Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar
Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar
Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar
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<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong><br />
<strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Science<br />
Igor Krupnik, Michael A. Lang,<br />
and Scott E. Miller<br />
Edi<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
A <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Contribution <strong>to</strong> Knowledge<br />
WASHINGTON, D.C.<br />
2009
This proceedings volume of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> symposium, sponsored by and convened<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution on 3–4 May 2007, is published as part of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year 2007–2008, which is sponsored by <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council for Science (ICSU) and <strong>the</strong><br />
World Meteorological Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion (WMO).<br />
Published by <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Scholarly Press<br />
P.O. Box 37012<br />
MRC 957<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C. 20013-7012<br />
www.scholarlypress.si.edu<br />
Text and images in this public<strong>at</strong>ion may be protected by copyright and o<strong>the</strong>r restrictions or owned by<br />
individuals and entities o<strong>the</strong>r than, and in addition <strong>to</strong>, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. Fair use of<br />
copyrighted m<strong>at</strong>erial includes <strong>the</strong> use of protected m<strong>at</strong>erials for personal, educ<strong>at</strong>ional, or<br />
noncommercial purposes. Users must cite author and source of content, must not alter or modify<br />
content, and must comply with all o<strong>the</strong>r terms or restrictions th<strong>at</strong> may be applicable.<br />
Cover design: Piper F. Wallis<br />
Cover images: (<strong>to</strong>p left) Wave-sculpted iceberg in Svalbard, Norway (Pho<strong>to</strong> by Laurie M. Penland);<br />
(<strong>to</strong>p right) <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Scientifi c Diving Offi cer Michael A. Lang prepares <strong>to</strong> exit from ice dive<br />
(Pho<strong>to</strong> by Adam G. Marsh); (main) Kongsfjorden, Svalbard, Norway (Pho<strong>to</strong> by Laurie M. Penland).<br />
Library of Congress C<strong>at</strong>aloging-in-Public<strong>at</strong>ion D<strong>at</strong>a<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> poles : contributions <strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year science / Igor Krupnik,<br />
Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, edi<strong>to</strong>rs.<br />
p. cm.<br />
ISBN 978-0-9788460-1-5 (pbk. : alk. paper)<br />
1. Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, 2007–2008. 2. <strong>Polar</strong> regions—Research—Congresses.<br />
3. Research—<strong>Polar</strong> regions—Congresses. 4. Arctic regions—Research—Congresses.<br />
5. Antarctica—Research—Congresses. 6. <strong>Polar</strong> regions—Environmental<br />
conditions—Congresses. 7. Clim<strong>at</strong>ic changes—Detection—<strong>Polar</strong> regions—Congresses.<br />
I. Krupnik, Igor. II. Lang, Michael A. III. Miller, Scott E.<br />
G587.S65 2009<br />
559.8—dc22 2008042055<br />
ISBN-13: 978-0-9788460-1-5<br />
ISBN-10: 0-9788460-1-X<br />
The paper used in this public<strong>at</strong>ion meets <strong>the</strong> minimum requirements of <strong>the</strong> American N<strong>at</strong>ional Standard<br />
for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library M<strong>at</strong>erials Z39.48–1992.
Contents<br />
FOREWORD by Ira Rubinoff ix<br />
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY by Michael A. Lang xii<br />
INTRODUCTION by Igor Krupnik, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller xiv<br />
IPY HISTORIES AND LEGACIES<br />
Advancing <strong>Polar</strong> Research and Communic<strong>at</strong>ing Its Wonders: Quests,<br />
Questions, and Capabilities of We<strong>at</strong>her and Clim<strong>at</strong>e Studies in<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Years 1<br />
James R. Fleming, Colby College<br />
Cara Seitchek, Woodrow Wilson Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Center for Scholars<br />
Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>? Placing <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Context of Nineteenth-Century Scientifi c Explor<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
Collabor<strong>at</strong>ion 13<br />
Marc Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg, N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
The Policy Process and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical<br />
Year, 1957–1958 23<br />
Fae L. Korsmo, N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Preserving <strong>the</strong> Origins of <strong>the</strong> Space Age: The M<strong>at</strong>erial Legacy of <strong>the</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (1957–1958) <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Air and Space Museum 35<br />
David H. DeVorkin, N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
From Ballooning in <strong>the</strong> Arctic <strong>to</strong> 10,000-Foot Runways in<br />
Antarctica: Lessons from His<strong>to</strong>ric Archaeology 49<br />
Noel D. Broadbent, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution
iv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
CULTURAL STUDIES<br />
“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Reversing <strong>Polar</strong>ities<br />
in <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Arctic Studies 61<br />
William W. Fitzhugh, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Yup’ik Eskimo <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Arctic Research <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> 79<br />
Ann Fienup-Riordan, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Arctic Studies Center, Anchorage<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Alaskan Ethnography:<br />
The First IPY Expedition <strong>to</strong> Barrow, 1881–1883 89<br />
Ernest S. Burch Jr., N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Arctic Studies Center, Camp Hill<br />
The Art of Iñupiaq Whaling: Elders’ Interpret<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Ethnological Collections 99<br />
Aron L. Crowell, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Arctic Studies Center, Anchorage<br />
From Tent <strong>to</strong> Trading Post and Back Again: <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Anthropology in Nunavut, Nunavik, Nitassinan, and<br />
Nun<strong>at</strong>siavut—The Changing IPY Agenda, 1882–2007 115<br />
Stephen Loring, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
“The Way We See It Coming”: Building <strong>the</strong> Legacy<br />
of Indigenous Observ<strong>at</strong>ions in IPY 2007–2008 129<br />
Igor Krupnik, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF POLAR ORGANISMS<br />
Species Diversity and Distributions of Pelagic Calanoid<br />
Copepods from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean 143<br />
E. Taisoo Park, Texas A&M University<br />
Frank D. Ferrari, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Brooding and Species Diversity in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: Selection<br />
for Brooders or Speci<strong>at</strong>ion within Brooding Clades? 181<br />
John S. Pearse, University of California, Santa Cruz<br />
Richard Mooi, California Academy of Sciences<br />
Susanne J. Lockhart, California Academy of Sciences<br />
Angelika Brandt, Zoologisches Institut und Zoologisches<br />
Museum, Hamburg<br />
Persistent Elev<strong>at</strong>ed Abundance of Oc<strong>to</strong>pods<br />
in an Overfi shed Antarctic Area 197<br />
Michael Vecchione, N<strong>at</strong>ional Marine Fisheries Service<br />
Louise Allcock, Queen’s University Belfast<br />
Uwe Pi<strong>at</strong>kowski, Universit<strong>at</strong> Kiel, Germany
Elaina Jorgensen, Alaska Fisheries Science Center<br />
Iain Barr<strong>at</strong>t, Queen’s University Belfast<br />
Cold Comfort: System<strong>at</strong>ics and Biology of Antarctic Bryozoans 205<br />
Judith E. Wins<strong>to</strong>n, Virginia Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Consider<strong>at</strong>ions of An<strong>at</strong>omy, Morphology, Evolution, and Function<br />
for Narwhal Dentition 223<br />
Martin T. Nweeia, Harvard School of Dental Medicine<br />
Cornelius Nutarak, Elder, Community of Mittim<strong>at</strong>ilik, Nunavut<br />
Frederick C. Eichmiller, Delta Dental of Wisconsin<br />
Naomi Eidelman, ADAF Paffenbarger Research Center<br />
Anthony A. Giuseppetti, ADAF Paffenbarger Research Center<br />
Janet Quinn, ADAF Paffenbarger Research Center<br />
James G. Mead, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Kaviqanguak K’issuk, Hunter, Community of Qaanaaq, Greenland<br />
Peter V. Hauschka, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Ethan M. Tyler, N<strong>at</strong>ional Institutes of Health<br />
Charles Potter, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution<br />
Jack R. Orr, Fisheries and Oceans, Canada, Arctic Research Division<br />
Rasmus Avike, Hunter, Community of Qaanaaq, Greenland<br />
Pavia Nielsen, Elder, Community of Uummannaq, Greenland<br />
David Angn<strong>at</strong>siak, Elder, Community of Mittim<strong>at</strong>ilik, Nunavut<br />
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF UNDER-ICE RESEARCH<br />
CONTENTS v<br />
Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-Year Bipolar Research Tool 241<br />
Michael A. Lang, Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Rob Robbins, Ray<strong>the</strong>on <strong>Polar</strong> Services Company<br />
Environmental and Molecular Mechanisms of Cold Adapt<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in <strong>Polar</strong> Marine Invertebr<strong>at</strong>es 253<br />
Adam G. Marsh, University of Delaware, Lewes<br />
Miles<strong>to</strong>nes in <strong>the</strong> Study of Diving Physiology: Antarctic Emperor<br />
Penguins and Weddell Seals 265<br />
Gerald Kooyman, Scripps Institution of Oceanography<br />
Interannual and Sp<strong>at</strong>ial Variability in Light Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion: Evidence<br />
from Three Decades of Growth in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Kelp,<br />
Laminaria solidungula 271<br />
Kenneth H. Dun<strong>to</strong>n, University of Texas Marine Science Institute<br />
Susan V. Schonberg, University of Texas Marine Science Institute<br />
Dale W. Funk, LGL Alaska Research Associ<strong>at</strong>es, Inc.<br />
Life under Antarctic Pack Ice: A Krill Perspective 285<br />
Langdon B. Quetin, University of California, Santa Barbara<br />
Robin M. Ross, University of California, Santa Barbara
vi SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND POLAR MARINE ECOSYSTEMS<br />
Inhibition of Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and Bacterial Productivity by Solar<br />
Radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea Polynya 299<br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick J. Neale, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center<br />
Wade H. Jeffrey, University of West Florida<br />
Cristina Sobrino, University of Vigo, Spain<br />
J. Dean Pakulski, University of West Florida<br />
Jesse Phillips-Kress, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center<br />
Amy J. Baldwin, Florida Department of Environmental Protection<br />
Linda A. Franklin, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center<br />
Hae-Cheol Kim, Harte Research Institute<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean Primary Productivity: Variability and<br />
a View <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future 309<br />
Walker O. Smith Jr., Virginia Institute Marine Sciences<br />
Josefi no C. Comiso, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center<br />
Chromophoric Dissolved Organic M<strong>at</strong>ter Cycling during<br />
a Ross Sea Phaeocystis antarctica Bloom 319<br />
David J. Kieber, SUNY College of Environmental<br />
Science and Forestry<br />
Dierdre A. Toole, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution<br />
Ronald P. Kiene, University of South Alabama<br />
Capital Expenditure and Income (Foraging) during Pinniped<br />
Lact<strong>at</strong>ion: The Example of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Seal<br />
(Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddellii) 335<br />
Regina Eisert, N<strong>at</strong>ional Zoological Park, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Olav T. Oftedal, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center<br />
L<strong>at</strong>itudinal P<strong>at</strong>terns of Biological Invasions in Marine Ecosystems:<br />
A <strong>Polar</strong> Perspective 347<br />
Gregory M. Ruiz, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center<br />
Chad L. Hewitt, Australian Maritime College<br />
POLAR ASTRONOMY: OBSERVATIONAL COSMOLOGY<br />
Cosmology from Antarctica 359<br />
Robert W. Wilson, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
An<strong>to</strong>ny A. Stark, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
Feeding <strong>the</strong> Black Hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Center of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way: AST/RO<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 370<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher L. Martin, Oberlin College<br />
HEAT: The High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope 373<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher K. Walker, University of Arizona<br />
Craig A. Kulesa, University of Arizona
CONTENTS vii<br />
W<strong>at</strong>ching Star Birth from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Pl<strong>at</strong>eau 381<br />
Nick F. H. Tothill, University of Exeter<br />
Mark J. McCaughrean, University of Exeter<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher K. Walker, University of Arizona, Tucson<br />
Craig Kulesa, University of Arizona, Tucson<br />
Andrea Loehr, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
Stephen Parshley, Cornell University<br />
Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring <strong>the</strong> Solar System from <strong>the</strong> Ice 387<br />
Timothy J. McCoy, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Linda C. Welzenbach, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
C<strong>at</strong>herine M. Corrigan, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
INDEX 395
Foreword<br />
On behalf of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> colleagues and as a tropical biologist, I extend<br />
a warm welcome <strong>to</strong> this Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007–2008<br />
science symposium. The commonality between poles and tropics is<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir shared image of “remoteness” th<strong>at</strong> keeps <strong>the</strong>m removed from<br />
<strong>the</strong> thoughts of society th<strong>at</strong> sponsors our research. In fact, we believe th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
poles and tropics are now “canaries in <strong>the</strong> coalmine,” because <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
forefront of global change.<br />
We face a desper<strong>at</strong>e task of educ<strong>at</strong>ing society th<strong>at</strong> our global problems are<br />
not restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> densely popul<strong>at</strong>ed areas of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Europe, and<br />
Asia. We must increase our understanding of how polar regions affect <strong>the</strong> habitability<br />
of our planet through long-term moni<strong>to</strong>ring and observ<strong>at</strong>ions of shortterm<br />
cyclical changes, geosphere/<strong>at</strong>mosphere interactions, and interconnectivity<br />
of physical, biological, and social systems.<br />
Coming <strong>to</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n in 2007 <strong>to</strong> adopt a broader set of science responsibilities<br />
than I previously had <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Tropical Research Institute, I<br />
have found a multitude of polar interests throughout <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>. I highlight<br />
<strong>the</strong> following <strong>Smithsonian</strong> programs, which you will learn more about<br />
during this <strong>Smithsonian</strong> symposium.<br />
The U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program is headed by Tim McCoy, Department<br />
of Mineral Sciences, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry. Since 1976,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>, NSF and NASA have supported <strong>the</strong> accession of over 12,000 meteorite<br />
specimens from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic ice sheets in an <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>to</strong> better understand<br />
<strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of our solar system.<br />
The U.S. Antarctic Program Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Collections are deposited in <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry and currently number over 900,000 specimens.<br />
Archival samples from <strong>the</strong> Palmer Long-Term Ecological Research site are<br />
now also included. Rafael Lemaitre, Chairman of <strong>the</strong> Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Zoology Department,<br />
reports th<strong>at</strong> this program (co-sponsored by SI and NSF) has loaned over<br />
170,000 specimens in 138 separ<strong>at</strong>e lots <strong>to</strong> researchers in 22 countries since 1995.<br />
Antarctic pho<strong>to</strong>biology has been co-sponsored by NSF and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Environmental Research Center since 1990. P<strong>at</strong>rick Neale, Principal Investig<strong>at</strong>or,<br />
investig<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> colonial alga (Phaeocystis antarctica) th<strong>at</strong> domin<strong>at</strong>es spring
x SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
blooms in a polynya well within <strong>the</strong> ozone hole, exposing<br />
plank<strong>to</strong>n <strong>to</strong> elev<strong>at</strong>ed UV-B. The continuous daylight<br />
characteristic of this time of year has implic<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong><br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ion of DNA repair, most of which normally occurs<br />
<strong>at</strong> night.<br />
The Nor<strong>the</strong>rn L<strong>at</strong>itudes Invasions Biology Program,<br />
directed by Gregory Ruiz of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental<br />
Research Center has documented <strong>the</strong> northward<br />
spread in<strong>to</strong> six Alaskan regions of several nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species.<br />
Emerging d<strong>at</strong>a suggest th<strong>at</strong> polar systems are certainly<br />
vulnerable <strong>to</strong> invasions. Experimental analyses and<br />
modeling of <strong>the</strong> environmental <strong>to</strong>lerance of known nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species and <strong>the</strong>ir capacity <strong>to</strong> colonize polar systems<br />
are underway.<br />
The N<strong>at</strong>ional Zoological Park’s Olav Oftedal is studying<br />
Weddell Seal energetics in Antarctica. This study of<br />
seal capital expenditure (reliance on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves), lact<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
energetics and <strong>the</strong> importance of food intake relies<br />
on a novel multimarker approach. The rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se expenditures and energy transfer <strong>to</strong> pups, in <strong>the</strong><br />
evolution of a mixed capital and income breeding str<strong>at</strong>egy,<br />
is being evalu<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
The NSF’s U.S. Antarctic Diving Program has been<br />
managed since 2001 by Michael Lang in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science through an Interagency<br />
Agreement. During this period <strong>the</strong> program reports<br />
an average of 35 scientifi c divers per year logging a <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
of over 4,800 under-ice dives while enjoying a remarkable<br />
safety record and scientifi c productivity. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> ice<br />
diving courses are taught regularly <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Svalbard Arctic<br />
Marine Labor<strong>at</strong>ory.<br />
Astrophysical results include fi rst light achieved with<br />
<strong>the</strong> NSF 10-m South Pole Telescope, 16 February 2007,<br />
obtaining maps of Jupiter <strong>at</strong> wavelengths <strong>at</strong> 2 mm and 3<br />
mm. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory was oper<strong>at</strong>ed by An<strong>to</strong>ny Stark of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory since 1995 as part of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica, under<br />
NSF agreement.<br />
The Arctic Studies Center of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry was established by <strong>the</strong> Department of<br />
Anthropology’s William Fitzhugh in 1988, with a second<br />
offi ce oper<strong>at</strong>ing since 1995 in Anchorage. Its focus is on<br />
cultural heritage studies and indigenous knowledge of sea<br />
ice, marine mammals and Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change. The recent<br />
exhibit “Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely” premiered<br />
in 2006 <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry Museum.<br />
The United St<strong>at</strong>es marked <strong>the</strong> start of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY) 2007–2008 with an opening event<br />
hosted by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Academies and <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Sci-<br />
ence Found<strong>at</strong>ion on 26 February 2007. IPY is a global<br />
research effort <strong>to</strong> better understand <strong>the</strong> polar regions and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir clim<strong>at</strong>ic effect on Earth. The research completed<br />
during IPY 2007–2008 will provide a baseline for understanding<br />
future environmental change. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Poles</strong>: <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Science is<br />
one of <strong>the</strong> major inaugural science symposia of this IPY.<br />
It is also one of <strong>the</strong> fi rst efforts in dissemin<strong>at</strong>ing scientifi c<br />
knowledge and research inspired by IPY <strong>to</strong> be undertaken<br />
and published during this IPY period.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r <strong>Smithsonian</strong>-initi<strong>at</strong>ed conference, Making<br />
Science Global: Reconsidering <strong>the</strong> Social and Intellectual<br />
Implic<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> and Geophysical<br />
Years, will convene in November 2007. Making Science<br />
Global, an NSF-supported conference, explores <strong>the</strong> impetus<br />
for (and <strong>the</strong> impact upon) science, society, and culture<br />
of <strong>the</strong> IPYs of 1882–1883 and 1932–1933, and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year of 1957–1958. It is devoted<br />
<strong>to</strong> sharing his<strong>to</strong>rical perspectives th<strong>at</strong> might be useful <strong>to</strong><br />
those involved in <strong>the</strong> current IPY. Sessions will explore <strong>the</strong><br />
origins of <strong>the</strong>se campaigns, <strong>the</strong>ir political dimensions, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir consequences. Specifi c <strong>the</strong>mes include <strong>the</strong> place of <strong>the</strong><br />
poles in human imagin<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> role of polar explor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in discipline form<strong>at</strong>ion, cultural n<strong>at</strong>ionalism, politics, and<br />
transn<strong>at</strong>ionality. Additionally, <strong>the</strong>re are sessions planned<br />
on <strong>the</strong> emergence of <strong>the</strong> modern geosciences, <strong>the</strong> uses of<br />
new technologies <strong>to</strong> explore <strong>the</strong> poles, changing assessments<br />
of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of human cultures in high l<strong>at</strong>itudes,<br />
and polar contributions <strong>to</strong> environmental awareness. The<br />
fi nal session of <strong>the</strong> conference, <strong>Polar</strong> His<strong>to</strong>ry: Perspectives<br />
on Globaliz<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Geosciences, is a plenary session<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual meeting of <strong>the</strong> His<strong>to</strong>ry of Science Society.<br />
The Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y Summit: Science-Policy Interactions<br />
in Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Governance will be co-sponsored by<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution and will be convened <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry from 30 November<br />
through 3 December 2009. This summit celebr<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong><br />
fi ftieth anniversary of <strong>the</strong> sign<strong>at</strong>ure-day for <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Tre<strong>at</strong>y in <strong>the</strong> city where it was adopted “in <strong>the</strong> interest of<br />
all mankind.”<br />
I would like <strong>to</strong> thank <strong>the</strong> NSF Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs<br />
for its support of this symposium and <strong>the</strong> Symposium<br />
Committee Michael Lang, Scott Miller, Igor Krupnik,<br />
Bill Fitzhugh, Rafael Lemaitre, P<strong>at</strong> Neale, and Tony Stark<br />
and <strong>the</strong> symposium speakers for <strong>the</strong>ir efforts.<br />
Ira Rubinoff<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Acting Under Secretary for Science<br />
3 May 2007
Executive Summary<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>: <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Science<br />
presents <strong>the</strong> proceedings of an interdisciplinary symposium dedic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> opening of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY) 2007–2008 and<br />
hosted by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution on 3–4 May 2007. The volume<br />
refl ects partnerships across various <strong>Smithsonian</strong> research units engaged in polar<br />
research as well as collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with U.S. government agencies with active IPY<br />
2007–2008 programs, including <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF), <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NASA), <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Oceanic<br />
and Atmospheric Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NOAA), and <strong>the</strong> Department of <strong>the</strong> Interior<br />
(DOI). <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> is <strong>the</strong> fi rst of many public<strong>at</strong>ions by <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
scientists and cur<strong>at</strong>ors and <strong>the</strong>ir collabor<strong>at</strong>ors envisioned in associ<strong>at</strong>ion with<br />
U.S. scholarly and public programs for IPY. 1<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> symposium was convened by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution’s Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science (OUSS) with major support<br />
from NSF. The three symposium co-Chairs—Igor Krupnik, Department of<br />
Anthropology, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry (NMNH), and Michael<br />
Lang and Scott Miller, both of OUSS—relied on support from many scientists<br />
and cur<strong>at</strong>ors active in polar research in both <strong>the</strong> Arctic and Antarctic regions.<br />
The Symposium Committee included <strong>the</strong> three co-Chairs as well as An<strong>to</strong>ny<br />
Stark (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory), William Fitzhugh (Department<br />
of Anthropology, NMNH), Rafael Lemaitre (Department of Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Zoology,<br />
NMNH), and P<strong>at</strong>rick Neale (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research Center).<br />
The committee members were design<strong>at</strong>ed Chairs of <strong>the</strong> individual symposium<br />
sessions and coordin<strong>at</strong>ors of <strong>the</strong> corresponding sections in this volume.<br />
On May 3, 2007, Paul Risser, <strong>the</strong>n Acting Direc<strong>to</strong>r of NMNH, opened <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> symposium. The fi rst plenary session was concluded<br />
with an address by Ira Rubinoff, <strong>the</strong>n Acting Under Secretary for Science. The<br />
agenda included plenary session present<strong>at</strong>ions by Robert W. Corell (Heinz Center),<br />
Robert W. Wilson (SAO), Donal T. Manahan (University of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn California)<br />
and William W. Fitzhugh (NMNH); six concurrent <strong>the</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ic sessions (IPY<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ries and Legacies, People and Cultures, System<strong>at</strong>ics and Biology of <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Organisms, Methods and Techniques of Under-Ice Research, Environmental
xii SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
Change and <strong>Polar</strong> Marine Ecosystems, and <strong>Polar</strong> Astronomy:<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ional Cosmology) and panel discussions; an<br />
evening public cinem<strong>at</strong>ic event presented by Adam Ravetch<br />
and Norbert Wu; and a keynote present<strong>at</strong>ion by James W.<br />
C. White (University of Colorado, Boulder). The fi rst ever<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> polar science assembly th<strong>at</strong> covered both <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic and Antarctica, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> fe<strong>at</strong>ured<br />
more than 200 scholars, members of <strong>the</strong> public, agency represent<strong>at</strong>ives<br />
from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, NSF, NOAA, numerous<br />
U.S. universities, Australia, and Germany.<br />
The symposium was originally pledged in 2005 by <strong>the</strong><br />
Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science in addition <strong>to</strong><br />
an educ<strong>at</strong>ional exhibit on Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change, Arctic:<br />
A Friend Acting Strangely (2006), access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
polar collections, and <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> facilities<br />
for IPY-rel<strong>at</strong>ed public activities (Anonymous, 2005;<br />
Krupnik, 2006). The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution is pleased<br />
<strong>to</strong> contribute this summary of <strong>the</strong> Institution’s research<br />
around <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>. 2<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
The N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion contributed funding<br />
in support of this polar science symposium under Grant<br />
No. 0731478 <strong>to</strong> Michael A. Lang, Principal Investig<strong>at</strong>or,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science.<br />
NOTES<br />
1. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> symposium was part of <strong>the</strong> IPY<br />
2007–2008, a joint initi<strong>at</strong>ive of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council for Sciences<br />
(ICSU) and <strong>the</strong> World Meteorological Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion (WMO). Scholars<br />
from more than 60 n<strong>at</strong>ions particip<strong>at</strong>ed in some 250 projects under <strong>the</strong><br />
IPY 2007–2008 science program.<br />
2. More details rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> symposium program are available on<br />
<strong>the</strong> symposium website <strong>at</strong> www.si.edu/ipy, <strong>the</strong> offi cial U.S. site www.ipy.<br />
gov, in <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution press releases, and in <strong>the</strong> news media.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Anonymous. 2005. U.S. Arctic Research Plan. Biennial Revision: 2006–<br />
2010. Arctic Research of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 19 (Fall–Winter):20–<br />
21.<br />
Krupnik, I. 2006. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. Arctic Research of <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es, 20:142–146.
“<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>”:<br />
A 150-Year Venture<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution has a strong legacy of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year (IPY) activities d<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY in 1882–1883. The fi rst<br />
two <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Secretaries, Joseph Henry (1846–1878) and Spencer<br />
F. Baird (1878–1887), were strong proponents of <strong>the</strong> advancement of<br />
science in <strong>the</strong> polar regions and of <strong>the</strong> disciplines th<strong>at</strong> eventually formed <strong>the</strong> core<br />
of <strong>the</strong> program for th<strong>at</strong> fi rst IPY: meteorology, astronomy, geology, and n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry, as well as studies of <strong>the</strong> polar residents and <strong>the</strong>ir cultures.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had forged partnerships with federal agencies,<br />
priv<strong>at</strong>e organiz<strong>at</strong>ions, and individual explorers active in polar regions (Baird,<br />
1885a; 1885b). For instance, <strong>the</strong> Signal Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n U.S. War Department<br />
was in charge of prepar<strong>at</strong>ions for U.S. IPY missions <strong>to</strong> Barrow (1881–1883) and<br />
Lady Franklin Bay (1881–1884), supported by expedition scientists whom <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> helped <strong>to</strong> select and train. The Institution also offered its facilities<br />
and libraries, and <strong>the</strong> expertise of its cur<strong>at</strong>ors <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> returning IPY parties and<br />
was granted most of <strong>the</strong> American IPY-1 n<strong>at</strong>ural science and ethnological collections,<br />
expedition pho<strong>to</strong>graphs, and personal memorabilia returning from <strong>the</strong><br />
North. As a result, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s early n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry collections from Barrow,<br />
Alaska, are among <strong>the</strong> most comprehensive in <strong>the</strong> world, as are those from<br />
Labrador, accessioned in 1884. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> published two monographs as<br />
contributions <strong>to</strong> its Annual Reports of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of Ethnology series and many<br />
shorter papers th<strong>at</strong> described <strong>the</strong> collections accessioned from <strong>the</strong> IPY missions<br />
<strong>to</strong> Alaska and Canada (Murdoch, 1892; Turner, 1894; Fitzhugh, 1988; Loring,<br />
2001). These <strong>Smithsonian</strong> holdings are now a source of knowledge <strong>to</strong> scientists<br />
and cultural inform<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> indigenous communities, who view <strong>the</strong> early IPY<br />
collections as <strong>the</strong>ir prime heritage resource.<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s involvement in <strong>the</strong> second Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 1932–<br />
1933 and in <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957–1958 (originally<br />
planned as <strong>the</strong> “third IPY”) was modest, although <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space
xiv SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
Museum (NASM) houses a substantial collection rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> space explor<strong>at</strong>ions from <strong>the</strong> IGY era.<br />
Since <strong>the</strong> 1970s, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> has been actively<br />
engaged in Antarctic research, initially through hosting<br />
(since 1976) <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program, a cooper<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
effort with NASA and NSF aimed <strong>at</strong> collection,<br />
cur<strong>at</strong>ion, and long-term s<strong>to</strong>rage of meteorites recovered<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic ice sheets by U.S. scientists. Today,<br />
cur<strong>at</strong>ors of <strong>the</strong> NMNH Department of Mineral Sciences<br />
classify each of <strong>the</strong> meteorites accessioned and publish <strong>the</strong><br />
results in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter, issued biannually<br />
by NASA’s Johnson Space Center.<br />
For decades, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> has focused sociocultural<br />
and heritage studies on <strong>the</strong> indigenous people<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Arctic, supported by its long-established tradition<br />
of cultural research in <strong>the</strong> North and its nor<strong>the</strong>rn ethnographic<br />
collections from Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and<br />
Siberia. Since 1988, <strong>the</strong>se efforts have been spearheaded<br />
through <strong>the</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s polar cultural<br />
studies unit, <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies Center (ASC) <strong>at</strong> NMNH’s<br />
Department of Anthropology. Under a cooper<strong>at</strong>ive agreement<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Anchorage Museum of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Art, <strong>the</strong><br />
ASC oper<strong>at</strong>es its Alaskan regional offi ce in Anchorage.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 1990s, NMNH agreed <strong>to</strong> host <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Antarctic invertebr<strong>at</strong>e collection for <strong>the</strong> NSF United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
Antarctic Program (USAP), which now also incorpor<strong>at</strong>es<br />
<strong>the</strong> Palmer Long-Term Ecological research (LTER)<br />
voucher specimens. Now <strong>to</strong>taling over 900,000 specimens,<br />
170,000 specimens have been loaned in 138 separ<strong>at</strong>e lots<br />
<strong>to</strong> polar researchers in 22 countries. The precursor of this<br />
collection was <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Oceanographic Sorting<br />
Center, which processed over 38 million polar specimens<br />
and distributed <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> scientifi c community between<br />
1965 and 1992 (Moser and Nicol, 1997).<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s long-term polar ventures<br />
is its astrophysical projects <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole st<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
Antarctica. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory’s<br />
(SAO) Antarctic projects have included <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO)<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ed by SAO 1995–2007 as part of <strong>the</strong> Center for<br />
Astrophysical Research in Antarctica, under NSF agreement.<br />
Now SAO collabor<strong>at</strong>es on several projects using <strong>the</strong><br />
newly built South Pole Telescope (SPT), a 10-m diameter<br />
telescope for millimeter and submillimeter observ<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
The SPT holds <strong>the</strong> promise of making a signifi cant breakthrough<br />
in our understanding of <strong>the</strong> universe and of physics<br />
in general by surveying <strong>the</strong> entire sou<strong>the</strong>rn sky, onethird<br />
of <strong>the</strong> celestial sphere, and potentially discovering<br />
30,000 new clusters of galaxies during <strong>the</strong> next two <strong>to</strong><br />
three years. This d<strong>at</strong>a will provide substantially improved<br />
measures of “dark energy,” <strong>the</strong> newly discovered force<br />
th<strong>at</strong> is driving <strong>the</strong> acceler<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> universe.<br />
Since 2001, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Scientifi c Diving Program<br />
(SDP), established by <strong>the</strong> Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for<br />
Science in 1990, has managed <strong>the</strong> NSF Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs—sponsored<br />
scientifi c diving activities <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Antarctic McMurdo and Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ions and from <strong>the</strong> research<br />
vessels L.M. Gould and N.B. Palmer. On average,<br />
35 scientists have dived under ice each year through USAP<br />
dive program. More than 4,800 scientifi c ice dives were<br />
logged during 2000–2005. Formal ice diving training is<br />
provided by <strong>the</strong> SDP through biannual ice diving courses<br />
in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. The USAP scientifi c diving exposures<br />
enjoy a remarkable safety record and proven scientifi<br />
c productivity as an underw<strong>at</strong>er research <strong>to</strong>ol. <strong>Polar</strong><br />
diving his<strong>to</strong>ry spans only 60 years, since <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es’<br />
fi rst major post-war Antarctic venture and <strong>the</strong> invention<br />
of <strong>the</strong> scuba regul<strong>at</strong>or, and was thus not represented well<br />
until this fourth IPY.<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> scientists are actively engaged in IPY<br />
2007–2008 projects from astrophysical observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> South Pole <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections in<br />
educ<strong>at</strong>ional and knowledge preserv<strong>at</strong>ion programs in indigenous<br />
communities across <strong>the</strong> Arctic. Ongoing projects<br />
include: <strong>the</strong> Pho<strong>to</strong>biology and Solar Radi<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic<br />
Research Program, supported by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental<br />
Research Center (SERC) and NSF; Nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
L<strong>at</strong>itudes Invasions Biology (NLIB) by SERC’s Invasions<br />
Biology Program; NMNH’s professional collections management<br />
services provided for <strong>the</strong> NSF USAP and <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
scientifi c community through <strong>the</strong> “USNM <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Online D<strong>at</strong>abases”; investig<strong>at</strong>ions of Weddell<br />
seal energetics, supported by NSF and conducted by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s N<strong>at</strong>ional Zoological Park; and bipolar intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
polar diving safety research in Svalbard and<br />
McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion (Lang and Sayer, 2007).<br />
For <strong>the</strong> fourth IPY in 2007–2008, <strong>the</strong>re was <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
represent<strong>at</strong>ion in all interagency planning meetings.<br />
Igor Krupnik served on <strong>the</strong> fi rst U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional IPY Committee<br />
in 2003–2005 (NAS, 2004) and since 2004 on <strong>the</strong><br />
Joint Committee for IPY 2007–2008, <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
steering body th<strong>at</strong> supervises planning and implement<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
<strong>to</strong> represent social and human studies.<br />
By its very n<strong>at</strong>ure, each Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year is an<br />
invit<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of science, polar research, and <strong>the</strong><br />
legacy of polar explor<strong>at</strong>ion. Launched approxim<strong>at</strong>ely every<br />
50 years (or after 25 years in <strong>the</strong> case of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year 1957–1958), <strong>the</strong>se intern<strong>at</strong>ional ventures<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>e incentives for scientists <strong>to</strong> test earlier records and <strong>to</strong><br />
revisit <strong>the</strong> studies of <strong>the</strong>ir predecessors. Each new initi<strong>at</strong>ive
offers an unparalleled vantage point in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> advancement<br />
of science, scholarly planning, and collabor<strong>at</strong>ion since <strong>the</strong><br />
previous IPY. The “<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>” symposium<br />
of 2007 and this resulting volume are <strong>the</strong> most recent<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> contributions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ever-growing infl uence<br />
and inspir<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Baird, S. F. 1885a. Report of Professor Baird, Secretary of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, for 1883. Annual Report of <strong>the</strong> Board of Regents<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Showing <strong>the</strong> Oper<strong>at</strong>ions, Expenditures,<br />
and Condition of <strong>the</strong> Institution for <strong>the</strong> Year 1883. Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce.<br />
———. 1885b. Report of Professor Baird, Secretary of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, for 1884. Annual Report of <strong>the</strong> Board of Regents of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Showing <strong>the</strong> Oper<strong>at</strong>ions, Expenditures,<br />
and Condition of <strong>the</strong> Institution for <strong>the</strong> Year 1884. Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce.<br />
INTRODUCTION xv<br />
Fitzhugh, W. W. 1988. “Introduction <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1988 Edition.” In Ethnological<br />
Results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow Expedition, ed. John Murdoch, pp.<br />
xiii–xlix. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Press.<br />
Lang, M. A., and M. D. J. Sayer, eds. 2007. Proceedings of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Diving Workshop. Svalbard, 15–21 March 2007.<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
Loring, S. 2001. Introduction <strong>to</strong> Lucien M. Turner and <strong>the</strong> Beginnings<br />
of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Anthropology in <strong>the</strong> North. In Ethnology of <strong>the</strong><br />
Ungava District, Hudson Bay Terri<strong>to</strong>ry, L. M. Turner, pp. vii–xxxii.<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Press.<br />
Moser, W. E., and J. Nicol. 1997. The N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
Antarctic Journal of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 23:11–16.<br />
Murdoch, J. 1892. “Ethnological Results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow Expedition.”<br />
In Ninth Annual Report of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of Ethnology 1887–<br />
88, pp. 1–441. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: Government Printing Offi ce (2nd<br />
ed., 1988, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Press).<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences <strong>Polar</strong> Research Board. 2004. A Vision for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007–2008. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Academies Press.<br />
Turner, L. 1894. “Ethnology of <strong>the</strong> Ungava District, Hudson Bay Terri<strong>to</strong>ry.”<br />
In Eleventh Annual Report of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of Ethnology,<br />
1889–1890, ed. J. W. Powell, pp.159–350. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: Government<br />
Printing Offi ce.
Advancing <strong>Polar</strong> Research and<br />
Communic<strong>at</strong>ing Its Wonders: Quests,<br />
Questions, and Capabilities of We<strong>at</strong>her and<br />
Clim<strong>at</strong>e Studies in Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Years<br />
James R. Fleming and Cara Seitchek<br />
James R. Fleming, Science, Technology, and<br />
Society Program, Colby College, 5881 Mayfl<br />
ower Hill, W<strong>at</strong>erville, ME 04901, USA. Cara<br />
Seitchek, Woodrow Wilson Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Center<br />
for Scholars, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20004-3027, USA. Corresponding<br />
author: J. R. Fleming (jfl eming@colby.edu).<br />
Accepted 29 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Since its inception, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution has been a leader in advancing<br />
science and communic<strong>at</strong>ing its wonders. It functioned as a “n<strong>at</strong>ional center for<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric research” in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century and served as a model for <strong>the</strong> founding<br />
of <strong>the</strong> U.S. We<strong>at</strong>her Bureau. Its archives and collections document <strong>Smithsonian</strong> support<br />
and involvement over <strong>the</strong> years in many of <strong>the</strong> early we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e science initi<strong>at</strong>ives:<br />
in both <strong>the</strong> fi rst and second Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Years; in <strong>the</strong> founding of <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic Institute of North America and <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences Conference on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic; and in <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year in 1957– 1958. This present<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
examines science, technology, and public opinion surrounding we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
research <strong>at</strong> both poles, from <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century through <strong>the</strong> fi rst and<br />
second Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Years and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year, up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> current<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007– 2008.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
During <strong>the</strong> past two centuries, <strong>the</strong> scientifi c study of we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e has<br />
changed repe<strong>at</strong>edly and dram<strong>at</strong>ically. In different eras, telegraphy, radio, rocketry,<br />
electronic computing, and s<strong>at</strong>ellite meteorology have provided new capabilities for<br />
measuring, moni<strong>to</strong>ring, modeling, and <strong>the</strong>orizing about <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere. While <strong>the</strong><br />
scale and sophistic<strong>at</strong>ion has changed, wh<strong>at</strong> has not changed is <strong>the</strong> need for cooper<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
efforts spanning <strong>the</strong> largest areas possible— including <strong>the</strong> poles. Over <strong>the</strong><br />
years, polar science has served as a very positive example of intern<strong>at</strong>ional peaceful<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. The fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY-1) of 1882– 1883 involved<br />
11 n<strong>at</strong>ions in a coordin<strong>at</strong>ed effort <strong>to</strong> study <strong>at</strong>mospheric changes and “electrical<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her” as shown by magnetic disturbances and <strong>the</strong> polar lights. These efforts<br />
were confi ned <strong>to</strong> surface observ<strong>at</strong>ions (He<strong>at</strong>hcote and Armitage, 1959). In IPY-2<br />
of 1932– 1933, 40 n<strong>at</strong>ions were involved in a global program <strong>to</strong> study meteorology,<br />
magnetism, and radio science as rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ionosphere, using instrumented<br />
balloons <strong>to</strong> reach altitudes as high as 10 kilometers (Laursen, 1959). The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957– 1958 involved 67 n<strong>at</strong>ions in wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
British astronomer and geophysicist Sydney Chapman (1888– 1970) called, “<strong>the</strong><br />
common study of our planet by all n<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong> benefi t of all.” Using rockets,<br />
new earth-orbiting s<strong>at</strong>ellites, and a variety of o<strong>the</strong>r techniques, scientists studied
2 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK<br />
<strong>the</strong> interaction of <strong>the</strong> sun and <strong>the</strong> earth, with a special focus<br />
on Antarctica (Chapman, 1959a:102). These intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ive efforts serve as benchmarks for meteorological<br />
efforts in high l<strong>at</strong>itudes and help reveal larger issues concerning<br />
<strong>the</strong> continuity and interconnectedness of <strong>the</strong> science<br />
and technology of we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e research. Indeed,<br />
each successive IPY was based upon <strong>the</strong> technological innov<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of its era and was informed by cutting-edge scientifi<br />
c <strong>the</strong>ories and hypo<strong>the</strong>ses. The launch of <strong>the</strong> current IPY<br />
of 2007– 2008, involving more than 60 n<strong>at</strong>ions, provides an<br />
occasion <strong>to</strong> look back and <strong>to</strong> look beyond for larger messages<br />
about we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e research, <strong>the</strong> interrel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ed by intern<strong>at</strong>ional science, and <strong>the</strong> connection<br />
between science, technology, and popular culture.<br />
HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS<br />
Cooper<strong>at</strong>ive scientifi c observ<strong>at</strong>ions d<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> early<br />
seventeenth century. In <strong>the</strong> closing decades of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth<br />
century in Europe, and slightly l<strong>at</strong>er in Russia and<br />
<strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, serious <strong>at</strong>tempts were made <strong>to</strong> broaden<br />
<strong>the</strong> geographic coverage of we<strong>at</strong>her observ<strong>at</strong>ions, standardize<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir collection, and publish <strong>the</strong> results. Individual<br />
observers in particular locales dutifully tended <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
journals, and networks of cooper<strong>at</strong>ive observers gradually<br />
extended <strong>the</strong> meteorological frontiers. A century before<br />
IPY-1, <strong>the</strong> Societas Meteorologica Pal<strong>at</strong>ina (1781– 1795),<br />
an intern<strong>at</strong>ional organiz<strong>at</strong>ion whose members represented<br />
<strong>the</strong> chief European scientifi c institutions, collected observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
from a network of 57 st<strong>at</strong>ions extending from Siberia<br />
<strong>to</strong> North America and southward <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean.<br />
The observers, who received instruments, forms, and<br />
instructions free of charge, sent <strong>the</strong>ir results <strong>to</strong> Mannheim,<br />
Germany, where <strong>the</strong>y were published in extenso (Cassidy,<br />
1985:8– 25; Societas Meteorologica Pal<strong>at</strong>ina, 1783– 1795).<br />
Many subsequent projects emul<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong>ir example.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 1830s Sir John Herschel (1791– 1872), <strong>the</strong>n in<br />
Cape Town, South Africa, initi<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> practice of collecting<br />
extensive hourly geophysical measurements on<br />
“term days”— 36-hour periods surrounding <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>es of<br />
<strong>the</strong> equinoxes and solstices. The measurements, according<br />
<strong>to</strong> a common plan, were taken simultaneously from<br />
widely dispersed st<strong>at</strong>ions in order <strong>to</strong> obtain knowledge<br />
of <strong>the</strong> “correspondence of [<strong>the</strong>] movements and affections<br />
[of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere] over gre<strong>at</strong> regions of <strong>the</strong> earth’s<br />
surface, or even over <strong>the</strong> whole globe” (Herschel, 1836).<br />
These efforts were p<strong>at</strong>terned after <strong>the</strong> Göttingen Magnetic<br />
Union, which also used term days and instituted a vast<br />
network of magnetic observers oper<strong>at</strong>ing on a common<br />
plan. As with <strong>the</strong> IPYs, which cited <strong>the</strong>se precedents in<br />
instituting its own term days, simultaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were meant <strong>to</strong> foster both scientifi c understanding and<br />
peaceful intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
FIGURE 1. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution ca. 1860, home of <strong>the</strong> Meteorological Project. Source: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.
James P. Espy (1785– 1860), <strong>the</strong> fi rst meteorologist<br />
employed by <strong>the</strong> U.S. government, captured <strong>the</strong> basic difference<br />
between <strong>the</strong> lone astronomer and <strong>the</strong> needs of <strong>the</strong><br />
gregarious meteorologist:<br />
The astronomer is, in some measure, independent of his<br />
fellow astronomer; he can wait in his observ<strong>at</strong>ory till <strong>the</strong> star<br />
he wishes <strong>to</strong> observe comes <strong>to</strong> his meridian; but <strong>the</strong> meteorologist<br />
has his observ<strong>at</strong>ions bounded by a very limited horizon, and<br />
can do little without <strong>the</strong> aid of numerous observers furnishing<br />
him contemporaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ions over a wide-extended area.<br />
(Espy, 1857:40)<br />
Espy worked closely with Joseph Henry (1797– 1878),<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst secretary of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, <strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e<br />
a meteorological network of up <strong>to</strong> 600 volunteer observers,<br />
reporting monthly, th<strong>at</strong> spanned <strong>the</strong> entire United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es and extended intern<strong>at</strong>ionally. Some telegraph<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions also cooper<strong>at</strong>ed, transmitting daily we<strong>at</strong>her reports<br />
<strong>to</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C., where <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion was<br />
posted on large maps in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Castle (Figure<br />
1) and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. Capi<strong>to</strong>l. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> meteorological<br />
project provided standardized instruments, uniform<br />
procedures, free public<strong>at</strong>ions, and a sense of scientifi c<br />
unity; it formed a “seedbed” for <strong>the</strong> continued growth<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ories rooted in d<strong>at</strong>a. To increase knowledge of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong>mosphere, it sponsored original research on s<strong>to</strong>rms and<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change; <strong>to</strong> diffuse knowledge, it published and<br />
ADVANCING POLAR RESEARCH 3<br />
distributed free reports, instructions, and transl<strong>at</strong>ions. It<br />
soon became <strong>the</strong> U.S. “n<strong>at</strong>ional center” for <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
research in <strong>the</strong> mid-nineteenth century, as well as a clearinghouse<br />
for <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional exchange of d<strong>at</strong>a (Fleming,<br />
1990:75– 94).<br />
Nineteenth-century meteorology benefi ted from many<br />
of <strong>the</strong> leading technologies and <strong>the</strong>ories available <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
time, which, in turn, fueled public expect<strong>at</strong>ions about<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her prediction. Telegraphy provided instantaneous<br />
transmission of inform<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>at</strong> least between st<strong>at</strong>ions on<br />
<strong>the</strong> grid, and connected scientists and <strong>the</strong> public in a vast<br />
network of inform<strong>at</strong>ion sharing.<br />
Nineteenth-century meteorology, clim<strong>at</strong>ology, and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r areas of geophysics were undoubtedly stimul<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by telegraphic communic<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> enabled simultaneous<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions, d<strong>at</strong>a sharing, and timing of phenomena such<br />
as auroras, occult<strong>at</strong>ions, and eclipses. The vast amounts<br />
of g<strong>at</strong>hered d<strong>at</strong>a also encouraged scientists <strong>to</strong> experiment<br />
with new ways of portraying <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
phenomena on charts and maps (Anderson, 2006). In an<br />
effort <strong>to</strong> enhance both <strong>the</strong> understanding and prediction of<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her phenomena, Yale professor Elias Loomis (1811–<br />
1889) searched for “<strong>the</strong> law of s<strong>to</strong>rms” governing s<strong>to</strong>rm<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion and motion (Figure 2) (Fleming, 1990:77– 78,<br />
159). He also mapped <strong>the</strong> occurrence, intensity, and frequency<br />
of auroras from global records, providing a preview<br />
of wh<strong>at</strong> might be accomplished by observing <strong>at</strong> high<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes (Figure 2) (Shea and Smart, 2006).<br />
FIGURE 2. Charts by Elias Loomis, ca. 1860. (left) Trajec<strong>to</strong>ries of s<strong>to</strong>rms entering nor<strong>the</strong>astern USA. Source (Fleming 1990, 159); (right) Frequency<br />
of aurora borealis sightings; darker band shows <strong>at</strong> least 80 auroras annually (http://www.phy6.org/Educ<strong>at</strong>ion/wloomis.html).
4 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK<br />
Public demand for we<strong>at</strong>her-rel<strong>at</strong>ed inform<strong>at</strong>ion worldwide<br />
led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> establishment of many n<strong>at</strong>ional services by<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1870s. In <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> Army Signal Offi ce was<br />
assigned this task and soon <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>the</strong> lead in intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. In 1873, <strong>the</strong> U.S. proposed th<strong>at</strong> all n<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
prepare an intern<strong>at</strong>ional series of simultaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> aid <strong>the</strong> study of world clim<strong>at</strong>ology and we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns. This suggestion led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bulletin of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Simultaneous Observ<strong>at</strong>ions, which contained worldwide<br />
synoptic charts and summaries of observ<strong>at</strong>ions recorded<br />
<strong>at</strong> numerous loc<strong>at</strong>ions around <strong>the</strong> world (Figure 3) (Myer,<br />
1874:505). Beginning in 1871, <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional We<strong>at</strong>her<br />
Service issued daily forecasts, heightening public expect<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her could be known— and in some cases,<br />
prepared for— in advance. The increasing density and geographic<br />
extent of inform<strong>at</strong>ion becoming available in meteo-<br />
FIGURE 3. Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Synoptic Chart: Observ<strong>at</strong>ions cover <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, except for <strong>the</strong> oceans and polar regions. Dashed lines<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e projected or interpol<strong>at</strong>ed d<strong>at</strong>a. Source: U.S. Army Signal Offi ce, Bulletin of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Meteorology, 28 January 1884.
ology fueled hopes th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> scientifi c enterprise would soon<br />
encompass <strong>the</strong> entire globe, including <strong>the</strong> polar regions.<br />
THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR<br />
The IPY-1 resulted from <strong>the</strong> ideas of <strong>the</strong> Austrian naval<br />
offi cer and polar explorer Karl Weyprecht (1838– 1881)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> organiz<strong>at</strong>ional skills of Georg von Neumayer<br />
(1826– 1909), direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> German Hydrographical Offi<br />
ce, along with Heinrich Wild (1833– 1902), direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong><br />
Central Physical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory in St. Petersburg. Weyprecht,<br />
who co-directed <strong>the</strong> unsuccessful 1872 Austro-Hungarian<br />
North Pole Expedition, argued th<strong>at</strong> decisive scientifi c results<br />
could only be obtained by research st<strong>at</strong>ions distributed<br />
over <strong>the</strong> Arctic regions and charged with <strong>the</strong> task of<br />
obtaining one year’s series of reliable meteorological and<br />
geophysical observ<strong>at</strong>ions made with <strong>the</strong> same methods<br />
(Barr, 1983:463– 483). Weyprecht wrote in 1875:<br />
The key <strong>to</strong> many secrets of N<strong>at</strong>ure . . . is certainly <strong>to</strong> be<br />
sought for near <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>. But as long as <strong>Polar</strong> Expeditions are<br />
looked upon as merely a sort of intern<strong>at</strong>ional steeple-chase,<br />
which is primarily <strong>to</strong> confer honour upon this fl ag or <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir main objective is <strong>to</strong> exceed by a few miles <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>itude<br />
reached by a predecessor, <strong>the</strong>se mysteries will remain unsolved.<br />
(Weyprecht, 1875:33)<br />
Weyprecht formul<strong>at</strong>ed six principles of Arctic research: (1)<br />
Arctic explor<strong>at</strong>ion is of gre<strong>at</strong>est importance for a knowledge<br />
of <strong>the</strong> laws of n<strong>at</strong>ure; (2) geographical discovery is of<br />
serious value only when linked <strong>to</strong> scientifi c explor<strong>at</strong>ion;<br />
(3) detailed Arctic <strong>to</strong>pography is of secondary importance;<br />
(4) <strong>the</strong> geographic pole is of no gre<strong>at</strong>er importance for<br />
science than o<strong>the</strong>r high-l<strong>at</strong>itude loc<strong>at</strong>ions; (5) favorable<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ions for st<strong>at</strong>ions are near high-intensity phenomena;<br />
and (6) isol<strong>at</strong>ed series of observ<strong>at</strong>ions are of limited value<br />
(Baker, 1982).<br />
Weyprecht’s ideas were institutionalized in 1879 with<br />
<strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Commission<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> German Hydrographical Offi ce, chaired by von<br />
Neumayer. The IPY-1, launched just one year after Weyprecht’s<br />
de<strong>at</strong>h, brought <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r a cast of hundreds, eventually<br />
resulting in 11 n<strong>at</strong>ions placing 12 st<strong>at</strong>ions around<br />
<strong>the</strong> North Pole and two near <strong>the</strong> South Pole (Figure 4)<br />
(Anonymous, 1884).<br />
The scientists in IPY-1 practiced a form of coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
Humboldtean science; th<strong>at</strong> is, <strong>the</strong>y emul<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> exhaustive<br />
methods of <strong>the</strong> famed German scientifi c traveler Alexander<br />
von Humboldt (1769– 1859), who <strong>to</strong>ok precision measure-<br />
ADVANCING POLAR RESEARCH 5<br />
ments of n<strong>at</strong>ural phenomena. The expeditions set out with<br />
an ambitious agenda and tracked d<strong>at</strong>a for fi elds as diverse<br />
as meteorology, magnetism, glaciology, oceanography, sea<br />
ice studies, geomorphology, phy<strong>to</strong>geography, explor<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
mapping, ethnography, and human geography. They made<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions in conditions of hardship, hunger, extreme<br />
cold, severe gales, blinding drifting snow, and continuous<br />
darkness, with frozen instruments often co<strong>at</strong>ed with ice.<br />
Each st<strong>at</strong>ion established its own identity while retaining<br />
its position in <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er network. The st<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> Point<br />
Barrow (Figure 5), established by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Army Signal<br />
Service, also served as a crucial part of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution’s n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and ethnographic studies<br />
(Burch, this volume; Crowell, this volume; Krupnik, this<br />
volume). The Kara Sea observ<strong>at</strong>ions were conducted on<br />
sea ice when <strong>the</strong> Norwegian steamer Varna became beset.<br />
The Varna and a Danish relief vessel Dijmphna g<strong>at</strong>hered<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a for <strong>the</strong> entire IPY. The Varna eventually sank after<br />
being crushed by <strong>the</strong> moving ice. The signal service st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> Fort Conger, Lady Franklin Bay (Figure 5), originally<br />
conceived as a base from which a U.S. expedition might<br />
reach <strong>the</strong> North Pole, met with tragedy. The expedition<br />
lost 19 of 25 men when resupply efforts failed in 1883–<br />
1884. Yet its leader, Lt. Adolphus Greely (1844– 1935),<br />
FIGURE 4. The IPY-1 St<strong>at</strong>ions (and <strong>the</strong>ir sponsoring countries) during<br />
1881– 1884. Arctic (clockwise): Sagastyr (Russia, R), Kara Sea<br />
near Dicksonhafen (Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, NL), Karmakuly (Russia), Sodankyla<br />
(Finland, FL), Bossekop (Norway, N), Cape Thordsen (Sweden,<br />
S), Jan Mayen Island (Austria, A), Godthaab (Denmark, DK), Lady<br />
Franklin Bay/Fort Conger (USA), Kingua Fjord (Germany, D), Fort<br />
Rae (Gre<strong>at</strong> Britain, GB), Point Barrow (USA); Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere:<br />
Orange Bay, Tierra del Fuego (France, F) and Royal Bay, South Georgia<br />
Island (Germany). Source: original graphic, after Barr, 1985.
6 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK<br />
FIGURE 5. U.S. IPY-1 st<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> (left) Point Barrow, Alaska, and (right) Fort Conger, Lady Franklin Bay, Canada. Source: Wood and Overland<br />
2007.<br />
who nearly starved <strong>to</strong> de<strong>at</strong>h himself, <strong>to</strong>ok steps <strong>to</strong> protect<br />
<strong>the</strong> instruments and d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
Despite hardships and limit<strong>at</strong>ions, each expedition<br />
published a fi nal report accompanied by numerous scientifi<br />
c articles and popular accounts. The IPY-1 d<strong>at</strong>a were<br />
intended <strong>to</strong> enable <strong>the</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ion of new synoptic charts th<strong>at</strong><br />
could connect polar we<strong>at</strong>her conditions <strong>to</strong> those in lower<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes. Yet ultim<strong>at</strong>ely, <strong>the</strong> network of only 12 st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
sc<strong>at</strong>tered north of 60 degrees l<strong>at</strong>itude was spread <strong>to</strong>o thin<br />
(cf. Wood and Overland, 2006). Alfred J. Henry (1858–<br />
1931), chief of <strong>the</strong> meteorological records division of <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. We<strong>at</strong>her Bureau, observed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> “gap between <strong>the</strong><br />
polar st<strong>at</strong>ions and those of <strong>the</strong> middle l<strong>at</strong>itudes [was] entirely<br />
<strong>to</strong>o wide <strong>to</strong> span by any sort of interpol<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
thus <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship of polar we<strong>at</strong>her <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her of<br />
mid-l<strong>at</strong>itudes failed of discovery.” Noted geographer Isaiah<br />
Bowman (1878– 1950) commented in 1930, “The fi rst<br />
polar explorers could go only so far as <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>e of technology<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ory permitted” (Bowman, 1930: 442).<br />
Still <strong>the</strong>re were modest accomplishments, for example,<br />
in expanded knowledge of <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her in <strong>the</strong> Davis<br />
Strait between Canada and Greenland and <strong>the</strong> infl uence of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gulf Stream in nor<strong>the</strong>rn l<strong>at</strong>itudes. IPY-1 d<strong>at</strong>a were also<br />
used in 1924 <strong>to</strong> construct circumpolar charts for planning<br />
“Aeroarctic,” <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional airship expedition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Russian Arctic, conducted in 1931 (Luedecke, 2004). In<br />
2006, a system<strong>at</strong>ic reanalysis and reevalu<strong>at</strong>ion of IPY-1<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a provided insights on clim<strong>at</strong>e processes and points<br />
of comparison with subsequent Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e p<strong>at</strong>terns.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ions showed th<strong>at</strong> sea-level pressures and<br />
surface air temper<strong>at</strong>ures were indeed infl uenced by largescale<br />
hemispheric circul<strong>at</strong>ion p<strong>at</strong>terns, in <strong>the</strong> end, <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
lacked suffi cient density and <strong>the</strong> time period was <strong>to</strong>o short<br />
<strong>to</strong> allow for any fundamental discoveries in meteorology<br />
or earth magnetism (Wood and Overland, 2006).<br />
TOWARD THE SECOND<br />
INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR<br />
As <strong>the</strong> fi ftieth anniversary of <strong>the</strong> IPY approached,<br />
<strong>the</strong> leading edge of 1930s technology, particularly avi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and radio, provided scientists with new capabilities<br />
for collecting d<strong>at</strong>a and collabor<strong>at</strong>ing with colleagues on<br />
projects of global scale. New <strong>the</strong>ories and new organiz<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
supported <strong>the</strong> geosciences, while public expect<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for we<strong>at</strong>her and clim<strong>at</strong>e services continued <strong>to</strong> rise. The<br />
“disciplinary” period in meteorology began in <strong>the</strong> second<br />
decade of <strong>the</strong> twentieth century, r<strong>at</strong>her l<strong>at</strong>e compared <strong>to</strong><br />
parallel developments in o<strong>the</strong>r sciences, but just in time<br />
<strong>to</strong> inform planning for IPY-2. Meteorologists in World<br />
War I were trained <strong>to</strong> analyze and issue b<strong>at</strong>tlefi eld we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
maps; <strong>to</strong> take hourly measurements conducive <strong>to</strong> launching<br />
and defending against poison gas <strong>at</strong>tacks; and <strong>to</strong> collect<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a on upper-air conditions, especially winds, <strong>to</strong><br />
help calcul<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> trajec<strong>to</strong>ries of long-range artillery shells<br />
(B<strong>at</strong>es and Fuller, 1986:15– 19; Fuller, 1990:9– 15). By using<br />
pilot balloons with <strong>the</strong>odolite trackers and electrical<br />
timers, observers could track <strong>the</strong> winds and <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
conditions aloft.
Meteorologists also provided critical support for avi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and benefi ted, especially after <strong>the</strong> war, by d<strong>at</strong>a collection<br />
from instrumented aircraft, using wing-mounted<br />
aerometeorographs th<strong>at</strong> continuously recorded <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a. By 1920, <strong>the</strong> Bergen school of meteorology<br />
in Norway had fi rmly established <strong>the</strong> principles of airmass<br />
analysis. Of gre<strong>at</strong>est relevance <strong>to</strong> polar meteorology<br />
are <strong>the</strong> massive domes of clear cold air called continental<br />
arctic air masses th<strong>at</strong> sweep across Canada and Siberia,<br />
dram<strong>at</strong>ically infl uencing <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her in lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes.<br />
The so-called polar air masses— both continental and<br />
maritime— are also signifi cant we<strong>at</strong>her-makers, although<br />
<strong>the</strong>y origin<strong>at</strong>e below <strong>the</strong> Arctic Circle. Also, using newly<br />
available inform<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> vertical structure of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere,<br />
Bergen meteorologists identifi ed inclined surfaces<br />
of discontinuity separ<strong>at</strong>ing two distinct air masses,<br />
most notably <strong>the</strong> polar front th<strong>at</strong> spawns many severe<br />
winter s<strong>to</strong>rms (Figure 6). These conceptual models, combined<br />
with objective techniques of we<strong>at</strong>her map analysis<br />
and <strong>the</strong> hope of someday solving <strong>the</strong> complex equ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric motion governing s<strong>to</strong>rm dynamics, bre<strong>at</strong>hed<br />
new <strong>the</strong>oretical life in<strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> had been a largely empirical<br />
and applied science (Friedman, 1982).<br />
Radio technology also provided new scientifi c capabilities.<br />
Since magnetic disturbances and auroral displays<br />
interfered with radio transmission and telephone wires,<br />
radio equipment could be used <strong>to</strong> detect <strong>the</strong>se phenomena<br />
and measure <strong>the</strong>ir strength. Radio also provided precise<br />
time signals <strong>to</strong> coordin<strong>at</strong>e simultaneous measurements<br />
and communic<strong>at</strong>ion links th<strong>at</strong> allowed <strong>the</strong> polar st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> stay in <strong>to</strong>uch with each o<strong>the</strong>r and with supporters in<br />
lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes (Figure 7, left). Balloon-borne radiosondes<br />
FIGURE 6. Norwegian model of <strong>the</strong> polar front through a series of<br />
cyclones (Bjerknes and Solberg, 1922).<br />
ADVANCING POLAR RESEARCH 7<br />
used mini<strong>at</strong>ure transmitters <strong>to</strong> send pressure, temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
and humidity <strong>to</strong> earth from altitudes as high as 10 kilometers.<br />
(Figure 7, right). Special sondes were outfi tted <strong>to</strong> take<br />
measurements of cosmic rays, ultraviolet light, ozone, and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r d<strong>at</strong>a previously g<strong>at</strong>hered with self-registering balloonsondes;<br />
this provided a signifi cant advantage since it<br />
was almost impossible <strong>to</strong> recover meteorographs launched<br />
in remote polar areas (DuBois et al., 2002).<br />
Public expect<strong>at</strong>ions about clim<strong>at</strong>e and we<strong>at</strong>her broadened<br />
as radio broadcasts of we<strong>at</strong>her conditions became<br />
commonplace. As we<strong>at</strong>her broadcasts increased, so did<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of people employed in we<strong>at</strong>her reporting. Radio<br />
in <strong>the</strong> mid-1920s cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> “we<strong>at</strong>her personality,”<br />
which became an established role <strong>at</strong> many st<strong>at</strong>ions. One<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi rst we<strong>at</strong>her personalities was E. B. Rideout <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
WEEI th<strong>at</strong> started broadcasting from Bos<strong>to</strong>n in 1924<br />
(Leep, 1996).<br />
Early commercial airlines also benefi ted from <strong>the</strong> improved<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her d<strong>at</strong>a. An airways we<strong>at</strong>her service provided<br />
valuable inform<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> pilots and disp<strong>at</strong>chers in support<br />
of commercial avi<strong>at</strong>ion, which navig<strong>at</strong>ed by landmarks<br />
and instrument readings.<br />
In 1927, based on signifi cant technological advances,<br />
new <strong>the</strong>ories of dynamic meteorology, and rising public<br />
expect<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> German meteorologist Johannes Georgi<br />
(1888– 1972) raised <strong>the</strong> issue of a possible second Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year. Two years l<strong>at</strong>er, <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Conference<br />
of Direc<strong>to</strong>rs of Meteorological Services <strong>at</strong> Copenhagen<br />
approved <strong>the</strong> following resolution:<br />
Magnetic, auroral and meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> a<br />
network of st<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> Arctic and Antarctic would m<strong>at</strong>erially<br />
advance present knowledge and understanding [of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
phenomena] not only within polar regions but in general ... this<br />
increased knowledge will be of practical applic<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> problems<br />
connected with terrestrial magnetism, marine and aerial navig<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
wireless telegraphy and we<strong>at</strong>her forecasting. (C. Luedecke,<br />
2006, cited with author’s permission)<br />
IPY-2 was held in 1932– 1933, <strong>the</strong> fi ftieth anniversary<br />
of IPY-1. Although a worldwide economic depression limited<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ion, some 40 n<strong>at</strong>ions sent scientifi c teams<br />
<strong>to</strong> reoccupy <strong>the</strong> original st<strong>at</strong>ions and open new ones. Research<br />
programs were conducted in meteorology, terrestrial<br />
magnetism, <strong>at</strong>mospheric electricity, auroral physics,<br />
and aerology using <strong>the</strong> newest technologies of radio communic<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
As in previous fi eld programs, certain periods,<br />
now called “intern<strong>at</strong>ional days,” were design<strong>at</strong>ed for<br />
intensive, around-<strong>the</strong>-clock observ<strong>at</strong>ions. Even in th<strong>at</strong> era,<br />
scientists detected signs of Arctic warming.
