BEM Sep05-Nov 05 (Wa.. - Board of Engineers Malaysia

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA 

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA 

KDN PP11720/1/2006 ISSN 0128-4347 VOL.27 SEPT-NOV 2005 RM10.00 

WASTE

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LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

contents 

Volume 27 September-November 2005 

Cover photo courtesy of Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan 

4 President’s Message 

Editor’s Note 

6 Announcement 

Letter To Editor 

Cover Feature 

10 Municipal Solid Waste – A Problem Or 

An Opportunity? 

18 Biomass Energy From The Palm Oil Industry 

In Malaysia 

26 An Innovative, Environment-Friendly And Cost- 

Effective Wastewater Treatment System - 

UniFED 

Guidelines 

34 General Advice On Giving Of Second Opinion 

Update 

35 Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 

(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 Dan Perintah Kualiti 

Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan) 

(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 

Engineering & Law 

40 Instructions & Variations Part 2 

Environment 

44 Providing Sludge Dewatering Services For 

Multiple-Site Operations Via A 

Mobile Dewatering Unit – Series 4 

Feature 

47 Construction Waste Management: 

Are Contractors Unaware or Just Recalcitrant? 

50 Laboratory Chemical Waste Management 

54 The Role of A Concessionaire In Solid Waste 

Management – Series 1 

Pg 30 

Pg 32 

THE INGENIEUR 

2 

BORANG 

Pembaharuan Permit – 

Engineering Consultancy Practice 

Tahun 2006 

Sdn Bhd (Body Corporate) 

Pembaharuan Permit – 

Engineering Consultancy Practice 

Tahun 2006 

Pemilik Tunggal(Sole Proprietor)/ 

Perkongsian (Partnership)

KDN PP11720/1/2006 

ISSN 0128-4347 

VOL. 27 SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER 2005 

Members of the Board of Engineers Malaysia 

(BEM) 2004/2005 

President 

YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar 

Registrar 

Ir. Dr. Mohd Johari Mohd Arif 

Secretary 

Ir. Dr. Judin Abdul Karim 

Members of BEM 

YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Md Radzi Mansor 

YBhg. Datuk Ir. Md Sidek Ahmad 

YBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul Abdullah 

YBhg. Mej. Jen. Dato’ Ir. Ismail Samion 

YBhg. Datuk Ir. Santhakumar Sivasubramaniam 

YBhg. Datu Ir. Hubert Thian Chong Hui 

YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Ashok Kumar Sharma 

YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Abdul Rashid Maidin 

Ir. Prof. Abang Abdullah Abang Ali 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ali Hashim 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan 

Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman 

Tuan Hj. Basar Juraimi 

Ar. Paul Lai Chu 

Ir. Ho Jin Wah 

Ir. P E Chong 

Editorial Board 

Advisor 


Chairman 

YBhg Datuk Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam 

Editor 

Ir. Fong Tian Yong 

Members 

Ir. Mustaza Salim 

Ir. Chan Boon Teik 

Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman 

Ir. Prof. Dr. K. S. Kannan 

Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan 

Ir. Prof. Madya Dr. Eric K H Goh 

Ir. Nitchiananthan Balasubramaniam 

Ir. Shahkander Singh 

Ir. Prem Kumar 

Executive Director 

Ir. Ashari Mohd Yakub 

Publication Officer 

Pn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman 

Assistant Publication Officer 

Pn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali 

Design and Production 

Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd 

Buletin Ingenieur is published by the Board of 

Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia) 

and is distributed free of charge to registered 

Professional Engineers. 

The statements and opinions expressed in this 

publication are those of the writers. 

BEM invites all registered engineers to contribute 

articles or send their views and comments to the 

following address: 

Publication Committee 

Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia, 

Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR, 

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 

50580 Kuala Lumpur. 

Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017 

E-mail: bem1@jkr.gov.my publication@bem.org.my 

Web site: http://www.bem.org.my 

Advertising/Subscriptions 

Advertisement Form is on page 9 

Subscription Form is on page 56 

President’s Message 

The issue of waste has been around since mankind 

set foot on earth. The attitude of “not my problem” and 

“don’t care” over generations has escalated this issue to a 

critical level today. Thus, it is timely that in this bulletin 

we address this highly significant issue. Managing waste 

is everybody’s social responsibility. It is necessary to work 

together with everyone doing his bit to reduce the 

undesirable effects of waste. 

Waste is a generic term for things that have outlived 

their usefulness or their purpose over time. Waste is also 

unwanted output generated from all activities be it from 

the office, industry or home – municipal solid waste, agriculture waste, industrial 

waste, medical waste or construction waste. Every minute, every hour someone 

is discarding waste. Malaysians generate more than 18,000 tonnes of solid waste 

a day amounting to some eight million tonnes a year! And industries generate 

more than 420,000 tonnes of scheduled wastes a year! Only a small percentage 

is being recycled or recovered (less than 5% of municipal solid waste and scheduled 

waste). 

Why is waste management crucial in any society? Besides the obvious reason 

of protecting the environment, there are many other inherent benefits. In this 

bulletin, some opportunities and strategies for waste management are highlighted. 

The private sector has already invested in research for the reuse/recycle of the 

waste generated by the nation. 

There are sufficient legislations and guidelines for local Governments and 

relevant agencies to regulate the control of the various forms of wastes generated 

and discharged. However, there is often a lack of corporate responsibility as well 

as civic consciousness on the part of those who continuously flout the law, 

indiscriminately, and dangerously dump wastes. We, Malaysians, need to be 

mindful of our future generations in managing wastes in ways that are sustainable 

and environmentally acceptable. 

There is encouragement by the Government to produce green energy utilizing 

plantation (e.g. oil palm) wastes and municipal solid wastes as alternative sources 

of fuel to produce energy, namely electricity and heat. Waste is viewed as a 

source of renewable energy which can be put to good use. The implementation 

of this still needs much Government intervention. Our engineers are capable of 

applying technologies to generate electricity from wastes, but are constrained by 

financial and economic barriers. 


President 

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA 

Editor’s Note 

With increasing concern over the effects of the wide range 

of waste that is going into the environment – solid waste, 

sewerage, construction waste, and hazardous and industrial 

waste – the Publication Committee feels it expedient to follow 

up from the December 2003 publication with another round 

of subjects on the environment to keep readers updated with 

the latest information. 

In the wake of the Government’s intention to introduce self-regulation on 

the building delivery system, we are pleased to receive and publish a “Letter to 

the Editor” with some interesting suggestions on the subject that may be of 

interest to practising engineers. 

We would welcome more “Letters to the Editor” so that The Ingenieur may 

be a medium for constructive views and suggestions related to the engineering 

profession. 

Ir. Fong Tian Yong 

Editor 

THE INGENIEUR 

4

Announcement 

Publication 

Calendar 

The following list is the 

Publication Calendar for the 

year 2005 and 2006. While 

we normally seek 

contributions from experts 

for each special theme, we 

are also pleased to accept 

articles relevant to themes 

listed. 

Please contact the Editor or 

the Publication Officer in 

advance if you would like to 

make such contributions or 

to discuss details and 

deadlines. 

December 2005: WATER 

March 2006: ENGINEERING PRACTICE 

June 2006: MINERALS 

September 2006: BUILDING 

December 2006: ENVIRONMENT 


Dear Editor, 

The Role Of A Consulting Engineer In CFO Self-certification; 

the Certificate of Completion and Conformity (CCC): A case 

for the Consulting Engineer to be a Member of the ACEM 

In Malaysia to be a consulting engineer (or an engineering consultant) a natural person, who is a graduate with 

an engineering qualification from a recognised institution of higher learning, must be a BEM registered professional 

engineer (i.e. a P.Eng who can use the title Ir. before his or her name), and concurrently, a licensed provider of 

Engineering Consultancy Practice (ECP), either as a sole-proprietor, or in partnership, or as a share-holder/ 

director of a body-corporate. In both capacities, a consulting engineer is governed by the Registration of Engineers 

Act 1967 (Revised 2002) and its companion Registration of Engineers Regulation 1990 (Revised 2003). The 

Malaysian consulting engineer’s professional conduct and practice – including the manner of discharging one’s 

duties with skill, due care and diligence - are well documented in the Principle Act and Regulation; which in turn 

are being administered by the Board of Engineers, Malaysia (BEM). The Regulator came into being on the 

August 23, 1972. 

The BEM and The IEM 

Besides being registered with and licensed by the BEM, a Malaysian consulting engineer is most likely a corporate 

member of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (IEM). 

The IEM is a grass-root members’ organisation which has been in existence since 1959. It is a society registered 

under the Societies’ Act with the primary objective “…to promote and advance the science and profession of all 

THE INGENIEUR 6


aspects of engineering…”. The IEM assumes the role and function as a learned society in the science and art of 

engineering. Based on the traditional linkage and trust among the BEM and the IEM; the Regulator of engineers 

and the practice of engineering, as the Designating Authority (DA) has appointed the IEM, a Certified Body (CB), to 

carry out two major functions on BEM’s behalf, which are as follows: 

● To conduct training and operationalise BEM’s structured life-long education programmes, such as the Professional 

Development Programme (PDP) for registered graduate engineers during their pupilage en-route to their 

professional examinations; and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for registered professional engineers. 

● To conduct assessment examinations of engineers’ competency for professional status (i.e. professional interviews) 

The IEM maintains a set of current and ever ascending benchmarks of international best practices by way of 

representing Malaysia and active participation at the various international engineering fora, such as the World 

Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO); ASEAN Federation of Engineering Organisations (AFEO); Federation 

of Engineering Institutions in Islamic Countries (FEIIC); Federation of Engineering Institutions South-East Asia & 

Pacific (FEISEAP); Commonwealth Engineers’ Council (CEC); ASEAN Engineers’ Register (AER); APEC Engineers’ 

Register and EMF etc. To ensure its high standard for membership, the IEM has in place mechanisms which will 

encourage members-in-benefit to be in compliance with its Constitution, By-laws and Regulations. 

It can be seen that a typical Malaysian consulting engineer benefits by being a corporate member of the IEM – it 

gives him or her public recognition as a professional; and as a member of a learned society, the engineer is also 

recognised as an intellectual. 

The ACEM 

Then there is the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia (ACEM); formed more than 42 years ago, “with the 

object of promoting the advancement of the profession of consulting engineering”. The ACEM focuses its attention 

on matters affecting the status, professional conduct, emolument and the general interests of those Malaysian 

engineers who have adopted engineering consultancy practice as their profession. 

Members of the ACEM are BEM registered Professional Engineers cum licensed providers of ECP, are most likely 

corporate members of the IEM. However, not all BEM licensed ECP providers are members of the ACEM! Here lies 

the issue of peer acceptance, and the problem of perception by house-buyers, the public and other stake-holders 

concerning the proposed CFO self-certification: the CCC. Are non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providers 

truly recognised as consulting engineers upon whom house-buyers, the public and authorities can place their trust? 

Is public interest reassured? And seen to be assured? It is a cardinal and universal covenant amongst professionals 

worldwide - to reassure consumers of their professional services (viz. their clients) that public interest and essential 

requirements are not compromised, profession specific fraternity associations of the like as the ACEM shall exercise 

peer judgement over members of their own association. The aim: Professionalism must be the sole agenda, and be 

seen as the only agenda! 

ACEM is also a members’ only profession specific organisation that exercises fraternity wide self-regulation among 

its members – who are both individuals and panel firms; matching that of the BEM’s licensing of ECP providers. In 

its efforts of maintaining the high standard expected of Malaysian consulting engineers who are members; the 

ACEM since its earlier and formative years (for some 40 years now) has had been organising and conducting 

capability and capacity (C&C) building in-career training programmes for its members, their professional and paraprofessional 

staff; with the aim of improving and upscaling the delivery system of Malaysian consulting engineers. 

All those C&C building in-career training programmes were ahead of the BEM’s PDP and CPD programmes. They 

have been useful and goal-attaining in that certain determined para-professionals, with perseverance and who 

pursued the earlier ACEM run basic draughtsmen courses and then progressed on to the designers’ course, eventually 

succeeded to qualify as professional engineers, after a period of self-study under the mentorship of ACEM members 

(who were their employers) and having passed the BEM/IEM professional exams. Quality service among members 

of the ACEM has thus been established as the profession’s culture with a tradition of constant up-grading of the 

delivery system. 

As the consulting engineering profession specific fraternity, the ACEM has well established Aims and Objectives; 

plus transparent definitions of both the Profession and Practice of Engineering Consultancy: which are binding 

to ACEM members and are published in the ACEM’s yearly Directory. Besides, there are other ACEM documents 

THE INGENIEUR 

7


in force. Of the various documentation, is one with special focus on the important topic of “Professional 

Practice.” The special ACEM publication dealing with FAQs on issues relating to Professional Practice has 

been endorsed by the President of the BEM, YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Hj Zaini Bin Omar, who said in the 

Foreword, among other things, that he “........... believe(s) the FAQ published is intended to guide and assist all 

practising engineers in their quest to be more vigilant and guarded in their professional practices and at the 

same time avoid the associated pitfalls”. 

Three-tier regulatory regime 

Besides its policies and guidelines which are in line with international best practices, the ACEM being a longtime 

Member Association of FIDIC, also subscribes to positions adopted by FIDIC; such as in the areas of QBS, 

Conditions-of-Contract, environmental sustainability and others; and most important of all – the adoption 

of FIDIC’s Integrity Management System (IMS). Being conscious of the need to manage risks, the ACEM also 

administers a Group Professional Indemnity (PI) scheme which supports ACEM members in providing that 

additional comfort to their clients in the over-all matter of Professional Practice. All these are expected of a 

dependable professional consulting engineer who subscribes, as a matter of fact, to a Three-tier Regulatory 

Regime being built up by the sum total of: Third Party, Second Party and First Party Regulations. Third Party 

Regulation – the BEM; Second Party – the ACEM, and the First Party will be the self – the engineer, the 

natural person. 

Therefore, to ensure that the necessary mechanism is in place for CFO self-certification: CCC, besides the 

official guidelines that would be issued by the Government (via. The Ministry of Housing and Local Government) 

and the refinement of the BEM’s code-of-professional practice (as contained in BEM Circular No. 3/2005) – 

which will all be aggregated into the Third Party Regulation; the consulting engineer must also be subjected 

to a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulation by being a member of the ACEM. Besides being 

guided by ACEM’s own codes and policies, plus FIDIC’s stance and policies, ACEM members are also expected 

to subscribe to the ACEM adopted FIDIC’s IMS and ACEM Group PI coverage. 

Condition Precedent – Globally 

In conformity to globalisation, advanced countries such as those in Europe when establishing benchmarks for 

best practices of the delivery system, require their domestic consulting engineers, as condition precedent, to 

be members of profession-specific fraternity associations. For example, consulting engineers are to be members 

of their domestic associations of consulting engineers, which in turn would also be members of FIDIC. This 

condition precedent requirement which provides a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulation 

has resulted in the higher esteem position that consulting engineers are perceived by the public. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, it is the Author’s opinion that BEM licensed ECP providers as the consulting engineers who are 

expected to sign-off CCC, should also be members of ACEM. Because PAM is both a learned society (like the 

IEM) and the profession specific fraternity association for providers of architecture professional services 

(equivalent to ACEM), BAM registered professional architects are also members of PAM – so why not Malaysian 

consulting engineers? 

Recommendation 

It is therefore the recommendation when official guidelines concerning CFO self-certification: the CCC are 

being drawn up, that there be a Three-tier Regulatory Regime as recommended herein; with a condition 

precedent that non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providers should also apply to the ACEM to be 

screened for membership by peer acception, and to subscribe to ACEM Values. 

from, 

Ir. Rocky H.T. Wong 

Past Chairman - ACEM 

THE INGENIEUR 8

cover feature 

Municipal Solid Waste – 

A Problem Or An Opportunity? 

By Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus & Mohamad Puad Abu 

MINT Incineration and Renewable Centre (MIREC), Malaysian Institute of Nuclear Technology (MINT) 

Waste, regardless of its kind 

(either in solid or liquid 

form) is produced since the 

dawn of human existence and it is 

not excessive to say, waste is the first 

thing generated before people are able 

to contribute to the betterment of 

lives. Indifferent of the various 

definitions, the problems regarding 

the disposal and management of 

waste have then never been out of 

the issues of open discussion. This 

controversial subject has become 

more severe when the growth of waste 

has reached a critical condition due 

to the increasing demands on the 

consumption of natural resources and 

raw material in the creation of 

products to enrich people’s lives. 

Hence, the current and future 

generations must ensure that all 

resources be preserved, fully utilized 

and well managed. 

Generation rates of Municipal 

Solid Waste (MSW) vary according to 

the economic and social standing of 

a country. This, in return, will also 

affect the management style of the 

MSW generated. Generally, the 

higher income community generate 

more waste, recycle more and have 

the money to employ new technology 

to treat their waste. As for the lower 

income communities, the waste 

generated is more organic in nature, 

which calls for lesser recycling, 

whereas disposal is by open dumping. 

The effects of this naturally would 

mean that in the lower income 

countries pollution to water and air 

is huge as compared to the more 

developed countries. However, on the 

other hand, does waste alone generate 

harmful gasses that pollute the world 

or does manufacturing, transportation 

and power production, which are 

rampant in the more industrialised 

countries contribute more towards 

pollution? This subject is 

argumentative and could be discussed 

at length. However, the environment 

cannot wait for its population to 

debate on the above matter. Action 

needs to be taken in a world where 

economic power determines the 

treatment method. Hence, the idea 

of recovering all ‘wealth’ in the waste 

is essential to ensure that even the 

poorest countries could benefit from 

all waste management technologies. 

For this to work, recycling, reuse and 

recovery of energy is essential in an 

integrated approach towards waste 

management. 

WASTE GENERATION RATES 

MSW could be considered to be 

produced in proportion with the 

economic productivity and the 

consumption rate of the population 

of the countries’ resources. Countries 

with higher incomes produce more 

waste per capita and per employee, 

and their waste generally contains 

more packaging material and 

recyclable items. In low-income 

countries, commercial and industrial 

activities are limited; thus recycling 

activities are limited. Table 1 reflects 

the generation rates as compared to 

the economic level and the 

management cost. In most low 

income countries, land availability, 

due to lack of economic value, makes 

it easier to operate open dumps as 

compared to developed countries 

where land cost is too high due to 

economic and residential demand, 

and calls for more sophisticated 

management methods such as 

incineration, refuse-derived fuel, 

composting, material recovery 

facilities and others [1,2]. At the same 

THE INGENIEUR 10 

time, the generation rate with the 

related disposal cost alone does not 

reflect the MSW management 

condition in most countries. Many 

other factors, such as land availability, 

public opinion, political, economical 

and legal conditions too do govern 

over the decision made to tackle the 

MSW management problem in a 

country. 

Mostly, when waste generation 

is considered, many reflect on the 

quantity of the waste that is 

generated, forgetting the quality 

of the waste that is disposed off. 

Table 2 reflects some of the 

generation rates, a country’s income 

and the composition of the MSW 

generated. Indications from Table 2 

show that in the lower income 

countries generation rates are lower. 

At the same time the recyclable items 

such as plastic, paper and glass are 

low as compared to the higher income 

nations. This goes to show that the 

socio economic status of a country 

has adverse effect on the generation 

rates and also the recycling rates, not 

to mention the fact that the 

population does not get to enjoy the 

product of the modern world such as 

excessive packaging. 

As for Malaysia, the capital city 

of Kuala Lumpur is usually the 

center of attention for waste 

management problems due to the 

congestion and over production of 

MSW. It is reported that on average, 

the daily collection is between 

18,000 and 25,000 tons/day for 

Malaysia and in Kuala Lumpur it is 

as high as 3,000 tons/day [6,7]. On 

average, the generation rate is about 

0.8 to 1.2 kg/capita/day and this 

generation rate is increasing 

annually at a rate between 2 and 3%. 

