The Paradigm of Human-Environment Systems - Natural and Social ...

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Roland W. Scholz & Claudia Binder Table 2: Brief definition, examples, and some regulatory mechanisms that are essential in shaping the human-environment interaction. Hierarchy level Definition Example Regulatory Mechanism (examples only) Cell Smallest self-functioning unit comEukary- • Change of proportion of volume and number posed of: ontic of cell nuclei to cell organelles (primary feedb- (a) a boundary (b) a reproduction unit, Prokaryack loop) (c) a power plant, (d) a production ontic cells • Mutation (secondary feedback loop) unit, and (d) a clean up mechanism to adapt to the environment (Miller, 1978) • Classical conditioning (learning, Brembs. et al., 2002) Organ Part of the body with special func- Heart, • Regeneration by building new tissue (self regutions, which depends on other parts lung, liver, lation) of the body for functioning. The functions all covered by each cell are divided into different organs Riede et al. 1989) kidney • Adaptation by changing the number of cells depending on stress (primary feedback loop) • Loss of function when over demanded (primary or secondary feedback loop; secondary in case of chronic demands) Individual A single person with a specific life Pupil, • Consistency, equity, and balance as ubiquitous history, stage of development and adult principles (in strategy selection and post deci- experiences. The individual is govsional evaluation, Festinger 1957)) erned by driving forces such as • Positive attractors (imitation, learning through (i) drives (Freud, 1920; Lorenz 1963) models, Bandura, 1971; e.g. in goal formation (ii) needs (Maslow, 1954; Douglas et al. 1998) (iii) emotions (Izard, 1977; Keltner & Ekmann, 2000) (iv) motivations (Weiner, 1990; 2000) (v) attitudes (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) (vi) values (Rockeach, 1973; Schwartz 1992) (vii) cognitions (Neisser, 1976) and strategy selection) Group Defined amount of people, who in- Play group • Group norms (Ash, 1956); Conformity (Sherif, teract and form a unity in a defined period of time for a defined task and in a certain place. There is no formal requirement to enter a group. Open, closed, psychological, sociological and other groups can be differentiated Skaters, environmentalists 1935; goal formation and strategy selection) • Dominant person/authority pressure (Milgram, 1974; strategy selection, primary feedback loop) • Decision schemes (e.g., absolute or relative majority, Davis, 1973, strategy selection) Organiza- Social systems or economic subunits, Firms, tion which produce goods or motivate and World coordinate people to certain actions. Wildlife Membership is necessary. Fund (will be continued on next page) 10 April 2003
Table 2 (continued) The Paradigm of Human-Environment Systems Hierarchy level Definition Example Regulatory Mechanism (examples only) Society A historically established association Western, containing interrelated, interdepend- eastern ent parts, which are social structures or subsystems (see (i) to (iv) and institutions (Parsons, et al., 1951). society (i) Economic subsystem: Facilities, Market Regulatory mechanisms related to market measures and transactions that relate economy economies: to the production, trade and consumption of goods Centrally planned • Emission charges (Hanley et al., 1997), Subsidies, market permits (Crocker, 1996; Dales, economy Barter economy 1968), etc. (primary feedback loop) (ii) Legal system: Normative rules and Roman Constitution, laws, norms, and decrees (e.g., societal conventions required for law environmental regulation and decrees; goal keeping upright a society. It includes laws, conventions and practices within a society Anglo- Saxon law formation, strategy selection, secondary feedback loop) (iii) Political system: Characterizes the Democ- • Regulation occurs through the release of laws regime and the authoritative strucracy or implementation of market mechanisms ture of a society Dictatorship Oligarchy (iv) Cultural system: Reflects prefer- Swiss • Guided variation: learning and rational calculaences and values of a society in language, science and art. The bases are the moral, ethical and religious stan- French American tion in response to environmental changes (information as driving factor), strategy selection, primary feedback loop dards of a society. • Biased transmission: selection of information and strategies based on specific preferences (e.g., satisfaction) • Natural selection: dying of culture because they selected the wrong strategy (secondary feedback loop) Institutions: Persistent practices, Marriage, Institutionalization: process of establishing an relationships and organizations in the EPA, court, organizations and functions that strengthen and life of society that center on funda- banks, maintain societal structures mental needs, activities, values of govern- cardinal position for maintaining ment,lan- society. Manifested by social regulatory agencies (Websters, 1993). We differentiate legal, economic , political and cultural institutions guage, ETH-UNS Working Paper 37 11
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