8 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK<br />
FIGURE 7. (left) W. C. Brown oper<strong>at</strong>ing radio equipment <strong>at</strong> Simavik, Norway, during IPY-2 (http://www.wdc.rl.ac.uk/ionosondes/his<strong>to</strong>ry/IPY.<br />
html); (right) John Rea, left, and Stuart McVeigh launching a radiosonde <strong>at</strong> Chesterfi eld Inlet, Hudson Bay, Canada, in winter. Source: University<br />
of Sask<strong>at</strong>chewan Archives.<br />
Also, <strong>the</strong> Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition of 1933–<br />
1935— th<strong>at</strong> coincided with, and expanded beyond, IPY-<br />
2— brought new focus <strong>to</strong> Antarctica. It established a<br />
year-round meteorological st<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> Ross Ice Shelf<br />
and captured public <strong>at</strong>tention through live weekly radio<br />
broadcasts. Several additional IPY-2 st<strong>at</strong>ions in low l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
added <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> worldwide n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> effort.<br />
The IPY-2 benefi ted from a sense of interconnectedness<br />
stimul<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Geodesy and<br />
Geophysics (IUGG), a nongovernmental, scientifi c organiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
founded in 1919 <strong>to</strong> promote both disciplinary advances<br />
and <strong>the</strong> ultim<strong>at</strong>e unity of <strong>the</strong> planetary sciences. The<br />
polar front <strong>the</strong>ory also provided focus. As Isaiah Bowman<br />
remarked, IPY-2 meteorologists, especially those trained<br />
in Norwegian methods, were “inspired by a profound<br />
curiosity as <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> suspected infl uence of we<strong>at</strong>her conditions<br />
in high l<strong>at</strong>itudes upon (or interaction with) those of<br />
<strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>e regions as well as <strong>the</strong> tropics” (Bowman,<br />
1930:442). The IPY-2 accomplishments included simultaneous<br />
measurements <strong>at</strong> multiple st<strong>at</strong>ions; higher temporal<br />
and sp<strong>at</strong>ial resolution, including <strong>the</strong> vertical; and new instrument<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
such as radiosondes, ionosondes, rapid-run<br />
magne<strong>to</strong>meters; and accur<strong>at</strong>e timing of global current p<strong>at</strong>terns<br />
for magnetic s<strong>to</strong>rms. Reporting included <strong>the</strong> launch<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Record in 1931, an intern<strong>at</strong>ional journal on<br />
polar research published in Cambridge, UK, numerous scientifi<br />
c papers, articles, personal accounts, d<strong>at</strong>a archives,<br />
and a comprehensive IPY-2 bibliography published in<br />
1951, just in time for planning <strong>the</strong> IGY (Laursen, 1951).<br />
However, an expected summary public<strong>at</strong>ion for IPY-2 was<br />
not produced until 1959 (Laursen, 1959), and a part of<br />
<strong>the</strong> IPY-2 instrumental d<strong>at</strong>a was lost <strong>at</strong> its major intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
deposi<strong>to</strong>ry in Copenhagen, presumably during<br />
World War II.<br />
THE DAWN OF THE INTERNATIONAL<br />
GEOPHYSICAL YEAR<br />
World War II swelled <strong>the</strong> ranks of practicing meteorologists<br />
and introduced new technologies originally developed<br />
for <strong>the</strong> military. Rockets provided a new means<br />
for accessing upper levels of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere, broadening<br />
<strong>the</strong> scope of d<strong>at</strong>a collection. Not only could instruments<br />
be sent high in<strong>to</strong> and even beyond <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere <strong>to</strong><br />
take measurements, but also cameras could travel <strong>to</strong> new<br />
heights <strong>to</strong> send back images of <strong>the</strong> earth. Electronic computers,<br />
designed <strong>to</strong> crack codes, calcul<strong>at</strong>e shell trajec<strong>to</strong>ries,<br />
and estim<strong>at</strong>e bomb yields, were applied <strong>to</strong> problems<br />
of geophysical modeling, while radar enabled scientists <strong>to</strong>
visualize we<strong>at</strong>her p<strong>at</strong>terns remotely. An important aspect<br />
of this new technological age was <strong>at</strong>mospheric nuclear<br />
testing, which injected radionuclide “tracers” in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
environment. Meteorology, clim<strong>at</strong>ology, and aeronomy—<br />
“<strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mospheric sciences”— benefi ted intellectually from<br />
an infl ux of new talent from fi elds such as m<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ics,<br />
physics, chemistry, and engineering.<br />
The same technology th<strong>at</strong> provided remote-imaging<br />
capabilities for scientists was also used in broadcasting <strong>to</strong><br />
reach <strong>the</strong> general public. While long-range we<strong>at</strong>her forecasts<br />
and even we<strong>at</strong>her control were distinct possibilities,<br />
<strong>the</strong> public was growing apprehensive about <strong>the</strong> meteorological<br />
effects of <strong>at</strong>mospheric nuclear testing and increasingly<br />
visible levels of smoke and smog. Scientists were increasingly<br />
interested in <strong>the</strong> interconnected workings of <strong>the</strong><br />
global environment, while military planners sought new<br />
geophysical capabilities (Fleming, 2000).<br />
American physicist Lloyd Berkner (1905– 1967) suggested<br />
th<strong>at</strong> IPY-3 take place 25 years after IPY-2. His colleague,<br />
Sidney Chapman, who suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> event<br />
be called <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year, served as<br />
president of Comité Spécial de l’Année Géophysique Intern<strong>at</strong>ionale<br />
(CSAGI), which coordin<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> effort intern<strong>at</strong>ionally.<br />
In his presidential remarks, Chapman (1959b)<br />
emphasized <strong>the</strong> earth’s fl uid envelope and <strong>the</strong> continuing<br />
need for widespread simultaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ions:<br />
The main aim [of <strong>the</strong> IGY] is <strong>to</strong> learn more about <strong>the</strong> fl uid<br />
envelope of our planet— <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere and oceans— over all <strong>the</strong><br />
earth and <strong>at</strong> all heights and depths. The <strong>at</strong>mosphere, especially<br />
<strong>at</strong> its upper levels, is much affected by disturbances on <strong>the</strong> sun;<br />
hence this also will be observed more closely and continuously<br />
than hi<strong>the</strong>r<strong>to</strong>. We<strong>at</strong>her, <strong>the</strong> ionosphere, <strong>the</strong> earth’s magnetism,<br />
<strong>the</strong> polar lights, cosmic rays, glaciers all over <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>the</strong> size<br />
and form of <strong>the</strong> earth, n<strong>at</strong>ural and man-made radioactivity in <strong>the</strong><br />
air and <strong>the</strong> seas, [and] earthquake waves in remote places will<br />
be among <strong>the</strong> subjects studied. These researches demand widespread<br />
simultaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The IGY logo emphasized <strong>the</strong> infl uence of <strong>the</strong> sun on<br />
<strong>the</strong> earth, scientifi c focus on Antarctica, and <strong>the</strong> hope th<strong>at</strong><br />
geophysical s<strong>at</strong>ellites would soon be placed in orbit (Figure<br />
8). The breadth of <strong>the</strong> program was certainly made<br />
possible by new technological developments in transport<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion, and remote sensing. Teams of<br />
observers equipped with <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>est scientifi c instruments<br />
were deployed around <strong>the</strong> globe— some <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ends of<br />
<strong>the</strong> earth in polar regions, on high mountain<strong>to</strong>ps, and <strong>at</strong><br />
sea— <strong>to</strong> study earth processes. The effort in Antarctica<br />
alone involved hundreds of people in logistically complex<br />
ADVANCING POLAR RESEARCH 9<br />
FIGURE 8. The IGY logo adopted in 1955 and used on IGY<br />
instruments and public<strong>at</strong>ions. Source: U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of<br />
Sciences.<br />
and expensive expeditions. While Earth-orbiting s<strong>at</strong>ellites<br />
were in <strong>the</strong>ir infancy, Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 brought<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>e geophysical results th<strong>at</strong> fundamentally altered<br />
our understanding of <strong>the</strong> planet— <strong>the</strong> discovery of <strong>the</strong> Van<br />
Allen radi<strong>at</strong>ion belts (N<strong>at</strong>ional Research Council, 2007).<br />
The IGY’s 18 months of comprehensive global research<br />
resulted in o<strong>the</strong>r accomplishments as well, including <strong>the</strong><br />
charting of ocean depths and currents, an in-depth study<br />
of Antarctic ice sheets, and, notably, <strong>the</strong> beginnings of<br />
global CO2 moni<strong>to</strong>ring efforts. The IGY captured scientifi<br />
c center stage <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time and gener<strong>at</strong>ed many technical<br />
and popular public<strong>at</strong>ions. Its organizers, recognizing th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional interchange of geophysical d<strong>at</strong>a was “<strong>the</strong><br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>e and specifi c end of its vast scientifi c program,”<br />
also made careful provisions for its preserv<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong><br />
World D<strong>at</strong>a Centers (Odishaw, 1962).<br />
The IGY was actually <strong>the</strong> twenty-fi fth anniversary of<br />
IPY-2. Had <strong>the</strong>re been a full fi ftieth anniversary, it would<br />
have occurred in 1982– 1983, well in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> era of Earth<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellite observ<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> by <strong>the</strong>n were providing complete<br />
coverage of many global <strong>at</strong>mospheric processes. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1970s, <strong>the</strong> Global Atmospheric Research Program<br />
(GARP) was gearing up for <strong>the</strong> Global We<strong>at</strong>her Experiment<br />
(GWE)— <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> largest fully intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c<br />
experiment ever undertaken— linking in situ and s<strong>at</strong>ellite<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> computer modeling in an <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>to</strong> improve oper<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
forecasting, determine <strong>the</strong> ultim<strong>at</strong>e range of numerical<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her prediction, and develop a scientifi c basis<br />
for clim<strong>at</strong>e modeling and prediction. In this experiment,
10 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FLEMING AND SEITCHEK<br />
FIGURE 9. During <strong>the</strong> Global We<strong>at</strong>her Experiment of 1979, fi ve intern<strong>at</strong>ional geost<strong>at</strong>ionary s<strong>at</strong>ellites supported global mid-l<strong>at</strong>itude observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of cloud-tracked winds. (GMS � Geost<strong>at</strong>ionary Meteorological S<strong>at</strong>ellite; GOES � Goest<strong>at</strong>ionary Oper<strong>at</strong>ional Environmental S<strong>at</strong>ellites;<br />
METEOSAT, ESA � a meteorological s<strong>at</strong>ellite (European Space Agency); GOMS � Geost<strong>at</strong>ionary Oper<strong>at</strong>ional Meteorological S<strong>at</strong>ellite)<br />
worldwide surface and upper-air observ<strong>at</strong>ions from s<strong>at</strong>ellites,<br />
ships, land st<strong>at</strong>ions, aircraft, and balloons were combined<br />
with global coverage provided by fi ve geost<strong>at</strong>ionary<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellites oper<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Russia, Japan, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> European Space Agency (ESA) (Figure 9). <strong>Polar</strong> orbiting<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellites covered <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> globe. This experiment<br />
was followed by <strong>the</strong> World Clim<strong>at</strong>e Research Programme<br />
(WCRP), which began in 1980. Today, it can be said th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> global observing system provides <strong>the</strong> equivalent of a<br />
GWE of d<strong>at</strong>a every day (N<strong>at</strong>ional Research Council, 2007).<br />
The challenge <strong>to</strong>day lies in analyzing, assimil<strong>at</strong>ing, and archiving<br />
<strong>the</strong> massive fl ows of d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
CONCLUSIONS— TOWARD IPY 2007– 2008<br />
As we enter <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year of 2007–<br />
2008, <strong>to</strong>day’s scientists are heirs <strong>to</strong> a grand research tradition.<br />
With more than 60 n<strong>at</strong>ions particip<strong>at</strong>ing, <strong>the</strong> current<br />
IPY has a broad interdisciplinary focus on environmental<br />
change. Six scientifi c <strong>the</strong>mes provide a framework for IPY<br />
2007– 2008 (Allison et al., 2007:13):<br />
1. St<strong>at</strong>us: <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> present environmental st<strong>at</strong>us<br />
of <strong>the</strong> polar regions;<br />
2. Change: <strong>to</strong> quantify and understand past and present<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural environmental and social change in <strong>the</strong> polar<br />
regions and <strong>to</strong> improve projections of future change;<br />
3. Global linkages: <strong>to</strong> advance understanding on all scales<br />
of <strong>the</strong> links and interactions between polar regions and<br />
<strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> globe, and of <strong>the</strong> processes controlling<br />
<strong>the</strong>se;<br />
4. New frontiers: <strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> frontiers of science in<br />
<strong>the</strong> polar regions;<br />
5. Vantage point: <strong>to</strong> use <strong>the</strong> unique vantage point of <strong>the</strong><br />
polar regions <strong>to</strong> develop and enhance observ<strong>at</strong>ories<br />
from <strong>the</strong> interior of <strong>the</strong> earth <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun and <strong>the</strong> cosmos<br />
beyond; and<br />
6. The human dimension: <strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> cultural, his<strong>to</strong>rical,<br />
and social processes th<strong>at</strong> shape <strong>the</strong> sustainability<br />
of circumpolar human societies and <strong>to</strong> identify <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
unique contributions <strong>to</strong> global cultural diversity and<br />
citizenship.<br />
The current IPY is supported by <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>est technologies<br />
including computer models of ice sheet dynamics, ice<br />
cores reaching all <strong>the</strong> way <strong>to</strong> bedrock, and advanced surface,<br />
airborne, and s<strong>at</strong>ellite sensors th<strong>at</strong> measure ice thickness,<br />
surface elev<strong>at</strong>ion, mass balance, and subsurface conditions.<br />
Recently, scientists have discovered rapid changes
in ice sheets. The l<strong>at</strong>est collapse of <strong>the</strong> Larsen B ice shelf<br />
in Antarctica in 2002, captured only because of frequent<br />
coverage by s<strong>at</strong>ellite imagery, illustr<strong>at</strong>ed this dynamic<br />
on as<strong>to</strong>nishingly short time scales. These new “bits” of<br />
knowledge carry weighty implic<strong>at</strong>ions: The rapid transfer<br />
of ice from <strong>the</strong> continental ice sheets <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea could result<br />
in a signifi cant rise of sea level. Because of <strong>the</strong> global<br />
implic<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> changes <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> poles for ecosystems and<br />
human communities everywhere, IPY 2007– 2008 science<br />
aims <strong>to</strong> reach a wide audience, train a new gener<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
polar researchers, and galvanize public opinion through<br />
<strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ed educ<strong>at</strong>ion, outreach, and communic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
efforts.<br />
The 125-year his<strong>to</strong>ry of polar scientifi c quests, like <strong>the</strong><br />
much longer his<strong>to</strong>ry of cooper<strong>at</strong>ive observ<strong>at</strong>ions, involves<br />
scientifi c research questions, technological (including logistic)<br />
capabilities, and public perceptions. Since 1882– 1883,<br />
all IPY ventures have been about science done in extreme<br />
conditions, fruitful intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, arctic air<br />
masses and polar fronts, melting ice caps, and rising sea<br />
levels. Th<strong>at</strong> is, <strong>the</strong> IPY studies are essentially “about us.”<br />
Each successive IPY has been based upon <strong>the</strong> technological<br />
innov<strong>at</strong>ions of its era and <strong>the</strong> leading scientifi c <strong>the</strong>ories<br />
and hypo<strong>the</strong>ses developed by its time.<br />
In 1881 <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> start of IPY-1, <strong>the</strong> Russian meteorologist<br />
Heinrich Wild observed th<strong>at</strong> “<strong>the</strong> good and favorable<br />
idea of Weyprecht . . . has survived <strong>the</strong> calamities<br />
of war, <strong>the</strong> discords of n<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> obstacles of jealous<br />
people, and <strong>the</strong> de<strong>at</strong>h of <strong>the</strong> author” (Baker, 1982:284).<br />
Today, in spite of intervening world wars and numerous<br />
discords and obstacles, this st<strong>at</strong>ement still rings true. The<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007– 2008 is solidly grounded<br />
in scientifi c cooper<strong>at</strong>ive efforts for <strong>the</strong> increase and diffusion<br />
of knowledge. Its goal, like those of its predecessors,<br />
is <strong>to</strong> advance research and communic<strong>at</strong>e its wonders. It<br />
also aims <strong>to</strong> preserve <strong>the</strong> habitability of <strong>the</strong> planet. Joseph<br />
Henry would be pleased.<br />
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of Indigenous Observ<strong>at</strong>ions in IPY 2007– 2008.” In <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong><br />
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Meteorological Society.
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Luedecke, C. 2004. The First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (1882– 83): A<br />
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Meteorology, 1: 55– 64.<br />
———. 2006. Changing Trends in <strong>Polar</strong> Research as Refl ected in <strong>the</strong><br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Years. Unpublished manuscript.<br />
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Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.<br />
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First 50 Years of Scientifi c Achievements. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Academies Press.<br />
Odishaw, H. 1962. Wh<strong>at</strong> Shall We Save in <strong>the</strong> Geophysical Sciences?<br />
Isis, 53: 80– 86.<br />
Shea, M. A., and D. F. Smart. 2006. Compendium of <strong>the</strong> eight articles<br />
on <strong>the</strong> “Carring<strong>to</strong>n Event” <strong>at</strong>tributed <strong>to</strong> or written by Elias Loomis<br />
in <strong>the</strong> American Journal of Science, 1859– 1861. Advances in Space<br />
Research, 38(2): 313– 385.<br />
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Weyprecht, K. 1875. Scientifi c Work on <strong>the</strong> Second Austro-Hungarian<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Expedition, 1872– 4. Royal Geographical Society Journal,<br />
45:19– 33.<br />
Wood, K. R., and J. E. Overland. 2006. Clim<strong>at</strong>e Lessons from <strong>the</strong> First<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year. Bulletin of <strong>the</strong> American Meteorological<br />
Society, 87: 1685– 1697.<br />
———. 2007. Documentary Image Collection from <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year, 1881– 1884. http://www .arctic .noaa .gov/ aro/<br />
ipy-1/ Frontpage.htm (accessed 2 November 2007).
Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>? Placing <strong>the</strong> First<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year in <strong>the</strong> Context of<br />
Nineteenth-Century Scientifi c Explor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and Collabor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Marc Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg<br />
Marc Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg, His<strong>to</strong>rian, N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arling<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
VA 22230, USA (mro<strong>the</strong>nb@nsf.gov). Accepted<br />
29 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY) of 1882– 1883 came <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of<br />
a half-century of efforts <strong>at</strong> collabor<strong>at</strong>ive and/or cooper<strong>at</strong>ive research among <strong>the</strong> scientifi c<br />
communities of Europe and <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. These efforts included <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade,<br />
a cooper<strong>at</strong>ive endeavor <strong>to</strong> solve fundamental questions in terrestrial magnetism; a<br />
variety of plans for intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> g<strong>at</strong>hering of meteorological d<strong>at</strong>a; <strong>the</strong><br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> transits of Venus; and <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
network <strong>to</strong> alert astronomers of new phenomena. It was also a half century when<br />
scientifi c explor<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> polar regions was still problem<strong>at</strong>ic in terms of <strong>the</strong> safety and<br />
survival of <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>or. This paper will look <strong>at</strong> scientifi c cooper<strong>at</strong>ion and earlier <strong>Polar</strong><br />
research as <strong>the</strong> background for <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY, with special emphasis on <strong>the</strong> leadership role<br />
taken by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY), which included 14 expeditions sponsored<br />
by 11 countries (12 expeditions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North <strong>Polar</strong> Region, 2 <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> South<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Region), was a landmark event in <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of polar science. During <strong>the</strong><br />
half-century leading up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> coordin<strong>at</strong>ed research efforts of 1882– 1883, scientifi<br />
c research in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Regions had been very problem<strong>at</strong>ic. Survival, let alone<br />
<strong>the</strong> successful completion of observ<strong>at</strong>ions, was uncertain. The use of trained<br />
specialists was a rarity. Instead, research was usually conducted as a sideline<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary objectives or mission of <strong>the</strong> expedition, which were geographical<br />
discovery, by a scientifi cally inclined explorer, military offi cer, or physician<br />
who made observ<strong>at</strong>ions or collected specimens on a limited basis. Attempting <strong>to</strong><br />
reach higher l<strong>at</strong>itudes was an end in itself, a form of intern<strong>at</strong>ional competition,<br />
independent of any scientifi c return (Barr, 1983: 464).<br />
The c<strong>at</strong>alyst for <strong>the</strong> transform<strong>at</strong>ion from competition and explor<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong><br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion and scientifi c research was Karl Weyprecht, <strong>the</strong> Austrian explorer<br />
who fi rst suggested <strong>the</strong> IPY. It was Weyprecht’s “drive, ambition, and connections”<br />
which were essential in bring <strong>the</strong> idea of an intern<strong>at</strong>ional, cooper<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>at</strong>tack on <strong>the</strong> problems of polar science <strong>to</strong> fruition, although he died in 1881,<br />
before <strong>the</strong> IPY was offi cially launched (Barr, 1983: 464).
14 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / ROTHENBERG<br />
It is important, however, not <strong>to</strong> claim <strong>to</strong>o much for <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst IPY. It did not launch science on an entirely new p<strong>at</strong>h<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. Th<strong>at</strong> was already a well-trod<br />
p<strong>at</strong>h by <strong>the</strong> last quarter of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth-century, and<br />
many of <strong>the</strong> programs of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, for<br />
example, incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed some aspect of intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
If it proved “th<strong>at</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c ventures<br />
were possible on a large scale,” as C. J. Taylor (1981: 376)<br />
contended, it was just one of many proofs. If it demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> scientists could cooper<strong>at</strong>e in spite of n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
differences <strong>at</strong> a time th<strong>at</strong> when intern<strong>at</strong>ional rel<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were fraught with danger (Budd, 2001: 50– 51), so <strong>to</strong>o did<br />
scientists in a variety of o<strong>the</strong>r disciplines cooper<strong>at</strong>e during<br />
this era in order <strong>to</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r research on a number of different<br />
scientifi c questions.<br />
The IPY was organized <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of a half century<br />
marked by efforts <strong>at</strong> collabor<strong>at</strong>ive research or o<strong>the</strong>r forms<br />
of cooper<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> physical sciences among and between<br />
<strong>the</strong> scientifi c communities of Europe and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. These efforts included <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade, a<br />
collabor<strong>at</strong>ive endeavor <strong>to</strong> solve fundamental questions in<br />
terrestrial magnetism; a variety of plans for intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> g<strong>at</strong>hering of meteorological d<strong>at</strong>a; <strong>the</strong><br />
establishment of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s intern<strong>at</strong>ional network<br />
<strong>to</strong> alert astronomers of new phenomena; and <strong>the</strong> many<br />
expeditions sent out throughout <strong>the</strong> world <strong>to</strong> observe <strong>the</strong><br />
transits of Venus. The level of cooper<strong>at</strong>ion ranged from<br />
simply improving communic<strong>at</strong>ion among scientists <strong>to</strong> establishing<br />
common standards for recording observ<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
This urge <strong>to</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>e across n<strong>at</strong>ional boundaries in<br />
<strong>the</strong> nineteenth century was not limited <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> world of science.<br />
It was an integral part of <strong>the</strong> Vic<strong>to</strong>rian-era Euro-<br />
American society. Perhaps this urge was most clearly<br />
expressed through <strong>the</strong> organiz<strong>at</strong>ion of intern<strong>at</strong>ional congresses.<br />
For example, no less than 32 intern<strong>at</strong>ional congresses<br />
met in conjunction with <strong>the</strong> 1878 Exposition <strong>at</strong><br />
Paris. The various agendas included cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, coordin<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
standardiz<strong>at</strong>ion, exchange of inform<strong>at</strong>ion, best<br />
methods for <strong>the</strong> g<strong>at</strong>hering of st<strong>at</strong>istics, and efforts <strong>at</strong> common<br />
solutions for common problems. The congresses<br />
ranged in subject area from legal issues, such as intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
copyright, p<strong>at</strong>ent rights, and legal medicine <strong>to</strong> social<br />
issues, such as prevention of cruelty <strong>to</strong> animals, <strong>the</strong> tre<strong>at</strong>ment<br />
of alcoholism, guidelines for military ambulance service,<br />
and aid <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> blind and deaf. Science was not left<br />
out. Among <strong>the</strong> scientifi c fi elds <strong>to</strong> hold congresses in Paris<br />
th<strong>at</strong> year were geometry, anthropology, ethnography, botany,<br />
geology, and meteorology. Included on <strong>the</strong> agendas of<br />
<strong>the</strong> scientifi c congresses were such issues as simultaneity of<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and uniform nomencl<strong>at</strong>ures. There was also<br />
a congress <strong>to</strong> discuss <strong>the</strong> possibility of <strong>the</strong> adoption of a<br />
uniform system of weight, measures, and coinage (United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es, 1880: 1: 455– 464).<br />
In this paper, I will briefl y summarize <strong>the</strong> various<br />
nineteenth-century efforts <strong>at</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional collabor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and cooper<strong>at</strong>ion in science, with particular <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
role played by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution and its leader,<br />
Joseph Henry. From this discussion, it should be evident<br />
th<strong>at</strong> a proposal for intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> solve a<br />
scientifi c question, such as <strong>the</strong> proposal for <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY,<br />
would not appear <strong>to</strong> be a startling new idea <strong>to</strong> European<br />
or American physical and earth scientists in <strong>the</strong> 1870s or<br />
1880s. In fact, just <strong>the</strong> opposite was true; by <strong>the</strong> last quarter<br />
of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century, efforts <strong>at</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ion were<br />
<strong>the</strong> norm, not <strong>the</strong> exception. The s<strong>to</strong>ry is not one of inevitable<br />
success. Sometimes <strong>the</strong> efforts <strong>at</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ion failed.<br />
The general movement of <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional physical science<br />
community, however, was <strong>to</strong>ward better communic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and coordin<strong>at</strong>ion. R<strong>at</strong>her than look <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> IPY as a new<br />
beginning, it is more accur<strong>at</strong>e, I believe, <strong>to</strong> look <strong>at</strong> it as a<br />
culmin<strong>at</strong>ion. Wh<strong>at</strong> occurred with <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY was not a<br />
revolution in intern<strong>at</strong>ional science, but <strong>the</strong> transform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of polar science; it began <strong>to</strong> more closely resemble <strong>the</strong> norm<br />
in intern<strong>at</strong>ional science.<br />
MAGNETIC CRUSADE<br />
The fi rst gre<strong>at</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional effort <strong>at</strong> coordin<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
physical science research in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century was<br />
<strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade, which focused on <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
g<strong>at</strong>hering of terrestrial magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions (Cawood,<br />
1977; 1979). The roots of <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade lay in<br />
<strong>the</strong> appreci<strong>at</strong>ion by early nineteenth-century scientists<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> earth’s magnetic fi eld were extremely<br />
complex. Driven by both <strong>the</strong> desire <strong>to</strong> understand<br />
geomagnetic activity and <strong>the</strong> hope of cre<strong>at</strong>ing a practical<br />
system of navig<strong>at</strong>ion through geomagnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
observers cre<strong>at</strong>ed an informal system of contacts “<strong>to</strong> provide<br />
a degree of order in <strong>the</strong> sometimes spasmodic and<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her uncoordin<strong>at</strong>ed work— and of course, <strong>to</strong> exchange<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion” (Cawood, 1979: 496).<br />
Although Alexander von Humboldt put <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r a<br />
loose associ<strong>at</strong>ion of magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ories linked through<br />
Paris, which had been <strong>the</strong> center of terrestrial magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
early in <strong>the</strong> century, a more important, and more<br />
formal, system was organized in <strong>the</strong> German-speaking<br />
world. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber founded<br />
a system in 1834 under <strong>the</strong> name of <strong>the</strong> Göttingen Magnetische<br />
Verein. Inspired by <strong>the</strong> work on <strong>the</strong> Continent, <strong>the</strong>
British Associ<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> Advancement of Science agreed,<br />
in 1838, <strong>to</strong> establish its own system. Led by Samuel Hunt<br />
Christie, John Herschel, Humphrey Lloyd, and Edward<br />
Sabine, <strong>the</strong> British Associ<strong>at</strong>ion system consisted of 10 observ<strong>at</strong>ories,<br />
with coverage expanded <strong>to</strong> include <strong>the</strong> British<br />
colonies and India (with <strong>the</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> East<br />
India Company). The British system coordin<strong>at</strong>ed with 23<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r observ<strong>at</strong>ories sc<strong>at</strong>tered in <strong>the</strong> Russian Empire, Asia,<br />
North America, North Africa, and Europe, all of whom<br />
were funded by <strong>the</strong>ir respective governments, except for<br />
those in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es funded by academic institutions<br />
(Girard College and Harvard University). Also part of this<br />
effort was a British naval expedition <strong>to</strong> make observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in Antarctica, led by James Clark Ross (1839– 1843).<br />
There were some limit<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. Although <strong>the</strong> British system synchronized observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
using Göttingen Mean Time, as suggested by <strong>the</strong><br />
Göttingen Magnetische Verein, so th<strong>at</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a could be compared,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re was no formal collabor<strong>at</strong>ion. The Paris Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
acted independently of its o<strong>the</strong>r European counterparts.<br />
None<strong>the</strong>less, by <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> Crusade formally ended<br />
in 1848, <strong>the</strong>re was a fi rmly established network of magnetic<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ories in Europe, throughout <strong>the</strong> British Empire,<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> continued <strong>to</strong> make observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
and exchange d<strong>at</strong>a. O<strong>the</strong>r observ<strong>at</strong>ories l<strong>at</strong>er joined<br />
in <strong>the</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ive venture, including th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution (Rhees, 1859: 27– 29). Most importantly,<br />
as Cawood argued, <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
“th<strong>at</strong> large-scale oper<strong>at</strong>ions could be organized and carried<br />
through” (1979: 516). Even Taylor, who argued for <strong>the</strong> signifi<br />
cance of <strong>the</strong> IPY in <strong>the</strong> demonstr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> possibilities<br />
of large-scale intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, admitted th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Magnetic Crusade “provided many precedents for subsequent<br />
global scientifi c endeavours” (1981: 370).<br />
METEOROLOGICAL COOPERATION<br />
We<strong>at</strong>her does not respect political boundaries, and<br />
many meteorologists realized <strong>the</strong> need for cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
German meteorologists <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>the</strong> lead, with such organiz<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Süddeutsche Meteorologische Verein<br />
(1841), <strong>the</strong> Könglich Preussische Meteorologische Institut<br />
(1847), and <strong>the</strong> Norddeutsche Seewarte (1872).<br />
These organiz<strong>at</strong>ions had rel<strong>at</strong>ively limited geographical<br />
coverage, however, and were intern<strong>at</strong>ional only because<br />
of <strong>the</strong> political fragment<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> German scientifi c<br />
community (Fleming, 1990: 165– 166).<br />
A more signifi cant intern<strong>at</strong>ional approach <strong>to</strong> meteorological<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong>ok place in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. Per-<br />
COOPERATION AT THE POLES? 15<br />
haps not coincidently, it was fi rst directed by a physicist<br />
who was an active geomagnetic observer, who had cooper<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade, and was aware of <strong>the</strong><br />
rewards and challenges of intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. Not<br />
only had Joseph Henry received practical advice on observing<br />
from Edward Sabine while in England in 1837 (Reingold<br />
et al., 1979: 312– 313), but he also “had convers<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with Mr[.] Christie on <strong>the</strong> subject of establishing magnetic<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>or[i]es <strong>to</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>e with those established<br />
by Humboldt” (Reingold et al., 1979: 303). Joseph Henry<br />
became <strong>the</strong> fi rst secretary of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution in<br />
1846 and established a program th<strong>at</strong> placed an emphasis<br />
on <strong>the</strong> coordin<strong>at</strong>ion of large-scale research projects, arguing<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re were no o<strong>the</strong>r institutions in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
equipped <strong>to</strong> do so. The fi rst such project Henry embraced<br />
was <strong>the</strong> development wh<strong>at</strong> Elias Loomis, one of Henry’s<br />
consultants in meteorology, characterized as “a grand meteorological<br />
crusade” for collecting meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, 1848: 207).<br />
The system devised by Henry had two distinct but<br />
interrel<strong>at</strong>ed components, both requiring cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The fi rst was a system of observers who— using standard<br />
appar<strong>at</strong>us, techniques, and forms <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est extent<br />
possible— maintained monthly logs of we<strong>at</strong>her conditions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> were sent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> for reduction.<br />
These logs were used <strong>to</strong> understand clim<strong>at</strong>e and we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
tendencies over <strong>the</strong> long term. From <strong>the</strong> onset, it was<br />
recognized th<strong>at</strong> “<strong>to</strong> give this system its gre<strong>at</strong>est effi ciency,<br />
<strong>the</strong> co- oper<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> British government and of <strong>the</strong><br />
Hudson’s Bay Company [in Canada] is absolutely indispensable”<br />
(<strong>Smithsonian</strong>, 1848: 207). Both <strong>the</strong> British government<br />
and <strong>the</strong> priv<strong>at</strong>e Hudson’s Bay Company quickly<br />
agreed <strong>to</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>e (Fleming, 1990: 123). The program<br />
soon expanded throughout North and Central America.<br />
Observers were recruited in Bermuda, Mexico, all <strong>the</strong><br />
Central American countries, and throughout <strong>the</strong> West Indies,<br />
frequently drawing, in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter two regions, upon<br />
Americans residing overseas (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution,<br />
1872: 68– 69). The second component was <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong><br />
telegraph <strong>to</strong> forward d<strong>at</strong>a on we<strong>at</strong>her in real time <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>, allowing, in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1850s, for <strong>the</strong> public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi rst scientifi cally based we<strong>at</strong>her forecasts in<br />
newspapers and <strong>the</strong> fi rst publicly posted we<strong>at</strong>her maps.<br />
These forecasts were based on <strong>the</strong> conclusions drawn<br />
from <strong>the</strong> monthly d<strong>at</strong>a logs. Unlike <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a g<strong>at</strong>hering,<br />
<strong>the</strong> forecasting only lasted a few years and ended before<br />
<strong>the</strong> dream of making it intern<strong>at</strong>ional was accomplished.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> obstacles it ran in<strong>to</strong> was <strong>the</strong> realiz<strong>at</strong>ion by<br />
<strong>the</strong> commercial telegraph companies th<strong>at</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
was a valuable commercial commodity; <strong>the</strong> companies
16 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / ROTHENBERG<br />
wanted <strong>to</strong> charge for <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong> lines (Fleming, 1990:<br />
145; Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 102).<br />
Henry’s intern<strong>at</strong>ional system worked in part because<br />
<strong>the</strong>re were no government meteorologists involved who<br />
felt <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> protect <strong>the</strong>ir own n<strong>at</strong>ional systems. Instead,<br />
Henry was relying on an intern<strong>at</strong>ional network of<br />
independent observers. Two efforts bracketing Henry’s<br />
establishment of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> network demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> meteorology was not yet ready for extended intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
In 1845, an intern<strong>at</strong>ional meeting of scientists interested<br />
in terrestrial magnetism and meteorology was held<br />
in conjunction with <strong>the</strong> meeting of <strong>the</strong> British Associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Advancement of Science. Efforts <strong>to</strong> establish some<br />
sort of coordin<strong>at</strong>ion of meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions, akin<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade, ran in<strong>to</strong> a very serious obstacle.<br />
The government meteorologists of <strong>the</strong> various European<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ions had <strong>to</strong>o much invested in <strong>the</strong>ir own systems <strong>to</strong> lay<br />
<strong>the</strong>m aside for some common system. As Edward Sabine<br />
remembered two decades l<strong>at</strong>er (1866: 30), <strong>the</strong> government<br />
meteorologists “manifested so marked a disposition . . .<br />
<strong>to</strong> adhere <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir respective arrangements in regard <strong>to</strong><br />
instruments, times of observ<strong>at</strong>ion, and modes of public<strong>at</strong>ion,”<br />
as <strong>to</strong> make it clear <strong>the</strong> time for a uniform system<br />
“had not <strong>the</strong>n arrived.”<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r effort came a few years l<strong>at</strong>er. M<strong>at</strong><strong>the</strong>w Fontaine<br />
Maury, a naval offi cer, oceanographer, and direc<strong>to</strong>r of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Naval Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (Williams, 1963) was a keen student<br />
of meteorology. For example, he had independently recognized<br />
<strong>the</strong> possibilities presented for we<strong>at</strong>her forecasting by<br />
<strong>the</strong> telegraph almost as early as Henry had (Fleming, 1990:<br />
109). In 1851, a request from <strong>the</strong> British government <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es government on behalf of <strong>the</strong> Royal Engineers,<br />
who were conducting meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> empire, ended up being forwarded <strong>to</strong> Maury for<br />
a response. The Royal Engineers had suggested <strong>the</strong> need<br />
<strong>to</strong> establish a uniform system of recording meteorological<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a. Maury <strong>at</strong>tempted <strong>to</strong> expand this request in<strong>to</strong> a broad<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ive venture covering both nautical<br />
and terrestrial meteorology. Wh<strong>at</strong> this venture demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
was th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> European meteorological community<br />
was still not yet ready for such a bold stroke. Although<br />
Maury did manage <strong>to</strong> organize an 1853 meeting in Brussels<br />
<strong>to</strong> which 10 n<strong>at</strong>ions sent represent<strong>at</strong>ives, <strong>the</strong> roadblocks <strong>to</strong><br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional exchange of inform<strong>at</strong>ion, let alone real cooper<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
were still huge. The sole major accomplishment of<br />
<strong>the</strong> meeting was <strong>the</strong> agreement th<strong>at</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> did not<br />
use centigrade as <strong>the</strong> standard scale for temper<strong>at</strong>ure would<br />
add th<strong>at</strong> scale <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> standard <strong>the</strong>rmometer (Fleming, 1990:<br />
107– 109; Anderson, 2005: 245).<br />
After 1870, a new player in American and intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
meteorology appeared. Albert J. Myer, <strong>the</strong> commander<br />
of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es Army Signal Corps, seized<br />
on <strong>the</strong> transmission of s<strong>to</strong>rm inform<strong>at</strong>ion as a worthy responsibility<br />
for a military organiz<strong>at</strong>ion facing budget cuts.<br />
Eventually <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> transferred its system <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Signal Corps (Hawes, 1966).<br />
Myer’s organiz<strong>at</strong>ion came <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> forefront of American<br />
meteorology just when <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional community was becoming<br />
more open <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> possibilities of broad cooper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> 1872 meeting of <strong>the</strong> Gesellschaft deutscher N<strong>at</strong>urforscher<br />
und Ärzte in Leipzig, meteorologists called for<br />
an intern<strong>at</strong>ional g<strong>at</strong>hering <strong>to</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r standardiz<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion for terrestrial observ<strong>at</strong>ions. The result was <strong>the</strong><br />
1873 congress in Vienna, which ultim<strong>at</strong>ely <strong>at</strong>tracted represent<strong>at</strong>ives<br />
from 20 n<strong>at</strong>ions. At <strong>the</strong> Vienna Congress, Myer’s<br />
proposal for intern<strong>at</strong>ional simultaneous observ<strong>at</strong>ions was<br />
agreed <strong>to</strong>, leading <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bulletin of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Simultaneous<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions, fi rst published by <strong>the</strong> Signal Offi ce in<br />
1875 (Hawes, 1966). There were, however, still obstacles<br />
<strong>to</strong> be overcome, such as <strong>the</strong> continuing confl ict between<br />
<strong>the</strong> metric and English systems of measurement (Anderson,<br />
2005: 246). Even so, <strong>the</strong> discussions had begun (Luedecke,<br />
2004) and, with <strong>the</strong> second intern<strong>at</strong>ional meteorological<br />
congress of 1879, held in Rome, “a p<strong>at</strong>tern of voluntary<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ion between meteorologists on inter n<strong>at</strong>ional problems”<br />
had been established which bypassed <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
meteorological organiz<strong>at</strong>ions (Weiss, 1975: 809).<br />
COOPERATION IN ASTRONOMY<br />
Henry and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> were involved in o<strong>the</strong>r intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
cooper<strong>at</strong>ive efforts, for example in astronomical<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion. As <strong>the</strong> quantity and quality of telescopes<br />
increased in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century, so did <strong>the</strong> number of<br />
comets and asteroids discovered. C. H. F. Peters, professor<br />
of astronomy <strong>at</strong> Hamil<strong>to</strong>n College in upst<strong>at</strong>e New York,<br />
a prolifi c discoverer of asteroids, was aware of <strong>the</strong> importance<br />
of <strong>the</strong> dissemin<strong>at</strong>ion of observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r astronomers<br />
<strong>to</strong> aid in <strong>the</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>ion of orbits (or even <strong>the</strong> reloc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> object). Because he was also German-born<br />
and educ<strong>at</strong>ed, he was in closer <strong>to</strong>uch with his colleagues<br />
on <strong>the</strong> European continent than most of his colleagues in<br />
American observ<strong>at</strong>ories (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg, 1999) He wrote <strong>to</strong><br />
Henry in January 1872, suggesting a system of communic<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
discoveries among <strong>the</strong> world’s astronomers using<br />
<strong>the</strong> Atlantic cable and <strong>the</strong> land telegraph systems of <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. and Europe. Peters’s system would be modeled after<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional exchange system for publi-
c<strong>at</strong>ions, in which <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> served as <strong>the</strong> intermediary<br />
between American scientists and scientifi c institutions<br />
seeking <strong>to</strong> distribute <strong>the</strong>ir public<strong>at</strong>ions throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
world, and <strong>the</strong>ir foreign counterparts seeking <strong>to</strong> distribute<br />
public<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. In <strong>the</strong> case of astronomy,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> would serve as <strong>the</strong> American node, receiving<br />
announcements of discoveries and distributing <strong>the</strong>m<br />
<strong>to</strong> two proposed European nodes— <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ories <strong>at</strong><br />
Leipzig and Vienna— and vice versa. Given Henry’s wellknown<br />
inclin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> support intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
Peters expressed his optimism th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> would<br />
be willing <strong>to</strong> pick up <strong>the</strong> cost of trans-Atlantic telegraph<br />
transmission (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 447)<br />
Henry, responding as Peters had anticip<strong>at</strong>ed, immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
began seeking support for Peters’s plan. It <strong>to</strong>ok eighteen<br />
months for Peters’s proposal <strong>to</strong> be fully implemented,<br />
in part because Henry wanted <strong>to</strong> avoid having science pay<br />
for <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong> telegraph. Within a year, Henry had secured<br />
<strong>the</strong> support of Cyrus Field, <strong>the</strong> f<strong>at</strong>her of <strong>the</strong> Atlantic<br />
cable, and William Or<strong>to</strong>n, president of Western Union, for<br />
free employment of <strong>the</strong> Atlantic Cable and <strong>the</strong> telegraph<br />
system in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es for <strong>the</strong> transmission of astronomical<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a. By February 1873 <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had begun<br />
transmitting inform<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Royal Greenwich Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
for fur<strong>the</strong>r dissemin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> Europe, and through<br />
<strong>the</strong> Associ<strong>at</strong>ed Press, <strong>to</strong> astronomers throughout <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side of <strong>the</strong> Atlantic, <strong>the</strong> European st<strong>at</strong>e<br />
telegraph companies eventually also agreed <strong>to</strong> carry <strong>the</strong><br />
d<strong>at</strong>a free of charge. By May 1873 th<strong>at</strong> Henry was able <strong>to</strong><br />
announce <strong>the</strong> launching of <strong>the</strong> system, with European nodes<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> major n<strong>at</strong>ional observ<strong>at</strong>ories: Greenwich, Paris, Berlin,<br />
Vienna, and, a little l<strong>at</strong>er, Pulkova. Working out some of<br />
<strong>the</strong> confusion over which of <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ories had wh<strong>at</strong> reporting<br />
responsibilities <strong>to</strong>ok some time <strong>to</strong> work out, as did<br />
developing a standard lexicon, but by 1883, when Spencer<br />
Baird, Henry’s successor <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, turned <strong>the</strong><br />
responsibility for <strong>the</strong> U.S. node over <strong>to</strong> Harvard College<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory, <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion exchange was world-wide.<br />
Approxim<strong>at</strong>ely fi fty European observ<strong>at</strong>ories were linked <strong>to</strong><br />
Harvard’s counterpart in Europe, <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ory <strong>at</strong> Kiel,<br />
and connections had also been made with observ<strong>at</strong>ories in<br />
South America, Australia, and South Africa (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et<br />
al., 2007, 448; Jones and Boyd, 1971: 197).<br />
TRANSITS OF VENUS<br />
Transits of Venus, <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion from Earth of <strong>the</strong><br />
passage of th<strong>at</strong> planet across <strong>the</strong> face of <strong>the</strong> sun, are rare<br />
astronomical events. Two occur eight years apart, with<br />
COOPERATION AT THE POLES? 17<br />
a gap of over a century between pairs. Because of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
applic<strong>at</strong>ion in establishing <strong>the</strong> astronomical unit, <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
between <strong>the</strong> earth and <strong>the</strong> sun, which is <strong>the</strong> essential<br />
yardstick for solar system astronomy, <strong>the</strong> astronomical<br />
community was very eager <strong>to</strong> take advantage of <strong>the</strong><br />
opportunities provided by <strong>the</strong> transits of 1874 and 1882.<br />
Ultim<strong>at</strong>ely, 13 n<strong>at</strong>ions sent out observing expeditions <strong>to</strong><br />
observe one or both transits. A number of n<strong>at</strong>ions established<br />
government commissions <strong>to</strong> oversee <strong>the</strong> efforts, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. Astronomers exchanged copies<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir observing pro<strong>to</strong>cols and coordin<strong>at</strong>ed with each<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r in selecting observing sites (Dick, 2004; Duerbeck,<br />
2004; Dick, 2003: 243, 265).<br />
Planning had begun as early as 1857, with <strong>the</strong> public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of Astronomer Royal George B. Airy’s suggestions<br />
of possible observing sites (Airy, 1857). Among <strong>the</strong> desirable<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ions, from an astronomical perspective, was<br />
Antarctica. For <strong>the</strong> fi rst time, <strong>the</strong>re was serious discussion<br />
of establishing a scientifi c observing site in Antarctica.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> transits occurred in December. Were astronomical<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions in Antarctica th<strong>at</strong> time of year practical?<br />
Scientists were divided. Airy, using inform<strong>at</strong>ion provided<br />
him from Edward Sabine, concluded th<strong>at</strong> “December is<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her early in <strong>the</strong> season for a visit <strong>to</strong> this land, but probably<br />
not <strong>to</strong>o early, as especially fi rm ice will be quite as good<br />
for <strong>the</strong>se observ<strong>at</strong>ions as dry land” (1857: 216). He called<br />
for a reconnaissance ahead of time <strong>to</strong> test whe<strong>the</strong>r it was<br />
practical <strong>to</strong> establish an observing st<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Regions.<br />
J. E. Davis, a British naval offi cer and Arctic explorer,<br />
was even more optimistic, although very realistic as <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
diffi culties. He developed a plan in 1869 for observ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1882 transit from Antarctica, but noted in his present<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Royal Geographical Society (1869), th<strong>at</strong> such<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions would have required <strong>the</strong> observing parties <strong>to</strong><br />
winter over. There was insuffi cient time <strong>to</strong> fi nd a safe harbor<br />
and establish <strong>the</strong> observing st<strong>at</strong>ion prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> transit.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case of <strong>the</strong> 1882 observers, Davis argued th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
should be landed in l<strong>at</strong>e 1881 with suffi cient supplies <strong>to</strong> last<br />
two years, even though <strong>the</strong> plan was <strong>to</strong> have <strong>the</strong>m picked<br />
up in about a year. It was necessary <strong>to</strong> leave a margin of<br />
error. He did warn of <strong>the</strong> problem<strong>at</strong>ic we<strong>at</strong>her conditions,<br />
describing <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her as “ei<strong>the</strong>r very bad or very delightful”<br />
(1869: 93). To Davis, it was a gamble worth taking,<br />
but it seemed less <strong>at</strong>tractive <strong>to</strong> astronomers who were going<br />
<strong>to</strong> be making once in a lifetime observ<strong>at</strong>ions. In contrast<br />
<strong>to</strong> Davis and Airy, Simon Newcomb, <strong>the</strong> leading American<br />
astronomer and a member of <strong>the</strong> American Transit of Venus<br />
Commission, was much more pessimistic. He rejected<br />
<strong>the</strong> idea of astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions from “<strong>the</strong> Antarctica<br />
continent and <strong>the</strong> neighboring islands . . . because a party
18 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / ROTHENBERG<br />
can nei<strong>the</strong>r be landed nor subsisted <strong>the</strong>re; and if <strong>the</strong>y could,<br />
<strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her would probably prevent any observ<strong>at</strong>ions from<br />
being taken” (1874: 30).<br />
Although observ<strong>at</strong>ions were not made from <strong>the</strong> continent<br />
of Antarctica, <strong>the</strong> 1874 transit was observed by<br />
parties from Britain, Germany, France, and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es from st<strong>at</strong>ions on islands within <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence,<br />
including Kerguelen (Newcomb apparently<br />
thought Kerguelen suffi ciently north not <strong>to</strong> be considered<br />
“a neighboring island”) and Saint-Paul. The 1874 observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were only moder<strong>at</strong>ely successful because of we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
problems (Bertrand, 1971: 258; Duerbeck, 2004;). But <strong>the</strong><br />
seeds were planted for a more extensive investig<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic. Davis had argued from <strong>the</strong> beginning th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic st<strong>at</strong>ions should also “obtain a series of observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in meteorology and o<strong>the</strong>r branches” (1869:<br />
93), while <strong>the</strong> American expedition conducted biological<br />
and geological collecting which “resulted in a signifi cant<br />
contribution <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> scientifi c knowledge of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic”<br />
(Bertrand, 1971: 255). Although <strong>the</strong> combin<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong><br />
uncertainty of <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her and <strong>the</strong> diffi culties, dangers,<br />
and expense of sending parties <strong>to</strong> Antarctica seemed <strong>to</strong><br />
have discouraged most fur<strong>the</strong>r efforts in th<strong>at</strong> direction for<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1882 transit, Germany sent an expedition <strong>to</strong> South<br />
Georgia for <strong>the</strong> dual purpose of conducting transit of Venus<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and o<strong>the</strong>r observ<strong>at</strong>ions as part of <strong>the</strong> IPY<br />
(Duerbeck, 2004: 14).<br />
L<strong>at</strong>er observers have recognized <strong>the</strong> signifi cance of<br />
<strong>the</strong> transit of Venus expeditions in establishing a precedent<br />
for l<strong>at</strong>er cooper<strong>at</strong>ive research in Antarctica. Julian<br />
Dowdeswell of <strong>the</strong> Scott <strong>Polar</strong> Research Institute has called<br />
<strong>the</strong>se observ<strong>at</strong>ions of 9 December 1872, “<strong>the</strong> earliest example<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional coordin<strong>at</strong>ion in polar science and a<br />
clear precursor <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY” (Dowdeswell, 2007). The<br />
geographer Kenneth Bertrand also argues th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> transit<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions belong <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of Antarctic research,<br />
although he skips over <strong>the</strong> IPY, because it was primarily<br />
an Arctic venture, and contends th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional program<br />
for observing <strong>the</strong> transit was a “predecessor of <strong>the</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year” (1971: 255).<br />
POLAR STUDIES: SURVIVING<br />
THE ELEMENTS AND MORE<br />
So if <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY was not a p<strong>at</strong>h breaking forerunner<br />
of l<strong>at</strong>er intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ive research programs, wh<strong>at</strong><br />
was its signifi cance? It was ‘<strong>Polar</strong>.’ Th<strong>at</strong> may seem obvious,<br />
but <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time when it was organized, uncertainty<br />
hung over <strong>Polar</strong> research, <strong>at</strong> least in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. The<br />
question might be asked: would any effort <strong>to</strong> g<strong>at</strong>her d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Regions be a waste of human and scientifi c<br />
resources?<br />
The United St<strong>at</strong>es, and especially <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>,<br />
had supported scientifi c research in <strong>the</strong> Arctic during <strong>the</strong><br />
three decades prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IPY (Lindsay, 1993; Sherwood,<br />
1965; Fitzhugh, this volume). Some of this could be solidly<br />
placed under <strong>the</strong> heading of intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
though not <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level exemplifi ed by <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY.<br />
For example, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had developed strong ties<br />
with <strong>the</strong> British Hudson’s Bay Company, and in a spirit<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, company employees had collected<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry specimens and made meteorological<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions. In addition, Francis L. McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, a British<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> explorer, had turned his Arctic meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
over <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> for reduction (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg<br />
et al., 2004: 142, 143).<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had also arranged for <strong>the</strong> reduction<br />
and public<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> geophysical observ<strong>at</strong>ions made by<br />
two U.S. polar endeavors, <strong>the</strong> second Elisha Kent Kane<br />
expedition (1853– 1855) and <strong>the</strong> I. I. Hayes expedition<br />
(1860– 1861). The appar<strong>at</strong>us used in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter expedition<br />
were on loan from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et<br />
al., 2004: 142– 144). In addition, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> encouraged<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry research <strong>at</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
in Alaska as part of its broader program of supporting <strong>the</strong><br />
scientifi c explor<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> American West (Fitzhugh, this<br />
volume; Goetzmann, 1966). Among <strong>the</strong> collec<strong>to</strong>rs were<br />
Robert Kennicott, working in conjunction with <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
Union Telegraph Company’s survey of a telegraph<br />
route across Alaska, and W. H. Dall, who was Kennicott’s<br />
successor and <strong>the</strong>n served with <strong>the</strong> U.S. Coast Survey<br />
(Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 128, 397). Both were very closely<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> and its nor<strong>the</strong>rn research<br />
and collecting program (Fitzhugh, this volume).<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> research was dangerous, as Henry admitted in<br />
1860, requiring “much personal inconvenience and perhaps<br />
risk of life” (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2004: 141). Th<strong>at</strong><br />
opinion was no doubt fur<strong>the</strong>r reinforced by <strong>the</strong> de<strong>at</strong>h of<br />
Kennicott in 1866 and <strong>the</strong> disaster of <strong>the</strong> U.S. <strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition,<br />
led by Charles Francis Hall, in 1871. This l<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
expedition has been renown in <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of explor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
because of <strong>the</strong> deb<strong>at</strong>e over whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> expedition’s scientist/physician<br />
murdered <strong>the</strong> commander (Loomis, 1991).<br />
But beyond <strong>the</strong> human cost, <strong>the</strong> expedition’s failure temporarily<br />
dashed <strong>the</strong> hopes of <strong>the</strong> American scientifi c community<br />
for governmental support for intensive research in<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> region.<br />
Although it has been claimed th<strong>at</strong> Hall, an experienced<br />
Arctic explorer, was “lacking credibility as a man of sci-
ence” (Robinson, 2006: 76), he had received <strong>the</strong> endorsement<br />
of Joseph Henry during <strong>the</strong> deb<strong>at</strong>e over who would<br />
lead <strong>the</strong> expedition (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 288). There<br />
was no question th<strong>at</strong> science was <strong>to</strong> be a part of <strong>the</strong> expedition.<br />
The legisl<strong>at</strong>ion which established <strong>the</strong> expedition, and<br />
provided an appropri<strong>at</strong>ion of $50,000 for it, ordered th<strong>at</strong><br />
“<strong>the</strong> scientifi c oper<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> expedition be prescribed<br />
in accordance with <strong>the</strong> advice of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of<br />
Sciences” (United St<strong>at</strong>es, 1871: 251). Th<strong>at</strong> advice, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> selection of <strong>the</strong> scientist, Dr. Emil Bessels, a zoologist,<br />
came primarily from Henry, as president of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Academy of Sciences, and his Assistant Secretary <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>, Spencer F. Baird, who chaired <strong>the</strong> Academy<br />
committee for <strong>the</strong> expedition. In his report on <strong>the</strong> prepar<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
for <strong>the</strong> scientifi c aspect of <strong>the</strong> expedition, Henry<br />
acknowledged th<strong>at</strong> Hall’s primary mission was “not of a<br />
scientifi c character” and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> have <strong>at</strong>tached “a full corps<br />
of scientifi c observers” <strong>to</strong> it would have been inappropri<strong>at</strong>e<br />
(Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 352). Offi cially, he recognized <strong>the</strong><br />
reality of <strong>the</strong> politics of explor<strong>at</strong>ion and was willing <strong>to</strong> settle<br />
for having Bessels and a few junior observers on <strong>the</strong> expedition,<br />
armed with instructions from some of <strong>the</strong> leading scientists<br />
in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es on collecting d<strong>at</strong>a and specimens<br />
in astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
and geology. Unoffi cially, Henry had <strong>the</strong> expect<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong><br />
if <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition was successful, Congress could be<br />
persuaded <strong>to</strong> follow up <strong>the</strong> triumph with an appropri<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
“for ano<strong>the</strong>r expedition of which <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion and investig<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of physical phenomena would be <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
object” (Ro<strong>the</strong>nberg et al., 2007: 355). But with <strong>the</strong> failure<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition in 1871, <strong>the</strong> hope of additional<br />
Congressional funding was dashed. It would be ano<strong>the</strong>r decade<br />
before ano<strong>the</strong>r U.S. government-sponsored expedition<br />
would be sent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> polar region, and it would occur under<br />
<strong>the</strong> auspices of <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY in 1881.<br />
Particip<strong>at</strong>ion by <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY in<br />
1881– 1884 was coordin<strong>at</strong>ed by U.S. Army Signal Corps,<br />
which was experienced in conducting meteorological<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions. However, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> was in charge<br />
of many aspects of <strong>the</strong> U.S. IPY scholarly program and<br />
laid claim <strong>to</strong> all its resulting ‘n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry’ collections<br />
(Krupnik, this volume). The eastern U.S. mission, on Ellesmere<br />
Island, under <strong>the</strong> command of Lt. Adolphus Greely,<br />
was a reasonable success from <strong>the</strong> perspective of its scientifi<br />
c observ<strong>at</strong>ions and d<strong>at</strong>a returned. But <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
was plagued by mutiny, bad luck, and poor judgment, and<br />
more than two-thirds of <strong>the</strong> participants perished. In contrast,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Alaskan (Point Barrow) mission, commanded<br />
by Lt. P. Henry Ray, had an uneventful time, returning<br />
valuable scientifi c d<strong>at</strong>a and abundant n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and<br />
COOPERATION AT THE POLES? 19<br />
ethnology collections with little fuss (Burch, this volume;<br />
Crowell, this volume; Krupnik, this volume). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,<br />
<strong>the</strong> little fuss th<strong>at</strong> accompanied Ray’s expedition may be<br />
<strong>the</strong> most important aspect of it and <strong>the</strong> reason why it was<br />
a turning point in <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of American scientifi c ventures<br />
in <strong>the</strong> polar regions. For <strong>the</strong> fi rst time, an expedition<br />
“made survival in <strong>the</strong> Arctic wastes <strong>at</strong> 70º below zero<br />
look routine <strong>to</strong> Americans” (Goetzmann, 1986: 428). Th<strong>at</strong><br />
survival was <strong>at</strong> least a reasonable expect<strong>at</strong>ion was a necessary<br />
premise <strong>to</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r scientifi c explor<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> polar<br />
regions.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
There is an important cave<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> this apparent success<br />
s<strong>to</strong>ry of increasing science cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. An agreement for<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion was not always followed by<br />
implement<strong>at</strong>ion. As one represent<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> unsuccessful<br />
1853 Brussels conference noted, when <strong>the</strong> deleg<strong>at</strong>es<br />
returned home, “every one followed his own plan and<br />
did wh<strong>at</strong> he pleased” (Fleming, 1990: 109). Even after <strong>the</strong><br />
founding of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Meteorological Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in 1879, confl ict was avoided by <strong>the</strong> issuing of “resolutions<br />
and recommend<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional we<strong>at</strong>her services<br />
could, and often did, ignore” (Edwards, 2004: 827).<br />
In addition, William Budd (2001) was correct in identifying<br />
<strong>the</strong> same half century between roughly 1835 and<br />
1885, which I argue was marked by increased efforts <strong>at</strong><br />
scientifi c cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, as also a half century of intense<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional rivalry. And th<strong>at</strong> rivalry is <strong>the</strong> fl ip side of<br />
<strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of scientifi c cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. Prestige and glory<br />
were strong motiv<strong>at</strong>ions for particip<strong>at</strong>ing in collabor<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
ventures. N<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c communities could, and<br />
frequently did, point <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> activities of intern<strong>at</strong>ional rivals<br />
<strong>to</strong> encourage <strong>the</strong>ir governments <strong>to</strong> provide fi nancial<br />
support for research. Particip<strong>at</strong>ion in certain intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
endeavors, such as <strong>the</strong> Magnetic Crusade or <strong>the</strong> transit<br />
of Venus observ<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> argument went, was absolutely<br />
necessary if a n<strong>at</strong>ion was <strong>to</strong> maintain st<strong>at</strong>us within <strong>the</strong><br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional community. Scientists would use <strong>the</strong> activities<br />
of o<strong>the</strong>r governments <strong>to</strong> shame <strong>the</strong>ir own <strong>to</strong> action. As<br />
