams feed<br />
three drainage basins. High degrees <strong>of</strong> endemism and species diversity coupled with <strong>the</strong> largest tract<br />
<strong>of</strong> unbroken tropical forest anywhere in <strong>the</strong> world makes this an extremely important eco-region.<br />
Guyana is located in <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Guianan Shield, a vast Precambrian craton<br />
uplifted during <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Andes in <strong>the</strong> Oligocene, 3.5 million years ago. The<br />
craton formation has determined <strong>the</strong> hydrology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region, resulting in a watershed<br />
across its back which splits <strong>the</strong> flow <strong>of</strong> streams north-south. Across this 250 million<br />
hectares <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn South America lies <strong>the</strong> largest tract <strong>of</strong> pristine forest anywhere in<br />
<strong>the</strong> tropics. The Guianan Shield contains some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most carbon-rich forests in South<br />
America and represents an important carbon dioxide sink in <strong>the</strong> fight against climate<br />
change (Saatchi et al 2007). Added to this, <strong>the</strong> Shield possesses extremely high levels<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity and endemism as a result <strong>of</strong> Pleistocene refugia. Over 20,000 species <strong>of</strong><br />
vascular plants are found in <strong>the</strong> Guiana Shield, 35% <strong>of</strong> which are endemic. Similarly 975<br />
bird species are found in this eco region, <strong>of</strong> which 15% are endemic (Ellenbroek 1996).<br />
Lying between 1 and 9 degrees north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Equator with a coast in <strong>the</strong> Carribean,<br />
Guyana receives most <strong>of</strong> its wea<strong>the</strong>r patterns from <strong>the</strong> Caribbean Intertropical<br />
Convergence Zone (ICZ) with a seasonality driven by a rainy season arriving in early<br />
May lasting until mid-August, followed by ano<strong>the</strong>r short rainy season in December. Its<br />
forests are hot and humid with between 2000-4000mm <strong>of</strong> rain annually.<br />
6 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Unlike its larger neighbour to <strong>the</strong> south, Guyana has never had government-led drives to open<br />
up <strong>the</strong> interior <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country and so <strong>the</strong> forests have remained largely intact. While at 215,000<br />
km 2 it is similar in land mass to Great Britain, its population is only 870,000 strong with a<br />
population density <strong>of</strong> 3.5 per km 2 , 90% <strong>of</strong> whom live in a strip <strong>of</strong> land around <strong>the</strong> industrialised<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn cities <strong>of</strong> Georgetown, Bartica and Linden. Land cover remains 76% rainforest and<br />
while some cattle ranching occurs in <strong>the</strong> natural Rupununi savannahs and small-scale gardens<br />
are cultivated by Amerindian communities, <strong>the</strong>re is very little agriculture in <strong>the</strong> interior.<br />
Situation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
Figure 5. Location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> and extent surveyed by this expedition.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 7
The <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> is located in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Guyana, in Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo<br />
Administrative Region. It takes its water from tributaries feeding from <strong>the</strong> Kanuku<br />
Mountains in <strong>the</strong> South and drains north into <strong>the</strong> Rupununi and Essequibo before<br />
flowing into <strong>the</strong> Atlantic. The <strong>Rewa</strong> is termed a ‘blackwater river’ due to <strong>the</strong> humic, yet<br />
relatively sediment-free waters. Following <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> upstream from where it is met by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Kwitaro, <strong>the</strong> lowland rainforest vegetation type continues up above Corona Falls.<br />
Above here <strong>the</strong> river is fractured by a series <strong>of</strong> cataracts and falls which prevent <strong>the</strong><br />
colonisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> headwaters by fish common in <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong>, such as arapaima<br />
(Arapaima gigas), lukanani (Cichla ocellaris) and arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum).<br />
Likewise <strong>the</strong> black caiman (Melanosuchus niger), spectacled caiman (Caiman yacare)<br />
and giant Amazonian river turtle (Podocnemis expansa) are not found above Corona<br />
Falls. Above <strong>the</strong> falls <strong>the</strong> only fish species <strong>of</strong> human value are haimara (Hoplias aimara)<br />
and black piranhas (Serrasalmus rhombeus). A series <strong>of</strong> narrow tributaries flow into<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> along its meandering path above <strong>the</strong> falls. Some, such as Louis Creek and<br />
Kubrar Creek, can be followed for 6 miles or so, before fallen trunks block passage.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> names <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> creeks, camps and falls used here are old and date back to<br />
<strong>the</strong> balatta bleeders, though most are names given by Ashley Holland and his guides<br />
from previous trips. Continuing upstream, <strong>the</strong> river narrows to 20ft wide by N2° 45.358’<br />
W58° 37.415’ and shortly after, at N2° 45’ W58° 33’ <strong>the</strong> vegetation becomes scrubby<br />
riparian bush with dense bamboo groves, cecropia and guava, continuing with patchy<br />
forest to N2° 42’ where dense forest once again predominates.<br />
Human occupancy and visits above Corona Falls<br />
The <strong>Rewa</strong> has historically been inhabited by Amerindians. Evidence can be seen in<br />
<strong>the</strong> petroglyphs found on <strong>the</strong> falls, predominantly Corona, where geometric designs<br />
along with grooves purported to be for sharpening hand-axes can still be seen. Those<br />
responsible for <strong>the</strong> artwork have long since disappeared, leaving <strong>the</strong> forests above <strong>the</strong><br />
falls empty <strong>of</strong> people.<br />
Figure 6. Hand-axe sharpening grooves and geometric designs below Corona Falls on <strong>the</strong> River<br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> testify to <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re were once indigenous people inhabiting this area.<br />
8 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
The first outsiders to begin exploitation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region were <strong>the</strong> balata bleeders in <strong>the</strong><br />
early 20 th Century, who even ventured up as far as <strong>the</strong> East-West Split in order to tap<br />
<strong>the</strong> low-grade latex from <strong>the</strong> trees. The bleeders cut paths through <strong>the</strong> forest which<br />
are still recorded in <strong>the</strong> 1970 aerial survey. The petrochemical industry spelled <strong>the</strong> end<br />
for <strong>the</strong> balata industry and <strong>the</strong> last few bleeders likely ventured above Corona Falls in<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1960s. The gold found in <strong>the</strong> alluvial sand <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> has been a lure in <strong>the</strong><br />
past and several small mining operations worked <strong>the</strong> river above <strong>the</strong> falls in <strong>the</strong> early<br />
1990’s. Low gold prices coupled with <strong>the</strong> expense and extreme logistical difficulty<br />
<strong>of</strong> portaging dredging equipment over <strong>the</strong> falls led to <strong>the</strong> eventual abandonment <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se claims after a few years. The rotting equipment used during <strong>the</strong> dredging can<br />
still be found in <strong>the</strong> forest.<br />
Figure 7. Old compressor used by dredgers to compress air for <strong>the</strong> divers to brea<strong>the</strong>. Abandoned<br />
and now rotting in <strong>the</strong> forest.<br />
Since <strong>the</strong> last venture <strong>the</strong>re have not yet been any fur<strong>the</strong>r dredging operations anywhere<br />
along <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and <strong>the</strong> forests have never been explored for commercial timber.<br />
Macushi Amerindians from <strong>Rewa</strong> Village hold garden plots in <strong>the</strong> fertile alluvial soil<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> and Wapishanan Amerindians from Shea in <strong>the</strong> shouth savannahs<br />
travel to <strong>the</strong> Kwitaro to farm by <strong>the</strong> river <strong>the</strong>re. The river and <strong>the</strong> forests here are<br />
extremely important to <strong>the</strong> Amerindians and people travel as much as 75 miles from<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir village to work a plot <strong>of</strong> land or fish and collect turle eggs at certain times <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
year. However <strong>the</strong> villagers do not travel above Corona Falls and consequently, since<br />
<strong>the</strong> decline <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> balata industry and <strong>the</strong> dredgers above <strong>the</strong> falls, <strong>the</strong> wildlife has<br />
ceased to be exposed to hunting pressure and is allowed to flourish.<br />
Our expedition in January 2009 followed on from a Conservation International (CI)<br />
Rapid Assessment Programme in <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanuku Mountains and Lower Kwitaro<br />
River in 2001 and a Smithsonian Institution bird specimen collecting expedition to<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong>, collecting from two sites, one below Corona Falls in <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> and<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r above <strong>the</strong> falls. In 2007 <strong>the</strong> BBC carried out an expedition to <strong>the</strong> Upper<br />
Essequibo and spent several days above Corona Falls. filming wildlife. Ashley Holland<br />
has explored <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> several times with Gordan Duncan. Duane de Freitas has<br />
also led several trips above <strong>the</strong> falls for birdwatchers and tourists.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 9
th e ex p e d i t i o n<br />
The expedition ran from <strong>the</strong> 31 st December 2008 to <strong>the</strong> 31 st January 2009. Niall and<br />
Rob met with Ash and <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> team at Annai on <strong>the</strong> 31 st and proceeded up <strong>the</strong><br />
Rupununi before heading up <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong>. The next few days were spent motoring up to<br />
Corona Falls, <strong>the</strong> juncture between <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> and <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, arriving <strong>the</strong>re on<br />
<strong>the</strong> 3 rd January. The next three days were spent portaging over <strong>the</strong> string <strong>of</strong> falls and<br />
cataracts, before motoring on up to <strong>the</strong> split between East and West <strong>Rewa</strong>, setting<br />
up <strong>the</strong> camera trap grid as we went. In this way we worked our way up as far up <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> as was navigationally feasible, before slowly working our way back down <strong>the</strong><br />
river, surveying as we went. We took two 7m heavy duty aluminium boats with 15hp<br />
outboard engines owned by Ashley Holland and carried 150 gallons <strong>of</strong> fuel for <strong>the</strong> trip,<br />
leaving caches above and below Corona Falls for <strong>the</strong> return journey. We carried three<br />
GPS units: two Garmin E-Trex and a Garmin GPSmap 60Cx for work under <strong>the</strong> canopy.<br />
General positioning was conducted using Guyana Survey maps printed at <strong>the</strong> Survey<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Guyana, Georgetown.<br />
Figure 8. Portaging <strong>the</strong> boats over a cataract upstream <strong>of</strong> Bamboo Falls.<br />
First base was at <strong>the</strong> East-West Split at N2° 37.752’ W58° 37.152’, from which we<br />
explored <strong>the</strong> West branch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> up to 2°37’ before a series <strong>of</strong> fallen trees blocked<br />
passage. Three days were spent at “Split Camp” from <strong>the</strong> 10 th to <strong>the</strong> 13 th January. From<br />
<strong>the</strong>re we travelled downstream to “Tayra Camp” at N2° 45.358’ W58° 37.415’, erecting<br />
<strong>the</strong> second netting site, conducting drift transects and searching for sign <strong>of</strong> giant otter<br />
until <strong>the</strong> 16 th . The following camp was at N2° 53.697’ W58° 35.225’, known as “Onca<br />
Camp”. We remained here until <strong>the</strong> 19 th , surveying and netting before moving fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
downstream to “Monkey Ladder Camp” at N2° 59.773’ W58° 35.971’. While here we<br />
explored Louis Creek up to N2° 58.381’ W58° 32.799’. We were severely hampered<br />
by inclement wea<strong>the</strong>r, experiencing two torrential downpours which lasted for 36hrs<br />
and resulted in <strong>the</strong> river level rising by 10ft. The final camp above Corona Falls was at<br />
“Powis Camp”, below Powis Falls at N3° 07.901’ W58° 37.896’. We remained at Powis<br />
until <strong>the</strong> 27 th January surveying and netting, before collecting up <strong>the</strong> string <strong>of</strong> camera<br />
traps and portaging our gear back over Bamboo and Corona Falls. The night <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
27 th we stayed at a campsite below Corona Falls, before departing <strong>the</strong> following day,<br />
motoring <strong>the</strong> next three days back down <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and Rupununi, reaching Karanambu<br />
on <strong>the</strong> 31 st <strong>of</strong> January. In total we spent 22 days above Corona Falls. This report is a<br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wildlife encountered during that time.<br />
10 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Chapter 1. Mammalian Species Diversity and Relative Abundance<br />
The study <strong>of</strong> mammalian diversity and relative abundance was principally based on a<br />
line <strong>of</strong> camera traps erected in <strong>the</strong> 25 miles <strong>of</strong> river immediately upstream <strong>of</strong> Corona<br />
Falls. The species list presented in <strong>the</strong> appendix is a combination <strong>of</strong> observations<br />
recorded through camera trapping, sightings made while on drift transects and<br />
opportunistically as well as indirect evidence such as scats, footprints and burrows.<br />
Our reference was Emmons and Feer (1997) Neotropical Rainforest Mammals however<br />
we have used <strong>the</strong> most recent taxonomic revisions including <strong>the</strong> Guianan red howler<br />
monkey, (Alouatta macconnelli) and red-backed bearded saki (Chiropotes chiropotes).<br />
Principal Findings<br />
• 33 species <strong>of</strong> mammal recorded including all 8 <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s primates and 5<br />
species <strong>of</strong> felid.<br />
• Healthy population <strong>of</strong> endangered giant otter ( Pteronura brasiliensis) with 5<br />
groups recorded above <strong>the</strong> falls, equating to one group every 12 miles. Four<br />
groups were recorded below <strong>the</strong> falls.<br />
• 17 species <strong>of</strong> medium to large mammal recorded in camera traps including<br />
puma (Puma concolor), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and margay<br />
(Leopardus wiedii).<br />
• Indirect evidence for <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> bush dog ( Speothos venaticus) and giant<br />
armadillo (Priodontes maximus).<br />
• High abundance <strong>of</strong> Brazilian tapir ( Tapirus terrestris) with 5 encountered on<br />
<strong>the</strong> river and approximately 2.5 tapir roads crossing <strong>the</strong> river every mile. The<br />
animals encountered appeared naïve, due to <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> hunting.<br />
Flagship species: The Giant Otter<br />
The highly charismatic giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) was <strong>the</strong> main focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition, as we were <strong>the</strong>re to collect faecal samples for genetic analysis. The giant<br />
otter population is in <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> recovering from a hunting-mediated population<br />
