Volume 90, Number 1 - California Historical Society

ebellion against imperial rule into an imposing
empire in its own right. Thomas Jefferson, in a
letter to his presidential successor James Madison
in 1809, tried to resolve that contradiction in
writing by referring to the dynamic young nation
he helped foster and expand as an “empire for
liberty.” 3 But did that mean liberty and justice
for all those incorporated within the emerging
American empire in decades to come, including
Indians and people of Spanish heritage? Or
was the true purpose of westward expansion to
subdue and dispossess those of other races or
nationalities and clear the way for settlement
by Anglo-Americans, for whom liberty was
reserved?
Alfred Sully (1821–1879) was a brigadier
general in the United States Army when
he made this self-portrait around 1864,
a decade or so after leaving California
for duties elsewhere. Known primarily
for his rigorous campaigns against
defiant Indian tribes during and after the
Civil War, he was also a keen observer
and chronicler of war and peace in the
American West and the Mexican borderlands,
which he documented in hundreds
of revealing letters, sketches, and paintings.
During his years as an officer in
California (1849–53), he witnessed the
Gold Rush and massive influx of Anglo-
Americans.
Yale Collection of Western Americana,
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
Under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo that ended the Mexican War, all Californios
were to become American citizens unless
they chose to remain Mexican citizens. In either
case, their property was to be respected and protected.
But that guarantee was threatened by a
vast influx of Anglo-Americans, many of whom
came to California seeking gold but remained
as settlers, often infringing on Californios’ property
rights, which were not, in fact, protected
under American law. When Alfred Sully arrived
in California, that convulsive American takeover—to
which the Mexican War was merely a
prelude—was just beginning. Uncertain of their
5