As for other Asian countries the

City Country Socio-economic factors 

High Income 

New York USA 

Sydney Australia 

Tokyo Japan 

Paris France 

Rome Italy 

Medium Income 

Madrid Spain 

Singapore Singapore 

Manila Philippines 

Taipei Taiwan 

Kano 

Low Income 

Nigeria 

Bangalore India 

Dacca Bangladesh 

Karachi Pakistan 

Jakarta Indonesia 

Rangoon Burma 

Table 1:Global Perspective of Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates and 

The Respective Management Costs [3,4] 

Units Low Middle High 

Income Income Income 

Mixed Urban Waste – Large City kg/cap/day 0.50 to 0.75 0.55 to 1.10 0.75 to 2.20 

Mixed Urban Waste – Medium 

City 

kg/cap/day 0.35 to 0.65 0.45 to 0.75 0.65 to 1.50 

Residential Waste Only kg/cap/day 0.25 to 0.45 0.35 to 0.65 0.55 to 1.00 

Average Income from GNP US$/cap/yr 370 2,400 22,000 

Collection Cost US$/ton 10 to 30 30 to 70 70 to 120 

Transfer Cost US$/ton 3 to 8 5 to 15 15 to 20 

Open Dumping Cost US$/ton 0.5 to 2 1 to 3 5 to 10 

Sanitary Landfill Cost US$/ton 3 to 10 8 to 15 20 to 50 

Tidal Land Reclamation Cost US$/ton 3 to 15 10 to 40 30 to 100 

Composting Cost US$/ton 5 to 20 10 to 40 20 to 60 

Incineration Cost US$/ton 40 to 60 30 to 80 70 to 100 

Total cost without Transfer US$/ton 13 to 40 38 to 85 90 to 170 

Total cost with Transfer US$/ton 17 to 48 43 to 100 105 to 190 

Cost as % of Income % 0.7 to 2.6 0.5 to 1.3 0.2 to 0.5 

* Income based on 1992 Gross National product data form the World Development Report, 1994 

Table 2 : Socio-economic data, generation rates and major waste components in some countries [4,5] 

W T PD P/DW GNP POP 

1,000 15 450 4.2 12,800 9.12 

620 25 30 4.2 4,100 3.23 

700 15 40,694 7.0 4,910 11.60 

1,250 10 4,000 2.5 18,400 2.18 

580 14 700 4.9 7,000 2.88 

410 14 290 4.2 5,000 3.19 

440 29 26,472 3.9 4,000 2.44 

64 27 983 5.0 807 1.63 

220 22 1,250 4.2 - 2.50 

70 30 200 4.5 2,000 1.00 

50 24 1,300 7.0 320 2.91 

25 26 3,750 6.0 200 1.31 

340 29 1,300 5.5 1,890 5.10 

45 24 700 8.0 474 6.50 

32 26 200 6.0 120 2.60 


Municipal 

Waste 

MW 

720 

690 

400 

590 

460 

390 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Major waste components (% by weight) 

Paper Plastic Food Metal Glass 

35.0 10.0 22.0 13.0 9.0 

38.0 0.1 13.0 11.0 18.0 

38.0 11.0 23.0 4.0 7.0 

30.0 1.0 30.0 4.0 4.0 

18.0 4.0 50.0 3.0 4.0 

21.0 - 45.0 3.0 4.0 

43.0 6.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 

17.0 4.0 43.0 2.0 5.0 

8.0 2.0 25.0 1.0 3.0 

17.0 4.0 43.0 5.0 2.0 

3.0 0.5 65.0 0.4 0.2 

2.0 1.0 40.0 1.0 9.0 

0.5 0.5 56.0 0.5 0.5 

2.0 3.0 82.0 4.0 0.5 

1.0 4.0 80.0 3.0 6.0 

W= monthly wages in US$ T = annual average temperature, % o C POP = total population in millions 

PD = population density, persons/km 2 P/DW = persons /dwelling GNP=gross national product, US$ MW = kg/capita/yr 

generation rate increase is between 3 

and 7 %. Table 3 shows some figures 

on the generation rates and the 

composition of the different classes 

of income based on a study done in 

Selangor. A comparison between 

Table 2 and 3 indicates the state of 

Selangor to be in between high 

income and middle income group of 

countries if the MSW generation is 

used as a yard stick to judge economic 

status of a state. 

WASTE MANAGEMENT TRENDS 

To many residents of the world, 

generation of waste is considered a 

part of life which cannot be changed, 

but to some, the generation of waste 

is something that will eventually 

affect them if not managed properly. 

Having all the best waste 

management options available is 

good but a reflection of the current 

generation rates and the disposal 

methods are necessary in order to 

avoid overspending. This brings in the 

concept of BATNEEC (Best Available 

Technology, Not Entailing Excessive 

Cost) where the technology is suited 

to the problem and the situation in 

the country. However, there are some 

countries or rather counties/states that 

do not process their waste in their 

own state, bring about the NIMBY 

(Not In My Back Yard) syndrome, 

which will entail excessive cost in just 

cover feature

cover feature 

Table 3: Generation rates and major waste components in the state of Selangor, Malaysia 

[4,5] 

Generation Rate kg/capita/ 

day 

transporting the waste across the 

boarder [8]. Table 4 shows the 

amount of waste that is collected and 

how it is managed in a few countries. 

From the table it is good to note that 

most of the nations in the world are 

providing for the collection of waste 

to at lease 80% of that which is 

generated. 

High 

Income 

(> RM 

3,000) 

As for Malaysia, until the year 

2000, land filling of the waste 

generated has been the main option. 

However, the 144 landfills and open 

dumps scattered all over the country 

are at a critical level of either at the 

end or beyond their lifespan. At the 

same time, Malaysia enjoys a high 

development rate and combined with 


Middle Income 

(RM 1,500 to 

2,999) 

Low Income 

(< RM 1,500) 

1.70 0.71 0.80 

Food % 

Composition 

38.81 47.21 49.38 

Paper % 12.81 12.28 12.58 

Textile % 2.18 2.38 2.26 

Rubber / Leather % 2.17 0.69 0.73 

Wood % 1.16 0.82 0.45 

Garden Waste % 11.26 8.64 5.94 

Other Organic % 0.59 0.18 0.27 

Other (plastic, metal, 

etc.) 

% 31.02 27.80 28.39 

the strict environmental regulations 

enforced, land for dumping of waste 

is scarce. Over the last five years, the 

management trends in major towns 

have changed from land filling to 

putting great pressure to recycle, 

recover and reuse. Kuala Lumpur 

has closed two landfills and created 

only one landfill, one transfer station 

Table 4: Amount of waste collected and the management methods [9 - 18] 

Country Data 

latest 

year 

available 

Municipal 

waste 

collected 

(1000 

tonnes) 

Population 

served by 

municipal 

waste 

collection 

(%) 

Municipal 

waste 

collected 

per 

capita 

served 

(kg) 

Municipal 

waste 

landfilled 

(%) 

Municipal 

waste 

incinerated 

(%) 

Municipal 

waste 

recycled/ 

composted 

(kg) 

United 

States 

2001 207 957 100.0 722 55.7 14.7 29.7 

Australia 1999 13 200 ... ... 95.0 0.0 7.3 

Japan 2000 52 362 100.0 412 5.9 77.0 15.0 

France 2001 32 174 100.0 540 43.2 32.2 24.6 

Italy 2002 29 788 100.0 525 63.8 8.9 ... 

Spain 2001 26 340 ... 595 59.6 5.6 21.6 

Singapore 2002 4 402 ... ... 3.7 55.0 41.3 

Mexico 2002 32 174 86.0 367 97.6 0.0 2.4 

Peru 2001 1 444 100.0 ... 64.6 ... ... 

Madagascar 2002 151 100.0 ... 100.0 0.0 0.0 

Mauritius 2003 351 95.0 303 100.0 ... ... 

Hong Kong 2002 5 399 100.0 773 63.7 ... 36.3 

Singapore 2002 4 402 ... ... 3.7 55.0 41.3 

Thailand 2000 13 972 ... ... ... 0.8 14.3

CO2 

equivalents 

per annum 

and a Refuse Derived Fuel plant and 

an Incineration plant is in the 

pipeline. The same could be said 

about Penang and Johor Bahru. 

However, the management style in 

the lesser-populated states is still 

dependent on landfills. As for the 

central Government, efforts are in the 

pipeline for the tabling of a National 

Waste bill that will empower the local 

authorities to provide better 

management and allow for 

privatization of the collection and 

disposal of the MSW. A master plan 

for the nation on waste management 

policies and strategies has been 

prepared and earmarked for 

implementation until 2020 [8]. 

THE PROBLEM 

+ 

– 

Landfill + 

Gas recovery + 

Power Production 

Landfil 

Waste generation at all points 

needs to be managed in a proper 

manner. The effects of this waste 

either managed or mis-managed 

could lead to either the pollution of 

water or air. In most cases, water 

pollution is contributed by the 

improper management of landfills or 

just open dumps, which allows 

untreated or semi-treated leachate to 

flow into waterways causing 

tremendous health problems. 

The standards and norms for 

handling MSW in industrialised 

Mix waste 

combustion plant + 

power production 

Energy 

SRF production cogasification 

in coal 

boiler 

Recycling 

countries have reduced health and 

environmental impact substantially. 

About four decades ago, highincome 

countries required open 

dumps to be covered daily with soil 

to curtail vector access, turning these 

dumps into controlled landfills. 

However, in the 70s, when it became 

apparent that even controlled 

landfills could cause major water 

pollution, sanitary landfills become 

a necessity. This technology 

development allowed for the proper 

treatment of leachate and also for the 

collection of the landfill gasses [6]. 

As for pollution to the 

atmosphere as a result of waste 

generation or its management, the 

path has been well documented and 

researched, for it contributes to many 

problems. Figure 1, gives an 

indication of the amount of CO 2 that 

could be emitted or saved by 

employing the various technologies 

available. It is generally noted that 

if waste is just dumped without 

recycling the material or the recovery 

of energy, then it is a net disaster to 

the environment in terms of release 

of CO 2 and CH 4 to the air which are 

said to be the main contributors to 

the greenhouse effect. 

In the case of Japan, it is 

estimated that as a result of MSW 

management, 38% of the amount of 


Total 

SRF and paper 

fibre recovery + cogasification 

in coal 

boiler 

Figure 1: 

Greenhouse gas 

emissions of 

different waste 

management 

systems [14] 

CO 2 produced could come from 

incineration, while landfill generates 

3%, collection and transportation 

4%, crushing activities 4% and lastly 

the handling of plastics generates 

51% of the total CO 2 generated from 

waste management. In another study 

done in Japan, the amount of green 

house gasses generated from various 

waste management methods are 

shown on Table 5. As for Malaysia, 

the actual amount of gasses 

generated from the waste 

management of MSW is unknown. 

However, data from the World Bank 

indicate in Malaysia in 2000 the 

amount of CO 2 emitted was 123.6 

million metric tons and CH 4 emitted 

was 2.44 million metric tons. This is 

emission from all types of fuels. 

Generally, it is evident that no 

matter what the management 

method may be, the effect on the 

environment is still unavoidable. 

The only way to reduce waste is to 

increase recycling and ultimately to 

stop the production of waste. This 

has to come into effect in terms of 

reducing the demand on goods and 

also ensuring the production of 

goods are full proof with 110% 

efficiency. This is something for the 

future but for the current market, 

waste management has to strike a 

balance between the environment 

cover feature

cover feature 

and economical returns. Most waste 

management methods other then the 

conventional landfill, demand high 

capital and operational cost. Due to 

these projects being not bankable, the 

Government funded the waste 

management projects in the past. 

Fortunately, technology has 

progressed and new laws allow for 

the trading of CO 2 in the open market 

Figure 2: 

Pathways for 

processing of 

municipal solid 

waste [14] 

Table 5 : Amount of Green House Gases from Waste Management 

in 2000 – Japan 

Emissions 

from 

Landfill 

Emissions 

from Waste 

Water 

Treatment 

Emissions 

from 

Incineration 

Source GHG s Gg CO2 eq 

Controlled 

Landfill 

Kitchen Garbage 

Paper / Fiber 

Wood 

CH4 

CH4 

CH4 

1,205.5 

2,576.4 

1,537.7 

Industrial Waste Water CH4 308.5 

Final Treatment CH4 231.3 

Municipal / 

Commercial 

Waste Water 

Plant 

Domestic 

Treatment Plant 

Human Waste 

N2O 

CH4 

N2O 

CH4 

620.9 

418.9 

360.7 

34.0 

Treatment Plant N2O 868.6 

CO2 12,804.5 

Municipal Solid Waste CH4 11.2 

N2O 650.1 

CO2 11,440.2 

Industrial Solid Waste CH4 0.8 

N2O 1,621.1 

Total 34,690.5 

making waste management viable 

and economically encouraging. 

THE OPPORTUNITY 

From the previous arguments, it 

is evident that the concept of recycle, 

reuse and recover is essential in 

minimizing the amount of 

environmental and economical 

Processing Intermediate 

Products 

MSW 

Mechanical 

Separation 

Biodegradable 

Fr action 

Secondary 

Raw material 

Solid 

Fuels 

Recovered 


damage that could be done if waste 

is disposed off indiscriminately. 

However, management of waste 

requires considerable funds and many 

countries do not have the economic 

resources for high technology 

management. On the other hand 

private companies are looking at the 

Government for capital expenditure 

to reduce the financial burden on the 

Materials 

For Market 

Compost 

Glass, Metals, 

Aluminium etc 

Conversion 

To Energy 

Incineration 

Anarobic 

Digestion 

Pyrolisis 

Gasification 

Combustion 

Co - utilisation 

with Fossil Fuels

1 tonne 

MSW 

Coal 

1 tonne 

MSW 

MSW 

600 kWhe 

Coal Combustion 

600 kWhe 

Landfill 

Without gas utilization 

1100 kg CO2 

(220 kg fossil and 880 

kg biogenic) 

592 kg 

CO2 

1610 kg 

CO2 

Net reduction in CO2 = 220-592-1610 = -1982 kg 

Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from electricity production[14] 

company. Hence, the financial model 

becomes an important tool in making 

the final decision on the management 

method. 

At this point, the concept of 

turning waste to wealth becomes 

apparent. The need to recover 

maximum profits from the 


proper manner. Current technologies 

allow for even inert ash material from 

the incinerators to be recycled into 

road payment materials or for the 

manufacturing of tiles. This would 

not only save resources but allow for 

the extension of landfill lifespan while 

ensuring almost zero waste to the 

landfill. 

Table 6 shows the amount of 

energy produced in 1999 and also 

the amount of energy consumed in 

2001 either by non-renewable 

resources or by renewable resources. 

Some countries are producing a fair 

bit via renewable resources but the 

major industrialised countries are 

still very much dependent on 

depleting fuels as a resource. The 

table also goes to show weather 

production and demand are 

maintained at a margin or there is 

too much stand-by power, which is 

being generated by not being used. 

On the other hand, Figure 3, paints 

a different picture of how much CO 2 

could be saved if energy is recovered 

from the waste that is dumped into 

the landfill. 

Table 6: Amount of energy produced and consumed by Non-renewable 

and renewable resources [9 – 18] 

Country Total Energy Produced (1999) Total Energy Consumed (2001) 

All 

Sources 

(1000 

Metric 

TOE) 

management method employed while 

ensuring environmental sustainability 

is the main objective. Figure 2 shows 

the pathways that are available right 

from the processing of the MSW to 

the final landfill. It is obvious that at 

every level of processing, there is 

money to be made if processed in a 

Non- 

Renewable 

Energy 

Source (%) 

Renewable 

Energy 

Source 

(%) 

All 

Sources 

(1000 

Metric 

TOE) 

Non- 

Renewable 

Energy 

Source 

(%) 

Renewable 

Energy 

Source 

(%) 

Sweden 34,377 57.1 42.9 51,054 71.2 28.8 

United 

Kingdom 

262,186 

99.1 0.9 

235,158 

98.4 1.6 

Bulgaria 10,325 92.9 7.1 19,476 99.5 0.5 

Denmark 27,171 91.6 8.4 19,783 88.7 11.3 

Canada 379,207 88.8 11.2 248,184 85.1 14.9 

Mexico 230,236 92.9 7.1 152,273 89.8 10.2 

United 

States 

1,711,814 

93.1 6.9 

2,281,414 

95.4 4.6 

China 1,138,617 78.9 21.1 1,139,369 79.0 21.0 

Japan 104,092 83.8 16.2 520,729 96.8 3.2 

Malaysia 77,623 95.8 4.2 51,608 94.6 5.4 

Thailand 40,059 63.3 36.7 75,542 81.8 18.2 

Australia 250,436 96.9 3.1 115,627 94.2 5.8 

New 

Zealand 

14,932 

59.3 40.7 

18,294 

70.4 29.6 

cover feature

cover feature 

Table 7: Conversation of MSW to RDF and the amount of recyclables obtained with 

improvement in calorific value (CV). [1] 

MSW weight Removal % RDF weight RDF (%) CV MSW (kJ/kg) CV RDF (kJ/kg) 

Food 59.19 50.00 29.60 49.34 16,373.68 8,079.01 

Plastic 12.65 10.00 11.38 18.97 35,028.95 6,646.57 

Paper 7.99 10.00 7.19 11.98 14,528.85 1,741.23 

Rubber 0.65 10.00 0.59 0.98 21,310.43 207.92 

Yard 7.92 10.00 7.13 11.88 13,653.13 1,622.36 

Textile 1.36 10.00 1.22 2.04 17,735.08 361.57 

Wood 2.32 10.00 2.09 3.48 15,727.25 547.36 

Glass 1.56 90.00 0.16 0.26 

Aluminum 0.39 90.00 0.04 0.06 

Ferrous 2.01 90.00 0.20 0.33 

Fine 3.97 90.00 0.40 0.66 10,723.86 70.97 

Total 100.00 59.98 100.00 17,532.96 19,277.00 

* Note – all calculations based on dry weight 

Table 8: Typical expense and income from managing MSW generated - Kuala Lumpur [1] 

Collection 

Estimated Expenses (RM/ton MSW) 

90 

Transfer Station 32 

Landfill 27 

Incineration 100 

Refuse Derived 30 

Fuel 

Composting 33 

Possible Income (RM/ton MSW) 

Recycling 

Plastic 20 20%/ton MSW – with 20% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg 

Metal 18 8%/ton MSW – with 75% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg 

Others 5 Estimated 

Energy from RDF 29.5 30%/ton MSW – 3,500kcal/kg – RM 0.17/ kW.h 

Composting 30 60%/ton MSW – 5% compost – RM 1.00 / kg 

Carbon Trading 35 1.9 tons CO2/ton MSW – US$ 5 / ton CO2 

In Malaysia, as mentioned 

earlier, the major cities have 

changed from total land filling to 

recycling, recovery of energy 

through incineration or even 

conversion of MSW to Refuse 

Derived Fuel (RDF). Table 7 and 8 

shows the removal efficiency of the 

RDF process and the expenses and 

probable income from managing 

the waste in an integrated fashion. 

These are projection figures for a 

commercial RDF plant, which will 

commence operation in 2006 for 

the area of Kajang, Selangor. This 

is just one option and there are 

many more methods of integrating 

the management methods to obtain 

fruitful income. Malaysia is also 

rich in bio resources and 

agricultural activity, which 

generate a lot of waste. These 

wastes could act as enhancing 

materials to better manage the 

MSW generated while ensuring not 

much methane is emitted into the 

atmosphere. This will not only 

improve the quality of live in 

Malaysia but also ensure 

management of all waste material 


is handled properly while bringing 

economical returns to the investors. 

The ideal about RDF production 

is that the plant allows for material 

recovery, which is an income to the 

plant, and then the organics are 

shred and either converted to RDF 

or fed into composters to generate 

biogases which are fed to a fuel cell 

to create Hydrogen fuel. The 

opportunities are unlimited, with 

the integrating of various 

technologies and various wastes to 

generate the most income. 

However, technology has to be

developed locally where the ‘knowhow’ 

will be gained at the same 

time. Only by this method will 

Malaysia become an exporter of 

technology instead of just materials 

and products. 

Apart form just waste treatment, 

landfill mining and recovery of 

materials from closed landfills are 

options. Most countries evolve 

from open dumps that receive all 

kinds of waste to sanitary landfills, 

which receive waste that has been 

recycled, thermally treated, and the 

inert only end up in landfills. By 

locating a material recovery facility 

or a RDF plant on a closed landfill 

or open dump, the plant could 

operate to recover some of the 

materials that have been buried as 

fuel. On the other hand, open 

dumps that have been closed could 

also be harvested for the landfill 

gasses that are emitted to be 

converted into electricity. This not 

only saves the environment but 

also generates electricity. Over a 

period of time, these landfills could 

also be converted into orchards, 

golf courses or even residential 

areas in years to come. The 

financial opportunities for this is 

enormous and waiting to be tapped. 

CONCLUSION 

Waste generated and managed 

in a proper manner is essentially 

good for the environment. 

However, with the advancement of 

technology and in the pursuit of a 

modern and more comfortable 

lifestyle, many the countries are 

endangering the environment to 

the point of no return. It has 

already been established that in 

some countries, the background 

level of dioxin in the air is higher 

then the allowable cancer risk set 

as 1 pica g/Nm 3 . The way forward 

should be not treating the waste 

produced but how not to produce 

waste in the first place. This would 

take a long time to achieve but 

some action needs to be taken in 

order to stop excess manufacturing 

in the name and glory of seeking a 

comfortable lifestyle. 

REFERENCES 

1. Sivapalan Kathiravale, ‘PhD Thesis in Preparation’, UKM, 2003. 

2. Manser, A.G.R., and Keeling, A.A., ‘Processing and Recycling Municipal 

Waste’, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1996. 