Cawood noted, <strong>the</strong> willingness of <strong>the</strong> Norwegian Parliament<br />
<strong>to</strong> fund a geomagnetic expedition in 1828, while <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> same time denying <strong>the</strong> funds for <strong>the</strong> erection of a royal<br />
residence, “became an almost oblig<strong>at</strong>ory precedent <strong>to</strong> be<br />
quoted in all British pleas for <strong>the</strong> government backing<br />
of terrestrial magnetism” (1979: 506). Cawood warned,<br />
moreover, th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re was “a very narrow dividing line between<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion and intern<strong>at</strong>ional rivalry”
20 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / ROTHENBERG<br />
(1979: 518). When intern<strong>at</strong>ional rel<strong>at</strong>ions soured, or n<strong>at</strong>ionalistic<br />
emotions increased, <strong>the</strong> presence of government<br />
funding and <strong>the</strong> recognition of <strong>the</strong> domestic political value<br />
of scientifi c success could possibly result in n<strong>at</strong>ional fac<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
overwhelming <strong>the</strong> cooper<strong>at</strong>ive, intern<strong>at</strong>ional aspects<br />
of research. Intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion in meteorology suffered<br />
from <strong>the</strong> unwillingness of government-funded scientists<br />
<strong>to</strong> turn <strong>the</strong>ir backs on <strong>the</strong> immense investment <strong>the</strong>y<br />
had made in <strong>the</strong>ir own systems and accept a foreign system.<br />
It remains <strong>to</strong> see, when his<strong>to</strong>rians look back, whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
rivalry or cooper<strong>at</strong>ion will be <strong>the</strong> dominant <strong>the</strong>me for <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>at</strong>est Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year in 2007– 2009.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Airy, George B. 1857. On <strong>the</strong> Means which Will Be Available for Correcting<br />
<strong>the</strong> Measure of <strong>the</strong> Sun’s Distance, in <strong>the</strong> Next Twenty-Five<br />
Years. Monthly Notices of <strong>the</strong> Royal Astronomical Society, 17:<br />
208– 221<br />
Anderson, K<strong>at</strong>harine. 2005. Predicting <strong>the</strong> We<strong>at</strong>her: Vic<strong>to</strong>rians and <strong>the</strong><br />
Science of Meteorology. Chicago: Chicago University Press.<br />
Barr, William. 1983. Geographical Aspects of <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year, 1882– 1883. Annals of <strong>the</strong> Associ<strong>at</strong>ion of American Geographers,<br />
73: 463– 484.<br />
Bertrand, Kenneth J. 1971. Americans in Antarctica, 1775– 1948. New<br />
York: American Geographical Society.<br />
Budd, W. F. 2001. “The Scientifi c Imper<strong>at</strong>ive for Antarctic Research.” In<br />
The Antarctic: Past, Present and Future, ed. J. Jabour-Green and M.<br />
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The Policy Process and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year, 1957– 1958<br />
Fae L. Korsmo<br />
Fae L. Korsmo, N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Direc<strong>to</strong>r, Arling<strong>to</strong>n, VA 22230, USA<br />
(fkorsmo@nsf.gov). Accepted 29 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. By <strong>the</strong> post– World War II era, <strong>the</strong> U.S. federal government’s role in science<br />
had expanded considerably. New institutions, such as <strong>the</strong> Offi ce of Naval Research and<br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion, were established <strong>to</strong> fund basic science. Technological<br />
breakthroughs th<strong>at</strong> had provided <strong>the</strong> instruments of war were recognized as having<br />
important economic, civilian applic<strong>at</strong>ions. Understanding <strong>the</strong> earth’s environment, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> extreme polar regions, <strong>the</strong> upper <strong>at</strong>mosphere, and <strong>the</strong> ocean depths, was recognized<br />
as key <strong>to</strong> enhancing a n<strong>at</strong>ion’s communic<strong>at</strong>ions, transport<strong>at</strong>ion, and commerce.<br />
The IGY developed in part from such n<strong>at</strong>ional interests, but became a huge intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
undertaking. The process of intern<strong>at</strong>ional negoti<strong>at</strong>ions leading up <strong>to</strong> and during <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
set a precedent for organizing cooper<strong>at</strong>ive scientifi c undertakings and enshrined norms<br />
and practices for sharing d<strong>at</strong>a and resources. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong> IGY demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> importance<br />
of communic<strong>at</strong>ing results across political, disciplinary, and societal boundaries.<br />
Fifty years l<strong>at</strong>er, <strong>the</strong> organizers of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year embraced <strong>the</strong>se values.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Legacies of <strong>the</strong> Third Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, more commonly known as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957– 1958, include <strong>the</strong> launch<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi rst artifi cial Earth-orbiting s<strong>at</strong>ellites, <strong>the</strong> negoti<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Tre<strong>at</strong>y, <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> World D<strong>at</strong>a Center system, <strong>the</strong> discovery of <strong>the</strong><br />
Van Allen belts, and <strong>the</strong> long-term measurements of <strong>at</strong>mospheric carbon dioxide<br />
and glacial dynamics (Sullivan 1961; Korsmo 2007b). While <strong>the</strong> outcomes of<br />
<strong>the</strong> IGY are well known, <strong>the</strong> social and political processes th<strong>at</strong> led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
are less studied. One of <strong>the</strong> best sources from a policy perspective is a small<br />
pamphlet produced by <strong>the</strong> Congressional Research Service (Bullis 1973). Ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
source is <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences voluminous IGY Archive<br />
in Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C., in addition <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r archives containing <strong>the</strong> papers of IGY<br />
scientists and government sponsors. Some IGY participants have contributed<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir recollections in oral his<strong>to</strong>ries (e.g., Van Allen, 1998; see Acknowledgements),<br />
an excellent source of inform<strong>at</strong>ion on wh<strong>at</strong> it was like <strong>to</strong> be a researcher<br />
or an administr<strong>at</strong>or before, during, and after <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
This chapter draws on archival collections, biographies, oral his<strong>to</strong>ries, and<br />
secondary sources <strong>to</strong> ask <strong>the</strong> question, Wh<strong>at</strong> lessons can IGY teach us about
24 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
organizing and carrying out a large-scale, intern<strong>at</strong>ional,<br />
and multidisciplinary science program? The IGY helped <strong>to</strong><br />
establish a precedent for <strong>the</strong> post– World War II conduct<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional science, particularly as organized campaigns<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional years or decades. In addition, <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. organizers of <strong>the</strong> IGY within <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy<br />
of Sciences left a well-organized archive of document<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
including a set of full transcripts from executive committee<br />
meetings. It is as if <strong>the</strong>y wanted <strong>to</strong> be studied, since <strong>the</strong>y<br />
purposely recorded <strong>the</strong>ir daily convers<strong>at</strong>ions, arguments,<br />
and decisions. As a political scientist, I fi nd this record irresistible.<br />
When it comes <strong>to</strong> setting science agendas, building<br />
coalitions <strong>to</strong> advoc<strong>at</strong>e for programs, and making sure th<strong>at</strong><br />
commitments for funding and o<strong>the</strong>r support are made and<br />
kept, it is seldom one has access <strong>to</strong> so complete a record<br />
of events. Even as we fi nd ourselves in <strong>the</strong> midst of <strong>the</strong><br />
[Fourth] Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007– 2008, it is not <strong>to</strong>o<br />
l<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> learn from <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
Policy can be thought of as a set of processes, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> setting of <strong>the</strong> agenda (<strong>the</strong> list of problems or subjects<br />
<strong>to</strong> which <strong>the</strong> decision-makers are paying serious <strong>at</strong>tention<br />
<strong>at</strong> any given time); <strong>the</strong> specifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of altern<strong>at</strong>ives<br />
from which a choice is <strong>to</strong> be made; an authorit<strong>at</strong>ive choice<br />
among <strong>the</strong> altern<strong>at</strong>ives, and <strong>the</strong> decision itself (Kingdon,<br />
1995). In <strong>the</strong> process of setting <strong>the</strong> agenda or advoc<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
for altern<strong>at</strong>ives, those motiv<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> outcomes form<br />
coalitions and engage in coordin<strong>at</strong>ed behavior based on<br />
common beliefs or motiv<strong>at</strong>ions (Sab<strong>at</strong>ier and Jenkins-<br />
Smith, 1999). Policy entrepreneurs— advoc<strong>at</strong>es willing <strong>to</strong><br />
invest <strong>the</strong>ir resources <strong>to</strong> promote an altern<strong>at</strong>ive in return<br />
for anticip<strong>at</strong>ed future gain— look for opportunities <strong>to</strong> link<br />
solutions <strong>to</strong> problems, using wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y know about <strong>the</strong><br />
relevant coalitions and decision-makers. They are <strong>the</strong> classic<br />
integr<strong>at</strong>ors, cre<strong>at</strong>ing connections among people, problems,<br />
altern<strong>at</strong>ives, and decisions. Once a decision is made,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> question becomes, Who will implement <strong>the</strong> decision?<br />
There must be a credible commitment among institutions<br />
(and by “institutions,” I mean <strong>the</strong> rules and norms<br />
th<strong>at</strong> groups of people live by, which may or may not be<br />
embodied in organiz<strong>at</strong>ions) <strong>to</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ch subsequent actions<br />
with authorit<strong>at</strong>ive choices (North and Weingast, 1989).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> follow-through, <strong>the</strong> rules of <strong>the</strong> game and lines of<br />
accountability become crucial.<br />
The IGY, on <strong>the</strong> one hand a daring and audacious<br />
plan <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> entire earth— surface, oceans, and <strong>at</strong>mosphere—<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pic of concerted studies, and on <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r hand a series of small, incremental decisions taken<br />
independently by numerous small groups, can be unders<strong>to</strong>od<br />
as a set of policy processes. A retrospective analysis<br />
of wh<strong>at</strong> worked enabled us <strong>to</strong> compare <strong>the</strong>se IGY lessons<br />
with <strong>the</strong> science planning we are doing now. Was <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
simply a product of its time or are <strong>the</strong>re enduring legacies<br />
in terms of how we construct and conduct coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
research programs? In terms of process, this chapter provides<br />
some of <strong>the</strong> highlights. First, however, it is helpful <strong>to</strong><br />
examine <strong>the</strong> political context of <strong>the</strong> IGY in comparison <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>Polar</strong> Years.<br />
THE POLITICAL CONTEXT<br />
All of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Years occurred in periods of rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
peace and political stability, when intern<strong>at</strong>ional organiz<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
had emerged in a new or reconstituted fashion (e.g.,<br />
from periods of inactivity during wartime or economic depression)<br />
and when powerful n<strong>at</strong>ions were not distracted<br />
by <strong>the</strong> drain of soldiers and armaments. The idea for a<br />
First <strong>Polar</strong> Year or coordin<strong>at</strong>ed polar studies, for example,<br />
emerged within <strong>the</strong> Austro-Hungarian Empire in <strong>the</strong> early<br />
1870s but only gained traction with o<strong>the</strong>r major powers<br />
after <strong>the</strong> 1878 Congress of Berlin had settled <strong>the</strong> Balkan<br />
War (Baker, 1982). The idea for a Second <strong>Polar</strong> Year was<br />
raised in 1927 and <strong>the</strong> studies <strong>to</strong>ok place in 1932– 1933,<br />
fi fty years after <strong>the</strong> First <strong>Polar</strong> Year (Baker, 1982; Nicolet,<br />
1984). The Gre<strong>at</strong> Depression, followed by <strong>the</strong> outbreak of<br />
World War II and <strong>the</strong> untimely de<strong>at</strong>h of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year Commission’s President D. LaCour in 1942 resulted<br />
in a lengthy delay in publishing <strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong><br />
Second <strong>Polar</strong> Year. By <strong>the</strong> end of World War II, science and<br />
technology, as well as politics, had changed. The main fac<strong>to</strong>r<br />
th<strong>at</strong> separ<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> IGY from <strong>the</strong> fi rst two <strong>Polar</strong> Years<br />
was <strong>the</strong> existence of nuclear weapons and <strong>the</strong> beginnings<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Cold War between East and West. Understanding,<br />
detection, and development of nuclear weapons became<br />
a driving force for investment in <strong>the</strong> physical sciences following<br />
World War II. The Arctic, as geographer Paul Siple<br />
pointed out in 1948, afforded a straight line of <strong>at</strong>tack <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Soviet Union (Siple, 1948). The United St<strong>at</strong>es began <strong>to</strong> conduct<br />
<strong>to</strong>p-secret overfl ight missions <strong>to</strong> determine whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong><br />
Soviet forces were staging long-range bombers in <strong>the</strong> frozen<br />
north (Hall, 1997). The artifi cial Earth-orbiting s<strong>at</strong>ellites<br />
th<strong>at</strong> emerged from <strong>the</strong> IGY were useful in studying <strong>the</strong><br />
upper <strong>at</strong>mosphere but also provided a means of checking<br />
on enemy activities (Day, 2000). Basic science and military<br />
objectives both were motiv<strong>at</strong>ions. The deb<strong>at</strong>e among his<strong>to</strong>rians<br />
has centered on how inextricably linked <strong>the</strong> motiv<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were for particip<strong>at</strong>ing scientists and institutions. As in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst two <strong>Polar</strong> Years, intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c organiz<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
such as <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Meteorological Congress in<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1870s and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council of Scientifi c Unions
in <strong>the</strong> 1930s, played a key role in providing stable, reliable<br />
fora in which <strong>to</strong> build coalitions and collabor<strong>at</strong>ions. However,<br />
individuals— our policy entrepreneurs— also were required<br />
<strong>to</strong> initi<strong>at</strong>e and carry out ambitious programs.<br />
AGENDA SETTING: FIRST, SET A DATE<br />
It sounds easy <strong>to</strong> set a d<strong>at</strong>e but even this requires some<br />
thought. How many declared intern<strong>at</strong>ional years of this<br />
and decades of th<strong>at</strong> pass unnoticed? There has <strong>to</strong> be a reason<br />
for <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, preferably a reason tied <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> proposed<br />
activity, an agenda th<strong>at</strong> establishes <strong>the</strong> urgency of action<br />
within a specifi c time frame. Wh<strong>at</strong> is <strong>the</strong> scientifi c justifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion for an “intern<strong>at</strong>ional year”? Unless <strong>the</strong> urgency<br />
appeals <strong>to</strong> a community of scientists beyond <strong>the</strong> initially<br />
small group of advoc<strong>at</strong>es, it will be diffi cult <strong>to</strong> affi x a convincing<br />
time period for intense activity.<br />
Setting a d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>n, requires <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> persuade<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs and build coalitions of advoc<strong>at</strong>es and future performers—<br />
those who will carry out <strong>the</strong> activity. Building<br />
<strong>the</strong> coalitions requires access <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r potential supporters<br />
who can help <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> case. Access comes through<br />
networks of contacts, including committees, boards, and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r fora.<br />
It helps <strong>to</strong> start with venues th<strong>at</strong> allow for <strong>the</strong> exchange<br />
of ideas. Most sources place <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> home of Dr. James Van Allen, in Silver Spring,<br />
Maryland in <strong>the</strong> spring of 1950 (Sullivan, 1961; Van Allen,<br />
1997 and 1998). Trained as a nuclear physicist, Van<br />
Allen (1914– 2006) was well known for <strong>the</strong> development<br />
of <strong>the</strong> proximity fuze during World War II. He became<br />
involved in <strong>the</strong> use of rockets <strong>to</strong> study <strong>the</strong> upper <strong>at</strong>mosphere<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>ely following <strong>the</strong> war, instrumenting<br />
captured and refurbished German V-2 rockets <strong>to</strong> study<br />
cosmic radi<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> ionosphere, and geomagnetism. At<br />
<strong>the</strong> time of Chapman’s visit, Van Allen headed up a highaltitude<br />
research group <strong>at</strong> Johns Hopkins University, Applied<br />
Physics Lab. Shortly <strong>the</strong>reafter, Van Allen would go<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> University of Iowa, where he would spend most of<br />
his professional career as a professor of physics (American<br />
Institute of Physics, 2000). While in Maryland, he and his<br />
wife Abigail hosted a dinner on 5 April 1950 for British<br />
geophysicist Sydney Chapman (1888– 1970). Chapman,<br />
a <strong>the</strong>oretical physicist interested in <strong>the</strong> earth’s magnetic<br />
phenomena, had particip<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> Second <strong>Polar</strong> Year of<br />
1932– 1933. He was well known for his work on magnetic<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rms, and would come <strong>to</strong> spend a gre<strong>at</strong> deal of time in<br />
<strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University of Alaska Fairbanks,<br />
<strong>the</strong> High Altitude Observ<strong>at</strong>ory in Boulder, Colorado, and<br />
POLICY PROCESS AND THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR 25<br />
University of Michigan (Good, 2000). He was <strong>to</strong> start his<br />
lengthy U.S. sojourn <strong>at</strong> Caltech. In April 1950, Chapman<br />
was in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es on his way <strong>to</strong> join a Caltech study<br />
on <strong>the</strong> upper <strong>at</strong>mosphere. Van Allen described <strong>the</strong> g<strong>at</strong>hering<br />
as “one of <strong>the</strong> most felici<strong>to</strong>us and inspiring” th<strong>at</strong><br />
he had ever experienced. Also present <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dinner was<br />
Lloyd Berkner, a former radio engineer who had been on<br />
Admiral Byrd’s 1928– 1930 Antarctic expedition. Berkner<br />
had both science and policy in his background. According<br />
<strong>to</strong> Van Allen,<br />
The dinner convers<strong>at</strong>ion ranged widely over geophysics and<br />
especially geomagnetism and ionospheric physics. Following<br />
dinner, as we were all sipping brandy in <strong>the</strong> living room, Berkner<br />
turned <strong>to</strong> Chapman and said, “Sydney, don’t you think th<strong>at</strong> it is<br />
about time for ano<strong>the</strong>r intern<strong>at</strong>ional polar year?” Chapman immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
embraced <strong>the</strong> suggestion, remarking th<strong>at</strong> he had been<br />
thinking along <strong>the</strong> same lines himself. (Van Allen, 1998:5)<br />
Chapman also observed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> years 1957– 1958<br />
would be a time of maximum solar activity, so <strong>the</strong> time<br />
frame for <strong>the</strong> Third <strong>Polar</strong> Year was settled. The properties<br />
of <strong>the</strong> upper <strong>at</strong>mosphere, including <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
among magnetic s<strong>to</strong>rms, cosmic rays, and solar activity intrigued<br />
scientists. The military, in particular, was interested<br />
in very-high-frequency sc<strong>at</strong>ter technology for reliable lowcapacity<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> could avoid <strong>the</strong> disruptions<br />
caused by solar emissions, magnetic s<strong>to</strong>rms, and auroras.<br />
The perturb<strong>at</strong>ions eman<strong>at</strong>ed from high l<strong>at</strong>itudes. Choosing<br />
a year of maximum solar activity for a new intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
polar venture made scientifi c sense for <strong>at</strong>mospheric physicists<br />
interested in understanding more about <strong>the</strong>se highl<strong>at</strong>itude<br />
phenomena. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, as Chapman explained<br />
l<strong>at</strong>er (1960, 313) and may well have noted <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Van Allen<br />
residence, technological improvements in instrument<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and rocketry had now enabled scientists <strong>to</strong> probe much<br />
deeper in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere. The time was ripe. Was <strong>the</strong><br />
Berkner-Chapman exchange rehearsed? Perhaps. But <strong>the</strong><br />
main point is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re were many opportunities for leading<br />
scientists <strong>to</strong> get <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r and persuade one ano<strong>the</strong>r of<br />
<strong>the</strong> need for an intense research campaign (Kevles, 1990).<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> main venues in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es after World<br />
War II was <strong>the</strong> Joint Research and Development Board, renamed<br />
<strong>the</strong> U.S. Research and Development Board in 1947.<br />
Led by Vannevar Bush, <strong>the</strong> Research and Development<br />
Board combined civilian researchers and military personnel<br />
in determining and coordin<strong>at</strong>ing research priorities<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Department of Defense. Bush was President of <strong>the</strong><br />
Carnegie Institution of Washing<strong>to</strong>n and had led <strong>the</strong> Joint<br />
Committee on New Weapons and Equipment during <strong>the</strong>
26 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
war. Widely respected <strong>to</strong>day as <strong>the</strong> author of Science— The<br />
Endless Frontier (Bush, 1945), a book th<strong>at</strong> stressed <strong>the</strong> importance<br />
of basic research in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Bush represented<br />
<strong>the</strong> transition from wartime science— applic<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
focused on immedi<strong>at</strong>e problems of winning <strong>the</strong> war— <strong>to</strong><br />
peacetime science— research in<strong>to</strong> fundamental questions<br />
for <strong>the</strong> sake of discovery.<br />
The Research and Development Board’s committees<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir subcommittees and panels <strong>to</strong>ok up scientifi c<br />
problems th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> military identifi ed— or civilian scientists<br />
identifi ed for <strong>the</strong>m. They covered <strong>the</strong> physical, medical, biological,<br />
and geophysical sciences (U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives<br />
and Records Administr<strong>at</strong>ion, n.d.). Vannevar Bush tapped<br />
Lloyd Berkner (1905– 1967) <strong>to</strong> run <strong>the</strong> Research and Development<br />
Board as its executive secretary. Berkner, profi<br />
led in Allan Needell’s excellent biography (2000), had a<br />
rich experience in ionospheric research, government consulting,<br />
and n<strong>at</strong>ional security. He had been <strong>to</strong> Antarctica<br />
in 1928– 1930. He was not afraid <strong>to</strong> speak out publicly on<br />
science policy. He was perfect example of a policy entrepreneur:<br />
breaking down boundaries between government<br />
agencies and between government and o<strong>the</strong>r sec<strong>to</strong>rs of<br />
society, exploiting every opportunity for bringing solutions—<br />
in this case technological breakthroughs and scientifi<br />
c programs— <strong>to</strong> problems. In <strong>the</strong> world of agenda<br />
setting, solutions, carried in <strong>the</strong> pockets of entrepreneurs,<br />
go searching for problems. While we are left with <strong>the</strong> impression<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Berkner fi rst introduced <strong>the</strong> idea of a Third<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Van Allen home in April<br />
1950, undoubtedly he had broached <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pic before, perhaps<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Research and Development Board, using his<br />
previous Antarctic experience and his knowledge of postwar<br />
developments in intern<strong>at</strong>ional science policy.<br />
Berkner was not <strong>the</strong> only science entrepreneur in <strong>the</strong><br />
postwar science world. One can also think of Swedish meteorologist<br />
Carl Gustav Rossby (1898– 1957), who called <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong>tention of <strong>the</strong> U.S. military <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e warming occurring<br />
in <strong>the</strong> 1920s through <strong>the</strong> 1940s (e.g. Rossby 1947). His<br />
fellow Swede, glaciologist Hans W. Ahlmann (1889– 1974),<br />
studied <strong>the</strong> properties of glaciers as indic<strong>at</strong>ors of clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ion. Rossby urged <strong>the</strong> U.S. military <strong>to</strong> take advantage<br />
of Ahlmann’s knowledge as <strong>the</strong> military searched for<br />
expertise on high-l<strong>at</strong>itude oper<strong>at</strong>ions. Because <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
represented <strong>the</strong> shortest distance between <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and Soviet terri<strong>to</strong>ry, Rossby and Ahlmann knew <strong>the</strong>y had<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tention of <strong>the</strong> U.S. military planners. Using solid ice<br />
for planes and o<strong>the</strong>r military transport was fi ne as long as<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice was not melting; a warming trend would require a<br />
change in str<strong>at</strong>egy. In a way, it was Ahlmann who helped<br />
<strong>to</strong> set <strong>the</strong> science agenda for <strong>the</strong> IGY’s approach <strong>to</strong> glaciology.<br />
Using mountain glaciers, Ahlmann measured accumul<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
abl<strong>at</strong>ion, and regime (<strong>the</strong> grand <strong>to</strong>tal of a glacier’s<br />
entire accumul<strong>at</strong>ion and net abl<strong>at</strong>ion) and recommended<br />
simultaneous measurements in different clim<strong>at</strong>es (Kirwan<br />
et al., 1949). In 1946, he called for exact measurements <strong>to</strong><br />
be made on <strong>the</strong> ice sheets: temper<strong>at</strong>ures <strong>at</strong> different depths,<br />
seismic methods <strong>to</strong> compute thickness, and detailed observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of str<strong>at</strong>ifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of annual layers. The only way <strong>to</strong><br />
do this system<strong>at</strong>ic comparison in different parts of <strong>the</strong> world<br />
was through inter n<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion (Ahlmann, 1946).<br />
Ahlmann’s frequent calls for this style of compar<strong>at</strong>ive work<br />
eventually led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian- British-Swedish Antarctic<br />
Expedition of 1949– 1952, <strong>the</strong> fi rst scientifi c traverse<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic interior. This traverse served as a model<br />
for <strong>the</strong> IGY expeditions <strong>to</strong> Antarctica (Bentley, 1964). Of<br />
course, <strong>the</strong> U.S. had political reasons for a scientifi c presence<br />
in Antarctica; <strong>the</strong> existence of competing terri<strong>to</strong>rial<br />
claims and concerns about possible Soviet claims ensured<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic would have a place on <strong>the</strong> IGY agenda (U.S.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Security Council, 1957).<br />
How did <strong>the</strong> Third <strong>Polar</strong> Year, originally envisioned<br />
as a high-l<strong>at</strong>itude, upper-<strong>at</strong>mosphere research campaign,<br />
become <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year? In <strong>the</strong> process<br />
of enlisting support among <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c societies,<br />
Chapman and Berkner found a strong preference for<br />
a global program encompassing additional geographical<br />
regions and physical science disciplines. To <strong>at</strong>tain widespread<br />
support, Chapman and Berkner skillfully embraced<br />
a much broader geophysical agenda.<br />
The intern<strong>at</strong>ional science scene after World War II included<br />
a reconstituted Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council of Scientifi c<br />
Unions (ICSU), a body where membership was both by<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ion-st<strong>at</strong>e and by intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c union, e.g., <strong>the</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).<br />
The n<strong>at</strong>ional member might be a n<strong>at</strong>ional academy or a<br />
government agency with research responsibilities. Berkner<br />
and Chapman fi rst presented <strong>the</strong> idea for <strong>the</strong> Third Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> constituent scientifi c unions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> made up a “Mixed Commission on <strong>the</strong> Ionosphere”<br />
under ICSU (Beynon, 1975:53). These unions included<br />
<strong>the</strong> IUGG, Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Astronomy Union (IAU), Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), and<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Radio Science (URSI) (Beynon,<br />
1975:53). The unions, in turn, presented <strong>the</strong> proposal <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ICSU General Assembly, and ICSU, in turn, invited<br />
<strong>the</strong> World Meteorological Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion (WMO) <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e<br />
as well as <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional organiz<strong>at</strong>ions adhering<br />
<strong>to</strong> ICSU. (Note th<strong>at</strong> this p<strong>at</strong>tern of approaching interna-
tional scientifi c organiz<strong>at</strong>ions fi rst ICSU, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> WMO,<br />
was also used <strong>to</strong> prepare for <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
2007– 2008). By 1953, <strong>the</strong>re were 26 countries signed<br />
up <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in wh<strong>at</strong> came <strong>to</strong> be known as <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year 1957– 1958. The disciplines included<br />
practically all <strong>the</strong> earth, <strong>at</strong>mosphere, and oceanic<br />
sciences, covering many parts of <strong>the</strong> globe beyond <strong>the</strong><br />
polar regions (Nicolet, 1984). The price of coalition building<br />
beyond <strong>the</strong> minimum one needs <strong>to</strong> win an objective is<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> agenda— <strong>the</strong> set of interesting science questions<br />
and <strong>to</strong>pics— becomes expansive and unwieldy.<br />
Political scientists have <strong>the</strong>orized th<strong>at</strong> a minimum<br />
winning coalition— <strong>the</strong> number of political parties, represent<strong>at</strong>ives,<br />
or individuals needed <strong>to</strong> win a particular competition<br />
such as an election— will prevail in democr<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
politics given a zero-sum situ<strong>at</strong>ion of clear winners and<br />
losers (Riker, 1962). Surplus coalition members may bring<br />
instability and demands th<strong>at</strong> cannot be met. While coalition<br />
<strong>the</strong>ory has been a lively <strong>to</strong>pic of deb<strong>at</strong>e and study in<br />
<strong>the</strong> political science liter<strong>at</strong>ure (e.g., Cusack et al., 2007), I<br />
believe it is a useful concept outside <strong>the</strong> realm of elec<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
politics <strong>to</strong> analyze <strong>the</strong> building of science coalitions, which<br />
are not necessarily zero-sum endeavors.<br />
Did Berkner, Chapman, and <strong>the</strong>ir allies know th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
needed <strong>to</strong> build a large umbrella? Their intentions are not<br />
explicit, but <strong>the</strong>y may have felt th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y needed as much<br />
support as possible from <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi c organiz<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in order <strong>to</strong> press <strong>the</strong>ir case <strong>at</strong> home for an IGY.<br />
To prevent <strong>the</strong> science agenda from becoming <strong>to</strong>o diffuse,<br />
barriers <strong>to</strong> entry have <strong>to</strong> be established. By 1954, <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
IGY organizing committee (set up by ICSU in 1952<br />
and known as CSAGI after its French name, Comité Spécial<br />
de l’Année Géophysique Intern<strong>at</strong>ionale) established criteria<br />
for IGY proposals. Priority would be given <strong>to</strong> projects with<br />
<strong>at</strong> least one of <strong>the</strong> following characteristics:<br />
1. Problems requiring concurrent synoptic observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>at</strong> many points involving cooper<strong>at</strong>ive observ<strong>at</strong>ions by<br />
many n<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
2. Problems in geophysical sciences whose solutions<br />
would be aided by <strong>the</strong> availability of synoptic or o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ed work during <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
3. Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of all major geophysical phenomena in<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively inaccessible regions of <strong>the</strong> Earth th<strong>at</strong> can be<br />
occupied during <strong>the</strong> IGY because of <strong>the</strong> extraordinary<br />
effort during th<strong>at</strong> interval (<strong>the</strong> Arctic and Antarctic).<br />
4. Epochal observ<strong>at</strong>ions of slowly varying terrestrial phenomena<br />
(Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council of Scientifi c Unions,<br />
1959). 1<br />
POLICY PROCESS AND THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR 27<br />
These were not arbitrary or unreasonable criteria,<br />
since <strong>the</strong>y still permitted a variety of disciplines and conformed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> main with <strong>the</strong> justifi c<strong>at</strong>ion for a coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
program confi ned <strong>to</strong> an 18-month time period,<br />
from July 1957 until December1958. Each discipline fi tting<br />
<strong>the</strong> criteria had a reporter, whose responsibilities included<br />
working with <strong>the</strong> appropri<strong>at</strong>e scientifi c union <strong>to</strong><br />
organize <strong>the</strong> program for th<strong>at</strong> discipline. The program for<br />
each discipline was fi rst outlined by an IGY Committee<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> appropri<strong>at</strong>e scientifi c union or by some<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r ICSU body. Detailed coordin<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> program,<br />
such as <strong>the</strong> issuance of instruction manuals for <strong>the</strong> taking<br />
of measurements, was <strong>the</strong> responsibility of <strong>the</strong> reporter.<br />
The overall direction was <strong>the</strong> responsibility of <strong>the</strong> CSAGI<br />
Bureau (Bullis, 1973; Nicolet, 1984; see Appendix 1).<br />
The CSAGI Bureau members, reporters, and members<br />
of <strong>the</strong> CSAGI General Assembly all served based on <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
scientifi c fi eld and <strong>the</strong>ir professional standing in <strong>the</strong> ICSU<br />
unions r<strong>at</strong>her than based on n<strong>at</strong>ionality. Represent<strong>at</strong>ion on<br />
<strong>the</strong> basis of science r<strong>at</strong>her than n<strong>at</strong>ionality enabled CSAGI<br />
and <strong>the</strong> committees <strong>to</strong> focus on <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> work <strong>to</strong> be<br />
done. This model set a precedent in subsequent ICSU and<br />
joint ICSU/WMO scientifi c campaigns, most recently in IPY<br />
2007– 2008. A separ<strong>at</strong>e Advisory Council, composed of one<br />
deleg<strong>at</strong>e from each n<strong>at</strong>ional IGY committee, assisted with<br />
practical arrangements such as fi nances, regional meetings,<br />
access <strong>to</strong> foreign terri<strong>to</strong>ry and facilities, bil<strong>at</strong>eral exchanges,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> collection and s<strong>to</strong>rage of d<strong>at</strong>a. The n<strong>at</strong>ional committees,<br />
through <strong>the</strong> Advisory Council, were responsible for<br />
implement<strong>at</strong>ion (Bullis, 1973).<br />
The use of n<strong>at</strong>ional committees for <strong>the</strong> IGY ensured<br />
th<strong>at</strong> government agencies— both as sources of funding<br />
and as authorities— would be involved in science planning<br />
from <strong>the</strong> beginning. Decisions about wh<strong>at</strong> was <strong>to</strong> be<br />
funded were made <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional level, so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
amounted <strong>to</strong> a loosely coordin<strong>at</strong>ed set of parallel (or simultaneously<br />
run) n<strong>at</strong>ional programs. The structure of<br />
parallel science committees and <strong>the</strong> advisory council <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional level enabled realistic commitments <strong>to</strong> be<br />
made on <strong>the</strong> spot.<br />
The U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences assembled <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY n<strong>at</strong>ional committee of 19 members (see Appendix<br />
2; Atwood 1952) in early 1953 and it included government<br />
scientists, oper<strong>at</strong>ional agencies such as <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
We<strong>at</strong>her Bureau, funding agencies, and <strong>the</strong> military agencies<br />
th<strong>at</strong> would provide personnel and logistics. The U.S.<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ional committee formed special technical panels <strong>to</strong> plan<br />
<strong>the</strong> science and evalu<strong>at</strong>e proposals sent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion. Including <strong>the</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>ional agencies
28 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
ensured th<strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong>ever academic scientists had in mind<br />
could be compared <strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> was possible on <strong>the</strong> ground.<br />
The N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF), established<br />
with a very small budget in 1950, was charged <strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong><br />
offi cial IGY funding agency in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> one<br />
th<strong>at</strong> would carry forward and coordin<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> IGY budget<br />
for <strong>the</strong> U.S. government. The direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> NSF, Alan<br />
W<strong>at</strong>erman, enthusiastically supported and lobbied for <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY, no doubt seeing an opportunity for <strong>the</strong> small agency<br />
<strong>to</strong> gain visibility and resources (Korsmo and Sfraga, 2003).<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ionally, UNESCO helped out fi nancially (Bullis,<br />
1973). As an independent, nonmilitary agency, <strong>the</strong> NSF<br />
offered a credible funding source both here in <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es and intern<strong>at</strong>ionally, in an era where military funding—<br />
accompanied by classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion and secrecy— was <strong>the</strong><br />
prime source of most geophysical research. The IGY was<br />
<strong>to</strong> be civilian in character, with <strong>the</strong> scientifi c results shared<br />
in <strong>the</strong> open liter<strong>at</strong>ure. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> logistics for fi eldwork<br />
and of course <strong>the</strong> s<strong>at</strong>ellite program would be shouldered<br />
by <strong>the</strong> military agencies.<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> about political and monetary support for <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY? Where was <strong>the</strong> money coming from? Th<strong>at</strong> is where<br />
solutions go searching for problems. In order <strong>to</strong> persuade<br />
nonspecialists <strong>to</strong> fund <strong>the</strong> large-scale nonmilitary science<br />
program, <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee for <strong>the</strong> IGY had<br />
<strong>to</strong> move beyond agenda-setting and coalition building<br />
with scientists and executive branch agencies <strong>to</strong> approach<br />
<strong>the</strong> U.S. Congress and respond <strong>to</strong> congressional concerns<br />
about <strong>the</strong> public value of science.<br />
LINK SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS:<br />
THE STATE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION<br />
IN THE UNITED STATES<br />
The N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences’ IGY Archive provides<br />
evidence th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee for <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY reached out <strong>to</strong> many audiences and answered <strong>the</strong><br />
hundreds of inquiries received from teachers, students,<br />
media, and members of <strong>the</strong> public. The archive contains,<br />
for example, a copy of a letter <strong>to</strong> an elementary school student<br />
who had written of his ambition <strong>to</strong> become a “space<br />
man.” Hugh Odishaw (1916– 1984), ano<strong>the</strong>r entrepreneurial<br />
character and, as <strong>the</strong> Executive Direc<strong>to</strong>r <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee, <strong>the</strong> architect of <strong>the</strong> Committee’s inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
str<strong>at</strong>egy, replied with a two-page letter:<br />
I was happy <strong>to</strong> receive your well-written letter, and <strong>to</strong> learn<br />
of your interest in becoming a “Space Man.” While you are in<br />
elementary school, you won’t have <strong>to</strong> choose your own subjects<br />
of course. L<strong>at</strong>er on, when you <strong>to</strong> go high school and college,<br />
you will want <strong>to</strong> take as many M<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ics and Science courses<br />
as possible, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with courses in English, His<strong>to</strong>ry, and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
subjects which will help <strong>to</strong> make you a well-rounded person, as<br />
well as a possible “Space Man.”<br />
The letter goes on <strong>to</strong> recommend reading all <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erials<br />
assigned by <strong>the</strong> student’s teacher in addition <strong>to</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r books such as Ronald Fraser’s Once Round <strong>the</strong> Sun<br />
(H. Odishaw, letter <strong>to</strong> J. Bunch, 15 April 1958, in Chron.<br />
fi le, IGY Offi ce of Inform<strong>at</strong>ion, N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences<br />
IGY Collection, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.).<br />
Odishaw’s response <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> young student is typical of<br />
<strong>the</strong> care with which <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee’s Offi ce<br />
of Inform<strong>at</strong>ion answered <strong>the</strong> mail. During <strong>the</strong> IGY, about<br />
a dozen people worked in this Offi ce, maintaining close<br />
contact with media, schools, government agencies, Congress,<br />
priv<strong>at</strong>e industry, and professional societies.<br />
Well before <strong>the</strong> IGY began in 1957, <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Committee for <strong>the</strong> IGY thought about providing educ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials and general inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> exciting<br />
“experiments in concert” th<strong>at</strong> were about <strong>to</strong> begin.<br />
Broadly accessible inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> IGY was necessary<br />
background for <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion’s<br />
IGY budget request, but also <strong>the</strong>re was a sense of urgency<br />
regarding <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>e of science educ<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> country. In<br />
its 30 November 1956 issue, <strong>the</strong> magazine U.S. News and<br />
World Report focused on educ<strong>at</strong>ion and science, noting<br />
<strong>the</strong> disparity between <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> size of <strong>the</strong> workforce engaged in technical<br />
and engineering jobs. One of <strong>the</strong> articles in this issue,<br />
by chemist and businessman Arnold Beckman (who developed<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst commercially successful pH meter), leveled<br />
<strong>the</strong> all-<strong>to</strong>o-familiar complaints about <strong>the</strong> American<br />
school system: it has failed <strong>to</strong> anticip<strong>at</strong>e and prepare for<br />
<strong>the</strong> increasing need for more scientists and engineers; its<br />
science teachers are not competent <strong>to</strong> teach science; and<br />
its teacher certifi c<strong>at</strong>ion requirements pay more <strong>at</strong>tention<br />
<strong>to</strong> how <strong>to</strong> teach r<strong>at</strong>her than mastery of <strong>the</strong> subject m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
(Beckman, 1956).<br />
Beckman was not <strong>the</strong> only one calling for improvements<br />
in science and m<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ics educ<strong>at</strong>ion across <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es. The U.S. Congress raised <strong>the</strong> same concerns <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> IGY Committee. As<br />
recounted <strong>to</strong> Hugh Odishaw by S. Paul Kramer, a consultant<br />
<strong>to</strong> Odishaw who <strong>at</strong>tended <strong>the</strong> congressional hearings,<br />
Sen<strong>at</strong>or Everett Dirksen (R– Illinois) urged <strong>the</strong> IGY scientists<br />
<strong>to</strong> involve <strong>the</strong> high schools and colleges in real time: “I<br />
would not like <strong>to</strong> see available inform<strong>at</strong>ion embalmed until<br />
<strong>the</strong> year and a half is over,” said Dirksen. “I would like <strong>to</strong>
see it move out where it will do good.” Sen<strong>at</strong>or Warren<br />
Magnuson (D– Washing<strong>to</strong>n) reminded <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> educ<strong>at</strong>ion and public outreach were well<br />
within <strong>the</strong> scope of <strong>the</strong> Found<strong>at</strong>ion’s mand<strong>at</strong>e: “I know<br />
from having authored <strong>the</strong> bill. The real reason for approving<br />
it was this sort of thing” (S. P. Kramer, correspondence<br />
<strong>to</strong> H. Odishaw, 6 March 1957, in Chron. fi le, IGY Offi ce<br />
of Inform<strong>at</strong>ion, N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences IGY Collection,<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.). In response, <strong>the</strong> IGY organizers<br />
worked with publishers, universities specializing in teacher<br />
training, and organiz<strong>at</strong>ions such as <strong>the</strong> Science Service <strong>to</strong><br />
develop educ<strong>at</strong>ional pamphlets, teacher guides, posters, and<br />
classroom activities. An example of one of IGY posters on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Oceans th<strong>at</strong> also appeared in a pamphlet is reproduced<br />
in Figure 1. The IGY organizers also produced a fi lm series,<br />
Planet Earth, released in 1960, for use in schools and<br />
for educ<strong>at</strong>ional television (U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee for <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY, 1960; Korsmo, 2004).<br />
There was little if any dissent on <strong>the</strong> need for an educ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and inform<strong>at</strong>ion campaign; <strong>the</strong> organizers believed<br />
it was <strong>the</strong> right thing <strong>to</strong> do. The arguments th<strong>at</strong> emerged<br />
from <strong>the</strong> archival records were about <strong>the</strong> best ways of doing<br />
it (Korsmo, 2004).<br />
FULFILLING THE COMMITMENTS: DATA,<br />
PUBLICATION, AND RESULTS<br />
The justifi c<strong>at</strong>ion for having a Third Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year, which became <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical<br />
Year, only twenty-fi ve years after <strong>the</strong> Second <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
of 1932– 1933 rested in part on <strong>the</strong> many advances made<br />
in techniques of geophysical observ<strong>at</strong>ion, including radio<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ions and avi<strong>at</strong>ion (Chapman, 1960). If new<br />
techniques of analysis, including advances in instrument<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and processing, seem adequ<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> push for large-scale<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a collection, <strong>the</strong>n how does one go about it on a worldwide<br />
scale? Who takes responsibility <strong>to</strong> collect, process,<br />
and share <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a in useable form<strong>at</strong>s?<br />
This was <strong>the</strong> question faced by <strong>the</strong> designers of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year. The U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee<br />
for <strong>the</strong> IGY met for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time on 27 March 1953 in<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C. In Berkner’s absence on <strong>the</strong> fi rst day, <strong>the</strong><br />
participants expressed <strong>the</strong>ir doubts. There were <strong>at</strong> least<br />
two problems: fi rst, <strong>the</strong> question of whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Soviet<br />
Union would particip<strong>at</strong>e <strong>at</strong> all, and second, <strong>the</strong> problem of<br />
secrecy and classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of geophysical d<strong>at</strong>a th<strong>at</strong> existed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es (Gerson, 1953; Needell, 2000).<br />
How could you have a worldwide program when <strong>the</strong><br />
Soviet Union and its allies were not involved? With Stalin’s<br />
POLICY PROCESS AND THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR 29<br />
de<strong>at</strong>h earlier th<strong>at</strong> month, on 6 March 1953, <strong>the</strong> question<br />
hung in <strong>the</strong> air: Would <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union open up? At <strong>the</strong><br />
time, <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union belonged <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Meteorological<br />
Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Astronomical<br />
Union, but not <strong>to</strong> ICSU or o<strong>the</strong>r ICSU member unions.<br />
There was hardly any d<strong>at</strong>a exchange between <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es and its allies and <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union except for routine<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her observ<strong>at</strong>ions. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es also classifi ed much of its d<strong>at</strong>a; <strong>the</strong> entire polar program<br />
funded by <strong>the</strong> military, for example. How could <strong>the</strong><br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es expect <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union <strong>to</strong> supply d<strong>at</strong>a when<br />
we withheld ours? All high-l<strong>at</strong>itude ionospheric d<strong>at</strong>a— <strong>the</strong><br />
original focus of <strong>the</strong> Third <strong>Polar</strong> Year as proposed by<br />
Berkner and Chapman back in 1950— were considered<br />
classifi ed in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
The U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee for <strong>the</strong> IGY was not <strong>the</strong><br />
only committee <strong>to</strong> raise <strong>the</strong> problem of classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
secrecy. In May 1953, <strong>the</strong> U.S. Research and Development<br />
Board’s Geophysics Committee also raised <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
army, navy, and air force (U.S. Research and Development<br />
Board, 1953). The Geophysics Committee made a distinction<br />
between basic d<strong>at</strong>a— “<strong>the</strong> elementary building blocks<br />
of scientifi c progress in <strong>the</strong> earth sciences”— and <strong>the</strong> end<br />
products, such as reports th<strong>at</strong> might be used for military or<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ional security purposes. Free access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a, insisted<br />
<strong>the</strong> Committee, was necessary for scientifi c progress.<br />
The designers of <strong>the</strong> IGY deliber<strong>at</strong>ely decided in favor<br />
of a science program with free and open d<strong>at</strong>a exchange.<br />
Indeed, <strong>the</strong>y saw IGY as a means <strong>to</strong> loosen up <strong>the</strong> secrecy<br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong>ir own country in addition <strong>to</strong> encouraging<br />
better d<strong>at</strong>a fl ow from o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> fall of 1954, it became clear th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union<br />
would indeed particip<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> IGY, so Berkner instructed<br />
<strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee <strong>to</strong> prepare a description of<br />
all <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es was prepared <strong>to</strong> g<strong>at</strong>her<br />
and exchange. The idea was <strong>to</strong> get standardized instruments<br />
<strong>to</strong> record multiple observ<strong>at</strong>ions taken <strong>at</strong> frequent<br />
intervals in many parts of <strong>the</strong> world. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
would be recorded, analyzed, syn<strong>the</strong>sized, and preserved<br />
in usable form<strong>at</strong>s for fur<strong>the</strong>r study. As Berkner <strong>to</strong>ld <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee in 1953, “Let our measurements<br />
be designed so th<strong>at</strong> repe<strong>at</strong>s during <strong>the</strong> 4th [Geophysical<br />
Year] will be valuable” (Gerson, 1953).<br />
The idea of <strong>the</strong> world d<strong>at</strong>a centers also came up early<br />
in <strong>the</strong> IGY planning process (Chapman, 1955). The United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es volunteered <strong>to</strong> host one, which became a distributed<br />
system involving several universities and research institutions<br />
all over <strong>the</strong> country, and <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union followed<br />
suit. A third world d<strong>at</strong>a center was established for<br />
Europe and Japan. Multiple d<strong>at</strong>a sets in different parts of
30 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
FIGURE 1. The Oceans, IGY Poster. N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences, 1958.
<strong>the</strong> world were encouraged <strong>to</strong> ensure against c<strong>at</strong>astrophic<br />
destruction of a single center and <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a accessible<br />
<strong>to</strong> researchers in different parts of <strong>the</strong> world.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional IGY committees were responsible<br />
for delivering timely and quality d<strong>at</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> world d<strong>at</strong>a centers<br />
were responsible for <strong>the</strong> safekeeping, reproduction,<br />
c<strong>at</strong>aloging, and accessibility of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a. Anyone engaged<br />
in research was <strong>to</strong> be given access. If you could get yourself<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> host country and up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> door of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
center, you could not be turned away (P. Hart, personal<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion). We know <strong>the</strong>re were gaps, and <strong>the</strong> limits<br />
of East– West cooper<strong>at</strong>ion became immedi<strong>at</strong>ely apparent<br />
in <strong>the</strong> s<strong>at</strong>ellite program. However, <strong>the</strong> rules of <strong>the</strong> game<br />
were in place, establishing norms of behavior th<strong>at</strong> lasted<br />
well beyond <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
Finally, <strong>the</strong> IGY public<strong>at</strong>ions included but went much<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r than peer reviewed scientifi c journals. The Annals<br />
of <strong>the</strong> IGY, 48 volumes published by Pergamon Press between<br />
1959 and 1970 (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council of Scientifi c<br />
Unions, 1959; Fleagle, 1994:170), record not only <strong>the</strong> results<br />
of <strong>the</strong> research, but also <strong>the</strong> process of developing <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY— <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional meetings, <strong>the</strong> world d<strong>at</strong>a center<br />
guidelines, and <strong>the</strong> resolutions. This was a self-conscious<br />
document<strong>at</strong>ion effort, and we are still benefi ting from th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong>day. We have journalists’ accounts such as Walter Sullivan’s<br />
Assault on <strong>the</strong> Unknown (1961). Upon completion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> IGY research, Sullivan was given virtually unfettered<br />
access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY fi eld projects and document<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The establishment of <strong>the</strong> world d<strong>at</strong>a centers and <strong>the</strong><br />
constant encouragement by <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee<br />
for researchers <strong>to</strong> publish and share <strong>the</strong>ir results in many<br />
forms demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> many audiences <strong>the</strong> ability of science<br />
organiz<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> live up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir commitments. The<br />
world d<strong>at</strong>a centers, which continue <strong>to</strong> function <strong>to</strong>day, were<br />
instrumental in continuing <strong>the</strong> legacy of <strong>the</strong> IGY: coordin<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional science <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong> interactions<br />
of <strong>at</strong>mospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial processes. While<br />
entrepreneurs initi<strong>at</strong>ed schemes and linked solutions <strong>to</strong><br />
problems, <strong>the</strong> thousands of people who carried out <strong>the</strong><br />
work and contributed results gave credibility <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> geophysical<br />
sciences, both in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es and in o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
countries. Suffi cient trust had been established <strong>to</strong> begin <strong>the</strong><br />
demilitariz<strong>at</strong>ion of geophysics.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
The IGY can teach us something about both process<br />
and results. The ways in which Berkner, Chapman, Odishaw,<br />
and many o<strong>the</strong>rs pursued <strong>the</strong> activities of agenda-<br />
POLICY PROCESS AND THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR 31<br />
setting, linking solutions <strong>to</strong> problems, and establishing a<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern of credible commitments, turned a casual convers<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
among a few experts in<strong>to</strong> a whirlwind series of intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
expeditions and experiments. There are many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
ways of looking <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY. Elsewhere, I have compared my<br />
approach <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> blind men and <strong>the</strong> elephant.<br />
After <strong>the</strong>y felt different parts of <strong>the</strong> animal, <strong>the</strong>y each proclaimed<br />
<strong>the</strong> elephant looked like a tree trunk, a snake, and<br />
a fan (Korsmo, 2007a). The policy sciences are useful in<br />
deciding wh<strong>at</strong> rules of decision-making and alloc<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
resources work <strong>the</strong> best for different types of projects in<br />
different contexts. The context I chose here was primarily<br />
based in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, but it would be quite valuable <strong>to</strong><br />
compare both current and his<strong>to</strong>rical science policy evolution<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r countries during <strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
This symposium is an important step in <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of our present efforts in <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
2007– 2008. Due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> precedents set by <strong>the</strong> IGY and its<br />
successors, such as <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Years of <strong>the</strong> Quiet Sun<br />
(1964– 1965) and <strong>the</strong> Upper Mantle Project (1962– 1970),<br />
we have intern<strong>at</strong>ional frameworks for scientifi c cooper<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
as well as a his<strong>to</strong>ry of d<strong>at</strong>a sharing and long-term<br />
environmental observ<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> IGY did not include social sciences, it supported<br />
a surprising amount of geography and n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> study of ice sheets and mountain<br />
glaciers. The umbrella was large enough <strong>to</strong> include <strong>the</strong>se<br />
projects and contribute <strong>to</strong> our knowledge of alpine and<br />
Arctic ecosystems. The glaciology program of <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
was a bridge between <strong>the</strong> physical and biological sciences,<br />
paving <strong>the</strong> way for programs such as UNESCO’s Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Hydrological Decade, 1965– 1974 (Kasser 1967;<br />
Muller 1970). In a similar fashion, <strong>the</strong> social and human<br />
studies included in <strong>the</strong> present Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
2007– 2008 are a bridge between science and policy. Their<br />
inclusion (e.g., Krupnik et al., 2005) provides even more<br />
opportunity for self-refl ection and evalu<strong>at</strong>ion of wh<strong>at</strong> lessons<br />
and legacies we will leave for <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
I am gr<strong>at</strong>eful <strong>to</strong> several IGY 1957– 1958 participants,<br />
including Pembroke Hart and Phillip Mange, for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
insights and recollections. I also wish <strong>to</strong> thank <strong>the</strong> archivists<br />
and staff of <strong>the</strong> following institutions for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
assistance in loc<strong>at</strong>ing and accessing <strong>the</strong> archival and oral<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry collections used in this research: Sydney Chapman<br />
Papers, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Elmer E.<br />
Rasmuson Library, Alaska and <strong>Polar</strong> Regions Collections;<br />
N<strong>at</strong>haniel C. Gerson Papers and Alan T. W<strong>at</strong>erman
32 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
Papers, U.S. Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division;<br />
IGY Collection <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences<br />
Archives; Oral His<strong>to</strong>ry Collection, Niels Bohr Library<br />
and Archives, Center for His<strong>to</strong>ry of Physics, American<br />
Institute of Physics; <strong>Polar</strong> Archival Program, Ohio St<strong>at</strong>e<br />
University Libraries; and U.S. Research and Development<br />
Board Collection, Record Group 330, Entry 341, U.S.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives and Records Administr<strong>at</strong>ion. This m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
is based on work supported by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF) while I was working <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Any opinions, fi ndings, and conclusions expressed in this<br />
article are those of <strong>the</strong> author and do not necessarily refl<br />
ect <strong>the</strong> views of NSF.<br />
APPENDIX 1<br />
THE CSAGI BUREAU MEMBERS<br />
AND REPORTERS, IPY 1957– 1958<br />
The following list demonstr<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> breadth of disciplines<br />
and expertise represented among <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
IGY leadership (Nicolet, 1984:314).<br />
CSAGI Bureau<br />
S. Chapman, President (UK)<br />
L. Berkner, Vice President (USA)<br />
M. Nicolet, Secretary General (Belgium)<br />
J. Coulomb, Member (France)<br />
V. Beloussov, Member (USSR)<br />
CSAGI Discipline Reporters<br />
World Days (when intensive measurements would be<br />
taken)— A. H. Shapley (USA)<br />
Meteorology— J. Van Mieghem (Belgium)<br />
Geomagnetism— V. Laursen (Denmark)<br />
Aurora and Airglow— S. Chapman (UK), with F. Roach<br />
and C. Elvey (USA)<br />
Ionosphere— W. J. G. Beynon (UK)<br />
Solar Activity— Y. Ohman (Sweden)<br />
Cosmic Rays— J. A. Simpson (USA)<br />
Longitudes and L<strong>at</strong>itudes— J. Danjon (France)<br />
Glaciology— J. M. Wordie (UK)<br />
Oceanography— G. Laclavére (France)<br />
Rockets and S<strong>at</strong>ellites— L. V. Berkner (USA)<br />
Seismology— V. V. Beloussov (USSR)<br />
Gravimetry— P. Lejay (France)<br />
Nuclear Radi<strong>at</strong>ion— M. Nicolet (Belgium)<br />
APPENDIX 2<br />
MEMBERS OF THE FIRST U.S. NATIONAL<br />
COMMITTEE FOR IPY 1957– 1958<br />
The following list of U.S. IGY leadership shows a mixture<br />
of disciplinary and professional society represent<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and <strong>the</strong> direct involvement of U.S. government agencies<br />
(Atwood, 1952).<br />
Chair<br />
J. Kaplan, representing <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Geodesy and Geophysics<br />
Members<br />
L. H. Adams, Geophysical Labor<strong>at</strong>ory, Carnegie Institution<br />
of Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Henry Booker, Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Scientifi c Radio Union (URSI)<br />
Lyman W. Briggs, N<strong>at</strong>ional Geographic Society<br />
G. M. Clemence, U.S. Naval Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
C. T. Elvey, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska<br />
John A. Fleming, American Geophysical Union<br />
N<strong>at</strong>haniel C. Gerson, Cambridge Research Direc<strong>to</strong>r<strong>at</strong>e,<br />
U.S. Air Force<br />
Paul Klopsteg, N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
F. W. Reichelderfer, U.S. We<strong>at</strong>her Bureau and World Meteorological<br />
Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Elliot B. Roberts, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey<br />
Alan H. Shapley, U.S. Bureau of Standards<br />
Paul A. Siple, representing U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee of <strong>the</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geography Union, Associ<strong>at</strong>ion of American<br />
Geographers, and General Staff, U.S. Army<br />
Ot<strong>to</strong> Struve, representing U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Committee of <strong>the</strong><br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Astronomy Union<br />
Merle Tuve, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie<br />
Institution of Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Lincoln Washburn, Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Research<br />
Establishment, U.S. Corps of Engineers, and <strong>the</strong> Arctic Institute<br />
of North America<br />
Ex-offi cio Members<br />
Wallace W. Atwood Jr., Direc<strong>to</strong>r, Offi ce of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Rel<strong>at</strong>ions, N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences-N<strong>at</strong>ional Research<br />
Council<br />
Lloyd V. Berkner, Member, Special Committee for <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year<br />
J. Wallace Joyce, Deputy Science Advisor, U.S. Department<br />
of St<strong>at</strong>e
NOTE<br />
1. In a similar fashion, <strong>the</strong> planners of <strong>the</strong> 2007– 2008 Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year came up with a framework th<strong>at</strong> established criteria for<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ion. This not only provided guidance for researchers who were<br />
considering whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> write proposals, but also <strong>the</strong> existence of criteria<br />
conveyed <strong>to</strong> a broader audience, including policy-makers <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
level, <strong>the</strong> seriousness and purposefulness of <strong>the</strong> upcoming science campaign<br />
(Rapley et al., 2004).<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
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Kirwan, L. P., C. M. Mannerfelt, C. G. Rossby, and V. Schytt. 1949.<br />
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———. 2007a. The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year of 1957 <strong>to</strong> 1958. Science,<br />
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———. 2007b. The Genesis of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year. Physics<br />
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His<strong>to</strong>ry, 22(1): 55– 78.<br />
Krupnik, I., M. Bravo, Y. Csonka, G. Hovelsrud-Broda, L. Müller-Wille,<br />
B. Poppel, P. Schweitzer, and S. Sörlin. 2005. Social Sciences and<br />
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Rapley, C., R. Bell, I. Allison, R. Bindschadler, G. Casassa, S. Chown,<br />
G. Duhaime, V. Kotlyakov, M. Kuhn, O. Orheim, P. C. Pandey,<br />
H. K. Petersen, H. Schalke, W. Janoschek, E. Sarukhanian,<br />
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34 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KORSMO<br />
U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives and Records Administr<strong>at</strong>ion, n.d. “Finding Aid”<br />
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———. 1998. Genesis of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year. The <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Times, 2(11):5.
Preserving <strong>the</strong> Origins of <strong>the</strong> Space Age:<br />
The M<strong>at</strong>erial Legacy of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year (1957– 1958) <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum<br />
David H. DeVorkin<br />
David DeVorkin, N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, P.O. Box 37012,<br />
MRC 311, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-7012, USA<br />
(devorkind@si.edu). Accepted 29 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. In July 1966, <strong>the</strong> 89th Congress (H.R. 6125) laid out <strong>the</strong> charge defi ning<br />
<strong>the</strong> new <strong>Smithsonian</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum: <strong>to</strong> “ memorialize <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
development of avi<strong>at</strong>ion and space fl ight; collect, preserve, and display aeronautical and<br />
space fl ight equipment of his<strong>to</strong>rical interest and signifi cance; serve as a reposi<strong>to</strong>ry for<br />
scientifi c equipment and d<strong>at</strong>a pertaining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> development of avi<strong>at</strong>ion and space fl ight;<br />
and provide educ<strong>at</strong>ional m<strong>at</strong>erial for <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical study of avi<strong>at</strong>ion and space fl ight.”<br />
Under this umbrella st<strong>at</strong>ement, <strong>the</strong> Museum has been actively collecting artifacts and<br />
documentary evidence in <strong>the</strong> area of <strong>the</strong> earth and space sciences, as well as in astronomy,<br />
th<strong>at</strong> helps <strong>to</strong> preserve <strong>the</strong> social, cultural, intellectual, and m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy of <strong>the</strong> enterprise.<br />
The paper examines <strong>the</strong> holdings pertaining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY era (1957– 1960) presently<br />
in <strong>the</strong> NASM collection. It discusses how some of <strong>the</strong>se items were identifi ed, selected,<br />
and collected, as a means of offering a preliminary appraisal of <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical value of<br />
<strong>the</strong> collection. It highlights a suite of objects built by James Van Allen’s Iowa group and<br />
discusses <strong>the</strong>ir his<strong>to</strong>rical signifi cance.<br />
THE IGY<br />
The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957– 1958 was conceptualized<br />
<strong>at</strong> a small dinner party in April 1950, held <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> home of James A. Van<br />
Allen in Silver Spring, Maryland. As Walter Sullivan recorded <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time, and as<br />
Fae Korsmo and many o<strong>the</strong>rs have reminded us more recently (Sullivan, 1961;<br />
Korsmo, 2007; this volume), out of this meeting grew a plan <strong>to</strong> coordin<strong>at</strong>e observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
relevant <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> geosciences over all parts of <strong>the</strong> globe, and, for <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst time, conduct signifi cant soundings of <strong>the</strong> upper reaches of <strong>the</strong> earth’s <strong>at</strong>mosphere<br />
and ionosphere. Considering th<strong>at</strong> three members of <strong>the</strong> party, notably<br />
Van Allen, Lloyd Berkner, and Sydney Chapman, l<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong> become key players in<br />
IGY, were primarily concerned with studying <strong>the</strong> ionosphere, it is not surprising<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y organized <strong>the</strong> means <strong>to</strong> pursue its global characteristics using all<br />
available technologies (Needell, 2000). Their plan was aided and abetted by<br />
Cold War priorities for developing <strong>the</strong> capabilities of space fl ight <strong>to</strong> aid global<br />
reconnaissance, and in fact became driven by those priorities, modifi ed in complex<br />
ways by <strong>the</strong> foreign policy and n<strong>at</strong>ional security str<strong>at</strong>egies of <strong>the</strong> major<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ing n<strong>at</strong>ions (McDougall, 1985; Bulkeley, 1991).