crash in <strong>the</strong> last century which drove <strong>the</strong> species down to an estimated 3000 individuals<br />
range-wide (Carter & Rosas 1997). While no <strong>of</strong>ficial estimate <strong>of</strong> pre-hunting population<br />
size exists, judging by skin export figures (Carlos et al 1985, Schenck 1996), it could<br />
easily have been as high as 50,000. Since placing <strong>the</strong> giant otter in CITES Appendix<br />
1, <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> an international market in giant otter skins has seen numbers rise.<br />
However, it remains under threat particularly through habitat degradation, mercury<br />
poisoning, and direct conflict with fishermen (Harris et al 2005, Groenendijk et al 2005).<br />
Throughout <strong>the</strong> population crash <strong>the</strong> Guianan Shield remained a stronghold for <strong>the</strong><br />
species, a low human population density coupled with an interior which had yet to be<br />
opened up led to <strong>the</strong> giant otter surviving in this region while in o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> South<br />
America it suffered local extirpation.<br />
The work <strong>of</strong> Diane McTurk and Karanambu Ranch fomented <strong>the</strong> impression <strong>of</strong><br />
this charismatic predator in <strong>the</strong> public’s eye, creating an irrevocable association<br />
between Guyana and <strong>the</strong> giant otter that has since been streng<strong>the</strong>ned by recent BBC<br />
documentaries in <strong>the</strong> region. Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Guyana remains one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> top sites in South<br />
America to see giant otters and as such <strong>the</strong> species acts as a huge draw to many <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> eco-tourists that venture to <strong>the</strong> Rupununi ensuring that <strong>the</strong>re is also an economical<br />
interest in <strong>the</strong> survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species.<br />
Rob Pickles’ PhD is an investigation into <strong>the</strong> phylogeography <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> giant otter,<br />
using mitochondrial DNA to analyse patterns <strong>of</strong> relatedness between populations<br />
determining whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>re has been any divergence according to drainage basin,<br />
or whe<strong>the</strong>r palaeoclimatic events may have been responsible. It also investigates<br />
<strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> gene flow between populations which has important implications for<br />
effective management <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 11
Figure 9a. Territorial display by a group <strong>of</strong> giant otters above Corona Falls. Termed ‘periscoping’<br />
<strong>the</strong> behaviour is accompanied by a cacophony <strong>of</strong> wails and snorts <strong>of</strong>ten backed up by a mock<br />
charge. For <strong>the</strong> biologist, periscoping allows pictures to be taken <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> unique throat patterns<br />
allowing identification <strong>of</strong> individuals.<br />
Figure 9b. Inquisitive adult male giant otter approaching <strong>the</strong> boat. While some individuals are<br />
remarkably fearless and will approach to within several yards <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> boat, <strong>the</strong> mood <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> group<br />
is determined by <strong>the</strong> breeding female. If she feels threatened <strong>the</strong> group will normally periscope<br />
and disappear.<br />
12 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Method<br />
In surveying <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> for signs <strong>of</strong> giant otters we followed <strong>the</strong> guidelines <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group (Groenendijk et al 2005). The river was searched for<br />
sign during drifts downstream, looking out for evidence <strong>of</strong> holts, latrines or scratch<br />
walls or for <strong>the</strong> groups <strong>the</strong>mselves. The position <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se was recorded using GPS<br />
to delineate group territories. Group sizes were obtained by directly counting all<br />
individuals when a group was encountered in <strong>the</strong> river. We used two Canon EOS<br />
400D cameras with 300mm and 500mm lenses to capture throat markings and a Sony<br />
Handycam mini DV. Giant otters have a unique throat pattern which can be used to<br />
identify individuals, preventing <strong>the</strong> same group being counted twice. When an active<br />
site was located, any faecal deposits evident were collected and stored in ethanol for<br />
subsequent genetic analysis.<br />
Results<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 65 miles <strong>of</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> explored above Corona Falls, we found evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
5 groups with an estimated population size <strong>of</strong> 35 animals and collected 17 faecal<br />
samples. Due to <strong>the</strong> unseasonably heavy rains experienced it proved more difficult<br />
than anticipated to locate and observe groups. The narrow streams feeding <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
were full, resulting in groups spending much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir time hunting in <strong>the</strong>se difficult<br />
to access creeks. We found that groups frequently had latrines at <strong>the</strong> confluence <strong>of</strong><br />
a forest stream and <strong>the</strong> main river. Although we did not survey <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> for<br />
giant otters, we did encounter 4 groups and collected 13 faecal samples from <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
We also observed <strong>the</strong> neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis) in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> on four<br />
occasions and encountered two sprainting sites.<br />
While <strong>the</strong>re currently appears to be no direct threat to <strong>the</strong> giant otter’s survival in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> and <strong>the</strong> population appears healthy, in informal discussions with fishermen it is<br />
apparent that <strong>the</strong>y view <strong>the</strong> giant otter as a competitor. Work in Bolivia, by Beccera-<br />
Cardona (2006) has shown that in rivers <strong>the</strong>re, <strong>the</strong>re is only a small overlap in fish<br />
species and size selection by fishermen and giant otters, however <strong>the</strong> more generalist<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Guyanese fishermen would inevitably lead to a degree <strong>of</strong> competition.<br />
This competition is generally tolerated, with actual killing <strong>of</strong> otters by villagers being<br />
rare. However food shortages in unproductive years might exacerbate antagonistic<br />
feeling towards giant otters leading to conflict.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> evidence that <strong>the</strong> river might be mined for gold or diamonds was<br />
recorded. We found claims staked in April 2008 spread over 20 river miles. As this<br />
report was being prepared <strong>the</strong> Guyanese Government revoked all claims in <strong>the</strong> Lower<br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> and has put a moratorium on mining throughout both <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> and Lower<br />
<strong>Rewa</strong>. The giant otter is a top predator in its food chain and is thus extremely sensitive<br />
to mercury bioaccumulation. Mercury concentration has been shown to cause a range<br />
<strong>of</strong> neurological disorders, impaired reproduction and immunocompetency (Klenavic et<br />
al 2008, Fonseca et al 2005).<br />
Camera Trapping Survey<br />
In this study we used <strong>the</strong> Reconyx RC55 camera trap due to its fast ‘wake-up’ time and<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> image capture, able to record 1 frame per second. This enables a more accurate<br />
estimate to be made <strong>of</strong> animals travelling in groups. The use <strong>of</strong> digital technology<br />
proved essential in <strong>the</strong> high humidity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest and despite torrential rains, no<br />
camera was lost to mould. 2GB Extreme III CF cards were used and proved ample<br />
to contain all images captured. The traps were triggered by a PIR motion sensor and<br />
were mounted with an infrared LED illuminator. Camera setup was as follows. Image<br />
quality: medium; Firing delay: no delay; Firing sensitivity: extremely high.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 13
Figure 10. Rapidity with which all 17 species <strong>of</strong> mammal<br />
recorded in <strong>the</strong> camera traps were captured.<br />
14 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
Method<br />
Twelve Reconyx RC55 camera<br />
traps were set up along <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> above Corona Falls. Each<br />
trap was fixed to a tree or stake<br />
approximately 50cm above <strong>the</strong><br />
ground. The traps were set up in<br />
pairs, with one on <strong>the</strong> river bank<br />
itself facing inland and its partner<br />
150 metres perpendicular to <strong>the</strong><br />
river bank facing a direction<br />
estimated to best increase <strong>the</strong><br />
likelihood <strong>of</strong> capture. Each camera<br />
was considered a separate<br />
sampling site for determining <strong>the</strong><br />
Relative Abundance Index (RAI).<br />
The pairs were arranged 5 miles<br />
apart and left for a maximum <strong>of</strong><br />
22 days before collection. While<br />
game trails were not sought for<br />
in <strong>the</strong> placement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> traps, local judgment was employed in <strong>the</strong>ir positioning<br />
in order to prevent focusing on dead ground. Due to <strong>the</strong> strict adherence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
5mile/150m rule, we ensured that to some extent <strong>the</strong> placement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> traps was<br />
randomised and took in a variety <strong>of</strong> micro-habitats from dense scrubby marshland<br />
to hill tops to open riparian bush.<br />
Figure 11. Layout <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string <strong>of</strong> camera traps along <strong>the</strong> river.<br />
Results<br />
In total, 5227 camera trap hours were accumulated resulting in 214 triggering events.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong>se, discounting false triggerings due to movement <strong>of</strong> leaves by wind or in cases<br />
where animals had passed too rapidly to be captured, 167 individual animals could<br />
be identified from 16 species <strong>of</strong> mammal, 5 species <strong>of</strong> bird: Black curassow (Crax<br />
alector), grey-winged trumpeter, (Psophia crepitans), grey-fronted dove, (Leptotila<br />
rufaxilla), great tinamou (Tinamus major) and cinereous tinamou (Crypturellus<br />
cinereus); and one species <strong>of</strong> reptile: <strong>the</strong> jungle runner (Ameiva ameiva). From <strong>the</strong><br />
raw images <strong>of</strong> animals in which individual identification or sexing was impossible,<br />
we filtered <strong>the</strong> data based on <strong>the</strong> assumption that multiple firing episodes taken<br />
at <strong>the</strong> same site in <strong>the</strong> same 24 hour period constituted <strong>the</strong> same animal or group.<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> individuals was <strong>the</strong>n estimated from this as 157. Number <strong>of</strong> estimated<br />
individuals for each species was <strong>the</strong>n divided by this total to obtain <strong>the</strong> Relative<br />
Abundance Index (RAI).
Table 1. Species diversity and relative abundance index <strong>of</strong> mammals recorded in <strong>the</strong> camera traps.<br />
Common Name Latin Name<br />
Number<br />
<strong>of</strong> firings<br />
Estimated<br />
number <strong>of</strong><br />
individuals<br />
Relative<br />
Abundance<br />
(%)<br />
Red-rumped Agouti Dasyprocta cristata 42 28 25.2<br />
Paca Agouti paca 18 17 15.3<br />
Green Acouchy Myoprocta exilis 27 15 13.5<br />
Collared Peccary Tayassu tajacu 2 9 8.1<br />
Brazilian Tapir Tapirus terrestris 9 9 8.1<br />
Nine-banded Long-nosed<br />
Armadillo<br />
Dasypus novemcinctus 9 9 8.1<br />
Red Brocket Deer Mazama americana 4 4 3.6<br />
Ocelot Leopardus pardalis 4 4 3.6<br />
Common Grey Four-eyed<br />
Oppossom<br />
Philander opossum 3 3 2.7<br />
Common Oppossom Didelphis marsupialis 2 2 1.8<br />
Jaguarundi Puma yagouaroundi 2 2 1.8<br />
Margay Leopardus wiedi 2 2 1.8<br />
Puma Puma concolor 2 2 1.8<br />
Spiny Rat sp Proechimys sp 2 2 1.8<br />
Guianan Squirrel Sciurus aestuans 1 1 0.9<br />
Giant Anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla 1 1 0.9<br />
Tayra Eira barbara 1 1 0.9<br />
17 131 111 100<br />
Discussion<br />
The frequency <strong>of</strong> triggerings were not evenly distributed throughout <strong>the</strong> line <strong>of</strong> traps, but it<br />
appeared that several traps were set up in areas that were ‘dead ground’ with <strong>the</strong> worst site<br />
(3.1) only firing three times, with only one triggering event yielding species identification<br />
shots, while o<strong>the</strong>rs were in ‘hot spots’. Traps 4.2 and 6.1 proved <strong>the</strong> most successful, both<br />
recording 11 species from 30 and 39 triggering events respectively. Trap 4.2 was actually<br />
set up on a hill, 150m from <strong>the</strong> river’s edge and proved to be an extremely successful spot.<br />
All traps except one continued to work well despite <strong>the</strong> torrential downpours and high<br />
humidity experienced during <strong>the</strong> expedition, battery power was between 60-80% when<br />
<strong>the</strong> traps were recovered after 22 days and <strong>the</strong> 2GB CF cards were between 1-40% full. To<br />
a certain extent, <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> triggerings made in <strong>the</strong> poorer sites might reflect inaccurate<br />
set up. Judging <strong>the</strong> exact angle at which to point <strong>the</strong> trap in order to both capture small<br />
rodents passing in <strong>the</strong> foreground and anything passing in <strong>the</strong> background was not always<br />
successful. We recommend using a laser pen for setting up as this can help to achieve <strong>the</strong><br />
perfect angle. While <strong>the</strong> company Moultrie have a camera trap on <strong>the</strong> market with this<br />
function built in, <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ability to have constant firing function, coupled with a<br />
slower wake-up time meant we rejected that model for this study.<br />
There appeared to be no difference in species capture success depending on <strong>the</strong><br />
placement <strong>of</strong> camera traps whe<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong> river’s edge, or set 150m inland. The bank<br />
traps captured a total <strong>of</strong> 17 species in 79 triggerings, whereas <strong>the</strong> inland traps captured<br />
19 species in 91 triggerings. Four species were exclusively caught in <strong>the</strong> river edge<br />
traps (Guianan squirrel (Sciurus aestuans), ocelot (Leoprardus pardalis), puma (Puma<br />
concolor), and jungle runner (Ameiva ameiva) whereas 6 were caught only by <strong>the</strong><br />
inland traps (red brocket deer (Mazama americana), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga<br />
tridactyla), tayra (Eira barbara), margay (Leopardus weidii), common opossum<br />
(Didelphis marsupialis) and grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans)).<br />
One reason for setting up <strong>the</strong> traps in a paired string was to test <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>sis that<br />
felids follow watercourses and so will be more likely to be captured near to <strong>the</strong> river<br />
bank. While our data are not numerous enough to make meaningful statements, out <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 10 cats photographed, 7 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m were captured by <strong>the</strong> river’s edge traps.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 15
Figure 12. Male puma (Puma concolor) filmed captured<br />
following a female (tail just visible on far right).<br />
Figure 14. Inquisitive female Brazilian tapir<br />
(Tapirus terrestris).<br />
Figure 16. Rainforest dwelling giant anteater<br />
(Mymecophaga tridactyla).<br />
16 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
Figure 13. Herd <strong>of</strong> collared Peccary (Tayassu tajacu).<br />
Figure 15. Tayra (Eira Barbara).<br />
Figure 17. Margay (Leopardus wiedii).<br />
Figure 18. Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). Figure 19. Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi).