3. Cointreau, Sandra, ‘Occupational And Environmental Health Issues 

of Solid Waste Management: Special Emphasis on Middle and Lower- 

Income Countries’ , Report to the Waste Management Unit of the 

World Health Organization, Regional Office in Europe 

4. Ali Khan. M.Z. and Burney. F.A., ‘Forecasting Solid Waste Composition 

– An Important Consideration in Resource Recovery and Recycling’, 

Resources, Conversation and Recycling, Elsevier, 3 (1989), 1-17 

5. ‘Municipal Waste Arising’, www.un.org/depts/unsd/enviro 

6. Mohd Nasir Hassan, Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. Ai. 2002, ‘Municipal 

Solid Waste Characterisation Study of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia’ 

International Solid Waste Association World Environment Congress 

& Exibition 2002, Istanbul Convention & Exhibition Center, Turkey, 

July 8-12. 2002 

7. Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. al. 2002, ‘A Material Balance of the 

Municipal Solid Waste Generated by the Various Sources in Kuala 

Lumpur’ World Engineering Congress 2002, Kuching Sarawak, July 

22-25. 2002 

8. Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus, ‘Developing Strategies for MSW 

Management R&D in Malaysia and the Repositioning of the Thermal 

Treatment Discipline’, 3 rd I-CIPEC, Hongzhou, China, October, 2004 

9. Earth Trends Data Tables: Climate and Atmosphere, 2005, World 

Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United Nations 

Framework 10. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Consumption by 

Source, 2005, World Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, 

United Nations Framework 

11. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Production by Source, 2005, World 


Framework 

12. Earth Trends Data Tables: Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Source, 2005, 

World Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United 

Nations Framework 

13. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy, 2005, World Resources Institute, 

International Energy Agency, United Nations Framework 

14. ‘Municipal Solid Waste and its Role in Sustainability’ A position 

paper prepared by IEA Bioenergy, www.ieabioenergy.com 

15. Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus 2003, ‘Recoverable 

Energy From Malaysian Municipal Solid Waset’ Bulletin Ingenieur, 

Malaysia, Vol. 21 Quarter 4/4 Dec 2003 Pg 8 – 12 

16. Blueprint on Waste to Wealth, Malaysian Institute for Nuclear 

Technology, in Print 

17. Earth Trends Data Tables: Green Gas Emissions from Fossil Fuel 

Burning by Sector, 2005, World Resources Institute, International 

Energy Agency, United Nations Framework 

18. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Consumption by Sector, 2005, World 


Framework 

19. Earth Trends Data Tables: Resources Consumption, 2005, World 


Framework BEM 


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cover feature 

Biomass Energy From The 

Palm Oil Industry In Malaysia 

By Dr. Ma A N and Dato’ Dr. Yusof Basiron, Malaysian Palm Oil Board 

Over the last 40 years, the 

Malaysian palm oil industry 

has grown by leaps and 

bounds to become the world largest 

producer and exporter of palm oil and 

its products. In 2004, Malaysia had 

about 3.87 million hectares of land 

under oil palm cultivation. There were 

also 380 palm oil mills processing about 

70 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunch 

(FFB) to produce 13.98 million tonnes 

of crude palm oil (CPO) and 3.66 million 

tonnes of palm kernel. There were also 

48 active refineries, 40 palm kernel 

crushing plants and 17 oleochemical 

factories producing various processed 

palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel 

cake, oleochemicals and finished palm 

products. The total export earnings of 

palm oil products, constituting refined 

palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel 

cake, oleochemicals and finished 

products amounted to RM 30.41 billion 

(RM3.80=US$ 1). 

Traditionally oil palm is grown for 

its oils, i.e. palm oil, palm kernel oil 

and palm kernel cake as the 

commodity products. There are many 

co-products like fronds, trunks, empty 

fruit bunch (EFB) palm fibre and shell 

that have not been fully commercially 

exploited. In some cases they are still 

being considered as a nuisance to the 

industry. Through concerted research 

and development efforts by many 

research organisations including 

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), 

these co-products from palm oil 

industry have been found to be good 

resources for many applications. 

There are now many competitive uses 

of these materials. One of them is to 

utilise them as fuel for energy 

production. In fact, the Malaysian 

Government has identified biomass as 

the fifth fuel resource to complement 

the petroleum, gas, coal and hydro 

as energy resources. 

Currently more than 80% of the 

palm oil produced is used for food 

applications like coking oil, frying 

oil, margarine, shortening and many 

others. The non-edible applications 

include soap and candle as well as 

oleochemicals production. The 

main raw material for major 

oleochemicals production is palm 

kernel oil. 

In recent years, the escalating 

petroleum price coupled with the 

compelling pressure under the Kyoto 

Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide 

(green house gas) emission have 

forced many countries to look for 

alternative and renewable fuels. 

Vegetable oils and their esters have 

been identified as potential green 

fuels for the future. In the Malaysian 

context, palm oil and its derivatives 

including palm oil methyl esters have 

been successfully researched and 

evaluated as diesel substitutes. The 

potential energy from all these palm 

biomass is presented in this paper. 


Energy From Fibre, Shell And 

Empty Fruit Bunches 

Oil palm is a perennial crop. It has 

an economic life span of about 25 

years. Oil palm is grown for its oils. 

Palm oil and palm kernel oil are 

extracted from the mesocarp and 

kernels of the fruits respectively. In 

general, the fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 

contains about 20-25% palm oil, 6- 

7% palm kernel, 14% fibre, 7% shell 

and 23% empty fruit bunch (EFB) (Ma, 

2002). Table 1 shows the type and 

amount of biomass generated 

together with their heat values. 

Fibre And Shell 

All the palm oil mills in Malaysia 

use fibre and shell as the boiler fuel 

to produce steam and electricity for 

palm oil and kernel production 

processes. The fibre and shell alone 

can supply more than enough 

electricity to meet the energy demand

Table 1. Biomass Generated by Palm Oil Mills in 2004 

Biomass 

Quantity 

(million tones) 

of a palm oil mill. It is estimated that 

20 kWh (lower kWh for higher 

capacity mill) of electrical energy is 

required to process one tonne of FFB. 

Thus, in 2004 about 1400 million 

kWh of electricity was generated and 

consumed by the palm oil mills. 

Assuming that each mill operates on 

the average 393.35 hours per month, 

the palm oil mills together will have 

a generating capacity of 296 MW. 

This constitutes about 2.5 % of the 

energy demand of the country. It 

must be mentioned here that the palm 

oil mills generally have excess fibre 

and shell, which are not used and 

have to be disposed off separately. In 

other words, the palm oil mills still 

have excess capacity to produce more 

renewable energy. 

Assuming that a diesel power 

generator consumes 0.34 litre of diesel 

for every kWh of electricity output, 

the oil palm industry in 2004 is 

estimated to have saved the country 

about 476 million litres of diesel 

which amounted to about RM395 

million (price of diesel @ RM0.83 per 

litre). The energy requirement for 

palm oil mills is mounting as palm 

oil production is expected to reach 

14 million tones in the year 2005. 

Furthermore, the fuel cost could have 

been more if fuel oil was used as boiler 

fuel to generate steam separately for 

the milling processes. 

The oil palm industry is indeed 

fortunate that the fibre and shell can 

be used directly as the boiler fuel 

without any further treatment. With 

proper control of combustion, black 

smoke emission usually associated 

with the burning of solid fuel can be 

controlled. Another intangible 

advantage of using both these 

residues as fuel is that it helps to 

dispose off these bulky materials 

Moisture 

Content (%) 

which otherwise would contribute to 

environmental pollution. Unless 

these materials can be more 

beneficially utilised, it is envisaged 

that they will remain as boiler fuel 

for the foreseeable future. It has 

generally been considered that 

energy is free in the palm oil mills. 

This has undoubtedly contributed 

greatly to the success of the palm 

oil industry. 

Empty Fruit Bunch 

Apart from fibre and shell, EFB 

are another valuable biomass, which 

can be readily converted into energy. 

However this material has only been 

utilized to a very limited extent. This 

is mainly because there is already 

enough energy available from fibre 

and shell. Also, due to its physical 

nature and high moisture content of 

65 %, the EFB has to be pre-treated 

to reduce its bulkiness and moisture 

content to below 50 %, in order to 

render it more easily combustible 

(Jorgensen, 1985; Chua, 1991). 

The EFB has a heat value of 

18,883 kJ/kg on dry weight. Thus 

the total heat energy obtainable from 

the EFB in 2004 would be 106 x 10 12 

kJ. This is sufficient to generate 

about 26.5 million tonnes of steam 

(at 65 % boiler efficiency and 2,604 

kJ per kg of steam) and 980 million 

kWh of electricity saving the country 

333 million litres of diesel or RM276 

million. The above calculation was 

based on standard non-condensing 

turbo-alternator working against a 

backpressure of 3 bars gauge. More 

than double of the energy could be 

obtained if condensing turbines 

working at a vacuum of 0.25 bar 

(absolute) are used for power 

generation (Chua, 1991). 


Oil 

Content (%) 

Calorific Value (dry) 

(kJ/kg) 

EFB 16.1 65 5 18,883 

Fibre 9.8 35 5 19,114 

Shell 4.9 12 1 20,156 

POME 49.0 93 1 

Note : EFB - Empty fruit bunch 

POME - Palm oil mill effluent 

The above estimation represents 

the total obtainable energy from all 

the 380 palm oil mills distributed all 

over the country. Thus it can be said 

that the energy generated from a 

single palm oil mill will not be 

significant in volume and it may not 

be viable for commercial 

consideration or to supply the 

electricity to the national grid. 

However, the EFB, unlike fibre, can 

be easily collected and transported. 

The possibility of producing electricity 

at a central power generating plant 

can be a viable proposition. The 

central power plants can be sited at 

locations where there are high 

concentrations of palm oil mills so 

that the EFB and the surplus fibre and 

shell from the mills can be transported 

at a reasonable distance and cost to 

the respective central power plants. 

Also since the power plants can be 

independent entities, they can be 

operated throughout the year. The 

energy data analysed for various palm 

biomass as shown in Table 2 provides 

useful information when they are used 

in boiler fuels to generate electricity. 

Biogas From POME 

Besides the solid residues, palm oil 

mills also generate large quantities of 

liquid waste in the form of palm oil 

mill effluent (POME), which, due to 

its high biochemical oxygen demand 

(BOD), is required by law to be treated 

to acceptable levels before it can be 

discharged into watercourses or onto 

land. In a conventional palm oil mill, 

about 0.7 m 3 of POME is generated 

for every tonne of FFB processed. 

Hence in 2004, about 49 million m 3 

of POME was generated in this 

country. Anaerobic process is adopted 

by the palm oil mills to treat their 

cover feature

cover feature 

Table 2. Energy Database for Palm Biomass 

Sample 

Calorific Value 

(kJ/kg) 

POME. The biogas produced during 

the decomposition is a valuable 

energy source. It contains about 60- 

70% methane, 30-40% carbon dioxide 

and trace amount of hydrogen 

sulphide. Its fuel properties are shown 

in Table 3 together with other gaseous 

fuels. 

About 28 m 3 of biogas is generated 

for every m 3 of POME treated. Most 

of the biogas is, however, not 

recovered. So far only a few palm oil 

mills harness the biogas for heat and 

electricity generation (Quah et al., 

Ash 

(%) 

1982; Gillies and Quah, 1985; Chua, 

1991). In a gas engine, it has been 

reported that about 1.8 kWh of 

electricity could be generated from 

one m 3 of biogas (Quah et al., 1982). 

The potential energy from biogas 

generated by POME is shown in 

Table 4. Again, as all the palm oil 

mills have enough energy from fibre 

and shell, there is no outlet for this 

surplus energy. Considering the costs 

of storage and transportation of the 

biogas, perhaps the most viable 

proposition is to encourage the setting 


Volatile Matter 

(%) 

Moisture 

(%) 

Hexane 

Extractable 

(%) 

Empty Fruit 

Bunch (EFB) 

18,795 4.60 87.04 67.00 11.25 

Fibres 19,055 6.10 84.91 37.00 7.60 

Shell 20,093 3.00 83.45 12.00 3.26 

Palm Kernel 

Cake 

18,884 3.94 88.54 0.28 9.35 

Nut 24,545 4.05 84.03 15.46 4.43 

Crude Palm 

Oil 

39,360 0.91 1.07 1.07 95.84 

Kernel Oil 38,025 0.79 0.02 0.02 95.06 

Liquor from 

EFB 

20,748 11.63 78.50 88.75 3.85 

Palm Oil Mill 

Effluent 

16,992 15.20 77.09 93.00 12.55 

Trunk 17,471 3.39 86.73 76.00 0.80 

Petiole 15,719 3.37 85.10 71.00 0.62 

Root 15,548 5.92 86.30 36.00 0.20 

Source: Chow et al. (2003) 

Table 3. Some Properties of Gaseous Fuels 

Biogas Natural gas LPG 

Gross calorific value (kJ/Nm 3 ) 19,908 – 25,830 3,797 100,500 

Specific gravity 0.847 – 1.002 0.584 1.5 

Ignition Temperature ( 0 C) 650 – 750 650 – 750 450 – 500 

Inflammable limits (%) 7.5 – 21 5 – 15 2 – 10 

Combustion air required (m 3 /m 3 ) 9.6 9.6 13.8 

All gases evaluated at 15.5 o C, atmosphere pressure and saturated with water vapour. 

LPG - Liquefied petroleum gas 

Source: Quah and Gillies (1981) 

Table 4. Potential Energy from Biogas 

Year 

Palm oil production 

(million tonnes) 

POME 

(million m 3 ) 

Biogas 

(million m 3 ) 

Electricity 

(million kWh) 

2004 13.98 49 1372 2470 

up of industries in the vicinity of the 

palm oil mills where the biogas energy 

can be directly utilized. This can 

result in a substantial saving in 

energy bills (Chua, 1991). 

It was estimated that one cubic 

meter of biogas is equivalent to 0.65 

litre of diesel for electricity 

generation. Hence, the total biogas 

energy can substitute 892 million 

litres of diesel in 2004. This amounted 

to RM740 million. Again the amount 

of biogas generated by an individual 

palm oil mill is not significant for

commercial exploitation. However, 

the economic viability may be 

attractive if the palm oil mills can 

utilize all the fibre, shell, EFB and 

biogas for steam and electricity 

generation. 

Palm Oil Methyl Esters 

As Diesel Substitute 

Biodiesel has gained much 

attention over the recent years due 

to the increasing awareness towards 

the environment. Biodiesel is 

produced from renewable plant 

resources and thus does not 

contribute to the nett increase of 

carbon dioxide. From 1996 to 2004, 

the biodiesel production capacity in 

the European Union has increased by 

a factor of four from 591,000 tonnes 

to a total of 2.355 million tonnes 

(Bockey, 2002 and Bockey, 2004). 

Further utilisation of biodiesel is 

anticipated due to the initiative of the 

respective authorities to promote 

biodiesel and the high cost of 

petroleum diesel. For example, by the 

end of 2005, at least 2% (about 3.1 

million tonnes) of fossil fuels will be 

replaced by biofuels (biodiesel, 

bioethanol, biogas, biomethanol etc.) 

in all European Union (EU) countries. 

This minimum target quantities have 

been laid down in the EU commission 

action plan, by which the proportion 

will be increased annually by 0.75% 

to reach 5.75% (about 17.5 million 

tonnes) in the year 2010 (Schöpe and 

Britschkat, 2002; Bockey and Körbitz, 

2002; Markolvitz, 2002). Biodiesel 

will take up about 10 million tonnes. 

This proposal also envisages that by 

2020, the proportion of biofuels will 

be 20% and obligatory blending of 

1% of biofuels will be introduced from 

2009 (1.75% from 2010 onwards). The 

current trend and legislation will set 

a momentum for greater biodiesel 

production and consumption 

worldwide. Thus, there will be an 

upward course and new market 

opportunities for biodiesel. 

Methyl esters of vegetable oils 

have been successfully evaluated as 

diesel substitute worldwide (Choo and 

Ma, 2000; Choo et al., 1997). For 

example, rapeseed methyl esters in 

Europe, soybean oil methyl esters in 

USA, sunflower oil methyl esters in 

both Europe and USA; and palm oil 

methyl esters in Malaysia. As the 

choice of vegetable oil depends on the 

cost of production and reliability of 

supply, palm oil would be the 

preferred choice. The reason being oil 

palm is the highest oil-yielding crop 

(4-5 tonnes/hectare/year) among all 

the vegetable oils and the cheapest 

vegetable oil traded in the world 

market. 

Malaysia has embarked on an 

extensive biodiesel programme since 

1982. The biodiesel programme 

included development of production 

technology to convert palm oil to 

palm oil methyl esters (palm diesel), 

pilot plant study of palm diesel 

production as well as exhaustive 

evaluation of palm diesel as diesel 

substitute in conventional diesel 

engines (both stationary engines and 

exhaustive field trials). 

Crude palm oil can be readily 

converted to their methyl esters. The 

MPOB/PETRONAS patented palm 

diesel technology (Choo et al., 1992) 

has been successfully demonstrated 

in a 3,000 tonne per year pilot plant 

(Choo et al., 1995; Choo et al., 1997; 

Choo and Cheah, 2000). The novel 

aspect of this patented process is the 

use of solid acid catalysts for the 

esterification. The resultant of the 

reaction mixture, which is neutral, is 

then transesterified in the presence of 

an alkaline catalyst. The conventional 

washing stage or neutralization step 

after the esterification process is 

obviated and this is an economic 

advantage. 

Crude palm oil methyl esters (palm 

diesel) have been systematically and 

exhaustively evaluated as diesel fuel 

substitute from 1983 to 1994 (Choo 

et al., 1995; Choo et al., 2002a). These 

included laboratory evaluation, 

stationary engine testing and field 

trials on a large number of vehicles 

including taxis, trucks, passenger cars 

and buses. All these tests have been 

successfully completed. It is worth 

mentioning that the tests also covered 

field trials with 36 Mercedes Benz 

engines from Germany mounted onto 

passenger buses running on three 

types of fuels namely 100% petroleum 

diesel, blends of palm diesel and 


petroleum diesel (50:50) and 100% 

palm diesel. Each bus has covered 

300,000 km, the expected life of the 

engines (total mileage covered by the 

10 buses on 100% palm diesel is 3.7 

million km). Very promising results 

have been obtained from the 

exhaustive field trial. Fuel 

consumption by volume was 

comparable to the diesel. Differences 

in engine performance are so small 

that an operator would not be able to 

detect. The exhaust gas was found 

to be much cleaner as it contained 

comparable NO x, less hydrocarbon, 

CO and CO 2. The very obvious 

advantage is the absence of black 

smoke and sulphur dioxide from the 

exhaust. This is a truly environment 

benign fuel substitute. 

Palm diesel has very similar fuel 

properties as the petroleum diesel 

(Table 5). It also has a higher cetane 

number (63) than diesel (less than 40) 

(Table 6). A higher cetane number 

indicates shorter ignition time delay 

characteristics and generally, a better 

fuel. It can be used directly in 

unmodified diesel engines. Obviously 

it can be used as diesel improver. 

Compared to crude palm oil, palm 

diesel has very much improved 

viscosity and volatility properties. It 

does not contain gummy substances. 

However, it has a pour point of 15°C 

and this has confined its utilisation 

in tropical countries only. 

In recent years, palm diesel with 

low pour point (without additives) has 

been developed to meet seasonal pour 

point requirements, for example 

spring (-10°C), summer (0°C), autumn 

(-10°C) and winter (-20°C). The MPOB 

patented technology (Choo et al., 

2002b) has overcomed the pour point 

problem of palm diesel. With the 

improved pour point, palm diesel can 

be utilised in temperate countries. 

Besides having good low temperature 

flow characteristic, the palm diesel 

with low pour point also exhibits 

comparable fuel properties as 

petroleum diesel (Table 6). 

The main benefit derived from 

such renewable source of energy is 

the reduction of emission of 

greenhouse gases (GHG) such as CO 2 . 

The production and consumption of 

palm diesel has a closed carbon cycle. 

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Table 5. Fuel Characteristics of Malaysian Diesel, Palm Diesel and Palm Diesel 

with Low Pour Point 

Property 

Specific gravity 

ASTM D1298 

Sulphur content (% wt) 

IP 242 

Viscosity at 40 o C (cSt) 

ASTM D445 

Pour point ( o C) 

ASTM D97 

Cetane Index 

ASTM D976 

Gross heat of combustion (KJ/kg) 

ASTM D 2382 

Flash point ( o C) 

ASTM D 93 

Conradson carbon residue (%wt) 

ASTM D 189 

NA: not available 

This closed carbon cycle recycles the 

carbon dioxide and therefore, there 

is no accumulation of carbon dioxide 

in the atmosphere. Subsequently, the 

palm diesel production, because of its 

lower emissions, is in-line with the 

Clean Development Mechanism 

(CDM) of 1997 Kyoto Protocol. 

Under the terms of 1997 Kyoto 

Protocol (a major international 

initiative established to reduce the 

threat of global warming), there is 

potential financial gain to transact 

these GHG benefits to the palm oil 

industry under the CDM. This 

mechanism allows emission reduction 

projects to be implemented and 

credits are awarded to the investing 

parties. Financial incentives like 

attractive carbon credit scheme 

Malaysian 

Diesel 

0.8330 

@15.5°C 

should further enhance the economic 

viability of these renewable fuels. 

In 2003, Malaysia consumed 8.91 

million tonnes of petroleum diesel 

(National Energy Balance, Ministry of 

Energy, Water & Communication, 

2004). The transport sector alone 

consumed 4.941 million tonnes and 

generated 19.32 million tonnes of 

carbon dioxide. The transport sector 

has been identified as one of the chief 

contributors to air pollution, 

particularly black smoke (due to 

diesel) and carbon dioxide. If 10% of 

the diesel (0.4941 million tonnes) were 

replaced by palm diesel, the industry 

will enjoy 1.932 million tonnes of 

carbon credit, which amounted to 

US$19.32 millions at US$10 per tonne 

of carbon dioxide. 


Palm Oil Methyl 

Esters (Palm 

Diesel) 

0.8700 

@ 23.6°C 

Palm Diesel 

With Low Pour 

Point 

0.8803 

@ 15.5°C 

0.10

injectors, carbon deposits, oil ring 

sticking, and thickening and gelling 

of the lubricating oil as a result of 

contamination with vegetable oil. 

