SDI Convergence - Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie - KNAW

Studies of cooperation as a subject in itself, however, lead directly to Robert Axelrod.
He is known for his groundbreaking work in game theory and complexity theory and
has also written books that broaden the understanding of cooperation for both scientists
and others (see Axelrod, 1984). Cooperation is an interdisciplinary subject and
greater understanding of this field goes back to basic works y Axelrod and approaches
to game theory by him and others.
Another well known name is Elinor Ostrom. She has made major contributions to the
analytical literature on institutions and to the understanding of human cooperation. She
has shown that neither the state or the market has been successful in solving common-pool
resource problems. She also shows that common-pool problems are sometimes
solved by voluntary organisations rather than by a coercive state. In her opinion
the evolution of institutions for collective action is a worldwide working model with deep
historical roots which combine long-term economic profits with ecological sustainability
and social justice (see Ostrom, 1990).
In this article, the concept of cooperation is addressed through Axelrod’s approach.
Then, this approach is applied to SDI. Finally, three steps of SDI development with
respect to coordination are identified and directions for further research are provided.
2. COOPERATION
There is no accepted general definition of the term cooperation but in dictionaries it is
explained as “joint operation or action”. Different subject fields have their own definitions.
For instance in sociology, cooperation can be defined as ‘activity shared for mutual
benefit’. In people’s minds cooperation often means ‘working together for a common
goal’. Within the field of spatial data we take that explanation as a starting point.
Cooperation is often associated with positive feelings and values. It would, however,
be better if it was regarded as a ‘tool’ that can be used for both positive and negative
issues. It is perhaps not clear for everyone that cooperation also can be associated
with illegal activities - cartel formation for example.
Even at a very basic level it appears that cooperation is quite complex. Several conditions
have to be fulfilled for cooperation to be a realistic alternative to not cooperating
(Axelrod, 1984):
– The benefit gained by cooperation must be considerably greater than the alternative
benefit gained by attacking/competing;
– The other party must be assumed to have a positive attitude towards cooperation;
– Each of the cooperating parties can only have a share of the total benefit. This share
must be assumed to be big enough to motivate cooperation;
– “Cooperation demands that the future is important” (Axelrod, 1984). It is unlikely that
the benefits of cooperation are gained immediately. A time lapse must be accepted
by all parties and it has been shown that giving up quick rewards in favour of future
benefits is something typically human.
It is clear that the study of cooperation is a truly interdisciplinary one. Knowledge and
experience stem from a variety of subjects for instance biology, psychology, political
science, economy and studies about conflicts and peace. One field, game theory,
stands out and during recent years has contributed considerably to understanding the
mechanisms of cooperation. Game theory is regarded as a part of the science of economics,
often with mathematical theories in focus. The study of certain games in particular
like the prisoners dilemma has contributed to new insights about cooperation.
General knowledge about cooperation is gained from studies using game theory (see
Axelrod 1984), which show that cooperation within organisations often spontaneously
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