The data reveal a typical situation <strong>of</strong> high numbers <strong>of</strong> prey species to predators. Redrumped<br />
agouti (Dasyprocta cristata), paca (Agouti paca) and green acouchy (Myoprocta<br />
exilis) were <strong>the</strong> most abundant, comprising 25.2%, 15.3% and 13.5% respectively <strong>of</strong><br />
mammals recorded. Surprisingly no jaguars (Pan<strong>the</strong>ra onca) were recorded despite<br />
a known high density from previous expeditions. The reason for this is unclear<br />
although may be related to <strong>the</strong> unseasonably high water levels experienced during<br />
<strong>the</strong> expedition, meaning game would be more dispersed throughout <strong>the</strong> forest and<br />
less focussed on <strong>the</strong> river. In comparing our results with those from Pobawau Creek<br />
and Cacique Mountains camera trapping sites set up by CI in <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus RAP,<br />
it is interesting to note that white-lipped and collared peccaries (Tayassu pecari and<br />
T.tajacu) were <strong>the</strong> most abundant species recorded <strong>the</strong>re, whereas <strong>the</strong>y recorded no<br />
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), which is <strong>the</strong> fifth most abundant species recorded in<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> camera traps.<br />
When looking at <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <strong>of</strong> identifying medium to large mammalian species in<br />
a short period <strong>of</strong> time using camera traps, table 1 reveals that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 17 species observed<br />
this way, all were recorded after only 12 days <strong>of</strong> camera trapping. It appears <strong>the</strong>refore that<br />
in order to record more species requires ei<strong>the</strong>r a much longer sampling period, or a much<br />
broader camera network. This would also give more robust RAI figures.<br />
Observations<br />
We found a high diversity <strong>of</strong> primates, with all <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s 8 species recorded. Of<br />
particular importance were <strong>the</strong> Guianan Shield endemics, <strong>the</strong> black spider monkey (Ateles<br />
paniscus) classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by <strong>the</strong> IUCN, <strong>the</strong> Guianan saki (Pi<strong>the</strong>cia pi<strong>the</strong>cia)<br />
and, <strong>the</strong> Guianan red howler monkey (Alouatta macconnelli), recently upgraded to full<br />
species, <strong>of</strong> which over 7 groups were recorded during drift transects.<br />
Figure 20. Fresh bush dog (Speothos venaticus) print at <strong>the</strong> entrance to a paca den on <strong>the</strong><br />
riverbank. Rare and elusive animals, bush dog are an indicator <strong>of</strong> undisturbed habitat.<br />
Fresh footprints <strong>of</strong> bush dog (Speothos venaticus) seen investigating <strong>the</strong> burrow<br />
<strong>of</strong> a paca along <strong>the</strong> banks <strong>of</strong> a tributary feeding <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> are firm evidence for <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> this unusual canid in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>. The bush dog is an elusive and<br />
poorly understood animal, with most data on its behaviour and diet derived from<br />
anecdotes. In one study on diet in <strong>the</strong> Brazilian Pantanal, de Souza Lima et al (2009)<br />
recorded that <strong>the</strong> predominant prey found in faeces was <strong>the</strong> nine-banded long-nosed<br />
armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), which appears abundant in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>.<br />
Although its range is large and it is found throughout Amazonia, it is considered to<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 17
occur in low densities throughout that extent. The IUCN red list classifies <strong>the</strong> species<br />
as ‘Near Threatened’ being likely to suffer a 10% decline over <strong>the</strong> following decade due<br />
to habitat degradation (Zuercher et al 2008).<br />
Several burrows <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) were found in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
<strong>Head</strong>. This species is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by <strong>the</strong> IUCN.<br />
Figure 21. Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestrisi) photographed 10ft from boat.<br />
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) appeared to be abundant in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>. During<br />
drift surveys we observed 5 in total on <strong>the</strong> banks or in <strong>the</strong> river. As with curassow<br />
and paca, <strong>the</strong> tapirs we encountered appeared remarkably nonchalant about our<br />
presence, allowing us to approach to within several yards without causing alarm.<br />
To give a rough guide to <strong>the</strong> density <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se animals in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, along a 40<br />
mile stretch <strong>of</strong> river, while conducting drift transects over several days, we recorded<br />
97 fresh tapir roads, equating to approximately 2.5 fresh roads every river mile. This<br />
coupled with <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>y were <strong>the</strong> fifth most numerous species in <strong>the</strong> camera<br />
traps suggests a strong, healthy population.<br />
Table 2. Comparison <strong>of</strong> diversity <strong>of</strong> mammalian orders in three survey sites in Guyana.<br />
Site Iwokrama <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> Eastern Kanukus<br />
Reference<br />
18 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
Lim and Ergsrtom<br />
2004<br />
Pickles, McCann, Holland<br />
2009<br />
Montambault and Missa<br />
2002<br />
Survey duration<br />
(days)<br />
37 + 49 22 8<br />
Marsupialis 7 2 11<br />
Xenarthra 4 4 9<br />
Primates 5 8 8<br />
Carnivora 8 10 16<br />
Perissodactyla 1 1 1<br />
Artiodactyla 4 2 5<br />
Rodentia 15 5 9<br />
44 32 59
Figure 22. Pale-throated three-toed sloth (Dasypus tridactylus) photographed at <strong>the</strong> river’s edge.<br />
Jaguar were glimpsed twice above <strong>the</strong> falls and <strong>the</strong>ir presence was noted in fresh<br />
scratch patches and scats left near camp. However, due to <strong>the</strong> high level <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river<br />
following several torrential downpours, <strong>the</strong>re was a lack <strong>of</strong> exposed rocks where<br />
<strong>the</strong>y have been filmed basking on previous trips. During a 6 week trip above Corona<br />
Falls in 2004 for instance, Ashley Holland and Gordon Duncan filmed 10 jaguars at<br />
extremely close proximity. Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) was seen once. From<br />
sightings and camera trap evidence we recorded five <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> six species <strong>of</strong> felid known<br />
to exist in Guyana, and given <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> habitat and lack <strong>of</strong> disturbance, it is<br />
likely that <strong>the</strong> oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) will exist in <strong>the</strong> area as well. The cryptic<br />
pale-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) was also seen on drift surveys,<br />
three were recorded in <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> expedition.<br />
In total we recorded <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> 33 species <strong>of</strong> non-volant mammal, including<br />
2 marsupials, 4 xenarthrans, 8 primates, 10 carnivores, 1 perrissodactyl, 2 artiodactyls,<br />
and 6 rodents, equating to 35% <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s total non-volant, non-marine mammalian<br />
fauna. Guyana’s total mammalian species count is 225, 121 <strong>of</strong> which are bats and<br />
8 are marine cetaceans. In comparing <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> our survey in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> with<br />
those from o<strong>the</strong>r surveys in Guyana such as Iwokrama and <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus, one<br />
should note that no small-mammal trapping took place during our expedition and we<br />
only present in our species list animals recorded during <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> expedition.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 19
Chapter 2. Bird Species Diversity and Relative Abundance<br />
Avian diversity and relative abundance was measured by conducting a series <strong>of</strong> spot<br />
counts drifting downstream along 60 miles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, and through mist netting<br />
at camps set roughly 12 miles apart along from <strong>the</strong> East-West Split to Powis Falls.<br />
For reference we used Steven Hilty’s Birds <strong>of</strong> Venezuela in conjunction with Robin Restall’s<br />
Birds <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn South America and <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution’s A Field Checklist <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Birds <strong>of</strong> Guyana. In English names we have chosen to follow Hilty’s nomenclature.<br />
Principal Findings<br />
• 187 species recorded through drift spot counts and mist netting. This rises to<br />
251 with <strong>the</strong> inclusion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution’s 2006 data.<br />
• 10 Guianan Shield Endemics.<br />
• Confirmed presence <strong>of</strong> threatened harpy and crested eagle.<br />
• High diversity <strong>of</strong> raptors with 12 species recorded.<br />
Mist Netting Survey<br />
We conducted mist net surveys at 5 points along <strong>the</strong> 60 miles <strong>of</strong> river on which we<br />
were focussing our research. We used three 40ft standard BTO NR nets with a mesh<br />
size <strong>of</strong> 3cm. These proved fine enough to capture small birds such as antbirds and<br />
hummingbirds, and strong enough to capture species up to <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> a pigeon.<br />
Figure 23. Ash and Rob identifying a plain-brown woodcreeper (Dendrocincla fuliginosa).<br />
Method<br />
The nets were erected 50-200m from camp in a variety <strong>of</strong> habitats such as near vine<br />
tangles, tree falls and along <strong>the</strong> river edge in order to catch unobtrusive species which<br />
would not have been recorded during a drift transect. The nets were erected at 6am<br />
and taken down at 5:30pm during surveys and were checked every hour. Five netting<br />
sites were used from <strong>the</strong> East-West <strong>Rewa</strong> split down to Powis Falls covering a variety<br />
<strong>of</strong> habitats from open, scrubby bush, to palm thickets and dense forest. Ashley Holland<br />
has been identifying birds in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> for several years and he, Ryol Merriman and<br />
Kevin Alvin had worked previously with <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institution during <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
collecting expedition in 2006 and were adept at removing and identifying birds in <strong>the</strong><br />
nets, being familiar with <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> species caught.<br />
20 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Figure 24. A White-plumed Antbird (Pithys<br />
albifrons).<br />
Figure 25. Blue-crowned Motmot (Motmotus<br />
motmota).<br />
Figure 26a. Rufous-belled antwren (Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula guttata) and Figure 26b. brown-bellied<br />
antwren (Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula gutturalis), two Guianan Shield endemics.<br />
Figure 27. Rufous-throated antbird (Gymnopithys<br />
rufigula).<br />
Figure 28. Pygmy kingfisher, (Chloroceryle<br />
aenea).<br />
Figure 29. Variegated antpitta (Grallaria varia). Figure 30. Red-necked woodpecker (Campephilus<br />
rubricollis)<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 21
Results<br />
In total 420 mist net hours were accumulated (140 hours per net) at <strong>the</strong> five netting<br />
sites. 91 birds were caught, resulting in 41 different species being identified. Four birds<br />
were unidentified; two <strong>of</strong> which were likely to have been female long-winged antbirds<br />
(Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula longipennis). Twenty-three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species caught in mist nets were not<br />
observed during <strong>the</strong> drift transects.<br />
The most frequently caught family was <strong>the</strong> Thamnophilidae with 15 <strong>of</strong> all species<br />
and 27% <strong>of</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> individuals caught, followed by <strong>the</strong> Dendrocolaptidae (5<br />
species) and Trochilidae (4 species). The most common species encountered in <strong>the</strong><br />
nets was <strong>the</strong> wedge-billed woodcreeper (Glyphorynchus spirurus).<br />
Drift Spot Count Survey<br />
Method<br />
In conducting drift spot count surveys, we divided <strong>the</strong> river from <strong>the</strong> East-West Split at<br />
N2° 37.740’ W58° 37.040’ down to Corona Falls at N3° 10.579’ W58° 40.433’, into 5 mile<br />
stretches. Each stretch was surveyed once by drifting downstream with three spotters in a<br />
boat, taking turns at inputting <strong>the</strong> data, resulting in a single surveyed transect <strong>of</strong> 60 miles.<br />
We used a portable mp3 player containing <strong>the</strong> vocalisations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> Venezuela to<br />
identify calls and song. We kept to mid-river when it was narrow enough to cover both<br />