It is possible to reduce the 

viscosity of the vegetable oil by 

incorporating a heating device to the 

diesel engine as has been successfully 

demonstrated by Elsbett engine 

manufacturer (Yusof Basiron and 

Ahmad Hitam, 1992). Other factors 

that may have long term effects on 


the engine are free fatty acids and 

gummy substances, which are found 

in the crude vegetable oils. The 

incomplete combustion residues may 

contribute to undesirable deposits on 

the engine components. The gummy 

Table 7. Fuel Characteristics of Crude Palm Oil (CPO), Medium Fuel Oil (MFO) and Blends 

of Crude Palm Oil /Medium Fuel Oil (CPO / MFO) 

Properties Method Unit MFO CPO 

CPO / MFO 

(50:50) 

Gross Heat of 

D 240 btu/lb 18,350 Min 17,064 17,692 

Combustion 

kJ/kg 42,680 Min 39,690 41,150 

Sulphur D 4294 wt % 3.5 Max 0.03 1.55 

Viscosity @ 50 o C D 445 cSt 180 Max 25.6 67.3 

Flash Point D 93 Deg C 66 Min 268 99 

Ash D 482 wt % 0.1 Max NA 0.012 

Pour Point D 97 Deg C 21 Max 21.0 -6 

Carbon Residue D 4530 wt % 13.0 Max 8.5 7.0 

Density @ 15 o C D 1298 kg/L 0.98 Max 0.9140 0.9408 

Sediment by 

Extraction 

D473 wt % 0.10 Max NA 0.02 

Water by Distillation D 95 vol % 0.5 Max NA 0.25 

NA: Not available 

Table 8. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Olein (RBDPOo), Petroleum Diesel and Blends 

of RBD Palm Olein /Petroleum Diesel (RBDPOo / Diesel) 

Test Conducted 

Density @ 40 °C 

(kg/L) 

ASTM D1298 

Sulfur Content 

(% Wt) 

IP 242 

Viscosity @ 40 o C 

(cSt) 

ASTM D445 

Pour Point ( o C) 

ASTM D97 


Combustion 

(kJ/kg) 

ASTM D240 

Flash Point ( o C) 

PM cc ASTM D93 

RBD Palm 

Olein 

(RBDPOo) 

RBDPOo / 

Diesel 

(90:10) 

RBDPOo / 

Diesel 

(70:30) 

Blends 

RBDPOo / 

Diesel 

(50:50) 

RBDPOo / 

Diesel 

(30:70) 

RBDPOo / 

Diesel 

(10:90) 

Diesel 

0.9150 0.8940 0.8770 0.8600 0.8435 0.8275 0.8190 

0.035 0.035 0.055 0.060 0.080 0.090 0.100 

39.2 29.5 14.8 8.6 7.0 3.8 3.7 

9 9 12 12 12 15 15 

38,975 39,800 40,625 41,450 42,275 43,100 45,000 

326 142 110 99 93 90 89 

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Table 9. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Oil (RBDPO), Petroleum Diesel and Blends of 

RBD Palm Oil/ Diesel (RBDPO/ Diesel) 

Test Conducted 

Density @ 15°C 

(kg/L) 

ASTM D1298 

Sulfur Content 

(% Wt) 

IP 242 

Viscosity @ 40 o C 

(cSt) 

ASTM D445 

Pour Point ( o C) 

ASTM D97 


Combustion 

(kJ/kg) 

ASTM D240 

Flash Point ( o C) 

ASTM D93 

ASTM D92 

Diesel 

substances may cause filter plugging 

problem. This will call for more 

regular and frequent servicing and 

maintenance of the engine. 

Various blends of crude palm oil 

and palm oil products such as 

refined, bleached and deodorised 

palm olein with medium fuel oil 

(MFO) and petroleum diesel 

respectively have been evaluated as 

boiler fuel and diesel substitute 

(Ahmad Hitam et al., 2001). Crude 

palm oil (CPO) and refined, bleached 

RBDPO / 

Diesel 

(2:98) 

RBDPO / 

Diesel 

(3:97) 


Blends 

RBDPO / 

Diesel 

(5:95) 

RBDPO / 

Diesel 

(6:94) 

RBDPO / 

Diesel 

(7:93) 

RBD 

Palm Oil 

(RBDPO) 

0.8479 0.8492 0.8499 0.8502 0.8521 0.8525 0.9151 

0.16 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.12 

0.4248 4.895 4.576 4.656 5.010 5.021 40.68 

9 9 9 9 9 12 24 

45,050 45,340 45,160 45,095 45,085 45,015 39,260 

84.0 84.0 84.0 84.0 85.0 86.0 

and deodorized palm olein (RBDPOo) 

were blended with MFO and 

petroleum diesel respectively at 

various ratio by volume. The 

resultant fuel blends, CPO/MFO and 

RBDPOo/petroleum diesel exhibit 

advantages and fuel characteristics 

that are better compared to that when 

the individual CPO, RBDPO, RBDPOo, 

MFO and petroleum diesel are used 

solely as fuel (Tables 7, 8 and 9) 

(Yusof Basiron, 2002). Currently, 

field trials using MPOB’s in-house 

322.0 

vehicles are being conducted to 

evaluate blends of RBDPOo/ 

petroleum diesel (up to 10% of the 

former) as diesel substitute. No 

technical problems have been 

reported so far. 

Conclusion 

The progressive escalation of fuel 

prices in recent times has led to an 

intensified search for viable alternative 

sources of energy globally. As 

conventional energy resources become 

more difficult to obtain, efforts must 

be directed towards development of 

alternative energy sources. 

The palm oil industry is bestowed 

with plentiful supply of co-products 

that can be readily used as energy 

resources with ease. When EFB and 

biogas are properly processed using 

proven and innovative techniques, a 

considerable amount of energy source 

can be economically recovered. The 

utilization of these co-products from 

the palm oil mill if accepted by the 

authorities will, to some extent, help

in lowering escalation of energy 

shortages. The production and 

application technologies have been 

fully demonstrated. 

Energy is considered free for palm 

oil mills. Fibre and shell together can 

supply more than enough energy to 

meet the mill’s energy demand. The 

electricity generated indirectly from 

fibre and shell represents about 2% of 

the national electricity demand. 

Energy from biogas and empty fruit 

bunch has so far been ignored though 

they represent a hefty 4% of the 

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H. and Yusof B. (2001). In proceedings of 

2001 MPOB International Palm Oil 

Congress, 20 – 23 August 2001, Hotel 

Istana, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Bockey, D. (2002). Situation and 

Development Potential for the Production 

of Biodiesel – An International Study. 

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Plants. 

Bockey, D. (2004). Policy Initiative 

Schemes and Benefits of Biofuel 

Promotion in Germany - Current Status 

of Legislation and Production. Paper 

presented at The Conference On Biofuels 

- Challenges for Asian Future. Queen 

Sirikit National Convention Center, 

Bangkok, Thailand. 30 – 31 August 2004. 

Choo, Y. M., Ong, A. S. H., Cheah, K. Y. and 

Abu Bakar (1992). Production of Methyl 

Esters from Oils and Fats. Australian 

Patent No. 626014. 

Choo, Y. M., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron 

(1995). Production and Evaluation of Palm 

Oil Methyl Esters as Diesel Substitute. 

Elaeis Special Issue: pp. 5 – 25. 

Choo, Y. M., Ma, A. N. and Ong, A. S. H 

(1997). Biofuel. Book Chapter in Lipids: 

Industrial Applications and Technology. 

Eds: Gunstone, F. D. and Padley, F. B. 

Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. pp. 771 – 

785. 

Choo, Y. M. and Cheah, K. Y (2000). 

Biofuel. Book Chapter in Advances of Oil 

Palm Research. Eds: Yusof, B., Jalani, B. S. 

and Chan, K. W. Volume II. Malaysian Palm 

Oil Board, Malaysia. pp. 1293 – 1345. 

Choo, Y. M. and Ma, A. N. (2000). Plant 

Power. Chemistry & Industry, August 

2000. pp. 530 – 534. 

national energy demand in terms of 

electricity. Efforts are being made to 

encourage palm oil mills to sell this 

excess energy in the form of electricity 

to National Grid. 

Palm diesel has been fully 

evaluated as potential diesel substitute 

and diesel/cetane improver. Low pour 

point palm diesel (-21°C) without any 

additives that can meet stringent 

winter diesel specification has also 

been produced. The palm diesel is an 

environmentally benign fuel substitute 

in terms of exhaust gas emission. 

Choo, Y.M., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron 

(2002a). Palm Diesel. Paper presented at 2002 

Oils and Fats International Congress (OFIC), 

7 – 10 October 2002, Putra World Trade 

Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Choo, Y. M., Cheng, S. F., Yung, C. L., Lau, H. 

L. N., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron (2002b). 

Low Pour Point Palm Diesel. Malaysian Patent 

No. PI 20021157. 

Chow, M. C., Subramaniam, V. and Ma, A. N. 

(2003). Energy Database of the Oil Palm. In 

proceedings of 2003 MPOB International 

Palm Oil Congress, 24 – 28 August 2003, 

Hotel Marriott, Putrajaya, Malaysia. 

Chua, N. S. (1991). Optimal Utilization of 

Energy Sources in a Palm Oil Processing 

Complex. Paper presented at Seminar on 

Developments in Palm Oil Milling Technology 

and Environment Management, 16-17 May 

1991, Genting Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia. 

Gillies, D. and Quah, S. K. (1985). Tennmaran 

Biogas Project. Paper presented at the 

Second Asean Workshop on Biogas 

Technology, 8-13 October, 1984. Kuala 

Trengganu, Trengganu, Malaysia. 

Jorgensen, H. K. (1985). Treatment of Empty 

Bunches for Recovery of Residues Oil and 

Additional Steam Production. JAOCS, 62, 

(20):282-284. 

Klopfenstein, W. E. and Walker, H. S. (1983). 

Efficiencies of Various Esters of Fatty Acids 

as Diesel Fuels. JAOCS, 60:1596-1598. 

Ma, A. N. (2002). Carbon Credit from Palm: 

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Engineering Bulletin, Issue No. 65:24 - 26. 

Malaysian Palm Oil Board (2004). Malaysian 

Oil Palm Statistics 2003. Malaysian Palm Oil 

Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and 

Commodities, Selangor, Malaysia. 


Blends of CPO/MFO and RBDPOo/ 

diesel have also been evaluated as 

potential fuel for boiler fuels and 

diesel engines respectively. 

All the above mentioned energy 

sources are renewable and their 

supply is readily available and 

assured. Currently, burning of the 

biomass residues is often considered 

as a way to disposal of the product 

rather than as an energy source. They 

should be commercially exploited. 

This will make the palm oil industry 

more environmentally sustainable. 

Markolvitz, M. (2002). The European 

Biodiesel Market. Biodiesel Status Report. 

Degussa AG, Niederkassel, Germany. 

Ministry of Energy, Water & 

Communication (2004). National Energy 

Balance 2003. Malaysia Energy Centre, 

Selangor, Malaysia. 

Pryde, E. H. (1983). Vegetable Oils as 

Diesel Fuels: Overview. JAOCS, 60:1557- 

1558. 

Quah, S.K. and Gillies, D. (1981). Practical 

Experience in Production Use of Biogas. 

In proceedings of National Workshop on 

Oil Palm By-Product Utilization. Palm Oil 

Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala 

Lumpur. pp. 119-125. 

Quah, S. K., Lim, K. H., Gillies, D., Wood, 

B. J. and Kanagaratnam, K. (1982). Sime 

Darby POME Treatment and Land 

Application System. Proc. of Reg. 

Workshop on Palm Oil Mill. Techy. Effl. 

Treat. Palm Oil Research Institute of 

Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 193-200. 

Schöpe, M. and Britschkat, G. (2002). 

Macroeconomic Evaluation of Rape 

Cultivation for Biodiesel Production in 

Germany. Munich. March 2002. 

Strayer, R.C., Blake, J.A. and Craig, W.K. 

(1983). Canola and High Erucic 

Rapeseed Oil as Substitutes for Diesel 

Fuel: Preliminary Tests. JAOCS, 60: 

1587-1592. 

Yusof Basiron and Ahmad Hitam (1992). 

Cost Effectiveness of the CPO Fuel in the 

Mercedes Elsbett Engine Car. PORIM 

Information Series, No. 4, July. 

Yusof Basiron (2002). Palm Oil and Palm 

Oil Products as Fuel Improver. Malaysian 

Patent No. PI 20020396. BEM 

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An Innovative, Environment-Friendly 

And Cost-Effective Wastewater 

Treatment System – UniFED 

By Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan, Executive Director, Kumpulan IKRAM (Sabah) Sdn Bhd, 

Principal, Perunding Pertama Consulting Engineers 

Clear effluent during decanting phase extracted from the UniFED wastewater treatment system. 

Domestic wastewater has been 

identified as one of the major 

contributors of pollution to 

the environment in our country. 

Hence, a reliable and efficient 

wastewater treatment system is a vital 

contributing factor towards the 

improvement in environmental 

quality in the country. 

The wastewater treatment industry 

has lagged behind the other sectors 

in terms of infrastructure 

development. The growth in this 

industry is further affected by the 

segregation of potable water services 

and wastewater services, which are 

managed by different authorities. The 

Government has recently put both 

these two important services under 

one single Ministry. This augurs well 

towards the eventual integration of 

the water and wastewater services in 

Malaysia. 

For domestic wastewater, the 

biological treatment is the heart of 

the treatment process. It is in this 

stage where the wastewater is exposed 

to living organisms that remove 

dissolved and non-settleable organic 

materials in the wastewater. 

The following types of biological 

treatment processes are commonly 

used in Malaysia. 

● Conventional Activated 

Sludge (CAS) system 

● Extended aeration activated 

sludge system 

● Rotating biological 

contactor system 

● Trickling filter system 

● Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR) 

All effluents from wastewater 

treatment plants are required to 

comply with the standards prescribed 

under the Environmental Quality Act 

1974. The regulations made under the 

Environment Quality Act, 1974 with 

respect to effluent discharges of 

wastewater treatment systems are the 

Environmental Quality (Sewage and 

Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 

1979. There are two discharge 

standards prescribed for compliance 

purposes; Standard A for effluent 

discharge introduced at upstream of 

a water intake, while Standard B for 

effluent discharge at downstream of 

a water intake. However, the current 


practice for wastewater effluent 

enforcement has required all 

mechanical operated wastewater 

treatment plants to meet the Standard 

A effluent quality, which governs 

content limits of 23 physico-chemical 

compositions of the effluent. The 

standards, however, do not cover 

levels of nutrients in the effluents 

(nitrogen and phosphorous) which are 

important components to ensure good 

environment standards. It is 

envisaged that the next update of the 

regulation will incorporate 

requirements in this category, which 

has been implemented in most 

developed countries. 

With the rapid growth of the our 

country’s population, particularly in 

the urban areas, contributed largely 

by migration, more and more mixed 

developments are expected in various 

populous cities and major towns. The 

drastic increase of concentrated 

population will incur higher 

requirement for wastewater treatment 

systems, and it will form a significant 

cost center in terms of operation, 

maintenance costs and increasingly 

expensive land cost.

These requirements have driven 

the industry towards research and 

development to find more efficient 

wastewater treatment systems which 

can satisfy more stringent 

requirements of effluent discharge 

standards as well as low operation 

cost and minimum land usage. 

One of such system is the UniFED 

system, which was developed in 

Australia and has been successfully 

adopted in Sabah, Malaysia. The 

UniFED system is economically and 

technically considered as very 

affordable and robust, as it has proven 

far superior than many other systems 

such as CAS system, SBR system, 

oxidation ditches etc, due to the 

following factors:- 

● Lower capital and operating costs 

● All reactions take place in a single 

reactor 

● Simple operations controlled by 

PLC (Programme Logic Control) 

● Minimal level of technical support 

required 

● Accommodate wet and dry 

weather cycles. 

● Small footprint 

● Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) 

capabilities 

● Small quantity of sludge 

production 

Australia has a long and proven 

track record with innovative process 

design of wastewater treatment plants 

for municipal and small industrial 

usage. Novel process operation and 

strict regulatory controls have meant 

that public utilities and infrastructure 

designers must strive for more cost 

effective and process efficient plants. 

A vast country with a small, but 

innovative population and the 

remoteness of towns and cities, have 

meant that environmental 

technologies have usually been 

developed in-country, and with 

specific local adaptations. 

UniFED wastewater treatment 

system has been developed in recent 

years to provide regional towns and 

villages with a higher level of effluent 

controls by removing nutrients such 

as nitrogen and phosphorus before 

they discharge to the interior’s lakes 

and river systems. The UniFED 

process was developed from original 

work by the New South Wales 

Department of Public Works and 

Services (DPWS) and its regional 

wastewater treatment plant design/ 

operation programmes of the early 

1970s. 

Early adaptations to a continuous 

feed intermittently aerated process 

system in 1965 were derived from the 

earlier Passveer oxidation ditch work, 

and were followed in the 1970s with 

major development work to design 

and construct a 950m 3 /day 

intermittently aerated and decanted 

batch facility at Bathurst, New South 

Wales. This Bathurst Box 

configuration comprised a deep 

rectangular basin as a single-tank 

activated sludge treatment 

technology. 

A second period of increasing 

popularity of intermittent systems was 

initiated by the growing need for 

nutrient removal from domestic and 

industrial effluents. During the 1990s, 

modified Intermittent Decant 

Extended Aeration (IDEA) systems, 

designed for BNR, were implemented. 

In parallel, other, largely proprietary 

designs were implemented around the 

country. In addition a novel singletank 

SBR design was developed at the 

same time, largely driven by research 

efforts in this area. All systems 

demonstrated their ability to achieve 

the very stringent effluent 

requirements in Australia’s inland and 

sensitive coastal waters. Over 120 

IDEA type plants were built around 

New South Wales and later plants 


were commissioned in the Philippines 

(2 off), East Malaysia (3 under final 

phases), New Zealand (1 off) and the 

People’s Republic of China (2 major 

retrofits). 

The nitrogen removal 

performance of the IDEA process is 

generally very good, but only little 

phosphorus removal is achieved. 

During the 1990s the awareness of the 

importance of nutrients in Australia’s 

inland and some coastal waters was 

greatly increased by the widespread 

occurrences of toxic cyanobacteria 

(‘blue-green algae’) blooms. Intensive 

efforts were therefore made in this 

period to develop and implement new 

processes that achieved a high level 

of nitrogen and phosphorus removal. 

Different BNR process 

technologies were proposed on the 

basis of overseas concepts for both 

continuous and intermittent systems. 

To continue the use of the IDEA 

concept and on the basis of the good 

nitrogen removal performance, a bio- 

P IDEA was developed by the NSW 

Department of Public Works. The 

concept includes a continuously 

operated, baffled anaerobic zone at 

the inlet of the tank through which 

the influent and a recycle flow from 

the main tank pass. In this zone the 

required anaerobic conditions for 

biological phosphorus removal are 

achieved and this arrangement also 

provides for an effective mixing of 

the influent with the reactor content. 

A novel approach was been taken 

by a team of researchers from the 

feature

feature 

Cooperative Research Centre for Waste 

Management and Pollution Control 

Limited and the University of 

Queensland to achieve full BNR in a 

single tank without any recycles or 

baffles. The initial Research and 

Development (R&D) project objectives 

were to: 

● optimise existing wastewater 

treatment processes to improve 

effluent quality, 

● develop low cost retrofits with 

minimal structural and equipment 

changes, and 

● develop a robust and reliable cost 

effective process for BNR. 

The resulting system, which became 

known as UniFED, has been patented 

worldwide. 

The unique feature of the UniFED 

process is the introduction of the influent 

into the settled sludge blanket during 

the settling and decant periods of the 

SBR operation. This achieves suitable 

conditions for denitrification and 

anaerobic phosphate release which is 

critical to successful biological 

phosphorus removal. It also achieves a 

“selector” effect, which helps in 

generating a compact, well settling 

biomass in the reactor. 

While the removal of phosphorus 

can be achieved both chemically and 

biologically, the biological alternative 

has a number of significant advantages 

such as considerably lower operating 

costs, less sludge production and no 

chemical contamination in the sludge. 

Total nitrogen removal in wastewater 

treatment plants is most commonly and 

most economically achieved in a twostep 

system through nitrification (under 

aerobic conditions) and denitrification 

(under anoxic conditions). Together with 

the required anaerobic conditions for the 

biological phosphorus removal process, 

at least three separate zones or periods 

in intermittent systems are required to 

provide the different environmental 

conditions. Additionally, the possible 

interferences between nitrogen and 

phosphorus removal processes often 

mean that additional zones or periods 

are required, for example for the removal 

of nitrate in the recycled activated sludge. 

Therefore, BNR process designs can 

become quite complex and therefore 

high in capital costs. 

Table 1 Typical effluent quality for various plants 

Parameter Continuous IDEA UniFED 

BOD (mg/L) 10 5 2 

SS (mg/L) 20 15 13 

NH4-N (mg/L) 2 1 0.5 

TN (mg/L) 20 7 5 

TP (mg/L) 10 5 1 

SBRs have been utilised 

extensively for the removal of Carbon 

Oxygen Demand (COD) and in many 

cases also nitrogen. In recent years, a 

number of phosphorus removal 

processes using the SBR principle 

have also been developed. However, 

many of them require some additional 

tankage (or separated zones in the one 

tank), often linked with sludge 

recycle, to create the most favorable 

conditions for the anaerobic phase of 

the biological phosphorus removal 

process. This eliminates some of the 

simplicity and ease of operation 

inherent in SBR processes. 

One of the most challenging 

issues in BNR is the most efficient 

use of the available carbon (COD) 

source in the influent, particularly 

in domestic wastewater with high 

nutrient levels. Since COD is required 

for both the biological phosphorus 

removal and the denitrification, but 

is also fast degraded during the 

aerobic conditions, the optimal 

supply and utilization of the COD is 

critically important. This poses a 

major challenge in a simple, singletank 

SBR process as the conditions 

(aerobic or anoxic/anaerobic) can 

only be changed for the entire tank. 