36 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
Out of this complex mixture of scientifi c and n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
security priorities, both <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es announced plans <strong>to</strong> orbit artifi cial s<strong>at</strong>ellites during<br />
<strong>the</strong> IGY, and both made good on <strong>the</strong>ir promise, though in a<br />
manner, and especially an order, th<strong>at</strong> surprised and deeply<br />
disturbed a large portion of world’s media and propelled<br />
a space race between <strong>the</strong> two superpowers th<strong>at</strong> fuelled <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst decade of wh<strong>at</strong> has been called <strong>the</strong> Space Age.<br />
A substantial his<strong>to</strong>rical liter<strong>at</strong>ure exists recounting <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY and <strong>the</strong> origins of <strong>the</strong> space age (Pisano and Lewis,<br />
1988; Marson and Terner, 1963; McDougall, 1985) Our<br />
purpose here is not <strong>to</strong> recount this his<strong>to</strong>ry nor <strong>to</strong> deline<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution’s particip<strong>at</strong>ion in space research,<br />
but r<strong>at</strong>her <strong>to</strong> describe holdings <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space<br />
Museum (NASM) pertaining <strong>to</strong> space fl ight activities during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (1957– 1958). This<br />
paper discusses specifi cally how <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Air and Space Museum (NASM) has particip<strong>at</strong>ed in preserving<br />
<strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial heritage of this legacy— a legacy th<strong>at</strong><br />
might be seen someday as a major fac<strong>to</strong>r leading <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> existence<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Museum itself. We begin by situ<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> act of<br />
cultural preserv<strong>at</strong>ion within <strong>the</strong> mission of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n conclude with an assessment of efforts <strong>to</strong> preserve<br />
<strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy of <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
ON MUSEUM PRESERVATION<br />
Institutions like <strong>the</strong> NASM collect for a variety of<br />
purposes, both immedi<strong>at</strong>e and long term. One can only<br />
specul<strong>at</strong>e about why, precisely, a m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy will be<br />
important for our descendents, say 400 years from now;<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y are specialists in science and its his<strong>to</strong>ry, or<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y are educ<strong>at</strong>ed and inquisitive nonspecialists.<br />
Will <strong>the</strong>y think well of us for making <strong>the</strong> effort <strong>to</strong> preserve<br />
a m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy, one th<strong>at</strong> can be “read” without <strong>the</strong><br />
intervention of media-specifi c technologies? Or will <strong>the</strong>y<br />
possess technologies undreamt of <strong>to</strong>day for seeking out<br />
<strong>the</strong> answers <strong>to</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical questions th<strong>at</strong> transcend <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
legacy, and regard our efforts as ultim<strong>at</strong>ely futile?<br />
The mission, defi ned by legisl<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> brought <strong>the</strong><br />
NASM in<strong>to</strong> existence, claims th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Institution has a responsibility<br />
<strong>to</strong> “memorialize <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional development of<br />
avi<strong>at</strong>ion and space fl ight” (U.S. House of Represent<strong>at</strong>ives,<br />
1946). Th<strong>at</strong> is wh<strong>at</strong> we indeed do, and as I have argued<br />
elsewhere, <strong>the</strong> survival of a physical artifact will, in and of<br />
itself, help <strong>to</strong> stimul<strong>at</strong>e questions about our times someday,<br />
and may even, conceivably, help <strong>to</strong> answer questions<br />
about our lives and times (DeVorkin, 2006a; 2006b). As<br />
more than one observer has noted recently, commenting<br />
about <strong>the</strong> signifi cance of objects displayed in museums<br />
and <strong>the</strong> motives for <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>ors <strong>to</strong> put <strong>the</strong>m on display;<br />
“Their presence <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> message. . . . It is still all about<br />
visibility.” (Kennicott, 2007:C1)<br />
From <strong>the</strong> beginning, NASM’s charge has been <strong>to</strong><br />
“serve as <strong>the</strong> reposi<strong>to</strong>ry for, preserve, and display aeronautical<br />
and space fl ight equipment and d<strong>at</strong>a of his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
interest and signifi cance <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> progress of avi<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
space fl ight, and provide educ<strong>at</strong>ional m<strong>at</strong>erial for <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
study of avi<strong>at</strong>ion and space fl ight and <strong>the</strong>ir technologies”<br />
(U.S. House of Represent<strong>at</strong>ives, 1946) Since this is<br />
a formal process with oversight, NASM cur<strong>at</strong>ors periodically<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>e and review collections plans th<strong>at</strong> r<strong>at</strong>ionalize<br />
<strong>the</strong> effort. But cur<strong>at</strong>ors are also keenly aware of <strong>the</strong> fact<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y are, in some way, making choices and hence are<br />
fi ltering his<strong>to</strong>ry. After all, taking <strong>the</strong> existentialist’s point<br />
of view, as Oxford’s Jim Bennett and o<strong>the</strong>rs have observed<br />
from time <strong>to</strong> time “museum collections . . . show you not<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re was but wh<strong>at</strong> was collected.” (Bennett, 2004),<br />
This st<strong>at</strong>ement is a simple fact of life, of means, motives,<br />
and of circumstance. Unlike <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry disciplines,<br />
whose collections stand <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> very core of <strong>the</strong>ir research<br />
interests, and in fact defi ne <strong>the</strong>m, forming <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a banks<br />
from which <strong>the</strong>y ask questions and draw conclusions, collections<br />
of space his<strong>to</strong>ry refl ect something r<strong>at</strong>her different.<br />
They refl ect cultural and institutional needs <strong>to</strong> preserve <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial heritage of ourselves, a very recent past still very<br />
much alive in its human participants and in its institutions,<br />
and of which we are part, our contemporary n<strong>at</strong>ional heritage.<br />
Deciding wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> collect and preserve, <strong>the</strong>n, involves<br />
as much issues of a symbolic n<strong>at</strong>ure, <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> memorialize,<br />
as it does intellectual issues rel<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> any disciplinary<br />
goals, past, present, or future, and so <strong>the</strong> questions<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rians ask about culture transcend <strong>the</strong> specimens <strong>the</strong>y<br />
preserve. Collections are not comprehensive of <strong>the</strong>ir culture<br />
and are <strong>the</strong> result of choices, personal preferences, biases,<br />
and both political and fi nancial limit<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
So wh<strong>at</strong> is it th<strong>at</strong> institutions like museums do when<br />
<strong>the</strong>y collect and preserve? The economic anthropologist<br />
tells us th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> act of collection by institutions is a formal<br />
method of removing objects from <strong>the</strong> commodity<br />
sphere— <strong>the</strong> sphere of use, specul<strong>at</strong>ion, and trade— and<br />
placing <strong>the</strong>m in<strong>to</strong> a singularized and sacralized sphere<br />
(Kopy<strong>to</strong>ff, 1986). This is defi nitely wh<strong>at</strong> we try <strong>to</strong> do <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> and it is refl ected in our Collections R<strong>at</strong>ionales,<br />
our arguments over wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> collect. Indeed, over<br />
<strong>the</strong> past years, some cur<strong>at</strong>ors have repe<strong>at</strong>edly worried th<strong>at</strong><br />
if we do not maintain control of objects deemed <strong>to</strong> be of<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical value coming out of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ion’s space program,<br />
relics bought and paid for by taxpayers, <strong>the</strong>y will be sold
as excess property and become commodities for specul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
by collec<strong>to</strong>rs and agents. In more recent times, as our<br />
ability <strong>to</strong> collect has met serious fi nancial, personnel, and<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rage limit<strong>at</strong>ions, this concern has diminished somewh<strong>at</strong><br />
and <strong>the</strong>re is now healthy consider<strong>at</strong>ion of establishing a<br />
means <strong>to</strong> distribute <strong>the</strong> responsibility of preserv<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
This includes establishing a “n<strong>at</strong>ional str<strong>at</strong>egy” of sharing<br />
<strong>the</strong> responsibility for preserving <strong>the</strong> heritage among<br />
many institutions. But ultim<strong>at</strong>ely, we generally accept <strong>the</strong><br />
view th<strong>at</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> it is we are doing by collecting is making<br />
this m<strong>at</strong>erial heritage accessible <strong>to</strong> future gener<strong>at</strong>ions in a<br />
manner th<strong>at</strong> will stimul<strong>at</strong>e interest and remembrance of an<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical era or event.<br />
A clear symp<strong>to</strong>m of this r<strong>at</strong>ionale for sacraliz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and protection from <strong>the</strong> commodity sphere comes from a<br />
unique agreement <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution maintains<br />
with NASA, <strong>the</strong> “NASA/NASM Transfer Agreement”<br />
(Agreement, 1967). This document asserts th<strong>at</strong> any object<br />
on NASA’s inven<strong>to</strong>ries th<strong>at</strong> is deemed by a select committee<br />
of NASA program managers and specialists <strong>to</strong> be his<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
and excess <strong>to</strong> present agency needs must be offered fi rst <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum for its collection. The<br />
NASM will <strong>the</strong>n deliber<strong>at</strong>e and decide upon collection. If<br />
it agrees, <strong>the</strong> object is transferred <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> inven<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
If not, it goes on <strong>the</strong> normal “excess property”<br />
listings and can be transferred <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r agencies, or sold <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> public. It is <strong>the</strong> existence of this agreement th<strong>at</strong> gives<br />
<strong>the</strong> Space His<strong>to</strong>ry collection <strong>at</strong> NASM its special responsibility.<br />
Even though <strong>the</strong> IGY-era collections pred<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
agreement, many came <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Museum as a result of its<br />
existence, well after <strong>the</strong> close of <strong>the</strong> era.<br />
There is yet ano<strong>the</strong>r aspect of collecting in Space His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
th<strong>at</strong> warrants <strong>at</strong>tention here th<strong>at</strong> adds <strong>to</strong> its unique<br />
character and will help us evalu<strong>at</strong>e our IGY-era collections.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> most important objects, those responsible for<br />
<strong>the</strong> actual science performed, are not available for collection<br />
and never will be. They were launched, and were ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
consumed through use or by re-entry, or are now in orbits<br />
th<strong>at</strong> make <strong>the</strong>m inaccessible. Wh<strong>at</strong> we can collect, <strong>the</strong>refore,<br />
are surrog<strong>at</strong>es for <strong>the</strong> “real thing.” They may be very<br />
close in form and function, like fl ight backups, but <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
not <strong>the</strong> actual objects th<strong>at</strong> made <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
or performed <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric fe<strong>at</strong>s, such as <strong>the</strong> fi rst soft landing<br />
on <strong>the</strong> moon, Mars, Titan, or an asteroid. There are<br />
exceptions, of course, such as <strong>the</strong> panoramic camera from<br />
Surveyor III th<strong>at</strong> was returned <strong>to</strong> Earth by Apollo 12 astronauts<br />
(NASM C<strong>at</strong>alogue number I19900169001; hereafter,<br />
just <strong>the</strong> alphanumerical code will be used: “I” for incoming<br />
loan, “A” for accession). There are objects returned from<br />
Shuttle missions, as well as objects th<strong>at</strong> returned <strong>to</strong> earth<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 37<br />
by design, like <strong>the</strong> particle collec<strong>to</strong>rs aboard Stardust, and<br />
interplanetary probes th<strong>at</strong> were launched and might someday<br />
be captured and returned, like <strong>the</strong> third Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-3).<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> its special rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with NASA,<br />
and its unique responsibilities, NASM must still justify<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> it collects both internally and externally. Individuals<br />
rarely r<strong>at</strong>ionalize why <strong>the</strong>y collect wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y collect<br />
but institutions, especially public ones, must provide clear<br />
and cogent r<strong>at</strong>ionaliz<strong>at</strong>ions in order <strong>to</strong> gain <strong>the</strong> support<br />
<strong>to</strong> identify, collect, and preserve. One need only consider<br />
<strong>the</strong> large costs involved in collection and preserv<strong>at</strong>ion, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> long-term commitment an institution or a culture is<br />
willing <strong>to</strong> make in supporting such efforts. Thus, given<br />
this mand<strong>at</strong>e, and limit<strong>at</strong>ions, how represent<strong>at</strong>ive is “wh<strong>at</strong><br />
was collected” <strong>to</strong> “wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re was”?<br />
THE TIME BOUNDARIES OF THE IGY LEGACY<br />
The legacy of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IGY)<br />
of 1957– 1958 pred<strong>at</strong>es NASA, of course, though many of<br />
<strong>the</strong> objects th<strong>at</strong> one can describe as belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY<br />
era came from NASA, which inherited <strong>the</strong> legacy upon<br />
its form<strong>at</strong>ion in August 1958 and retained much of it for<br />
years <strong>at</strong> its visi<strong>to</strong>r centers and in s<strong>to</strong>rage. We can roughly<br />
limit <strong>the</strong> IGY-era legacy in space by establishing its beginning<br />
as <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy growing out of planning for <strong>the</strong><br />
IGY since <strong>the</strong> early 1950s (see Korsmo, this volume), <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> launch of Explorer VII in Oc<strong>to</strong>ber 1959, Vanguard III<br />
in September 1959, and two Discoverer launches (VII and<br />
VIII) through 20 November 1959 (Green and Lomask,<br />
1970). Explorer VII was <strong>the</strong> last Army Ballistic Missile<br />
Agency (ABMA) s<strong>at</strong>ellite and was transferred <strong>to</strong> NASA. It<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> legacy started by Sputnik 1 and<br />
Explorer 1 and <strong>the</strong> IGY context, even though transfer of<br />
all programs <strong>to</strong> NASA <strong>to</strong>ok place with NASA’s cre<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fall of 1958 via <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space<br />
Act. The major American programs linked <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY era<br />
include Vanguard (I– III), Explorer (I– VII), Pioneer (I– IV),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> military programs known as Project SCORE and<br />
Discoverer (I– VIII). Russian programs included Sputnik<br />
(I– III) and Luna (I– III).<br />
THE NASM COLLECTION<br />
More than 200 objects in <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional collection can<br />
be associ<strong>at</strong>ed with IGY-era space-rel<strong>at</strong>ed activities. These<br />
reside in several NASM sub-collections, including rocketry
38 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
and propulsion, <strong>the</strong> space sciences, memorabilia, intern<strong>at</strong>ional,<br />
and social and cultural collections. There are partialscale<br />
and full-scale models, replicas, engineering models,<br />
components, medals, badges, and ephemera (collectibles).<br />
In this review, we consider only <strong>the</strong> artifact collections, not<br />
fl <strong>at</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erials in our library and archives, including monographs,<br />
serials, technical public<strong>at</strong>ions, print and fi lm resources,<br />
as well as extensive manuscript collections or oral<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ries (see http:// www.siris.si.edu/ and http://www.nasm<br />
.si.edu/ research/ arch/ collections.cfm).<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: PREPARING FOR THE IGY<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> numerous examples of early sounding<br />
rocket payloads for both <strong>at</strong>mospheric and space research—<br />
such as ultraviolet spectrographs, X-ray detec<strong>to</strong>rs,<br />
magne<strong>to</strong>meters, varieties of halogen quenched particle fl ux<br />
counters, mass spectrometers, temper<strong>at</strong>ure and pressure<br />
sensors, and cameras built for V-2, Viking, Aerobee and<br />
ARCAS fl ights from <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1940s through <strong>the</strong> 1950s— <strong>the</strong><br />
NASM collection preserves objects intended specifi cally for<br />
use during <strong>the</strong> IGY, such as a visual Project Moonw<strong>at</strong>ch<br />
telescope (A19860036000) (Figure 1) and <strong>the</strong> fi rst Baker-<br />
Nunn s<strong>at</strong>ellite tracking camera (A19840406000) mounted<br />
in Arizona. The most curious object, symbolic of <strong>the</strong> aspir<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of S. Fred Singer, one of <strong>the</strong> original members of <strong>the</strong><br />
group th<strong>at</strong> conceived <strong>the</strong> IGY, is MOUSE (Minimal Orbital<br />
Unmanned S<strong>at</strong>ellite, Earth), a full-scale design concept<br />
model for an artifi cial s<strong>at</strong>ellite (A19731670000). It carries<br />
two Geiger counters for cosmic-ray studies, pho<strong>to</strong>cells,<br />
telemetry electronics, and a rudimentary magnetic d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rage element (Figure 2). The rocketry collection has examples<br />
of small sounding rockets derived from barrage ordnance<br />
technology, such as <strong>the</strong> Loki-Dart (A19750183000;<br />
0184000), and various combin<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> were used in <strong>the</strong><br />
1950s for <strong>at</strong>mospheric measurements and as payloads under<br />
Skyhook balloons for extreme high-altitude soundings<br />
by <strong>the</strong> University of Iowa and by <strong>the</strong> Navy.<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: SPUTNIK<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> one of <strong>the</strong> fi rst full-scale models of Sputnik<br />
1 on loan <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union/<br />
Russia (I19900388002), as well as <strong>the</strong> original electrical<br />
arming pin removed from <strong>the</strong> fl ight unit just before launch<br />
(I19971143001), <strong>the</strong> Museum holds six objects rel<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fl ight, all in <strong>the</strong> collectible c<strong>at</strong>egory and ranging<br />
from a cigarette lighter and commemor<strong>at</strong>ive pin <strong>to</strong> medals<br />
and a music box. There are no holdings rel<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong>, or<br />
informing, <strong>the</strong> technical characteristics of any of <strong>the</strong> early<br />
FIGURE 1. Project Moonw<strong>at</strong>ch telescope (A19860036000), preserved<br />
and on display <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> NASM’s Hazy Center. Am<strong>at</strong>eurs and<br />
commercial organiz<strong>at</strong>ions alike built thousands of instruments of<br />
this type; <strong>the</strong>y exist in many forms. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory cre<strong>at</strong>ed and coordin<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> Moonw<strong>at</strong>ch program <strong>to</strong><br />
produce preliminary orbital elements of <strong>the</strong> fi rst s<strong>at</strong>ellites. (NASM<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>graph)<br />
FIGURE 2. S. Fred Singer’s full-scale concept model for an artifi cial<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellite (A19731670000). (Eric Long pho<strong>to</strong>graph, NASM)
Sputniks. There is nothing in <strong>the</strong> collection pertaining <strong>to</strong><br />
Project Luna.<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: PROJECT VANGUARD<br />
The NASM collection has seven objects identifi ed as<br />
Vanguard 1 backup models, test models, replicas, and display<br />
models (A19580115000 through A19830244000).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>se is <strong>the</strong> original test vehicle TV-3 (Figure 3),<br />
which was recovered after <strong>the</strong> launch vehicle crashed on<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> launchpad on 6 December 1957 (A19761857000). The<br />
object was acquired from John P. Hagen (1908– 1990), <strong>the</strong><br />
former Project Vanguard manager, in <strong>the</strong> spring of 1971<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 39<br />
and placed on exhibit in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arts & Industries<br />
Building. After NASM opened in July 1976, visi<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
encountered it in <strong>the</strong> outstretched hand of an unhappy<br />
and concerned 12-foot tall “Uncle Sam.” It now resides<br />
in a case near <strong>the</strong> Museum’s Vanguard rocket, a TV-2BU<br />
(Figure 4, center) th<strong>at</strong> had been prepared for launch by <strong>the</strong><br />
Martin Company on 3 September 1957 but was delayed<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n cancelled. Vanguard 1 was launched on a near<br />
duplic<strong>at</strong>e rocket; <strong>the</strong> markings on <strong>the</strong> NASM version were<br />
changed <strong>to</strong> be identical <strong>to</strong> those of <strong>the</strong> fl ight vehicle by <strong>the</strong><br />
Naval Research Labor<strong>at</strong>ory, which <strong>the</strong>n don<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> rocket<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution in 1958 (A19580114000).<br />
There are also three elements of various stages of <strong>the</strong><br />
FIGURE 3. Examin<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> original TV-3 s<strong>at</strong>ellite in March 2008, by members of <strong>the</strong> Naval Research Lab team who designed and built<br />
it, on <strong>the</strong> eve of <strong>the</strong> fi ftieth anniversary of <strong>the</strong> fi rst successful Vanguard fl ight. The object was opened <strong>to</strong> allow inspection for identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
components, search for undocumented experiments, and <strong>to</strong> assess its st<strong>at</strong>e of preserv<strong>at</strong>ion. Martin Votaw, left, Roger Eas<strong>to</strong>n, right. (Pho<strong>to</strong>graph<br />
courtesy Judith Pargamin)
40 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
FIGURE 4. Vanguard launch vehicle TV-2BU on display <strong>at</strong> NASM<br />
in <strong>the</strong> “Missile Pit.” (NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph by Eric Long)<br />
Vanguard propulsion system in <strong>the</strong> collection, as well<br />
as a set of 18 electrical and electronic radio instruments<br />
used in a Vanguard Minitrack st<strong>at</strong>ion (A19761036000).<br />
There is one instrumented replica of <strong>the</strong> Vanguard Lyman<br />
Alpha s<strong>at</strong>ellite, also called SLV-1, th<strong>at</strong> failed <strong>to</strong> orbit in<br />
May 1958, and two versions of Vanguard III, including<br />
Vanguard 3, also called Magne-Ray S<strong>at</strong>ellite, and fi nally<br />
<strong>the</strong> Vanguard Magne<strong>to</strong>meter s<strong>at</strong>ellite th<strong>at</strong> did fl y, design<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
SLV-5 or Vanguard 3a (A19751413000; 1407000;<br />
1412000). It was placed in orbit in December 1959 and<br />
was equipped with two X-ray detec<strong>to</strong>rs and micrometeoroid<br />
detec<strong>to</strong>rs.<br />
The instrumented Vanguards do preserve many of <strong>the</strong><br />
technical parameters of <strong>the</strong> early fl ight objects. They were<br />
built generally by <strong>the</strong> same people, using <strong>the</strong> same jigs and<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials, which produced <strong>the</strong> fl ight objects <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Naval<br />
Research Labor<strong>at</strong>ory. Some of <strong>the</strong> craft have Lyman alpha<br />
and X-ray detec<strong>to</strong>rs identical <strong>to</strong>, or very similar <strong>to</strong> those<br />
used by NRL scientists in sounding rocket fl ights throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1950s (DeVorkin, 1996).<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: EXPLORER<br />
There are more than two dozen objects in <strong>the</strong> collection<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> some form of Explorer s<strong>at</strong>ellite between<br />
Explorers I through VII, and dozens more UV and X-Ray<br />
detec<strong>to</strong>rs identical <strong>to</strong> those fl own by groups <strong>at</strong> NRL, Iowa<br />
and elsewhere. This collection contains objects with a high<br />
degree of his<strong>to</strong>rical accuracy and signifi cance, and preserves<br />
some of <strong>the</strong> most detailed technical characteristics<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi rst fl ight objects. Of gre<strong>at</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical signifi cance is<br />
a suite of objects recently acquired from George H. Ludwig,<br />
one of James Van Allen’s gradu<strong>at</strong>e students <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
time <strong>the</strong> Iowa group became engaged in preparing for <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst Explorers. The primary object Dr. Ludwig don<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
was built as an engineering model for <strong>the</strong> payload for <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst fully instrumented Vanguard fl ight (Figure 5), and<br />
<strong>the</strong>n became <strong>the</strong> templ<strong>at</strong>e for <strong>the</strong> redesign effort <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jet<br />
Propulsion Labor<strong>at</strong>ory after Army Ordnance was given<br />
<strong>the</strong> green light <strong>to</strong> proceed with a launch after <strong>the</strong> failure<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Vanguard TV-3 launch (A20060086000). As both<br />
Van Allen and Ludwig have noted in various recollections<br />
(Van Allen, 1983:55– 57), <strong>the</strong> package was designed for a<br />
20-inch Vanguard sphere but was within parameters easily<br />
adaptable <strong>to</strong> a 6-inch diameter cylindrical chamber comp<strong>at</strong>ible<br />
with <strong>the</strong> dimensions of <strong>the</strong> scaled-down Sergeant<br />
solid rocket of <strong>the</strong> sort th<strong>at</strong> ABMA had been placing on<br />
Jupiter test fl ights. So when a fl ight on a Jupiter-C became<br />
possible in <strong>the</strong> wake of <strong>the</strong> Vanguard failure, and after<br />
Von Braun promised Eisenhower th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Army could or-
it something useful within 90 days, Ludwig packed his<br />
bags and his family and brought <strong>the</strong>ir Vanguard payload<br />
<strong>to</strong> JPL for modifi c<strong>at</strong>ion in<strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> would be called <strong>at</strong> fi rst<br />
“Deal 1.” The object in <strong>the</strong> collection includes electronic<br />
and mechanical elements of <strong>the</strong> initial “Deal” payloads<br />
designed and built by <strong>the</strong> University of Iowa. In addition,<br />
Ludwig don<strong>at</strong>ed versions of <strong>the</strong> separ<strong>at</strong>e electronic components<br />
before <strong>the</strong>y would have been “potted” or electronically<br />
sealed for fl ight. All of <strong>the</strong>se components had<br />
been in Ludwig’s possession since <strong>the</strong>y were built in <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>at</strong>e 1950s, with <strong>the</strong> exception of short intervals when <strong>the</strong><br />
components were <strong>at</strong> JPL under his care. Their provenance,<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r words, is unquestioned, and he has provided extensive<br />
document<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong>testing <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir his<strong>to</strong>rical role in<br />
<strong>the</strong> early Explorer series.<br />
Possibly <strong>the</strong> most signifi cant corrective <strong>to</strong> our document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of IGY-era artifacts in <strong>the</strong> NASM collection<br />
FIGURE 5. George Ludwig examining his engineering model for <strong>the</strong><br />
payload for <strong>the</strong> fi rst fully instrumented Vanguard fl ight and became<br />
<strong>the</strong> templ<strong>at</strong>e for <strong>the</strong> Explorer 1 payload. (NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph by<br />
Dave DeVorkin)<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 41<br />
came as a result of Ludwig’s assistance. In 1961, <strong>the</strong> Jet<br />
Propulsion Labor<strong>at</strong>ory transferred wh<strong>at</strong> it claimed was a<br />
fully instrumented fl ight spare of Explorer 1 <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution (A19620034000). Attached <strong>to</strong> an empty<br />
fourth-stage Sergeant rocket, it was initially displayed in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arts & Industries building <strong>to</strong> symbolize <strong>the</strong><br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es’ fi rst successful artifi cial s<strong>at</strong>ellite. It became<br />
a centerpiece of <strong>the</strong> NASM Miles<strong>to</strong>nes gallery upon opening<br />
in 1976, having <strong>to</strong>ured briefl y just before <strong>the</strong> opening<br />
(Figure 6). In 2005, acting upon an inquiry from Ludwig<br />
(2005a), who was <strong>the</strong>n searching out all surviving cosmicray<br />
Geiger counter detec<strong>to</strong>rs inven<strong>to</strong>ried in Van Allen’s Iowa<br />
labor<strong>at</strong>ory th<strong>at</strong> supplied <strong>the</strong> fi rst Explorers, <strong>the</strong> Collections<br />
Management staff of NASM, led by Karl Heinzel, removed<br />
<strong>the</strong> object from display for dismantling (Figure 7), conserv<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
evalu<strong>at</strong>ion, and inspection. It was empty (Figure 8).<br />
N<strong>at</strong>urally, we reported this fact back <strong>to</strong> Ludwig, after<br />
taking detailed pho<strong>to</strong>graphs of <strong>the</strong> interior instrument<br />
frame, wiring and markings. The micrometeoroid detec<strong>to</strong>r<br />
was in place, wrapped around <strong>the</strong> external shell, but not<br />
any of <strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ed electronics. Nothing from <strong>the</strong> cosmic<br />
ray package survived. But <strong>the</strong>re were clear markings th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong> one time, <strong>the</strong> instrument frame had held “Payload II”<br />
as those words appeared in red (Figure 8). Ludwig’s highly<br />
detailed documentary record showed, immedi<strong>at</strong>ely, th<strong>at</strong><br />
this was indeed <strong>the</strong> fl ight backup for “Deal 1” th<strong>at</strong> was<br />
sent back <strong>to</strong> Van Allen’s Iowa labor<strong>at</strong>ory for inspection and<br />
testing, and <strong>the</strong>n was returned <strong>to</strong> JPL l<strong>at</strong>er in 1958. The<br />
FIGURE 6. Explorer 1 (A19620034000), initially displayed in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arts & Industries building, became a centerpiece in<br />
NASM’s Miles<strong>to</strong>nes gallery upon opening in 1976. Opening it for<br />
inspection revealed it was a true backup but was devoid of instrument<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
(NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph)
42 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
FIGURE 7. Inspection and conserv<strong>at</strong>ion evalu<strong>at</strong>ion of Explorer 1 (A19620034000) by M<strong>at</strong><strong>the</strong>w Nazarro, specialist <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> NASM’s Paul E.<br />
Garber Res<strong>to</strong>r<strong>at</strong>ion Facility. (NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph)<br />
cosmic-ray package don<strong>at</strong>ed by Ludwig in 2006 was indeed<br />
<strong>the</strong> Vanguard payload th<strong>at</strong> served as templ<strong>at</strong>e for <strong>the</strong> fl ight<br />
version of Deal 1. Ludwig is not absolutely positive th<strong>at</strong><br />
his don<strong>at</strong>ed package was originally inside <strong>the</strong> spacecraft<br />
we display <strong>to</strong>day in Miles<strong>to</strong>nes, but it is identical in n<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
(Ludwig, 1959, 1960, 2005).<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: PIONEER<br />
Van Allen’s group was also engaged <strong>to</strong> instrument a series<br />
of Pioneer fl ights under Air Force auspices th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
aimed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> moon. Although not successful in this goal,<br />
three of <strong>the</strong>m managed <strong>to</strong> detect <strong>the</strong> complete inner and<br />
outer structures of <strong>the</strong> Earth’s radi<strong>at</strong>ion belts, as well as<br />
confi rm <strong>the</strong> profound infl uence th<strong>at</strong> solar activity has on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Earth’s radi<strong>at</strong>ion environment. The fi rst Pioneer reached<br />
70,000 miles altitude, less than a third <strong>the</strong> distance <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Moon, but failed <strong>to</strong> achieve ei<strong>the</strong>r orbital or escape velocity<br />
and so re-entered <strong>the</strong> earth’s <strong>at</strong>mosphere and was destroyed.<br />
The Pioneer 1 replica in <strong>the</strong> collection was reconstructed<br />
out of original parts th<strong>at</strong> failed <strong>to</strong> meet fl ight specifi c<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(A19640665000). Two examples of <strong>the</strong> smaller Pioneer IV<br />
are also in <strong>the</strong> collection. One is a cutaway model showing<br />
<strong>the</strong> instrument<strong>at</strong>ion and housekeeping elements, and <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r is a fully instrumented fl ight spare (A19751426000;<br />
A19620018000).
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: LAUNCH<br />
VEHICLES AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT<br />
The NASM Collection boasts probably <strong>the</strong> strongest<br />
collection of IGY-era launch vehicles in <strong>the</strong> world. As noted<br />
above, a full and virtually complete multi-stage Vanguard<br />
TV-2BU is preserved, as well as examples of turbo-pumps<br />
and engines. In addition, <strong>the</strong> precursors <strong>to</strong> its various stages<br />
are in <strong>the</strong> collection, including a full-scale Viking rocket<br />
th<strong>at</strong> was prepared for display in <strong>the</strong> early 1950s using real<br />
components from <strong>the</strong> Glenn L. Martin Company and Reaction<br />
Mo<strong>to</strong>rs inven<strong>to</strong>ries. A Jupiter-C missile, don<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />
Army in 1959, domin<strong>at</strong>es NASM’s “Missile Pit” (Figure 4,<br />
left) and is capped by a complete array of scaled-down Sergeant<br />
rockets in a confi gur<strong>at</strong>ion identical <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> used for<br />
<strong>the</strong> launch of Explorer 1 (A19590068000).<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 43<br />
FIGURE 8. Inspection revealed th<strong>at</strong> Explorer 1 (A19620034000) was empty but th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong> one time, <strong>the</strong> instrument frame had held “Payload II.”<br />
(NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph.)<br />
Numerous Aerobee and Aerobee-Hi components,<br />
along with a complete unit, document <strong>the</strong> most prolifi c<br />
sounding rocket in his<strong>to</strong>ry. The collection also contains<br />
many smaller solid rockets, most with tactical air-<strong>to</strong>ground<br />
and ground-<strong>to</strong>-air origins, and even one example<br />
of <strong>the</strong> multistage Farside, a gigantic balloon-launched<br />
rocket system cre<strong>at</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong> Air Force Offi ce of Scientifi c<br />
Research for extreme high-altitude non-orbital fl ights in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fall of 1957 (A19680013000).<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>re are several Loki-based multistage systems<br />
in <strong>the</strong> collection, we lack a fully articul<strong>at</strong>ed “Rockoon”<br />
system consisting of a Skyhook-balloon, connecting<br />
hardware, radio telemetry control, and a small solidfuelled<br />
rocket, such as a Loki or Loki-Dart. These systems,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> hands of James Van Allen’s Iowa team, as well as<br />
various NRL groups, carried cosmic-ray detec<strong>to</strong>r payloads
44 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
<strong>to</strong> high altitudes <strong>at</strong> a wide range of geographic l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
during <strong>the</strong> IGY.<br />
IGY-RELATED COLLECTIONS: INDIVIDUALS<br />
There is little question <strong>to</strong>day th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> one name th<strong>at</strong><br />
will survive from <strong>the</strong> IGY in his<strong>to</strong>rical accounts written<br />
in future centuries will be James Van Allen. From a cursory<br />
analysis of newspaper coverage of <strong>the</strong> IGY era based<br />
upon a Proquest survey conducted by Sam Zeitlin, 2007<br />
NASM Summer intern, Van Allen’s name stands out above<br />
all o<strong>the</strong>rs as most frequently cited or referred <strong>to</strong>. A signifi<br />
cant region of space surrounding <strong>the</strong> earth has been<br />
named for him, <strong>the</strong> “Van Allen belts,” a term which <strong>at</strong><br />
this writing garners more than 78,000 “hits” in a simple<br />
Google search. So it is reasonable <strong>to</strong> ask: Wh<strong>at</strong> have we<br />
done <strong>to</strong> preserve <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy of James Van Allen<br />
<strong>at</strong> NASM?<br />
Van Allen was a Regents’ Fellow <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
in 1981, spending much of <strong>the</strong> academic year preparing a<br />
personal scientifi c memoir and submitting himself <strong>to</strong> some<br />
18� hours of oral his<strong>to</strong>ry interviews by NASM cur<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
and his<strong>to</strong>rians (SAOHP, NASM Archives). He also particip<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in several symposia and seminars (Hanle and Von<br />
del Chamberlain, 1981; Mack and DeVorkin, 1982; Van<br />
Allen, 1983). He was <strong>the</strong>n planning for <strong>the</strong> organiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of his papers <strong>at</strong> Iowa, where <strong>the</strong>y would be housed, and<br />
engaged NASM staff in an advisory capacity <strong>to</strong> appraise<br />
<strong>the</strong> collection. Out of this intim<strong>at</strong>e contact, Van Allen<br />
eventually don<strong>at</strong>ed a small selection of objects th<strong>at</strong> both<br />
informs and symbolizes his career. In <strong>the</strong> early 1990s, he<br />
don<strong>at</strong>ed a casing from a World War II– era Mark 58 radio<br />
proximity fuze for antiaircraft artillery fi re control (Figure<br />
9). The fuze had been partly cut open <strong>to</strong> display <strong>the</strong> microelectronic<br />
components (A19940233000). He was part<br />
of <strong>the</strong> wartime effort <strong>to</strong> design, test, and build <strong>the</strong>se fuzes,<br />
FIGURE 9. World War II– era Mark 58 radio proximity fuze for anti-aircraft artillery fi re control designed by <strong>the</strong> Applied Physics Labor<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
group th<strong>at</strong> included Van Allen. (NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph)
and Van Allen played a signifi cant role in bringing <strong>the</strong>m<br />
in<strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>ion through <strong>to</strong>urs with <strong>the</strong> fl eet in <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c.<br />
The experience and expertise he gained managing his portion<br />
of this program served him well after <strong>the</strong> war when he<br />
devoted much of his energies <strong>to</strong> building delic<strong>at</strong>e and complex<br />
arrays of Geiger counters for rocket fl ights aboard<br />
captured German V-2 missiles, <strong>the</strong>n Aerobees, and especially<br />
<strong>the</strong> innov<strong>at</strong>ive balloon-launched Loki-Dart systems<br />
(Figure 10) he developed <strong>at</strong> Iowa th<strong>at</strong> subjected payloads<br />
<strong>to</strong> huge acceler<strong>at</strong>ions and confi ned quarters reminiscent<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fuze-equipped 5-inch shells (Figure 9). He also don<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
a complete fl ight backup payload for Explorer IV;<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst payload designed with knowledge of <strong>the</strong> existence<br />
of <strong>the</strong> trapped radi<strong>at</strong>ion fi eld, and <strong>the</strong>reby employed new<br />
An<strong>to</strong>n detec<strong>to</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> had smaller cross sections, as well<br />
as two small scintill<strong>at</strong>ion detec<strong>to</strong>rs. Van Allen also asked<br />
FIGURE 10. James Van Allen holding a balloon-launched Loki-Dart<br />
payload developed <strong>at</strong> Iowa. ( James A. Van Allen Papers, The University<br />
of Iowa Libraries, Iowa City, Iowa; c. 1950s)<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 45<br />
his Iowa staff <strong>to</strong> refurbish a plaque bearing a gold-pl<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
fl ight-spare tape recorder th<strong>at</strong> commemor<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> fl ight of<br />
Explorer III, <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>to</strong> be able <strong>to</strong> record and ultim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
transmit a continuous record of <strong>the</strong> radi<strong>at</strong>ion fi elds it was<br />
encountering, and <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>to</strong> show unambiguously <strong>the</strong><br />
presence of <strong>the</strong> inner regions of trapped radi<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Some 17 objects in <strong>the</strong> collection preserve <strong>the</strong> character<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Explorer 1– 4 series and Van Allen’s contribution.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>m is a fl ight spare radio transmitter for<br />
Explorer 1, don<strong>at</strong>ed by Henry L. Richter, former head of<br />
<strong>the</strong> JPL group th<strong>at</strong> built <strong>the</strong>se units. Richter found th<strong>at</strong><br />
JPL had discarded this unit some years l<strong>at</strong>er, and saved<br />
it from oblivion. But <strong>the</strong> surviving mercury-cell b<strong>at</strong>teries<br />
in <strong>the</strong> unit had seriously corroded <strong>the</strong> overall structure,<br />
so Richter removed <strong>the</strong> corrosive elements, fully documented<br />
<strong>the</strong> process he <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>to</strong> neutralize and res<strong>to</strong>re <strong>the</strong><br />
structure, and don<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> object <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> museum in 1997<br />
(A19980115000).<br />
Van Allen is not <strong>the</strong> only pioneer space scientist <strong>to</strong> be<br />
represented in <strong>the</strong> collection. Objects rel<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> efforts<br />
of two groups <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Naval Research Labor<strong>at</strong>ory headed<br />
by Richard Tousey and Herbert Friedman, over <strong>the</strong> period<br />
starting with V-2 fl ights and lasting through <strong>the</strong> 1960s and<br />
1970s, have also been preserved and are on display (De-<br />
Vorkin, 1992; 1996).<br />
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS<br />
It should be evident from this brief reconnaissance of<br />
IGY-era objects in <strong>the</strong> NASM collection th<strong>at</strong>, even though<br />
our holdings may be impressive, <strong>the</strong>y are not <strong>the</strong> result of<br />
a single r<strong>at</strong>ional process or any consistent, premedit<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
program <strong>to</strong> preserve IGY his<strong>to</strong>ry. Some of <strong>the</strong> objects exist<br />
because <strong>the</strong>y were part of <strong>the</strong> developmental process leading<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fl ight instrument. O<strong>the</strong>rs are replicas or facsimiles<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> symbolize <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric event (Figure 11). Most<br />
were collected with little or no apparent priority given <strong>to</strong><br />
engineering, scientifi c or symbolic value, though <strong>the</strong>y had<br />
<strong>to</strong> possess <strong>at</strong> least one of those qualities. Some objects came<br />
<strong>to</strong> us serendipi<strong>to</strong>usly, some due <strong>to</strong> our intrinsic visibility and<br />
centrality <strong>to</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional preserv<strong>at</strong>ion. Some were collected as<br />
<strong>the</strong> result of judicious inquiry, but not <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> extent of specifi<br />
cally collecting <strong>the</strong> IGY era.<br />
There were, however, some consistently applied schemes.<br />
For instance, we planned out a collection documenting 30<br />
years of electronic ultraviolet and X-ray detec<strong>to</strong>r development<br />
by Herbert Friedman’s group <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Naval Research<br />
Labor<strong>at</strong>ory (1949– 1980s); <strong>the</strong>re was a similar program tracing<br />
<strong>the</strong> evolution of ultraviolet detec<strong>to</strong>rs for solar research
46 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / De VORKIN<br />
FIGURE 11. Inspection of a replica of Vanguard 1 th<strong>at</strong> had been modifi ed <strong>to</strong> hold a solar powered audio system for demonstr<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> “beeping.”<br />
(NASM pho<strong>to</strong>graph)<br />
with rockets over <strong>the</strong> same period by members of Richard<br />
Tousey’s NRL group, and <strong>the</strong> efforts of similar teams were<br />
devoted <strong>to</strong> aeronomy and ionospheric physics in <strong>the</strong> 1950s<br />
<strong>at</strong> NRL, <strong>the</strong> Applied Physics Labor<strong>at</strong>ory, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University<br />
of Colorado, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Air Force Cambridge Research labor<strong>at</strong>ory,<br />
and elsewhere (DeVorkin, 1992; 1996; Hirsh, 1983;<br />
Schorzman, 1993). Collections arising from <strong>the</strong>se efforts<br />
produced a large set of oral and video-his<strong>to</strong>ries, as well as<br />
a considerable cache of non-record archival m<strong>at</strong>erial, all a<br />
result of our search for represent<strong>at</strong>ive artifacts documenting<br />
<strong>the</strong> origins of <strong>the</strong> space sciences in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. Many<br />
of <strong>the</strong>m bordered on IGY interests and activities, but did<br />
not center on <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Even so, our collection does refl ect <strong>the</strong> enormous excitement<br />
and public impact of <strong>the</strong> fi rst years of <strong>the</strong> Space<br />
Age. We do meet <strong>the</strong> goal of memorializ<strong>at</strong>ion, for instance,<br />
because <strong>at</strong> any one time our collections of multiple examples<br />
of Explorer 1 and Vanguard 1 spacecraft replicas are<br />
on loan <strong>to</strong> museums across <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, in Europe,<br />
Asia, and Australia. More than a dozen examples of IGYera<br />
artifacts are presently on display <strong>at</strong> NASM, as well as<br />
<strong>the</strong> new NASM facility <strong>at</strong> Dulles, <strong>the</strong> Udvar Hazy Center.<br />
So as we ask questions about <strong>the</strong> IGY during this season<br />
of commemor<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong> new Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year 2007– 2008, I hope we will continue <strong>to</strong><br />
ask how well our collections inform <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical ac<strong>to</strong>rs,
events, episodes and eras th<strong>at</strong> made up <strong>the</strong> IGY. Where did<br />
<strong>the</strong> expertise come from th<strong>at</strong> allowed our n<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> respond<br />
<strong>to</strong> Sputnik and th<strong>at</strong> framed <strong>the</strong> character of th<strong>at</strong> response?<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> sorts of technologies were bought <strong>to</strong> bear? And wh<strong>at</strong><br />
was <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> infrastructure cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e<br />
space-borne research? If our present commemor<strong>at</strong>ion efforts<br />
do not adequ<strong>at</strong>ely answer <strong>the</strong>se sorts of questions,<br />
hopefully future his<strong>to</strong>rians will succeed in <strong>the</strong> effort, asking<br />
questions stimul<strong>at</strong>ed in part by our m<strong>at</strong>erial legacy.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
U.S. House of Represent<strong>at</strong>ives. 1946. 70th Congress, 2nd Session, 12<br />
August, Chapter 955, Public Law 79– 722. Department of Space<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry Collections R<strong>at</strong>ionale, 2005. [The word space was added in<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1960s and serves as basis for <strong>the</strong> Museum’s Mission St<strong>at</strong>ement,<br />
29 July 1996.]<br />
Agreement. 1967. “Agreement Between <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and<br />
Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Concerning<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cus<strong>to</strong>dy and Management of NASA His<strong>to</strong>rical Artifacts,”<br />
signed 10 March 1967. In <strong>the</strong> introduction <strong>to</strong> Space His<strong>to</strong>ry Division<br />
Collections R<strong>at</strong>ionale, 2005.<br />
Bennett, J., 2004. “Scientifi c Instruments.” In Research Methods Guide,<br />
Department of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Philosophy of Science, 12 March. Cambridge,<br />
U.K. Cambridge University.<br />
Bulkeley, R. P., 1991. The Sputniks Crisis and Early United St<strong>at</strong>es Space<br />
Policy. Blooming<strong>to</strong>n: Indiana University Press.<br />
DeVorkin, D. H. 1992. Science with a Vengeance: How <strong>the</strong> Military<br />
Cre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> U.S. Space Sciences after World War II. New York:<br />
Springer-Verlag. (Reprinted 1993, paperback study edition.)<br />
———. 1996. “Where Did X-Ray Astronomy Come From?” Rittenhouse,<br />
10: 33– 42.<br />
———. 2006a. “The Art of Cur<strong>at</strong>ion: Collection, Exhibition, and<br />
Scholarship.” In Showcasing Space, ed. M. Collins and D. Millard,<br />
pp. 159– 168. East Lansing: Michigan St<strong>at</strong>e University Press.<br />
———. 2006b. “Space Artifacts: Are They His<strong>to</strong>rical Evidence?” In<br />
Critical Issues in <strong>the</strong> His<strong>to</strong>ry of Spacefl ight, ed. S. J. Dick and R. D.<br />
Launius, NASA SP-2006– 4702, pp. 573– 600. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.:<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NASA).<br />
Green, C. M., and M. Lomask, 1970. Vanguard: A His<strong>to</strong>ry. NASA SP-<br />
4202, Appendix 3, pp. 290– 293. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: NASA.<br />
Hanle, Paul, and Von del Chamberlain, eds., 1981. Space Science Comes<br />
of Age. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
Hirsh, R. 1983. Glimpsing an Invisible Universe: The Emergence of X-ray<br />
Astronomy. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.<br />
PRESERVING THE ORIGINS OF THE SPACE AGE 47<br />
Kennicott, Philip. 2007. “At <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, Gay Rights Is Out of <strong>the</strong> Closet,<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Attic.” Washing<strong>to</strong>n Post (8 September 2007), C1; C8.<br />
Kopy<strong>to</strong>ff, Igor, 1986. “The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
as Process.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in<br />
Cultural Perspective, ed. Arjun Appadurai, pp. 64– 91. Cambridge,<br />
U.K.: Cambridge University Press.<br />
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Year,” Physics Today, 70 (2007), 38– 44.<br />
———. “The Policy Process and <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year,<br />
1957– 1958.” In <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>: <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang, and S. E.<br />
Miller, pp. 23– 34. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Scholarly<br />
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———. 1960. “The Development of a Corpuscular Radi<strong>at</strong>ion Experiment<br />
for an Earth S<strong>at</strong>ellite.” Ph.D. diss., August, SUI-60– 12, St<strong>at</strong>e<br />
University of Iowa, Iowa City.<br />
———. 2005. Letter <strong>to</strong> D. H. DeVorkin, 26 September. Cur<strong>at</strong>orial<br />
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2006). <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Washing<strong>to</strong>n D.C.<br />
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Pro-Seminar in Space His<strong>to</strong>ry. Technology and Culture, 23, No.<br />
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<strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IGY and IGC (1957– 1959). Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C.: N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences-N<strong>at</strong>ional Research Council.<br />
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of <strong>the</strong> Space Age. New York: Basic Books.<br />
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Lloyd V. Berkner and <strong>the</strong> Balance of Professional Ideals. Amsterdam:<br />
Harwood Academic in associ<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and<br />
Space Museum, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
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His<strong>to</strong>ry: An Annot<strong>at</strong>ed Bibliography. New York: Garland.<br />
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MRC 322, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.<br />
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Geophysical Year. New York: McGraw-Hill.<br />
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Year of <strong>the</strong> New Moons. New York: Knopf.
From Ballooning in <strong>the</strong> Arctic <strong>to</strong><br />
10,000-Foot Runways in Antarctica:<br />
Lessons from His<strong>to</strong>ric Archaeology<br />
Noel D. Broadbent<br />
Noel D. Broadbent, Arctic Studies Center,<br />
Department of Anthropology, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, P.O.<br />
Box 37012, MRC 112, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-<br />
7012, USA (broadbentn@si.edu). Accepted 29<br />
May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The author discusses three archaeological investig<strong>at</strong>ions of his<strong>to</strong>ric sites<br />
in <strong>the</strong> polar regions. The fi rst site is th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Solomon A. Andrée expedition camp on<br />
White Island, Svalbard. This f<strong>at</strong>eful ballooning expedition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Pole in 1897 was<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst experiment in polar aeronautics. Andrée and his colleagues gave <strong>the</strong>ir lives but<br />
opened <strong>the</strong> door <strong>to</strong> polar fl ight, <strong>the</strong> backbone of polar logistics <strong>to</strong>day. The o<strong>the</strong>r site, East<br />
Base, on S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island off <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, served <strong>the</strong>1939– 1941 U.S. Antarctic<br />
Service Expedition, under Admiral Richard Byrd, <strong>the</strong> fi rst U.S. government– sponsored<br />
scientifi c and aerial mapping effort in Antarctica. In 1992, a team of archaeologists documented<br />
and secured <strong>the</strong> site th<strong>at</strong> had been recently recognized as an his<strong>to</strong>ric monument by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic tre<strong>at</strong>y n<strong>at</strong>ions. The third site is Marble Point on Vic<strong>to</strong>ria Land across from<br />
Ross Island and McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion. In conjunction with <strong>the</strong> IGY 1957– 1958, a massive<br />
effort was put in<strong>to</strong> laying out a 10,000-foot year-round runway and cre<strong>at</strong>ing a fresh w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
reservoir and o<strong>the</strong>r base facilities. It was one of <strong>the</strong> premier loc<strong>at</strong>ions for str<strong>at</strong>egic avi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in Antarctica. The site was archaeologically surveyed and original engineering document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
from 1956– 1957 offers superb baselines for studying permafrost, erosion, and<br />
human disturbances in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic environment. These types of sites are in situ monuments<br />
<strong>to</strong> human courage, ingenuity, and perseverance on a par with NASA’s explor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of space. They require careful management and protection following <strong>the</strong> same principles<br />
as his<strong>to</strong>ric sites within <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es and in o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
There is a seemingly limitless public interest in polar explor<strong>at</strong>ion. This fascin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
is one of <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est resources we have for support of polar science:<br />
Public enthusiasm for polar his<strong>to</strong>ry and explor<strong>at</strong>ion should be actively acknowledged<br />
in projects of <strong>the</strong>se kinds. With volunteer help led by professional archaeologists<br />
on regular <strong>to</strong>ur ships, site document<strong>at</strong>ion and cleanup efforts could be<br />
carried out on a scale th<strong>at</strong> would o<strong>the</strong>rwise be impossible <strong>to</strong> achieve.<br />
This paper is about intern<strong>at</strong>ional polar his<strong>to</strong>ry and heritage along with science<br />
and technology in context. We are now embarked on <strong>the</strong> Fourth Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year. In addition <strong>to</strong> projects in <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural and physical sciences,<br />
focusing especially on issues of global change, <strong>the</strong>re are a number of <strong>the</strong>mes in<br />
anthropology and archaeology, and new his<strong>to</strong>ric archaeology projects are being<br />
initi<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> both poles.