banks, but when <strong>the</strong> river widened to over 40m we kept within 15m <strong>of</strong> one bank. To<br />
standardise <strong>the</strong> surveys we attempted to maintain a steady speed <strong>of</strong> around 2 miles per<br />
hour, by paddling through slower stretches though <strong>the</strong> speed invariably depended on <strong>the</strong><br />
volume <strong>of</strong> water flowing. Following heavy rains transect duration was shorter by at least<br />
half an hour due to <strong>the</strong> increased flow. Occasionally it was necessary to break up a stretch,<br />
such as when portaging. When this occurred we halted <strong>the</strong> count until <strong>the</strong> obstacle had<br />
been passed. Spot counts were carried out in <strong>the</strong> morning, when animal activity was<br />
greatest. However, due to <strong>the</strong> logistics <strong>of</strong> moving camp, several times we had to carry on<br />
with conducting <strong>the</strong> surveys into <strong>the</strong> afternoon, when activity generally declined.<br />
Figure 31. Crimson topaz (Topaza pella). In total nine<br />
species <strong>of</strong> hummingbird were recorded in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong>.<br />
22 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
Results<br />
We recorded over 4000 birds<br />
during <strong>the</strong> transects, resulting in<br />
<strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> 158 species<br />
through both visual observation<br />
and vocalisations. Through <strong>the</strong><br />
combination <strong>of</strong> sightings made<br />
on drift transects, mist-netting,<br />
opportunistic sightings and<br />
vocalisations, we positively identified<br />
187 species from 48 different<br />
families. The most diverse family<br />
observed was <strong>the</strong> Tyrannidae<br />
(34 species) closely followed by<br />
Thamnophilidae (31 species), <strong>the</strong>n<br />
Accipitridae (11 species), Psittacidae<br />
(11 species), Ardeidae (10 species)<br />
and Trochilidae and Thraupidae (9<br />
species). The most abundant family<br />
was <strong>the</strong> Hirudinidae comprising<br />
20% <strong>of</strong> total observations,<br />
followed by <strong>the</strong> Apodidae, with<br />
16%, Psittacidae with 10% <strong>the</strong>n<br />
Icteridae with 5%.<br />
Discussion<br />
In August 2006 Ashley Holland led a Smithsonian Institution collecting expedition to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong>, coordinated by Chris Milensky and Brian Schmidt. They set up two mist netting<br />
sites, one above Corona Falls at Louis Creek (2 58’ 17” N, 58 35’ 37” W) and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
below. Above <strong>the</strong> falls <strong>the</strong>y erected 20 nets and netted for 10 days. Combining our data
with <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian’s gives a more complete picture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region’s avifauna as <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
<strong>the</strong>re in <strong>the</strong> wet August, while we were <strong>the</strong>re in January, entering <strong>the</strong> dry season. In <strong>the</strong><br />
species list we present our observations toge<strong>the</strong>r with those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institute<br />
for direct comparison. This brings <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> bird species seen in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> to 250<br />
and number <strong>of</strong> families to 53, equating to 31% <strong>of</strong> all Guyana’s bird species (796).<br />
The difference in season is most apparent in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> migratory species such as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and <strong>the</strong> relative abundance <strong>of</strong> frugivorous species such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Psittacidae which were no doubt more noticeable in January due to congregations<br />
forming on fruiting trees. Likewise, whereas <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian recorded <strong>the</strong> family Ictericidae<br />
as Uncommon, we <strong>of</strong>ten encountered large flocks <strong>of</strong> yellow-rumped cacique (Cacicus<br />
cela), red-rumped cacique (Cacicus haemorrhous) and crested oropendola (Psarocolius<br />
decumanus) as <strong>the</strong>y were nesting, leading us to surmise that <strong>the</strong>y were Common in <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
Of chief interest in <strong>the</strong> sightings are 10 Guianan Shield endemics, <strong>the</strong> Guianan toucanet<br />
(Selenidera culik), green aracari (Pteroglossus viridis), black nunbird (Monasa atra),<br />
rufous-throated antbird (Gymnopithys rufigula), brown-bellied antwren (Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
gutturalis), rufous-belled antwren (Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula guttata), caica parrot (pionopsitta caica)<br />
and black curassow (Crax alector). Two species recorded have particularly small ranges<br />
within <strong>the</strong> Guianan Shield ecoregion, Todd’s antwren (Herpsilochmus stictocephalus)<br />
and little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus). This expedition also confirms <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> awesome harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>. A potential sighting <strong>of</strong> a dusky purpletuft (Idopleura fusca) is worth<br />
mentioning, although fur<strong>the</strong>r confirmation is required that <strong>the</strong>y are found in this area.<br />
The species’ current known range in Guyana is restricted to Iwokrama Reserve, which<br />
would make <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> a second population extremely important.<br />
Figure 32. The crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis), classed as<br />
‘’near threatened” in <strong>the</strong> IUCN Red List.<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> harpy and<br />
crested eagle, with good<br />
observations made reflects <strong>the</strong><br />
pristine nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> habitat<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, with large<br />
mature kapok trees (Ceiba<br />
pentandra) providing nesting<br />
sites and a high abundance<br />
<strong>of</strong> primate, sloth and cracid<br />
prey to sustain <strong>the</strong> population.<br />
Shortly after our expedition<br />
Duane de Freitas reported<br />
10 harpy sightings in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, including several<br />
pairs, suggesting that <strong>the</strong>se<br />
birds are breeding above<br />
<strong>the</strong> falls. The abundance and<br />
naivety <strong>of</strong> cracids, both black<br />
curassow (Crax alector) and<br />
blue-throated piping-guan (Pipile cumanensis), favoured game birds, illustrates <strong>the</strong> fact<br />
that hunting does not take place in <strong>the</strong> area. The high diversity <strong>of</strong> raptors recorded is <strong>of</strong><br />
particular interest, six <strong>of</strong> which were not recorded by <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian Institute during <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
collecting expedition in 2006, and again points to a pristine habitat rich in prey.<br />
When seen in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> Conservation International’s 2001 Rapid Assessment Program<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus and Lower Kwitaro (Montambau and Missa 2003), our findings<br />
become more relevant. CI recorded a total <strong>of</strong> 264 species in <strong>the</strong> Lower Kwitaro, Eastern<br />
Kanukus after combining data from <strong>the</strong>ir 2001 RAP with that <strong>of</strong> Davis Finchs survey in<br />
1998. Of <strong>the</strong> combined 250 species from ZSL’s 2009 expedition and <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian’s 2006<br />
expedition, 68 were not recorded in <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus and Lower Kwitaro, <strong>the</strong>se are<br />
predominantly Ardeidae (6 species), Accipitridae (6 species), Thamnophilidae (8 species),<br />
Tyrranidae (13 species) and Thraupidae (8 species). This might reflect habitat differences<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> range from dense rainforest to scrub and bush patches fur<strong>the</strong>r up <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
<strong>Head</strong>, habitat preferred by species such as <strong>the</strong> little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus).<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 23
Chapter 3. Reptile Species Diversity<br />
No specific herpetological studies took place, however several observations made<br />
during drift transects or through chance encounters are worth recording.<br />
Firstly <strong>the</strong> complete absence <strong>of</strong> black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and spectacled<br />
caiman (Caiman yacare) in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> is interesting and is likely to be due to Corona<br />
Falls acting as a dispersal barrier. The contrastingly high numbers <strong>of</strong> Schneider’s dwarf<br />
caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) above <strong>the</strong> falls may be due to <strong>the</strong>ir preference for cool,<br />
fast flowing forest streams ra<strong>the</strong>r than ecological release from competition with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
crocodilians. Magnussun et al (1987) considered <strong>the</strong>re to be resource partitioning between<br />
dwarf and spectacled caiman as a result <strong>of</strong> differing habitats and prey selectivity which<br />
precludes competition from occurring. However, Medem (1971) reported that following<br />
hunting for skins <strong>of</strong> black and spectacled caiman from rivers in Colombia, <strong>the</strong> un-hunted<br />
dwarf caiman (due to <strong>the</strong> low value <strong>of</strong> its skin) expanded its range, so perhaps competition<br />
does play a role in explaining <strong>the</strong> pattern seen. Below Corona Falls we observed both black<br />
and spectacled caiman but no dwarf caiman. The species is known to exist in <strong>the</strong> Lower<br />
<strong>Rewa</strong>, but at much lower densities (Holland unpublished data) and is rare downstream <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Kwitaro mouth.<br />
Figure 33. Schneider’s dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) in typical head-up resting pose.<br />
With regards to Testudines, most conspicuous in its absence was <strong>the</strong> giant Amazonian<br />
Turtle (Podocnemis expansa), classified as ‘Lower risk/conservation dependent’ and<br />
yellow-spotted sidenecked turtle (Podocnemis unifilis), classified as ‘Vulnerable’, both<br />
<strong>of</strong> which were recorded in <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> up to Corona Falls, yet as with <strong>the</strong> spectacled<br />
and black caiman, absent from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>. Ano<strong>the</strong>r Testudine <strong>of</strong> particular note<br />
encountered on a hill in dense forest in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> was <strong>the</strong> yellow-footed tortoise<br />
(Geochelone denticulata) described as ‘Vulnerable’ in IUCN Red List reports.<br />
We encountered 6 green anacondas (Eunectes murinus) in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> during <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition. Five <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m were basking on <strong>the</strong> river bank while <strong>the</strong> sixth was actively<br />
swimming. In order to ascertain our size estimates were correct, we captured a large<br />
anaconda and measured it, taking three measurements from nose tip to tail tip using a<br />
length <strong>of</strong> string and assumed <strong>the</strong> mean measurement to be accurate. Our estimated length<br />
<strong>of</strong> 17ft proved close, but short by 1’2”. The snake’s total length was 18’2”. Unfortunately no<br />
weight was taken, but <strong>the</strong> animal’s girth at its thickest point was 27”. The o<strong>the</strong>r anacondas<br />
seen were estimated as 8ft, 15ft, 16ft and two at 17ft. The presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se very large<br />
snakes in <strong>the</strong> area is extremely interesting as in <strong>the</strong> longest-running study on anacondas in<br />
<strong>the</strong> world, in <strong>the</strong> Venezuelan Llanos, Jesus Rivas captured over 900 animals yet recorded<br />
few specimens growing larger than 16’ long. There is undoubtedly a good prey base for<br />
<strong>the</strong> anacondas in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, with capybara and dwarf caiman plentiful.<br />
24 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Figure 34. Yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata).<br />
Figure 35. The team measuring a large anaconda. Total<br />
length was determined as 18’2”.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 25
Chapter 4. The Future state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>:<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> stake holders<br />
Tour operators and village communities<br />
Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas both take tourists up <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong>, running around 3<br />
trips per year to <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> and 1-2 trips per year above Corona Falls. Approximately<br />
15 local guides are employed for <strong>the</strong>se trips. This low level ecotourism is sustainable<br />
and not detrimental to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>. Integrating this tourism with <strong>the</strong> Amerindian<br />
villages <strong>of</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and Yupukari has led to <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> several purpose-built<br />