However, the settling and decant 

phases provide some opportunity for 

some differing conditions in the 

supernatant and the sludge blanket. 

Additionally, the method of influent 

supply provides an added option to 

introduce different conditions in 

parts of the tank. 

UniFED’s main feature is the 

uniform introduction of the influent 

into the bottom of the tank during 

the period when the sludge is settling 

or compressing. In this way, the 

specific conditions required for the 

BNR processes can all be achieved in 

each cycle in the single-tank 

arrangement. This process has a 

number of advantages in relation to 

a successful BNR operation: 


1. The nitrate/nitrite (NOx) in the 

sludge blanket is quickly 

denitrified with the incoming 

influent or even just utilising the 

slowly degradable COD entrapped 

in the flocs. 

2. The incoming soluble COD is 

primarily available for the 

anaerobic phosphate release 

phase, which is critically 

important for successful biological 

phosphorus removal. The 

deliberate stratification in the tank 

means that a large fraction of the 

water in the tank may still contain 

some levels of NOx without 

interfering with the anaerobic 

conditions near the bottom of the 

tank. 

3. All of the influent and its COD is 

intensively contacted with most 

of the biomass in the reactor since 

it is concentrated near the bottom 

of the tank. This provides a very 

strong “selector” effect since the 

influent is diluted only minimally 

and most of the biomass is 

exposed to high COD conditions 

in every cycle. This results 

generally in very well settling 

sludge, leading to an efficient 

overall SBR operation. 

4. The overlapping of feed and 

settling/decanting period means 

that the SBR cycle is used more 

efficiently since important 

biological reactions are occurring 

at all times, thereby eliminating 

the “non-productive” periods of 

settling and decant. 

Table 1 contains a summary of 

the performance of all major 

parameters for the UniFDE SBR 

process over an entire study period 

in 1998/99. The test plant was 

modified to the UniFED process and 

operation started in mid September 

1998. Some minor operational 

modifications were undertaken in 

October and the results presented in

Bathurst City Council’s sewage treatment plant (NSW, Australia) - site of the original 

“Bathurst Box”, IDEA development work, and the first UniFED plant. 

include all data from October 3, 1998 

to April 7, 1999. 

UniFED has demonstrated the 

ability to produce excellent effluent 

quality with a very high level of 

biological nutrient removal in a 

simple, single tank activated sludge 

process. The introduction of the feed 

distribution system together with a 

novel operating strategy allows the 

use of the installed hydraulic 

capacity for virtually 100% of the 

time, eliminating the “nonproductive” 

periods of settling and 

decant since during this time, the 

lower part of the reactor is used for 

the anoxic and anaerobic processes 

to take place. Given that large 

volume tanks are used for clarifiers 

(in continuous flow systems) or 

significant fractions of the cycles in 

intermittent processes, this 

modification can substantially 

increase the overall process capacity 

of such systems. 

The achieved simplicity of this 

SBR process also allows it to be 

implemented in a “low-tech” version 

– eg: a simple pond (or lagoon)-like 

installation. Such alternative low-cost 

in situ construction methods allow for 

the UniFED single tank 

configuration to have sloped walls 

(less concrete needed) or even walls 

of a geotechnic fabric in the form of 

earthen lagoons (the Quaker’s Hill STP 

in Sydney has 2x IDAL lagoons and 

was a retrofit to an activated sludge 

process system). Other alternatives 

include steel framed and lined tanks, 

which are already in-place and 

transportable UniFED units can be 

factory fabricated for hotel/ 

institutions usage, with almost 

immediate installation and 

commissioning at the client’s facility. 

These construction techniques 

result in a drastic reduction in capital 

costs of UniFED systems compared 

to the traditionally required 4-6 tank 

continuous flow BNR processes. Even 

in comparison to other intermittent 

BNR processes, the UniFED 

implementation allows further 

simplification by not having any 

additional tanks or separated zones 

and no recycles. Therefore, apart from 

the possible need for an influent pump 

(and for sludge wastage, if not by 

gravity), no pumps are required for 

the entire operation. 

A further process benefit is 

UniFED flexibility. Apart from the 

overall hydraulic retention time, no 

other operating parameter is 

completely fixed at the time of 

construction of the plant. The entire 

cycle timing can be adjusted during 

the commissioning and optimization 

of the process, making it very suitable 

for applications with a high degree 

of uncertainty at the design stage 

(such as industrial situations). 

Furthermore, this allows easy 

modification of the operation to 

account for diurnal fluctuations, 

weekly or even seasonal changes in 

the wastewater characteristics or 

flows. 

UniFED derived plants are now 

used in municipal and industrial 

applications, including textiles, 


hotels, office buildings, hospitals and 

food/beverage sectors and we are 

currently looking at refineries, 

chemical production and minerals 

processing. UniFED will 

significantly increase the capacity (or 

throughput) relative to the plant 

capacity/size in these applications. 

Ongoing research/field adaptation 

of the UniFED is allowing for better 

process control and optimization. 

Development of the overall system’s 

influent distribution and up-dated 

process control systems, will allow for 

remote site monitoring and on-line 

operations of these newer UniFED 

plants. 

The UniFED process technology 

has many design advantages over 

conventional systems, including a 

single tank without recycle streams, 

simple footprint (land-size) and robust 

design and operation and enhanced 

nitrification/denitrification. UniFED 

plants can also be constructed in 

stages to suit a city’s development and 

its regulatory programmes. 

Other competitive advantages of 

UniFED include use of a single tank 

for biological nitrogen and 

phosphorous removal and achieving 

a high quality effluent without 

chemical dosing. UniFED is also able 

to offer reduced capital costs (around 

20% less land-use and design/ 

equipment costs) and lower operating 

costs than conventional systems. 

UniFED can be applied to a greenfield 

site or retrofitted to existing 

wastewater treatment plants. 

References 

1. Keller, J., Watts, S., Battye- 

Smith, W., Chong, R., 2000, 

Full scale demonstration of 

biological nutrient removal in 

a single tank SBR process: 2 nd 

International Symposium on 

Sequencing Batch Reactor 

Technology, 10-12 July, 

Narbonne, France. 

2. Scientific and Technical Report 

No 10 Sequencing Batch 

Reactor Technology, 2001, Eds 

Peter A Wilderer, Robert J 

Irvine and Mervyn C Goronszy, 

IWA Publishing, ISBN 1 

900222 21 3. BEM 

feature

guidelines 

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

BOARD OF ENGINEERS 

MALAYSIA 

General Advice On 

Giving Of Second Opinion 

1. It has been brought to the notice of the Board that it is not uncommon for an engineer to offer to a project owner 

unsolicited suggestion or proposal on the design which has been, or is being, carried out by another engineer already 

appointed by the owner to be the consulting engineer for the project. Quite commonly, such suggestion or proposal 

deals with the choice of engineering system (structural, geotechnical, etc.) or the so-called “value engineering”. The 

Board is very concerned with the ethical aspect of this practice and would like to lay down the following guidelines 

for registered Engineers. 

2. Regulation 27 of the Registration Of Engineers Act reads as follow:- 

“A Registered Engineer shall not— 

(a) canvass or solicit professional employment; 

(b) offer to make by way of commission or any other payment for the introduction of his professional employment; 

or 

(c) except as permitted by the Board, advertise in any manner or form in connection with his profession.” 

Sub-sections (a) and (b) relate to action by registered Engineer in actively seeking professional employment with 

specific potential employers or project owners. The Regulation is unequivocal on this matter. For sub-section (c), 

however, the Board has issued its guidelines vide Circular No. 2/2003 entitled “Guidelines On Advertising By Registered 

Engineers”. Hence some party may attempt to offer second opinion by taking advantage of sub-section (c) under the 

guise of advertising their services. 

3. The Board has no intention to restrict project owners from seeking other views on the design of his project. It is 

strictly his prerogative. Nevertheless, when he has already engaged a registered Engineer to provide him with engineering 

design and services for the project, then certain procedures must be followed to avoid infringement of the Code of 

Professional Conduct of the Act. 

4. Generally, an engineering design covers four aspects, namely, (1) Function, (2) Safety, (3) Cost, and (4) Aesthetics. A 

second opinion, which invariably means checking or reviewing another’s work, can relate to any one or all of the four 

aspects. It can involve correction, modification or even total replacement of the work of the first designer (the First 

Engineer) in all these aspects. 

5. On the aspect of safety, the Board has already issued its guidelines on checking/reviewing vide Circular No. 1/2003 

entitled “Guideline For Checking / Reviewing The Work Of Another Engineer”. The Board holds the view that the 

guidelines in Circular No. 1/2003 are also applicable to checking / reviewing on any other aspect of the work of the 

First Engineer. 

6. The Board hereby advises all concerned that, as long as a registered Engineer has already been engaged for a project, 

any other registered Engineer wishing to offer second opinion to the project owner must follow the guidelines in 

Circular No. 1/2003. 

[BEM-247 th Meeting / 19 th July 2005] 

TAN SRI DATO’ Ir. Hj. ZAINI BIN OMAR 

President 

Board of Engineers Malaysia 


CIRCULAR NO. 4/2005

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT 

ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP) 

TAHUN 2006 

*SDN BHD (BODY CORPORATE)* 

1. Permit 2005 pertubuhan perbadanan (body corporate) untuk menjalankan amalan kejuruteraan perunding akan 

tamat pada 31/12/2005. 

2. Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan 

tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera 

1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil. 

3. Permohonan pembaharuan permit perbadanan syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera 

Malaysia bersama borang-borang berikut: 

(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00 

** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang. 

(ii) Borang Akuan Lembaga Pengarah Syarikat Tahun 2006. 

(iii) Borang Pemegang Saham Syarikat 2006. 

(iv) Borang 49 DAN Annual Return Tahun 2005. 

** Salinan hendaklah disahkan oleh Pendaftar Syarikat ATAU Setiausaha Syarikat. Cop pengesahan mestilah 

yang asal dan terkini. 

4. Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada: 


Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur. 

Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017 

Saya yang menurut perintah, 

———————SGD——————— 

(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF) 

Pendaftar, 

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA. 

FORM H1 

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967 

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990 

(Regulation 36) 

Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice 

1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of : 

* Body Corporate * Partnership * Sole Proprietorship 

2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...………. 

3. Registration No. : …………………………………………….... 

4. Address (if there is any change) : ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 

………………………………………………………………………………………………. 

5. Tel. No. : ……………………….…… 6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : ……………………………. 

8. Details of payment enclosed : 

**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............……. 

…………………….…. ……………………….. 

(Signature) (Date) 

* Tick whichever applicable ** Delete whichever not applicable 

THE INGENIEUR 

30 

✁

✁ 

BORANG AKUAN 

(Borang ini hendaklah diisi oleh semua Pengarah Syarikat) 

PENGARAH I 

PENGARAH II 

LEMBAGA PENGARAH SYARIKAT 

TAHUN 2006 

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................…… 

2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……...... 

3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat: 

Jawatan Nama syarikat Jenis Perniagaan 

………………………………………. …………………………......………….. 

(Tandatangan) (Seal Jurutera Profesional) 

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................…… 




………………………………………. …………………………......………….. 


(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua) 

PEMEGANG SAHAM SYARIKAT TAHUN 2006 

Nama pertubuhan perbadanan : ……………………………………………….........................………………………… 

No. pendaftaran di Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia: ……………………………………………..........................………….. 

No. pendaftaran Nama Jumlah saham yang dipegang 

THE INGENIEUR 31

LEMBAGA 

MALAYSIA 

JURUTERA 

PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT 

ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP) 

TAHUN 2006 

*PEMILIK TUNGGAL (SOLE PROPRIETOR)/ 

PERKONGSIAN (PARTNERSHIP)* 

1. Permit 2005 syarikat Pemilik Tunggal (Sole Proprietor)/Perkongsian (Partnership) untuk menjalankan amalan 

kejuruteraan perunding akan tamat pada 31/12/2005. 

2. Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan 

tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera 

1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil. 

3. Permohonan pembaharuan permit syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia 

bersama borang-borang berikut: 

(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00 

** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang. 

(ii) Borang Akuan * Prinsipal/Pekongsi Syarikat Tahun 2006. 

4. Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada: 


Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur. 

Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017 

Saya yang menurut perintah, 

———————SGD——————— 

(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF) 

Pendaftar, 

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA. 

FORM H1 

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967 

REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990 

(Regulation 36) 

Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice 

1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of : 

* Body Corporate * Partnership * Sole Proprietorship 

2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...………. 

3. Registration No. : …………………………………………….... 

4. Address (if there is any change) : ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 

………………………………………………………………………………………………. 

5. Tel. No. : ……………………….…… 6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : ……………………………. 

8. Details of payment enclosed : 

**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............……. 

…………………….…. ……………………….. 

(Signature) (Date) 

* Tick whichever applicable ** Delete whichever not applicable 


✁

✁ 

BORANG AKUAN 

**PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT 

TAHUN 2006 

*PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT I 

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................…… 




………………………………………. …………………………......………….. 


*PEKONGSI SYARIKAT II 

1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................…… 




………………………………………. …………………………......………….. 


(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua) 

** Potong jika tidak berkenaan 

THE INGENIEUR 33

Peraturan-peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 

(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 – P.U.(A) 294/2005; 

Dan Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa 

Yang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 – 

P.U.(A) 293/2005 

PENDAHULUAN 

1. Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 mula berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos, 

2005. Peraturan baru ini menggantikan peraturan lama buangan terjadual yang telah dikuatkuasa semenjak 

01 Mei, 1989. 

2. Manakala Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 pula digubal 

untuk mengawalselia dengan lebih berkesan mana-mana kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk 

membawa buangan terjadual. Di bawah perintah ini, tiap-tiap kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk 

membawa buangan terjadual hendaklah memiliki lesen di bawah subseksyen 18(1A) Akta Kualiti Alam 

Sekeliling 1974. Perintah ini juga berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos, 2005. 

3. Peraturan-peraturan dan perintah di atas digubal bertujuan untuk memantapkan lagi proses kawalselia dan 

pengurusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia dengan mengambilkira isu-isu semasa, kekurangan-kekurangan 

peraturan lama dan keperluan masa akan datang bagi menjamin negara kita tidak dicemari oleh buangan 

toksik dan berbahaya. 

PERKARA-PERKARA PENTING 

Senarai Buangan Berasaskan Kandungan Bahan Toksik dan Berbahaya 

4. Di dalam Jadual Pertama, Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 (selepas ini 

disebut PBT 2005), buangan-buangan disenaraikan berasaskan kandungan bahan toksik dan berbahaya 

yang terdapat dalam buangan berkenaan dan tidak lagi terikat kepada punca-punca specifik buangan tersebut 

dijana seperti daripada sistem pengolahan effluen atau daripada alat kawalan pencemaran ataupun daripada 

aktiviti-aktiviti tertentu. Rasionalnya adalah ketoksidan sesuatu buangan bergantung kepada kandungan 

bahan toksik yang terdapat didalamnya tidak kira dari punca mana buangan berkenaan dijana. 

5. Selain daripada itu, bagi mengurus kes-kes pengimportan buangan dengan lebih berkesan, beberapa kategori 

baru buangan dimasukkan dalam senarai buangan terjadual 2005. Kategori buangan ini termasuklah buangan 

elektrikal dan elektronik, buangan gipsum, dan buangan mengandungi dioksin dan furan. 

THE INGENIEUR 

35 

update

update 

Jangka Masa dan Kuantiti Buangan Yang Dibenarkan Disimpan Dalam Premis 

6. Dalam peraturan lama tidak dinyatakan had tempoh dan kuantiti buangan yang dibenarkan untuk distor di 

dalam premis. Manakala dalam PBT 2005, jangka masa penstoran buangan hanya di benarkan selama 180 

hari atau 20 tan metrik, yang mana lebih dahulu. Peruntukan ini bertujuan mengelakkan risioko kepada 

kesihatan manusia dan alam sekitar jika berlaku kebocoran atau pertumpahan. 

7. Selaras dengan had masa penstoran buangan selama 180 hari, PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya tiap-tiap 

bekas mengisi buangan ditandakan dengan jelas tarikh buangan dijana, nama, alamat dan nombor telefon 

pengeluar buangan. Pelabelan ini juga memudahkan penjejakan identiti pengeluar buangan dan 

mengurangkan kejadian-kejadian pelupusan haram buangan. 

Penjejakan dan Pemantauan Buangan Secara Elektronik 

8. Berbanding dengan peraturan lama yang menetapkan pengisian Borang Konsainan secara manual, PBT 

2005 menyediakan kemudahan kepada pengeluar buangan untuk mengisi maklumat pergerakan buangan 

secara elektronik (e-consignment). Prosedur ini memudahkan semua pihak terbabit iaitu pengeluar buangan, 

pengangkut buangan, penerima buangan dan Jabatan Alam Sekitar dalam pemantauan pergerakan buangan 

secara “on-line”. 

Pengurusan Khas Buangan Terjadual 

9. PBT 2005 juga menyediakan kemudahan kepada pihak industri untuk melupus, mengolah atau mengitar 

semula buangan dipremis lain setelah buangan tersebut dibuktikan tidak mempunyai ciri-ciri toksik dan 

berbahaya. 

Keperluan Pekerja Yang Terlatih 

10. Pekerja yang terlatih penting bukan sahaja bagi menjamin keselamatan pekerja itu sendiri tetapi juga bagi 

membolehkan buangan yang dikendalikan oleh pekerja itu diurus dengan sempurna supaya tidak 

memudaratkan orang ramai dan alam sekitar. PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya setiap pekerja yang terbabit 

dengan buangan terjadual menghadiri program latihan dalam aspek pengenalan, pengendalian, pelabelan, 

pengangkutan dan penstoran buangan terjadual. Latihan juga memberi penekanan kepada keupayaan 

bertindakbalas ketika berlaku kecemasan seperti tumpahan buangan terjadual. 

PENUTUP 

11. Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 adalah digubal bagi meningkatkan 

lagi kawalan terhadap pergerakan, pengeluaran, pengendalian dan pelupusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia. 

Walaupun peraturan ini boleh dikatakan sempurna, kejayaan mengurus buangan toksik dan berbahaya 

dengan sempurna sangat bergantung kepada komitmen penjana buangan dalam mengamalkan “selfregulations” 

dan penghayatan yang mendalam dalam aspek tanggungjawab sosial termasuk nilai-nilai 

murni sejagat. 

THE INGENIEUR 

36

Master Plan For Occupational Safety & Health 

In Construction Industry: 2005-2010 

Submitted by Yong Kher Shin 

1. OBJECTIVE 

The objective of the Master Plan is to reduce injury 

rates, work related ill-health and consequent days lost 

from work in the industry. It is hoped that the fatality 

rate of 26 per 100,000 workers in 2003 can be further 

reduced by 30% by the year 2010. Through increased 

research and development activities, the causes 

underlying accidents at construction site could be 

accurately determined and the right strategies applied 

during the planning, design and construction phase 

of the project to prevent the occurrence of accidents 

and fatalities. 

2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA 

The construction industry in Malaysia is generally 

divided into two areas. One area is general 

construction, which comprises residential 

construction, non-residential construction and civil 

engineering construction. The second area is special 

trade works, which comprises activities of metal works, 

electrical works, plumbing, sewerage and sanity works, 

refrigeration and air-conditioning works, painting 

works, carpentry, tiling and flooring works and glass 

works. The high economic growth rate has brought 

increased injuries and fatalities in this industry due 

to lack of focus in occupational safety and health. 

CIDB in collaboration with the stakeholders is 

developing the Construction Industry Master Plan 

(CIMP). This Master Plan has identified a number of 

policies, one of which is a policy on health and safety 

in construction. It is envisaged that the 

implementation of this policy in the short to medium 

term is expected to reduce the high incidence of 

accidents and economic losses to stakeholders thus 

indirectly improving productivity, quality and image 

of the industry as a whole. 

3. FRAMEWORK FOR THE MASTER PLAN 

The framework for the Master Plan for Occupational 

Safety & Health in Construction Industry has been 

structured as follows: 

a) Stakeholders to enhance the occupational safety, 

health and welfare of all persons working at 

construction site. 

b) Stakeholders to internalize the Master Plan within 

their own organization. 


c) Stakeholders shall review their own ‘action plan’ 

once every two years or earlier to gauge whether 

they still meet the current requirements. 

d) Improvement on occupational safety and health 

performance in the industry has to be based on 

rectification of the current weaknesses as well 

as the reasons/circumstances leading to their 

occurrence. 

e) Action plan on measures to improve 

enforcement, training, management, good 

practices, promotion, design and work practices 

so as to have overall improvement on safety and 

health performance in the industry. 

f) Safety and Health to be incorporated into 

National Occupational Skilled Standard (NOSS). 

4. STRATEGIES ON OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND 

HEALTH IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 

● ENFORCEMENT & LEGISLATION : Compliance to 

legislation and management systems to be 

monitored and performance evaluated . 

● EDUCATION & TRAINING : construction personnel 

to be equipped with suitable knowledge and skill 

on OSH. 

● PROMOTIONS : as one of the main pillars of 

enhancing OSH in the construction industry. 

● INCENTIVES : to be introduced 

● STANDARDS : Necessary standards and 

guidelines should be developed and introduced 

to the stakeholders. 

● RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R & D) AND 

TECHNOLOGY : to be further encouraged 

5. IMPLEMENTATION 

Successful implementation of The “Master Plan for 

occupational Safety and Health in Construction 

Industry” depends very much on the stakeholders’ 

incorporation of its guidelines and objectives in their 

business operations and also use it as part of forward 

planning document within their organisations. 

