Advances in Food Mycology

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BLACK ASPERGILLUS SPECIES IN AUSTRALIAN VINEYARDS: FROM SOIL TO OCHRATOXIN A IN WINE Su-lin L. Leong, *‡ Ailsa D. Hocking, * John I. Pitt, * Benozir A. Kazi, † Robert W. Emmett † and Eileen S. Scott ‡§ 1. INTRODUCTION Fungi classified in Aspergillus Section Nigri (the black Aspergilli) are ubiquitous saprophytes in soils around the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Klich and Pitt, 1988; Pitt and Hocking, 1997). Several species in this Section are common in vineyards and are often associated with bunch rots (Amerine et al., 1980). A. niger is reported to be the primary cause of Aspergillus rot in grapes before harvest (Nair, 1985; Snowdon, 1990), while A. aculeatus (Jarvis and Traquair, 1984) and A. carbonarius (Gupta, 1956) have also been reported. The development of fungal bunch rots has been correlated with the splitting of grape berries (Barbetti, 1980), and Aspergillus counts on grapes grown for drying were greater during seasons when rain before harvest caused the berries to split (Figure 1) (Leong et al., 2004). Spores of black Aspergillus spp. are resistant to UV light (Rotem and Aust, 1991), which may account for their * Su-lin L. Leong, Ailsa D. Hocking and John I. Pitt, CSIRO Food Science Australia, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia. † Benozir A. Kazi and Robert W. Emmett, Department of Primary Industries, Mildura, Victoria 3502, Australia. ‡ Su-lin L. Leong and Eileen S. Scott, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064, Australia. § All authors, Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064, Australia. Correspondence to: ailsa.hocking@csiro.au 153
154 Su-lin L. Leong et al. Mean black Aspergillus count (cfu/g fruit) 1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 0 1998 1999 2000 Year A. aculeatus A. carbonarius A. niger Figure 1. Mean severity of infection of fresh and drying grapes (combined) by each of three black Aspergillus species over three successive harvest seasons. Rain occurred before harvest in 1999 and 2000. The mean count was derived by summing the counts for each species of black Aspergillus from all the fruit samples, and dividing that sum by the total number of samples. Reproduced from Leong, S. L., Hocking. A. D., and Pitt, J. I., 2004, Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 10: 83-88 (with permission from the Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology). persistence in vineyards and on grape berries even after drying (King et al., 1981; Abdel-Sater and Saber, 1999; Abarca et al., 2003). Within Section Nigri, A. carbonarius and A. niger have been shown to produce the mycotoxin, ochratoxin A (OA) (Abarca et al., 1994; Téren et al., 1996; Heenan et al., 1998; reviewed in Abarca et al., 2001). OA is a demonstrated nephrotoxin, which may also be carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunogenic and genotoxic. It has been classified as Group 2B, a “possible human carcinogen” (Castegnaro and Wild, 1995). OA has been detected in grapes and grape products including juice, wine, dried vine fruit and wine vinegars (Zimmerli and Dick, 1996; MacDonald et al., 1999; Majerus et al., 2000; Markarki et al., 2001; Da Rocha Rosa et al., 2002; Sage et al., 2002; OA in wine and grape juice reviewed by Bellí et al., 2002). A survey of 600 Australian wines showed that OA was present only at low levels. Only 15% of samples had levels > 0.05 µg/l and 85% of these were < 0.2 µg/l. The maximum level found was 0.61 µg/l (Hocking et al., 2003). In Europe, a limit of 2 µg/kg in table wines is under discussion (Anon., 2003) and a limit of 10 µg/kg in dried vine fruits has been set (European Commission, 2002). OA in grapes and grape products is produced by toxigenic A. carbonarius and A. niger species which have been isolated from grapes in
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Advances in Food Mycology
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Advances in Food Mycology Edited by
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FOREWORD This book represents the P
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CONTENTS Foreword .................