lodges for tourists to stay in resulting in a trickle down <strong>of</strong> revenue into <strong>the</strong> villages. In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> livelihood <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> is also an important source <strong>of</strong> fish and game and<br />
villagers also hold small garden plots in <strong>the</strong> fertile alluvial soil <strong>the</strong>re.<br />
The Guyanan Nation<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> ecosystem services, <strong>the</strong> protection <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s headwaters must be<br />
considered as <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> is an important limb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Essequibo drainage. We experienced<br />
firsthand <strong>the</strong> effect a downpour in <strong>the</strong> Kanukus immediately has on <strong>the</strong> river level,<br />
which in turn has a knock-on effect on levels in <strong>the</strong> Rupununi and subsequently, <strong>the</strong><br />
Essequibo. The terrifying fact that 90% <strong>of</strong> Guyanese live in a narrow coastal region<br />
including Georgetown, which lies 0.5-1m below sea level points to flooding representing<br />
a constant and immediate risk. The pattern <strong>of</strong> wea<strong>the</strong>r seasonality in Guyana appears<br />
to be changing, with shorter dry seasons and prolonged, heavier wet seasons. In 2005<br />
heavy flooding wracked Georgetown affecting over 200,000 people, with open sewerage<br />
presenting a huge public health problem. Preserving <strong>the</strong> forests <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Essequibo’s<br />
headwaters should be seen as one way <strong>of</strong> minimising run-<strong>of</strong>f and preventing devastating<br />
flooding from occurring. The covering <strong>of</strong> dense forest acts to dampen <strong>the</strong> rush <strong>of</strong> water<br />
into <strong>the</strong> rivers and help prevent flooding fur<strong>the</strong>r downstream.<br />
Small-scale gold dredging<br />
While <strong>the</strong> substrate under <strong>the</strong> forests ei<strong>the</strong>r side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> reportedly does not<br />
contain gold bearing rock, being chiefly composed <strong>of</strong> sandy loam and so unlikely to<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer a lucrative large-scale mining opportunity, <strong>the</strong> accumulation <strong>of</strong> gold particles and<br />
also diamonds brought down <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Kanuku Mountains will have led to<br />
fluvial or ‘placer’ deposits suitable for mining using small two-man dredges. The <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
constitutes a succession <strong>of</strong> mining claims and while travelling to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>, we<br />
Figure 36. Use <strong>of</strong> a hollow tree trunk as a holt by giant otters coincides with <strong>the</strong> placement <strong>of</strong> a<br />
gold mine claim board.<br />
26 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
ecorded claim boards over 20 river miles registered under <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> ‘DWIGHT’<br />
Licence number 3748 1-50 claimed in April 2008. Poignantly, one claim board (pictured)<br />
was found to have been erected beside a giant otter holt.<br />
Mineral mining including dredging for gold and diamonds is a central aspect<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Guyanese economy. In 2008, Guyana’s total export receipts amounted to<br />
US$798.4million. The largest export was gold, with earnings <strong>of</strong> US$203.7million.<br />
Second largest was sugar (US$133.4million) and third largest bauxite, with earnings<br />
<strong>of</strong> US$131.1million. As such <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> mining to <strong>the</strong> economy <strong>of</strong> Guyana<br />
cannot be underestimated. It is important that areas <strong>of</strong> land are identified that should<br />
be ring-fenced from mining due to <strong>the</strong>ir ecological significance. Equally important is<br />
that mining practices are improved to minimise <strong>the</strong> damage done to any environment<br />
where mining operations are carried out.<br />
Gold dredging is typically carried out by 2-4 men and a small pontoon-mounted<br />
dredge, with a diver operating a nozzle to suck up sediment from <strong>the</strong> riverbed and <strong>the</strong><br />
sediment <strong>the</strong>n being processed on <strong>the</strong> river bank. Unfortunately <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> mercury for<br />
amalgamating <strong>the</strong> gold particles is still widespread in South America. As a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
process <strong>of</strong> extraction, mercury is lost into <strong>the</strong> watercourses where, due to biochemical<br />
interactions, it can be converted into <strong>the</strong> highly toxic methylmercury and absorbed by<br />
aquatic life six times easier than <strong>the</strong> inorganic form (Committee on <strong>the</strong> Toxicological<br />
Effects <strong>of</strong> Methylmercury 2000). The toxic effect <strong>of</strong> mercury, as a result <strong>of</strong> bioaccumulation,<br />
has been well documented and can lead to neurological and organ failure and impaired<br />
reproduction. Klenavic et al. (2008) found that in wild mink (Mustela vison) and North<br />
American river otters (Lontra canadensis) high mercury concentration was associated<br />
with higher parasite burden, suggesting <strong>the</strong> animals were immunocompromised.<br />
The dredging itself erodes river banks and results in large sediment plumes in <strong>the</strong><br />
watercourse, leading to smo<strong>the</strong>ring <strong>of</strong> benthic river fauna and flora.<br />
In 2005 The Geology and Mines Commission released <strong>the</strong> Mining (Amendment)<br />
Regulations that aim to improve <strong>the</strong> environmental practices <strong>of</strong> all mining operations.<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> that amendment a dredge operator can be fined US$350 for mercury<br />
seepage and <strong>the</strong> operation shut down. Since November 2008, an Environmental<br />
Bond <strong>of</strong> US$480 must be paid before operations begin and at <strong>the</strong> UN meeting <strong>of</strong><br />
Environmental Ministers in Nairobi in late February 2009, Guyana became a signatory<br />
in a legally binding treaty aimed at slashing <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> mercury in mining.<br />
Currently, for small-scale river dredging operations, a river mile is extremely cheap to<br />
buy, working out at US$20 per mile for <strong>the</strong> first year and US$10 each succeeding year.<br />
Including <strong>the</strong> associated costs <strong>of</strong> mining permits and licences, to buy <strong>the</strong> claims for<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> would amount to little more than US$1400 for <strong>the</strong> first year and<br />
US$1050 for each successive year.<br />
Oil Drilling<br />
The Canadian company Groundstar Resources Ltd has been exploring <strong>the</strong> Rupununi<br />
and Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo District for oil and gas reserves since 2005,<br />
holding <strong>the</strong> right to exploration and extraction <strong>of</strong> oil and natural gas in 780,000ha<br />
<strong>of</strong> land, part <strong>of</strong> which includes <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> (Source: GGMC Official Gazzette). In March<br />
2008 <strong>the</strong> company entered into a farm-in agreement with Canacol Energy Ltd under<br />
<strong>the</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> which Canacol stumps up <strong>the</strong> initial exploratory costs in return for a<br />
55% interest stake in <strong>the</strong> block. Groundstar currently has 3 prospects it is looking<br />
to exploit containing an estimated 55billion barrels <strong>of</strong> oil and drilling is expected to<br />
begin this year following exploratory wells being sunk at <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and Karanambu<br />
prospects. As yet however, <strong>the</strong>re is no absolute certainty that it will be commercially<br />
viable to extract <strong>the</strong> oil (Source: www.scandoil.com, www.rigzone.com).<br />
Groundstar has apparently begun community consultation and environmental impact<br />
management. As with <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> logging, <strong>the</strong> presiding concern is <strong>the</strong> development<br />
<strong>of</strong> roads and <strong>the</strong> bringing in <strong>of</strong> workers to <strong>the</strong> area. It must be recognised that <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
benefits to <strong>the</strong> community from <strong>the</strong> drilling in terms <strong>of</strong> local employment in <strong>Rewa</strong> Village<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 27
itself and <strong>the</strong> access road which will make it easier for villagers to travel to Le<strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong><br />
nearest town. However it is <strong>of</strong> prime concern that <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wells should be<br />
monitored by an objective assessor to ensure that environmental standards are kept.<br />
Logging<br />
Simon and Shock International LLC (SSI) is a US based timber company specializing in<br />
expensive tropical hardwoods for high-end markets. In January 2008 <strong>the</strong> company bought<br />
up 400,000 hectares <strong>of</strong> logging concessions in <strong>the</strong> headwaters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and Essequibo<br />
rivers with <strong>the</strong> intention <strong>of</strong> extracting species such as greenheart (Chlorocardium<br />
rodiei) and purpleheart (Peltogyne sp). The western section <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> logging concession<br />
incorporates <strong>the</strong> entirety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> and includes <strong>the</strong> right banks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kwitaro<br />
and Lower <strong>Rewa</strong>. The 80,000ha Conservation International concession nestles between<br />
<strong>the</strong> East and West logging concessions in <strong>the</strong> Upper Essequibo.<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> a US$45 million project, SSI announced its intention to build a state-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-art<br />
saw mill in Linden, nor<strong>the</strong>rn Guyana. This mill is purported to be <strong>the</strong> most technologically<br />
advanced in <strong>the</strong> world, recovering an estimated 75% <strong>of</strong> timber from logs as opposed to<br />
30-40% which is typical in Neotropical mills. This is achieved using a network <strong>of</strong> lasers<br />
and computer-guided saws to make <strong>the</strong> cuts which optimise output. The aim <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mill,<br />
as explained by Kelly Simon, CEO <strong>of</strong> Simon and Shock, is to completely eliminate waste.<br />
Sawdust will be used to fire <strong>the</strong> kilns and ash will be given to farmers as fertiliser. SSI<br />
state that <strong>the</strong> new laser-guided milling technology at <strong>the</strong> Linden saw mill will result in<br />
half <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> trees needed to be felled to produce <strong>the</strong> same volume <strong>of</strong> timber (SSI<br />
figures 2007). Although doubts have been expressed over <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new mill<br />
with tropical hardwoods and <strong>the</strong> recovery estimates claimed.<br />
In discussions with Kelly Simon, a suite <strong>of</strong> measures designed to minimise <strong>the</strong> impact<br />
<strong>of</strong> logging were mentioned and <strong>the</strong> company is evidently keen to portray itself as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most sustainable and least environmentally damaging logging firms operating<br />
in South America. At <strong>the</strong> practical level, measures such as positioning <strong>the</strong> saw mill in<br />
Linden in <strong>the</strong> industrialised north, ra<strong>the</strong>r than in <strong>the</strong> forest itself will negate <strong>the</strong> need for<br />
workers to stay in <strong>the</strong> forest and prevent a creep in <strong>of</strong> small-scale exploiters. Foresters<br />
are apparently to be recruited from Annai and bussed in by morning and out by<br />
evening, while Brinks Security on <strong>the</strong> road entering <strong>the</strong> concession will check workers<br />
for weapons and game and will have <strong>the</strong> power to arrest poachers. The use <strong>of</strong> narrow<br />
forwarders and cable skidders will minimise damage to <strong>the</strong> ground and surrounding<br />
trees when logs are removed. SSI have stated that <strong>the</strong>y will leave a set-back <strong>of</strong> 200yds<br />
from streams to protect <strong>the</strong> drainages, six times <strong>the</strong> proscribed distance, and intend to<br />
leave ‘biodiversity banks,’ islands <strong>of</strong> forest within <strong>the</strong> concession which will be left to<br />
act as reservoirs and fail-safes for biodiversity.<br />
If all measures are carried out as stated, <strong>the</strong> impact on <strong>the</strong> forest ecosystem will be<br />
minimised to a degree. However, <strong>the</strong>re are important considerations to take. Namely,<br />
working and making a pr<strong>of</strong>it out <strong>of</strong> 400,000 hectares <strong>of</strong> forest would require a large work<br />