STAKEHOLDERS 

● Government Agencies 

● Trade Associations/Contractors 

● Professional Bodies 

The Professional Bodies to give full commitment 

update

update 

and support to ensure that the guidelines and 

standards are effectively implemented. 

Professional Bodies shall also encourage their 

members to incorporate occupational safety and 

health requirements in the planning and design 

of a project. 

● Project Owners 

Project owners could insist that only contractors 

with good safety and health track record be 

selected for the project. 

● Training Providers 

● Insurance Companies 

● Roles of National Council For Occupational 

Safety & Health 

6. ACTION PLAN 

The following are recommended action plans for 

implementation: 

a) Enhancement of Capabilities of Enforcement 

Agencies 

Review of Existing Regulations 

● Review of Factories & Machinery (Building 

Operations and Works of Engineering 

Construction (Safety) Regulations 1996 

● Proposed New Construction (Design & 

Management) Regulation 

● Revision on the Provisions for Reporting of 

Accidents/Incidents and Diseases 

● Circulars on Occupational Safety & Health 

Requirements 

● Proposed New Standard for Safety and Health 

Management System 

● Statutory declaration by Contractors on 

accidents and fatalities 

b) Safety & Health Training & Education 

i) Training for safety & Health Personnel 

● Site Safety Supervisors (SSS) 

● Construction Safety & Health Officer 

(CSHO) 

● Career Advancement for Site Safety 

Supervisors 

● Safety & Health Committee Members 

ii) Senior management’s Training 

iii) OSH Competency to be Pre-Requisite for 

Registration of Professional Architects, 

Engineers and Quantity Surveyors and other 

related professionals 

iv) Worker’s Training 

v) Safety Induction for Construction Personnel 

● Senior Management 

● Professionals/Sub-Professional 


vi) Seminars 

● Competency & Skill Training 

● Specialised Training for High Risk Jobs 

vii) Training Providers/Individual Trainers 

viii) Construction (Design & management) Course 

for professionals 

The proposed Construction (Design & 

management) Regulations to be promulgated 

will place duties on all those who can 

contribute to health and safety of a 

construction project. 

Since construction involves teamwork of client, 

designs (including architects, engineers and 

surveyors) and contractor, all parties or duty 

holders must work together towards a better 

safety consciousness and contribute 

accordingly. 

c) Safety & Health Promotions 

● Promotion through electronic media 

● Stakeholder role in promoting MS-OSHMS 

through ‘DO IT YOURSELF’ programme 

● Formation of Malaysian Construction Safety 

and Health Association – MCSHA 

● Promoting Safe Work Practices 

● Development of Standard Safety Signs 

● Safety promotion by stakeholders 

● Annual Award 

● Special Certificate of Achievement for Best 

Practice In Occupational Safety & Health 

● Publication of Safety & Health Prosecutions 

d) Safety & Health On Incentive & Disincentive 

To encourage more construction personnel to 

undergo training programmes and also encourage 

construction-related organisations to play active 

role in promoting occupational safety and health 

in construction industry. 

● Incentives for Construction Safety & Health 

Officer Course and Site Safety Supervisor 

Course 

● Incentives by SOCSO 

● Incentives from Insurers for Good Risk 

Management 

● Itemisation of safety and health item in 

Preliminary 

● Tax-Exemption for PPE, all tools and equipment 

related to safety and health used in the 

Construction Industry 

● Reduction of fee for Occupational Safety & 

Health Management System Certification 

● Incentives for Courses to be Organised by the 

Proposed Malaysia Construction Safety and 

Health Association 

● Incentives From Employers

e) Safety & Health Standards 

● Malaysian Standards 

● Guidelines on MS Construction Occupational 

Health and Safety management System (MS 

COHSMS) 

● Guidelines for Safe Construction Works 

- Guideline on Prevention of Falls at 

Construction Sites 

- Guidelines on Working at Confined Area 

- Guidelines-Working at Noisy and Dusty Area 

● Standards for Scaffolding material and jointing 

method, workers housing and amenities 

● Guidelines on Construction (Design & 

Management) Regulations (CDM) 

● Code of Practice on Construction at Highly 

Hazardous Workplace 

● Hand Book on Good Practice – Occupational 

Safety and Health at Construction Sites 

● Department of Standard Malaysia To Accredit 

Certification Body For MS COHSMS 

● Green Lane Approval for Standard Design and 

Drawings – Scaffolding, Workers Quarters and 

Temporary Sanitary System 

● Revision to Codes of Practice & Guidelines to 

Incorporate latest legislation and technology 

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 

IN DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 2005 

Nov 29 – Dec 2, 2005 

Organised by: Military Academy Malaysia 

Supported by: Ministry of Defence, Malaysia 

Venue: Marriott Putrajaya, Malaysia 

Invitation: All researchers, academics, defence 

personnel, defence industry and any interested 

parties are welcome to participate. 

Theme: “Defence Technology: Evolution, 

Achievements and Challenges”. 

For further information please visit: 

http://www.atma.gov.my/ICDT2005/index.html 

or contact: 

Secretariat ICDT 2005, 

Military Academy Malaysia, 

Sungei Besi Camp, 

57000 Kuala Lumpur, 

MALAYSIA. 

Email : ICDT2005@atma.gov.my 

Tel: (603)-90575345 ext: 2412/2436/2211/2190 

Fax: (603)-90574291/90574361 

THE INGENIEUR 

f) Safety & Health R & D And Technology 

To reduce occupational safety and health hazards 

by introduction of mechanization and new method 

of construction that will optimise labour utilization 

in the industry. 

● Construction Accident Reporting Mechanism 

● New Methods For Preventing Fall From Height 

● Research and Development on Project Safety 

and Health 

● Improving the Signal System for Site Traffic 

Management 

● E-Portal for Construction Occupational Safety 

& Health and On-Line Accident Reporting 

● Personal protective Equipment, Safety tools and 

Equipment for Working at Height 

● Tools and Equipment for Working in Confined 

Spaces 

● Standard Drawings for Temporary Works 

Implemented by BEM and PAM 

● Industrialized Building System (IBS) 

● Study on the Suitability and Practicability of 

Personal Protective Equipment and Safety and 

Health Tools and Equipments for use in 

Construction Industry in Malaysia. 

39 

With Compliments from 

FIVE-H ASSOCIATES SDN. BHD. 

(241573- M) 

Mechanical, Electrical, Civil, 

Structural Engineers, 

Project Managers & Energy Managers 

Wisma Zambahari, 

No. 3&5, Jalan SS15/8A, 

47500 Subang Jaya, 

Selangor Darul Ehsan. 

Tel: 603-5637 6800 (Hunting), 

5632 1729 / 9100, 5634 5152, 5636 0927 

Fax: 603-5637 6680 

E-Mail: fiveme@streamyx.com, 

fivehcs@streamyx.com 

Website: www.fiveh.com.my 

update

engineering & law 

Instructions And Variations 

By Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. 

VARIATION CLAIMS: NATURE AND TYPES 

Having dealt with the instructions, variations and the 

nexus between the two, the discussion of this paper will 

move on to the contentious area of variation claims; a 

matter of extreme concern to practitioners and a malady 

afflicting many a contract in its implementation stage. It 

is an undeniable fact that the instant topic is very wide in 

its ambit and cannot be considered in length within the 

limits of this session. 

Nevertheless, some important facets of this interesting 

domain of claims will be examined, in particular, 

considerations pertaining to the nature and types of 

variation claims and the main heads or grounds of 

contention 42 . 

Nature and Types 

Although there is no universal formula for classifying 

variation claims, the contemporary approach is to divide 

such claims according to the broad categories as listed 

below i.e. classification according to 43 : 

● The claimant’s identity e.g. contractor’s claim, subcontractor’s 

claim, etc.; 

● The ultimate remedy or remedies sought e.g. cost related 

claim, time related claims, etc.; 

● The legal basis e.g. ‘contractual’ claim, ‘extracontractual’ 

claim, ‘ex-gratia’ claim, etc.; and 

● The form/procedural nature of the claim e.g. 

‘particularized’ claim, ‘global’ claim, etc. 

It should be appreciated that the categories adverted 

to above overlap to a certain degree. To this end, a typical 

claim is a combination of possibly all of the said categories 

e.g. a variation claim can be a contractor’s claim for extra 

‘costs’ made on a ‘contractual’ basis in a ‘particularized’ 

form. 

Whilst acknowledging the other categories as adverted 

to here above, the following discussion will be confined 

mainly to variation claims vis-à-vis their legal basis. 

Contractual Claims 

The bulk of variation claims encountered in practice 44 

are ones going under the label of ‘contractual’ claims. 

Synonymous with the term ‘ex-contractu’ claims, the 

instant category of claims is one that arises from the 

contract itself i.e. the legal basis of the claim proper is 

THE INGENIEUR 

Part 2 

founded in the specific provision(s) or the term(s) of the 

contract in question. To ensure the tenability of such a 

claim and its successful realization, it is therefore 

imperative for the applicable contractual provisions to be 

strictly adhered to 45 . In furtherance to the foregoing, it is 

imperative for a variation claim to satisfy the contractually 

stipulated pre-condition i.e. the existence of a valid 

variation order 46 . On a comparative basis, it is relatively 

advantageous to pursue a contractual claim as this 

category of claim provides a simpler machinery for the 

application, justification, assessment and reimbursement 

based on a pre-agreed contractual mechanism or formula. 

Extra-Contractual’ Claims 

Where it is not possible, to justify or advance a 

‘contractual’ claim vis-à-vis variations, resort can be 

made to the category of claims going under the umbrella 

label of ‘extra-contractual’ claims 47 . Also known as ‘ex 

contractual’ or ‘common law’ claims, the claims under 

the instant category are those that arise apart from the 

express provisions of the contract and cover claims under 

implied contract, in tort, for ‘quantum meruit’, etc. It is 

apparent from the nature of such claims that there are 

seldom, if any, procedures enshrined in the particular 

contract governing matters such as the notification, 

submission, assessment and realization of ‘extracontractual’ 

claims. 

Such requirements would have to be established by 

necessary implication from the prevailing principles of 

the law. Variation claims that fall under this category 

are mainly those involving procedurally invalid 

variations, invalid omissions, ‘cardinal changes’, etc. It 

also covers the situation where work ordered falls outside 

the scope of the contract i.e. work has been undertaken 

but it falls outside the purview of an express variation 

clause: Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co. v Commissioner of 

Works 48 . 

42. For a more detailed reference See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. 

‘Engineering and Construction Contracts Management: Post- 

Commencement Practice’ - Chapter 4. 

43. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts 

Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 850. 

44. Be these Contractors initiated or initiated by Sub-Contractors, 

Suppliers, etc. 

45. Both in the substantive and procedural sense. 

46. The subject of the preceding discussion. 


Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 858-869. 

48. [1949] 2 KB 632. 

40

Ex-Gratia’ Claims 49 

Where it is neither possible to found a ‘contractual’ 

claim nor ‘extra contractual’ claim, the last resort is to 

attempt to pursue an ‘ex-gratia’ claims. Also known as 

‘sympathetic’ claims, this species of claims have no legal 

basis but are made on mere hardship or moral grounds 

and payment is made usually as a matter of grace on a 

purely without prejudice and non-admission of liability 

basis. As such claims are non-legal in nature, their 

contents and procedures are ad-hoc and informal 

depending on the particular circumstances of the case. 

Accordingly no precise requirements as to their timing, 

mode and documentation exist. Hence, each such claim 

is essentially dictated by its own particular facts. 

The party against whom the claim is made is neither 

obliged to entertain nor make payment for such claims. 

This is subject to the caveat that should a promise be 

nevertheless made to settle to the claimant, the promisor 

is bound by such promise or agreement. In the event of a 

subsequent default i.e. failure and/or neglect to honour 

the promise, the claimant has a legal entitlement to recover 

the remedy promised based on the promise or agreement: 

Lester Williams v Roffey Brothers & Nicholls 

(Contractors) Ltd. 50 . 

In a typical variation claim scenario, the sequence 

usually encountered in practice involves the claimant first 

attempting to pursue a ‘contractual’ claim. Should such 

a claim fail or be not tenable in law, then resort is 

subsequently made to an ‘extra-contractual’ claim 

premised normally on quantum meruit 51 . In the event 

that such a claim also does not meet with any success, 

then as a last resort, an ‘ex-gratia’ claim remains the only 

option available to the claimant. Practitioners should be 

well aware that such claims are more of a rule rather an 

exception on the local scene, as seldom if ever ‘contractual’ 

and/or ‘extra-contractual’ see the light of day in many a 

contract. 

Common Grounds For Variation Claims 

Variation claims encountered in practice exhibit a 

variety of hues in form, content and lastly on the very 

ground forming the sub-stratum of the claim. Discounting 

the novel basis of founding such claims which have 

infiltrated the industry, the common grounds can be listed 

as hereunder: 

● Adverse physical conditions; 

● Difference between billed and actual quantities; 

● Tendering errors; 

● Change in Employer’s Requirements; 

● Errors/discrepancies in drawing/plans and 

specifications; and 

● Change in construction methods; 

THE INGENIEUR 

For the sake of brevity, the more important aspects as 

some of the abovementioned grounds are examined here 

below. 

Adverse Physical Conditions 

A claim based on the above-mentioned ground is 

normally premised on the contention that the physical 

conditions actually encountered on site are different or 

more adverse than those that could have been reasonably 

forseen by the contractor at the time of contracting. 

Whether a claim premised on the instant ground can 

be successfully pursued depends much on the contractual 

provisions governing the party responsible for shouldering 

the consequences of encountering the adverse physical 

conditions 52 Roger Knowles 53 is of the opinion that ‘which 

party is responsible for bad ground conditions should be 

made clear by the express terms of the contract. If the 

contract is silent on the matter and there is no provision 

for remeasurement, the contractor will normally be deemed 

to have taken the risk. This is particularly relevant in 

lump sum design and construct forms of procurement.’ 

For adverse ground conditions which are reasonably 

foreseeable, two renowned cases can be cited as a good 

comparison. The first is Pearce (CJ) & Co. Ltd. v Hereford 

Corporation and Others 54 where it was held the existence 

of an old sewer could have been ‘reasonably forseen’, so 

that even if the contractor had served the necessary notice, 

they would not have been entitled to extra payment under 

the contract clause of renewing the old sewer, backfilling 

the excavation, back heading, etc. However, in Humber 

Oil Terminals Trustee Ltd. v Harbour and General Works 

(Stevin) Ltd. 55 it was held that the adverse physical 

conditions could not have been forseen by an experienced 

contractor and hence could give rise to a contractual claim 

thereto. 

Difference Between Billed And Actual Quantities 

A Bill Of Quantities Contract has been lucidly explained 

by Keating 56 as: 

…….a contract where the bills of quantities form part of 

the contract and describe the work to be carried out for 

which a lump sum is payable. The contractor may be, 

and usually is, bound by the terms of the contract to carry 

out work in excess of that stated in the bills of quantities 

if it is necessary to complete the contract, but in a bills of 

quantities contract such excess work is extra work. This 


Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 870-873. 

50. [1989] 48 BLR 69. 

51. Although the basis may be breach of implied terms, tort, etc. 

52. E.g. additional cost and/or time. 

53. See ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their Solutions’ at P 157. 

54. [1968] 66 LGR 647 quoted by Max Abrahamson in ‘Engineering 

Law and The ICE Contracts’. 

55. [1992] 59 BLR 1. 

56. See ‘Building Contracts’ [4 th Edn] at P 64. 

41 

engineering & law

engineering & law 

type of contract has been said to be “obviously unsafe” for 

an employer because it can hardly ever be known 

beforehand what exact quantities of work may be necessary 

to complete; conversely it may save the contractor much 

trouble and loss’. 

For such contracts, the courts have a tendency to hold 

that: 

● All items which are intended to be executed by the 

contractor in consideration for the contract price 

would have been expressly provided for in the 

contract. Hence, any error or inaccuracy in the bills 

of quantities is at the risk of the employer in that it 

may constitute a ‘variation’: Patman & Fotheringham 

Ltd. v Pilditch 57 ; 

● If the bills of quantities are not prepared in accordance 

with the applicable Standard of Measurement e.g. SMM 

for building works, CESMM for civil engineering works, 

etc., there may be a contractual basis for a ‘variation’: 

Bryant & Sons Ltd. v Birmingham Hospital Saturday 

Fund 58 ; and 

● Where the actual quantities of work as executed by 

the contractor exceed the quantities shown against the 

particular item in the contract bills of quantities this 

may constitute a ‘variation’. Accordingly: 

(a) The contractor is bound to carry out works in 

excess of those stated in the contract bills if it is 

necessary to complete the contract provided that 

these works are paid for as ‘extras’ or a ‘variation’: 

Patman & Fotheringham Ltd. v Pilditch 59 ; and 

(b) If such extra over is not within a reasonable limit, 

the contract rates may have to be adjusted. For 

the purposes of the latter, it is immaterial that 

they do not stem from an express exercise of the 

variation powers: Mitsui Construction Co. Ltd. v 

Attorney General of Hong Kong 60 . 

Discounting the fact that there may be some possibility 

of implying the duty of the contractor to undertake a 

certain amount of extra work without the latter being 

categorized as a contractual ‘variation’, the courts are 

inclined in such contracts especially those based on bills 

of quantities to strictly construe the bills of quantities 

and conditions of contract, in some instances of providing 

a literal interpretation; thereby leaving little room for such 

implication as alluded to hereabove. 

Tendering Errors 

Chow Kok Fong in his authoritative text entitled ‘Law 

and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69 states: 

….. a Contractor may commit a tendering error in bills 

of quantities contracts in two ways. First, the error may 

arise from the computation of the unit rate for a work 

THE INGENIEUR 

item in the bills, so that the result is that he tendered 

(for example) $X for a cubic metre of general excavation 

instead of $Y which he had intended. Secondly, he could 

have correctly stated his price per unit of measurement 

but incorrectly extended the price and this error had been 

incorporated in the total contract price which he tendered 

…..’ 

Prima facie, in both situations, a contractual claim 

may not see a realistic chance of success. In the first of 

the two cases, unless the contractor can show fraud or 

misrepresentation or common intention of the parties 61 , 

the risk of such tendering errors rests squarely on the 

contractor’s shoulders. The contractor may apply to the 

courts for rectification of the contract but as Chow Kok 

Fong rightly opines, this may be a mere exercise in 

futility 62 . As for the second category of claims, it is 

submitted that the fate of such claims depends essentially 

on the governing conditions of contract. In MV Gleeson 

Ltd. v Sleaford UDC 63 the contractor could not recover 

anything as the court held that on a true construction of 

the particular form of contract (the RIBA Standard Form) 

there was no provision for the rectification of such errors 

in the bills except where there was an omission of bill 

items. 

Change in Employer’s Requirements 

As a typical contract traverses the full cycle from 

inception to ultimate realization and handover, it is a 

common occurrence that not only the designers but the 

users introduce a number of revisions or changes. There 

are a host of reasons for these; ranging from a review of 

design to matters such as change of ultimate use to which 

the finished work would be put. Furthermore commercial, 

technical and political developments may impact on the 

initial contract requirements and necessitate a review 

and change before the contract can be eventually 

discharged. 

Most, if not such changes will result in variations to 

the contract; the bulk of these contractual in nature whilst 

others may fall under the category of ‘extra-contractual’ 

claims. This is especially so in the so called ‘Package 

Deal’ type of contracts 64 where owing to the inherent 

nature of such contracts, changes in Employer’s 

Requirements seem to be the most prevalent. Such 

changes generally result in claims for additional costs 

and/or time depending on the areas of impact. 

57. [1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4 th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 369. 

58. [1938] 1 All ER 503. 

59. [1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4 th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 369 

60. [1986] 33 BLR 1. 

61. See Royston UDC v Royston Builders Ltd [1961] 177 E.G. 589. 

62. See ‘Law and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69. 

63. [1953] Unreported. 

64. i.e. ‘Turnkey’, Design and Construct, Design and Build Contracts, 

etc. 

42

Errors / Discrepancies In Contract Documents 

Variation claims under this head are usually premised 

on the contention that owing to the existence of errors 

and/or discrepancies in the contract documents i.e. arising 

from defective drawings, specifications, bills of quantities, 

etc. the contractor has suffered additional cost and/or time 

than originally envisaged under the particular contract. 

Whether such claims are contractually tenable depend 

much upon matters such as: 

1. Nature of the Contract 

In general, for a contract based on bills of quantities, since 

the risk is basically on the employer in terms of correctness 

and accuracy, errors arising therefrom may entitle a 

contractor to an additional claim. However, this may not 

be true for lump sum contracts based on drawings and 

specifications and of the ‘Package Deal’ type. 

2. Construction of Contract 

The contract may be couched in terms which attempt to 

transfer the risk of such errors or discrepancies on to the 

contractor 65 . If such stipulations are held to be valid and 

enforceable, then a contractor may, for all intents and 

purposes be precluded from seeking any further remedy 

for a risk that has been effectively transferred to him. 

Changes in Construction Methods 

Variation claims under this head entail three distinct 

scenarios, namely: 

1. Where a contractor has tendered on the basis of a certain 

construction method and this method, though 

incorporated into the contract is later varied by the 

employer for some specific reason(s). This may, for all 

intents and purposes arise consequent to an act of 

prevention and presumably for neutral events too; or 

2. It may also encompass a situation where the contractor 

revises his method of construction post-contract award 

and such revision is eventually accepted by the employer 

as occasioned in the celebrated case of Simplex Concrete 

Piles Ltd. v St. Pancras Borough Council 66 ; or 

3. A more common scenario arises where the contractor is 

asked at the tender stage to submit his method statement 

and construction programme; which documents then 

being incorporated into the subsequent contract 

formalized between the parties. Should the method 

statement and/or the construction programme be varied 

subsequently, such changes may give rise to a 

contractual claim for varied work 67 . 