50 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
The three archaeological studies presented here span<br />
60 years of avi<strong>at</strong>ion his<strong>to</strong>ry from before <strong>the</strong> period of<br />
fi xed-wing aircraft <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year<br />
in 1957– 1958. They also rel<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> competing n<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
interests in <strong>the</strong> polar regions including Nordic rivalries,<br />
U.S. and German confl icts over Antarctic terri<strong>to</strong>ries during<br />
World War II, and Cold War str<strong>at</strong>egic thought in <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn hemisphere.<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ric archaeology is based on <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ories and<br />
methods of traditional archaeology but applies <strong>the</strong>se<br />
<strong>to</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric periods (South, 1977; Orser, 2004; Hall and<br />
Silliman, 2006). One gre<strong>at</strong> advantage of his<strong>to</strong>ric archaeology<br />
over prehis<strong>to</strong>ric archaeology is th<strong>at</strong> it can be m<strong>at</strong>ched<br />
with written sources th<strong>at</strong> may reveal, among o<strong>the</strong>r things,<br />
<strong>the</strong> motives behind various endeavors and <strong>the</strong> details of<br />
planning and consequent successes and failures. However,<br />
written his<strong>to</strong>ry tends also <strong>to</strong> focus on <strong>the</strong> larger picture of<br />
given events and can be biased by political, social, or o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
concerns of <strong>the</strong> times. Physical evidence and archaeological<br />
analysis can be used not only <strong>to</strong> test hypo<strong>the</strong>ses about<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical events but also, of equal importance, <strong>to</strong> provide<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> daily lives of individuals th<strong>at</strong> rarely<br />
make it in<strong>to</strong> his<strong>to</strong>rical accounts.<br />
Global warming, one of <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> scientifi c concerns<br />
of <strong>to</strong>day regarding polar ecosystems, is having profound<br />
impacts on archaeological sites. These sites are subject<br />
<strong>to</strong> increasingly severe we<strong>at</strong>hering and erosion damage.<br />
Warmer conditions have also made <strong>the</strong>m more accessible<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>urism, as well as <strong>to</strong> looting. Document<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
sites is urgently needed. This is exemplifi ed by <strong>the</strong> Andrée<br />
site in Svalbard, Norway. While such efforts have intrinsic<br />
value in and of <strong>the</strong>mselves, <strong>the</strong> importance of <strong>the</strong>se investig<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
extends beyond th<strong>at</strong>, inasmuch as <strong>the</strong> sites<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves can provide baselines for measuring <strong>the</strong> effects<br />
of clim<strong>at</strong>e change over time. This is <strong>the</strong> case of <strong>the</strong> two<br />
Antarctic sites, East Base and Marble Point.<br />
THREE CASE STUDIES<br />
The fi rst study was an investig<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> S. A. Andrée<br />
ballooning expedition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Pole in 1897 (Andrée,<br />
Strindberg, and Fraenkel, 1930). This study was undertaken<br />
in 1997– 2000 as a purely scientifi c investig<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> causes of de<strong>at</strong>h of <strong>the</strong>se Swedish polar explorers<br />
and <strong>to</strong> document <strong>the</strong>ir campsite (Broadbent, 1998; 2000a;<br />
2000b). The centennial of this expedition was 1997, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> project was supported by <strong>the</strong> Royal Swedish Academy<br />
of Science and <strong>the</strong> Nordic Research Council for <strong>the</strong><br />
Humanities within <strong>the</strong> framework of a larger his<strong>to</strong>ry of<br />
science program (Wråkberg, 1999).<br />
The second study was undertaken in 1992 as an Antarctic<br />
environmental cleanup and cultural heritage management<br />
project. The United St<strong>at</strong>es Congress alloc<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
environmental funds in 1991 <strong>to</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> cleanup of<br />
old American bases in Antarctica. One of <strong>the</strong>se bases, East<br />
Base on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula d<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> 1940, is <strong>the</strong> oldest<br />
remaining American research st<strong>at</strong>ion in Antarctica. The<br />
archaeological project was conducted through <strong>the</strong> auspices<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Division of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion in collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Park Service<br />
(Broadbent, 1992; Broadbent and Rose, 2002; Spude<br />
and Spude, 1993).<br />
The third study, Marble Point, was directly rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year of 1957– 1958. Marble<br />
Point is situ<strong>at</strong>ed across <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent from East<br />
Base and near <strong>the</strong> large American research st<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> Mc-<br />
Murdo Sound. An enormous engineering effort had been<br />
put in<strong>to</strong> building a 10,000-foot runway <strong>at</strong> Marble Point.<br />
This base was, never<strong>the</strong>less, abandoned when <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Navy found its sea approach extremely diffi cult for supply<br />
ships. With <strong>the</strong> aid of volunteers from McMurdo in 1994,<br />
it was possible <strong>to</strong> map <strong>the</strong> remains of <strong>the</strong> SeaBee (Navy<br />
Construction B<strong>at</strong>talion Unit or CBU) base camp <strong>at</strong> Marble<br />
Point (Broadbent, 1994). It was in this context th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
science th<strong>at</strong> had gone in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> prospecting of <strong>the</strong> airfi eld<br />
became apparent, as well as <strong>the</strong> impacts th<strong>at</strong> construction<br />
had left on <strong>the</strong> landscape.<br />
The combin<strong>at</strong>ion of his<strong>to</strong>ry, archaeology, and n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
science is an exceptionally productive approach <strong>to</strong> understanding<br />
<strong>the</strong> past and applying this knowledge <strong>to</strong> modern<br />
research questions.<br />
THE ANDRÉE NORTH POLE<br />
EXPEDITION IN 1897<br />
The Andrée expedition is one of <strong>the</strong> most intriguing<br />
in polar his<strong>to</strong>ry. Solomon August Andrée (1856– 1897)<br />
worked <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Swedish p<strong>at</strong>ent offi ce. He had become fascin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by ballooning after visiting <strong>the</strong> U.S. centennial celebr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in Philadelphia in 1876. On returning <strong>to</strong> Sweden, he<br />
devoted himself <strong>to</strong> designing hydrogen balloons th<strong>at</strong> could<br />
be used for explor<strong>at</strong>ion and aerial mapping. His gre<strong>at</strong>est<br />
effort was put in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> design of <strong>the</strong> Eagle, which was intended<br />
<strong>to</strong> take him and two colleagues <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Pole<br />
using sou<strong>the</strong>rly winds. A balloon building and hydrogen<br />
gener<strong>at</strong>ing facility were built on Dane Island in northwest-
ern Svalbard in 1896 (Capelotti, 1999). The fi rst <strong>at</strong>tempt<br />
on <strong>the</strong> North Pole was aborted because of poor winds and<br />
gas leakage. A new team consisting of Andrée, Nils Strindberg,<br />
and Knut Fraenkel (replacing Nils Ekholm) launched<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Eagle on 11 July 1897. They were never seen alive<br />
again. Interestingly enough, Nils Ekholm, who quit <strong>the</strong><br />
project which he felt was <strong>to</strong>o risky, was seen by many as a<br />
coward and his decision is still being deb<strong>at</strong>ed in Sweden.<br />
He went on <strong>to</strong> become one of Sweden’s most prominent<br />
meteorologists.<br />
In 1930, <strong>the</strong> bodies of Andrée, Strindberg, and Fraenkel<br />
were found <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir campsite on White Island in eastern<br />
Svalbard (Lithberg, 1930). The bodies were returned <strong>to</strong><br />
Sweden, crem<strong>at</strong>ed, and buried in S<strong>to</strong>ckholm following an<br />
almost royal funeral and n<strong>at</strong>ional day of mourning (Lundström,<br />
1997). An exhibit of <strong>the</strong>ir equipment was shown<br />
<strong>at</strong> Liljevalch’s Art Hall in S<strong>to</strong>ckholm in 1931 ( Fynden på<br />
Vitön, 1931). Remarkably, <strong>the</strong>ir diaries and notes, as well<br />
as undeveloped roles of Kodak fi lm, had survived. A number<br />
of neg<strong>at</strong>ives could be developed and <strong>the</strong>se images provide<br />
a haunting picture of <strong>the</strong>ir ordeal.<br />
The balloon had gone down on <strong>the</strong> sea ice on 14 July<br />
1897. Because of icing <strong>the</strong> balloon could simply not stay<br />
aloft and after 33 hours of misery <strong>the</strong> decision was made <strong>to</strong><br />
land. They had reached 82° 56� north l<strong>at</strong>itude (Figure 1).<br />
They were well equipped with sleds and a bo<strong>at</strong> and from 14<br />
July until 5 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber <strong>the</strong>y trekked on <strong>the</strong> sea ice, fi rst east-<br />
FIGURE 1. The Eagle shortly after landing on <strong>the</strong> sea ice <strong>at</strong> 82º 56’<br />
N on 14 July 1897. Andrée and Fraenkel are looking <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> balloon.<br />
The image was developed from a roll of Kodak fi lm recovered from<br />
White Island in 1930. (Pho<strong>to</strong> by Nils Strindberg, courtesy of Andrée<br />
Museum. Gränna)<br />
FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 51<br />
wards, making little real distance because of <strong>the</strong> ice drift,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n southwards. They were planning on wintering in a<br />
comfortable snow house near White Island and celebr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>the</strong> king’s birthday on September 18 with a meal of seal<br />
me<strong>at</strong>, liver, kidneys, brains, and port wine. They were in<br />
fi ne spirits. Then disaster struck when <strong>the</strong> ice fractured under<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir snow house. Luckily <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her was good. They<br />
system<strong>at</strong>ically g<strong>at</strong>hered <strong>the</strong>ir equipment and supplies and<br />
were forced <strong>to</strong> go ashore on White Island where <strong>the</strong>y set<br />
up a new camp. The last note in <strong>the</strong>ir diaries has a d<strong>at</strong>e of<br />
17 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber. There is little in <strong>the</strong> diaries about being in a<br />
critical situ<strong>at</strong>ion. There were no last words or explan<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
letters <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir loved ones or <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir sponsors. It seems th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>y had no inkling th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were in danger of dying. By<br />
comparison, Robert Falcon Scott and his companions <strong>to</strong>ok<br />
<strong>the</strong> time <strong>to</strong> leave a number of letters when <strong>the</strong>y unders<strong>to</strong>od<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir situ<strong>at</strong>ion. They knew <strong>at</strong> some future d<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong>ir camp<br />
and bodies would be found. As Andrée and his companions<br />
were now on dry land one would assume th<strong>at</strong>, if <strong>the</strong>y had<br />
known th<strong>at</strong> all was lost, <strong>the</strong>y would have done <strong>the</strong> same.<br />
They were well aware th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> world had been w<strong>at</strong>ching<br />
<strong>the</strong>m and considerable n<strong>at</strong>ional prestige was <strong>at</strong> stake, particularly<br />
since <strong>the</strong> Swedish king, Oskar II, and Alfred Nobel<br />
were offi cial sponsors.<br />
Strindberg’s body was found in 1930, half buried in a<br />
rock crevice near <strong>the</strong> campsite, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> he had been<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>to</strong> die. Fraenkel lay dead in <strong>the</strong> tent and Andrée<br />
lay on <strong>the</strong> rock shelf above <strong>the</strong> tent.<br />
There have been many <strong>the</strong>ories but no conclusive evidence<br />
for how or why <strong>the</strong>y had died. The campsite th<strong>at</strong><br />
had been mapped during <strong>the</strong> recovery in 1930 had been<br />
largely buried in snow and ice (Lithberg, 1930). Warming<br />
trends in <strong>the</strong> Arctic made it likely th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> site would be<br />
better exposed <strong>to</strong>day. A new investig<strong>at</strong>ion in connection<br />
with <strong>the</strong> centennial of <strong>the</strong> expedition was organized and<br />
subsequently funded.<br />
FIELDWORK IN 1998<br />
The fi rst project expedition <strong>to</strong> Svalbard was undertaken<br />
in 1998 on <strong>the</strong> Norwegian research vessel Lance<br />
through <strong>the</strong> auspices of <strong>the</strong> Swedish <strong>Polar</strong> Research Secretari<strong>at</strong><br />
and <strong>the</strong> Royal Academy of Sciences. The participants<br />
included science his<strong>to</strong>rian Sverker Sörlin, <strong>the</strong><br />
direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> Andrée Museum, Sven Lundström, Nordic<br />
Museum ethnographer and polar his<strong>to</strong>rian, Rolf<br />
Kjellström, archaeology student Berit Andersson, and <strong>the</strong><br />
author. The team visited White Island for one day and
52 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
mapped <strong>the</strong> immedi<strong>at</strong>e camp area using standard mapping<br />
techniques and pho<strong>to</strong>graphy.<br />
The site, as hoped, was found <strong>to</strong> be <strong>to</strong>tally free of ice<br />
and snow cover and even <strong>the</strong> margins of <strong>the</strong> tent were still<br />
discernable in <strong>the</strong> sandy soil. Embedded in <strong>the</strong> tent depression<br />
were frozen remnants of clothing. Driftwood, bamboo,<br />
silk shreds, metal fragments, and o<strong>the</strong>r small debris<br />
were sc<strong>at</strong>tered on <strong>the</strong> soft sand. Even fragments of bone,<br />
certainly polar bear and seal bone, but possibly even human,<br />
were found (Figure 2). The area surrounding <strong>the</strong> site<br />
also produced artifacts, including opened food tins from <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition.<br />
With this archaeological potential, a follow-up project<br />
was proposed in order <strong>to</strong> map <strong>the</strong> site using digital technology<br />
and <strong>to</strong> conduct a soil chemistry analysis in order <strong>to</strong> map<br />
<strong>the</strong> non-visible areas of <strong>the</strong> camp and evidence of camp use.<br />
It was reasoned th<strong>at</strong> low levels of phosph<strong>at</strong>es, by-products<br />
of defec<strong>at</strong>ion, urin<strong>at</strong>ion, and animal carcasses, could also<br />
refl ect length of site use. Magnetic susceptibility would tell<br />
us about burning on <strong>the</strong> site. A pile of driftwood still lies<br />
near <strong>the</strong> tent site and had been collected by <strong>the</strong> Andrée team<br />
as construction m<strong>at</strong>erial as well as for fuel.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> initial inspection it was possible <strong>to</strong> verify <strong>the</strong><br />
archaeological potential of <strong>the</strong> site and its surroundings.<br />
Although most objects had been collected in <strong>the</strong> 1930s, <strong>the</strong><br />
ground was still littered with small debris including silk and<br />
bamboo from <strong>the</strong> balloon and bo<strong>at</strong>, tin openers and various<br />
metal fragments. This micro-deposition refl ected <strong>the</strong> extent<br />
of <strong>the</strong> former campsite. The tent and its half frozen fl oor<br />
deposits presented an excellent opportunity for study.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> most interesting conclusions of <strong>the</strong> survey<br />
was th<strong>at</strong> this campsite had been well chosen. It was on welldrained<br />
sandy soil and protected by a rocky outcrop. There<br />
was a small stream nearby. In addition, <strong>the</strong> camp was situ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
well back from <strong>the</strong> shore and away from areas where<br />
polar bears would prowl. Considerable effort had clearly<br />
been put in<strong>to</strong> choosing this spot and substantial piles of logs<br />
had also been assembled for dwelling construction and/or<br />
fuel. We know from a note in Andrée’s journal th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
camp had been named “Camp Minna” after his mo<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
FIELDWORK IN 2000<br />
Having received permission by <strong>the</strong> Norwegian authorities<br />
<strong>to</strong> conduct <strong>the</strong> study, we returned on <strong>the</strong> Swedish<br />
chartered ship Origo <strong>to</strong> White Island on 19 August 2000<br />
(Broadbent and Olofsson, 2001).<br />
The goal of <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Andrée site was<br />
<strong>to</strong> archaeologically document <strong>the</strong> camp and its surround-<br />
ings and <strong>to</strong> assess <strong>the</strong> potential causes of <strong>the</strong>ir de<strong>at</strong>hs. The<br />
men did not appear <strong>to</strong> be ei<strong>the</strong>r ill-equipped or desper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
on going ashore on 5 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber 1897. They had established<br />
a good campsite on dry ground. They had fuel for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
s<strong>to</strong>ves, ammunition, food, and medicines.<br />
With this goal in mind, a new potential for analysis<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> site emerged in 2000. Mark Personne, MD, of <strong>the</strong><br />
S<strong>to</strong>ckholm Poison Center, had just published an article in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Swedish Journal of Medicine in which he assessed <strong>the</strong><br />
symp<strong>to</strong>ms of <strong>the</strong> three men th<strong>at</strong> could be gleaned from<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir diaries (Personne, 2000). Suicide, murder, depression,<br />
trichinosis, hypo<strong>the</strong>rmia, carbon monoxide poisoning,<br />
alcohol/fuel poisoning, and so on had been proposed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> past, but Personne deduced th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> most probable<br />
cause of de<strong>at</strong>h for all three men was botulism poisoning.<br />
Botulism Type E is common in <strong>the</strong> Arctic and is found<br />
on <strong>the</strong> skin of marine mammals th<strong>at</strong> pick it up from bot<strong>to</strong>m<br />
sediments and in <strong>the</strong> near-shore environment. It is<br />
tasteless and odorless and among <strong>the</strong> most deadly poisons<br />
in n<strong>at</strong>ure. Once ingested, de<strong>at</strong>h occurs within 24– 36<br />
hours (Personne, 2000, plus references). As a neuro<strong>to</strong>xin,<br />
it affects <strong>the</strong> central nervous system. For our purposes, although<br />
<strong>the</strong> bacteria would be long gone, it was technically<br />
possible <strong>to</strong> identify <strong>the</strong> botulism <strong>to</strong>xins in <strong>the</strong> soils of <strong>the</strong><br />
camp, namely in <strong>the</strong> area of <strong>the</strong> tent fl oor. Testing this<br />
<strong>the</strong>ory thus became a new target of <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The fi rst setback was <strong>to</strong> discover th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> campsite<br />
was now buried under as much as 30 centimeters of ice.<br />
Snows from <strong>the</strong> previous two winters had melted in<strong>to</strong> a<br />
hard mass which could only be hacked out with diffi culty.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> evening a heavy snow s<strong>to</strong>rm with gale-force winds hit<br />
<strong>the</strong> island and <strong>the</strong> team was unable <strong>to</strong> go ashore for two<br />
days. Some 20– 30 inches of snow now covered <strong>the</strong> island<br />
and <strong>the</strong> initial survey plans, which had already rendered<br />
several interesting fi nds, including one of <strong>the</strong> three sled<br />
yokes from <strong>the</strong> expedition, were not possible. The planned<br />
excav<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> tent fl oor <strong>to</strong> test Personne’s <strong>the</strong>ory was<br />
also no longer possible. The focus returned <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pographic<br />
mapping of <strong>the</strong> site and sampling for phosph<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and magnetic susceptibility. Ground level could still be determined<br />
with our measuring rod and soil samples could<br />
still be collected.<br />
WHAT THE SOILS REVEALED<br />
The Andrée camp on White Island is situ<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> 80º<br />
05� N and 31º 26� E. The camp was about 175m from <strong>the</strong><br />
shore in sandy terrain and adjacent <strong>to</strong> a 3m high s<strong>to</strong>ne outcrop.<br />
The site area covers about 250 square meters. From
FIGURE 2. The Andrée campsite in 1998 was completely exposed.<br />
Fragments of <strong>the</strong> balloon, clothing, and o<strong>the</strong>r items were visible.<br />
(Pho<strong>to</strong> by Noel Broadbent)<br />
<strong>the</strong> perspective of soil chemistry, <strong>the</strong> site is analogous <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
environment of L<strong>at</strong>e Post Glacial hunters living near <strong>the</strong><br />
ice margins of Scandinavia 9,000 years ago. In an environment<br />
like this, almost all organic and phosph<strong>at</strong>e-containing<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials were brought <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> site by man or beast. Indic<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of burning were certainly an indic<strong>at</strong>ion of human<br />
presence. Small groups of hunters slaughtering and subsisting<br />
on animals left rel<strong>at</strong>ively high phosph<strong>at</strong>e deposits in <strong>the</strong><br />
same types of soils. These inorganic phosph<strong>at</strong>es bind with<br />
<strong>the</strong> soil and remain for thousands of years. Citric acids releases<br />
<strong>the</strong> phosph<strong>at</strong>e and this can be measured using colorimetric<br />
(phosphorous-molybd<strong>at</strong>e)– based methods. Johan<br />
Olofsson provided <strong>the</strong> expertise for soil sampling and analysis<br />
(Broadbent and Olofsson, 2001).<br />
The human body processes 1– 2 g of phosphorus per<br />
day (Devlin, 1986). In addition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> deposition of food<br />
residues, especially bones, urin<strong>at</strong>ion and defec<strong>at</strong>ion contribute<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> buildup of phosph<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> soil. The longer a site<br />
is occupied, <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er will be <strong>the</strong> phosph<strong>at</strong>e enrichment.<br />
This buildup is expected <strong>to</strong> be gre<strong>at</strong>est in <strong>the</strong> site center or<br />
adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> center. Since this is a rel<strong>at</strong>ive measure, differences<br />
of 5 percent or more are considered signifi cant as<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> offsite normal background sample values. The<br />
team collected 240 soil samples in <strong>the</strong> camp area.<br />
Phosph<strong>at</strong>e is measured in phosph<strong>at</strong>e degrees, mg<br />
P2O5 per 100 g dry soil. The mean phosph<strong>at</strong>e enrichment<br />
in <strong>the</strong> site center was 17�9 Pº with a range of 38– 2 Pº.<br />
The highest values were actually <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north of <strong>the</strong> camp<br />
FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 53<br />
margin and associ<strong>at</strong>ed with w<strong>at</strong>er pooling th<strong>at</strong> was a n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
process. The average off site values were 11�11 Pº<br />
with a range of 38– 1 P°.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> site areas averaged slightly higher than<br />
<strong>the</strong> control samples, this was due <strong>to</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural drainage on<br />
<strong>the</strong> site r<strong>at</strong>her than human activity. In fact, <strong>the</strong> map of<br />
phosph<strong>at</strong>e values shows th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> immedi<strong>at</strong>e tent area no<br />
enrichment wh<strong>at</strong>soever. This is strong evidence th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
had not been active on <strong>the</strong> site for very long before de<strong>at</strong>h<br />
overcame <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Magnetic susceptibility (MS) on <strong>the</strong> campsite averaged<br />
5�4 SI which is comparable <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> off site control<br />
measurement of 4�2 SI. One sample on <strong>the</strong> site measured<br />
40 SI because of a rusty fl ake in <strong>the</strong> soil sample and this<br />
raised <strong>the</strong> average campsite value. MS is measured in SI<br />
units per 10 g of soil using a Barting<strong>to</strong>n MS2B measure<br />
cell (Thomson and Oldfi eld, 1986).<br />
Magnetic susceptibility rendered no evidence of fi res<br />
and <strong>the</strong> low phosph<strong>at</strong>e values suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> site had<br />
hardly been used.<br />
The three men had arrived on <strong>the</strong> island on 5 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber<br />
1897 in rel<strong>at</strong>ively good shape, searched out an excellent<br />
campsite, collected heavy driftwood logs for construction<br />
of a hut, and <strong>the</strong>n died within hours of each o<strong>the</strong>r. They<br />
managed a simple burial of <strong>the</strong> youngest member of <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition, Nils Strindberg, and <strong>the</strong>n barely made it back<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tent where <strong>the</strong>y collapsed. Andrée was found with<br />
a Primus S<strong>to</strong>ve, which was easily re-lit after 33 years in<br />
<strong>the</strong> snow. Fraenkel was lying on or beside, not in, his<br />
sleeping bag.<br />
The Personne hypo<strong>the</strong>sis on botulism poisoning could<br />
not be tested but remains <strong>the</strong> most probable cause of <strong>the</strong><br />
sudden de<strong>at</strong>h of all three men. The lack of fi nal words and<br />
letters in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise preserved papers supports <strong>the</strong> idea<br />
as well. With exposure <strong>to</strong> a neuro<strong>to</strong>xin, <strong>the</strong> men would<br />
have been quickly immobilized and were apparently unable<br />
<strong>to</strong> write. Oddly enough, Fraenkel was found still<br />
wearing his dark glasses in spite of <strong>the</strong> low light in early<br />
Oc<strong>to</strong>ber. Light sensitivity is ano<strong>the</strong>r symp<strong>to</strong>m of botulism<br />
(Personne, 2000). A follow-up sampling of <strong>the</strong> site might<br />
one day help prove this <strong>the</strong>ory.<br />
Andrée and his companions still capture <strong>the</strong> imagin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> public, especially in Sweden. The fact remains<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Andrée was <strong>the</strong> fi rst pioneer of polar fl ight and aerial<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>graphy in <strong>the</strong> polar regions. While in some quarters<br />
he is viewed as a “balloon<strong>at</strong>ic” who knew this was going<br />
<strong>to</strong> end in disaster, <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs he is revered as a genius of<br />
balloon design. In 2000, <strong>the</strong> same year of <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of his campsite on White Island, an English adventurer,<br />
David Hempelman Adams, launched his hot air balloon,
54 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
<strong>the</strong> Britannic Challenger, from Longearbyn in Svalbard.<br />
He reached <strong>the</strong> North Pole and most of <strong>the</strong> way back in<br />
133 hours, thus proving th<strong>at</strong> Andrée’s plan had been feasible<br />
all along.<br />
Every year <strong>the</strong> Andrée campsite is visited by numerous<br />
<strong>to</strong>ur groups. We noted during our fi rst visit in 1998 th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> soft soils of <strong>the</strong> site were badly disturbed and <strong>the</strong> area<br />
between <strong>the</strong> site and <strong>the</strong> shore was dimpled with thousands<br />
of deep footprints.<br />
EAST BASE AND THE UNITED STATES<br />
ANTARCTIC SERVICE EXPEDITION<br />
(1939– 1941)<br />
In 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt appointed<br />
Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd <strong>to</strong> command <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic<br />
Service Expedition. Roosevelt was well aware of<br />
German terri<strong>to</strong>rial interests in Antarctica; th<strong>at</strong> same year<br />
<strong>the</strong> German Antarctic Expedition on <strong>the</strong> seaplane tender<br />
Swabenland claimed 200,000 square miles of terri<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
including Crown Princess Maerta Land, which had been<br />
a Norwegian claim. Most important coastal points were<br />
marked with swastikas and fl ags dropped from aircraft.<br />
Germany invaded Norway in 1940 (Broadbent and Rose,<br />
2002).<br />
Two American bases were quickly established in Antarctica<br />
in 1940: West Base under <strong>the</strong> command of Paul<br />
Siple, and East Base under <strong>the</strong> command of Richard Black<br />
(Black, 1946a, 1946b). West Base was built on <strong>the</strong> Bay of<br />
Whales and has been lost in <strong>the</strong> sea, but East Base, built<br />
on S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island off <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula (68º 28�<br />
S, 67º 17� W), still stands.<br />
East Base was hastily abandoned on 22 March 1941<br />
under <strong>the</strong> looming thre<strong>at</strong> of war. The 26 men, with a smuggled<br />
puppy and a pet bird— Giant Petrel, l<strong>at</strong>er don<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
FIGURE 3. The abandoned East Base on S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island, Antarctica. The Science Building with its we<strong>at</strong>her <strong>to</strong>wer and <strong>the</strong> Bunkhouse building<br />
were intact. The cr<strong>at</strong>e containing a spare engine for <strong>the</strong> Curtis Wright Condor biplane can be seen in front of <strong>the</strong> Science Building. (Pho<strong>to</strong><br />
by Noel Broadbent, 1992)
N<strong>at</strong>ional Zoo in Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.— abandoned <strong>the</strong> base<br />
and fl ew out <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice edge in <strong>the</strong>ir Curtis Wright Condor<br />
biplane, which also had <strong>to</strong> be abandoned. The USS Bear<br />
<strong>the</strong>n <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>the</strong>m back <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, and some nine<br />
months l<strong>at</strong>er <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es was <strong>at</strong> war with Japan and<br />
Germany.<br />
S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island was reoccupied by <strong>the</strong> Falklands Islands<br />
Dependencies in 1946 and subsequently used by <strong>the</strong><br />
British Antarctic Service until 1970 (Wal<strong>to</strong>n, 1955). East<br />
Base itself, although badly vandalized by ship crews from<br />
Chile and Argentina, was reoccupied by <strong>the</strong> Ronne Antarctic<br />
Research Expedition (RARE) in 1947– 1948 (Ronne<br />
1949; 1979). The RARE expedition was a priv<strong>at</strong>e venture<br />
under <strong>the</strong> leadership of Finn Ronne who had been second<br />
in command <strong>at</strong> East Base in 1940. The RARE expedition<br />
was unique because this was <strong>the</strong> fi rst time women (Jackie<br />
Ronne and <strong>the</strong> chief pilot’s wife, Jennie Darling<strong>to</strong>n) were<br />
<strong>to</strong> winter over in Antarctica (Ronne, 1950; Darling<strong>to</strong>n<br />
and McIlvaine, 1956).<br />
All three expeditions conducted important research<br />
and determined th<strong>at</strong> this part of <strong>the</strong> continent was indeed<br />
a peninsula and not an island (Ronne, 1949: English,<br />
1941; Wade, 1945). Interest in <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric value of <strong>the</strong> site<br />
was noted by Lipps in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1970s (Lipps, 1976, 1978).<br />
East Base was recognized as an his<strong>to</strong>ric site (#55) by <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y N<strong>at</strong>ions in 1989.<br />
In 1991, U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Park Service archaeologist,<br />
C<strong>at</strong>herine Blee (l<strong>at</strong>er Spude), and NPS his<strong>to</strong>rian, Robert<br />
Spude, were taken <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> island by NSF <strong>to</strong> conduct a survey<br />
and develop a management plan for <strong>the</strong> site. In 1993,<br />
<strong>the</strong> author led a team, including archaeologist and hazardous<br />
waste expert, Robert Weaver, and staff from <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Antarctic Research Program Base <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
British Antarctic Survey personnel from Ro<strong>the</strong>ra St<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
We were <strong>the</strong>re <strong>to</strong> follow through on <strong>the</strong> NPS recommend<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
These included cleanup and document<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
debris, removal of hazardous m<strong>at</strong>erials, repairs of doors,<br />
windows, and roofs and <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>rage of artifacts. In addition,<br />
warning and inform<strong>at</strong>ion signs were made for <strong>the</strong><br />
site and its buildings and an interpret<strong>at</strong>ive panel with a<br />
description of <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion and his<strong>to</strong>ric pho<strong>to</strong>graphs was<br />
put on display in <strong>the</strong> Science Building (Figure 3).<br />
The team worked on <strong>the</strong> site from 20 February until<br />
3 March 1992. The grounds were cleaned and capped<br />
with fresh beach s<strong>to</strong>nes, <strong>the</strong> buildings repaired as far<br />
as possible and one building became an artifact s<strong>to</strong>rage<br />
facility. A collection of some 50 artifacts, including old<br />
maps, <strong>to</strong>ols, mittens, fi lms, bottles, bunk pl<strong>at</strong>es and dog<br />
tags with names, scientifi c specimens, medical supplies<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r items were brought back and are now kept <strong>at</strong><br />
FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 55<br />
FIGURE 4. Noel Broadbent recording a cold-we<strong>at</strong>her mask <strong>at</strong> East<br />
Base in 1992. In <strong>the</strong> foreground are old we<strong>at</strong>her maps found <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
site. (Pho<strong>to</strong> by Michael Parfi t)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Naval His<strong>to</strong>rical Center, U.S. Naval Yard, in Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
D.C. (Figure 4).<br />
A small museum, one of <strong>the</strong> most remote museums in<br />
<strong>the</strong> world (Iijima, 1994), was set up in <strong>the</strong> Science Building<br />
with and a brass plaque with <strong>the</strong> names of <strong>the</strong> 1940– 1941<br />
and 1947– 1948 expedition members th<strong>at</strong> had been don<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Geographic Society. A guest book<br />
was left in <strong>the</strong> museum <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with an American fl ag.<br />
A spare engine for <strong>the</strong> Curtis Wright Condor biplane<br />
still rests in its original cr<strong>at</strong>e in front of <strong>the</strong> museum. There<br />
is even a World War I vintage light tank with an air-cooled<br />
aircraft engine, a failed experiment in winter traction (Figure<br />
5). The fi rst <strong>to</strong>urists arrived in 29 December 1993<br />
onboard <strong>the</strong> Kapitan Khlebnikov. In 1994, Jackie Ronne,<br />
widow of Finn Ronne, and <strong>the</strong>ir daughter, Karen Tupek,<br />
visited <strong>the</strong> site and left more pho<strong>to</strong>s and texts for <strong>the</strong> museum<br />
and <strong>the</strong> bunkhouse.<br />
The East Base project was conducted as a cleanup and<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical archaeological project. It was <strong>the</strong> fi rst U.S. effort<br />
in his<strong>to</strong>ric archaeology in Antarctica th<strong>at</strong> set a precedent<br />
for how sites of <strong>the</strong>se types can be managed (Parfi t, 1993).<br />
Sites in <strong>the</strong> East Base area were made environmentally safe<br />
and worthy of <strong>to</strong>urism and are lasting memorials <strong>to</strong> polar<br />
science. More than 100 cruise ships now visit Antarctica<br />
every year and <strong>the</strong>re is still an urgent need <strong>to</strong> document<br />
and manage many his<strong>to</strong>ric sites around <strong>the</strong> continent.<br />
Preserv<strong>at</strong>ion conditions have left items in pristine condition<br />
and <strong>the</strong> continent is littered with aircraft, vehicles,<br />
and buildings. This is one of <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est challenges of<br />
cultural resource management and ideally should be conducted<br />
as collabor<strong>at</strong>ive intern<strong>at</strong>ional efforts.
56 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
FIGURE 5. The gap between S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island and <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>ast glacier, 1992. As l<strong>at</strong>e as in <strong>the</strong> 1970s, an ice bridge connected <strong>the</strong> island <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula; it had been <strong>the</strong> major reason for choosing <strong>the</strong> island as a base in 1940. The changes refl ect rapid warming in <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
(Pho<strong>to</strong> by Noel Broadbent)<br />
MARBLE POINT, ANTARCTICA<br />
The fi nal project <strong>to</strong> be discussed is a small archaeological<br />
endeavor but one encompassing a huge site, th<strong>at</strong><br />
of a 10,000-foot-long airfi eld and base <strong>at</strong> Marble Point<br />
in Vic<strong>to</strong>ria Land, across from Ross Island and <strong>the</strong> large<br />
American base <strong>at</strong> McMurdo Sound.<br />
While making site visits <strong>to</strong> researchers supported by<br />
<strong>the</strong> social sciences program as NSF, <strong>the</strong> author had <strong>the</strong> opportunity<br />
<strong>to</strong> carry out a survey of Marble Point on 22 January<br />
1994. With <strong>the</strong> help of volunteers from McMurdo,<br />
we mapped <strong>the</strong> site of <strong>the</strong> Navy Seabee (CBRU) camp established<br />
in 1957. There were numerous found<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
“Jamesway” huts, trash dumps, oil spills, roads, and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
fe<strong>at</strong>ures. Large vehicles, graders, and rollers had also been<br />
left behind. A reservoir dam been built <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> foot of <strong>the</strong><br />
glacier (Figures 6 and 7a– e). The U.S. Navy (Oper<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Deep Freeze I) supported American scientists in Antarctica<br />
during <strong>the</strong> 1957– 1958 Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year<br />
and this base was part of <strong>the</strong> effort. More than 40 n<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> IGY and <strong>the</strong> Antarctic was studied by<br />
teams from <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Gre<strong>at</strong> Britain, France, Norway,<br />
Chile, Argentina, Japan, and <strong>the</strong> USSR. Marble Point<br />
was both a research site and an ideal place for an airfi eld.<br />
It was also a jumping-off point for researchers working in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Dry Valleys.<br />
Rear Admiral George J. Dufek championed <strong>the</strong> airfi eld<br />
construction. In an Airfi eld Feasibility Study fi lm (CNO-<br />
5– 1958), he pointed out <strong>the</strong> str<strong>at</strong>egic signifi cance such<br />
an airfi eld for <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn hemisphere. Aircraft could
FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 57<br />
FIGURE 6. Archaeological map of <strong>the</strong> Navy SeaBee camp “North Base” from 1957 <strong>at</strong> Marble Point, Vic<strong>to</strong>ria Land, Antarctica. Map shows<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ions of “Jamesway” huts, trash dumps, roadways, and oil-spill areas where vehicles had been parked. (Produced by Noel Broadbent, January<br />
22, 1994)
58 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
FIGURES 7a– e. Selection of items found <strong>at</strong> Marble Point and <strong>the</strong><br />
remarkable preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of paper and fabrics. (a) The newspaper<br />
car<strong>to</strong>ons from 1960 still have bright colors. These simple things,<br />
large and small, tell us about daily life and work <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base. (Pho<strong>to</strong><br />
by Noel Broadbent).<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(e)
e rapidly deployed <strong>to</strong> South America, Africa, and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
points north. The sea ice runways used <strong>at</strong> McMurdo were<br />
limited <strong>to</strong> only part of <strong>the</strong> year and had <strong>to</strong> be rebuilt each<br />
season. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, while clearly advantageous for avi<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
<strong>the</strong> icy coast of Vic<strong>to</strong>ria Land proved diffi cult for ships <strong>to</strong><br />
use and <strong>the</strong> shores were shallow. The 10,000-foot runway<br />
was never fi nished. Notably, however, <strong>the</strong> fi rst “wheels<br />
on dirt” landing of an aircraft in Antarctica <strong>to</strong>ok place<br />
here when a Navy VXE-6 squadron Otter landed with Sir<br />
Edmund Hillary onboard. He had just reached <strong>the</strong> South<br />
Pole in an overland trac<strong>to</strong>r convoy.<br />
Marble Point is a we<strong>at</strong>her st<strong>at</strong>ion and helicopter refueling<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong>day. In <strong>the</strong> 1980s, when <strong>the</strong> Chinese<br />
program was considering <strong>the</strong> site as a potential research<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> VXE-6 commander, Captain Brian Shumaker,<br />
had new stakes placed along <strong>the</strong> runway <strong>to</strong> assert continuing<br />
American presence <strong>the</strong>re. It remains an American site<br />
<strong>to</strong>day, and is, without question, <strong>the</strong> best place for a yearround<br />
airfi eld on <strong>the</strong> continent. It is a rocky promon<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ed 50 miles from McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion, and an adjacent<br />
land strip serves as a helicopter refueling st<strong>at</strong>ion in support<br />
of U.S. Antarctic program research.<br />
Our survey of <strong>the</strong> Marble Point area revealed th<strong>at</strong> an<br />
enormous engineering study had been conducted <strong>the</strong>re in<br />
1956– 1957 by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Navy. There were test trenches in<br />
<strong>the</strong> permafrost, test pads established with <strong>the</strong> sensors still<br />
in place, and detailed reports by engineers and scientists.<br />
In all, <strong>the</strong> studies encompassed geology, pedology, permafrost<br />
studies, seismic studies, hydrology, glaciology, sea ice<br />
and sea bed studies, and polar engineering. This m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
provides an unparalleled 50-year baseline for studying<br />
changes in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic environment and <strong>the</strong> effects of<br />
human impacts over time.<br />
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS<br />
Archaeology offers unique opportunities for research<br />
on polar his<strong>to</strong>ry. In addition <strong>to</strong> adding new substance <strong>to</strong><br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial culture remains and a gre<strong>at</strong>er focus on individuals,<br />
<strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of in situ fe<strong>at</strong>ures is a necessary<br />
prerequisite for his<strong>to</strong>ric site preserv<strong>at</strong>ion. The loss of sites<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic due <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e change is an enormous problem<br />
and increased erosion along Arctic beaches and rivers<br />
is destroying thousands of years of Arctic prehis<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
and his<strong>to</strong>ry. These regions have been little documented as<br />
compared with <strong>the</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes. New highly perishable<br />
artifacts and human remains are melting out of glaciers<br />
around <strong>the</strong> world.<br />
FROM BALLOONING TO 10,000-FOOT RUNWAYS 59<br />
The Andrée expedition study was conducted as a research<br />
project on <strong>the</strong> causes of <strong>the</strong> de<strong>at</strong>hs of <strong>the</strong>se explorers.<br />
As an immensely popular fi gure in Nordic his<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
hundreds of visi<strong>to</strong>rs visit <strong>the</strong> campsite every year, made<br />
even more accessible by global warming. Management of<br />
sites like this will require gre<strong>at</strong>er protection, but <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same time we must help facilit<strong>at</strong>e visi<strong>to</strong>rs’ needs through<br />
marked p<strong>at</strong>hways, signs, and better inform<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The second project, <strong>at</strong> East Base, was a cleanup and<br />
management effort th<strong>at</strong> also served <strong>to</strong> document and protect<br />
<strong>the</strong> site. This kind of project should continue <strong>to</strong> be<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional in scope. In 1992, John Spletts<strong>to</strong>esser published<br />
an article in N<strong>at</strong>ure regarding <strong>the</strong> melting of <strong>the</strong><br />
Nor<strong>the</strong>ast glacier <strong>at</strong> East Base as evidence of rapid global<br />
warming (Spletts<strong>to</strong>esser, 1992). One of <strong>the</strong> principal reasons<br />
S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island has been chosen as a base in 1940<br />
was th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> glacier connected <strong>the</strong> island <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> peninsula.<br />
Today <strong>the</strong> glacial bridge has vanished and <strong>the</strong> island is<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ed by a wide gap of open w<strong>at</strong>er. The bridge had<br />
been <strong>the</strong>re as l<strong>at</strong>e as <strong>the</strong> 1970s. Human presence <strong>at</strong> places<br />
like S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island has, in o<strong>the</strong>r words, inadvertently<br />
given us baseline observ<strong>at</strong>ions for documenting rapid clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change effects.<br />
Finally, Marble Point, even as a small mapping effort,<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r reveals <strong>the</strong> indirect scientifi c value of former bases.<br />
This site is literally a clim<strong>at</strong>e-change d<strong>at</strong>a goldmine. The<br />
engineering baseline d<strong>at</strong>a from sites like this, collected for<br />
entirely unrel<strong>at</strong>ed reasons, are of gre<strong>at</strong> value for understanding<br />
human impacts in polar environments.<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> fl ight plays a major part in <strong>the</strong>se three investig<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Andrée was <strong>the</strong> fi rst pioneer of polar fl ight. Byrd was<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> forefront of polar avi<strong>at</strong>ion and in 1946– 1947, after<br />
World War II was also instrumental in Oper<strong>at</strong>ion Highjump.<br />
Ronne mapped 450,000 square miles of Antarctica<br />
in 1947– 1948. Marble Point was <strong>the</strong> site of <strong>the</strong> fi rst dirt<br />
runway landing and still remains <strong>the</strong> largest land airfi eld<br />
ever conceived of in Antarctica. Avi<strong>at</strong>ion was <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> core<br />
of mid-twentieth-century explor<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> transition<br />
from dog sleds <strong>to</strong> aircraft has left an amazing legacy of<br />
technology <strong>at</strong> both poles.<br />
The “old politics” of polar research, and <strong>the</strong> technological<br />
efforts put in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>m, are closely akin <strong>to</strong> those of<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional clim<strong>at</strong>e change research of <strong>to</strong>day. The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year in 1957– 1958 was, after all,<br />
conducted during <strong>the</strong> he<strong>at</strong> of Cold War.<br />
The Arctic Ocean has, once again, drawn <strong>the</strong> close <strong>at</strong>tention<br />
of <strong>the</strong> eight polar n<strong>at</strong>ions— <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Canada,<br />
Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, Denmark/<br />
Greenland— as well as all o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>ions highly dependent
60 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BROADBENT<br />
on gas and oil. The Antarctic, as intern<strong>at</strong>ional terri<strong>to</strong>ry, is<br />
still a place where n<strong>at</strong>ional presence is deemed critical. It<br />
would not be an exagger<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> st<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> past is truly<br />
prelude <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> most signifi cant issues of <strong>the</strong> modern era.<br />
To ignore this his<strong>to</strong>ry is <strong>to</strong> fail <strong>to</strong> recognize why <strong>the</strong> polar<br />
regions have long played such an important part in <strong>the</strong><br />
economic and political his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> western world.<br />
EPILOGUE<br />
Since <strong>the</strong> logistical costs of archaeological projects in <strong>the</strong><br />
polar regions are so gre<strong>at</strong>, <strong>the</strong>y are rarely possible <strong>to</strong> carry<br />
out. A potential model for achieving a more comprehensive<br />
approach <strong>to</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion and cleanup could be <strong>to</strong> use<br />
volunteers under expert supervision on regularly scheduled<br />
<strong>to</strong>urist vessels. This would provide meaningful experiences<br />
for <strong>the</strong> public, facilit<strong>at</strong>e polar heritage management, and<br />
offer unique opportunities for <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>urist industry. This idea<br />
is currently being discussed by a consortium of polar his<strong>to</strong>rians<br />
and archaeologists. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> has several sites<br />
of interest th<strong>at</strong> would be ideal places <strong>to</strong> begin. One is <strong>the</strong><br />
old <strong>to</strong>wn of Barrow, site of U.S. efforts in <strong>the</strong> original IPY in<br />
1881– 1883, and a second site is Fort Conger on Ellesmere<br />
Island, used in 1881 by <strong>the</strong> Greely Expedition<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Andrée, S. A., Nils Strindberg, and Knut Fraenkel. 1930. Med Örnen<br />
mot polen. Sällskapet för antropologi och geografi . S<strong>to</strong>ckholm:<br />
Albert Bonniers Förlag.<br />
Black, Richard B. 1946a. Narr<strong>at</strong>ive of East Base, U.S. Antarctic Expedition,<br />
1939– 1941, 27 Dec. 1960, Accession III-NNG-57, R 126,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives-CP. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.<br />
———. 1946b. “Geographical Oper<strong>at</strong>ions from East Base, United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
Antarctic Service Expedition 1939– 1941,” Proceedings of <strong>the</strong><br />
American Philosophical Society, 89: 4– 12.<br />
Broadbent, Noel D. 1992. Project East Base: Preserving Research His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
in Antarctica. NSF Directions, 5: 1– 2.<br />
———. 1994. An Archaeological Survey of Marble Point, Antarctica.<br />
Antarctic Journal of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 29: 3– 6.<br />
———. 1998. Report on a preliminary archaeological investig<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Andrée expedition camp on White Island, Spitsbergen, 1998.<br />
“Lance” Expedition of <strong>the</strong> Swedish Program for Social Science<br />
Research in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Regions, 16– 24 August 1998. Manuscript,<br />
Department of Archaeology, University of Umeå, Sweden.<br />
———. 2000a. Archaeological Fieldwork <strong>at</strong> Andréenäset, Vitön, Spitsbergen—<br />
A Preliminary Report. Swedartic 2000, pp. 62– 64. S<strong>to</strong>ckholm:<br />
Swedish <strong>Polar</strong> Research Secretari<strong>at</strong>.<br />
———. 2000b. Expedition Vitön i Andrées spår. Populär arkeologi nr.<br />
4, 2000: 19– 22.<br />
Broadbent, Noel D., and Johan Olofsson. 2001. Archaeological Investig<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> S. A. Andrée Site, White Island, Svalbard 1998 and<br />
2000. UMARK 23. Arkeologisk rapport. Institutionen för arkeologi<br />
och samiska studier. Umeå universitet, Sweden.<br />
Broadbent, Noel D., and Lisle, Rose. 2002. His<strong>to</strong>rical Archaeology and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Byrd Legacy. The United St<strong>at</strong>es Antarctic Service Expedition,<br />
1939– 31. The Virginia Magazine of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Biography 2002,<br />
110(2):237– 258.<br />
Capelotti, P. J. 1999. Virgohamna and <strong>the</strong> Archaeology of Failure. The<br />
Centennial of S. A. Andrée’s North Pole Expedition, ed. U. Wråkberg,<br />
pp. 30– 43. S<strong>to</strong>ckholm: Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien.<br />
Darling<strong>to</strong>n, Jennie, and J. McIlvaine. 1956. My Antarctic Honeymoon:<br />
A Year <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bot<strong>to</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> World. New York: Doubleday and<br />
Company.<br />
Devlin, T. M. ed. 1986. Textbook of Biochemistry with Chemical Correl<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Second edition. New York: Wiley.<br />
English, R. A. J. 1941. Preliminary Account of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es Antarctic<br />
Expedition, 1939– 1941. Geographical Review, 31: 466– 478.<br />
Fynden på Vitön. Minnesutställning över S. A. Andrée, Nils Strindberg<br />
och Knut Fraenkel anordnad i Liljevalchs konsthall. 1931. Liljevalchs<br />
konsthall, k<strong>at</strong>alog nr. 90. S<strong>to</strong>ckholm.<br />
Hall, M., and S. Silliman, eds. 2006. His<strong>to</strong>rical Archaeology. Oxford,<br />
U.K.: Blackwell.<br />
Iijima, G. C. 1994. Our Most Remote Museum. Odyssey, 3: 41– 42.<br />
Lipps, J. H. 1976. The United St<strong>at</strong>es, “East Base,” Antarctic Peninsula.<br />
Antarctic Journal of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 11: 215.<br />
———. 1978. East Base, S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island, Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic<br />
Journal of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 1978: 231– 232.<br />
Lithberg, Nils. 1930. “The Campsite on White Island and Its Equipment.”<br />
In Med Örnan mot polen, ed. S. A. Andrée, Nils Strindberg,<br />
and Knut Fraenkel, pp. 189– 227. S<strong>to</strong>ckholm: Sällskapet för antropologi<br />
och geografi .<br />
Lundström, Nils. 1997. “Var position är ej synnerligen god . . . Andrée<br />
expeditionen i svart och vitt.” S<strong>to</strong>ckholm: Carlssons Bokförlag.<br />
Orser, Charles E. 2004. His<strong>to</strong>rical Archaeology. Upper Saddle River,<br />
N.J.: Pearson Educ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Parfi t, Michael, and Robb Kendrick. 1993. Reclaiming a Lost Antarctic<br />
Base. N<strong>at</strong>ional Geographic Magazine, 183: 110– 26.<br />
Personne, Mark. 2000. Andrée-expeditionens män dog troligen av botulism.<br />
Läkartidningen 97, 12: 1427– 1431.<br />
Ronne, Finn. 1949. Antarctic Conquest: The S<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> Ronne Expedition<br />
1946– 1948. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.<br />
———. 1950. Women in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, or <strong>the</strong> Human Side of Scientifi c<br />
Expedition. Appalachia, 28: 1– 15.<br />
———. 1979. Antarctica, My Destiny: A Personal His<strong>to</strong>ry by <strong>the</strong> Last of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gre<strong>at</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Explorers. New York: Hastings House.<br />
South, Stanley. 1977. Method and Theory in His<strong>to</strong>rical Archaeology.<br />
New York: Academic Press.<br />
Spletts<strong>to</strong>esser, John. 1992. Antarctic Global Warming? N<strong>at</strong>ure, 355: 503.<br />
Spude, C<strong>at</strong>herine Holder, and Robert L. Spude. 1993. East Base His<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
Monument, S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island/Antarctic Peninsula: Part I: A Guide<br />
for Management; Part II: Description of <strong>the</strong> Cultural Resources<br />
and Recommend<strong>at</strong>ion, NPS D-187, N<strong>at</strong>ional Park Service. Denver:<br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es Department of <strong>the</strong> Interior.<br />
Thomson, R., and F. Oldfi eld. 1986. Environmental Magnetism. London:<br />
Allen and Unwin.<br />
Wade, F. A. 1945. An Introduction <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Symposium on Scientifi c Results<br />
of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es Antarctic Service Expedition, 1939– 1941.<br />
Proceedings of <strong>the</strong> American Philosophical Society, 89: 1– 3.<br />
Wal<strong>to</strong>n, E. W. K. 1955. Two Years in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. London: Lutterworth<br />
Publishers.<br />
Wråkberg, Urban, ed. 1999. The Centennial of S. A. Andrée’s North Pole<br />
Expedition. S<strong>to</strong>ckholm: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
“Of No Ordinary Importance”: Reversing<br />
<strong>Polar</strong>ities in <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Arctic Studies<br />
William W. Fitzhugh<br />
William W. Fitzhugh, Arctic Studies Center,<br />
Department of Anthropology, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, P.O.<br />
Box 37012, MRC 112, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-<br />
7012, USA (Fitzhugh@si.edu). Accepted 9 May<br />
2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The founding of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in 1846 offered <strong>the</strong> promise of scientifi c<br />
discovery and popular educ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> a young country with a rapidly expanding western<br />
horizon. With its n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and n<strong>at</strong>ive cultures virtually unknown, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Regents<br />
chartered a plan <strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> most exciting questions posed by an unexplored<br />
continent <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dawn of <strong>the</strong> Darwinian era. Prominent issues included <strong>the</strong> origins and<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry of its aboriginal peoples, and this thirst for knowledge th<strong>at</strong> led <strong>the</strong> young institution<br />
in<strong>to</strong> America’s subarctic and Arctic regions. The Yukon, Northwest Terri<strong>to</strong>ries, and<br />
Alaska were among <strong>the</strong> fi rst targets of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> cultural studies, and nor<strong>the</strong>rn regions<br />
have continued <strong>to</strong> occupy a central place in <strong>the</strong> Institution’s work for more than 150<br />
years. Beginning with Robert Kennicott’s explor<strong>at</strong>ions in 1858, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> scientists<br />
played a major role in advancing knowledge of North American Arctic and Subarctic<br />
peoples and interpreting <strong>the</strong>ir cultures. Several of <strong>the</strong>se early enterprises, like <strong>the</strong> explor<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
collecting, and research of Edward Nelson, Lucien Turner, John Murdoch, and<br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick Ray in Alaska and Lucien Turner in Ungava, ei<strong>the</strong>r led <strong>to</strong> or were part of <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year of 1882– 1883. Early <strong>Smithsonian</strong> expeditions established<br />
a p<strong>at</strong>tern of collabor<strong>at</strong>ive work with n<strong>at</strong>ive communities th<strong>at</strong> became a hallmark of <strong>the</strong><br />
institution’s nor<strong>the</strong>rn programs. This paper presents highlights of 150 years of <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
work on nor<strong>the</strong>rn peoples with special <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>mes th<strong>at</strong> contributed <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Arctic studies during Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong>/Geophysical Year events, especially<br />
1882– 1883 and 2007– 2008.<br />
HISTORICAL CONTRIBUTIONS<br />
The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY) 2007– 2008 provides an opportunity <strong>to</strong><br />
explore how <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> has served for <strong>the</strong> past 150 years as a reposi<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
of Arctic knowledge and a center for nor<strong>the</strong>rn research and educ<strong>at</strong>ion. When<br />
Robert Kennicott arrived in <strong>the</strong> Mackenzie District in 1859 <strong>to</strong> make n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry and ethnology collections for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, science in <strong>the</strong> North<br />
American Arctic was in its infancy. By <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY began in 1882,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had investig<strong>at</strong>ed parts of <strong>the</strong> Canadian Arctic and Subarctic<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Mackenzie District. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, it had sent n<strong>at</strong>uralists <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Northwest<br />
Coast, <strong>the</strong> Aleutians, western Alaska, and nearby Chukotka in Siberia and was<br />
on its way <strong>to</strong>ward developing <strong>the</strong> largest well- documented Arctic anthropological<br />
and n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry collection in <strong>the</strong> world. By its close in 1883– 1884 major
62 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
IPY- rel<strong>at</strong>ed fi eld programs in Barrow, Ellesmere Island,<br />
and Ungava had been or were nearly completed and collecting<br />
projects in Kodiak and Bris<strong>to</strong>l Bay were underway.<br />
The cumul<strong>at</strong>ive results established <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> as <strong>the</strong><br />
pre- eminent scholarly institution of its day in <strong>the</strong> fi elds of<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn n<strong>at</strong>ural and anthropological science.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 125 years since IPY- 1, nor<strong>the</strong>rn collecting, research,<br />
public<strong>at</strong>ion, and educ<strong>at</strong>ion programs have given<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> an Arctic heritage of immense value <strong>to</strong><br />
scholars, N<strong>at</strong>ives and nor<strong>the</strong>rn residents, and interested<br />
public around <strong>the</strong> world. It is a world, moreover, in which<br />
Arctic issues have steadily moved from <strong>the</strong> exoticized periphery<br />
of global <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> a well- publicized central<br />
focus, as a result of changes in geopolitics, clim<strong>at</strong>e, and<br />
governance. We are hearing about <strong>the</strong> north now more<br />
than ever before, and this trend is acceler<strong>at</strong>ing as global<br />
warming strikes deeper in<strong>to</strong> polar regions, transforming<br />
oceans, lands, and lives.<br />
Elsewhere I explored how nineteenth- century <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Arctic scientists laid <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> fi eld of<br />
museum anthropology (Fitzhugh, 1988a; 2002a) and public<br />
present<strong>at</strong>ion and exhibition of Arctic cultures <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Institution<br />
during <strong>the</strong> past 125 years (Fitzhugh, 1997). Here<br />
I review some of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>mes th<strong>at</strong> contributed <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Arctic studies during Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong>/Geophysical<br />
Year events, especially 1882– 1983 and 2007– 2008. My<br />
purpose is not only <strong>to</strong> illustr<strong>at</strong>e how long- term <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
research, collecting, and exhibition has contributed<br />
<strong>to</strong> Arctic social and n<strong>at</strong>ural science, but also <strong>to</strong> explore<br />
how <strong>the</strong>se his<strong>to</strong>rical assets contribute <strong>to</strong> understanding a<br />
region undergoing rapid, dynamic social and environmental<br />
change.<br />
FOUNDATIONS OF ARCTIC SCIENCE<br />
He<strong>at</strong>her Ewing’s recent book, The Lost World of<br />
James Smithson (Ewing, 2007), reveals <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
reclusive founder as more intellectual and politically active<br />
than previously thought but provides few clues as <strong>to</strong><br />
wh<strong>at</strong> his bequest mand<strong>at</strong>e intended. Accordingly, setting<br />
<strong>the</strong> course for <strong>the</strong> young <strong>Smithsonian</strong> fell <strong>to</strong> its fi rst Secretary,<br />
Joseph Henry (1797– 1878), and his scientifi c assistant,<br />
Spencer Baird (1823– 1887), who followed Henry<br />
as Secretary and presided during <strong>the</strong> years of IPY- 1. Both<br />
Henry and Baird shared in establishing n<strong>at</strong>ural science and<br />
cultural studies <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> and gave early priority<br />
<strong>to</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn studies, which Henry judged “of no ordinary<br />
importance” (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Annual Report<br />
[SIAR], 1860:66). In fact, during <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s earli-<br />
est years, it is surprising how much energy went in<strong>to</strong> research<br />
and public<strong>at</strong>ion on Arctic subjects, including Elisha<br />
Kent Kane’s meteorological, tidal, and magnetic studies;<br />
McClin<strong>to</strong>ck’s and Kane’s searches for Franklin; and solar<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry collecting in Labrador<br />
and Hudson Bay during <strong>the</strong> 1850s.<br />
Drawing on his previous experience as a regent of <strong>the</strong><br />
New York University and his associ<strong>at</strong>ion with ethnologists<br />
Henry Schoolcraft and Lewis Henry Morgan, Henry was<br />
instrumental in laying groundwork for wh<strong>at</strong> was <strong>to</strong> become<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi eld of museum anthropology <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
(Fitzhugh, 2002a). In fact, Henry believed th<strong>at</strong> cultural<br />
studies would eventually develop in<strong>to</strong> a discipline as rigorous<br />
as <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural sciences, and for this reason instructed<br />
Baird <strong>to</strong> include ethnology among <strong>the</strong> tasks of n<strong>at</strong>uralists<br />
he hired as fi eld observers and collec<strong>to</strong>rs. Baird believed<br />
taxonomic and distributional studies of animals and<br />
plants in northwestern North America would reveal rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
with Asia and lead <strong>to</strong> understanding <strong>the</strong>ir origins<br />
and development, and he came <strong>to</strong> believe th<strong>at</strong> “ethnological”<br />
collections could also reveal deep his<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
In 1859, a gifted young protégée of Baird’s named<br />
Robert Kennicott (1835– 1866) became <strong>the</strong> fi rst of “Baird’s<br />
missionaries” (Rivinus and Youssef, 1992:83; Fitzhugh,<br />
2002a) sent north <strong>to</strong> begin this grand task (Lindsay,<br />
1993). Kennicott spent 1859 <strong>to</strong> 1862 in <strong>the</strong> Hudson Bay<br />
Terri<strong>to</strong>ry and Mackenzie District making <strong>the</strong> fi rst carefully<br />
documented n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry collections from any North<br />
American Arctic region. Assisted by N<strong>at</strong>ives and Hudson<br />
Bay Company agents, he also collected more than 500 ethnological<br />
specimens from Inuvialuit (Mackenzie Eskimo)<br />
and Dene Indians, as swell as linguistic d<strong>at</strong>a, myths and<br />
oral his<strong>to</strong>ry, and ethnological observ<strong>at</strong>ions. In his report<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Regents on 1861, Henry noted <strong>the</strong> collections being<br />
submitted by <strong>the</strong> fac<strong>to</strong>rs of <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay Company,<br />
“taken in<strong>to</strong> connexion with wh<strong>at</strong> Mr. Kennicott is doing,<br />
bid fair <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> Arctic n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and physical<br />
geography of America as well known as th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es” (SIAR, 1862:60). A year l<strong>at</strong>er Henry reported<br />
(SIAR, 1863:39), “This enterprise has termin<strong>at</strong>ed very<br />
favorably, <strong>the</strong> explorer having returned richly laden with<br />
specimens, after making a series of observ<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong><br />
physical geography, ethnology, and <strong>the</strong> habits of animals<br />
of <strong>the</strong> regions visited, which cannot fail <strong>to</strong> furnish m<strong>at</strong>erials<br />
of much interest <strong>to</strong> science.”<br />
In 1860, when Kennicott fi rst began <strong>to</strong> explore west<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Mackenzie in<strong>to</strong> Russian America terri<strong>to</strong>ry, only<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn and western Alaska had been previously explored<br />
ethnologically by Russians, and nor<strong>the</strong>rn and eastern<br />
Alaska was nearly unknown (Sherwood, 1965; James,
1942). Ethnological collecting had been conducted sporadically<br />
in coastal and southwest Alaska since ca. 1800<br />
by Russia and its agents [e.g., Lavrentii Zagoskin (1842–<br />
1844)]. In 1839– 1849, purposive but not scientifi cally directed<br />
ethnological museum collecting was carried out by<br />
Ilya G. Voznesenskii for <strong>the</strong> Russian Academy of Sciences<br />
(Black, 1988; Fitzhugh, 1988a; Kuzmina, 1994; Fitzhugh<br />
and Chaussonnet, 1994).<br />
In 1865, <strong>the</strong> Western Union Telegraph Company was<br />
pushing an overland telegraph line <strong>to</strong> Europe via <strong>the</strong> Yukon<br />
River, Bering Strait, and Siberia. Th<strong>at</strong> year Baird asked<br />
Kennicott <strong>to</strong> direct <strong>the</strong> scientifi c activity of <strong>the</strong> survey with<br />
assistance from William Healy Dall, Henry W. Elliott, and<br />
several o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>uralists (Figure 1; Collins, 1946; Fitzhugh<br />
and Selig, 1981). While making <strong>the</strong> fi rst scientifi cally documented<br />
American collections from interior and coastal<br />
Alaska north of <strong>the</strong> Aleutians, <strong>the</strong> project collapsed after<br />
Kennicott’s de<strong>at</strong>h on <strong>the</strong> Yukon River in May 1866, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> subsequent completion of a trans<strong>at</strong>lantic cable by a<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 63<br />
rival company <strong>the</strong> following July. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
Union survey produced <strong>the</strong> fi rst scientifi cally documented<br />
American collections from Alaska, trained <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
American scholars of Alaska, and led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst English-<br />
language books on “<strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> land” written by Henry W.<br />
Elliott (1886), Frederick Whymper (1869), and William<br />
Healy Dall (1870).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> early 1870s, Baird and Dall began <strong>to</strong> implement<br />
a more ambitious Alaskan collecting venture. Realizing<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> could not fi nance a sustained endeavor<br />
by itself, Baird recruited government agencies like <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Army Signal Service, Hydrographic Offi ce, and War Department<br />
<strong>to</strong> employ <strong>Smithsonian</strong> n<strong>at</strong>uralists as we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
and tidal observers <strong>at</strong> government st<strong>at</strong>ions throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
newly purchased terri<strong>to</strong>ry. Their activities produced a vast<br />
collection of meteorological, geographical, n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>rical,<br />
and anthropological d<strong>at</strong>a th<strong>at</strong>, supplemented by pho<strong>to</strong>graphy<br />
after 1880 (Fitzhugh, 1998c), laid <strong>the</strong> scientifi c<br />
bedrock for l<strong>at</strong>er studies in Alaska and nor<strong>the</strong>rn Quebec.<br />
FIGURE 1. Frederick Whymper’s illustr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Western Union Telegraph Survey team b<strong>at</strong>tling ice on <strong>the</strong> Yukon River below Nul<strong>at</strong>o in<br />
1866 in Eskimo umiaks in spring 1866. (From Whymper, 1869)
64 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
While Baird’s collecting and public<strong>at</strong>ion programs<br />
were an unqualifi ed success, only part of Baird’s and<br />
Henry’s original plan was ever realized. Document<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
endangered cultures and languages fulfi lled <strong>the</strong>ir science<br />
plan and provided m<strong>at</strong>erials for fur<strong>the</strong>r study, following<br />
Henry’s expect<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> new methods and techniques<br />
would lead <strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ing a “hard” science of anthropology.<br />
This prospective view from <strong>the</strong> mid- nineteenth century<br />
is still our optimistic view <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> turn of <strong>the</strong> twenty- fi rst<br />
century but it probably will never be realized. Progress in<br />
anthropological science has come in different directions:<br />
Ethnology and cultural anthropology have not merged<br />
with <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural or hard sciences as Baird and Henry predicted.<br />
R<strong>at</strong>her, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> anthropology proceeded <strong>to</strong><br />
develop in o<strong>the</strong>r directions: <strong>the</strong> study of human remains<br />
and forensics; archaeology (long one of Henry’s interests<br />
but one th<strong>at</strong> was impossible <strong>to</strong> conduct with <strong>the</strong> method<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ory available in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e nineteenth century); and<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r set of anthropological fi elds not imagined by <strong>the</strong>m<br />
<strong>at</strong> all— heritage, ethnicity, and cultural identity.<br />
SMITHSONIAN ACTIVITIES<br />
IN IPY- 1 (1881– 1884)<br />
As <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY approached, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had<br />
conducted work throughout most regions of Alaska south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait: James G. Swan had collected on <strong>the</strong><br />
Northwest Coast in <strong>the</strong> 1850– 1880s; Robert Kennicott<br />
in British America in 1859– 1862 and in interior Alaska,<br />
1865– 1866; William Healy Dall in western Alaska and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Aleutians, 1865– 1885; Lucien Turner in St. Michael,<br />
1871– 1877, and <strong>the</strong> Aleutians, 1877– 1878; and Edward<br />
W. Nelson had just completed studies in <strong>the</strong> Yukon, Kuskokwim,<br />
and Bering Strait in 1877– 1881 (Figure 2). Several<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r collecting projects were proceeding in sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Alaska, but none had been carried out north of Bering<br />
Strait.<br />
The 1881 voyage of <strong>the</strong> Revenue Cutter Corwin<br />
briefl y visited <strong>the</strong> coast between <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait and Barrow<br />
with a scientifi c team including Edward W. Nelson,<br />
John Muir, and Irving Rosse, reaching as far east as <strong>the</strong><br />
Inuit settlement of Ooglamie <strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong>day’s Barrow, and as far<br />
west as Herald and Wrangel Islands in <strong>the</strong> Chukchi Sea<br />
and Wankarem on <strong>the</strong> Arctic coast of Siberia. The visit <strong>to</strong><br />
Barrow was only two days, and Nelson’s diary notes th<strong>at</strong><br />
he had diffi culty making collections and g<strong>at</strong>hering inform<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Barrow people had been dealing with European<br />
whalers for almost three decades and knew how <strong>to</strong> drive<br />
hard bargains.<br />
FIGURE 2. Ceremonial mask representing Tunghak, Spirit of <strong>the</strong><br />
Game, collected by Edward W. Nelson from <strong>the</strong> Lower Yukon<br />
River, undergoing conserv<strong>at</strong>ion in 2003. (NMNH 33118)<br />
As documented in accompanying papers in this volume,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s major collection focus in IPY- 1 were<br />
Barrow and Ungava Bay. Given <strong>the</strong> Institution’s interest in<br />