force, likely larger than <strong>the</strong> small village <strong>of</strong> Annai could supply. This would necessitate<br />
bringing in workers, perhaps settling <strong>the</strong>m in Annai. Feeding <strong>the</strong>se workers protein<br />
will <strong>the</strong>n become an issue, and it will be extremely difficult to prevent any poaching<br />
at all from occurring. While armed security at a checkpoint on <strong>the</strong> road will prevent<br />
vehicles from entering, poachers on foot would simply be able to hike around <strong>the</strong><br />
checkpoint. Logging <strong>the</strong> concession will necessitate creating a network <strong>of</strong> roads to<br />
bring <strong>the</strong> forest machinery in and <strong>the</strong> logs out. Due to <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Parishara area,<br />
<strong>the</strong> most likely access point to <strong>the</strong> concession, <strong>the</strong> roads will have to be substantial.<br />
One estimate suggests <strong>the</strong>y will need to be 10-15ft high. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore transporting<br />
<strong>the</strong> logs to Linden would most likely be carried out using double trailered road trains<br />
with a gross weight <strong>of</strong> 110 tons which local sources have pointed out, would require<br />
55 bridges to be rebuilt at an estimated cost <strong>of</strong> US$1 million per bridge. The Le<strong>the</strong>m<br />
to Georgetown road would also have to be widened to incorporate <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
trucks. That coupled with <strong>the</strong> 400 miles <strong>of</strong> road needed to traverse between <strong>the</strong> SSI<br />
concession and <strong>the</strong> Linden saw mill may well make <strong>the</strong> venture uneconomical.<br />
28 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Figure 37. The area leased to Groundstar Resources for oil drilling totals 780,000ha <strong>of</strong> land and<br />
includes two prospects, one near Karanambu lands and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r near <strong>Rewa</strong> village. (Source:<br />
Takutu Basin: Groundstar PPL www.groundstarresources.com/country.html)<br />
Simon and Shock International has been leased 400,000ha <strong>of</strong> land including <strong>the</strong> entirety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
<strong>Head</strong>. (Source: Forest Resources Information Unit, Guyana Forestry Commission).<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 29
While outwardly selective logging can appear to cause minimal environmental<br />
degradation, un-detectable from fly-overs, <strong>the</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> large economic species will<br />
alter <strong>the</strong> canopy structure and <strong>the</strong> reduction in leaf-fall from such key trees has been<br />
shown by Villela et al (2006) in <strong>the</strong> eastern Brazilian forests to cause a reduction in<br />
nutrient cycling. If poorly managed, skidding out logs can damage trees and saplings<br />
and <strong>the</strong> compacted furrows caused by logging machinery can alter surface run-<strong>of</strong>f,<br />
leading to erosion. The construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> roads and bridges as well as <strong>the</strong> skidding<br />
trails will without doubt impact negatively on sensitive species such as bush dog<br />
(Speothos venaticus) as well as ground nesting birds such as tinamous (Tinamidae).<br />
The economic impact <strong>of</strong> SSI’s acquisition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upper <strong>Rewa</strong>-Essequibo concessions<br />
should not be underestimated. The company has stated that it is pumping $45million<br />
into this project and so one can expect that when logging begins, <strong>the</strong> returns are<br />
significant. Under <strong>the</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agreement with <strong>the</strong> Guyanese government,<br />
all timber extracted from <strong>the</strong> forests will not leave Guyana, but will be worked incountry,<br />
allowing <strong>the</strong> nation to maximise <strong>the</strong> revenue from its forests. The villagers<br />
<strong>of</strong> Annai and a workforce in Linden will benefit from <strong>the</strong> project through employment.<br />
However, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> governmental income from logging <strong>the</strong> concession exceeds<br />
that <strong>of</strong> receiving payments from REDD to hold on to <strong>the</strong> concession intact has been<br />
challenged by Rhett Butler (see Butler 2008) who reports that in fiscal terms <strong>the</strong> forests<br />
could be worth more to Guyana standing.<br />
Figure 38. In <strong>the</strong> dry season huge sandy beaches are exposed in <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong>, providing a nesting<br />
ground for giant South American river turtles (Podocnemis expansa). The superabundance <strong>of</strong> eggs laid<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se sand banks is a boon which many forest species time <strong>the</strong>ir breeding cycle to coincide with.<br />
30 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Chapter 5. Conservation value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong><br />
In <strong>the</strong> 22 days spent above Corona Falls we recorded <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> 33 species <strong>of</strong><br />
mammal, equating to 35% <strong>of</strong> all non-volant mammal species in Guyana. The combined<br />
ZSL/SI figure <strong>of</strong> 250 bird species represents 31% <strong>of</strong> Guyana’s total bird species count.<br />
Of those, 11 were found to be Guianan Shield endemics. Following fur<strong>the</strong>r surveying<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area including <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> small-mammal traps <strong>the</strong>se figures are certain to rise.<br />
These initial findings strongly suggest that <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> is a region <strong>of</strong> outstanding<br />
biological richness and deserves international recognition.<br />
Of Guyana’s 28 non-marine species <strong>of</strong> mammal, bird and reptile classified as<br />
‘conservation dependent’ or worse, we recorded 10 present in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> (2 birds,<br />
8 mammals, 1 reptile) and 3 were found to exist in <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> up to Corona Falls<br />
(black caiman, Melanosuchus niger; Giant South American river turtle, Podocnemis<br />
expansa and <strong>the</strong> yellow-spotted side-necked turtle, Podocnemis unifilis). O<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
such as <strong>the</strong> blue-cheeked Amazon (Amazona dufresniana), oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus)<br />
and white-lipped peccary (Tayassu peccary) are highly likely to be found in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong><br />
<strong>Head</strong> following fur<strong>the</strong>r surveying.<br />
Table 5. Threatened species <strong>of</strong> Guyana (IUCN Red List 2008). Yellow highlight indicates presence<br />
above Corona Falls, orange indicates presence below Corona Falls.<br />
Mammals<br />
Common Name Latin name Status<br />
Black Spider Monkey Ateles paniscus Vulnerable<br />
Oncilla Leopardus tigrinus Vulnerable<br />
Margay Leopardus wiedii Near Threatened<br />
Giant Anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla Near Threatened<br />
Venezuelan Fish-eating Rat Neusticomys venezuelae Vulnerable<br />
Jaguar Pan<strong>the</strong>ra onca Near Threatened<br />
Giant Armadillo Priodontes maximus Vulnerable<br />
Giant Otter Pteronura brasiliensis Endangered<br />
Bush Dog Speothos venaticus Near Threatened<br />
Brazilian Tapir Tapirus terrestris Vulnerable<br />
White-lipped Peccary Tayassu pecari Near Threatened<br />
Spectral Bat Vampyrum spectrum Near Threatened<br />
Birds<br />
Common Name Latin name Status<br />
Blue-cheeked Amazon Amazona dufresniana Near threatened<br />
Sun Parakeet Aratinga solstitialis Endangered<br />
Red Siskin Carduelis cucullata Endangered<br />
Rio Branco Antbird Cercomacra carbonaria Near Threatened<br />
Olive-sided Flycatcher Contopus cooperi Near Threatened<br />
Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja Near Threatened<br />
Crested Eagle Morphnus guianensis Near Threatened<br />
Orinoco Goose Neochen jubata Near Threatened<br />
Great-billed Seed-finch Oryzoborus maximiliani Near Threatened<br />
Bearded Tachuri Polystictus pectoralis Near Threatened<br />
Hoary-throated Spinetail Synallaxis kollari Endangered<br />
Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis Near Threatened<br />
Reptiles<br />
Common Name Latin name Status<br />
Yellow-footed tortoise Geochelone denticulata Vulnerable<br />
Black Caiman Melanosuchus niger<br />
LowerRisk/conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Giant South American Turtle Podocnemis expansa<br />
LowerRisk/conservation<br />
dependent<br />
Yellow-spotted Sideneck Turtle Podocnemis unifilis Vulnerable<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 31
From our brief visit to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> it is clear that <strong>the</strong> region is biologically rich, containing<br />
both Guianan Shield endemics and threatened species, with a naivety in wild animals not<br />
seen in hunted areas. A direct comparison <strong>of</strong> our results with those from <strong>the</strong> CI RAP to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus in 2001 highlights <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re are important species which we<br />
recorded in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> which have not yet been recorded in <strong>the</strong> Eastern Kanukus.<br />
Conservation Recommendations<br />
In Conservation International’s 2001 Eastern Kanukus RAP (Montambaut and Missa<br />
2002), <strong>the</strong>y proposed creating a “corridor <strong>of</strong> conservation” extending from <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
Kanukus across Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Guyana to <strong>the</strong> Suriname border. Since <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> Kanuku<br />
Mountains Protected Area has been proposed and is now in <strong>the</strong> planning stages and<br />
CI has leased up 80,000ha <strong>of</strong> logging concession in <strong>the</strong> Upper Essequibo.<br />
The <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> and <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> are both important in terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir biodiversity.<br />
The isolated nature and natural protection afforded <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> by <strong>the</strong> string <strong>of</strong> falls<br />
and cataracts makes <strong>the</strong> place appealing when considering preserving <strong>the</strong> area in law.<br />
The area is worth recognising for <strong>the</strong> outstanding wildlife viewing for dedicated birdwatchers<br />
and adventurous eco-tourists. Since Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas<br />
have been taking paying customers up <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong>, <strong>the</strong> villagers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> and Yupukari<br />
have been benefitting from a supplementary income, from paid guides to managing<br />
tourist lodges. The reason <strong>the</strong> guests go out to <strong>the</strong> interior, and to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> in particular,<br />
is specifically to view wildlife which elsewhere has been pushed out or made shy<br />
through development and hunting. It is <strong>the</strong> extraordinary naivety <strong>of</strong> species such as<br />
tapir and jaguar and <strong>the</strong> ease with which <strong>the</strong>y are seen that is <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>’s chief<br />
selling point.<br />
A crucial recommendation <strong>of</strong> this report is that fur<strong>the</strong>r scientific studies be carried<br />
out in <strong>the</strong> area. The authors have contacted <strong>the</strong> conservation organisation Operation<br />
Wallace about <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>of</strong> establishing a yearly expedition to <strong>the</strong> Rupununi.<br />
Operation Wallacea organise a series <strong>of</strong> biological and social science expeditions<br />
that operate in remote locations across <strong>the</strong> world. These expeditions are designed<br />
with specific wildlife conservation aims in mind - from identifying areas needing<br />
protection, through to implementing and assessing conservation management<br />
programmes. Operation Wallacea work very closely with <strong>the</strong> indigenous peoples<br />
inhabiting all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir study sites and are particularly concerned that it is <strong>the</strong> local<br />
inhabitants who benefit from <strong>the</strong>ir presence <strong>the</strong>re. The data extracted during <strong>the</strong>se<br />
expeditions are published in peer reviewed journals as well as in popular science<br />
magazines. The publication <strong>of</strong> data from <strong>the</strong> biodiversity rich Rupununi region will<br />
in turn encourage fur<strong>the</strong>r scientific teams, film crews and eco-tourists to visit <strong>the</strong><br />
area, which will bring yet more funds into <strong>the</strong> local communities. We consider <strong>the</strong><br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> regular expeditions to designated research stations around Region<br />
9 as highly important in <strong>the</strong> future sustainability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area and <strong>the</strong> broadening <strong>of</strong><br />
incomes within local villages.<br />