A rare but seemingly valid claim can also be, 

founded in the event the contractor’s method statement 

submitted 68 and approved post-contract award materially 

departs from the requirements stipulated in the contract. 

THE INGENIEUR 

CONCLUSION 

Variation claims are said to be a curse afflicting many a 

construction contract being implemented in this country. 

The story is no different when one looks at the situation 

elsewhere in areas where such contracts have been or are 

being in the process of practical realization. There are many 

reasons attributed for this sad occurrence; a situation where 

the only apparent winners are lawyers and claim consultants. 

Captains of the industry point their fingers at the current 

tight contracting environment where risks on contractors 

are high whilst the profits are relatively low. The situation is 

further exacerbated by an army of contractors bidding at 

cut-throat prices just to stay afloat with subsequent variation 

claims being used either to make up for the initial losses or 

to pad up the profit margins. 

At the end of the day, this may be all part of a game of 

‘Russian roulette’; a view buttressed by the fact that unless 

such claims are tenable in the first place i.e. initiated through 

a valid variation order or instruction of the contract 

administrator and premised on sound contractual basis, most 

land up generating unnecessary paperwork, strained working 

relations and a sheer waste of senior management time on 

both sides of the equation. Hence, in the final analysis it is 

up to the industry to investigate and regulate itself such that 

variation claims are not made simpliciter but only when all 

other remedies for retribution have been exhausted. 

REFERENCES 

1 Chow Kok Fong ‘Law and Practice of Construction 

Contract Claims’ [2nd Edn], Longman. 

2 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Engineering and Construction 

Contracts Management: Commencement and 

Administration’, ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts 

Management: Post-Commencement Practice’, Lexis- 

Nexis/Butterworths. 

3 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Malaysian Precedents and Forms: 

Engineering and Construction Contracts’, Malayan Law 

Journal Sdn. Bhd. 

4 Joseph T. Bockrath, ‘Contracts and the Legal Environment 

for Engineers and Architects’ [5th Edn.], McGraw Hill. 

5 J. Murdoch & W. Hughes, ‘Construction Contracts’ [3rd Edn.] Spon Press. 

6 Peter Davison, ‘Evaluating Contract Claims’, Blackwell. 

7 Peter R. Hibberd ‘Variations In Construction Contracts’, 

Colins Professional and Technical Books. 

8 Powell-Smith, Chappel & Simmonds, ‘An Engineering 

Contract Dictionary’, IBC. 

9 Robinson, Lavers, Tan & Chan, ‘Construction Law in 

Singapore and Malaysia’ [2nd Edn.], Butterworths. 

10 Roger Knowles, ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their 

Solutions’, Blackwell Science. BEM 

65. See for example Clause 1.2 PAM 98 Form (With Quantities Edn). 

66. [1958] 5 BLR 34. 

67. See Yorshire Water Authority v McAlpine & Son [1985] 32 BLR 

114. 

68. Where none was submitted at the tendering stage; the only 

requirement being for the method statement submitted for 

approval prior to commencement of work under the contract. 

43 

engineering & law

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Pilot Trials for the Mobile 

Dewatering Unit 

Environ Holdings Sdn Bhd 

(Environ), one of the earliest wastewater 

companies in Malaysia, had brought in 

a mobile dewatering unit from Italy. The 

effort was aimed at conducting pilot 

plant trials, to observe the performance 

of a mobile dewatering unit in a typical 

Malaysian sewage treatment plant. Two 

trial runs were conducted to 

accommodate visits from various 

parties from all over the country. 

The details of the trials are given 

in Table 1. 

For a mobile dewatering 

application such as that required by 

IWK, the centrifuge decanter was one 

of the many choices of mechanical 

dewatering equipment for use. The 

decanter provides the following 

advantages over other means of 

mechanical dewatering: 

● Clean continuous operation 

● Minimal odour problems 

● Fast start-up and shutdown 

capabilities 

The Mobile Dewatering Unit 


● Relatively dry sludge cake 

● Low capital cost to capacity ratio 

● Small footprint 

● Easily mobile 

● One trained team can serve 

several plants, thus reducing the 

number of trained personnel 

required 

In addition to the above, the 

decanter also offered the following 

features that are unique: 

● Open scroll, which allows feed to 

enter anywhere within the 

decanter 

● Adjustable shuttle feed pipe, 

which allows feed location to be 

precisely adjusted, even while the 

decanter is in operation 

● Sludge scraper, which prevents 

sludge build up in the sludge 

discharge chamber and therefore 

prevents blocking of the bowl 

rotation 

These additional features facilitate 

ease of operation, as well as reduce 

maintenance and downtime; factors 

that ensure the long periods of 

trouble-free operation for any mobile 

equipment system.

Typical cross-section of the Pilot Trial centrifuge decanter 

Besides the decanter, the mobile 

dewatering unit also came fully 

installed with all the equipment and 

Feed sludge from gravity thickener 

Internal view of the Pilot Trial Mobile Dewatering Unit 

piping necessary to make it a complete 

sludge dewatering system (see Table 

1). The only external requirements 

needed were 

power supply 

and water 

supply, which 

were easily 

connected to the 

unit. Feed was 

pumped directly 

THE INGENIEUR 

from the STP’s gravity thickener into 

the mobile unit, using the screw pump 

provided inside the mobile unit. The 

discharged effluent was channeled 

back to the STP’s headworks. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

On average, the sludge cake 

produced had a dryness of about 18% 

to 20% dry solid content. While not 

Table1: Details of the Mobile Dewatering Unit 

Pilot Trials 

Trial Details 

Location: STP at Taman Dagang, 

Ampang, Selangor 

Dates: July and October 2003 

Source of sludge: Thickened activated sludge 

Mobile Unit Details 

1 no. centrifuge decanter 

1 no. polymer preparation station 

1 no. polymer pump 

1 no. sludge feed pump 

1 no. effluent pump 

1 no. screw conveyor 

1 no. control panel 

All necessary pipes, valves, hoses and fittings 

All of the above are fully containerized within a 20 

ft container 

Decanter Details 

Make: Pieralisi 

Model: Baby 2 

Hydraulic Capacity: 4.0 m 3 /hr 

Main motor: 7.5 kW 

45 

environment

environment 

as dry as cake produced from a filter 

press, it was more than adequate for 

easy handling. 

The effluent from the decanter was 

found to be clear, indicating a good 

solid capture rate within the decanter. 

The effluent quality can be adjusted 

to obtain a drier sludge cake, if so 

desired. 

Table 2: Results of the pilot trials 

Dewatered 

sludge, 

filtrate and 

wet sludge 

Start-up and shutdown of the unit 

were fast and simple. The preliminary 

setting up of the unit at site took only 

two hours. Water and power supply 

were tapped from existing sources. 

The feed and discharge connections 

were made using hoses supplied with 

the unit. Closing down took only 

about an hour. Once closed up, the 

Parameters Results 

Influent sludge dry solids content, % d.s. 3-4 

Sludge cake dry solids content, % d.s. 18-20 

Polymer consumption, kg/tonne dry solids produced 3-6 

Dewatered 

sludge 

Dewatered sludge 

produced from the 

Pilot Trial Mobile 

Dewatering unit 

Filtrate Wet sludge 


container was ready to be moved to 

the next plant. During the pilot trials, 

the unit was moved in and out of the 

site using a 10-tonne lorry with a crane 

for lifting. No special permits or 

allowances were required to transport 

the mobile unit from site to site. 

CONCLUSION 

With the large number of plants 

under IWK’s maintenance, the mobile 

dewatering unit is a viable option for 

their sludge dewatering operations. A 

mobile unit will remove the need for 

individual dewatering systems for 

every STP, thus reducing the problems 

associated with operating and 

maintaining these equipment, along 

with the need for extensive staff 

training. The dryness of the sludge 

cake produced is satisfactory and 

similar results can be expected from 

the dewatering of sludge from other 

STPs. The mobile sludge dewatering 

trials successfully show the possibility 

of providing sludge dewatering 

services for multiple site operations. 

This might be the future trend of 

sludge dewatering system particularly 

for widely scattered individual septic 

tanks and small sewage treatment 

plants in rural areas. 

REFERENCES 

1. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991), 

Wastewater Engineering: 

Treatment, Disposal and 

Reuse, McGraw-Hill, Inc. 

2. Sewerage Services 

Department, Ministry of 

Housing & Local Government 

(2001), Sewerage Services 

Report 2001, Sewerage 

Services Department. 

3. Indah Water Konsortium Sdn 

Bhd (2004), Indah Water 

Konsortium Sdn Bhd Web Site, 

Indah Water Konsortium Sdn 

Bhd 

4. Pieralisi Benelux BV (2002), 

Centrifugal Extractors – A 

Different Perspective, Pieralisi 

Benelux BV BEM

Construction Waste 

Management: Are Contractors 

Unaware Or Just Recalcitrant? 

By Joy Jacqueline Pereira and Rawshan Ara Begum, Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), 

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 

The construction industry plays 

a pivotal role in helping the 

nation to achieve sustainable 

development. Sustainable 

development requires the 

construction industry itself to be 

sustainable. There are three elements 

related to sustainable construction 

and these are the economic, social and 

environmental dimensions. The 

economic dimension includes aspects 

such as wealth generation, 

employment, profitability and 

competitiveness. The social dimension 

covers aspects such as realization of 

Government policies aimed to develop 

the nation, delivery of buildings and 

structures that meet the satisfaction 

of their users as well as respect and 

fair treatment for all stakeholders. The 

environmental dimension relates to 

the major impact associated with the 

construction industry such as soil 

erosion and sedimentation, flash 

floods, destruction of vegetation, dust 

pollution, depletion of natural 

resources and waste generation, 

among others. In order to enable the 

construction sector to meet the 

aspirations of sustainability, economic 

and social goals should be met with 

minimal environmental impact. 

Waste generation is becoming 

an increasingly significant 

environmental problem associated 

with the construction industry, 

undermining its sustainability. This is 

particularly true in urban areas where 

landfills are closing due to lack of 

land. In addition, waste management 

practices are generally outdated and 

good practices are inadequately 

documented to allow for industry- 

wide dissemination. Currently, 

construction waste is considered as 

part of solid waste and is disposed of 

in dumpsites and landfills, while 

wood-based materials are sometimes 

illegally burned at the site. The 

economic potential of this disposed 

material is generally ignored. This is 

partly because the characteristics of 

construction waste in Malaysia have 

not been adequately studied to 

evaluate its feasibility as an economic 

resource. 

This situation served as an impetus 

for the Construction Industry 

Development Board of Malaysia 

(CIDB) to fund a research project on 

“Waste Minimization and Recycling 

Potential of Construction Materials”, 

conducted by the Institute for 

Environment and Development 

(LESTARI) and Forest Research 

Institute Malaysia (FRIM) and several 

other collaborators. One research 

activity in the Project involved a 


survey of CIDB Registered 

Contractors, particularly regarding 

their level of awareness, attitudes, 

behaviour and willingness to pay for 

improved construction waste 

management (LESTARI 2005). 

This article highlights some of the 

findings obtained from the survey in 

the Klang Valley, specifically in 

Kajang, Petaling Jaya, Subang Jaya 

and Seri Kembangan. The “purposive 

stratified random sampling” method 

was used, focusing on three major 

groups of contractors registered with 

CIDB. These are Group A comprising 

G6 and G7 contractors, Group B 

comprising G4 and G5 contractors 

and Group C for G1, G2 and G3 

contractors. The final survey was 

based on 130 samples of contractors 

i.e. 35 from Group A, 35 from Group 

B and 60 from group C. The sample 

represents 2% of the total registered 

contractors in Selangor. Interviews 

were based on a set of questionnaires 

feature

feature 

that was pre-tested and modified 

before being used in the survey 

(Begum et al. 2005). 

Waste Management Hierarchy 

Construction waste, also referred 

to as construction and demolition 

waste, is as defined as mineral and 

non-mineral matter in variable 

composition from construction, 

demolition and renovation projects 

including excavated natural or fill soil 

and rock material generated during 

construction. The projects include the 

building, renovation and demolition 

of residential and non-residential 

buildings and other infrastructure 

including road construction or repavement. 

Construction waste is 

highly heterogeneous depending on 

the type of project and the local 

geology, and may contain material 

undesirable and environmentally 

damaging materials. Examples of 

construction waste include ferrous 

and non-ferrous metals, soil, rocks, 

sand, cement, bricks, concrete, asphalt 

and bituminous material, treated and 

untreated wood, plaster, plastics, 

paper as well as hazardous material 

such as paint and lacquers (LESTARI 

2005). 

Within the framework of life cycle 

assessment, the overall aim is to 

prevent to the extent possible, and 

minimise the generation of waste, as 

well as manage those wastes in such 

a manner that they do not cause harm 

to health and the environment. Thus, 

in the context of waste management 

for the construction industry, the first 

step involves the reduction of waste. 

The next step is the recovery of waste 

by means of reuse and recycling. If 

there are no options left for recovery, 

the last step is the disposal of waste 

into the landfill. 

Minimizing its generation during 

the operational process can reduce 

waste. Reducing the material in-flow 

can also effect waste reduction, and 

result in reducing the materials outflow. 

A simple example would be to 

lower the extra material in the bill of 

quantity. Material substitution is also 

one way to reduce waste. Reuse is 

actually closed-loop recycling, where 

a product of a system is recycled for 

a new use in the same system (Buhe 

et al. 1997). Materials in the 

construction industry can be 

reemployed after refurbishment or in 

a lower-grade application. For 

example, excavated soil can be used 

as backfill, for landscaping or noise 

bunding (Goh and Anuar Kasa 2000). 

Recycling is an open loop where the 

product of a system finds new use in 

another system (Buhe et al. 1997). 

There are many examples of recycling 

in the construction industry. Wood 

materials can be recycled into paper 

product, ground to make livestock 

bedding and used for mushroom 

cultivation (Mohamed and Nasri 

2000). Concrete can be crushed to 

produce secondary aggregates while 

metals can be moulded into new 

products. 

In the Project, material flow is 

assessed based on the Life Cycle 

Assessment approach (LCA) where the 

following definitions apply. The 

boundaries are defined at the points 

where the materials enter and leave a 

construction site. Thus, reuse refers 

to closed-loop recycling, where a 

product of a site is recycled for a new 

use within the same construction site. 

Recycling is an open loop where the 

product from a site finds new use in 

another construction site in its 

original form, or is transformed into 

a product for a different use, either 

within or outside of the construction 

industry. Opportunities for waste 

minimisation occur both within and 

outside of the defined boundaries. 

Construction Waste Generators 

The survey revealed many 

interesting characteristics of 

contractors, the primary generators of 

construction waste, particularly 

regarding their level of awareness 

(Begum 2005). All contractors are well 

aware of waste collection services, 

with a small majority (54%) practising 

self disposal while the rest have 

arrangements with private waste 

collectors. In terms of collection 

frequency, only 3% of contractors 

practice daily disposal. A third of the 

contractors (37%) do not have a 


schedule, while 32% have their waste 

collected once a week. The other 

contractors have collection 

frequencies of twice a week (15%), 

once a month (5%), and three times 

per week (4%), while about 5% have 

no knowledge of frequency. Group A 

(G6 and G7) contractors generally 

engage private waste collectors while 

contractors in other categories tend 

to practise self disposal. It could be 

speculated that incidences of illegal 

disposal is more likely to be associated 

with the latter group, as private waste 

collectors are relatively organised in 

their operations and more easily 

traceable for legal non-compliance. 

About 79% of the contractors 

surveyed are aware of source 

reduction with respect to the waste 

management hierarchy, while 21% are 

not aware of the matter. The sources 

of information are varied. About 78% 

of the contractors obtained their 

information from television, followed 

by newspapers (70%), Internet (55%), 

local authorities (36%), seminar/ 

conferences/workshops (27%), CIDB 

(22%), contractor associations (20%), 

private waste contractors (20%), non- 

Government organisations (14%) and 

foreign sources (5%). About 87% of 

the contractors surveyed are aware of 

reuse and recycling with respect to 

the waste management hierarchy, 

while only 13% are not aware of the 

matter. The most common source is 

the newspaper, where 80% (Real data 

is 80.5%) of the contractors obtained 

their information from this source. 

This is followed by other sources such 

as television (69%), Internet (48%), 

seminar/conferences/workshops 

(47%), local authorities (31%), CIDB 

(26%), contractor associations (21%), 

private waste contractors (16%), non- 

Government organisations (15%) and 

foreign sources (6%). 

It appears that contractors are 

relatively less familiar with source 

reduction compared to reuse and 

recycling. More than half the 

contractors surveyed cited the mass 

media, particularly television and 

newspapers, as the main source of 

information regarding waste 

management, followed by the 

Internet. The next important sources

are local authorities, technical 

meetings such as seminars, 

conferences and workshops. Less than 

30% of the contractors surveyed find 

CIDB, contractor association, private 

waste contractors and non- 

Government organisations as 

important sources of information in 

the Klang Valley, while foreign 

sources are the least important. It 

appears that important stakeholders 

in the construction industry, 

particularly CIDB and contractor 

associations, have had little impact 

in increasing awareness regarding 

waste management among the 

contractors. These organisations can 

and should do more to increase their 

effectiveness in the arena of 

construction waste management. 

When asked if they would be 

willing to pay for improved 

construction waste management 

services, specifically for waste 

collection and disposal services, 68% 

of the contractors surveyed reported 

a positive willingness to pay while the 

rest were not willing. In terms of 

actual values, the average maximum 

willingness to pay value of the 

contractors in the three groups varies. 

Contractors are willing to pay an 

average maximum amount of 

RM69.88 per tonne for waste 

collection and disposal services. The 

highest average maximum value they 

are willing to pay is RM88 for Group 

A (G6 and G7), RM78.25 for Group B 

(G4 and G5) and RM55.80 for Group 

C (G1, G2 and G3). It was found that 

none of the contractors are willing to 

pay more than RM200 per tonne for 

waste collection and disposal services. 

During the survey, the waste 

collection and disposal services was 

in the region of RM50 per tonne. 

These are expected to rise because of 

closure of dumping sites in the Klang 

Valley. Such a situation makes in 

more important for source reduction, 

reuse and recycling practices to come 

into play. 

Conclusions 

The majority of contractors 

surveyed in the Klang Valley are well 

aware of source reduction, reuse and 

recycling with respect to the waste 

management hierarchy. However, 

contractors are relatively less familiar 

with source reduction compared to 

reuse and recycling. The main source 

of information regarding waste 

management is the mass media, 

particularly television and 

newspapers. Other important sources 

of information are the Internet, local 

authorities, technical meetings such 

as seminars, conferences and 

workshops, CIDB, contractors 

association, private waste contractors 

and non-Government organisations. 

Less than 6% of the contractors 

surveyed obtained information on 

waste management from foreign 

sources. 

Group A (G6 and G7) contractors 

generally engage private waste 

collectors and they are willing to pay 

RM88 per tonne for waste collection 

and disposal services. Contractors in 

other categories tend to practise self 

disposal. Group B (G4 and G5) is 

willing to pay RM78.25 and Group 

C (G1, G2 and G3) RM55.80 per 

tonne for waste collection and 

disposal services. None of the 

contractors surveyed are willing to 

pay more than RM200 per tonne for 

waste collection and disposal 

services. Given the scenario where 

waste collection and disposal 

services are set to rise because of 

closure of dumping sites in the Klang 

Valley, it is inevitable that the 

construction industry will intensify 

efforts on source reduction, reuse and 

recycling. 

The survey has provided a profile 

of contractors in the Klang Valley. 

The findings will assist the 

formulation of appropriate policy 

interventions in addressing the 

construction waste problem in 

Malaysia and indirectly improving 

the quality of construction in the 

country. 

Acknowledgement 

This article is based on the findings 

from the research project entitled 

“Waste Minimization and Recycling 

Potential of Construction Materials”, 

funded by CIDB and conducted by 


LESTARI and FRIM and several other 

collaborators. The contribution of the 

research group to this article, in 

particular Prof. Chamhuri Siwar and 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul Hamid Jaafar, 

is gratefully acknowledged. 

REFERENCES 

Begum, R.A. 2005. Economic 

Analysis of the Potential of 

Construction Waste Minimisation 

and Recycling in Malaysia. 

(Unpubl. Ph.D Thesis). Submitted 

to Universiti Kebangsaan 

Malaysia, Bangi. 

Begum, R.A., Siwar, C., Pereira, 

J.J. and Jaafar, A.H. 2005. 

Awareness, Attitude and 

Behavioural Factors: Econometric 

Analysis of Waste Management in 

the Construction Industry [In 

preparation] 

Buhe, C., Achard, G., Le Tono, J.F. 

and Chevalier, J.L. 1997. 

Integration of the Recycling 

Process into the Life Cycle 

Analysis of Construction 

Products. Resources, Conservation 

and Recycling, 20, 227-243. 

Goh W.L. and Anuar Kasa 2000. 

Analisis Sistem Tembok Penahan 

Bertetulang Dawai Menggunakan 

Tanah Baki Sebagai Bahan 

Timbus Balik. Prosiding 

Kejuruteraan Awam UKM 

Kejuruteraan Geoteknik dan 

Pengangkutan, 1, 29-35. 