Alaska, Barrow became <strong>the</strong> primary target of a major effort<br />
directed by Lt. P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry Ray with <strong>the</strong> assistance of<br />
John Murdoch, a <strong>Smithsonian</strong> employee who carried out<br />
ethnological studies (Ray, 1885; Murdoch, 1892; Burch,<br />
2009, this volume; Crowell, 2009, this volume). The Barrow<br />
project fi lled <strong>the</strong> last major gap in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s survey<br />
coverage of Alaska and, second only <strong>to</strong> Nelson’s work,<br />
made <strong>the</strong> most important contribution <strong>to</strong> science. Living for<br />
two full years in a we<strong>at</strong>her st<strong>at</strong>ion near <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ive village,<br />
Murdoch concentr<strong>at</strong>ed his efforts on ethnological collecting<br />
and reporting. Like Nelson, he collected vocabularies and<br />
linguistic d<strong>at</strong>a, but he did not venture out on long trips with<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ive guides or show much interest in oral his<strong>to</strong>ry and<br />
mythology (Burch, 2009, this volume; A. Crowell, Arctic<br />
Studies Center, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion, 2007). Murdoch’s<br />
more remote approach led him <strong>to</strong> be duped by N<strong>at</strong>ives who<br />
sold him artifacts <strong>the</strong>y constructed hastily for sale or had<br />
composited from unm<strong>at</strong>ched m<strong>at</strong>erials, inserting s<strong>to</strong>ne<br />
scrapers in ivory handles th<strong>at</strong> had no blades or embellishing<br />
ancient ivory objects with new designs.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, while Murdoch was not as perceptive<br />
a cultural observer, his work received gre<strong>at</strong> notice in <strong>the</strong><br />
developing profession of anthropology. Boas’ The Central<br />
Eskimo (1888a), also published by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, made<br />
Murdoch’s Ethnological Results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow Expedition<br />
(1892) <strong>the</strong> fi rst study of a Western Arctic Eskimo
group. More importantly, Murdoch’s monograph directly<br />
addressed <strong>the</strong> scholarly deb<strong>at</strong>es about Eskimo origins and<br />
migr<strong>at</strong>ions and utilized a scientifi c method, making specifi<br />
c comparisons of Alaskan Eskimo cus<strong>to</strong>ms and m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
objects with those known from <strong>the</strong> Canadian Arctic<br />
and Greenland. When Nelson’s (1899) monograph, The<br />
Eskimos About Bering Strait, appeared several years l<strong>at</strong>er,<br />
it was not fully appreci<strong>at</strong>ed by anthropologists because<br />
Nelson was a biologist and his highly descriptive study<br />
did not address <strong>the</strong> Eskimo origin controversy (Fitzhugh,<br />
1988b). As a result, until <strong>the</strong> 1980s most scholars did not<br />
comprehend <strong>the</strong> importance of differences between Yup’ik<br />
and Iñupi<strong>at</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial culture, art, and language th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
monographs clearly illustr<strong>at</strong>ed. Even Boas, who made<br />
much of cultural continuities in Raven mythology, art, and<br />
folklore between Northwest Coast and Nor<strong>the</strong>ast Asia<br />
(Boas, 1903, 1905, 1933; Bogoras, 1902), failed <strong>to</strong> recognize<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se fe<strong>at</strong>ures were also present in <strong>the</strong> geographically<br />
intermedi<strong>at</strong>e Yup’ik Bering Sea and Iñupi<strong>at</strong> Eskimo<br />
area; he continued throughout his life <strong>to</strong> promote <strong>the</strong> idea<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Eskimos were recent arrivals <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait from<br />
Canada (Boas, 1888b, 1905; see below). It was not until<br />
much l<strong>at</strong>er th<strong>at</strong> Yup’ik Eskimo culture began <strong>to</strong> be unders<strong>to</strong>od<br />
as a distinct Eskimo tradition with stronger ties <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> south than <strong>to</strong> Iñupi<strong>at</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r Arctic coast Eskimo<br />
cultures, and with a legacy from ancient Eskimo cultures<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea (Fitzhugh, 1988c; Dumond, 2003).<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r projects also made important contributions <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s IPY-1 program even though <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
not part of <strong>the</strong> offi cial IPY agenda. Charles MacKay’s collections<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Signal Service St<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> Nushugak in<br />
Bris<strong>to</strong>l Bay (1881– 1883) contained fascin<strong>at</strong>ing m<strong>at</strong>erials<br />
from <strong>the</strong> border between Yup’ik, Aleut, and Alutiiq cultures,<br />
complementing S. Appleg<strong>at</strong>e’s m<strong>at</strong>erials from Unalaska<br />
and nearby regions (1881– 1885). However, none<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se collections was ever published or exhibited, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> early ethnography of this boundary region is still<br />
poorly known <strong>to</strong>day. More prominent is <strong>the</strong> work of William<br />
J. Fisher who contributed m<strong>at</strong>erials from sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Alaska and Kodiak Island throughout <strong>the</strong> 1880s (Crowell,<br />
1992). Like Appleg<strong>at</strong>e and MacKay, Fisher did not prepare<br />
reports; however, his collection became <strong>the</strong> subject<br />
of intensive recent study and exhibition (Crowell et al.,<br />
2001). Two o<strong>the</strong>r projects also were “offi cial” <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
IPY ventures (Krupnik, 2009, this volume). Adolphus<br />
Greely’s ill- f<strong>at</strong>ed scientifi c explor<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> Fort Conger,<br />
Lady Franklin Bay, Ellesmere Island in High Arctic Canada,<br />
were a massive undertaking organized by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Signal<br />
Service in 1882– 1883 (Barr, 1985), for which Spencer<br />
Baird served as scientifi c advisor. Although <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 65<br />
ended in disaster, it obtained important scientifi c observ<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her, aurora, and meteorological<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions were archived <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, which also<br />
received a few n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and ethnological specimens,<br />
along with <strong>the</strong> team’s scientifi c instruments. Today <strong>the</strong> Barrow<br />
and Fort Conger we<strong>at</strong>her records serve as important<br />
benchmarks for long- term study of clim<strong>at</strong>e change (Wood<br />
and Overland, 2006). The third offi cial <strong>Smithsonian</strong> IPY- 1<br />
fi eld study, Lucien Turner’s ethnological work among <strong>the</strong><br />
Innu and Inuit of Ungava Bay in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Quebec during<br />
1882– 1884, produced a trove of important ethnological<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials from both Innu (Naskapi) and Inuit (Eastern Eskimo)<br />
groups, as well as n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and pho<strong>to</strong>graphic<br />
records (Turner 1894; Loring, 2001a, 2009, this volume).<br />
BUILDING ON IPY-1: MUSEUM<br />
EXHIBITION, RESEARCH, AND<br />
ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY<br />
By 1890, <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> era of synoptic <strong>Smithsonian</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry- based collecting had passed and <strong>at</strong>tention began <strong>to</strong><br />
be devoted <strong>to</strong> publishing, collection work, building a specialized<br />
scientifi c staff, and presenting American cultures <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> world. Following <strong>the</strong> 1893 Chicago Columbian Exposition,<br />
a series of world’s fairs exhibited living Eskimos and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r nor<strong>the</strong>rn peoples <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with displays of museum<br />
collections <strong>to</strong> wide audiences in Chicago, New Orleans,<br />
St. Louis, Buffalo, and o<strong>the</strong>r loc<strong>at</strong>ions. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
Arctic ethnography collections were fe<strong>at</strong>ured in many of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se exhibitions, and some of <strong>the</strong> displays were l<strong>at</strong>er installed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s permanent galleries. This was<br />
<strong>the</strong> era of <strong>the</strong> dram<strong>at</strong>ic life- group diorama reconstructions<br />
pioneered by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s famous artist- geologist<br />
William Henry Holmes. His <strong>Polar</strong> Eskimo group for <strong>the</strong><br />
Buffalo fair in 1901 became one of <strong>the</strong> most popular exhibits<br />
after <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry opened<br />
in 1910 and remained on view for nearly 100 years (Figure<br />
3; Ewers, 1959:513– 525; Fitzhugh, 1997).<br />
Concurrent with growth of exhibitions and new architecture<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n Mall, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> began<br />
<strong>to</strong> build its cur<strong>at</strong>orial staff and hire its fi rst professionally<br />
trained anthropologists. The Bureau of American Ethnology<br />
founded by John Wesley Powell in 1879 as a center<br />
for anthropological fi eld surveys, research, and public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(Hinsley, 1981) was <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>Smithsonian</strong> entity staffed by<br />
anthropologists. In 1891, Powell’s linguistic surveys and<br />
subsequent syn<strong>the</strong>sis produced <strong>the</strong> fi rst linguistic map of<br />
North America, a <strong>to</strong>ur de force of early museum research<br />
th<strong>at</strong> seemed <strong>to</strong> establish language as <strong>the</strong> guiding structure
66 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
FIGURE 3. The <strong>Polar</strong> Eskimo of Smith Sound, Greenland, display— cre<strong>at</strong>ed by William Henry Holmes for <strong>the</strong> Buffalo Exposition in 1901 and<br />
on exhibit since <strong>the</strong>n <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry— was dismantled in Oc<strong>to</strong>ber 2004. Robert Peary Jr. of Qaanak (<strong>at</strong> right), <strong>the</strong><br />
Inuit grandson of <strong>the</strong> American explorer who collected some of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erials for this exhibit, was present for <strong>the</strong> event. (Courtesy Department<br />
of Anthropology, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution)<br />
for cultural diversity. However, by 1893, Otis Mason’s<br />
study of m<strong>at</strong>erial culture collections across North America<br />
showed both congruence and discontinuity across linguistic<br />
boundaries (Figure 4). Eskimo collections fi gured prominently<br />
in his work, demonstr<strong>at</strong>ing gradual stylistic changes<br />
in dress, implements, kayaks, and o<strong>the</strong>r equipment (Mason,<br />
1891, 1896, 1902; Ewers, 1959:513– 525)— except<br />
in Greenland, where 200 years of exposure <strong>to</strong> European<br />
culture had produced a radical departure from traditional<br />
Central and Western Eskimo clothing and design. Mason<br />
concluded th<strong>at</strong> tribal m<strong>at</strong>erial culture and language groups<br />
were not always synchronous, as Powell had supposed, but<br />
more closely followed C. Hart Merriam’s biogeographic life<br />
zones. But even here discontinuities resulted from external<br />
infl uence, migr<strong>at</strong>ion, language capture and loss, and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
cultural and his<strong>to</strong>rical fac<strong>to</strong>rs. Mason’s “culture area” con-<br />
cept was a direct outgrowth of museum- based research on<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arctic IPY- 1 collections and remains one<br />
of <strong>the</strong> underpinnings of anthropological <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>to</strong>day. As<br />
analysis of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s pan- North American Arctic<br />
collections progressed, it seemed th<strong>at</strong> anthropology was<br />
drifting fur<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> pure science Henry predicted it<br />
would become.<br />
NEW SCIENCE ARRIVES: PHYSICAL<br />
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
These gropings <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> development of anthropological<br />
science did not become fully professionalized until<br />
Ales � Hrdlic � ka (1869– 1943), <strong>the</strong> f<strong>at</strong>her of American physical<br />
anthropology, joined <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in 1903 and be-
gan <strong>to</strong> study <strong>the</strong> question of Indian and Eskimo origins<br />
with new methods and discipline applied <strong>to</strong> human skeletal<br />
remains. Hrdlic � ka’s Alaskan work utilized methods<br />
of fi eld collecting offended n<strong>at</strong>ive people, and are seen <strong>to</strong>day<br />
as outrageously insensitive, and his scientifi c results,<br />
while interesting in <strong>the</strong>ir day, have been largely superseded<br />
(Scott, 1994). Perhaps his most lasting contribution was<br />
recruitment of T. Dale Stewart and Henry B. Collins <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> staff in <strong>the</strong> mid 1920s. Stewart refi ned<br />
Hrdlic � ka’s osteological methods and inherited Hrdlic � ka’s<br />
mantle while Collins <strong>to</strong>ok a different p<strong>at</strong>h, bringing archaeology<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> forefront of studies of Eskimo origins<br />
through his pioneering str<strong>at</strong>igraphic excav<strong>at</strong>ions on<br />
St. Lawrence Island in <strong>the</strong> 1930s (Collins, 1937, 1951).<br />
Here an unbroken sequence of changing artifact forms,<br />
art styles, house types, and economies demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed a<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 67<br />
FIGURE 4. This spear thrower display was assembled by Otis Mason <strong>to</strong> demonstr<strong>at</strong>e sp<strong>at</strong>ial changes in artifact types across culture and space,<br />
analogous <strong>to</strong> biological species distribution. North American Eskimo throwers (bot<strong>to</strong>m row) are arranged from Alaska (left) <strong>to</strong> Greenland<br />
and Labrador (right). These and many o<strong>the</strong>r Eskimo artifacts demonstr<strong>at</strong>e system<strong>at</strong>ic style change from west <strong>to</strong> east. (Courtesy Department of<br />
Anthropology, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution)<br />
long his<strong>to</strong>ry of local development interrupted periodically<br />
by Asian infl uences over <strong>the</strong> past 2,000 years. Hrdlic � ka’s,<br />
Stewart’s, and Collins’ early work in Alaska was conducted<br />
largely without reference <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
early IPY collections and research products and without<br />
reference <strong>to</strong> IPY- 2 and IGY 1957– 1958 program efforts,<br />
with which <strong>Smithsonian</strong> scientists had little involvement<br />
(Krupnik, 2009, this volume).<br />
PUBLIC “DISCOVERY” OF ESKIMO ART<br />
In 1973, <strong>the</strong> Institution’s IPY- 1 ethnological collections<br />
from Barrow and Collin’s prehis<strong>to</strong>ric archaeological<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials from Bering Strait resurfaced suddenly and<br />
dram<strong>at</strong>ically with <strong>the</strong> refi ned cachet of “Eskimo art” when
68 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Gallery of Art opened its groundbreaking exhibition<br />
The Far North: 2000 Years of American Indian<br />
and Eskimo Art (Collins, 1973). C. D. Lewis, cur<strong>at</strong>or of<br />
sculpture <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gallery, was assigned <strong>to</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> exhibition,<br />
and I assisted his search for nor<strong>the</strong>rn art among<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arctic collections. The experience was<br />
life- changing. Acquaintance with <strong>the</strong> collections, coupled<br />
with <strong>the</strong> phenomenal success of <strong>the</strong> exhibit, convinced me<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> “<strong>at</strong>tic” housed treasures of interest<br />
not only <strong>to</strong> anthropologists and N<strong>at</strong>ive constituencies<br />
but also <strong>to</strong> a far broader audience. To paraphrase former<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Secretary S. Dillon Ripley’s reference <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Institution’s musical instrument collections, we needed <strong>to</strong><br />
take <strong>the</strong> Arctic treasures out of <strong>the</strong>ir s<strong>to</strong>rage cabinets and<br />
make <strong>the</strong>m “sing.”<br />
In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1970s, I began <strong>to</strong> do th<strong>at</strong>, and with William<br />
C. Sturtevant started meeting with anthropologists from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Soviet Academy of Science’s Institute of Ethnography<br />
<strong>to</strong> plan an exhibit on <strong>the</strong> cultures of Siberia and Alaska.<br />
Political diffi culties caused periodic delays, and it did not<br />
open until 1988, in <strong>the</strong> early phase of <strong>the</strong> Gorbachev revolution<br />
known as perestroika (Fitzhugh, 2003). During<br />
<strong>the</strong> years while Crossroads was gest<strong>at</strong>ing, Susan Kaplan<br />
and I cre<strong>at</strong>ed an exhibit based on <strong>the</strong> ethnological collections<br />
made by Edward W. Nelson in 1877– 1881 from<br />
western Alaska and Bering Strait. Inua: Spirit World of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo (Fitzhugh and Kaplan, 1983) explored<br />
<strong>the</strong> art, culture, and his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik peoples<br />
of southwest Alaska. The exhibit (Figure 5) and c<strong>at</strong>alog<br />
illustr<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> extraordinary beauty and workmanship of<br />
Yup’ik and Bering Strait Iñupi<strong>at</strong> culture. After opening <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in 1982, Inua <strong>to</strong>ured <strong>to</strong> Anchorage, Fairbanks,<br />
Juneau, and o<strong>the</strong>r cities in North America. L<strong>at</strong>er,<br />
Kaplan and I cre<strong>at</strong>ed a mini- Inua version th<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong>ured <strong>to</strong><br />
FIGURE 5. E. W. Nelson collections from 1877– 1881 in a hunting ritual display in Inua: Spirit World of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo. (1983 pho<strong>to</strong>graph;<br />
courtesy Arctic Studies Center, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution)
small museums and culture centers in Alaska, Canada,<br />
and Greenland (Fitzhugh and Kaplan, 1983). Eventually<br />
a third version, “Euro- Inua” (Figure 6), was developed<br />
by Susan Rowley for a <strong>to</strong>ur across eastern and nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Europe and Iceland (Rowley, 1988).<br />
After <strong>the</strong> long hi<strong>at</strong>us following Collins’ work in <strong>the</strong><br />
1930s, <strong>the</strong>se 1980s exhibits and public<strong>at</strong>ions brought<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Alaska collections <strong>to</strong> a wide audience in<br />
North America and <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> world, especially <strong>to</strong><br />
Alaska residents and n<strong>at</strong>ive villages. They also brought us<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tention of Ted Stevens, U.S. Sen<strong>at</strong>or from Alaska.<br />
Early in 1980 while I was preparing Inua, I had occasion<br />
<strong>to</strong> give his wife, Ann Stevens, a <strong>to</strong>ur of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
Alaskan collections in wh<strong>at</strong> was <strong>the</strong>n a very dusty N<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry Museum <strong>at</strong>tic. A few days l<strong>at</strong>er, <strong>the</strong> Sen<strong>at</strong>or called<br />
for his own <strong>to</strong>ur, during which he remarked, “Bill, we have<br />
<strong>to</strong> fi nd a way <strong>to</strong> get <strong>the</strong>se collections back <strong>to</strong> Alaska.” The<br />
IPY- 1 and o<strong>the</strong>r early Alaskan collections indeed had a<br />
captiv<strong>at</strong>ing power, and it was growing year by year. Th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong>ur and <strong>the</strong> sen<strong>at</strong>or’s remark gave me my marching orders<br />
for <strong>the</strong> next twenty- fi ve years and in time led <strong>to</strong> a<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>Smithsonian</strong> program reconnecting its his<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
collections with Alaska and its N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples.<br />
As I explored <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong>tic, I was amazed <strong>to</strong><br />
discover how little <strong>the</strong> collections were known. In those<br />
days <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s <strong>at</strong>tic was a virtual King Tut’s <strong>to</strong>mb<br />
before excav<strong>at</strong>ion— quiet, dusty, and full of splendid<br />
things! The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had never hired an Arctic ethnol-<br />
FIGURE 6. C<strong>at</strong>alogs issued for <strong>the</strong> mini- Inua exhibitions th<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong>ured<br />
small museums in Alaska in 1983– 1984 (Fitzhugh and Kaplan,<br />
1983) and in Europe 1988– 1989 (Rowley, 1988). (2008 pho<strong>to</strong>graph;<br />
courtesy Arctic Studies Center, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution)<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 69<br />
ogist, and Hrdlic � ka, Collins, and Stewart had not strayed<br />
far from <strong>the</strong>ir osteological and archaeological disciplines.<br />
The few scholars aware of <strong>the</strong> collections knew <strong>the</strong>m<br />
only from small black and white illustr<strong>at</strong>ions in Nelson’s<br />
and Murdoch’s monographs. Ronald Senungetuk, an artist<br />
on <strong>the</strong> staff of <strong>the</strong> University of Alaska in Fairbanks<br />
who came <strong>to</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n in 1981 <strong>to</strong> consult on <strong>the</strong> Inua<br />
exhibit, may have been <strong>the</strong> fi rst Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> inspect<br />
<strong>the</strong>m fi rsthand.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1980s, we completed arrangements <strong>to</strong><br />
launch Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and<br />
Alaska (Fitzhugh and Crowell, 1988). The exhibit (Figure<br />
7) was based on a reciprocal exchange th<strong>at</strong> paralleled<br />
<strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> collections: The earliest objects from<br />
Alaska had been g<strong>at</strong>hered during <strong>the</strong> Russian– America<br />
era and had been s<strong>to</strong>red <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Museum of Anthropology<br />
and Ethnography in Leningrad since <strong>the</strong> 1840s, whereas<br />
<strong>the</strong> earliest Siberian m<strong>at</strong>erials had been g<strong>at</strong>hered by Franz<br />
Boas’ Jesup North Pacifi c Expedition and were held by<br />
<strong>the</strong> American Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry in New York.<br />
FIGURE 7. Crossroads of Continents combined Russian collections<br />
from Alaska with American collections from Siberia in an integr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
exhibition fe<strong>at</strong>uring <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry, culture, and art of <strong>the</strong> peoples of <strong>the</strong><br />
North Pacifi c rim. (1988 pho<strong>to</strong>graph; courtesy Arctic Studies Center,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution)
70 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
Logistics, geography, political barriers, and lack of public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and scholarly exchange, <strong>to</strong> say nothing of n<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
awareness, had made it impossible <strong>to</strong> syn<strong>the</strong>size a larger<br />
view of <strong>the</strong> traditional cultures of <strong>the</strong> North Pacifi c ‘crossroads’<br />
region. Every one of <strong>the</strong> 650 specimens was jointly<br />
selected and researched by teams from both sides during<br />
yearly visits fi nanced by <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Research and<br />
Exchanges Board (IREX). Co- cur<strong>at</strong>ed with Aron Crowell<br />
and assisted by Valérie Chaussonnet, Sergei Arutiunov,<br />
Sergei Serov, Bill Holm, James VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, and many o<strong>the</strong>rs,<br />
including Igor Krupnik, this exhibit put us in direct contact<br />
with Soviet scholars and laid <strong>the</strong> groundwork for future<br />
research, public<strong>at</strong>ion, conferences, and exhibit ventures.<br />
The show <strong>to</strong>ured in Alaska and <strong>the</strong> lower 48 and was <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst joint U.S.– Soviet exhibition in which American and<br />
Soviet/Russian m<strong>at</strong>erials were published in a single c<strong>at</strong>alog<br />
and comingled in a single display (Fitzhugh, 2003).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> early 1990s, following precedent established by<br />
<strong>the</strong> mini- Inua exhibits, Valérie Chaussonnet organized a<br />
small version of Crossroads called Crossroads Alaska th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong>ured <strong>to</strong>wns across Alaska (Chaussonnet, 1995; Carlo et<br />
al., 1995). Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, when it came time <strong>to</strong> transfer<br />
<strong>the</strong> large Crossroads exhibit <strong>to</strong> Russia, economic and security<br />
conditions had deterior<strong>at</strong>ed so much th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>ur<br />
was cancelled. Never<strong>the</strong>less, as a substitute, in 1996 we arranged<br />
for a smaller exhibit Crossroads Siberia (Krupnik,<br />
1996) <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>ur cities in <strong>the</strong> Russian Far East, cur<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
Igor Krupnik, who had come <strong>to</strong> work <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies<br />
Center in 1991. This was probably <strong>the</strong> fi rst anthropology<br />
exhibit <strong>to</strong> travel in Siberia, as well as <strong>the</strong> fi rst Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
artifacts <strong>to</strong> be seen in <strong>the</strong> Russian Far East.<br />
A WIDENING FOCUS:<br />
ARCTIC STUDIES CENTER AND<br />
CIRCUMPOLAR ANTHROPOLOGY<br />
In 1988, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> received congressional support<br />
for cre<strong>at</strong>ing a special unit called <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies<br />
Center (ASC) in <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
enabling a series of new research, educ<strong>at</strong>ion, and public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
ventures th<strong>at</strong> have been described in annual ASC<br />
newsletters and on <strong>the</strong> website (www.mnh.si.edu/arctic).<br />
Building anew on <strong>the</strong> IPY- 1 legacy and new Crossroads<br />
partnerships, in 1992 a 10- year archival research and public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
project titled “Jesup II” was initi<strong>at</strong>ed with United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es, Russian, Japanese, and Canadian partners (Krupnik<br />
and Fitzhugh, 2001; Kendall and Krupnik, 2003). To fulfi<br />
ll Boas’ original vision of <strong>the</strong> scope of <strong>the</strong> Jesup expedi-<br />
tion (Boas, 1903)— a vision thwarted by bureaucracy and<br />
logistics during <strong>the</strong> expedition and by Soviet fi <strong>at</strong> excluding<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ainu from <strong>the</strong> Crossroads exhibition— with Japanese<br />
and Ainu scholars, we produced a comprehensive Ainu exhibition<br />
and c<strong>at</strong>alog drawing on collections and archives<br />
in museums in North America and Japan (Fitzhugh and<br />
Dubreuil, 1999).<br />
Concurrent with <strong>the</strong> opening of fi eld opportunities<br />
in Russia after 1990, <strong>the</strong> ASC began a re- study of culture<br />
<strong>the</strong>mes th<strong>at</strong> motiv<strong>at</strong>ed circumpolar <strong>the</strong>ories of Arctic peoples<br />
in <strong>the</strong> early twentieth century (Gjessing, 1944; Bogoras,<br />
1902, 1929; Fitzhugh, 1975; Dumond, 2003) with new<br />
fi eldwork in <strong>the</strong> lower Ob River and Yamal Peninsula. Supported<br />
by a grant from Amoco Eurasia Corpor<strong>at</strong>ion, we<br />
conducted archaeological surveys and ethno- archaeology<br />
of Nenets reindeer- herders in Western Siberia (Fedorova et<br />
al., 1998; Fitzhugh, 1998a; 1998b; Fitzhugh and Golovnev,<br />
1998; Haakanson, 2000; Fedorova, 2005) combined with<br />
several museum- focused heritage projects, exhibits, and<br />
c<strong>at</strong>alogs (Krupnik and Narinskaya, 1998; Krupnik, 1998;<br />
Pika, 1998). Subsequently, with Andrei Golovnev and Vladimir<br />
Pitul’ko, we searched for pre- Eskimo sites eastward<br />
from Yamal along <strong>the</strong> Arctic coast <strong>to</strong> Bering Strait, inspired<br />
by Leonid Khlobystin’s pioneering work (Khlobystin, 2005)<br />
and assisted excav<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> an 8,000- year- old Mesolithic<br />
site on Zhokhov Island (Pitul’ko, 2001). Although <strong>the</strong> results<br />
did not reveal evidence of pro<strong>to</strong>- Eskimo culture, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
helped explain why earlier researchers believed Eskimo adapt<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
and art had origin<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong>se regions (Larsen<br />
and Rainey, 1948; Fitzhugh, 1998a) and helped fi ll a large<br />
gap in circumpolar archaeology (Fitzhugh, 2002b). L<strong>at</strong>er<br />
our research and public programs gap in <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic<br />
was fi lled by production of a major exhibition titled<br />
Vikings: <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic Saga, which opened in 2000<br />
and <strong>to</strong>ured <strong>to</strong> various loc<strong>at</strong>ions in North America (Fitzhugh<br />
and Ward, 2000).<br />
REVITALIZING THE SMITHSONIAN–<br />
ALASKA CONNECTION<br />
Beginning in <strong>the</strong> early 1990s, <strong>the</strong> reprinting of Nelson’s<br />
and Murdoch’s monographs and new interest cre<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Alaska <strong>to</strong>urs of Inua and Crossroads and <strong>the</strong>ir mini-<br />
exhibit versions resulted in a major revitaliz<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>– Alaska connection. Unlike <strong>the</strong> earlier focus<br />
on collecting and research, <strong>the</strong>se efforts were based on<br />
collection interpret<strong>at</strong>ion, educ<strong>at</strong>ion, and public access.<br />
Whereas earlier work involved primarily a one- way trans-
fer of Alaskan objects and inform<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
coffers for use in research, public<strong>at</strong>ion, and exhibitions,<br />
<strong>the</strong> emerging emphasis used <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> treasures <strong>to</strong><br />
engage N<strong>at</strong>ive groups and individuals in two- way collabor<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
studies and public<strong>at</strong>ion, along with joint cur<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of exhibitions, museum training, and re- document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s early object and archival collections<br />
( Fienup- Riordan, 1996, 2007; Loring, 1996).<br />
The overwhelming interest exhibited by Alaskans <strong>to</strong><br />
early <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections helped spark a revival of interest<br />
in traditional n<strong>at</strong>ive culture, and in <strong>the</strong> early 1990s<br />
we began <strong>to</strong> explore <strong>the</strong> idea of opening a regional offi ce<br />
<strong>to</strong> formalize a new permanent <strong>Smithsonian</strong>– Alaska connection.<br />
In April 1994, we opened an offi ce <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Anchorage<br />
Museum of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Art and shortly after, Aron<br />
Crowell joined <strong>the</strong> ASC as local direc<strong>to</strong>r and launched<br />
archaeological research, museum training, exhibition, and<br />
teaching projects.<br />
As <strong>the</strong> Alaska offi ce <strong>to</strong>ok shape, back in Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
<strong>the</strong> ASC staff collabor<strong>at</strong>ed on collection projects with <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry (NMNH) Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Offi ce, which was working with Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive groups<br />
on <strong>the</strong> return of human remains collected by Hrdlic � ka,<br />
Stewart, Collins, and o<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> early 1920– 1930s.<br />
More than 3,500 skeletal remains were transferred back<br />
<strong>to</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive groups between 1990– 2007, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
grave goods and religious objects (Bray and Killion,<br />
1994; http://anthropology.si.edu/rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion). ASC staff<br />
began <strong>to</strong> work with N<strong>at</strong>ive groups <strong>to</strong> document old archival<br />
and ethnographic collections from Alaska, and by<br />
2001 <strong>the</strong>se “knowledge rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion” projects (Crowell<br />
et al., 2001; Loring, 2001b, 2008; Krupnik, 2004, 2005)<br />
blossomed in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Alaska Collection Project, bringing<br />
Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ives in<strong>to</strong> contact with <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections<br />
for intensive study and re- document<strong>at</strong>ion, with <strong>the</strong> ultim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
aim of loaning <strong>the</strong>m back <strong>to</strong> Alaska for study and<br />
exhibition.<br />
In 1994 Crowell began an exhibition project with <strong>the</strong><br />
William J. Fisher Alutiiq ethnographic collection from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Kodiak Island area g<strong>at</strong>hered in 1880– 1885 during <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst IPY era, but never previously published or exhibited.<br />
The resulting exhibit— Looking Both Ways: Heritage and<br />
Identity of <strong>the</strong> Alutiiq People— and its c<strong>at</strong>alog and website,<br />
co– cur<strong>at</strong>ed by Crowell with Alutiiq leaders and organized<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Alutiiq Museum (Crowell et al., 2001;<br />
Pullar, 2001), helped c<strong>at</strong>alyze <strong>the</strong> movement by Alutiiq<br />
peoples <strong>to</strong> rejuven<strong>at</strong>e Kodiak cultural traditions in art,<br />
oral his<strong>to</strong>ry, language, and m<strong>at</strong>erial culture (Crowell,<br />
2004; Clifford, 2004).<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 71<br />
The collections and observ<strong>at</strong>ions garnered as well as<br />
<strong>the</strong> re- public<strong>at</strong>ion (with new d<strong>at</strong>a) of <strong>the</strong> Nelson, Murdoch,<br />
and Turner monographs, and present<strong>at</strong>ion of exhibitions<br />
and new illustr<strong>at</strong>ed c<strong>at</strong>alogs have proven important both<br />
for science and his<strong>to</strong>rical legacies. For instance, without<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical baseline inform<strong>at</strong>ion from archaeological sites,<br />
it is impossible <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> signifi cance of clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
shifts or assess <strong>the</strong> effects of long- term cultural and environmental<br />
change. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, preserv<strong>at</strong>ion of traditional<br />
artifacts, cus<strong>to</strong>ms, and oral his<strong>to</strong>ries and present<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se m<strong>at</strong>erials through exhibitions and o<strong>the</strong>r venues have<br />
given Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ives a window in<strong>to</strong> a past th<strong>at</strong> had been<br />
largely forgotten or was considered irrelevant <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern<br />
day (Kaplan and Barsness, 1986; Fitzhugh, 1988c;<br />
Chaussonnet, 1995).<br />
Now nearing its fi fteenth year, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Anchorage Museum is poised <strong>to</strong> take<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r giant step forward. With funding from <strong>the</strong> Rasmuson<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion and o<strong>the</strong>rs, <strong>the</strong> Anchorage Museum<br />
has constructed a new wing <strong>to</strong> house an expanded ASC offi<br />
ce and research suite. A major part of this wing will be a<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> exhibition hall displaying nearly 650 anthropological<br />
objects loaned from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry and <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of <strong>the</strong> American Indian (Figure 8). The collections have<br />
FIGURE 8. Unangan consultants (from left) Daria Dirks, Marie<br />
Turnpaugh, Vlaas Shabolin, and Mary Bourdukofsky study a<br />
painted wooden shield from Kagamil in <strong>the</strong> Aleutian Islands, Alaska<br />
(ASCN11:3). N<strong>at</strong>ive experts— young and old— have helped <strong>to</strong> re-<br />
document <strong>the</strong> objects with new inform<strong>at</strong>ion, s<strong>to</strong>ries, songs, and<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ive language, and <strong>the</strong> process has helped <strong>to</strong> fi nd new routes <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
past. (2003 pho<strong>to</strong>graph; courtesy Arctic Studies Center, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution)
72 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
FIGURE 9. The Ralph Applebaum Associ<strong>at</strong>es rendition of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive Cultures exhibition <strong>to</strong> open in 2010 in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Gallery of <strong>the</strong><br />
expanded Anchorage Museum.<br />
been selected by teams of exhibit designers, conserv<strong>at</strong>ors,<br />
and Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive experts under <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>orial direction<br />
of Aron Crowell and will open in 2010 (Figure 9). A pilot<br />
exhibit titled Sharing Knowledge and a website of <strong>the</strong><br />
same name have been cre<strong>at</strong>ed (Figure 10; http://alaska .<br />
si.edu) and expanded educ<strong>at</strong>ional programs are planned<br />
as part of a new phase of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s commitment<br />
<strong>to</strong> Alaska and its cultures and peoples.<br />
INTO THIN AIR: ARCTIC<br />
STUDIES AND IPY 2007– 2008<br />
The convergence of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s effort <strong>to</strong> forge<br />
a new rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with N<strong>at</strong>ive and o<strong>the</strong>r constituencies<br />
in Alaska and across <strong>the</strong> circumpolar north fe<strong>at</strong>ured in<br />
many current Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year projects is hardly<br />
a coincidence. Just as <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s work with nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
peoples has evolved over <strong>the</strong> past fi fteen years, so <strong>to</strong>o<br />
have biologists, oceanographers, and o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>ural scientists<br />
begun <strong>to</strong> recognize <strong>the</strong> need for active involvement of<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn residents in <strong>the</strong> enterprise of polar science. For<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst time since IPY- 1, <strong>the</strong> 2007– 2008 IPY includes social<br />
science as a major research focus as well as— for <strong>the</strong><br />
FIGURE 10. The Arctic Studies Center’s Alaska offi ce prepared<br />
Sharing Knowledge: <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Alaska Collections (http://<br />
alaska.si.edu) in collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with N<strong>at</strong>ive elders and Second S<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Interactive Studio provides interactive assess <strong>to</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ric collections<br />
enriched by new N<strong>at</strong>ive document<strong>at</strong>ion and oral his<strong>to</strong>ry.
fi rst time in polar research— direct particip<strong>at</strong>ion by nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
peoples (Krupnik et al., 2004; Krupnik and Hovelsrud,<br />
2006; Allison et al., 2007; NOAA, 2008; www.ipy.org).<br />
Back in Washing<strong>to</strong>n, as prepar<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong> 2007–<br />
2008 IPY began <strong>to</strong> take shape amid <strong>the</strong> growing realiz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
th<strong>at</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e warming was altering <strong>the</strong> Arctic world<br />
in ways th<strong>at</strong> had never been imagined, <strong>the</strong> ASC cur<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
an exhibit exploring <strong>the</strong> forces <strong>at</strong> work in this regional<br />
expression of global change (Figure 11). Arctic: A Friend<br />
Acting Strangely (2006), produced by <strong>the</strong> ASC with assistance<br />
from NOAA, NSF, NASA clim<strong>at</strong>e scholars as a<br />
major component of <strong>the</strong> U.S. Interagency Arctic Research<br />
Policy Committee’s SEARCH (Study of Arctic Environmental<br />
Change) Program, presented <strong>the</strong> science of Arctic<br />
warming and its effects on marine and terrestrial systems,<br />
animals, and people. Special <strong>at</strong>tention was given <strong>to</strong> human<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions of changes in <strong>the</strong> Arctic, such as rising temper<strong>at</strong>ures,<br />
reductions in permafrost and sea ice, increases<br />
“OF NO ORDINARY IMPORTANCE” 73<br />
FIGURE 11. View of N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry exhibition Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely, documenting <strong>the</strong> impacts of clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change on Arctic animals, landscapes, peoples, and cultures in ancient and modern times. (Pho<strong>to</strong> by Chip Clark, NMNH)<br />
in coastal erosion, shorter winters and longer summers,<br />
shifts in animal distributions, and <strong>the</strong> possible local extirp<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of some species important for human subsistence<br />
(NOAA, 2008; http://forces.si.edu/arctic; www.arctic .noaa<br />
.gov). The exhibit helped focus <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional clim<strong>at</strong>e deb<strong>at</strong>e<br />
from exclusive <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> geophysical drivers of global<br />
warming <strong>to</strong> its human and social “face” by illustr<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong><br />
massive changes underway in <strong>the</strong> Arctic, long before such<br />
effects are expected <strong>to</strong> become pronounced <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong>se issues are subjects of ongoing IPY science<br />
initi<strong>at</strong>ives. The ASC activities most closely associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong>se efforts are found in Aron Crowell’s research<br />
in<strong>to</strong> culture and clim<strong>at</strong>e his<strong>to</strong>ry in <strong>the</strong> Gulf of Alaska region<br />
(Crowell and Mann, 1998; Crowell, 2000; Crowell<br />
et al., 2003), William Fitzhugh’s (1998a, 2002b; Fitzhugh<br />
and Lamb, 1984) work on long- term culture and environmental<br />
change and human-environmental interactions in<br />
<strong>the</strong> circumpolar region, and Igor Krupnik’s (Krupnik and
74 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FITZHUGH<br />
Jolly, 2002; Hunting<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2004; Krupnik et al., 2004;<br />
Krupnik, 2006) collabor<strong>at</strong>ive projects on indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of sea ice, animal, and clim<strong>at</strong>e change in <strong>the</strong> Bering<br />
Sea, and Stephen Loring’s (1996, 1998; 2001a; 2001b;<br />
2008; Loring and Rosenmeier, 2005) work with indigenous<br />
community science and educ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
It is clear th<strong>at</strong> global warming, as dram<strong>at</strong>ically demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
during <strong>the</strong> 2007 summer melt season, is going <strong>to</strong><br />
be <strong>the</strong> most serious environmental issue facing <strong>the</strong> world<br />
in <strong>the</strong> coming century. Building upon <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
long his<strong>to</strong>ry of anthropological and archaeological collecting<br />
and research, <strong>the</strong> ASC has <strong>the</strong> capability for deep- time<br />
and broad panoramic studies of culture and environmental<br />
change. The Institution’s ethnographic collections and<br />
archival records provide inform<strong>at</strong>ion on how nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
peoples in many regions of <strong>the</strong> north have adapted <strong>to</strong> regional<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ion and changing conditions. Its archaeological<br />
collections, particularly from Alaska— as well as its<br />
recent long- term studies in <strong>the</strong> Eastern Arctic and Subarctic,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Russian North, Scandinavia, and most recently in<br />
Mongolia— provide cultural and environmental inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on past changes of clim<strong>at</strong>e, environment, and culture<br />
th<strong>at</strong> form <strong>the</strong> basis for studies and educ<strong>at</strong>ional programs<br />
informing current conditions and trends. Movements of<br />
prehis<strong>to</strong>ric and his<strong>to</strong>ric Indian and Eskimo cultures in Labrador,<br />
responses of past and present sea mammal hunters<br />
on St. Lawrence Island <strong>to</strong> changing sea ice and animal distributions,<br />
and cultural changes seen in Russia and Scandinavia<br />
have been taking place for thousands of years. One<br />
of <strong>the</strong> challenges of IPY 2007– 2008 is <strong>to</strong> apply knowledge<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se and similar records <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions we are facing<br />
<strong>to</strong>day, and <strong>to</strong> assist local government and people living in<br />
<strong>the</strong>se regions in making sensible choices for <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s long his<strong>to</strong>ry of nor<strong>the</strong>rn studies<br />
from Kennicott’s fi rst steps in <strong>the</strong> Mackenzie District in<br />
1858 <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern day; its collections, research, and<br />
public programs; and its contemporary collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn communities and peoples give it unique capacity<br />
for contributions in this IPY and in this time of rapid<br />
social and environmental change. After 150 years of drawing<br />
upon <strong>the</strong> north as a source of collections and scholarly<br />
research exemplifi ed in <strong>the</strong> Institution’s fi rst IPY efforts,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> science and educ<strong>at</strong>ion have shifted <strong>the</strong> polarity<br />
of its collecting, science, and educ<strong>at</strong>ional activities<br />
back in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north so th<strong>at</strong> its resources can contribute <strong>to</strong><br />
meeting <strong>the</strong> challenges th<strong>at</strong> lie ahead through <strong>the</strong> direct<br />
involvement of Alaskan and o<strong>the</strong>r Arctic people. <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
scholars still research and publish <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> forefront of<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir fi elds, cur<strong>at</strong>e collections, and work with <strong>the</strong> public<br />
in many capacities; but sharing <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s his<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
collections and archives and opening its facilities as venues<br />
for educ<strong>at</strong>ion and expanded awareness have become <strong>the</strong><br />
guiding star for this new phase in our his<strong>to</strong>ry. Nothing<br />
could be more important or more worthy of <strong>the</strong> course<br />
established by our founders in <strong>the</strong> earliest days of <strong>the</strong> Institution,<br />
for whom Arctic research is, as Henry deemed,<br />
“of no ordinary importance.”<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This paper owes much <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> long- term support and<br />
intellectual stimul<strong>at</strong>ion provided by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>ed staff, particularly of <strong>the</strong> Department of Anthropology<br />
and its Collections Program staff, who have managed<br />
and maintained <strong>the</strong> Arctic collections and supported<br />
<strong>the</strong> many exhibitions and outreach programs conducted<br />
by <strong>the</strong> ASC since <strong>the</strong> early 1980s. Susan Kaplan (Bowdoin<br />
College), Valérie Chaussonnet, Aron Crowell (ASC), N<strong>at</strong>alia<br />
Fedorova (Museum- Exhibit Center, Salekhard, Russia),<br />
Andrei Golovnev (Institute of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Archaeology,<br />
Ek<strong>at</strong>erinburg, Russia), Susan Kaplan (Bowdoin College),<br />
Igor Krupnik (ASC), Stephen Loring (ASC), Noel Broadbent<br />
(ASC), Vladimir Pitul’ko (Institute of <strong>the</strong> His<strong>to</strong>ry of<br />
M<strong>at</strong>erial Culture, St. Petersburg, Russia), Susan Rowley<br />
(University of British Columbia), Ruth Selig (NMNH),<br />
Elisabeth Ward (University of California, Berkeley; formerly<br />
with ASC), and P<strong>at</strong>ricia Wolf (Anchorage Museum<br />
of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Art) have been of gre<strong>at</strong> assistance and<br />
inspir<strong>at</strong>ion as friends and colleagues and contributed <strong>to</strong><br />
programs and ideas expressed above. Of course, nothing<br />
would have been possible without <strong>the</strong> tradition of scholarship<br />
and service maintained by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> since its<br />
founding. I also thank my ASC colleagues Igor Krupnik,<br />
Aron Crowell, Stephen Loring, and anonymous reviewers<br />
for helpful comments on earlier drafts.<br />
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Yup’ik Eskimo <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Arctic<br />
Research <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Ann Fienup-Riordan<br />
Ann Fienup-Riordan, Arctic Studies Center, 9951<br />
Prospect Drive, Anchorage, AK 99516, USA<br />
(riordan@alaska.net). Accepted 9 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The following pages review four research trips <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections<br />
made by Yup’ik community members between 1997 and 2003. In each case, Yup’ik<br />
elders had <strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>to</strong> examine ethnographic m<strong>at</strong>erial g<strong>at</strong>hered from southwest<br />
Alaska in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Most had seen similar objects<br />
in use locally when <strong>the</strong>y were young and provided rich commentary not only on <strong>the</strong> signifi<br />
cance of particular <strong>to</strong>ols and pieces of clothing, but on <strong>the</strong> traditional way of life and<br />
worldview th<strong>at</strong> fl ourished in southwest Alaska in <strong>the</strong> 1920s and 1930s. Although much<br />
has changed since <strong>the</strong>se elders came of age—<strong>the</strong> introduction of organized religion, formal<br />
educ<strong>at</strong>ion, and a wage economy—a rich and vibrant oral tradition remains. Through<br />
sharing knowledge in collections as well as working with museum professionals <strong>to</strong> bring<br />
objects home <strong>to</strong> Alaska for exhibition, elders seek not only <strong>to</strong> remind <strong>the</strong>ir younger<br />
gener<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong>ir rich heritage, but <strong>to</strong> declare <strong>the</strong> ingenuity and compassion of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
ances<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>to</strong> all <strong>the</strong> world.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Yup’ik Eskimo men and women fi rst gained awareness of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections<br />
in 1982, with <strong>the</strong> opening of Bill Fitzhugh and Susan Kaplan’s groundbreaking<br />
exhibition, Inua: Spirit World of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo (Fitzhugh and<br />
Kaplan, 1982) in Anchorage. Prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> opening of <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik mask exhibit,<br />
Agayuliyararput/Our Way of Making Prayer in 1996, elders worked with pho<strong>to</strong>graphs<br />
of objects, but few entered museums <strong>to</strong> see <strong>the</strong> real thing. Since <strong>the</strong>n,<br />
Yup’ik elders have had unprecedented opportunities <strong>to</strong> visit and view <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
collections, including one- and two-week research trips <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian in 1997 and 2002, and <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry in 2002 and 2003.<br />
Inua and Agayuliyararput opened doors, and those who entered found an<br />
unimagined array of artifacts, which most had viewed only briefl y when <strong>the</strong>y
80 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENUP-RIORDAN<br />
were young. All were deeply moved by wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y saw.<br />
Elders also recognized <strong>the</strong> potential power of museum collections<br />
<strong>to</strong> communic<strong>at</strong>e renewed pride and self-respect<br />
<strong>to</strong> a gener<strong>at</strong>ion of young people woefully ignorant of <strong>the</strong><br />
skills <strong>the</strong>ir ances<strong>to</strong>rs used <strong>to</strong> survive.<br />
Finally, in 2003 <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders Council began <strong>to</strong><br />
actively search for ways <strong>to</strong> bring museum objects home.<br />
Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion was not <strong>the</strong> issue, as ownership of objects<br />
was not <strong>the</strong> goal. R<strong>at</strong>her <strong>the</strong> Council sought “visual rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion”—<br />
<strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>to</strong> show and explain traditional<br />
technology <strong>to</strong> contemporary young people. The results<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir work in <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections has not only<br />
enriched our understanding of nineteenth-century Yup’ik<br />
technology in unprecedented ways but also laid <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
for <strong>the</strong> exhibition Yuungnaqpiallerput (The Way<br />
We Genuinely Live): Masterworks of Yup’ik Science and<br />
Survival, bringing Yup’ik m<strong>at</strong>erials home <strong>to</strong> Alaska in this<br />
Fourth Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year.<br />
SOUTHWEST ALASKA<br />
The Yukon-Kuskokwim region, a lowland delta <strong>the</strong><br />
size of Kansas, is <strong>the</strong> traditional homeland of <strong>the</strong> Yupiit, or<br />
Yup’ik Eskimos. The region’s current popul<strong>at</strong>ion of more<br />
than 23,000 (<strong>the</strong> largest n<strong>at</strong>ive popul<strong>at</strong>ion in Alaska) lives<br />
sc<strong>at</strong>tered in 56 villages, ranging between 200 and 1,000<br />
persons each, and <strong>the</strong> regional center of Be<strong>the</strong>l with a<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion of nearly 7,000 (Figure 1). Today this huge region<br />
is crosscut by his<strong>to</strong>rical and administr<strong>at</strong>ive boundaries,<br />
including two dialect groups, three major Christian<br />
denomin<strong>at</strong>ions, fi ve school districts, two census areas, and<br />
three Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) regional<br />
corpor<strong>at</strong>ions. Villages each have an elementary and<br />
a secondary school, city government or traditional council,<br />
health clinic, church or churches, airstrip, electricity,<br />
and, in some cases, running w<strong>at</strong>er. With 14,000 speakers<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Central Yup’ik language, <strong>the</strong> Yupiit remain among<br />
<strong>the</strong> most traditional N<strong>at</strong>ive Americans.<br />
The subarctic tundra environment of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea<br />
coast supports rich fl ora and fauna. An impressive variety<br />
of plants and animals appears and disappears as part of an<br />
annual cycle of availability on which Yup’ik people focus<br />
both thought and deed. Millions of birds nest and breed in<br />
<strong>the</strong> region’s ample wetlands, including geese, ducks, and<br />
swans. Annual migr<strong>at</strong>ions of salmon and herring are major<br />
resources for both riverine and coastal hunters. Halibut,<br />
fl ounder, <strong>to</strong>mcod, whitefi sh, capelin, pike, needlefi sh, smelt,<br />
and blackfi sh seasonally appear in coastal w<strong>at</strong>ers and tundra<br />
lakes and sloughs, and seals, walrus, and beluga whales<br />
return each spring. Land animals abound, including moose,<br />
caribou, bear, fox, otter, Arctic hare, muskr<strong>at</strong>, and beaver,<br />
and edible greens and berries are plentiful during summer<br />
months. Prehis<strong>to</strong>rically this abundance supported <strong>the</strong> development<br />
and spread of Inuit culture, and some scholars<br />
have called <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>the</strong> “cradle of Eskimo civiliz<strong>at</strong>ion.”<br />
The abundance of plants and animals in southwest<br />
Alaska allowed for a more settled life than in o<strong>the</strong>r parts<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Arctic. Hundreds of seasonal camps and dozens of<br />
winter settlements lined riverine highways th<strong>at</strong> link communities<br />
<strong>to</strong> this day. Like <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Inuit, <strong>the</strong> coastal<br />
Yupiit were nomadic, yet <strong>the</strong>ir rich environment allowed<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> remain within a rel<strong>at</strong>ively fi xed range. Each of <strong>at</strong><br />
least a dozen regional groups demarc<strong>at</strong>ed a largely selfsuffi<br />
cient area, within which people moved freely throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> year in <strong>the</strong>ir quest for food. Far from seeing <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
environment as <strong>the</strong> insentient provider of resources available<br />
for <strong>the</strong> taking, many Yupiit continue <strong>to</strong> view it as<br />
responsive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own careful action and <strong>at</strong>tention.<br />
ELDERS IN MUSEUMS:<br />
FIELDWORK TURNED ON ITS HEAD<br />
This year, 2007, marks <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong> Fourth<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year. September 2007 also saw <strong>the</strong><br />
opening of <strong>the</strong> exhibition, Yuungnaqpiallerput/The Way<br />
We Genuinely Live: Masterworks of Yup’ik Science and<br />
Survival, in Be<strong>the</strong>l, Alaska. Yuungnaqpiallerput was developed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders Council in collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Anchorage Museum with funding from <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion. It is based on over a decade of work<br />
in museums by Yup’ik men and women, including four<br />
seminal research trips <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections. The following<br />
pages share highlights of how and why elders came<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y learned, and wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y hope<br />
<strong>to</strong> do with this knowledge.<br />
Yuungnaqpiallerput (Fienup-Riordan, 2007) stands<br />
squarely on <strong>the</strong> shoulders of <strong>the</strong> successful partnership th<strong>at</strong><br />
gave rise <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik mask exhibit Agayuliyararput/Our<br />
Way of Making Prayer in 1996 (Fienup- Riordan, 1996).<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> exhibit was <strong>the</strong> culmin<strong>at</strong>ion of efforts <strong>to</strong> understand<br />
<strong>the</strong> meaning and power of nineteenth-century masks, including<br />
masks collected by Edward Nelson and Lucien<br />
Turner, from <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik point of view. The corners<strong>to</strong>ne of<br />
th<strong>at</strong> exhibition, as with Yuungnaqpiallerput, was inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
eloquently shared by Yup’ik elders during both priv<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and public convers<strong>at</strong>ions, remembering <strong>the</strong> masked<br />
dances <strong>the</strong>y had seen when <strong>the</strong>y were young. Some had<br />
seen pho<strong>to</strong>graphs of masks, but few had entered muse-
FIGURE 1. Map of Southwest Alaska, 2008. (P<strong>at</strong>rick Jankanish and M<strong>at</strong>t O’Leary)<br />
ums <strong>to</strong> see <strong>the</strong> real thing until after <strong>the</strong> exhibit opened in<br />
Toksook Bay in January 1996.<br />
Following Agayuliyararput, Yup’ik men and women<br />
have had unprecedented opportunities <strong>to</strong> visit museums<br />
and view collections. The fi rst “Yup’ik deleg<strong>at</strong>ion” <strong>to</strong> do<br />
serious work with <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections was a group<br />
of six elders who, along with myself and Marie Meade,<br />
traveled <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bronx s<strong>to</strong>rage facility of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of <strong>the</strong> American Indian (NMAI) for two weeks in<br />
April 1997. NMAI had invited <strong>the</strong> elders <strong>to</strong> New York as<br />
thanks for wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y had shared during <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik mask<br />
exhibit, which was <strong>the</strong>n on display in New York. Our visit<br />
YUP’IK ESKIMO CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCTIC RESEARCH 81<br />
marked <strong>the</strong> fi rst time <strong>Smithsonian</strong> staff extended such an<br />
invit<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive elders. Organized in large part<br />
by Mary Jane Lenz, NMAI housed us, fed us, and shared<br />
with elders as many objects as <strong>the</strong>y could during <strong>the</strong> time<br />
we had <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Agayuliyararput opened museum doors, and those who<br />
entered found an unimagined array of artifacts, including<br />
hunting equipment, clothing, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>ols of daily life.<br />
Ironically, <strong>the</strong> objects elders found least interesting were<br />
<strong>the</strong> masks, which most had viewed only briefl y when <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were young. Grass socks, s<strong>to</strong>ne <strong>to</strong>ols, and fi sh-skin clothing,<br />
however, excited enormous interest. All were deeply
82 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENUP-RIORDAN<br />
moved by wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y saw and spoke repe<strong>at</strong>edly about <strong>the</strong><br />
skill required <strong>to</strong> make and use each item. Viewing collections<br />
for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time, <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e Willie Kamkoff (April<br />
1997) of Kotlik remarked: “Seeing <strong>the</strong>se things after we<br />
arrived, our ances<strong>to</strong>rs were so ingenious in making hunting<br />
<strong>to</strong>ols. They didn’t have iron <strong>to</strong>ols, only ciim<strong>at</strong> [rocks].<br />
Their <strong>to</strong>ols weren’t sharp, but <strong>the</strong>y were amazing.”<br />
Elders also recognized <strong>the</strong> potential power of museum<br />
collections <strong>to</strong> communic<strong>at</strong>e renewed pride and self-respect<br />
<strong>to</strong> a gener<strong>at</strong>ion of younger Yup’ik men and women woefully<br />
ignorant of <strong>the</strong> skills <strong>the</strong>ir ances<strong>to</strong>rs used <strong>to</strong> survive.<br />
Refl ecting on his visit <strong>to</strong> NMAI, Paul John (September<br />
1998) of Toksook Bay said:<br />
We saw many objects when we visited <strong>the</strong> museum in New<br />
York, but I couldn’t leave <strong>the</strong> adze and an ax for a long time. I<br />
kept going back <strong>to</strong> look <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>m in awe, realizing th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y had<br />
been used by someone long before metal and nails were introduced.<br />
The ax had an ivory blade with a wooden handle shiny<br />
from constant swe<strong>at</strong> and oil from <strong>the</strong> hands th<strong>at</strong> held it. . . .<br />
The objects in museums are not insignifi cant. If we live using<br />
<strong>the</strong>m as our strength, we will get closer <strong>to</strong> our ances<strong>to</strong>rs’<br />
ways. And when we are gone, our grandchildren will continue <strong>to</strong><br />
live according <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>the</strong>y have gained.<br />
Elders were deeply engaged by <strong>the</strong> full range of Yup’ik<br />
technology. This point was brought home during <strong>the</strong> second<br />
major Yup’ik foray in<strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections,<br />
a visit <strong>to</strong> NMAI’s Cultural Resources Center in August<br />
2000. Three elders had been invited <strong>to</strong> choose objects for<br />
inclusion in <strong>the</strong> new museum’s planned exhibit, Our Universes.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> fi rst four days of <strong>the</strong>ir visit, <strong>the</strong>y s<strong>at</strong> in a<br />
conference room and carefully described <strong>the</strong>ir way of life<br />
<strong>to</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>or Emil Her Many Horses and staff. On <strong>the</strong> last<br />
day <strong>the</strong>y were invited in<strong>to</strong> s<strong>to</strong>rage areas where all 1,000<br />
Yup’ik objects in <strong>the</strong> museum’s collections were spread before<br />
<strong>the</strong>m. The elders were asked <strong>to</strong> walk through <strong>the</strong> room<br />
and choose <strong>the</strong> things th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y felt best refl ected <strong>the</strong> traditional<br />
Yup’ik view of <strong>the</strong> world. The Yup’ik group was <strong>the</strong><br />
last of eight groups <strong>to</strong> make such selections. Some, like <strong>the</strong><br />
Pueblo, had chosen 40 pieces, including many sacred ones.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs made smaller selections. The Yup’ik group circled<br />
<strong>the</strong> room, pointed enthusiastically <strong>at</strong> everything recognizably<br />
Yup’ik, and chose more than 300 objects. Masks<br />
were of interest, but <strong>the</strong> technology th<strong>at</strong> had allowed <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
ances<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>to</strong> survive was of primary importance.<br />
This trip, planned with <strong>the</strong> help of <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders<br />
Council (CEC) and fully funded by NMAI, was preceded<br />
by a two-day g<strong>at</strong>hering in Be<strong>the</strong>l, where fi ve elders answered<br />
questions and discussed <strong>the</strong>ir view of <strong>the</strong> world with<br />
Emil Her Many Horses and Mary Jane Lenz. This meeting<br />
was found<strong>at</strong>ional, not only for NMAI staff but for CEC,<br />
<strong>the</strong> region’s primary heritage organiz<strong>at</strong>ion representing <strong>the</strong><br />
1,300 Yup’ik elders sixty-fi ve and older. CEC had just begun<br />
actively documenting traditional knowledge in 1999,<br />
both during <strong>the</strong>ir annual Elder and Youth Conventions and<br />
interviews with individual elder experts. The form<strong>at</strong> NMAI<br />
chose— a small group of elders focusing discussion on a<br />
specifi c <strong>to</strong>pic— was an inspir<strong>at</strong>ion. Supported by NSF, <strong>the</strong><br />
CEC has since held more than two dozen two- and threeday<br />
g<strong>at</strong>herings on <strong>to</strong>pics chosen by CEC’s board of elders,<br />
including ones on rel<strong>at</strong>ional terms, discipline techniques,<br />
migr<strong>at</strong>ory w<strong>at</strong>erfowl, and fall survival skills. In my 30 years<br />
work in <strong>the</strong> region, <strong>the</strong> last fi ve years have been both <strong>the</strong><br />
most s<strong>at</strong>isfying and <strong>the</strong> most productive, seeking <strong>to</strong> answer<br />
questions Yup’ik people <strong>the</strong>mselves are posing.<br />
Aron Crowell, Direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies Center’s<br />
Anchorage offi ce, organized <strong>the</strong> third Yup’ik visit <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections in 2002. There, three elders spent<br />
one week examining and commenting on a rich range<br />
of objects Aron selected for inclusion in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies<br />
Center’s Anchorage exhibition, scheduled <strong>to</strong> open in<br />
2010. Pho<strong>to</strong>graphs and elders’ observ<strong>at</strong>ions from this important<br />
trip are available on <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies Center’s<br />
website, Sharing Knowledge. Again, it was deeply moving<br />
<strong>to</strong> see how much exploring collections meant <strong>to</strong> individual<br />
elders. Eighty-year-old John Phillip Sr. from Kongiganak<br />
wanted <strong>to</strong> come so badly th<strong>at</strong> when s<strong>to</strong>rmy coastal<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her closed in, he drove his snow machine more than<br />
100 miles <strong>to</strong> Be<strong>the</strong>l <strong>to</strong> make his fl ight.<br />
February 2003 was <strong>the</strong> last Yup’ik trip <strong>to</strong> work in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution’s Museum Support Center (MSC).<br />
Frank Andrew, <strong>the</strong> single most knowledgeable elder I have<br />
every known, had been unable <strong>to</strong> come <strong>to</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C., in 2002 due <strong>to</strong> his wife’s de<strong>at</strong>h. Members of <strong>the</strong><br />
CEC staff had worked with Frank <strong>at</strong> museums in Be<strong>the</strong>l<br />
and Anchorage, but he wanted <strong>to</strong> see objects specifi cally<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Canineq (lower coastal) area of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea.<br />
So, we organized this one-week trip just for him. Frank<br />
was accompanied by his son, Noah, as well as two knowledgeable<br />
elders he felt comfortable with. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Community Scholars program funded our travel, with additional<br />
support from <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders Council.<br />
Prior <strong>to</strong> our week <strong>at</strong> MSC, I searched records and preselected<br />
close <strong>to</strong> 300 objects from Canineq (Nelson, 1899).<br />
The MSC staff was generous in supplying records and print<br />
outs <strong>to</strong> make this long-distance selection possible. During<br />
our stay, we recorded close <strong>to</strong> 30 hours of discussion, all in<br />
Yup’ik, producing more than 1,000 pages of transcripts.<br />
We had an additional adventure when <strong>the</strong> blizzard of
2002 hit D.C. <strong>the</strong> night before we were <strong>to</strong> fl y home. Frank<br />
had noted th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik name for <strong>the</strong> small snowfl akes<br />
he saw falling was taqailnguut, ones th<strong>at</strong> don’t s<strong>to</strong>p— and<br />
<strong>the</strong>y didn’t. Washing<strong>to</strong>n shut down and planes didn’t fl y<br />
for ano<strong>the</strong>r three days. The elders were unconcerned, as<br />
waiting out s<strong>to</strong>rms was a routine part of life. Food was a<br />
potential problem, but Noah and I went “hunting” every<br />
afternoon for wh<strong>at</strong>ever Pennsylvania Avenue could provide—<br />
tins of smoked oysters, roast chickens, canned soup.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> days, we g<strong>at</strong>hered in our largest room and <strong>to</strong>ld<br />
s<strong>to</strong>ries. I kept <strong>the</strong> recorder running, producing wh<strong>at</strong> Marie<br />
affection<strong>at</strong>ely referred <strong>to</strong> as <strong>the</strong> Blizzard Tapes.<br />
Not only have elders traveled <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections<br />
but <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections have come home also.<br />
During our last trip <strong>to</strong> MSC, NMAI pho<strong>to</strong> archivist<br />
Donna Rose gave us a f<strong>at</strong> binder of copies of <strong>the</strong> wonderful<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>graphs made by Dr. Leuman M. Waugh, recently<br />
saved from oblivion by Igor Krupnik and Stephen<br />
Loring, among o<strong>the</strong>rs (Krupnik and Loring, 2002; Fienup-<br />
Riordan, 2005). An especially moving account was recorded<br />
while looking <strong>at</strong> Waugh’s pho<strong>to</strong> of men hunting<br />
in kayaks near Frank Andrew’s home<strong>to</strong>wn (Figure 2). I<br />
naively asked Frank if he felt pride <strong>the</strong> fi rst time he used a<br />
kayak. Here is wh<strong>at</strong> he said.<br />
There were two men [Qilkilek and Puyulkuk] who picked<br />
on me. One was my grandf<strong>at</strong>her, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r was my crosscousin.<br />
Getting a kayak didn’t make me feel important. One of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m picked on me very hard. He said th<strong>at</strong> I would only e<strong>at</strong><br />
c<strong>at</strong>ches th<strong>at</strong> I got from o<strong>the</strong>r people and not my own and th<strong>at</strong> I<br />
would only wear clothing th<strong>at</strong> was handed down. The o<strong>the</strong>r one<br />
asked me why I got a kayak, one th<strong>at</strong> would rot before <strong>the</strong> blood<br />
of my c<strong>at</strong>ch soaked it. These things th<strong>at</strong> I heard were not things<br />
th<strong>at</strong> make you feel good.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> was how I felt when I got a kayak, and I s<strong>to</strong>pped sleeping.<br />
I didn’t want <strong>to</strong> be [<strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong>y said I would be]. I learned<br />
everything about paddling before I got a kayak by using one th<strong>at</strong><br />
wasn’t mine, and I was taught how <strong>to</strong> hunt as well. I was fi lled<br />
with eagerness and <strong>the</strong> will <strong>to</strong> succeed.<br />
I got a kayak during summer. They put it up on stilts. I<br />
would even go and check on it <strong>at</strong> night when it was windy, being<br />
afraid it might blow away because th<strong>at</strong> old man bo<strong>the</strong>red me so<br />
much. . . .<br />
Then during [<strong>the</strong> following] spring <strong>the</strong>y began <strong>to</strong> go down<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ocean. I s<strong>to</strong>pped sleeping, wondering when he would let<br />
me go. They eventually began <strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch sea mammals. After th<strong>at</strong>,<br />
my l<strong>at</strong>e older sister <strong>to</strong>ld me th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were going <strong>to</strong> take me. I<br />
was so ecst<strong>at</strong>ic because I loved <strong>to</strong> be by <strong>the</strong> ocean when I went <strong>to</strong><br />
fetch <strong>the</strong>ir c<strong>at</strong>ches. And we would be reluctant <strong>to</strong> go back up <strong>to</strong><br />
land sometimes. It was always calm.<br />
YUP’IK ESKIMO CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCTIC RESEARCH 83<br />
FIGURE 2. An unc<strong>at</strong>alogued hand-tinted lantern slide: “Men hunting<br />
in kayaks, probably near Kwigillingok,” in 1935/1936, Alaska,<br />
by Leuman M. Waugh, DDS, based on comments from Frank<br />
Andrew, 2002. Pho<strong>to</strong> L02230 courtesy of N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong><br />
American Indian, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
We were getting ready <strong>to</strong> go down. . . . We walked, pulling<br />
our kayak sleds <strong>at</strong> night, and we got <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ocean just <strong>at</strong><br />
daybreak. I saw <strong>the</strong> person who ridiculed me. His name was<br />
Qilkilek, and he was in a kayak. I never forgot wh<strong>at</strong> he said <strong>to</strong><br />
me. When he saw me he said, “Wh<strong>at</strong> are you here for? Go back<br />
up and be a urine-bucket dumper. You won’t c<strong>at</strong>ch anything.” I<br />
didn’t answer.<br />
Frank <strong>the</strong>n left <strong>to</strong> hunt with his two cousins. Soon he<br />
spotted a bearded seal pup sleeping on fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice and<br />
signaled <strong>to</strong> his cousin, who killed it. Frank <strong>the</strong>n saw its<br />
mo<strong>the</strong>r swimming nearby. His cousin <strong>to</strong>ld him not <strong>to</strong> hunt<br />
it but Frank didn’t want <strong>to</strong> give up. When <strong>the</strong> animal surfaced<br />
directly in front of him, Frank <strong>to</strong>ok aim and fi red.<br />
I shot it immedi<strong>at</strong>ely and hit it. I quickly harpooned it. It<br />
was very large. My poor heart was going tung-tung, and I could<br />
hear my heartbe<strong>at</strong> with my ears. I was afraid I would capsize, but<br />
I really wanted <strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch it. After checking <strong>the</strong> ice, I got off on a<br />
thick spot, holding [<strong>the</strong> seal] with <strong>the</strong> harpoon. It was fl o<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
because it was very f<strong>at</strong>. I <strong>to</strong>ld my cousin Mancuaq <strong>to</strong> come, and<br />
he helped me.<br />
Qallaq didn’t make a sound again. We pulled it on <strong>to</strong>p of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r and butchered it. Because it was so large, I <strong>to</strong>ld<br />
him <strong>to</strong> put it inside his kayak. I carried only <strong>the</strong> me<strong>at</strong>. When we<br />
got back, <strong>the</strong>y came right over. Qilkilek didn’t say anything. . . .<br />
They butchered it, cutting it in strips, and distributed <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong>’s wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y do with fi rst c<strong>at</strong>ches.