As well as <strong>the</strong> benefits to <strong>the</strong> local communities to be afforded through well managed<br />
tourism and scientific studies, <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> is also extremely important from a<br />
livelihoods perspective. Fish, turtle eggs and game are all taken from this stretch.<br />
Therefore <strong>the</strong>re is a vested interest to maintain that source <strong>of</strong> protein. The fact that<br />
no-one apart from Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas go above Corona Falls may<br />
mean that <strong>the</strong> area acts as a huge source population for many game species which<br />
<strong>the</strong>n disperse to <strong>the</strong> Lower <strong>Rewa</strong> where <strong>the</strong>y are hunted.<br />
These two facets <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area: well-managed eco-tourism bringing financial income to<br />
<strong>the</strong> local villages and <strong>the</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> a hunting base can be employed to benefit<br />
<strong>the</strong> Amerindian People as well as <strong>the</strong> wildlife and natural resources <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
32 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Figure 39. A relict leviathan, <strong>the</strong> anaconda’s future above Corona Falls is uncertain.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 33
e f e r e n C e s<br />
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Phylogenetics and Evolution doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.11.028<br />
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Stewardship Council failed to prevent <strong>the</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> high conservation value<br />
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forest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upper Essequibo. BBC Natural History Unit<br />
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indigenous peoples Update for Pozna (UNFCCC COP 14). Forest Peoples Programme<br />
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Groenendijk J, Hajek F, Duplaix N, Reu<strong>the</strong>rC, van Damme P, Schenck C, Staib E, Wallace<br />
R, Waldemarin H, Notin R, Marmontel M, Rosas F, Ely de Mattos G,Utreras V, Lasso<br />
G, Jacques H, Matos K, Roopsind I, Botello JC (2005). Surveying and monitoring<br />
distribution and population trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis). Guidelines<br />
for a standardisation <strong>of</strong> survey methods as recommended by <strong>the</strong> giant otter section <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Network. Habitat 16: 1-100<br />
Harris MA, Tomas W, Mourao G, da Silva C, Guimaraes E, Sonoda F and Fachim E.<br />
(2005). Safeguarding <strong>the</strong> Pantanal wetlands: threats and conservation initiatives.<br />
Conservation Biology 19:(3) 714-720<br />
Hilty S. (2002). Birds <strong>of</strong> Venezuela. Christopher Helm: <strong>London</strong><br />
Klenavic K, Champoux L, O’Biren M, Daoust PY, Evans RD and Evans HE. (2008). Mercury<br />
concentrations in wild mink (Mustela vison) and river otters (Lontra canadensis) collected<br />
from eastern and Atlantic Canada: Relationship to age and parasitism. Environmental<br />
Pollution 156:(2) 359-366<br />
Lim BK and Ergstrom MD. (2001) Species diversity <strong>of</strong> bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) in<br />
Iwokrama Forest, Guyana, and <strong>the</strong> Guianan subregion: implications for conservation.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> and Conservation. 10(4) 613-657<br />
Lim BK and Ergstrom MD. (2004) Mammals <strong>of</strong> Iwokrama Forest. Proceedings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Academy <strong>of</strong> Natural Sciences <strong>of</strong> Philadelphia. 154:(1) 71-108<br />
Magnusson WE, Veira da Silva & Lima AP. (1987). Diets <strong>of</strong> Amazonian crocodiles.<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Herpetology. 21:(2) 85-95<br />
Medem, F. 1971. The reproduction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus. In<br />
Proceedings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1st Meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CSG<br />
Montambaut JR & Missa O (Eds). (2002) A <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eastern<br />
Kanuku Mountains, Lower Kwitaro River, Guyana. RAP Bulletin <strong>of</strong> Biological Assessment.<br />
Conservation International, Washington DC.<br />
Office <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> President, Republic <strong>of</strong> Guyana (2008). Saving <strong>the</strong> World’s Forests today:<br />
Creating Incentives to Avoid Deforestation<br />
Office <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> President, Republic <strong>of</strong> Guyana (2009). A Low carbon development strategy:<br />
Transforming Guyana’s economy while combating climate change.<br />
Restall R, Rodner C and Lentino M. Birds <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn South America: An Identification<br />
Guide. Christopher Helm: <strong>London</strong><br />
RigZone (2008). brazAlta Reviews Onshore Guyana Farm-in, Resource Report http://<br />
www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=69062 doi:06/11/2008<br />
Rowcliffe JM, Field J, Turvey ST and Carbone C. (2008). Estimating animal density<br />
using camera traps without <strong>the</strong> need for individual recognition. Journal <strong>of</strong> Applied<br />
Ecology.45: 1228-1236<br />
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Saatchi SS, Houghton RA, Dos Santos Alvala RC, Soares JV and Yu Y (2007). Diversity <strong>of</strong><br />
above ground live biomass in <strong>the</strong> Amazon Basin. Global Change Biology. 13: 816-837<br />
Scand-oil (2008) Groundstar provides update on Egypt and Guyana prospects http://<br />
www.scandoil.com/moxie-bm2/news/groundstar-provides-update-on-egypt-andguyana-pro.shtml<br />
doi.17/04/2008<br />
Schenk C (1996). Vorkommen, habitatnutzung und schutz des riesenotters Pteronura<br />
brasiliensis in Peru. PhD <strong>the</strong>sis: University <strong>of</strong> Munich<br />
Schulte-Hebruggen B and Davies G. (2006). Wildlife Certification and Tropical Timber<br />
Certification. ZSL Conservation Report No. 6. <strong>Zoological</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>London</strong>, <strong>London</strong><br />
Simon and Shock International LLC (2007). Sustainable Yield Milling and Management<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Tropics. Michigan, USA<br />
Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996. Geochelone denticulata. In: IUCN<br />
2008. 2008 IUCN Red List <strong>of</strong> Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org Downloaded on<br />
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Keeping <strong>the</strong> Amazon Forests Standing: A matter <strong>of</strong> values. WWF, The Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands<br />
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logging on forest structure and nutrient cycling in a seasonally dry Brazilian Atlantic<br />
forest. Journal <strong>of</strong> Biogeography. 33: 506-516<br />
Zuercher GL, Swarner M, Silveira L & Carrillo O. (2008). Speothos venaticus. In: IUCN<br />
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http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0221-guyana.html accessed 10/03/09<br />
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Guiana Shield Initiative www.guianashield.org<br />
36 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
ap p e n d i x i<br />
Mammalian Diversity<br />
In <strong>the</strong> table <strong>the</strong> evidence is described as S sighting, V vocalisation or I indirect evidence<br />
such as footprints, scats or burrows.<br />
English Name Scientific Name<br />
Opossums Didelphiae<br />
ZSL Expedition 2009<br />
Evidence<br />
Common Grey Four-eyed Opossum Philander opossum S,C<br />
Common Opossum Didelphis marsupialis C<br />
Sloths Edentata<br />
Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth Bradypus tridactylus S<br />
Anteaters Myrmecophagidae<br />
Giant Anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla C<br />
Armadillos Dasypodidae<br />
Nine-banded Long-nosed Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus C,I<br />
Giant Armadillo Priodontes maximus I<br />
Marmosets and Tamarins Callitrichidae<br />
Golden-handed Tamarin Seguinus midas S<br />
Monkeys Cebidae<br />
Brown Capuchin Cebus apella S<br />
Wedge-capped Capuchin Cebus olivaceus S<br />
Common Squirrel Monkey Saimiri sciureus S<br />
Guianan Red Howler Monkey Alouatta macconnelli S,V<br />
Guianan Saki Pi<strong>the</strong>cia pi<strong>the</strong>cia S<br />
Red-backed Bearded Saki Chiropotes chiropotes S<br />
Black Spider Monkey Ateles paniscus S,V<br />
Dogs Canidae<br />
Bush Dog Speothos venaticus I<br />
Racoon Family Procyonidae<br />
South American Coati Nasua nasua S<br />
Mustelids Mustelidae<br />
Giant Otter Pteronura brasiliensis S,I<br />
Neotropical Otter Lontra longicaudis S,I<br />
Tayra Eira barbara C<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 37
Cats Felidae<br />
Jaguar Pan<strong>the</strong>ra onca S,C,I<br />
Puma Puma concolor C<br />
Ocelot Leopardus pardalis C<br />
Margay Leopardus wiedi C<br />
Jaguarundi Felis Jaguarundi S,C<br />
Deer Cervidae<br />
Red Brocket Deer Mazama americana C<br />
Peccaries Tayassuidae<br />
Collared Peccary Tayassu tajacu S,C,I<br />
Tapirs Tapiridae<br />
Brazilian Tapir Tapirus terrestris S,C,I<br />
Squirrels Sciuridae<br />
Guianan Squirrel Sciurus aestuans C<br />
Capybaras Hydrochaeridae<br />
Capybara Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris S,I<br />
Paca Agoutidae<br />
Paca Agouti paca S,C,I<br />
Agoutis and Acouchys Dasyproctidae<br />
Red-rumped Agouti Dasyprocta cristata S,C,I<br />
Green Acouchy Myoprocta exilis C<br />
Spiny rats Echimyidae<br />
Spiny tree rat Lonchothrix emiliae S<br />
38 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
ap p e n d i x ii<br />
Avian Diversity and Relative Abundance<br />
In ascertaining <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> each species we followed <strong>the</strong> Smithsonian’s guide:<br />
C Common; more than 20 individuals encountered daily in prime habitat and season<br />
F Fairly common; 5-20 individuals encountered daily in prime habitat and season<br />
U Uncommon; present in small numbers (fewer than 5 individuals per day); not<br />
encountered daily even in prime habitat and season<br />
S Scarce; only occasionally encountered in small numbers even in prime habitat<br />
and season<br />
In <strong>the</strong> table <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bird is described as S Sighting, V vocalisation, C<br />
Camera Trap or M mist net. In many cases <strong>the</strong> vocalisation is more diagnostic than<br />
a brief sighting and playback was successfully used on a number <strong>of</strong> occasions to<br />
identify birds, in particular cryptic understory species such as Todd’s Antwren and <strong>the</strong><br />
Helmeted Pygmy tyrant.<br />
English Name Scientific Name<br />
Tinamous Tinamidae<br />
ZSL<br />
Expedition<br />
Jan 2009<br />
Smithsonian<br />
Expedition<br />
Aug 2006<br />
Evidence<br />
Great Tinamou Tinamus major S F V, C<br />
Cinereous Tinamou Crypturellus cinereus U S V, C<br />
Variegated Tinamou Crypturellus variegatus S F V<br />
Anhingas Anhingidae<br />
Anhinga Anhinga anhinga F F S<br />
Cormorants Phalacrocoracidae<br />
Neotropical Cormorant<br />
Phalacrocorax<br />
brasiliensis<br />
S S S<br />
Herons Ardeidae<br />
Zigzag Heron Zebrilus undualtus S<br />
Rufescent Tiger-Heron Tigrisoma lineatum U U S<br />
Fasciated Tiger-Heron Tigrisoma fasciatum S U S<br />
Cocoi Heron Ardea cocoi F F S<br />
Little Blue Heron Egretta caerulea S S<br />
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis S<br />
Great Egret Aredea alba S S<br />
Agami Heron Agamia agami S S<br />
Striated Heron Butorides striatus U U S<br />
Capped Heron Pilherodias pileatus S U S<br />
Storks Ciconiidae<br />
Wood Stork Mycteria americana S S<br />
Ibises Threskiornithidae<br />
Green Ibis<br />
Mesembrinibis<br />
cayennensis<br />
F C S<br />
Vultures Cathartidae<br />
Black Vulture Coragyps atratus U U S<br />
Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura S S<br />
Greater Yellow-headed<br />
Vulture<br />
Cathartes melanbrotus F F S<br />
King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa F F S<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 39
Hawks, Eagles Accipitridae<br />
Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus F S S<br />
Double-too<strong>the</strong>d Kite Harpagus bidentatus S<br />
Grey-headed kite Leptodon cayanensis S S<br />
Plumbeous Kite Ictinia plumbea S S S<br />
Great Black-Hawk Buteogallus urubitinga U U S<br />
White Hawk Leucopternis albicollis U S<br />
Roadside Hawk Buteo magnirostris S U S<br />
Short-tailed Hawk Buteo brachyurus S S<br />
Tiny Hawk Accipiter superciliosus S S<br />
Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja S S<br />
Ornate Hawk Eagle Spizaetus ornatus S S<br />
Ospreys Pandionidae<br />
Osprey Pandion haliaetus S S<br />
Falcons, Caracaras Falconidae<br />
Lined Forest-Falcon Micrastur gilvicollis U<br />
Collared Forest-Falcon<br />
Micrastur<br />
semitorquatus<br />
S S<br />
Black Caracara Daptrius ater U U S<br />
Red-throated Caracara Ibycter americanus U F S,V<br />
Bat Falcon Falco rufigularis U F S<br />
Curassows, Guans Cracidae<br />
Little Chachalaca Ortalis motmot F U S,V<br />
Black Curassow Crax alector F U S,V,C<br />
Blue-throated Piping-Guan Pipile cumanensis U F S,V<br />
Quails Odontophoridae<br />
Marbled Wood-Quail<br />
Odontophorus<br />
gujanensis<br />
U<br />
Rails Rallidae<br />
Grey-necked Wood-Rail Aramides cajanea S S V<br />
Sungrebes Heliornithidae<br />
Sungrebe Heliornis fulica S U S<br />
Sunbitterns Eurypygidae<br />
Sunbittern Eurypyga helias S U S<br />
Trumpeters Psophidae<br />
Grey-winged Trumpeter Psophia crepitans S U S,V,C<br />
Sandpipers Scolopacidae<br />
Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularia U F S<br />