LESTARI 2005. Construction 

Waste Management (Milestone 

Report 4). LESTARI/FRIM Project 

on Waste Minimization and 

Recycling Potential of 

Construction Materials. Submitted 

to CIDB: July 2005. 

Mohamed Neyzam Atan and Nasri 

Nasir 2000. Kajian Penggunaan 

Abu Terbang Dalam Bancuhan 

Konkrit Yang Diisi Dengan Kertas 

Suratkhabar Lama. Prosiding 

Kejuruteraan Awam dan 

Kejuruteraan Struktur Bahan, 1, 

199-205. BEM 

feature

feature 

Laboratory Chemical 

Waste Management 

By Chang Yit Fong, Jabatan Kimia Malaysia 

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation 

All laboratory work with chemicals eventually 

produces chemical waste, and those who generate 

such waste have the obligation to ensure that 

the waste is handled, segregated and disposed in ways that 

pose minimum potential harm, both short term and long 

term, to human health and the environment. In Malaysia, 

the control of wastes is governed by the Environmental 

Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 requiring all 

wastes to be handled properly and as far as possible, be 

rendered innocuous prior to disposal and be treated at 

prescribed premises or on-site treatment facilities only. 

Broadly, a hazardous chemical is a chemical that poses 

a danger to human health or the environment if improperly 

handled. The hazard inherent in a small quantity of a 

chemical from a laboratory is the same as the hazard 

inherent in a much larger quantity of the same chemical 

from another source eg. from an industrial facility. The 

overall potential for harm to human health or the 

environment is less from the former because of the smaller 

quantity. A large fraction of laboratory waste comprises 

small amounts of many kinds of chemicals. A waste 

management system needs to be implemented to handle 

this low-volume, chemically diverse wastes. 

Managing Unneeded Chemicals 

A laboratory worker faced with unneeded chemical 

must provide information on the properties of the chemical 

to guide in the selection of the method of disposal. The 

chemical is considered whether to be reused, recycled, or 

recovered for reuse. If it is decided to be a scheduled waste, 

it must be properly labelled, classified and segregated to 

be eventually disposed in some ecologically prudent 

manner. Its route of disposal is to be governed by its 

combustible, non combustible, biological or explosive 

characteristics. If it is non-hazardous, it can be incinerated, 

sent to a municipal landfill or put in the sanitary sewer. 

Many common chemicals can be safely and acceptably 

disposed down the drain. 

The characteristics of many hazardous chemical wastes 

can be reduced or completely destroyed by chemical 

reaction in the laboratory. If the waste is not destroyed in 

the laboratory, it can be either incinerated or buried. Most 

laboratories do not have their own waste-disposal facilities 

and usually employ contractors from commercial firms 


to pack and arrange for their transportation to be treated 

at the integrated scheduled waste treatment and disposal 

facility at Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, Bukit Nenas, Negeri 

Sembilan. 

A Waste Management System For 

Chemical Laboratories 

Four elements essential to any laboratory waste 

management system are 

(1) commitment of laboratory’s high level executive to 

good waste management, 

(2) a waste management plan 

(3) assigned responsibility for the waste management 

system, and 

(4) practices to reduce the volume of waste generated in 

the chemical laboratory. 

The support to the implementation of the waste 

management plan must be continuous involvement of 

personnel at all levels including laboratory managers, 

supervisors, personnel and safety and health unit. Written 

policies and procedures should be prepared to cover all 

phases of waste handling, from generation to ultimate 

safe and environmentally acceptable disposal. This plan 

should preferably be reviewed at regular intervals. The

waste management unit is responsible for setting up, 

maintaining, and inspecting waste accumulation sites, for 

disposal of waste and for providing advice and training. 

Integral to the plan are policies and practices directed 

towards reducing the volume of waste generated in the 

laboratory such as planning of every experiment with 

consideration of waste reduction, reduction of the scale 

of experiments, control of accumulation of excess reagents 

or chemicals and prevention of the occurrence of orphan 

reaction mixtures (those generated by workers who have 

departed from the laboratory, leaving unidentified 

materials behind). 

Identification, Classification, Segegration And 

Storage Of Chemical Laboratory Wastes 

The laboratory worker must decide if the material is no 

longer needed. It does not become a waste unless a 

decision is made to discard it. The typical laboratory 

wastes are: 

(1) contaminated rags and gloves 

(2) expired and/or used chemicals and solvents 

(3) chemical spillage 

(4) used and/or expired laboratory samples and 

(5) empty contaminated /chemical containers. 

Laboratory wastes must be segregated by waste 

classification at the point of generation. Every effort should 

be made to avoid creating wastes which fall into multiple 

classifications; such “mixed wastes” may be impossible 

to dispose. The general waste classification groups of the 

Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd are divided into eight categories. 

They are 

(i) Type A – Mineral oil waste 

eg. lubricating oil, hydraulic oil. 

(ii) Type B – Organic waste containing halogens and/ 

or sulphur (>1%) 

eg. Freon, PVC wastes, chloroform, solvents 

containing >1% halogen 

(iii) Type C – Waste solvents without halogens and/or 

sulphur (

feature 

● It is a cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which, 

when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and 

12.5 can generate generate toxic gases, vapours 

or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present 

danger to human health or the environment. 

● It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction 

if it is subjected to a strong initiating source or 

if heated under confinement 

● It is readily capable of detonation or explosive 

decomposition or reaction at standard 

temperature and pressure. 

● It is a forbidden explosive. 

(iv) Toxicity – Toxicity is determined by the 3 “Toxicity 

Characteristic Leaching Procedure” (TCLP), a 

laboratory test that measures the concentration of 

the toxic material that could leach into ground water 

if improperly managed. 

Chemical analysis on the composition and 

characteristics of the wastes is more practical and 

important for a large-volume industrial waste that is 

being generated on a regular basis than it is for the small 

volumes of the chemical diverse wastes generated in the 

laboratory. Containers of waste chemicals collected from 

individual laboratories before being treated or disposed 

must often be placed in a temporary storage facility in 

or near the laboratory located away from high work 

density but close enough to be useful and for proper 

surveillance and security to be accorded. Temporary 

storage times should be kept as short as possible. The 

facility is designed for total containment with as little 

as possible release to the environment with good 

ventilation and protected from adverse weather. 

Segregation of incompatible materials in a storage area 


is essential. The term “incompatible chemicals” refers to 

chemicals that can react with each other 

(i) violently, 

(ii) with evolution of substantial heat, 

(iii) to produce inflammable products, or, 

(iv) to produce toxic products. Incompatible chemicals 

should not put in the same container; segregation 

of their containers, though desirable, is not always 

required. 

Recovery, Recycling, Reuse And Disposal 

Into The Sanitary System 

One intent of hazardous waste management is to 

encourage the recovery, recycling, or reuse of materials 

that would otherwise become wastes. It is carried out to 

the extent that chemicals can be recovered, recycled or 

reused safely at costs less than costs of disposal as waste 

such as recovery of valuable metals (eg. mercury, silver 

or noble metals), recovery of solvents of low contaminants 

by distillation, exchange of unneeded chemicals or the 

use of unneeded chemicals as fuels. 

The best approach to chemical waste management is 

not to produce waste, to produce less waste or to produce 

waste of reduced hazard. Waste minimisation can be 

approached by following the guidelines: 

(i) Inventory your chemicals: An inventory will prevent 

you from ordering more than what you have. 

(ii) Order what you need: The economy of larger sizes 

may be offset by the cost of disposing of your 

excess. Borrow small amounts from other 

laboratories. 

(iii) Use recycled chemicals whenever possible: Have an 

on-going secondhand chemical programme for 

usable but unwanted chemicals.

(iv) Substitute with non-hazardous or less hazardous 

materials: There are many non-hazardous 

substitutes for commonly used chemicals, such as 

chromic acid. Other alternatives may be much less 

toxic. 

(v) Do not mix hazardous and non-hazardous waste: 

Non-hazardous waste, when mixed with hazardous 

waste, will become hazardous itself and will increase 

the volume. Likewise, high concentration waste 

should not be mixed with low concentration waste. 

Besides wastes sent to Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, there 

are alkaline, acid and water miscible wastes that can be 

treated on-site and rendered innocuous before their 

disposal. Organic compounds that are reasonably soluble 

in water are suitable for drain disposal. Highly malodorous 

substances should not be put down the drain. In general, 

a water-soluble material containing a water-insoluble 

substance (more that 2% of the mixture) should not be 

drain disposed. Mineral acids and alkalis are preferably 

neutralised before drain disposal. Some laboratories allow 

drain disposal by flushing them down with excess water. 

The laboratory drain system can be separated from the 

sanitary system with these drains feeding into 

neutralisation pits whose effluents then feed into the sewer 

systems. Laboratory procedures such as carbon adsorption, 

elementary neutralisation, evaporation, filtration and 

separation are some of the activities that can assist in 

reducing the generation of hazardous wastes in chemical 

laboratories. Carbon adsorption binds soluble and gaseous 

substances to a surface such as activated carbon without 

altering them chemically. It generally produces two wastes 

- a treated effluent and a spent residual. Evaporation is 

allowed when inorganic waste mixed with water is treated. 

Filtration is primarily used to remove undissolved heavy 

metals present in suspended solids. Separation includes 

those processes that separate solids from liquids and 

separate liquids of different densities. Elementary 

neutralisation is a process used to adjust the pH of a 

substance between 6 and 10. 

Safety In Handling Of Laboratory Chemical 

Wastes And Emergency Procedures 

Exposure to laboratory wastes containing hazardous 

and toxic chemicals can pose a serious threat to the health 

of the laboratory personnel involved. This can occur by 

inhalation of vapour or dust, absorption through the skin 

from contaminated clothing, spillage on benches, floors 

or apparatus and ingestion from contaminated hands, food 

or smoking. Personnel should be made aware of the 

potential hazard of the waste, about the limitations of the 

personal protective equipment and safety procedures for 

handling waste. Personal protective equipment to be used 

when handling hazardous and toxic wastes include (i) 

impervious gloves (neoprene, nitrile or polythene gloves); 

(ii) laboratory coats, aprons or coveralls; (iii) laboratory 


safety glasses or goggles or full-face shield; (iv) boots; 

and (v) an approved respirator. These personal protective 

equipment should be properly stored preferably adjacent 

to the work area. Laboratory coats should be removed 

before leaving the laboratory and should not be worn in 

rooms designated for eating and drinking. 

Accidental skin contact with toxic waste materials 

should be treated immediately by rinsing the affected parts 

in cold running water for at least five minutes, followed 

by thorough washing with warm soapy water. If necessary, 

the persons should shower and change their clothes and 

shoes. In case of eye splash, the may be necessary to force 

water into the eye to ensure it is thoroughly irrigated. 

Medical advice should be sought. All persons in the 

laboratory should be evacuated immediately if there is a 

major spill of a toxic waste or if a fire or explosion occurs. 

In the event of a spillage, properly equipped and trained 

persons should be assigned to adequately contain and 

clean up the spill. For a minor spill, confine and contain 

the spill by covering with appropriate absorbent material, 

sweeping solid material into a dustpan and placing in a 

sealed plastic container. Decontaminate the area with soap 

and water after cleanup and place residue in a plastic bag 

or sealed plastic container to be disposed. 

Conclusion 

The 2 Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes 

from Laboratories would provide information on the proper 

techniques of handling chemical laboratory wastes and its 

subsequent disposal in such a manner that will not degrade 

the environment nor endanger health and safety. Under 

Regulation 7(1), 5 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) 

Regulation 2005, a waste generator may apply to the 

Director-General, in writing, to exclude the scheduled wastes 

generated from a particular facility or process from being 

treated, disposed of or recovered at the prescribed premises. 

The general requirements for the application are described 

in 3 Guidelines for the Application of Special Management 

of Scheduled Waste which is currently in the drafting stage. 

REFERENCES 

1. Prudent Practices for Disposal of Chemicals from 

Laboratories; National Academy Press : 

Washington, 1983 

2. Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes 

From Laboratories, Department of Environment 

Malaysia, First Edition, 2000 

3. Guidelines for the Application of Special 

Management of Scheduled Waste, Department of 

Environment, Draft August 2005 

4. Hazardous Waste Management Guide, Indiana 

University Office of Environmental, Health and 

Safety Management, September 2001 

5. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) 

Regulation 2005 BEM 

feature

feature 

The Role Of 

A Concessionaire In 

Solid Waste Management 

By Alam Flora Sdn Bhd 

Up to the mid 1990s, solid waste 

management was handled 

largely by local authorities, 

with overall management and 

establishment of disposal sites 

overseen by the State Governments. 

Local authorities, or LAs had the 

power to appoint their own 

contractors to operate the solid waste 

management business in their area. 

As a result the quality of solid 

waste management differed widely 

between LAs, with wealthier LAs 

being able to provide a much better 

standard of service. The poorer ones 

had to make do with smaller 

contractors who were neither able to 

meet proper environmental protection 

standards nor afford proper waste 

management equipment. 

This variance in the quality of 

service meant that, in some areas, 

waste management became a serious 

problem to the public’s well being. 

Establishment 

In 1995, the Government decided 

to privatise solid waste management 

in Malaysia. The Peninsular was 

divided into four Concession Areas – 

Northern, comprising Perlis, Kedah, 

Penang and Perak; Central, 

comprising Selangor and the Federal 

Territory of Kuala Lumpur; Eastern, 

comprising Pahang, Kelantan and 

Trengganu; and Southern, consisting 

of Johor, Negeri Sembilan and 

Malacca. 

Over 80 companies and consortia 

bid for the contracts. Alam Flora Sdn 

Bhd, a company formed by a 

consortium led by the then HICOM 

Group of companies, was awarded the 

concession for the Central and Eastern 

Regions. Southern Waste 

Management won the Southern 

concession and Northern Waste 

Series 1 

Management won the Northern 

concession. 

The initial plan was for the three 

concession winners to sign the 

Concession Agreement, or CA, with 

the federal Government in 1997. 

However, the Asian Financial Crisis 

led to a postponement of the signing, 

and the three concessionaires entered 

a period of Interim Solid Waste 

Management. 

Interim Solid 

Waste Management 

Alam Flora has already taken over 

the solid waste management or SWM 

from most of the LAs in Selangor, 

Pahang and Kuala Lumpur, although 

waste management in Kelantan and 

Trengganu remains in the hands of 

the LAs. When Putrajaya was opened, 

it also came under the scope of Alam 

Flora operations. In keeping with its 

image as the new administrative hub 

for the country, the highest standards 

of service are applied to all operations 

concerning solid waste management. 

The scope of services provided by 

Alam Flora varies between LAs. The 

company provides domestic waste 

collection services in most LAs in 

Selangor, Pahang and Kuala Lumpur. 

In some cases, clearing illegal dumps 

also falls under the scope of services 

provided. 

The interval between services also 

varies between LAs as some specify a 

three week interval between grass 

cutting, and some may specify a six 

week interval. Where possible, Alam 

Flora is trying to standardise all these 

services between LAs. 

Taking Over Operations 

As part of the Concession 

Agreement, Alam Flora was obliged 


to take over and absorb both the SWM 

workers and equipment from the LAs. 

In keeping with the new status of 

SWM as a privatised service, all the 

absorbed workers were given pay 

increments to bring them up to par 

with the market wages for workers in 

the private sector. 

This absorption exercise was not 

without its drawbacks, as the 

company found itself with a pool of 

ageing workers and equipment that 

required frequent attention and 

servicing. 

Through judiciously exercising 

smart Human Resource policies, 

several HR issues have largely been 

overcomed. The overall Alam Flora 

workforce, especially at the general 

worker level is more efficient and 

customer oriented than it was before 

the takeover. 

The problem of ageing vehicles 

however, is a much more difficult 

obstacle. With a new compactor 

costing over RM250,000, the 

company is in a position where it can 

only replace vehicles on an absolute 

priority basis. 

However, Alam Flora has put into 

place an efficient maintenance 

scheme to prolong the useful lives of 

these vehicles so that only those 

vehicles that absolutely require 

replacing are replaced with new ones. 

Replacing ageing equipment is a 

priority for the company, as this will 

allow for a higher degree of service 

to the public. 

In order to allow assets such as 

vehicles and personnel to be utilised 

across the boundaries of LA areas, 

Alam Flora operations are organised 

into 11 Service Areas (SA), with one 

SA covering between one and four 

LA areas This allows surplus vehicles 

obtained from one LA to be used to 

service other LAs in the SA without

the need to purchase extra vehicles 

or hire new personnel. 

Even with the financial restrictions 

that the company finds itself under, 

customer service and satisfaction, as 

well as efficient service remain 

priorities. As such, the company has 

embarked on a drive to increase the 

efficiency and cost effectiveness of all 

its major services. 

Improved Services 

1 

Customer Service 

To enable customers to reach 

Alam Flora at any time, Alam Flora 

has implemented a series of steps to 

facilitate customer communication, 

including a toll-free-line, SMS service 

and e-mail address for customer 

service. Alam Flora has established a 

dedicated customer service centre, 

located at our headquarters, which 

supports the toll-free-line, SMS service 

and customer e-mail responses. The 

benchmark for answering complain 

e-mails is half-an-hour on working 

days, and the deadline for handling 

the complaint on site is 24 hours. This 

is a great improvement from the time 

prior to Alam Flora’s takeover of SWM 

services. 

2 

Route Optimisation 

With cost effectiveness and 

maximum operations efficiency as 

driving factors, Alam Flora turned to 

its Geographic Information System 

(GIS) section to begin the process of 

collection route optimisation. Using 

portable Global Positioning System 

(GPS) equipment, existing collection 

routes were mapped and uploaded 

into the GIS software. From this raw 

data, and with the assistance of 

existing road maps, the GIS section 

was able to map the best collection 

routes available. In many cases, the 

company was able to reduce the 

number of compactors servicing any 

given area, thus ensuring maximum 

vehicle utilisation, and minimising 

the impact of vehicle exhaust 

emissions on the environment. The 

surplus vehicles could then be utilised 

as reserve for emergency cases, or 

even utilised for servicing industrial 

customers. 

3 

Improved Worker Safety 

Alam Flora’s workers are provided 

with a complete personal protective 

equipment kit, including safety shoes, 

gloves and reflective vest for use 

during operations. These items have 

helped reduce the number of minor 

accidents that occur at any given 

time, and has helped the company 

reduce losses due to these accidents. 

4 

Standardised Collection Vehicles 

All of Alam Flora’s in house 

collection for domestic waste utilises 

compactor trucks. These replace the 

old system where contractors used 

any vehicles they wanted to collect 

the domestic waste, whether or not 

they were actually suited to the task 

at hand. While some of the subcontractors 

are still using open trucks 

to collect waste, especially in 

squatter areas where the roads are 

too narrow for compactors, by and 

large domestic waste is collected 

using compactors, which reduce the 

incidence of waste spillage and 

leachate leakage. The compactor 

trucks also reduce the number of trips 

needed to service any given area, as 

they can carry much more than open 

trucks of equivalent size. This 

reduces the impact of vehicle 

emissions on the environment. 

5 

Recycling 

Prior to the takeover, there had 

been a few unsuccessful attempts to 

integrate recycling into the other 

aspects of solid waste management. 

Alam Flora has initiated a series of 

programmes that target various levels 

of society from school children to 

adults, through our school, 

community, office and other 

programmes. We have established 

community recycling centres at 

several popular shopping malls to 

enable people to recycle while they 

shop. A high priority for us is 

educating the next generation, and 

our school programmes are very 

successful, over 700 schools 

participating in the KitS programme 

over the past five years. 

In addition, the pioneer house-tohouse 

recycling programme in 

Malaysia using colour coded plastic 

bags has been implemented in 

Putrajaya. Colour coded plastic bags 

for different types of recyclables have 

been distributed to residents in 

Putrajaya, and collection of the 

recycled items is handled by a 

dedicated team and vehicles. 


6 

Public Education Programmes 

As integrated solid waste 

management is impossible without 

the support and participation of the 

public, Alam Flora has embarked on 

a long term education drive to gain 

the public’s buy-in. This drive 

includes weekly columns in major 

dailies, spots on-air with major radio 

stations as well as seminars, talks and 

forums with the public. The effort has 

already borne fruit, as there has been 

a gradual shift in the public’s 

perception of Alam Flora. The public, 

by and large, is confident that they 

come first in the company’s books, 

and are broadly appreciative of these 

efforts to make their environment 

cleaner. 

7 

Worker Morale 

Alam Flora introduced a 

programme whereby the public 

would be able to nominate 

outstanding SWM workers for an 

award. This programme encouraged 

the public to get to know the SWM 

workers in their area. While before, 

SWM workers were largely ignored, 

now they were becoming known to 

the members of the community. This 

appreciation by the public has raised 

worker morale, and reduced the 

incidence of absenteeism among the 

workforce. This programme, called 

the Customer Choice Awards has won 

recognition from several prestigious 

institutions. 

8 

Environmental Monitoring 

Standards 

Alam Flora maintains a dedicated 

Environmental Management 

Department, responsible for, among 

others, monitoring the 

environmental impact of the 

company’s waste management 

facilities, obtaining and maintaining 

ISO14000 certification for selected 

company activities, and liaison with 

the Department of Environment. 

Standards of all the waste 

disposal facilities managed by Alam 

Flora have been upgraded, and new 

landfill cells are constructed 

utilising proven technology to 

ensure that the impact to the 

environment is minimised. Strict 

monitoring is also enforced on the 

company’s vehicles to ensure 

environmental impacts are reduced 

to a minimum. BEM 

feature

BEM Sep05-Nov 05 (Wa.. - Board of Engineers Malaysia

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