84 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENUP-RIORDAN<br />
He asked me wh<strong>at</strong> I came for and <strong>to</strong>ld me <strong>to</strong> go back up and<br />
be <strong>the</strong> dumper of <strong>the</strong>ir urine buckets. They said <strong>the</strong>y do th<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
those who <strong>the</strong>y were encouraging because <strong>the</strong>y want <strong>the</strong>ir minds<br />
<strong>to</strong> be stronger, those who <strong>the</strong>y goaded <strong>to</strong>ward success.<br />
Frank’s narr<strong>at</strong>ive is an unprecedented account, not only<br />
of wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong>ok place, but of <strong>the</strong> mixture of excitement, humility,<br />
and determin<strong>at</strong>ion he felt when ridiculed by men whose<br />
intent was not <strong>to</strong> shame him but <strong>to</strong> encourage him and<br />
prevent him from feeling overly proud and self- confi dent.<br />
Personal accounts are hard <strong>to</strong> elicit in g<strong>at</strong>herings and interviews.<br />
Objects and pho<strong>to</strong>graphs have opened doors th<strong>at</strong> all<br />
of my questions never could.<br />
VISUAL REPATRIATION: “EVERYTHING<br />
THAT IS MADE CAUSES US TO REMEMBER”<br />
To <strong>the</strong> extent th<strong>at</strong> elders were personally moved by<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y saw in collections, <strong>the</strong>y regretted th<strong>at</strong> young<br />
people in Alaska could not share <strong>the</strong>ir experience. Elders<br />
agreed th<strong>at</strong> people cannot understand wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y do not<br />
see. Frank Andrew (August 2003) spoke from personal<br />
experience: “Among <strong>the</strong> things I saw in <strong>the</strong> museum, I<br />
didn’t know about things th<strong>at</strong> I had not used. Th<strong>at</strong>’s how<br />
our young people are. They don’t know wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y haven’t<br />
seen.” Neva Rivers (March 2004) of Hooper Bay agreed:<br />
Even though <strong>the</strong>y hear about <strong>the</strong>m with <strong>the</strong>ir ears, <strong>the</strong>y cannot<br />
replic<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong>se things if <strong>the</strong>y don’t see <strong>the</strong>m. But if our young<br />
people see wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y did long ago, <strong>the</strong>y will understand. They<br />
cannot come [<strong>to</strong> museums] because <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>to</strong>o far away, but<br />
if <strong>the</strong>y bring things <strong>to</strong> Alaska, <strong>the</strong>y can replic<strong>at</strong>e some th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
want <strong>to</strong> continue <strong>to</strong> be seen.<br />
Again and again elders said how valuable it would<br />
be for young people <strong>to</strong> see wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were seeing. During<br />
our 2003 trip <strong>to</strong> MSC, Frank Andrew (February 2003)<br />
remarked:<br />
Only educ<strong>at</strong>ion can keep things alive, only if a person who<br />
listens closely hears <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion. These handmade items<br />
were constantly constructed when I was young by those who<br />
knew how <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong>m and who had <strong>the</strong> knowledge.<br />
Men taught young men how <strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch animals. These [traditional<br />
ways] were visible and did not change. Today [<strong>the</strong>se ways]<br />
are no longer displayed, because we are not teaching wh<strong>at</strong> we<br />
were taught, even though we have <strong>the</strong> knowledge. It will not live<br />
on if it is like th<strong>at</strong>.<br />
Paul John (January 2004) agreed, “We are losing our<br />
way of life, and we need <strong>to</strong> help young people and o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
<strong>to</strong> better understand wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y’ve lost. If <strong>the</strong> things th<strong>at</strong><br />
our ances<strong>to</strong>rs used are shown, <strong>the</strong>y will think, ‘So this is<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> our ances<strong>to</strong>rs did, and I can do wh<strong>at</strong> my ances<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
did, <strong>to</strong>o.’”<br />
St<strong>at</strong>istics bear out elders’ view th<strong>at</strong> contemporary<br />
young people lack knowledge of and appreci<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong><br />
values and technical skills th<strong>at</strong> made life both possible and<br />
meaningful on <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea coast in <strong>the</strong> not-so-distant<br />
past. Southwest Alaska has one of <strong>the</strong> highest suicide r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
in <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ion, primarily young men and women in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
twenties. R<strong>at</strong>es of poverty, alcohol abuse, and domestic violence<br />
are also disproportion<strong>at</strong>ely high. The rapid changes<br />
before and after Alaska st<strong>at</strong>ehood in 1959 shook <strong>the</strong> moral<br />
found<strong>at</strong>ion of Yup’ik community life <strong>to</strong> its core. These<br />
problems run deep, and knowledge and pride in <strong>the</strong>ir past<br />
is one among many elements needed for a solution. Joan<br />
Hamil<strong>to</strong>n (November 2003) of Be<strong>the</strong>l said simply, “Many<br />
people here are displaced by alcohol, but if we learn about<br />
ourselves from our elders, our minds will improve.”<br />
The truth of Frank Andrew’s and Paul John’s words<br />
was brought home <strong>to</strong> me personally in April 2003 when<br />
I listened <strong>to</strong> Jeffery Curtis, a Toksook Bay high-school<br />
student, speak publicly about his recent visit <strong>to</strong> Anchorage.<br />
He said how glad he was <strong>to</strong> have <strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>to</strong><br />
visit <strong>the</strong> University of Alaska th<strong>at</strong> he hoped someday <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong>tend. He said th<strong>at</strong> he planned <strong>to</strong> study science because<br />
his ances<strong>to</strong>rs had no science, and he wanted <strong>to</strong> learn wh<strong>at</strong><br />
white people could teach. Jeff comes from a proud and<br />
talented family, and his grandf<strong>at</strong>her, Phillip Moses, is a<br />
master kayak builder with expert knowledge on many aspects<br />
of Yup’ik technology. Jeff knows this, but nowhere<br />
has he learned <strong>to</strong> respect his grandf<strong>at</strong>her’s knowledge as<br />
“science.”<br />
Phillip Moses had likewise given me food for thought<br />
six months before, during work in collections <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Anchorage<br />
Museum. I had undergone retinal surgery two<br />
weeks earlier and could still only half-see out of one eye.<br />
As we worked <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r, my partner Alice Rearden handed<br />
Phillip a pair of wooden snow goggles, painted black on<br />
<strong>the</strong> inside with long, thin slits <strong>to</strong> let in <strong>the</strong> light. Phillip<br />
smiled, passed <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> me <strong>to</strong> examine, and <strong>the</strong>n launched<br />
in<strong>to</strong> an enthusiastic explan<strong>at</strong>ion of how <strong>the</strong>se goggles<br />
were <strong>the</strong> original “Yup’ik prescription sunglasses.” Halflistening,<br />
I held <strong>the</strong> goggles <strong>to</strong> my eyes, and for <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
time since surgery, I could see! As I digested <strong>the</strong> sophistic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
design— thin slits th<strong>at</strong> focused <strong>the</strong> light like a pinhole<br />
camera, enhancing <strong>the</strong> user’s vision— I could hear Phillip
el<strong>at</strong>ing in Yup’ik how <strong>the</strong> goggles worked both <strong>to</strong> reduce<br />
glare and <strong>to</strong> help a hunter see far. Phillip, like many elders,<br />
was well aware of <strong>the</strong> goggles’ properties, yet I know of no<br />
reference in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure on southwest Alaska regarding<br />
<strong>the</strong> capacity of snow goggles <strong>to</strong> improve distance vision.<br />
Like Phillip, many living elders can articul<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> fundamentals<br />
of Yup’ik technology. How powerful it would be<br />
<strong>to</strong> bring <strong>the</strong>ir clear descriptions home <strong>to</strong> a younger gener<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
both N<strong>at</strong>ive and non-N<strong>at</strong>ive.<br />
Finally, in 2003, <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders Council began <strong>to</strong><br />
search for ways <strong>to</strong> respond <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> desire of <strong>the</strong>ir board of<br />
elders <strong>to</strong> bring museum objects home. Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion was<br />
not <strong>the</strong> issue, as ownership of objects was not <strong>the</strong> goal.<br />
R<strong>at</strong>her, “visual rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion” was wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y sought— <strong>the</strong><br />
opportunity <strong>to</strong> show and explain traditional technology <strong>to</strong><br />
contemporary young people.<br />
Just as <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik community had looked <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Anchorage<br />
Museum in 1993 when beginning work on <strong>the</strong><br />
Yup’ik mask exhibit, it again turned <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> museum, which<br />
energetically embraced <strong>the</strong>ir project. Planning meetings<br />
formally began in August 2003 with a combin<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion and Anchorage Museum Associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
support. The fi rst meeting <strong>to</strong>ok place in Be<strong>the</strong>l<br />
in August 2003. There, a team of twelve Yup’ik elders<br />
and educ<strong>at</strong>ors— including Frank Andrew and Paul John—<br />
g<strong>at</strong>hered <strong>to</strong> plan a comprehensive exhibit of nineteenthcentury<br />
Yup’ik technology.<br />
First, we discussed wh<strong>at</strong> kinds of objects <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik<br />
community would want <strong>to</strong> see. The answer was “everything.”<br />
This was no surprise, given <strong>the</strong> elders’ all-inclusive<br />
choices three years before <strong>at</strong> NMAI. Wh<strong>at</strong> followed did<br />
surprise me, although in retrospect it should not have. I<br />
spoke briefl y about <strong>the</strong> mask exhibit th<strong>at</strong> many of us had<br />
worked on <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r ten years earlier, saying th<strong>at</strong> since th<strong>at</strong><br />
exhibit had focused on Yup’ik spirituality, we could take<br />
this opportunity <strong>to</strong> focus on Yup’ik science. I said th<strong>at</strong><br />
this exhibit could be wh<strong>at</strong> Agayuliyararput/Our Way of<br />
Making Prayer was not. I was reminded politely but fi rmly<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Yup’ik <strong>to</strong>ols and technology were also “our way of<br />
making prayer.” Yup’ik team members did not view <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
traditional technology and spirituality as separable, and<br />
a valuable contribution of our exhibit would be <strong>to</strong> show<br />
how <strong>the</strong>ir ances<strong>to</strong>rs lived properly, without this separ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Elsie M<strong>at</strong>her explained, “Long ago our beliefs and<br />
our way of life weren’t seen as separ<strong>at</strong>e. But nowadays,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y look <strong>at</strong> those two as separ<strong>at</strong>e. In this exhibit, we<br />
should remember th<strong>at</strong> and try <strong>to</strong> help people understand.<br />
If our exhibit becomes a reality, it will be taught th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
ways of life and <strong>the</strong>ir beliefs were one.”<br />
YUP’IK ESKIMO CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCTIC RESEARCH 85<br />
Our second task was <strong>to</strong> name <strong>the</strong> exhibit. This was<br />
done with serious deliber<strong>at</strong>ion. After several suggestions,<br />
Frank Andrew spoke: “The way of our ances<strong>to</strong>rs is called<br />
yuungnaqsaraq [‘<strong>to</strong> endeavor <strong>to</strong> live’]. When using all<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>ols <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r, only a person who is trying <strong>to</strong> survive<br />
will use <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> live. Th<strong>at</strong>’s <strong>the</strong> name, and our ances<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
used it all <strong>the</strong> time, ciuliamta yuungnaquci<strong>at</strong> [our ances<strong>to</strong>rs’<br />
way of life].” Paul John agreed: “Back when Yup’ik<br />
people were really surviving on <strong>the</strong>ir own, <strong>the</strong>y <strong>to</strong>ok care<br />
of <strong>the</strong>mselves, trying <strong>to</strong> follow <strong>the</strong>ir traditions.”<br />
Mark John <strong>the</strong>n added a crucial observ<strong>at</strong>ion, rest<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>the</strong> Yup’ik phrase in <strong>the</strong> present tense:<br />
We could make it more personal r<strong>at</strong>her than distant. It could<br />
be yuungnaqpiallerput [<strong>the</strong> way we genuinely live], which includes<br />
us, <strong>to</strong>o. We are part of all th<strong>at</strong> is being displayed. In <strong>the</strong><br />
villages, people still utilize those ways, even though <strong>the</strong>y may<br />
be using different m<strong>at</strong>erials. We’re not distancing ourselves from<br />
our ances<strong>to</strong>rs.<br />
Paul John concluded: “Th<strong>at</strong> yuungnaqpiallerput is<br />
perfect as a title. We really did try <strong>to</strong> live and survive <strong>the</strong><br />
real way.”<br />
Discussion continued on which objects people thought<br />
most important <strong>to</strong> include. Paul John again mentioned <strong>the</strong><br />
adze and <strong>the</strong> ax, as well as <strong>the</strong> fi re-making <strong>to</strong>ols he had<br />
admired in New York. Frank Andrew spoke of <strong>the</strong> kayak<br />
and of th<strong>at</strong> most essential <strong>to</strong>ol, <strong>the</strong> negcik (gaff), which he<br />
referred <strong>to</strong> as “life hook.” Andy Paukan remembered <strong>the</strong><br />
powerful sinew-backed bow, and Marie Meade recalled<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi nely sewn clothing and ceremonial regalia she had<br />
seen in collections. Paul John emphasized <strong>the</strong> importance<br />
of including <strong>the</strong> drum as a metaphor for <strong>the</strong> continued<br />
vitality of <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik way of life. Frank Andrew concluded:<br />
“The reverber<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> drum kept everyone <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r.”<br />
Elders also enthusiastically supported <strong>the</strong> inclusion of<br />
newly made examples of traditional technology, including<br />
a kayak, fi sh trap, seal-gut parka, and bearskin bo<strong>at</strong>.<br />
Living elders had <strong>the</strong> skills <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong>se <strong>to</strong>ols, and, once<br />
again, many people thought th<strong>at</strong> elders men<strong>to</strong>ring young<br />
people in <strong>the</strong>se techniques had <strong>the</strong> potential not only <strong>to</strong><br />
transfer specifi c skills but also <strong>to</strong> shape lives.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r issue was how <strong>to</strong> organize <strong>the</strong> objects. A recurrent<br />
<strong>the</strong>me was <strong>the</strong> continued importance of <strong>the</strong> seasonal<br />
cycle of activities, both in <strong>the</strong> past and <strong>to</strong>day. They<br />
suggested th<strong>at</strong> this cycle be used as <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong><br />
exhibit. This simple but elegant mand<strong>at</strong>e is wh<strong>at</strong> we have<br />
followed. Our s<strong>to</strong>ry begins with prepar<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> village<br />
and moves through spring, summer, fall, and early-winter
86 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENUP-RIORDAN<br />
harvesting activities. We <strong>the</strong>n return <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> winter village,<br />
where activities <strong>to</strong>day, as in <strong>the</strong> past, focus on sharing <strong>the</strong><br />
harvest and on renewal for <strong>the</strong> coming year.<br />
To tell this s<strong>to</strong>ry, our exhibit includes examples of <strong>the</strong><br />
most important fe<strong>at</strong>ures of nineteenth- and early- twentiethcentury<br />
Yup’ik technology. It draws from a number of<br />
major collections of Yup’ik m<strong>at</strong>erial culture in <strong>the</strong> United<br />
St<strong>at</strong>es and Europe, as well as from many less known but<br />
equally important collections. Some of our best pieces,<br />
however, come from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, including pieces collected<br />
by Edward Nelson, William Healey Dall, and A. H.<br />
Twitchell. Without <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections, we could not<br />
tell our s<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
“WE HAVE NO WORD FOR SCIENCE”<br />
In choosing a “science” focus for <strong>the</strong>ir exhibition,<br />
Yup’ik community members continue <strong>to</strong> advoc<strong>at</strong>e for respect<br />
for <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge systems. The perceived gap between<br />
Yup’ik indigenous knowledge and western science is<br />
enormous. Clearly, <strong>the</strong>re are differences; but understanding<br />
<strong>the</strong> links can deepen our appreci<strong>at</strong>ion of both Yup’ik<br />
and western thought (Kawagley, 1995).<br />
When describing Yup’ik masks and ceremonies, elders<br />
made it clear th<strong>at</strong> in <strong>the</strong> past <strong>the</strong>y had no separ<strong>at</strong>e c<strong>at</strong>egory<br />
for “religion.” Everyday acts were equally “our way of making<br />
prayer.” Similarly, discussions of hunting and harvesting<br />
activities make no separ<strong>at</strong>ion between a person’s technical<br />
and moral educ<strong>at</strong>ion. Frank Andrew (February 2003) remarked<br />
th<strong>at</strong> “Everything has a rule, no m<strong>at</strong>ter wh<strong>at</strong> it is.<br />
Because admonitions are a part of <strong>the</strong>se snow goggles, we<br />
are talking about it through <strong>the</strong>se.” Elsie M<strong>at</strong>her (November<br />
2003) observed, “Our language had no word for science,<br />
yet our <strong>to</strong>ols were so well designed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y allowed<br />
us <strong>to</strong> live in a land no one else would inhabit.”<br />
Yup’ik on<strong>to</strong>logy promoted constant w<strong>at</strong>chfulness and<br />
<strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> signs <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural world provided. A child’s<br />
fi rst task each morning was <strong>to</strong> exit <strong>the</strong> house and observe<br />
<strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her. When traveling, each person depended for<br />
survival on observ<strong>at</strong>ional skills honed from an early age.<br />
Knowledge in <strong>the</strong> past was situ<strong>at</strong>ed, based on observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and experience. Frank Andrew (June 2003) st<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
“I only speak intelligently about things th<strong>at</strong> I know here<br />
in our village. I don’t know things in o<strong>the</strong>r villages th<strong>at</strong><br />
I didn’t see, and I cannot explain <strong>the</strong>m very well.” Wh<strong>at</strong><br />
Frank does know, however, would impress any professional<br />
biologist or n<strong>at</strong>ural scientist. Frank and his contemporaries<br />
are gifted n<strong>at</strong>uralists, engaged in classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of all aspects<br />
of <strong>the</strong> world around <strong>the</strong>m, often by appearance, usefulness,<br />
and behavior. Frank (June 2003) provided one excellent example.<br />
Previously he had talked <strong>at</strong> length about <strong>the</strong> different<br />
species of sea mammals, all of which have a one-<strong>to</strong>-one<br />
correspondence with western species classifi c<strong>at</strong>ions, including<br />
makliit (bearded seals), nayit (hair seals), issurit (spotted<br />
seals), qasrulget (ribbon seals), asveret (walrus), cetu<strong>at</strong><br />
(beluga whales), arveret (bowhead whales), arrluut (killer<br />
whales), and arrn<strong>at</strong> (sea otters). He also distinguished between<br />
different age groups within individual species. For<br />
example, <strong>the</strong> general c<strong>at</strong>egory of bearded seal (Erign<strong>at</strong>hus<br />
barb<strong>at</strong>us) includes maklak or tungunquq (adult bearded<br />
seal), maklassuk (subadult bearded seal), maklacuk (adult<br />
bearded seal with a small body but <strong>the</strong> fl ippers and intestines<br />
of an adult), qalriq (bearded seal in rut), amirkaq<br />
(young bearded seal), maklassugaq (two-year-old bearded<br />
seal), and maklaaq (bearded seal pup).<br />
Speaking <strong>to</strong> Alice Rearden and his son, Noah, both<br />
of whom he assumed unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>the</strong> names for seal species<br />
and age groups, Frank added ano<strong>the</strong>r level of detail,<br />
naming eight distinct varieties of bearded seals based on<br />
appearance and behavior, three of which I quote below:<br />
There are many bearded seals, and <strong>the</strong>y all have different<br />
names. Some are rare, like those th<strong>at</strong> have long beards th<strong>at</strong> curl<br />
up when released. When <strong>the</strong>y come out of <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er close by, it<br />
seems as though <strong>the</strong>y are biting on something large with <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
beards curled, looking like balls. They call those bearded seals<br />
ungagciaret [from ungak, “whisker”]. . . .<br />
Then <strong>the</strong>re are bearded seals th<strong>at</strong> swim on <strong>the</strong>ir backs.<br />
When <strong>the</strong>y get <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice, <strong>the</strong>y climb up face down, gallop across,<br />
go in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, and <strong>the</strong>n reappear on <strong>the</strong>ir backs. They say <strong>the</strong><br />
ones th<strong>at</strong> get sleepy do th<strong>at</strong>. They said th<strong>at</strong> if we saw one of those<br />
we should follow it carefully. They said th<strong>at</strong> it would climb on<br />
<strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> ice after awhile and s<strong>to</strong>p and sleep. They say <strong>to</strong> hunt it<br />
when it does th<strong>at</strong>. They called those papanglu<strong>at</strong>.<br />
Then <strong>the</strong>y say th<strong>at</strong> some bearded seals would sleep and<br />
wake. When <strong>the</strong>y look <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir surroundings, <strong>the</strong>y would curl up<br />
sitting on <strong>the</strong>ir s<strong>to</strong>machs with <strong>the</strong>ir head and hind fl ippers <strong>to</strong>uching,<br />
turning all <strong>the</strong> way around, looking behind <strong>the</strong>m, searching<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir surroundings. After <strong>the</strong>y look all around, <strong>the</strong>y fi nally lie<br />
down and sleep. They call those ipuuyulit [from ipug-, “<strong>to</strong> move<br />
with one’s front high in <strong>the</strong> air”].<br />
They suddenly awake and search <strong>the</strong>ir surroundings. They<br />
are more afraid of <strong>the</strong> area behind <strong>the</strong>m. Th<strong>at</strong>’s why <strong>the</strong>y say not<br />
<strong>to</strong> approach <strong>the</strong>m from behind, only by looking straight <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
We would approach <strong>the</strong>m with <strong>the</strong>m w<strong>at</strong>ching us.<br />
Close observ<strong>at</strong>ion and classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural world<br />
are not <strong>the</strong> only things Yup’ik experts have in common with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir western counterparts. At <strong>the</strong> same time elders reported
important instructions th<strong>at</strong> guided life, <strong>the</strong>y tested rules as a<br />
means of judging <strong>the</strong>ir veracity. R<strong>at</strong>her than showing blind<br />
obedience <strong>to</strong> a timeless canon, Yup’ik men and women<br />
frequently describe <strong>the</strong>ir questioning of <strong>the</strong> principles on<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y based <strong>the</strong>ir actions and understandings. Nick<br />
Andrew (March 2004) of Marshall described testing <strong>the</strong><br />
admonishment th<strong>at</strong> broad whitefi sh would become scarce<br />
if those caught in lakes were fed <strong>to</strong> dogs:<br />
I went with my male cousin when he was a boy <strong>to</strong> check our<br />
net with dogs. We got <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> net and pulled it, and <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
so many broad whitefi sh, and we set <strong>the</strong> net again. When we<br />
fi nished, I <strong>to</strong>ld him, “Don’t tell on me, cousin.” I <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>the</strong>m and<br />
gave one <strong>to</strong> each of <strong>the</strong> dogs. When <strong>the</strong>y were done e<strong>at</strong>ing, we<br />
returned home. I <strong>to</strong>ld him, “I wonder how our net will do <strong>to</strong>morrow.<br />
Come with me again.” Then <strong>the</strong> next day, we checked our<br />
net. We pulled it, and it was heavy. We saw th<strong>at</strong> we caught more<br />
than before. [Whitefi sh] don’t become scarce in lakes since <strong>the</strong>y<br />
stay and don’t have anywhere <strong>to</strong> go. But <strong>the</strong>y warned us not <strong>to</strong><br />
throw <strong>the</strong>m around or discard <strong>the</strong>m carelessly.<br />
Yup’ik experiment<strong>at</strong>ion extended <strong>to</strong> technology. Men<br />
and women learned <strong>to</strong> construct and work with <strong>to</strong>ols<br />
through constant trial and error. Kwigillingok elder Peter<br />
John (February 2003) noted:<br />
We tried <strong>to</strong> learn <strong>to</strong> make things. We <strong>to</strong>ok <strong>the</strong>m by ourselves<br />
and examined <strong>the</strong>m. We Yupiit are like th<strong>at</strong>. We listen <strong>to</strong> and<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ch those who are working.<br />
Sometimes when we try <strong>to</strong> work, we don’t do a good job<br />
and s<strong>to</strong>p working on it. When we try <strong>the</strong> next time, it looks<br />
better. Then we repe<strong>at</strong>edly make o<strong>the</strong>r ones. We just don’t do it<br />
once. Th<strong>at</strong> is <strong>the</strong> way <strong>to</strong> learn.<br />
Working in museum collections, one cannot fail <strong>to</strong> be<br />
impressed by <strong>the</strong> varied <strong>to</strong>ol types and clothing p<strong>at</strong>terns<br />
Yup’ik men and women cre<strong>at</strong>ed. There was a <strong>to</strong>ol for every<br />
purpose. When Western technology was introduced,<br />
Yup’ik craftsmen embraced many labor-saving devices. If<br />
a new <strong>to</strong>ol broke, time-tested m<strong>at</strong>erials were often used <strong>to</strong><br />
fi x it, as when a commercially made bo<strong>at</strong> propeller was replaced<br />
by one fashioned from bone. The l<strong>at</strong>e Jim VanS<strong>to</strong>ne<br />
went so far as <strong>to</strong> dub Inuit peoples “gadget ridden.” They<br />
knew <strong>the</strong>ir m<strong>at</strong>erials well and displayed impressive inventiveness<br />
in using <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> advantage. Trial and error played<br />
a central role in Yup’ik learning and discovery.<br />
The perspectives shared by elders show important differences<br />
from and similarities with western science. Yup’ik<br />
knowledge was and is geared primarily <strong>to</strong> functions and<br />
outcomes. It is critical <strong>to</strong> know how <strong>to</strong> achieve some<br />
YUP’IK ESKIMO CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCTIC RESEARCH 87<br />
specifi c end so th<strong>at</strong> resources necessary for survival and<br />
well-being may be acquired effectively. Western science is<br />
primarily aimed <strong>at</strong> developing and testing hypo<strong>the</strong>ses <strong>to</strong><br />
understand wh<strong>at</strong> is happening within and between variables.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> two are complementary in th<strong>at</strong> Yup’ik<br />
science is <strong>the</strong> result of signifi cant trial and error th<strong>at</strong> has<br />
produced acceptable outcomes, while western science can<br />
explain how <strong>the</strong>se outcomes were achieved.<br />
Yup’ik technology can demonstr<strong>at</strong>e scientifi c principles<br />
in new and exciting ways by m<strong>at</strong>ching such practical<br />
outcomes <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> phenomena <strong>the</strong>y were designed <strong>to</strong><br />
address. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> Yup’ik science produced<br />
such outcomes prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir conceptual bases is critical in<br />
understanding how “science” as a process must be carefully<br />
evalu<strong>at</strong>ed both on hypo<strong>the</strong>sis testing and on manifested<br />
outcomes. Such a collabor<strong>at</strong>ion is especially important<br />
for science educ<strong>at</strong>ion in Alaska, where it can make <strong>the</strong><br />
subject more relevant and effective.<br />
At our last exhibit-planning meeting, steering committee<br />
members articul<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> purpose of <strong>the</strong> exhibit in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own words. Elsie M<strong>at</strong>her st<strong>at</strong>ed, “It will show <strong>the</strong> proven<br />
ways of <strong>to</strong>ols and processes Yup’ik people used <strong>to</strong> survive<br />
and let people see <strong>the</strong> common ways we share <strong>the</strong> knowledge<br />
of our environment.” Joan Hamil<strong>to</strong>n said, “It will help<br />
people understand science and how it is part of everyday<br />
life, and it will communic<strong>at</strong>e how much knowledge of <strong>the</strong><br />
world Yup’ik people needed <strong>to</strong> survive.” There is a gre<strong>at</strong><br />
deal of misunderstanding regarding how science works as<br />
a process un<strong>to</strong> itself. The value of considering western scientifi<br />
c approaches side by side with those of Yup’ik traditional<br />
knowledge <strong>to</strong> close <strong>the</strong> gap between academic venues<br />
and <strong>the</strong> general public cannot be overst<strong>at</strong>ed. Yup’ik gradeschool<br />
principal Ag<strong>at</strong>ha John (March 2004) of Toksook Bay<br />
articul<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> dilemma of her gener<strong>at</strong>ion: “When I was in<br />
school I h<strong>at</strong>ed science. I couldn’t understand it. Not only<br />
was it in ano<strong>the</strong>r language [English], but all <strong>the</strong> examples<br />
were foreign. If we begin <strong>to</strong> speak of ‘Yup’ik science,’ we<br />
will give our children something <strong>the</strong>y can understand.”<br />
In closing, I would like <strong>to</strong> return <strong>to</strong> Yup’ik motiv<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for traveling <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, sharing inform<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
and seeking <strong>to</strong> borrow objects <strong>to</strong> display in Alaska<br />
and beyond during this Fourth Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year.<br />
They hope <strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e an exhibition th<strong>at</strong> will teach about<br />
<strong>the</strong> Yup’ik way of life— <strong>the</strong> animals and plants <strong>the</strong>y rely<br />
on, <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>ols <strong>the</strong>y used <strong>to</strong> survive, and <strong>the</strong> values th<strong>at</strong> anim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir lives. Perhaps more important, <strong>the</strong>ir work <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> teaches us about <strong>the</strong> generosity and compassion<br />
of men and women who shared <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge,<br />
not only <strong>to</strong> inform us but <strong>to</strong> enrich all our lives and allow<br />
us <strong>to</strong> live genuinely.
88 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / FIENUP-RIORDAN<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
I am indebted fi rst and foremost <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik men<br />
and women who generously shared <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge, and<br />
<strong>to</strong> Calista Elders Council (CEC) language expert Alice<br />
Rearden for carefully and eloquently transcribing and<br />
transl<strong>at</strong>ing wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y said. Our work <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r in Alaska<br />
has been supported by <strong>the</strong> CEC with funding from <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion. We are gr<strong>at</strong>eful <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> many<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> staff members, both <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong><br />
American Indian, who made it possible for Yup’ik elders<br />
<strong>to</strong> work in <strong>the</strong>ir collections. Special thanks <strong>to</strong> Bill Fitzhugh,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, for fi rst bringing me in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in <strong>the</strong> 1980s, and <strong>to</strong> both Igor Krupnik,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, and Bill Fitzhugh for <strong>the</strong> invit<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> share wh<strong>at</strong> I learned.<br />
NOTE ABOUT INTERVIEW DATES<br />
D<strong>at</strong>es following Elders’ names refer <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> month and<br />
year discussions with <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong>ok place. Tapes are archived<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Calista Elders Council, Be<strong>the</strong>l, Alaska.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1996. The Living Tradition of Yup’ik Masks:<br />
Agayuliyararput/Our Way of Making Prayer. Se<strong>at</strong>tle: University of<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n Press.<br />
———. 2005. Yupiit Qanruyutait/Yup’ik Words of Wisdom. Lincoln:<br />
University of Nebraska Press.<br />
———. 2007. Yuungnaqpiallerput/The Way We Genuinely Live: Masterworks<br />
of Yup’ik Science and Survival. Se<strong>at</strong>tle: University of Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Press.<br />
Fitzhugh, William W., and Susan A. Kaplan. 1982. Inua: Spirit World of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press.<br />
Kawagley, Oscar. 1995. A Yupiaq Worldview: A P<strong>at</strong>hway <strong>to</strong> Ecology<br />
and Spirit. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.<br />
Krupnik, Igor, and Stephen Loring. 2002. The Waugh Collection Project:<br />
ASC Joins Efforts with <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American<br />
Indian. ASC Newsletter, 10: 24– 25.<br />
Nelson, Edward William. 1899. The Eskimo about Bering Strait. Bureau<br />
of American Ethnology Annual Report for <strong>the</strong> Years 1896– 1897,<br />
Volume 18, Part 1. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press.
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Alaskan<br />
Ethnography: The First IPY Expedition<br />
<strong>to</strong> Barrow, 1881– 1883<br />
Ernest S. Burch Jr.<br />
Ernest S. Burch Jr., 3601 Gettysburg Road, Camp<br />
Hill, PA 17011-6816, USA (esburchjr@aol.com).<br />
Accepted 9 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. From 1881 <strong>to</strong> 1883, as part of <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, an expedition<br />
sponsored by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Signal Corps and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution oper<strong>at</strong>ed a<br />
research st<strong>at</strong>ion a short distance north of where <strong>the</strong> modern city of Barrow now stands.<br />
The 10 members of <strong>the</strong> expedition had <strong>the</strong> primary task of making an unbroken series of<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her and magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions over <strong>the</strong> two-year period, and <strong>the</strong> secondary task of<br />
studying <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> Barrow area. “N<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry” included descriptions<br />
of n<strong>at</strong>ive life and collections of m<strong>at</strong>erial culture, in addition <strong>to</strong> studies of <strong>the</strong> fauna and<br />
fl ora. In this paper, I summarize <strong>the</strong> substantial contributions <strong>to</strong> our knowledge of North<br />
Alaskan Eskimo life made by members of <strong>the</strong> expedition, and evalu<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> light<br />
of work th<strong>at</strong> has been done since.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
From 1881 <strong>to</strong> 1883, as part of <strong>the</strong> fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, an expedition<br />
sponsored jointly by <strong>the</strong> U. S. Signal Corps and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ed a research st<strong>at</strong>ion near Point Barrow, Alaska. 1 The members of<br />
<strong>the</strong> expedition had <strong>the</strong> primary task of making an unbroken series of we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
and magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions over <strong>the</strong> two-year period, and <strong>the</strong> secondary task of<br />
studying <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> Barrow area. “N<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry” was unders<strong>to</strong>od<br />
<strong>to</strong> include descriptions of <strong>the</strong> local people and collections of <strong>the</strong>ir m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
culture, in addition <strong>to</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> fauna and fl ora. In this paper, I<br />
summarize and contextualize <strong>the</strong> contributions <strong>the</strong>y made <strong>to</strong> our knowledge of<br />
North Alaskan Iñupiaq Eskimo life.<br />
Point Barrow is <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost point of Alaska and of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
as a whole. It is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 550 kilometers north of <strong>the</strong> Arctic Circle, and<br />
400 kilometers north of <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>itudinal tree line (Figure 1). It is loc<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong><br />
Beaufort coastal plain ecoregion, a treeless area of very low relief having a considerable<br />
amount of surface w<strong>at</strong>er (Nowacki et al., 2002). Summers are short<br />
and cool, and <strong>the</strong> winters are long and cold. The clim<strong>at</strong>e was signifi cantly colder<br />
in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century than it is now. During <strong>the</strong> winter, <strong>the</strong> nearby ocean was<br />
completely frozen over; for much of <strong>the</strong> summer, it was covered with unconsolid<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice.
90 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH<br />
FIGURE 1. Map of Alaska.<br />
EARLY EXPEDITIONS<br />
The fi rst westerners <strong>to</strong> visit <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow district<br />
were <strong>the</strong> members of a detachment from <strong>the</strong> Frederick W.<br />
Beechey expedition led by Thomas Elson, which arrived<br />
from <strong>the</strong> southwest in September 1826 (Beechey, 1831:414–<br />
442). The explorers were met with a friendly greeting from<br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives, but th<strong>at</strong> was quickly followed by considerable<br />
hostility. Not only for th<strong>at</strong> reason, but also because <strong>the</strong> season<br />
was dangerously far advanced, <strong>the</strong> men turned around<br />
and headed back south almost immedi<strong>at</strong>ely.<br />
The second western expedition <strong>to</strong> make contact with<br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive people of Point Barrow was a detachment from<br />
a Hudson’s Bay Company expedition sent <strong>to</strong> explore <strong>the</strong><br />
western Arctic coast of North America. The group was<br />
led by Thomas Simpson, and it arrived <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> point from<br />
<strong>the</strong> east on August 4, 1837 (Barr, 2002:70– 112; Simpson,<br />
1839; 1843). Simpson’s small party was fortun<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> get<br />
<strong>the</strong>re when it did, because <strong>the</strong> settlement was largely unoccupied<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time. The few residents who were <strong>the</strong>re<br />
were frightened and hid from <strong>the</strong> explorers. However, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were soon persuaded <strong>to</strong> come out and show <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
Everyone got along pretty well for <strong>the</strong> few hours th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
explorers were <strong>the</strong>re.<br />
The next year, on July 23, 1838, a Russian expedition<br />
led by Aleksandr Kashevarov reached Point Barrow<br />
in a fl eet of small bo<strong>at</strong>s, arriving from <strong>the</strong> southwest<br />
( VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, 1977:31– 45). A fair number of people, with
considerable hostility, met Kashevarov’s party. The Russians<br />
were forced <strong>to</strong> fl ee in fear of <strong>the</strong>ir lives after just three<br />
days. Despite <strong>the</strong> brevity of his stay, Kashevarov acquired<br />
some very useful inform<strong>at</strong>ion on n<strong>at</strong>ive life in <strong>the</strong> Barrow<br />
district. This was due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> his party included<br />
an interpreter. Kashevarov is <strong>the</strong> only person, N<strong>at</strong>ive or<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rwise, who has ever reported <strong>the</strong> name of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(Burch, 2005:11– 33) whose members inhabited <strong>the</strong> Barrow<br />
district. According <strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> he was <strong>to</strong>ld, <strong>the</strong>y called<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves, and were known by o<strong>the</strong>rs, as “Kakligmiut”<br />
(VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, 1977:33).<br />
FRANKLIN SEARCH EXPEDITIONS<br />
The fourth western expedition <strong>to</strong> visit Point Barrow<br />
consisted of several of <strong>the</strong> ships involved in <strong>the</strong> search<br />
for <strong>the</strong> lost British explorer Sir John Franklin (Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce,<br />
1985). One of <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> depot ship H. M. S. Plover, under<br />
<strong>the</strong> command of Rochefort Maguire, spent <strong>the</strong> winters of<br />
1852– 1853 and 1853– 1854 frozen in <strong>the</strong> ice a short distance<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>ast of Nuvuk, <strong>the</strong> Iñupiaq settlement on <strong>the</strong><br />
FIGURE 2. Former Iñupiaq settlements in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district, Alaska.<br />
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ALASKAN ETHNOGRAPHY 91<br />
point (Figure 2). The British were greeted with considerable<br />
hostility. However, through wise diplomacy by <strong>the</strong><br />
leaders on both sides, peaceful rel<strong>at</strong>ions were established,<br />
and were maintained for <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> British<br />
were <strong>the</strong>re. The inform<strong>at</strong>ion on n<strong>at</strong>ive life acquired by <strong>the</strong><br />
members of this expedition exceeded th<strong>at</strong> of its three predecessors<br />
by several orders of magnitude.<br />
The surgeon on <strong>the</strong> Plover, John Simpson, already<br />
had acquired some profi ciency in <strong>the</strong> Iñupiaq language<br />
when <strong>the</strong> ship spent successive winters on Kotzebue Sound<br />
(1849– 1850) and in Grantley Harbor (1850– 1851), on<br />
<strong>the</strong> western end of <strong>the</strong> Seward Peninsula. He was assigned<br />
<strong>the</strong> task of learning about n<strong>at</strong>ive life in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district,<br />
in addition <strong>to</strong> his duties as surgeon. He performed his research<br />
through almost daily contact with Nuvuk’s inhabitants;<br />
this was mostly when <strong>the</strong>y visited <strong>the</strong> ship, but also<br />
through his periodic visits <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> village.<br />
Simpson (1855; 1875) wrote an outstanding report on<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> he learned about n<strong>at</strong>ive life. It was one of <strong>the</strong> best<br />
ethnographic accounts of any indigenous North American<br />
people <strong>to</strong> appear in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century. Much more
92 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH<br />
recently, John Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce (1988) published an edited and<br />
annot<strong>at</strong>ed version of Captain Maguire’s diary of <strong>the</strong> years<br />
spent near Point Barrow. He included in <strong>the</strong> volume a reprint<br />
of Simpson’s 1855/1875 report and several o<strong>the</strong>r useful<br />
documents. More recently still, Simpson’s (1852– 1854)<br />
diary, as well as several o<strong>the</strong>r manuscripts written by him,<br />
became accessible in <strong>the</strong> Duke University Archives. These<br />
documents, plus o<strong>the</strong>rs produced by people involved in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Franklin search (e.g., Collinson, 1889, Hooper, 1853,<br />
Maguire, 1857, Pim, 1853, Pullen, 1979, Seemann, 1853),<br />
contain a remarkable amount of inform<strong>at</strong>ion on n<strong>at</strong>ive life<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district in <strong>the</strong> mid-nineteenth century. We<br />
know not only wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> members of <strong>the</strong> expedition found<br />
out, but also, through <strong>the</strong> diaries, how and from whom<br />
many of <strong>the</strong>m acquired <strong>the</strong>ir inform<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
THE IPY EXPEDITION 2<br />
The IPY expedition <strong>to</strong> Barrow arrived 27 years after<br />
<strong>the</strong> Plover left. The members of this expedition established<br />
a base on shore about 15 kilometers southwest of <strong>the</strong><br />
point. It was near Utqiag˙ vik, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r main settlement of<br />
<strong>the</strong> “Kakligmiut.” Its leader, P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry Ray, did not<br />
want <strong>to</strong> establish a base <strong>at</strong> Nuvuk because <strong>the</strong> only dry<br />
ground <strong>the</strong>re was already taken by <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ive village. He<br />
also did not want <strong>to</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> base right in Utqiag˙ vik because<br />
he was afraid of being pestered by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives. So, it<br />
was set up a little more than 1 kilometer <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast,<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> place known more recently as Browerville.<br />
Some tension between <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives and <strong>the</strong> researchers<br />
arose due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> commander tried <strong>to</strong> put<br />
a s<strong>to</strong>p <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> trade in whiskey and fi rearms th<strong>at</strong> was being<br />
conducted with American whalers during <strong>the</strong> period<br />
when <strong>the</strong> expedition was based <strong>the</strong>re (Ray, 1882b, 1882c).<br />
However, in general, <strong>the</strong> two groups got along pretty well.<br />
The commander, P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry Ray (1882a), wrote th<strong>at</strong><br />
“<strong>the</strong>se people in <strong>the</strong>ir appearance, general intelligence and<br />
industry are superior <strong>to</strong> any n<strong>at</strong>ive I have seen on <strong>the</strong> continent.<br />
. . .” His colleague, John Murdoch (1890a:223), said<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eskimos were “al<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r pleasant people <strong>to</strong> see<br />
and <strong>to</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>e with.” Ano<strong>the</strong>r colleague, Middle<strong>to</strong>n Smith<br />
(1902:118), characterized <strong>the</strong>m as “a good people.” One<br />
does not expect <strong>to</strong> read such positive sentiments expressed<br />
by l<strong>at</strong>e-nineteenth century-American white men about indigenous<br />
North Americans. They help account for <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
members’ willingness <strong>to</strong> loan <strong>to</strong>ols and sometimes<br />
weapons <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir Iñupiaq neighbors, <strong>at</strong> least during <strong>the</strong> second<br />
year of <strong>the</strong>ir stay. (I have seen no evidence on wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
residents of Utqiag˙ vik thought of <strong>the</strong> IPY people.)<br />
The expedition members consisted of 10 men of<br />
whom fi ve are of special importance <strong>to</strong> this paper. In wh<strong>at</strong><br />
follows I summarize <strong>the</strong> individual contributions made<br />
by <strong>the</strong>se fi ve, plus one o<strong>the</strong>r person, and <strong>the</strong>n discuss <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition’s collective results.<br />
PATRICK HENRY RAY<br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry Ray was a fi rst lieutenant in <strong>the</strong> 8th<br />
infantry. It is not quite clear <strong>to</strong> me just how he spent his<br />
time in Utqiag˙ vik. He was apparently not involved in <strong>the</strong><br />
boring, time-consuming work of recording meteorological<br />
and magnetic observ<strong>at</strong>ions. Instead, he managed <strong>to</strong> get<br />
out and about a fair amount of <strong>the</strong> time, both in <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
village and beyond. For example, in l<strong>at</strong>e March and<br />
early April of both 1882 and 1883, he traveled south <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Meade River with N<strong>at</strong>ive companions during caribou<br />
hunting season (Ray, 1988a:lii; 1988b:lxxvii). He also visited<br />
<strong>the</strong> settlement on numerous occasions. There he was<br />
able <strong>to</strong> observe ceremonies and rituals, as well as people<br />
simply going about <strong>the</strong>ir daily lives (Murdoch, 1988:80,<br />
432; Ray, 1988c:xciii).<br />
Ray wrote inform<strong>at</strong>ive summaries of <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
and of his own travels inland (Ray, 1988a, 1988b), as well<br />
as a comprehensive sketch of n<strong>at</strong>ive life (Ray, 1988c). The<br />
l<strong>at</strong>ter is a generally accur<strong>at</strong>e document, but it is diminished<br />
by <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> its author paraphrased and even plagiarized<br />
<strong>the</strong> work of John Simpson from 30 years earlier.<br />
There is evidence (e.g., in Murdoch, 1988:433) th<strong>at</strong> Ray<br />
kept a notebook, but if he did, it has been lost.<br />
E. P. HERENDEEN<br />
The second person worthy of mention is Captain<br />
Edward Perry Herendeen, a whaler and trader with considerable<br />
experience in nor<strong>the</strong>rn Alaska ( J. Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce,<br />
pers. comm.). Herendeen was brought along as interpreter<br />
and s<strong>to</strong>rekeeper. Just how effectively he acted as<br />
an interpreter is questionable. O<strong>the</strong>r members of <strong>the</strong> expedition<br />
complained about being unable <strong>to</strong> communic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
effectively with <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives during <strong>the</strong> fi rst year of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
stay (e.g., Murdoch, 1988:45), and Ray (1988c:lxxxvii)<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ed fl <strong>at</strong>ly th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> party had no interpreter. By <strong>the</strong> second<br />
year, each man could do fairly well on his own (Ray,<br />
1988a:li).<br />
Herendeen seems <strong>to</strong> have gotten out and about even<br />
more than Ray did. He <strong>at</strong>tended a number of ceremonies<br />
in <strong>the</strong> village, hunted inland with N<strong>at</strong>ives in both fall and<br />
winter, and visited <strong>the</strong> whaling camps on <strong>the</strong> sea ice in<br />
spring. O<strong>the</strong>rs (e.g., Murdoch, 1988:39, 272, 276, 364,
372, 374, 423) cite Herendeen as having provided <strong>the</strong>m<br />
with inform<strong>at</strong>ion about a variety of subjects th<strong>at</strong> he had<br />
<strong>to</strong> have obtained in <strong>the</strong> village or out in <strong>the</strong> country. If he<br />
kept a journal, it has been lost, and <strong>the</strong> only public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
he produced th<strong>at</strong> I am aware of was a piece on caribou<br />
hunting (Herendeen, 1892). 3<br />
GEORGE SCOTT OLDMIXON<br />
George Scott Oldmixon was <strong>the</strong> surgeon on <strong>the</strong> expedition.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> tre<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> health problems of<br />
expedition members, he also tre<strong>at</strong>ed many sick N<strong>at</strong>ives,<br />
and he made many visits <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> village for th<strong>at</strong> purpose.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> process, he learned something about n<strong>at</strong>ive health<br />
problems and <strong>the</strong>ir means of dealing with <strong>the</strong>m. Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely,<br />
he, <strong>to</strong>o, is not known <strong>to</strong> have kept a journal. However,<br />
he reported some of wh<strong>at</strong> he learned <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, who<br />
wrote down some of wh<strong>at</strong> he <strong>to</strong>ld <strong>the</strong>m. Oldmixon’s one<br />
substantive contribution <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> expedition’s published reports<br />
was a set of height and weight measurements made<br />
of a number of Iñupiaq men and women from <strong>the</strong> two<br />
Barrow villages (Murdoch, 1988:cvii).<br />
MIDDLETON SMITH<br />
Middle<strong>to</strong>n Smith was one of <strong>the</strong> assistants who<br />
checked <strong>the</strong> instruments and kept <strong>the</strong> records of <strong>the</strong> magnetic<br />
and meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions. As far as I am<br />
aware, <strong>the</strong> only thing he wrote about <strong>the</strong> expedition was<br />
a popularized piece titled “Superstitions of <strong>the</strong> Eskimo”<br />
(Smith, 1902). Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, <strong>the</strong> article contains some erroneous<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion, such as <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion fi gures on pp.<br />
113– 114. It also paints an idyllic picture of Iñupiaq life<br />
(e.g., on pp. 118– 119), contributing <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> stereotype of<br />
Eskimos as being happy, hard-working, fun-loving, peaceful<br />
people. In fact, like most people everywhere, <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
considerably more complic<strong>at</strong>ed than th<strong>at</strong>.<br />
Smith also presents interesting bits of inform<strong>at</strong>ion not<br />
included in <strong>the</strong> reports of his colleagues. For example, on<br />
page 120 he reports:<br />
When a de<strong>at</strong>h occurs in <strong>the</strong> village <strong>the</strong> women are not allowed,<br />
from sunset <strong>to</strong> sunrise, ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> make or repair garments<br />
or <strong>to</strong> do sewing [of] any kind, except in <strong>the</strong> most urgent cases,<br />
when <strong>the</strong> work must be done while sitting within circles inscribed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> point of a knife upon <strong>the</strong> fl oor of <strong>the</strong> iglu.<br />
This is <strong>the</strong> only source I am aware of th<strong>at</strong> reports on a<br />
way of circumventing a taboo. It would be fascin<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong><br />
know if <strong>the</strong>re were o<strong>the</strong>rs. Also of interest are Smith’s ac-<br />
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ALASKAN ETHNOGRAPHY 93<br />
counts (pp. 127– 128) of how <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives che<strong>at</strong>ed during<br />
some of <strong>the</strong>ir trading sessions.<br />
JOSEPH S. POWELL<br />
Joseph S. Powell was not a member of <strong>the</strong> IPY expedition,<br />
but he commanded <strong>the</strong> ship sent <strong>to</strong> re-supply it for<br />
<strong>the</strong> second winter. Powell’s (1988) report summarizes his<br />
visit, and also contains quite a bit of interesting inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
about n<strong>at</strong>ive life in Utqiag˙ vik. Very little of this inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
could have been obtained fi rst-hand, however.<br />
Powell was <strong>at</strong> Utqiag˙ vik for only a week, and <strong>at</strong> least some<br />
of <strong>the</strong> time was prevented from going ashore due <strong>to</strong> bad<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her. Presumably, he also spent some of his time in supervisory<br />
activities onboard <strong>the</strong> ship.<br />
R<strong>at</strong>her than basing his account on personal observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and experience, Powell relied on inform<strong>at</strong>ion conveyed<br />
<strong>to</strong> him by o<strong>the</strong>rs, primarily Lieutenant Ray and Sergeant<br />
James Cassidy (Powell, 1988:lx). This had <strong>to</strong> have<br />
been presented <strong>to</strong> him in summary form r<strong>at</strong>her than in detail,<br />
and, as a result, his report contains some useful generaliz<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
For example: “There are leading men whose<br />
infl uence depends on <strong>the</strong>ir wealth and <strong>the</strong> number of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ives and friends, but no chiefs, hereditary or o<strong>the</strong>rwise.<br />
. .” (Powell, 1988:lxi). I have never seen <strong>the</strong> subject<br />
of Iñupiaq leadership characterized more accur<strong>at</strong>ely or<br />
succinctly than th<strong>at</strong>.<br />
JOHN E. MURDOCH<br />
This brings us <strong>to</strong> John E. Murdoch. A Harvard-trained<br />
n<strong>at</strong>uralist, Murdoch was one of <strong>the</strong> men involved in <strong>the</strong> tedious<br />
recording of magnetic and meteorological d<strong>at</strong>a. Accordingly,<br />
he was not inclined <strong>to</strong> go out as much as some<br />
of his colleagues. However, it is clear from comments sc<strong>at</strong>tered<br />
about in his various writings th<strong>at</strong> he was interested<br />
in and generally aware of wh<strong>at</strong> was going on in Utqiag˙ vik<br />
and <strong>the</strong> area around it. He became profi cient enough in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Iñupiaq language for people living on Nor<strong>to</strong>n Sound<br />
in western Alaska, <strong>to</strong> identify him l<strong>at</strong>er, on <strong>the</strong> basis of his<br />
speech, as someone coming from Point Barrow (Murdoch,<br />
1988:46). Unlike John Simpson in <strong>the</strong> 1850s, Murdoch<br />
never reached a level of linguistic profi ciency <strong>at</strong> which he<br />
could discuss abstract philosophical m<strong>at</strong>ters, but he unders<strong>to</strong>od<br />
enough <strong>to</strong> know th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eskimos had a raunchy<br />
sense of humor (Murdoch, 1988:419), and he could<br />
converse with <strong>the</strong>m about a variety of day-<strong>to</strong>-day m<strong>at</strong>ters<br />
(e.g., Murdoch, 1988:58, 79, 384, 412, 424, 432).<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> his o<strong>the</strong>r duties, Murdoch was put in<br />
charge of c<strong>at</strong>aloguing <strong>the</strong> numerous artifacts th<strong>at</strong> were
94 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH<br />
obtained from <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives through barter. He wrote <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>at</strong>alogue of ethnological specimens and <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
sections of <strong>the</strong> expedition’s fi nal report (1885a, 1885b), and<br />
he authored a major monograph (1988) and more than a<br />
dozen articles. The l<strong>at</strong>ter concerned such varied subjects as<br />
fi sh and fi shing (1884), seal hunting (1885d), sinew-backed<br />
bows (1885e), legends (1886), n<strong>at</strong>ive clothing and physique<br />
(1890a), counting and measuring (1890b), Iñupiaq knowledge<br />
of heavenly bodies (1890c), whale hunting (1891), and<br />
Iñupiaq knowledge of local wildlife (1898).<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
The primary objectives of IPY-1 were in <strong>the</strong> fi elds of<br />
physics and meteorology. Thus, as noted by Igor Krupnik<br />
(2009, this volume), 4 it is a curious fact th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
enduring products of <strong>the</strong> expedition <strong>to</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Alaska<br />
were its ethnographic collections and reports. Just why <strong>the</strong><br />
members of this expedition engaged in studies of human<br />
affairs <strong>at</strong> all is not immedi<strong>at</strong>ely clear. Of <strong>the</strong> main contribu<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
in this area, P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry Ray, was a military<br />
man and John Murdoch was a n<strong>at</strong>uralist, although both<br />
seem <strong>to</strong> have been intelligent and intellectually curious<br />
individuals. The answer <strong>to</strong> this question must lie in <strong>the</strong><br />
considerable involvement of Spencer F. Baird, head of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, in <strong>the</strong> expedition’s planning and<br />
staffi ng. Baird was a biologist with wide-ranging interests,<br />
he was an avid collec<strong>to</strong>r personally, and, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time, he<br />
was engaged in an ambitious program <strong>to</strong> build up <strong>the</strong> museum’s<br />
collections (Henson, nd). In 1879 he oversaw <strong>the</strong><br />
integr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of American Ethnology with <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>, and, “with strong support from Congress,<br />
[he] encouraged <strong>the</strong> ethnologists <strong>to</strong> also collect artifacts<br />
and pursue archaeological investig<strong>at</strong>ions” (Henson, nd).<br />
Thus, it seems reasonable <strong>to</strong> conclude th<strong>at</strong> Baird strongly<br />
encouraged/required <strong>the</strong> members of <strong>the</strong> expedition, particularly<br />
Murdoch, <strong>to</strong> conduct ethnological/ethnographic<br />
research and <strong>to</strong> bring wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y acquired back <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> museum.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> expedition was sent out with a set of specifi c<br />
ethnographic research objectives, however, no record of<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> it was has been discovered. We are thus forced <strong>to</strong><br />
surmise th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> various sections of Murdoch’s (1988)<br />
monograph refl ect a set of more or less ad hoc conceptual<br />
c<strong>at</strong>egories th<strong>at</strong> enabled him <strong>to</strong> organize in<strong>to</strong> a coherent<br />
account his own experiences and observ<strong>at</strong>ions, as well as<br />
those reported <strong>to</strong> him by his colleagues.<br />
Nearly all pieces of <strong>the</strong> artifact collection were obtained<br />
through barter, with “<strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ives bringing <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
weapons, clothing and o<strong>the</strong>r objects <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion for<br />
sale” (Murdoch, 1988:19). Since Murdoch was <strong>the</strong> person<br />
charged with recording <strong>the</strong>se items, this gave him “especially<br />
favorable opportunities for becoming acquainted<br />
with <strong>the</strong> ethnography of <strong>the</strong> region” (Murdoch, 1988:19),<br />
even though he was not able <strong>to</strong> leave <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion nearly as<br />
often as some of his colleagues.<br />
Murdoch apparently hoped <strong>to</strong> do more than just collect<br />
artifacts. The following passage expresses his frustr<strong>at</strong>ion:<br />
It was exceedingly diffi cult <strong>to</strong> get any idea of <strong>the</strong> religious<br />
belief of <strong>the</strong> people, partly from our inability <strong>to</strong> make ourselves<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od in regard <strong>to</strong> abstract ideas and partly from ignorance<br />
on our part of <strong>the</strong> proper method of conducting such inquiries.<br />
For instance, in trying <strong>to</strong> get <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir ideas of a future life, we<br />
could only ask “where does a man go when he dies?” <strong>to</strong> which<br />
we, of course, received <strong>the</strong> obvious answer, “<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cemetery!”<br />
(Murdoch, 1988:430)<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r passage elabor<strong>at</strong>es:<br />
Occupied as our party was with <strong>the</strong> manifold routine scientifi<br />
c work of <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion, it was exceedingly diffi cult <strong>to</strong> get hold<br />
of any of <strong>the</strong> traditions of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives, though <strong>the</strong>y showed no<br />
unwillingness, from superstitious or o<strong>the</strong>r reasons, <strong>to</strong> talk freely<br />
about <strong>the</strong>m. In <strong>the</strong> fi rst place <strong>the</strong>re were so many (<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eskimos)<br />
more interesting things <strong>to</strong> talk about with us th<strong>at</strong> it was diffi cult<br />
<strong>to</strong> bring <strong>the</strong> convers<strong>at</strong>ion round <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject in question. Then<br />
our lack of familiarity with <strong>the</strong> language was a gre<strong>at</strong> hindrance<br />
<strong>to</strong> obtaining a connected and accur<strong>at</strong>e version of any s<strong>to</strong>ry. The<br />
jargon, or kind of lingua franca, made up of Eskimo roots and “pigeon<br />
English” grammar, which served well enough for every-day<br />
intercourse with <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives, enabled us, with <strong>the</strong> help of expressive<br />
gestures, <strong>to</strong> get <strong>the</strong> general sense of <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>ry, but rendered it<br />
impossible <strong>to</strong> write down an Eskimo text of <strong>the</strong> tale which could<br />
afterwards be transl<strong>at</strong>ed. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> confusion and diffi culty<br />
was still fur<strong>the</strong>r increased by <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> two or three people generally<br />
under<strong>to</strong>ok <strong>to</strong> tell <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>at</strong> once. (Murdoch, 1886:594)<br />
The above fac<strong>to</strong>rs resulted in <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> main<br />
ethnographic contribution of <strong>the</strong> IPY expedition lay in its<br />
collection of m<strong>at</strong>erial objects, not in accounts of N<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
social organiz<strong>at</strong>ion, his<strong>to</strong>ry, philosophy, or worldview.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter areas, John Simpson’s (1855; 1875) report<br />
remains <strong>the</strong> best single source, although <strong>the</strong>re are many<br />
bits and pieces of new and upd<strong>at</strong>ed, inform<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong><br />
IPY documents. However, <strong>the</strong> IPY collection of artifacts<br />
was signifi cant, <strong>the</strong> largest ever acquired in Arctic Alaska.<br />
Murdoch’s massive volume, fi rst published in 1892, is a<br />
superb adjunct <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> collection itself because it provides<br />
excellent illustr<strong>at</strong>ions and descriptions of <strong>the</strong> objects and
tells how many of <strong>the</strong>m were made. It also compares items<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Barrow collection with similar artifacts acquired in<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong> north by o<strong>the</strong>r expeditions.<br />
One important contribution <strong>the</strong> IPY reports in general<br />
made was <strong>to</strong> provide evidence of changes th<strong>at</strong> had occurred<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Barrow people’s way of life during <strong>the</strong> 30 years since<br />
<strong>the</strong> Franklin Search Expedition. Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most striking<br />
difference was demographic. In 1853, <strong>the</strong> combined popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of Nuvuk and Utqiag˙ vik had been about 540; 30<br />
years l<strong>at</strong>er, it was less than 300 (Ray, 1988c:xcix).<br />
The intervening years had seen <strong>the</strong> arrival of American<br />
whaling ships and trading vessels in Arctic Alaskan w<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong>se ships s<strong>to</strong>pped briefl y <strong>at</strong> one or both of <strong>the</strong><br />
Barrow villages almost every year after <strong>the</strong> Franklin Search<br />
Expedition left. The Americans brought fi rearms, ammunition,<br />
whisky, and epidemic diseases <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives. They<br />
also killed a substantial number of <strong>the</strong> bowhead whales, on<br />
which <strong>the</strong> coastal n<strong>at</strong>ive economy was based.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r changes resulted from <strong>the</strong> use of fi rearms in hunting.<br />
Previously, seal hunters had fi rst <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>to</strong><br />
a seal with a harpoon and a line, and only <strong>the</strong>n killed <strong>the</strong><br />
animal. With fi rearms, <strong>the</strong>y killed <strong>the</strong> seal <strong>at</strong> a distance, <strong>the</strong>n<br />
tried <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tach a line <strong>to</strong> it for retrieval (Murdoch, 1885c).<br />
Whereas before <strong>the</strong>y rarely lost a seal th<strong>at</strong> had been struck,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y now lost a signifi cant number, particularly in spring.<br />
Caribou hunting was also transformed. In <strong>the</strong> 1850s,<br />
Barrow hunters killed caribou in winter by digging pitfalls<br />
in <strong>the</strong> snow and killing <strong>the</strong> animals th<strong>at</strong> fell in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Since <strong>the</strong> snow was not deep enough in <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>to</strong> permit<br />
this, <strong>the</strong>y did not hunt caribou <strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> time of year.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> 1880s, <strong>the</strong>y could kill caribou <strong>at</strong> a distance with<br />
fi rearms, so <strong>the</strong>y could hunt <strong>the</strong>m in both fall and winter.<br />
This nearly doubled <strong>the</strong> hunting pressure on this particular<br />
resource.<br />
POST-IPY RESEARCH<br />
The IPY expedition <strong>to</strong>ok place <strong>at</strong> a time when n<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
life in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district was beginning <strong>to</strong> come in<strong>to</strong> increasing<br />
contact with members of <strong>the</strong> U. S. Revenue Marine<br />
and with an assortment of adventurers, explorers, and<br />
traders. Some of <strong>the</strong> individuals involved wrote inform<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
descriptions of n<strong>at</strong>ive life in <strong>the</strong> region. However, none<br />
of <strong>the</strong>m conducted system<strong>at</strong>ic research and none of <strong>the</strong>m<br />
made any effort <strong>to</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong>ir observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> those of <strong>the</strong><br />
earlier IPY or Franklin Search reports (of which <strong>the</strong>y probably<br />
were unaware.) This situ<strong>at</strong>ion did not change until<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1950s, when some more serious investig<strong>at</strong>ions were<br />
undertaken. The major people involved in this subsequent<br />
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ALASKAN ETHNOGRAPHY 95<br />
work were Robert F. Spencer, Joseph Sonnenfeld, and Barbara<br />
Bodenhorn.<br />
ROBERT F. SPENCER<br />
The fi rst researcher <strong>to</strong> build on <strong>the</strong> work of <strong>the</strong><br />
nineteenth-century investig<strong>at</strong>ors was Robert F. Spencer. 5<br />
Spencer did his research in Barrow in <strong>the</strong> early 1950s, publishing<br />
his fi ndings in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1950s, and for many years<br />
afterwards (e.g., 1959, 1967– 1968, 1968, 1972, 1984).<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e d<strong>at</strong>e of his fi eld studies, <strong>the</strong> emphasis in<br />
his writing was on <strong>the</strong> “traditional” way of life, with <strong>the</strong><br />
timeframe being left unspecifi ed. Careful examin<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
both his public<strong>at</strong>ions and his fi eld notes indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
situ<strong>at</strong>ion he wrote about was wh<strong>at</strong> his informants experienced<br />
as children, in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1880s and 1890s ( Bodenhorn,<br />
1989:24 n. 19). It certainly was not wh<strong>at</strong> J. Simpson and<br />
Maguire described for <strong>the</strong> early 1850s. Thus, even though<br />
Spencer did his research some seven decades after <strong>the</strong> IPY<br />
expedition left <strong>the</strong> fi eld, it is almost as though he did it just<br />
a few years l<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Spencer fi lled in two major gaps left by his predecessors.<br />
First, he paid almost as much <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> Iñupi<strong>at</strong><br />
living inland as he did <strong>to</strong> those living along <strong>the</strong> coast<br />
(1959:3– 4, 132– 139). It seems hard <strong>to</strong> believe in retrospect,<br />
but until Spencer’s book appeared, most anthropologists<br />
believed th<strong>at</strong> Eskimos were primarily or even<br />
exclusively a coastal people. In fact, as Spencer (1959:21)<br />
pointed out, in <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century, inlanders outnumbered<br />
coast dwellers in Arctic Alaska by a r<strong>at</strong>io of about<br />
three <strong>to</strong> one. He <strong>the</strong>n went on <strong>to</strong> describe (1959:62– 97)<br />
in some detail <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ions between <strong>the</strong> residents<br />
of <strong>the</strong> two ecological zones, showing how <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
linked in<strong>to</strong> a larger regional system.<br />
Spencer’s second main contribution was <strong>to</strong> give <strong>the</strong><br />
Iñupiaq family system <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tention it deserves (1959:62–<br />
96; 1967– 68; 1968). Again, it seems hard <strong>to</strong> believe in<br />
retrospect, given <strong>the</strong> importance of families in Iñupiaq societies,<br />
but system<strong>at</strong>ic studies of Eskimo family life were<br />
all but nonexistent <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time Spencer did his research.<br />
Spencer changed all th<strong>at</strong>, and <strong>the</strong> decades following public<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of his major monograph witnessed an outpouring<br />
of kinship studies in Eskimo settlements all across <strong>the</strong><br />
North American Arctic (Burch, 1979:72).<br />
JOSEPH SONNENFELD<br />
Joseph Sonnenfeld is a geographer who did research<br />
in Barrow for four months in 1954, <strong>the</strong> year after Spencer<br />
left. He apparently did not know of Spencer’s work
96 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH<br />
<strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> time, and when he completed his Ph.D. <strong>the</strong>sis in<br />
1957, he was acquainted only with Spencer’s report <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> granting agency. As a result, he recapitul<strong>at</strong>ed some of<br />
Spencer’s reconstructive work. However, he was oriented<br />
much more <strong>to</strong> contemporary events than Spencer was.<br />
Thus, without really being aware of <strong>the</strong> fact, he brought<br />
<strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of Barrow Iñupiaq life forward from<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong><br />
twentieth.<br />
Being a geographer, Sonnenfeld was interested primarily<br />
in ecological and economic m<strong>at</strong>ters. With reference <strong>to</strong> those<br />
subject areas, his Ph.D. <strong>the</strong>sis (1957) was wide ranging and<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ive. Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, it was never published. As far<br />
as I am aware, Sonnenfeld published only two articles on<br />
his work in Barrow, one (1959) on <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of domestic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
reindeer herds in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r (1960)<br />
on changes in Eskimo hunting technology.<br />
BARBARA BODENHORN<br />
Barbara Bodenhorn is a social anthropologist who began<br />
her research in Barrow in 1980 and who continued it<br />
for many years subsequently. More than any of her predecessors,<br />
Bodenhorn tried <strong>to</strong> learn how <strong>the</strong> community<br />
worked as a social system, and she spent enough time in<br />
it <strong>to</strong> fi nd out. Her work focused on families, <strong>the</strong> interrel<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
between and among families, and <strong>the</strong> role of families<br />
in <strong>the</strong> overall economy. She has written extensively on<br />
<strong>the</strong>se and rel<strong>at</strong>ed subjects (e.g., 1989, 1990, 1993, 1997,<br />
2000, 2001).<br />
Bodenhorn’s work is only <strong>the</strong> most recent effort in<br />
more than a century and a half of ethnographic research<br />
in Barrow. No o<strong>the</strong>r Arctic community has been so thoroughly<br />
studied over so long a time. Viewed from this broad<br />
perspective, although <strong>the</strong>ir artifact collection remains unequaled,<br />
<strong>the</strong> ethnographic work of John Murdoch, P<strong>at</strong>rick<br />
Henry Ray, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r IPY expedition members constitutes<br />
just one link in a long chain of empirical investig<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
The “chain” as a whole should now become <strong>the</strong><br />
center of someone’s <strong>at</strong>tention: Where else in <strong>the</strong> Arctic can<br />
one fi nd so much good inform<strong>at</strong>ion on social change in<br />
one community over so long a time?<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
In conclusion, I wish <strong>to</strong> address briefl y <strong>the</strong> issue of<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> scientifi c value <strong>the</strong>re might be in gaining knowledge<br />
of nineteenth-century n<strong>at</strong>ive life in Barrow. The answer<br />
lies in <strong>the</strong> value of n<strong>at</strong>ural experiments.<br />
Social scientists can experiment with small numbers<br />
of people in highly restricted settings, but <strong>the</strong>re is no way<br />
th<strong>at</strong> we can experiment with entire societies, certainly not<br />
on any kind of ethical basis. The only way we can develop<br />
a broad understanding of how human social systems oper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
is by observing people going about <strong>the</strong>ir lives in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own ways without any interference from a researcher. This<br />
is wh<strong>at</strong> is “n<strong>at</strong>ural” about <strong>the</strong> method. The gre<strong>at</strong>er <strong>the</strong><br />
diversity of <strong>the</strong> social systems th<strong>at</strong> can be studied in this<br />
way, <strong>the</strong> more “experimental” <strong>the</strong> approach becomes, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> more powerful any resulting <strong>the</strong>ories about <strong>the</strong> structure<br />
of human social systems are likely <strong>to</strong> be.<br />
Arctic peoples in general, and Eskimos in particular,<br />
are important in this regard because <strong>the</strong>y lived in such extreme<br />
environments. In <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century, <strong>the</strong> way of<br />
life of <strong>the</strong> Eskimos in <strong>the</strong> Barrow district s<strong>to</strong>od in marked<br />
contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> previously recorded ways Eskimos lived in<br />
<strong>the</strong> eastern North American Arctic. This inform<strong>at</strong>ion expands<br />
our knowledge of <strong>the</strong> range of vari<strong>at</strong>ion of Arctic<br />
social systems and, by extension, of human social systems<br />
in general. In order <strong>to</strong> be scientifi cally signifi cant, though,<br />
<strong>the</strong> research on <strong>the</strong> societies in a sample of societies must<br />
be conducted in terms of a common conceptual and <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />
framework so th<strong>at</strong> a system<strong>at</strong>ic compar<strong>at</strong>ive analysis<br />
can be subsequently carried out. The Franklin Search<br />
and IPY-1 reports are fairly close <strong>to</strong> meeting th<strong>at</strong> requirement,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>y are only a fi rst step. Fortun<strong>at</strong>ely, <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>the</strong>y contain is good enough and complete enough<br />
for future researchers <strong>to</strong> adapt for th<strong>at</strong> purpose. 6<br />
NOTES<br />
1. I thank John Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce and Igor Krupnik for inform<strong>at</strong>ion and/or<br />
advice given during <strong>the</strong> prepar<strong>at</strong>ion of this article.<br />
2. Most of <strong>the</strong> expedition’s reports, originally published in <strong>the</strong><br />
nineteenth century, were reprinted in 1988 by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press. While both <strong>the</strong> earlier and l<strong>at</strong>er versions are listed here in <strong>the</strong><br />
References, only <strong>the</strong> 1988 versions are cited in <strong>the</strong> text.<br />
3. I have not seen this article myself, but I thought its existence<br />
should be recorded here.<br />
4. Krupnik, this volume.<br />
5. My knowledge of Spencer’s work was enhanced under a grant<br />
from <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion, Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs (OPP-<br />
90817922). I am gr<strong>at</strong>eful <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> organiz<strong>at</strong>ion for its support, and <strong>to</strong><br />
Marietta Spencer for giving me her l<strong>at</strong>e husband’s Barrow fi eld notes.<br />
6. A compar<strong>at</strong>ive analysis of <strong>the</strong> meteorological d<strong>at</strong>a acquired in<br />
IPY-1 was not carried out until recently (Wood and Overland, 2006).<br />
Thus, one of <strong>the</strong> primary objectives of <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY was not achieved until<br />
nearly a century and a quarter after <strong>the</strong> raw d<strong>at</strong>a were collected.