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Contents ix Mycobiota, mycotoxigeni
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CONTRIBUTORS M. Lourdes Abarca, Dep
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Contributors xiii Dilek Heperkan, I
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Section 1. Understanding the fungi
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4 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Furthermor
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6 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Table 1. M
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8 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Major sour
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10 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Major sou
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12 Jens C. Frisvad et al. 3.4. Cycl
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14 Jens C. Frisvad et al. and poult
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16 Jens C. Frisvad et al. 3.9. Zear
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18 Jens C. Frisvad et al. 4.5. Myco
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20 Jens C. Frisvad et al. 4.9. Peni
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22 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Major sou
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24 Jens C. Frisvad et al. only occu
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26 Jens C. Frisvad et al. 1977, Myc
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28 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Kamyar, M
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30 Jens C. Frisvad et al. Pitt, J.
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RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING THE CHRO
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Recommendations Concerning the Chro
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Section 2. Media and method develop
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50 M. H. Taniwaki et al. the counti
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52 M. H. Taniwaki et al. Table 1. O
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54 M. H. Taniwaki et al. 60 column
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56 M. H. Taniwaki et al. 3.2. Growt
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58 M. H. Taniwaki et al. 3.4. Estim
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60 M. H. Taniwaki et al. lowest; ab
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62 M. H. Taniwaki et al. 4. DISCUSS
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64 M. H. Taniwaki et al. viable cou
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66 M. H. Taniwaki et al. Brancato,
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EVALUATION OF MOLECULAR METHODS FOR
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Evaluation of Molecular Methods for
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Page 112 and 113: Evaluation of Molecular Methods for
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Page 124 and 125: ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF FUMONISIN PRODUCER
Page 126 and 127: Ecophysiology of Fumonisin Producer
Page 132 and 133: ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF FUSARIUM CULMORUM
Page 134 and 135: Ecophysiology of Fusarium culmorum
Page 146 and 147: FOOD-BORNE FUNGI IN FRUIT AND CEREA
Page 148 and 149: Fungi and Mycotoxins in Fruit and C
Page 164 and 165: Black Aspergillus Species in Austra
Page 182 and 183: 174 Marta Bau et al. sporadically i
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Page 188 and 189: FUNGI PRODUCING OCHRATOXIN IN DRIED
Page 190 and 191: Fungi Producing Ochratoxin in Dried
Page 196 and 197: AN UPDATE ON OCHRATOXIGENIC FUNGI A
Page 198 and 199: An Update on Ochratoxigenic Fungi a
Page 210 and 211: MYCOBIOTA, MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI, AND
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Mycobiota and Citrinin in Black Oli
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BYSSOCHLAMYS: SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAT
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Byssochlamys Heat Resistance and My
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EFFECT OF WATER ACTIVITY AND TEMPER
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Aflatoxin and CPA Production in Pea
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INACTIVATION OF FRUIT SPOILAGE YEAS
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High Pressure Inactivation of Fungi
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ACTIVATION OF ASCOSPORES BY NOVEL F
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Activation of Ascospores by Novel F
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MIXTURES OF NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC A
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Mixtures of Natural and Synthetic A
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PROBABILISTIC MODELLING OF ASPERGIL
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Probabilistic Modelling of Aspergil
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ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF SOURDOUGH BR
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Antifungal Activity of Sourdough Br
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PREVENTION OF OCHRATOXIN A IN CEREA
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Prevention of Ochratoxin A in Cerea
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RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR FOOD MYCOLO
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Recommended Methods for Food Mycolo
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Recommended Methods for Food Mycolo
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APPENDIX 1 - MEDIA All media are st
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Appendix 1 - Media 351 CYA (1): Cza
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Appendix 1 - Media 353 note that th
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Appendix 1 - Media 355 PCA: Potato
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Appendix 1 - Media 357 Pitt, J. I.,
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Appendix 2 - International Commissi
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362 Index Antifungal agents (Contin
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364 Index Cellulase, from F. culmor
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366 Index Fusarenon X, 15 Fusarin C
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368 Index Mycophenolic acid, 18, 21
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370 Index Phaffia, 74 Phoma tenuazo
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