Pigeons, Doves Columbidae<br />
Plumbeous Pigeon Columba plumbea F C V,S<br />
Ruddy Pigeon Columba subvinacea F C V,S<br />
Grey-fronted Dove Leptotila rufaxilla F U V,S,M,C<br />
Ruddy Quail-Dove Geotrygon montana F<br />
Parrots Psittacidae<br />
Painted Parakeet Pyrrhura picta C C S<br />
Blue-and-Gold Macaw Ara ararauna F U S<br />
Red-and-green Macaw Ara chloropterus F F S<br />
40 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Scarlet Macaw Ara macao F U S<br />
Golden-winged Parakeet<br />
Brotogeris<br />
chrysopterus<br />
C C S<br />
Blue-headed parrot Pionus menstruus C S<br />
Caica Parrot Pionopsitta caica F C S<br />
Orange-winged Parrot Amazona amazonica C U S<br />
Yellow-crowned Parrot Amazona ochrocephala U<br />
Mealy Parrot Amazona farinosa F S<br />
Red-fan Parrot Deroptyus accipitrinus F F S<br />
Cuckoos Cuculidae<br />
Squirrel Cuckoo Piaya cayana U F S<br />
Little Cuckoo Piaya minuta S S<br />
Greater Ani Crotophaga major S U S<br />
Typical Owls Strigidae<br />
Tawny-bellied Screech-Owl Otus watsoni U<br />
Spectacled Owl Pulsatrix perspicillata S U V<br />
Amazonian Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium hardyii F<br />
Nighthawks, Nightjars Caprimulgidae<br />
Short-tailed Nighthawk<br />
Lurocalis<br />
semitorquatus<br />
U U S<br />
Common Pauraque Nyctidromus albicollis F S<br />
Blackish Nightjar<br />
Caprimulgus<br />
nigrescens<br />
F U S<br />
Potoos Nyctibiidae<br />
Great Potoo Nyctibius grandis S S<br />
Swifts Apodidae<br />
Band-rumped Swift Chaetura spinicauda C C S<br />
Grey-rumped Swift Chaetura cinereiventris C S<br />
Hummingbirds Trochilidae<br />
Eastern Long-tailed Hermit<br />
Phaethornis<br />
superciliosus<br />
U U S,M<br />
Straight-billed Hermit Phaethornis bourcieri U<br />
Reddish Hermit Phaethornis ruber F<br />
Little hermit<br />
Phaethornis<br />
longuemareus<br />
S S,M<br />
Gray-breasted Sabrewing<br />
Campylopterus<br />
largipennis<br />
S S S,M<br />
White-necked Jacobin Florisuga mellivora U<br />
Fork-tailed Woodnymph Thalurania furcata S U M<br />
Crimson Topaz Topaza pella S S S<br />
Black-eared Fairy Heliothryx aurita S<br />
Trogons Trogonidae<br />
White-tailed Trogon Trogon viridis F F S,V<br />
Violaceous Trogon Trogon violaceus S U S,V<br />
Collared Trogon Trogon collaris F<br />
Masked Trogon Trogon personatus U<br />
Black-tailed Trogon Trogon melanurus S S<br />
Motmots Momotidae<br />
Blue-crowned Motmot Momotus momota F F S, V<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 41
Kingfishers Alcedinidae<br />
Ringed Kingfisher Ceryle torquata U C S<br />
Amazon Kingfisher Chloroceryle amazona F C S,M<br />
Green Kingfisher<br />
Chloroceryle<br />
americana<br />
F U S<br />
Green-and-Rufous Kingfisher Chloroceryle inda S U S<br />
Pygmy Kingfisher Chloroceryle aenea S S S,M<br />
Puffbirds Bucconidae<br />
Guianan puffbird<br />
Notharchus<br />
macrorhyncus<br />
S S<br />
Collared Puffbird Bucco capensis S U S<br />
White-chested Puffbird Malacoptila fusca U<br />
Black Nunbird Monasa atra F F S<br />
Swallow-wing Puffbird Chelidoptera tenebrosa C C S<br />
Jacamars Galbulidae<br />
Green-tailed Jacamar Galbula galbula F U S, V<br />
Yellow-billed Jacamar Galbula albirostris S F S,M<br />
Paradise Jacamar Galbula dea S U S<br />
Great Jacamar Jacamerops aurea S U S,M<br />
Brown jacamar Brachygalba lugubris F S, V<br />
Barbets, Toucans Ramphastidae<br />
Green Aracari Pteroglossus viridis S S<br />
Black-necked Aracari Pteroglossus aracari S U S<br />
Guianan Toucanet Selenidera culik S U S<br />
Channel-billed Toucan Ramphastos vitellinus F C S, V<br />
White-throated Toucan Ramphastos tucanus C C S, V<br />
Woodpeckers Picidae<br />
Lineated Woodpecker Dryocopus lineatus S S S<br />
Golden-collared Woodpecker Veniliornis cassini U<br />
Yellow-throated Woodpecker Piculus flavigula F<br />
Chestnut Woodpecker Celeus elegans S F S<br />
Waved Woodpecker Celeus undatus S S S<br />
Cream-colored Woodpecker Celeus flavus U<br />
Red-necked Woodpecker<br />
Campephilus<br />
rubricollis<br />
S F S,M<br />
Crimson-crested Woodpecker Campephilus<br />
melanoleucos<br />
U F S<br />
Ovenbirds Furnariidae<br />
Cinnamon-rumped Foliagegleaner<br />
Philydor pyrrhodes S<br />
Rufous-rumped Foliagegleaner<br />
Philydor erythrocercus F<br />
Buff-throated Foliage-gleaner Automolus<br />
ochrolaemus<br />
F<br />
Chestnut-crowned Foliagegleaner<br />
Automolus rufipileatus U V<br />
Plain Xenops Xenops minutus U<br />
Woodcreepers Dendrocolaptidae<br />
Plain-brown Woodcreeper<br />
Dendrocincla<br />
fuliginosa<br />
S F M<br />
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper<br />
Glyphorynchus<br />
spirurus<br />
F C M<br />
42 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Amazonian Barred<br />
Woodcreeper<br />
Dendrocolaptes certhia S S M<br />
Strong-billed Woodcreeper<br />
Xiphocolaptes<br />
promeropirhynchus<br />
S S M<br />
Chestnut-rumped<br />
Woodcreeper<br />
Xiphorhynchus<br />
pardalotus<br />
C<br />
Straight-billed Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus picus<br />
Buff-throated Woodcreeper<br />
Xiphorhynchus<br />
guttatus<br />
S U M<br />
Curve-billed Scy<strong>the</strong>bill<br />
Campylorhamphus<br />
procurvoides<br />
U<br />
Typical Antbirds Thamnophilidae<br />
Fasciated Antshrike Cymbilaimus lineatus S F M<br />
Black-throated Antshrike Frederikena viridis U M<br />
Great Antshrike Taraba major S V<br />
Mouse-colored Antshrike Thamnophilus murinus U F M<br />
Guianan Slaty-Antshrike<br />
Thamnophilus<br />
punctatus<br />
U<br />
Spot-winged Antshrike Pygiptila stellaris U<br />
Dusky-throated Antshrike<br />
Thamnomanes<br />
ardesiacus<br />
F<br />
Cinereous Antshrike Thamnomanes caesius S F M<br />
Pygmy Antwren<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
brachyura<br />
S F V<br />
Guianan Streaked Antwren<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
surinamensis<br />
C C V<br />
Rufous-bellied Antwren Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula guttata U U M<br />
Brown-bellied Antwren<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
gutturalis<br />
S U M<br />
Grey Antwren<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
menetriesii<br />
S M<br />
Long-winged Antwren<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>rula<br />
longipennis<br />
U C M<br />
Spot-tailed Antwren<br />
Herpsilochmus<br />
sticturus<br />
F F M<br />
Todd’s Antwren<br />
Herpsilochmus<br />
stictocephalus<br />
F F V<br />
Dot-winged Antwren Microrhopias quixensis S<br />
Ash-winged Antwren Terenura spodioptila S<br />
Grey Antbird<br />
Cercomacra<br />
cinerascens<br />
U C M<br />
Dusky Antbird Cercomacra tyrannina U F M<br />
White-browed Antbird<br />
Myrmoborus<br />
myo<strong>the</strong>rinus<br />
U M<br />
Warbling Antbird Hypocnemis cantator F F M<br />
Black-chinned Antbird<br />
Hypocnemoides<br />
melanopogon<br />
U F V<br />
Black-headed Antbird Percnostola rufifrons F F S,V<br />
Scale-backed Antbird Hylophylax poecilinota S F M<br />
Spot-backed Antbird Hylophylax naevia S F V,M<br />
Ferruginous-backed Antbird Myrmeciza ferruginea S M<br />
Wing-banded Antbird Myrmornis torquata S U M<br />
White-plumed Antbird Pithys albifrons S F M<br />
Rufous-throated Antbird Gymnopithys rufigula S F M<br />
Silvered Antbird Sclateria naevia S M<br />
Ground Antbirds Formicariidae<br />
Black-faced Antthrush Formicarius analis U U S,V<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 43
Rufous-capped Antthrush Formicarius colma S M<br />
Spotted Antpitta Hylopezus macularius U F V<br />
Thrush-like Antpitta<br />
Myrmo<strong>the</strong>ra<br />
campanisona<br />
F F V<br />
Variegated Antpitta Grallaria varia S V,M<br />
Gnateaters Conopophagidae<br />
Chestnut-belted Gnateater Conopophaga aurita U<br />
Tyrant Flycatchers Tyrannidae<br />
Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet Tyrannulus elatus F<br />
Forest Elaenia Myiopagis gaimardii F U V,M<br />
McConnell’s Flycatcher Mionectes macconnelli U<br />
Piratic Flycatcher Legatus leucophaius S S<br />
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher Mionectes oleagineus S U M<br />
Short-crested Flycatcher Miarchus ferox S S,V<br />
Long-tailed Tyrant Colonia colonus S S<br />
Drab Water Tyrant Ochthornis littoralis F S<br />
Slender-footed Tyrannulet Zimmerius gracilipes S<br />
Double-banded Pygmy-Tyrant Lophotriccus vitiosus F<br />
Helmeted Pygmy-Tyrant Lophotriccus galeatus U U V<br />
Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant Myiornis ecuadatus F V<br />
Painted Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum pictum U<br />
Common Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum cinereum S V<br />
Ringed Antpipit Corythopis torquata U<br />
Yellow-margined Flycatcher Tolmomyias assimilis F<br />
Golden-crowned Spadebill Platyrinchus coronatus F F M<br />
White-crested Spadebill<br />
Platyrinchus<br />
platyrhynchos<br />
S<br />
Cinnamon-crested Spadebill Platyrinchus saturatus S<br />
Royal Flycatcher<br />
Onychorhynchus<br />
coronatus<br />
U<br />
Sulphur-rumped Flycatcher Myiobius barbatus U<br />
Bright-rumped Attila Attila spadiceus S U V<br />
Cinnamon Attila Attila cinnamomeus S V<br />
Grayish Mourner Rhytipterna simplex U<br />
Dusky-chested Flycatcher<br />
Myiozetetes<br />
luteiventris<br />
U<br />
Rusty-margined Flycatcher<br />
Myiozetetes<br />
cayanensis<br />
F S<br />
Yellow-throated Flycatcher Conopias parva U F S<br />
Tropical Kingbird<br />
Tyrannus<br />
melancholicus<br />
F U S<br />
Lesser Kiskadee Pitangus lictor U S<br />
Thrush-like Schiffornis Schiffornis turdinus S F S<br />
Screaming Piha Lipaugus vociferans C F S,V<br />
Cinereous Mourner Laniocera hypopyrra U<br />
Black-capped Becard<br />
Pachyramphus<br />
marginatus<br />
U<br />
Pink-throated Becard Pachyramphus minor S<br />
Cotingas Cotingidae<br />
Pompadour Cotinga Xipholena punicea S S S<br />
44 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
Capuchinbird<br />
Perissocephalus<br />
tricolor<br />
S U S,V<br />
Guianan Red Cotinga Phoenicircus carnifex S S<br />
Spangled Cotinga Cotinga cayana S S<br />
Purple-throated Fruitcrow Querula purpurata S S<br />
Tityras Tityridae<br />
Black-tailed Tityra Tityra cayana S S<br />
Dusky Purpletuft ? Iodopleura fusca S S<br />
Manakins Pipridae<br />
White-crowned Manakin Pipra pipra S F M<br />
Golden-headed Manakin Pipra erythrocephala F<br />
Tiny Tyrant-Manakin Tyranneutes virescens U U S,V<br />
White-bearded Manakin Manacus manacus S S,V<br />
Vireos Vireonidae<br />
Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus<br />
Buff-cheeked Greenlet<br />
Hylophilus<br />
muscicapinus<br />
F<br />
Tawny-crowned Greenlet<br />
Hylophilus<br />
ochraceiceps<br />
Rufous-browed Peppershrike Cyclarhis gujanensis U S, V<br />
Slatey-capped Shrike-Vireo Vireolaneus leucotis U S, V<br />
Swallows Hirundinidae<br />
White-winged Swallow Tachycineta albiventer C F S<br />
White-banded Swallow Atticora fasciata C C S<br />
Grey-breasted martin Progne chalybea S S<br />
Wrens Troglodytidae<br />
White-breasted Wood-Wren Henicorhina leucosticta S<br />
Coraya Wren Thryothorus coraya U U S,V<br />
Buff-breasted Wren Thryothorus leucotis F U S,V<br />
Wing-banded Wren Microcerculus bambla S<br />
Musician Wren Cyphorhinus arada S S V<br />
Gnatwrens, Gnatcatchers Sylviidae<br />
Long-billed Gnatwren<br />
Ramphocaenus<br />
melanurus<br />
S<br />
Thrushes Turdidae<br />
White-necked Thrush Turdus albicollis U<br />
Cocoa Thrush Turdus fumigatus S V<br />
Wood Warblers Parulidae<br />
River Warbler Phaeothlypis rivularis S<br />
Bananaquits Coerebidae<br />
Bananaquit Coereba flaveola S U S<br />
Tanagers Thraupidae<br />
Fulvous Shrike-Tanager Lanio fulvus ?<br />
Fulvous-crested Tanager<br />
Tachyphonus<br />
surinamus<br />
U<br />
Hepatic Tanager Piranga flava<br />
Silver-beaked Tanager Ramphocelus carbo F U S<br />
Blue-gray Tanager Thraupis episcopus<br />
Turquoise Tanager Tangara mexicana S U S<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 45
Opal-rumped Tanager Tangara velia S S<br />
Blue Dacnis Dacnis cayana S<br />
Swallow Tanager Tersina viridis U S<br />
Emberizine Finches Emberizinae<br />
Red-capped Cardinal Paroaria gularis U<br />
Grosbeaks, Saltators Cardinalinae<br />
Slate-colored Grosbeak Pitylus grossus U F S, V<br />
Greyish Saltator Saltator coerulescens S S V<br />
Yellow-green Grosbeak<br />
Caryothraustes<br />
canadensis<br />
F<br />
Blue-black Grosbeak<br />
Cyanocompsa<br />
cyanoides<br />
S U S, V<br />
Finches Fringilidae<br />
Violaceous Euphonia Euphonia violacea S S<br />
New World Blackbirds Icteridae<br />
Giant Cowbird Scaphidura oryzivora F S<br />
Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis U S<br />
Yellow-rumped Cacique Cacicus cela C U S,V<br />
Red-rumped Cacique Cacicus haemorrhous C S,V<br />
Crested Oropendola<br />
Psarocolius<br />
decumanus<br />
C U S,V<br />
Green Oropendola Psarocolius viridis U U S,V<br />
46 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
ap p e n d i x iii<br />
Reptilian Diversity<br />
In <strong>the</strong> table <strong>the</strong> evidence is described as S sighting, V vocalisation or I indirect evidence<br />
such as footprints, scats or burrows.<br />
English Name Scientific Name ZSL Expedition 2009 Evidence<br />
Boas Boidae<br />
Green Anaconda Eunectes murinus S<br />
Amazon Tree Boa Corrallus hortulanus S<br />
Colubrids Colubridae<br />
Red Fire Snake Chironius scurrulus S<br />
Green Parrot Snake Lephtophis ahaetulla S<br />
Iguanas Iguanidae<br />
Hump-headed Iguana Urascodon superciliosus S<br />
Green Iguana Iguana iguana S<br />
Neotropical Ground Lizards Tropiduridae<br />
Collared Tree Lizard Plica plica S<br />
Whiptail Lizards Teiidae<br />
Jungle Runner Ameiva ameiva S<br />
Gold Tegu Tupinambis teguixin S,I<br />
Aligators and Caimans Alligatoridae<br />
Schneider’s Dwarf Caiman Palaeosuchus trigonatus S<br />
Tortoises Testudinidae<br />
Yellow-footed Tortoise Geochelone denticulata S<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 47
ap p e n d i x iv<br />
EPA permission to conduct biodiversity research<br />
48 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong>
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Rewa</strong> <strong>Head</strong> 49