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23, 1882. Records of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Expedition <strong>to</strong> Point
98 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / BURCH<br />
Barrow, Alaska. RG 27.4.6, box 5: copies of letters sent, pp. 11– 12.<br />
U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives II, College Park, Maryland.<br />
———. 1882c. Letter, Ray <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chief Signal Offi ce, from Barrow, August<br />
13, 1882. Records of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Expedition <strong>to</strong><br />
Point Barrow, Alaska. RG 27.4.6, box 5: copies of letters sent. U.S.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Archives II, College Park, Maryland.<br />
———. 1988a. “Work <strong>at</strong> Point Barrow, Alaska, from September 16,<br />
1881, <strong>to</strong> August 25, 1882.” In Ethnological Results of <strong>the</strong> Point<br />
Barrow Expedition, pp. l– liv. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Classics of Anthropology<br />
Series reprint, No. 6. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press.<br />
———. 1988b. “Narr<strong>at</strong>ive.” In Ethnological results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow<br />
expedition, pp. lxix– lxxxvi. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Classics of Anthropology<br />
Series reprint, No. 6. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press.<br />
———. 1988c. “Ethnographic Sketch of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives of Point Barrow.”<br />
In Ethnological results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow expedition, pp. lxxxvii–<br />
cv. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Classics of Anthropology Series reprint, No. 6.<br />
Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Press.<br />
Seemann, Berthold Carl. 1853. Narr<strong>at</strong>ive of <strong>the</strong> Voyage of H.M.S. Herald<br />
during <strong>the</strong> Years 1845– 51 in Search of Sir John Franklin. 2 vols. London:<br />
Reeve and Company.<br />
Simpson, John. 1852– 1854. Point Barrow Journal, 1852– 1854. John<br />
Simpson Papers, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections<br />
Library, Box 5: Accounts of voyages. Oversized. Duke University,<br />
Durham, North Carolina.<br />
———. 1855. Observ<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> Western Esquimaux and <strong>the</strong> Country<br />
They Inhabit; From Notes Taken During Two Years <strong>at</strong> Point Barrow,<br />
by Mr. John Simpson, Surgeon, R.N, Her Majesty’s Discovery Ship<br />
“Plover.” Gre<strong>at</strong> Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. Sessional<br />
Papers, Accounts and Papers 1854– 55 35, no. 1898: 917– 942.<br />
———. 1875. Observ<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> Western Eskimo and <strong>the</strong> Country<br />
They Inhabit. In A Selection of Papers on Arctic Geography and<br />
Ethnology, Reprinted and Presented <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Expedition of<br />
1875, pp. 233– 275. (Reprint of 1855 report.) London: Royal Geographical<br />
Society.<br />
Simpson, Thomas. 1839. Arctic Discovery. Nautical Magazine, 8: 564–<br />
565.<br />
———. 1843. Narr<strong>at</strong>ive of <strong>the</strong> Discoveries on <strong>the</strong> North Coast of America:<br />
Effected by <strong>the</strong> Offi cers of <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay Company during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Years 1836– 39. London: R. Bentley.<br />
Smith, Middle<strong>to</strong>n. 1902. “Superstitions of <strong>the</strong> Eskimo.” In The White<br />
World, ed. Rudolph Kersting, pp. 113– 130. New York: Lewis,<br />
Scribner, and Co.<br />
Sonnenfeld, Joseph. 1957. Changes in Subsistence among <strong>the</strong> Barrow Eskimo.<br />
Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.<br />
———. 1959. An Arctic Reindeer Industry: Growth and Decline. The<br />
Geographical Review, 59(1): 76– 94.<br />
———. 1960. Changes in an Eskimo Hunting Technology: An Introduction<br />
<strong>to</strong> Implement Geography. Annals of <strong>the</strong> Associ<strong>at</strong>ion of American<br />
Geographers, 50(2): 172– 186.<br />
Spencer, R. F. 1959. The North Alaskan Eskimo: A Study in Ecology and<br />
Society. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 171. Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution Press.<br />
———. 1967– 1968. Die organiz<strong>at</strong>ion der Ehe under den Eskimos Nordalaskas.<br />
Wiener Vu¸lkerkundliche Mitteilungen, ns 9/10: 13– 31.<br />
———. 1968. “Spouse Exchange among <strong>the</strong> North Alaskan Eskimo.” In<br />
Marriage, Family, and Residence, ed. Paul Bohannan and J. Middle<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
pp. 131– 146. New York: N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry Press.<br />
———. 1972. “The Social Composition of <strong>the</strong> North Alaskan Whaling<br />
Crew.” In Alliance in Eskimo Society: Proceedings of <strong>the</strong> American<br />
Ethnological Society, 1971, Supplement, ed. Lee Guemple, pp. 110–<br />
131. Se<strong>at</strong>tle: University of Washing<strong>to</strong>n Press.<br />
———. 1984. “North Alaskan Coast Eskimo.” In Handbook of North<br />
American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Volume 5: Arctic, ed.<br />
David Damas, pp. 320– 327. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Press.<br />
VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, James W., ed. 1977. A. F. Kashevarov’s Coastal Explor<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in Northwest Alaska, 1838. Trans. David H. Kraus. Fieldiana: Anthropology,<br />
69.<br />
Wood, Kevin R., and James E. Overland. 2006. Clim<strong>at</strong>e Lessons from<br />
<strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year. Bulletin of <strong>the</strong> American Meteorological<br />
Society, 87(12): 1685– 1697.
The Art of Iñupiaq Whaling: Elders’<br />
Interpret<strong>at</strong>ions of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year Ethnological Collections<br />
Aron L. Crowell<br />
Aron L. Crowell, Alaska Direc<strong>to</strong>r, Arctic Studies<br />
Center, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, 121 W. 7th Avenue,<br />
Anchorage, AK 99501, USA (crowella@si.edu).<br />
Accepted 9 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. In <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean, a 2,000- year tradition of<br />
Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive bowhead whaling continues <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> present day as a focus of both subsistence<br />
and cultural identity. In cooper<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Iñupiaq<br />
Eskimo elders are interpreting <strong>the</strong> cultural and spiritual dimensions of whaling artifacts<br />
collected during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e nineteenth century, including m<strong>at</strong>erial g<strong>at</strong>hered by <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Expedition <strong>to</strong> Point Barrow, Alaska (1881– 1883). These artistic objects—<br />
hunting and bo<strong>at</strong> equipment, regalia for whaling ceremonies, and charms owned by<br />
whale bo<strong>at</strong> captains (umialgich)— were acquired during decades of rapid cultural change<br />
brought about by interaction with New England whalers, traders, and Presbyterian missionaries.<br />
None<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> social values and spiritual concepts th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y express have<br />
survived and are carried forward in contemporary whaling. Current research and exhibitions<br />
benefi t from both Iñupiaq expertise and a rich ethnohis<strong>to</strong>rical liter<strong>at</strong>ure from<br />
Barrow and o<strong>the</strong>r nor<strong>the</strong>rn communities.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean, a 2,000-year tradition of<br />
Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive whaling continues <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> present day (Brewster, 2004; Freeman et<br />
al., 1998; McCartney, 1995, 2003). The spring bowhead hunt in particular— and<br />
<strong>the</strong> prepar<strong>at</strong>ions and celebr<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> surround it— are a focus of cultural identity<br />
and survival (Worl, 1980). There are eight contemporary Iñupiaq whaling<br />
villages: Nuiqsut, Barrow, Wainwright, Point Hope, Kivalina, Kak<strong>to</strong>vik, Wales,<br />
and Little Diomede. Two Yupik whaling communities, Gambell and Savoonga,<br />
are loc<strong>at</strong>ed on St. Lawrence Island.<br />
In cooper<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies Center (Department of Anthropology,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution), Iñupiaq<br />
Eskimo community members are reexamining this ancient hunting heritage<br />
through <strong>the</strong> study of traditional whaling equipment in <strong>the</strong> collections of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. This project is in part a legacy of <strong>the</strong> fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year. During <strong>the</strong> U.S. government– sponsored Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Expedition<br />
<strong>to</strong> Point Barrow, Alaska (1881– 1883), commander Lt. P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry<br />
Ray and n<strong>at</strong>uralist John Murdoch purchased more than 1,100 items from local<br />
Iñupiaq residents including a wide variety of clothing, <strong>to</strong>ols, and hunting
100 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
weapons (cf. Burch, 2009, this volume; Fitzhugh, 1988;<br />
cf. Krupnik, 2009, this volume; Murdoch, 1892; Ray,<br />
1885). Of special signifi cance for <strong>the</strong> present discussion<br />
is a group of about 40 objects rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> bowhead whaling<br />
and whaling ceremonies. In 2002, a group of cultural<br />
advisors from Barrow— Ronald Brower Sr., Jane Brower,<br />
Kenneth Toovak, and Doreen Simmonds— visited Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
D.C., <strong>to</strong> examine some of <strong>the</strong> Murdoch– Ray<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials, as well as o<strong>the</strong>r collections <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry (NMNH) and N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of <strong>the</strong> American Indian (NMAI) (Figure 1). The l<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
include objects from Barrow, Point Hope, Little Diomede,<br />
and Wales th<strong>at</strong> were acquired in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e nineteenth<br />
century by Edward W. Nelson, Miner Bruce, George T.<br />
Emmons, J. Henry Turner, H. Richmond Marsh, and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs. Additional contributions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> indigenous document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se collections were made by Barrow elder<br />
and transl<strong>at</strong>or Martha Aiken, as well as Nor<strong>to</strong>n Sound<br />
region advisors Jacob Ahwinona (White Mountain) and<br />
Marie Saclamana (King Island/Nome).<br />
This project is one focus of <strong>the</strong> Arctic Studies Center’s<br />
Sharing Knowledge program, which seeks <strong>to</strong> document indigenous<br />
oral his<strong>to</strong>ries and contemporary knowledge about<br />
objects in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Alaskan collections (Crowell<br />
and Oozevaseuk, 2006). Outcomes include <strong>the</strong> Sharing<br />
Knowledge website (http://alaska.si.edu) and a large collabor<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
exhibition on Alaska N<strong>at</strong>ive cultures th<strong>at</strong> will<br />
open <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Anchorage Museum in 2010. In cooper<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with <strong>the</strong> University of Alaska, Fairbanks, <strong>the</strong> Iñupi<strong>at</strong> Heritage<br />
Center in Barrow produced its own community-based<br />
exhibition in 2005, The People of Whaling (http://www.uaf<br />
.edu/museum/exhibit/galleries/whaling/ index.html). Its title<br />
places whaling <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> core of cultural identity, underlined<br />
by <strong>the</strong> exhibition’s <strong>the</strong>me st<strong>at</strong>ement, which reads, “Whaling<br />
is central <strong>to</strong> our lives. We continue <strong>to</strong> teach our youth<br />
<strong>to</strong> show respect for <strong>the</strong> whale and <strong>to</strong> share <strong>the</strong> harvest with<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole community.”<br />
CONTACT AND CHANGE<br />
IN IÑUPIAQ WHALING<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections were acquired during decades<br />
of rapid cultural change. The American commercial<br />
whaling fl eet came <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea in 1848 and <strong>the</strong> Barrow<br />
area in 1854 (Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce, 1986). During <strong>the</strong> 1880s,<br />
FIGURE 1. Left <strong>to</strong> right: Kenneth Toovak, Jane Brower, and Ron Brower Sr. <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian, 2002. (Pho<strong>to</strong><br />
by Aron Crowell)
<strong>the</strong> whaling industry shifted its focus <strong>to</strong> shore-based oper<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> employed many Iñupiaq residents and gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
increased <strong>the</strong> direct infl uences of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive culture and<br />
economy (Cassel, 2003). Although <strong>the</strong> fi rst shore st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> Barrow was established in 1884, <strong>the</strong> year after <strong>the</strong><br />
Point Barrow expedition ended, Murdoch noted th<strong>at</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
whalers had already acquired breech-loading guns for<br />
hunting caribou and “plenty of <strong>the</strong> most improved modern<br />
whaling gear” through <strong>the</strong>ir contacts with <strong>the</strong> commercial<br />
fl eet (1892:53). The new weapons were bomb-loaded<br />
harpoons (called “darting guns”) and shoulder guns th<strong>at</strong><br />
rapidly replaced traditional s<strong>to</strong>ne-tipped harpoons and<br />
lances. Local residents were also “now rich in iron, civilized<br />
<strong>to</strong>ols, canvas, and wreck wood, and in this respect<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir condition is improved” (Murdoch, 1892:53). In o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 101<br />
ways, Murdoch observed, <strong>the</strong> community was in decline<br />
through <strong>the</strong> “unmitig<strong>at</strong>ed evil” of <strong>the</strong> alcohol trade, social<br />
disruption caused by <strong>the</strong> American sailors, and <strong>the</strong> effects<br />
of introduced diseases. Indigenous popul<strong>at</strong>ion losses from<br />
infl uenza and o<strong>the</strong>r epidemics were severe, and food shortages<br />
came about as caribou dwindled and whaling companies<br />
depleted whale and walrus herds. Iñupiaq willingness<br />
<strong>to</strong> sell or barter traditional items of m<strong>at</strong>erial culture <strong>to</strong><br />
collec<strong>to</strong>rs may have been rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>se transform<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in culture and living conditions (Fitzhugh, 1988).<br />
Beginning in 1890, Presbyterian missionaries actively<br />
sought <strong>to</strong> suppress shamanism, whaling rituals, and hunting<br />
ceremonies, along with <strong>the</strong> spiritual concepts th<strong>at</strong><br />
underlay <strong>the</strong>se practices (Figure 2). Iñupiaq qargit, or ceremonial<br />
houses, closed down under missionary pressure,<br />
FIGURE 2. Men dancing in a qargi (ceremonial house) <strong>at</strong> Wales before <strong>the</strong> whale hunt, 1901. (Pho<strong>to</strong>graph by Suzanne R. Bernardi, Anchorage<br />
Museum archives B96.9.06)
102 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
ending <strong>the</strong> ceremonies th<strong>at</strong> had taken place inside (Larson,<br />
1995). The last Iñupiaq qargi <strong>at</strong> Point Hope became inactive<br />
in 1910, although social distinctions based on family<br />
membership in <strong>the</strong> former ceremonial houses continued<br />
<strong>to</strong> be important (Larson, 2003; VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, 1962; Burch,<br />
1981). Iñupiaq whaling captains, or umialgich, retained<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir pivotal social and economic roles, as did <strong>the</strong>ir wives<br />
(Bodenhorn, 1990), but <strong>the</strong> once-extensive spiritual duties<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se positions declined.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> effects of Western contact, substantial continuities<br />
are evident between arctic whaling communities<br />
of <strong>the</strong> past and present (Anungazuk, 2003; Braund and<br />
Moorehead, 1995). The bowhead harvest is substantial,<br />
with a current allotment from <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Whaling<br />
Commission (IWC) of 56 landed whales per year, <strong>to</strong> be<br />
divided among <strong>the</strong> 10 Alaskan villages. The IWC quota<br />
is based on his<strong>to</strong>ric per capita averages of <strong>the</strong> subsistence<br />
harvest between 1910 and 1969 (Braund and Associ<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
2007). Whaling captains and <strong>the</strong>ir kin-based crews and<br />
wives work throughout <strong>the</strong> year <strong>to</strong> prepare for whaling,<br />
carry out <strong>the</strong> hunt, process <strong>the</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch, and distribute <strong>the</strong><br />
me<strong>at</strong> and blubber. Whaling bo<strong>at</strong>s with hand-built wooden<br />
frames and skin covers are still employed in some of <strong>the</strong> villages,<br />
including Barrow. The Whale Festival or Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq<br />
has survived and <strong>the</strong> Messenger Feast has been revived in<br />
modern form. Spiritual conceptions of whaling also persist.<br />
Ronald Brower Sr. said,<br />
Whalers respect <strong>the</strong>ir prey very highly . . . Whaling is a very<br />
important part of our life. In many ways, it’s part of our sacred<br />
beliefs. Everything th<strong>at</strong> we’re doing in a year is dealing with<br />
whaling— some form of prepar<strong>at</strong>ion, celebr<strong>at</strong>ion, rites and rituals<br />
of whaling. 1<br />
Elders’ commentaries in Washing<strong>to</strong>n provide insight<br />
in<strong>to</strong> connections between modern and traditional whaling,<br />
including <strong>the</strong> deep-se<strong>at</strong>ed cultural view th<strong>at</strong> whales<br />
are sentient beings th<strong>at</strong> respond <strong>to</strong> human ritual and respect<br />
by giving <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>to</strong> feed <strong>the</strong> community.<br />
THE ANNUAL CYCLE OF IÑUPIAQ<br />
WHALING: PAST AND PRESENT<br />
Sources on l<strong>at</strong>e-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century<br />
Iñupiaq whaling include primary observ<strong>at</strong>ions (Murdoch,<br />
1892; Nelson, 1899; Ostermann and Holtved, 1952; Ray,<br />
1885; Simpson, 1875; Stefánson 1919; Thorn<strong>to</strong>n, 1931),<br />
l<strong>at</strong>er anthropological and ethnohis<strong>to</strong>rical reconstructions<br />
(Curtis, 1930; Rainey, 1947; Spencer, 1959; VanS<strong>to</strong>ne,<br />
1962), and retrospective oral his<strong>to</strong>ry and life s<strong>to</strong>ries (Brewster,<br />
2004; Pulu et al., 1980). Most available inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
pertains <strong>to</strong> Barrow, Point Hope, and Wales. A brief synopsis<br />
of this diverse m<strong>at</strong>erial, with comparisons <strong>to</strong> contemporary<br />
practices, is offered here as a found<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
discussions with elders.<br />
PREPARATIONS FOR WHALING<br />
In <strong>the</strong> traditional whaling p<strong>at</strong>tern, Iñupiaq crewmen<br />
worked through <strong>the</strong> winter and early spring in <strong>the</strong><br />
qargit (ceremonial houses) owned by <strong>the</strong>ir captains, preparing<br />
gear for <strong>the</strong> coming hunt. Everything— harpoons,<br />
lances, fl o<strong>at</strong>s, whalebo<strong>at</strong> (umiaq) frames— had <strong>to</strong> be newly<br />
made or scraped clean in <strong>the</strong> belief th<strong>at</strong> no whale would<br />
approach a crew with old or dirty gear (Curtis, 1930:138;<br />
Rainey, 1947: 257– 258; Spencer, 1959: 332– 336). The captain’s<br />
wife supervised <strong>the</strong> sewing of a new bearded seal<br />
or walrus hide cover for <strong>the</strong> umiaq; <strong>the</strong> women assigned<br />
<strong>to</strong> this task worked in an ice-block house adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
qargi. Women made new parkas and boots for <strong>the</strong> hunters.<br />
Ritual equipment was prepared for <strong>the</strong> whaling captain’s<br />
wife, including a wooden bucket with ivory ornaments<br />
and chains (Figure 3). The umialik (whaling captain) consulted<br />
with shamans and advisors, seeking ritual advice<br />
and portents of <strong>the</strong> season. He cleared out his ice cellar,<br />
distributing any me<strong>at</strong> from <strong>the</strong> previous year, <strong>to</strong> make way<br />
for <strong>the</strong> “parkas” or fl esh of new whales, which <strong>the</strong> whale<br />
spirits shed for human use (Rainey, 1947:259; Spencer,<br />
1959: 335– 336).<br />
White beluga whales are often <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>to</strong> be seen in<br />
<strong>the</strong> open w<strong>at</strong>er leads of early spring; <strong>at</strong> Wales, <strong>the</strong>se were<br />
considered <strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> bowheads’ scouts, sent ahead <strong>to</strong> see<br />
if <strong>the</strong> village was clean and ready (Curtis, 1930:152). The<br />
bowheads would soon follow, and it was time <strong>to</strong> clear a<br />
p<strong>at</strong>h for <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong>s across <strong>the</strong> sea ice <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er’s edge.<br />
Bo<strong>at</strong> captains retrieved whaling charms th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y had hidden<br />
in secret caches and caves (Spencer, 1959:338– 340).<br />
When charms were placed in <strong>the</strong> umiaq, it became a living<br />
being. At Wales, it was said th<strong>at</strong> on <strong>the</strong> night before<br />
<strong>the</strong> hunt, <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong>s walked out <strong>to</strong> sea using <strong>the</strong> posts of<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir racks as legs (Curtis, 1930:152). Before <strong>the</strong> umiaq<br />
was launched, <strong>the</strong> captain’s wife gave it a drink of w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
from her bucket (Rainey, 1947:257). She herself was identifi<br />
ed with <strong>the</strong> whale, and <strong>at</strong> Point Hope <strong>the</strong> harpooner<br />
pretended <strong>to</strong> spear her before <strong>the</strong> crew set out (Rainey,<br />
1947: 259).<br />
Women still sew new umiaq covers each season in <strong>the</strong><br />
Iñupiaq whaling communities, although <strong>the</strong> activity has<br />
moved <strong>to</strong> altern<strong>at</strong>ive loc<strong>at</strong>ions; <strong>at</strong> Barrow, it takes place
FIGURE 3. Umialik sitting bene<strong>at</strong>h whaling charms, including<br />
women’s pails with ivory chains, Wales, 1901. (Pho<strong>to</strong>graph by<br />
Suzanne R. Bernardi, Anchorage Museum archives B96.9.05)<br />
inside <strong>the</strong> Iñupi<strong>at</strong> Heritage Center. Clean, new gear and<br />
clothing are considered <strong>to</strong> be just as essential now as <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were in <strong>the</strong> past, <strong>to</strong> show respect for <strong>the</strong> whales (Brewster,<br />
2004; Bodenhorn, 1990). Ivory whale charms are carried<br />
onboard some umi<strong>at</strong>; in o<strong>the</strong>rs, <strong>the</strong> traditional image of a<br />
bowhead is carved on <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> steerer’s<br />
se<strong>at</strong> (see discussions below). Ice cellars are cleaned each<br />
spring, <strong>to</strong> make a welcoming home for <strong>the</strong> whales’ bodies.<br />
THE HUNT<br />
Traditionally, women could not sew during <strong>the</strong> hunt<br />
because <strong>the</strong> act of stitching or cutting might entangle or<br />
break <strong>the</strong> harpoon line. A whaling captain’s wife s<strong>at</strong> quietly<br />
in her house <strong>to</strong> mimic a docile whale th<strong>at</strong> would be easier<br />
<strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch. She would not s<strong>to</strong>op or go in<strong>to</strong> an underground<br />
me<strong>at</strong> cellar, acts th<strong>at</strong> could infl uence a wounded bowhead<br />
<strong>to</strong> go under <strong>the</strong> ice where it would be lost (Rainey, 1947:<br />
259; Spencer, 1959: 337– 338).<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 103<br />
As hunters approached a whale, <strong>the</strong> harpooner raised<br />
his weapon from an oarlock-shaped rest in <strong>the</strong> bow,<br />
thrusting it <strong>at</strong> close quarters in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> animal’s back. The<br />
whale dove with <strong>the</strong> harpoon head inside its body, dragging<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tached line and sealskin fl o<strong>at</strong>s. The harpooner<br />
refi tted his weapon with a new head, prepared <strong>to</strong> strike<br />
again when <strong>the</strong> whale resurfaced. O<strong>the</strong>r bo<strong>at</strong>s joined in<br />
<strong>the</strong> hunt. The whale eventually lay exhausted on <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
where it was killed with s<strong>to</strong>ne-tipped lances (Murdoch,<br />
1892: 275– 276; Rainey, 1947: 257– 259)<br />
The captain’s wife greeted <strong>the</strong> whale <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> edge of <strong>the</strong><br />
ice. Singing and speaking a welcome, she poured fresh w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
on its snout from her ceremonial bucket (Curtis, 1930:<br />
141; Osterman and Holtved, 1952:26; Spencer, 1969:<br />
345; Stefánsson, 1919:389). Yupik and Siberian whaling<br />
cultures shared this practice of quenching a whale’s<br />
assumed thirst for fresh w<strong>at</strong>er. Iñupi<strong>at</strong> traditionally gave<br />
all sea mammals <strong>the</strong>y killed a drink of fresh w<strong>at</strong>er, and<br />
all land animals a taste of seal or whale blubber (which<br />
was rubbed on <strong>the</strong>ir noses), in <strong>the</strong> belief th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
of land and sea craved <strong>the</strong>se substances th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
not available <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>m in life (Brower, 1943:16; Rainey,<br />
1947: 267; Spencer, 1969: 272; Stefánsson, 1919: 389; Van<br />
Valin, 1941: 199).<br />
The contemporary spring whale hunt follows much <strong>the</strong><br />
same course as in times past, with hunting crews camped<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice edge by <strong>the</strong> beginning of May ( Brewster, 2004:<br />
131– 163). Most crews use skin-covered umi<strong>at</strong> (propelled<br />
by paddles r<strong>at</strong>her than mo<strong>to</strong>rs during <strong>the</strong> hunt itself) <strong>to</strong><br />
approach whales because <strong>the</strong> traditional hulls are much<br />
quieter in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er than wood or metal skiffs. The harpooner<br />
with his darting gun and gunner with his shoulder<br />
gun ride in <strong>the</strong> bow, ready <strong>to</strong> strike with <strong>the</strong> aim of an<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>e kill. Technological innov<strong>at</strong>ions go beyond <strong>the</strong><br />
adoption of <strong>the</strong>se now antique weapons. Whalers use snow<br />
machines and sleds <strong>to</strong> pull <strong>the</strong>ir bo<strong>at</strong>s and gear <strong>to</strong> camp,<br />
as well as modern communic<strong>at</strong>ions equipment <strong>to</strong> enhance<br />
<strong>the</strong> logistics and safety of <strong>the</strong> hunt. They are aided by VHF<br />
radios, walkie-talkies, GPS units, s<strong>at</strong>ellite phones, and Internet<br />
forecasts of ice and we<strong>at</strong>her conditions. At Barrow<br />
in 1997, when shorefast ice broke away and set 142 whalers<br />
adrift in heavy snow and fog, helicopters were guided<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> rescue using GPS coordin<strong>at</strong>es transmitted by radio<br />
from <strong>the</strong> men on <strong>the</strong> ice (George et al., 2004).<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong> older hunting prescriptions and prohibitions<br />
are retained, while o<strong>the</strong>rs have faded. Today, as in<br />
<strong>the</strong> past, quiet is maintained in <strong>the</strong> whale camps because of<br />
<strong>the</strong> animals’ sensitive hearing. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, cooking<br />
food on <strong>the</strong> ice is common practice now but banned under<br />
traditional norms (Rainey, 1947:259; Spencer, 1959:337).
104 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
Captains’ wives try <strong>to</strong> remain peaceful and quiet <strong>to</strong> infl uence<br />
<strong>the</strong> whale’s decision <strong>to</strong> give itself (Bodenhorn, 1990).<br />
Although she may no longer provide <strong>the</strong> cus<strong>to</strong>mary drink<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whale, <strong>the</strong> captain’s wife and her husband<br />
act as “good hosts” <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> animal by sharing its me<strong>at</strong> with<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs during <strong>the</strong> Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq celebr<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>at</strong> Christmas<br />
and Thanksgiving.<br />
CEREMONIES AND CELEBRATIONS<br />
The principal Iñupiaq whaling ceremony, Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq,<br />
represents an unbroken tradition th<strong>at</strong> extends from pre-<br />
contact times <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> present (Brower, 1943: 61– 63; Curtis,<br />
1930: 135– 160; Larson, 2003; Murdoch, 1892: 272– 275;<br />
Spencer, 1969: 332– 353; Rainey, 1947:262). Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq<br />
follows <strong>the</strong> whaling season and is celebr<strong>at</strong>ed outdoors, so<br />
it was minimally affected by <strong>the</strong> decline of <strong>the</strong> ceremonial<br />
houses. Each successful umialik provides a feast of whale<br />
me<strong>at</strong> and maktak (skin and blubber) <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire village,<br />
an act th<strong>at</strong> brings gre<strong>at</strong> prestige. Whalebo<strong>at</strong>s tipped on<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir sides, with <strong>the</strong> fl ags of each crew fl ying, surround <strong>the</strong><br />
outdoor space. Feasting is followed by dancing, singing,<br />
and competitive games, including <strong>the</strong> “blanket <strong>to</strong>ss” th<strong>at</strong><br />
gives <strong>the</strong> festival its name. During Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq everyone receives<br />
new boots and parka covers.<br />
The Apugauti feast marks <strong>the</strong> last time a successful<br />
whaling captain brings his bo<strong>at</strong> back <strong>to</strong> shore <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end<br />
of <strong>the</strong> whaling season. It is a celebr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong>’s return.<br />
The captain raises his fl ag and everyone is invited <strong>to</strong><br />
e<strong>at</strong> mikigaq (fermented whale me<strong>at</strong>), whale <strong>to</strong>ngue, and<br />
maktak. Wild goose soup is also served.<br />
Kivgiq, <strong>the</strong> Messenger Feast, is a winter dance and<br />
gift– giving festival th<strong>at</strong> was once widespread across northwest<br />
Alaska and in <strong>the</strong> Yup’ik regions of Nor<strong>to</strong>n Sound, <strong>the</strong><br />
Yukon– Kuskokwim Delta, and Nunivak Island ( Bodfi sh,<br />
1991: 23– 24; Burch, 2005: 172– 180; Curtis, 1930: 146–<br />
147, 168– 177, 213– 214; Kings<strong>to</strong>n, 1999; Lantis, 1947:<br />
67– 73; Nelson, 1899: 361– 363; Oquilluk, 1973: 149– 150;<br />
Ostermann and Holtved, 1952: 103– 112; Spencer, 1957:<br />
210– 228). Iñupiaq Messenger Feasts ended in <strong>the</strong> early<br />
years of <strong>the</strong> twentieth century, but North Slope Borough<br />
Mayor George Ahmaogak Sr. helped <strong>to</strong> revive <strong>the</strong> event <strong>at</strong><br />
Barrow in 1988. Barrow’s biennial celebr<strong>at</strong>ion in February<br />
now brings visi<strong>to</strong>rs and dance groups from across Alaska,<br />
Russia, Canada, and Greenland.<br />
Before a traditional Messenger Feast, leading men of<br />
a village (usually <strong>the</strong> whaling captains) sent messengers<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> leaders of ano<strong>the</strong>r community <strong>to</strong> invite <strong>the</strong>m and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir rel<strong>at</strong>ives <strong>to</strong> fi ve days of ceremonies. At Utqiag˙ vik<br />
(Barrow), guests came <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> qargi <strong>to</strong> view <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> pile<br />
of gifts th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y would receive, including sealskins fi lled<br />
with oil, weapons, sleds, and kayaks. While not specifi -<br />
cally a whaling ceremony, Kivgiq was an expression of <strong>the</strong><br />
whaling-based coastal economy and of <strong>the</strong> social dominance<br />
of <strong>the</strong> umialgich.<br />
Before <strong>the</strong> disappearance of <strong>the</strong> ceremonial houses,<br />
fall and winter were a time for o<strong>the</strong>r whaling and hunting<br />
ceremonies. At Barrow <strong>the</strong> whaling season was followed<br />
by a feast and dance in <strong>the</strong> qargi, when men wore several<br />
types of masks. Few details were recorded or remembered<br />
about <strong>the</strong>se dances, <strong>at</strong> least <strong>at</strong> Barrow. Murdoch purchased<br />
a dozen masks th<strong>at</strong> were used in <strong>the</strong> qargi ceremonies,<br />
but had no opportunity <strong>to</strong> learn about <strong>the</strong>ir use. At<br />
Point Hope, hunting ceremonies were held each winter in<br />
<strong>the</strong> ceremonial houses until 1910 and elders’ descriptions<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se ceremonies were recorded by Froelich Rainey in<br />
1940 (Rainey, 1947). Figures of whales, seals, polar bears,<br />
caribou, walrus, and birds were carved, hung in <strong>the</strong> qargi,<br />
and fed as part of <strong>the</strong> ritual. A mask with inset ivory eyes<br />
was hung above <strong>the</strong> oil lamp and <strong>the</strong> whaling captains<br />
vied with each o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> steal it unobserved. It would be<br />
hidden in <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>to</strong>r’s cache and used in <strong>the</strong> spring as a<br />
whaling charm.<br />
SELECTED OBJECT DISCUSSIONS<br />
HARPOON REST (NAULIGAQAG˙VIK)<br />
Harpoon rests were fastened inside <strong>the</strong> bows of whaling<br />
bo<strong>at</strong>s, as a place for <strong>the</strong> harpooner <strong>to</strong> support his<br />
weapon (Murdoch, 1892: 341– 343; Nelson, 1899:226;<br />
Spencer, 1959: 342– 343). These implements are often decor<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with whale imagery and were probably regarded as<br />
hunting charms. At Wales in 1927, a wooden harpoon rest<br />
was found in one umialik’s old cache of whaling talismans<br />
(Curtis, 1930:138).<br />
A walrus ivory harpoon rest from <strong>the</strong> Murdoch– Ray<br />
collection (Figure 4) is etched with images of bowhead<br />
fl ukes and each prong depicts a whale’s head and fore<br />
body (Murdoch, 1892: fi g. 348). Ronald Brower Sr.<br />
noted th<strong>at</strong> on each prong <strong>the</strong> whale’s back is inset with<br />
a blue bead <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of an inscribed “X.” This, he<br />
explained, is <strong>the</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> whale’s life force, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> place where <strong>the</strong> harpooner aimed. Brower added th<strong>at</strong><br />
when blue is present on a hunting implement it is “part<br />
of <strong>the</strong> weapon” and not just added for beauty. 2 Blue, he<br />
said,<br />
gives us <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship <strong>to</strong> our spiritual beliefs, <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> power<br />
of sixa— meaning “sky”— who controls life. Sixa is something
FIGURE 4. Harpoon rest, Barrow, 1881– 1883, Murdoch– Ray collection.<br />
NMNH E089418. 30 cm tall.<br />
th<strong>at</strong>’s both fi nite and infi nite; you bre<strong>at</strong>he it. When you look in<br />
<strong>the</strong> heavens you see blue. So blue became an important color th<strong>at</strong><br />
helped <strong>to</strong> bring a whale home. 3<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r harpoon rest from <strong>the</strong> village of Wales (Figure<br />
5), acquired by E. W. Nelson in 1881 (Nelson, 1899:<br />
Pl. LXXVIII– 37), is made from two pieces of walrus ivory<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are pinned <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with ivory pegs. Tihmiaqp<strong>at</strong> ( ‘giant<br />
eagles’) in <strong>the</strong> act of c<strong>at</strong>ching whales are etched on <strong>the</strong> front<br />
and back, and animals with lifted paws— possibly polar<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 105<br />
bears— are carved on each side. S<strong>to</strong>ries about giant eagles<br />
(or “thunderbirds”) th<strong>at</strong> preyed on whales, caribou, and<br />
people are found in <strong>the</strong> oral traditions of Iñupiaq, Yup’ik,<br />
Chukchi, Koryak, St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Unangan, and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r North Pacifi c peoples (e.g. Bogoras, 1904– 1909:328;<br />
Curtis, 1930: 168– 177; Ivanov, 1930: 501– 502; Jochelson,<br />
1908: 661; Nelson, 1899: 445– 446, 486– 487). Despite <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
fearsome reput<strong>at</strong>ion, it was one of <strong>the</strong>se birds, called <strong>the</strong><br />
Eagle Mo<strong>the</strong>r, who is said <strong>to</strong> have taught Iñupiaq people <strong>the</strong><br />
dances and songs of <strong>the</strong> Messenger Feast (Kings<strong>to</strong>n, 1999).<br />
Examining this harpoon rest, Jacob Ahwinona of<br />
White Mountain said,<br />
According <strong>to</strong> my grandpa, <strong>the</strong>se birds, <strong>the</strong>y’re up in <strong>the</strong> big<br />
mountains back <strong>the</strong>re, way up high. When <strong>the</strong>y go from <strong>the</strong>re,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y go out <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea and pick those whales up, just like <strong>the</strong>se eagles<br />
in <strong>the</strong> rivers pick salmon up [with <strong>the</strong>ir talons]. Th<strong>at</strong>’s right<br />
here, see? Th<strong>at</strong> bird is picking up th<strong>at</strong> whale <strong>the</strong>re, and <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>y<br />
bring <strong>the</strong>m back <strong>to</strong> those high mountains. Th<strong>at</strong>’s where <strong>the</strong>y nest.<br />
And when <strong>the</strong>y bring those back, those bugs th<strong>at</strong> grow <strong>the</strong>re e<strong>at</strong><br />
some of <strong>the</strong> lef<strong>to</strong>vers from <strong>the</strong> bird’s nest. Those bugs th<strong>at</strong> crawl<br />
<strong>the</strong>re, my grandma said <strong>the</strong>y’re as big as young seals. 4<br />
Ahwinona reported th<strong>at</strong> only a few years ago, when<br />
he was squirrel hunting <strong>at</strong> Penny River near Nome, a large<br />
shadow passed over <strong>the</strong> ground on a cloudless day, perhaps<br />
cast by one of <strong>the</strong> giant birds on its way out <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Bering Sea.<br />
FIGURE 5. Harpoon rest, Wales, 1881, E. W. Nelson collection.<br />
NMNH E048169. 15 cm tall.
106 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
BOX FOR HARPOON BLADES<br />
(IKOIG˙VIK, “STORAGE BOX”)<br />
A wooden container <strong>to</strong> hold and protect spare blades<br />
for <strong>the</strong> whaling harpoon was carried in <strong>the</strong> umiaq during<br />
hunting. Whaling captains cached <strong>the</strong> box after <strong>the</strong> whaling<br />
season, along with o<strong>the</strong>r hunting charms, amulets, and<br />
ritual objects (Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce, 1977: 102; Curtis, 1930: 138–<br />
139; Kaplan et al., 1984; Kaplan and Barsness, 1986:138;<br />
Murdoch, 1892: 247– 250; Nelson, 1899: 163, 439). Blade<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rage boxes were believed by Iñupiaq whalers <strong>to</strong> infl uence<br />
hunting success (Nelson, 1899: 439) although exact<br />
conceptions about <strong>the</strong>m were not his<strong>to</strong>rically recorded.<br />
The boxes are usually shaped like whales, but some represent<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r animals such as polar bears and birds.<br />
Elders examined this whale-shaped box, collected by<br />
G. T. Emmons in about 1900 (Figure 6), as well as similar<br />
examples in <strong>the</strong> Murdoch– Ray collection ( Murdoch,<br />
1892: 246– 248). Its belly holds four triangular sl<strong>at</strong>e blades,<br />
secured bene<strong>at</strong>h a wooden lid. The animal’s tail is shown<br />
with cut-off tips, an apparent reference <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> traditional<br />
practice of cutting off <strong>the</strong> ends of <strong>the</strong> fl ukes or fl ippers<br />
and sending <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> captain’s wife <strong>to</strong> announce a successful<br />
hunt (Curtis, 1930: 140– 141; Rainey, 1947: 260;<br />
Spencer, 1959: 344). Today, as elders commented, <strong>the</strong> tips<br />
of a whale’s tail are still removed but for practical reasons,<br />
<strong>to</strong> reduce drag when <strong>to</strong>wing <strong>the</strong> animal <strong>at</strong> sea.<br />
Brower likened <strong>the</strong> box <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ammunition cases th<strong>at</strong><br />
captains now carry in <strong>the</strong>ir bo<strong>at</strong>s <strong>to</strong> hold whale bombs,<br />
saying,<br />
From a spiritual sense, my observ<strong>at</strong>ion is th<strong>at</strong> many of our<br />
whalers still retain some of <strong>the</strong> old beliefs. But instead of a box<br />
like this, we now have a whale gun box, where we have our<br />
ammunition. This would be like an ammunition box in <strong>the</strong> old<br />
days. Now we have wh<strong>at</strong> we call <strong>the</strong> bomb box <strong>to</strong>day, where we<br />
keep all of <strong>the</strong>se same types of implements, used for <strong>the</strong> purpose<br />
of killing <strong>the</strong> whale. 5<br />
Referring <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> blade box, Kenneth Toovak said,<br />
“They’re so powerful, some of <strong>the</strong>se charms.” 6 He remarked<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were probably owned by shamans and<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Point Hope men possessed a powerful system of whaling<br />
“medicine” in which boxes like <strong>the</strong>se were employed.<br />
Brower concluded,<br />
This one is a box for <strong>the</strong> whales. The traditional beliefs deal<br />
with <strong>the</strong> spirit of <strong>the</strong> whale, and <strong>the</strong> spirit of <strong>the</strong> whale and <strong>the</strong><br />
spirit of man are both intertwined. It is expected th<strong>at</strong> whales<br />
gave <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whalers. They not only are giving <strong>the</strong>m-<br />
FIGURE 6. Whale-shaped box for holding harpoon blades, loc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
unknown, 1900, G. T. Emmons collection. NMNH E204778.<br />
45 cm long.<br />
selves <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whalers, but <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> captain’s wife, who has a ritual.<br />
Because th<strong>at</strong> person maintained a clean household. Because <strong>the</strong><br />
spirit of <strong>the</strong> whale is believed <strong>to</strong> be th<strong>at</strong> of a girl. 7<br />
Brower refers here <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> captain’s<br />
wife with <strong>the</strong> female spirit of <strong>the</strong> whale, both evoked by<br />
<strong>the</strong> artistic imagery of <strong>the</strong> blade box. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> whale<br />
gives its life not <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whaler but <strong>to</strong> his wife, in recognition<br />
of her skills, generosity, and observance of ritual<br />
(Bodenhorn, 1990).<br />
BOAT SEAT (Aqutim Iksivautaha,<br />
“BOAT STEERER’S SEAT”)<br />
At Point Hope, wooden plaques carved with whale<br />
images were wedged inside <strong>the</strong> bow of <strong>the</strong> umiaq, making<br />
a small deck just in front of <strong>the</strong> harpooner. The whale<br />
fi gure was on <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m side, facing downward and thus<br />
invisible. Froelich Rainey reported in 1940 th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> harpooner<br />
tapped <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>form while he sang a song<br />
th<strong>at</strong> summoned hidden whales <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface ( Lowenstein,<br />
1993: 150).<br />
Talking about this example from <strong>the</strong> village of Wales<br />
(Figure 7), Barrow elders st<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> it could be placed<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> bow of <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> (as <strong>at</strong> Point Hope) or in <strong>the</strong><br />
stern as a se<strong>at</strong> for <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> steerer. In both places, <strong>the</strong> whale<br />
image would be on <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m side. When used as a bow<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>form, Toovak said, <strong>the</strong> plaque would hold <strong>the</strong> coiled<br />
akłunaaq (bearded sealskin line) th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong>taches <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whale<br />
harpoon.
FIGURE 7. Whale plaque/se<strong>at</strong> for umiaq, Wales, purchased 1958.<br />
NMAI 226908.000. 42.5 cm wide.<br />
A carved whale se<strong>at</strong>/pl<strong>at</strong>form belongs <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> umialik.<br />
Toovak said, “Uvvakii ag˙ viqsiuqtinmakua umiag˙ ir<strong>at</strong>ih<br />
piqpagipiag˙ <strong>at</strong>ag˙ uugait qutchiksuag˙ isuugait. Tavra tainna<br />
umialguruam marra sug˙ auttahi. “ (“And so it is whalers<br />
really do have respect for <strong>the</strong>ir bo<strong>at</strong>s and have high regard.<br />
These are a bo<strong>at</strong> captain’s items.”) Brower said th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> im-<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 107<br />
age of <strong>the</strong> whale is present in <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> as part of <strong>the</strong> ritual of<br />
whaling, and th<strong>at</strong> its use is part of Iñupiaq sacred beliefs. 8<br />
The practice continues, as he noted in an earlier discussion.<br />
“Some whale bo<strong>at</strong>s still have an ivory effi gy of <strong>the</strong> whale,<br />
tied on <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong>. Or <strong>the</strong>y have an effi gy of <strong>the</strong> whale under<br />
<strong>the</strong> se<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> steersman in <strong>the</strong> rear of <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong>.” 9<br />
IVORY WHALING CHARMS (QAAGLIÑIQ,<br />
“CHARM,” OR AANG˙UAQ, “AMULET”)<br />
Murdoch collected 21 whale fi gures made of walrus<br />
ivory, wood, and soaps<strong>to</strong>ne th<strong>at</strong> he identifi ed as possible<br />
whaling charms, <strong>to</strong> be carried on <strong>the</strong> umiaq (Murdoch,<br />
1892: 402– 405). Among <strong>the</strong>se are three small carvings<br />
(3– 4” long) made of darkly stained walrus ivory (Figure<br />
8). The two smaller whales are a m<strong>at</strong>ched male– female<br />
pair (<strong>the</strong> far left and far right fi gures, respectively) and <strong>the</strong><br />
larger fi gure in <strong>the</strong> center is ano<strong>the</strong>r female, as identifi ed<br />
by depictions of <strong>the</strong> external sex organs. Brower called<br />
this type of fi gure a qaagliñiq, 10 meaning a “charm” th<strong>at</strong><br />
could <strong>at</strong>tract animals but not compel <strong>the</strong>m; it has <strong>the</strong><br />
“power of bringing.” This he contrasted with more potent<br />
fi gures called tuung˙aq (shaman’s helping spirit), which<br />
were employed by shamans <strong>to</strong> control <strong>the</strong> animal’s spirit<br />
and which have “<strong>the</strong> power of killing.” 11 He and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
elders used <strong>the</strong> term aang˙ uaq (amulet) more ambiguously,<br />
as a synonym for both of <strong>the</strong> above.<br />
FIGURE 8. Ivory whaling charms, Barrow, 1881– 1883, Murdoch– Ray collection. Left <strong>to</strong> right: NMNH E089324, E089325, E089323. Largest<br />
15 cm long.
108 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
SOAPSTONE FIGURE OF WHALE (AANG˙UAQ, “AMULET,”<br />
OR TUUNG˙AQ, “SHAMAN’S HELPING SPIRIT”)<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r whale image, about 5” long, collected by<br />
Murdoch (Figure 9) appears <strong>to</strong> have been carved from <strong>the</strong><br />
bot<strong>to</strong>m of an old soaps<strong>to</strong>ne pot (Murdoch, 1892:404). In<br />
<strong>the</strong> discussion among elders, this fi gure was called both<br />
aang˙uaq (amulet) and tuung˙aq (shaman’s helping spirit).<br />
Observing wh<strong>at</strong> appeared <strong>to</strong> be blood th<strong>at</strong> had been<br />
rubbed on <strong>the</strong> image, Brower suggested th<strong>at</strong>, “Something<br />
like this could probably be carried by <strong>the</strong> shaman, and he<br />
would add blood from <strong>the</strong> whale. And so he carries with<br />
him <strong>the</strong> life force of <strong>the</strong> whale.” Comparing this object<br />
with <strong>the</strong> ivory whaling charms (above), he said, “One has<br />
more of a life force than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. One has more strength,<br />
depending on <strong>the</strong> strength of <strong>the</strong> shaman. This one— it<br />
was used as an amulet and ensured th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> whale would<br />
be caught.” 12<br />
Returning l<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pic of shamanism, Brower<br />
said,<br />
Kenneth [Toovak] and I were talking earlier. When I was describing<br />
those things th<strong>at</strong> were used by shamans, we are reminded<br />
by our elders th<strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> kind of life has passed. It is over. And it’s<br />
something th<strong>at</strong> we did not inherit, because <strong>the</strong> life has changed.<br />
The traditional lifestyle— before Christianity set in— is gone. And<br />
FIGURE 9. S<strong>to</strong>ne whaling amulet, Barrow, 1881– 1883, Murdoch–<br />
Ray collection. NMNH E089557. 15 cm long.<br />
so are <strong>the</strong> powers associ<strong>at</strong>ed with th<strong>at</strong>. Because <strong>to</strong>day our people<br />
have accepted a new faith and live a different lifestyle, which does<br />
not require <strong>the</strong> old way of life in order <strong>to</strong> be successful. 13<br />
HEADBAND (NIAQUG˙UN)<br />
A headband acquired <strong>at</strong> Barrow by H. Richmond<br />
Marsh in 1901 is made of bleached skin, animal teeth<br />
(caribou or Dall sheep incisors), red beads, and sinew<br />
thread (Figure 10). Murdoch reported th<strong>at</strong> headbands<br />
made of Dall (mountain) sheepskin with dangling s<strong>to</strong>ne<br />
fi gures of whales were “<strong>the</strong> badge of a whaleman,” worn<br />
by <strong>the</strong> umialik and harpooner for spring prepar<strong>at</strong>ory rites<br />
and during <strong>the</strong> hunt itself (Murdoch, 1892: 142). Some of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se headbands were also decor<strong>at</strong>ed with mountain sheep<br />
teeth. Also <strong>at</strong> Barrow, John Simpson observed th<strong>at</strong> headbands<br />
made of caribou skin and hung with caribou teeth<br />
were worn “only when engaged in whaling” (Simpson,<br />
1875: 243).<br />
Murdoch was not able <strong>to</strong> acquire an example during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Point Barrow expedition because <strong>the</strong>se articles were<br />
highly prized and rarely offered for sale. Barrow elders<br />
were not familiar with this type of headband, which is no<br />
longer worn. They suggested th<strong>at</strong> it might be a woman’s<br />
ornament worn during a traditional ceremony <strong>to</strong> mark <strong>the</strong><br />
autumn equinox “when two stars appear” (aagruuk)—<br />
also referred <strong>to</strong> as <strong>the</strong> Iñupiaq New Year— or else during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Messenger Feast. 14<br />
BUCKET FOR GIVING DRINK TO WHALE<br />
(IMIQAG˙VIK) AND BUCKET HANDLE (IPU)<br />
Elders identifi ed a wooden bucket from Wales (Figure<br />
11) in <strong>the</strong> NMAI collection as one th<strong>at</strong> may have been<br />
used by a whaling captain’s wife <strong>to</strong> provide fresh w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
<strong>to</strong> a newly caught whale. Pails for this purpose were also<br />
made of baleen. Toovak and Brower identifi ed <strong>the</strong> bucket’s<br />
various <strong>at</strong>tachments. The ivory carvings on <strong>the</strong> rim (each is<br />
a qiñiyunaqsaun, “ornament”) represent polar bear heads<br />
and a whale. Several “hunter’s items” hang on a le<strong>at</strong>her<br />
cord: a polar bear <strong>to</strong>oth, a walrus <strong>to</strong>oth, part of a harpoon<br />
head, ivory weights for a bolas <strong>to</strong> hunt birds, and<br />
an ivory plug for a sealskin fl o<strong>at</strong>. Two more fl o<strong>at</strong> plugs<br />
(puvuixutahit) are tied <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> handle. Brower suggested<br />
th<strong>at</strong> all of <strong>the</strong>se ornaments are symbols of success in both<br />
hunting and political leadership. “Communities respect <strong>the</strong><br />
headman. Th<strong>at</strong> is indic<strong>at</strong>ed by making him gifts of this n<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
(indic<strong>at</strong>es bucket), especially if he’s a very successful<br />
hunter.” 15
An ivory handle with whale fi gures from Sledge Island<br />
(Figure 12) is from <strong>the</strong> same type of bucket. The w<strong>at</strong>er giving<br />
ceremony, Brower said, was <strong>to</strong> help <strong>the</strong> whale “move<br />
from <strong>the</strong> ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> land.” 16<br />
His<strong>to</strong>rically, <strong>the</strong>se buckets served in o<strong>the</strong>r rituals. An<br />
umialik’s wife gave a drink <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whalebo<strong>at</strong> when it was<br />
launched, because <strong>the</strong> sealskin-covered umiaq was itself<br />
viewed as a kind of living sea mammal (Brower, 1943:<br />
48; Rainey, 1947: 257; Spencer, 1959:334; Thorn<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1931:166– 167). At Point Hope, women raised <strong>the</strong>ir buckets<br />
<strong>to</strong> Alignuk, <strong>the</strong> Moon Man who controlled game. People<br />
said th<strong>at</strong> if <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> woman’s pot was clear and<br />
clean, Alignuk would drop a whale in<strong>to</strong> it, meaning th<strong>at</strong><br />
her husband would be successful in <strong>the</strong> spring hunt (Pulu<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 109<br />
FIGURE 10. Headband with mountain sheep or caribou teeth, Barrow, 1901, H. Richmond Marsh. NMNH E209841. 25 cm across.<br />
FIGURE 11. Woman’s ceremonial bucket, Wales, purchased 1952.<br />
NMAI 218952.000. 23 cm tall.<br />
FIGURE 12. Handle for ceremonial bucket, Sledge Island, 1881, E.<br />
W. Nelson collection. NMNH E044690. 30 cm long.<br />
et al., 1980: 15– 16; Rainey, 1947: 270– 271; Osterman and<br />
Holtved, 1952: 228). At Point Hope and Barrow, skilled<br />
craftsmen made new buckets each year for <strong>the</strong> whaling<br />
captains and <strong>the</strong>ir wives. These were bigger each time<br />
<strong>to</strong> show <strong>the</strong> umialik’s growing experience. Buckets were<br />
initi<strong>at</strong>ed with songs and ceremonies in <strong>the</strong> qargi (Rainey,<br />
1947: 245; Spencer, 1959: 334).<br />
MAN’S DANCE GLOVES (ARGAAK, “PAIR OF GLOVES”)<br />
A pair of Point Hope dance gloves collected in 1881<br />
by E. W. Nelson (Figure 13) is made of tanned caribou<br />
skin and decor<strong>at</strong>ed with strings of red, white, and blue<br />
beads and with alder-dyed fringes <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> wrists (Nelson,
110 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / CROWELL<br />
FIGURE 13. Man’s dance gloves, Point Hope, 1881, E. W. Nelson<br />
collection. NMNH E064271. 30 cm long.<br />
1899:38, Pl. XX– 1). A keeper string <strong>to</strong> go around <strong>the</strong> neck<br />
is ornamented with copper cylinders and blue beads. According<br />
<strong>to</strong> Kenneth Toovak,<br />
“Sometimes a man had a special Eskimo dance song, an<br />
original song . . . Atuutiqag˙ uurut taipkuagguuq <strong>at</strong>ug˙ uuramihnik<br />
(“<strong>the</strong>y have short songs th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y sang”) . . . And he had prepared<br />
gloves for <strong>the</strong> special song th<strong>at</strong> he made.<br />
He added th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se dance songs were performed <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> summer whaling festival (Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq) and winter hunting<br />
ceremonies, usually by whalers; <strong>at</strong> Point Hope songs<br />
would strictly be <strong>the</strong> property of different clans. Gloves<br />
were worn only during <strong>the</strong> dance, and <strong>the</strong>n removed, a<br />
cus<strong>to</strong>m th<strong>at</strong> continues <strong>to</strong> be observed in modern performances.<br />
17<br />
CHILD’S SUMMER BOOTS (PIÑIG˙AK, “PAIR OF BOOTS”)<br />
Toovak recognized a pair of short summer boots (Figure<br />
14) as <strong>the</strong> type made for children <strong>to</strong> wear during Naluk<strong>at</strong>aq.<br />
The thin soles are made from young bearded sealskin<br />
th<strong>at</strong> has been chewed <strong>to</strong> soften and crimp <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>es, sides,<br />
and heels. Jane Brower identifi ed <strong>the</strong> uppers as bleached<br />
sealskin dyed with alder bark, while <strong>the</strong> upper trim and<br />
straps are of plain bleached skin. Ronald Brower said,<br />
In <strong>the</strong> old days, all <strong>the</strong> men, women, and children dressed in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir fi nest clo<strong>the</strong>s after <strong>the</strong> feast, when <strong>the</strong>y were beginning <strong>to</strong><br />
do <strong>the</strong> celebr<strong>at</strong>ions and dances. Everybody, after <strong>the</strong>y had e<strong>at</strong>en,<br />
put on <strong>the</strong>ir fi nest clo<strong>the</strong>s, including little children. 18<br />
FIGURE 14. Child’s short summer boots for Nalakutaq, loc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
unknown, 1931, don<strong>at</strong>ed by Vic<strong>to</strong>r J. Evans. NMNH E359020.<br />
16 cm tall.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
Ethnological recording and collecting was assigned<br />
a lower priority than o<strong>the</strong>r scientifi c work by <strong>the</strong> leadership<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow Expedition of 1881– 1883, and it<br />
was only possible <strong>to</strong> carry it out during brief periods when<br />
ongoing magnetic and meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions could<br />
be set aside. Murdoch’s Ethnological Results of <strong>the</strong> Point<br />
Barrow Expedition (1892), for all of its gaps and fl aws<br />
(especially with regard <strong>to</strong> social and ceremonial life), refl<br />
ects an extraordinary effort <strong>to</strong> overcome <strong>the</strong> limit<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of time and opportunity in <strong>the</strong> fi eld (cf. Burch, 2009, this<br />
volume).<br />
It is probably safe <strong>to</strong> say th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ultim<strong>at</strong>e value of this<br />
effort was not anticip<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time. Perhaps more evident<br />
<strong>to</strong> members of <strong>the</strong> expedition was th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow<br />
Iñupi<strong>at</strong> were <strong>at</strong> a cultural turning point, buffeted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> growing social and economic impacts of commercial<br />
whaling. Although Murdoch felt th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were “essentially<br />
a conserv<strong>at</strong>ive people” who remained independent<br />
and were not yet overwhelmed by change, he c<strong>at</strong>aloged<br />
<strong>the</strong> new pressures on <strong>the</strong>ir society. In <strong>the</strong> decades after <strong>the</strong><br />
expedition, <strong>the</strong>se pressures increased with <strong>the</strong> advent of<br />
shore-based whaling st<strong>at</strong>ions, Presbyterian missions, food<br />
shortages, and epidemics.<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> was certainly not foreseeable in 1883 was th<strong>at</strong><br />
more than a century l<strong>at</strong>er <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost Alaskan vil-
lages would still be whaling and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> practice would<br />
remain a vital center point of <strong>the</strong> culture and way of life.<br />
Due <strong>to</strong> this surprising stability, whaling objects from <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>at</strong>e nineteenth century remain as culturally legible signposts<br />
within a continuing tradition. Some nineteenth-<br />
century types are still in current use, such as carved ivory<br />
hunting charms. O<strong>the</strong>rs are interpretable within a persistent<br />
conceptual frame— <strong>the</strong> reciprocal rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between<br />
whales and people, with its oblig<strong>at</strong>ions of ritual and<br />
respect.<br />
Also impossible <strong>to</strong> imagine in 1883 would have been<br />
<strong>the</strong> new uses of museum collections, especially <strong>the</strong> current<br />
strong emphasis on making <strong>the</strong>m accessible for Alaska<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ive interpret<strong>at</strong>ion, cultural educ<strong>at</strong>ion, and community-<br />
based exhibitions (Crowell, 2004; Clifford, 2004; Fienup-<br />
Riordan, 1996, 2005). The collabor<strong>at</strong>ive work presented<br />
here is only preliminary. Limited by time and resources,<br />
only a few Iñupiaq elders have so far been able <strong>to</strong> view<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erials and only a small part of <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
Murdoch– Ray collection has been surveyed. Iñupiaq<br />
consultants pointed out <strong>the</strong> necessity of involving elders<br />
from all of <strong>the</strong> whaling communities, so th<strong>at</strong> each could<br />
comment on m<strong>at</strong>erial from his or her village in gre<strong>at</strong>er<br />
depth. The opportunity for this will come as <strong>the</strong> objects<br />
discussed in this paper and more than 600 o<strong>the</strong>rs from all<br />
of Alaska’s indigenous cultural regions are brought <strong>to</strong> Anchorage<br />
for exhibition in 2010. The Arctic Studies Center<br />
gallery in Anchorage will be designed not only for display<br />
but also as a research center where community members<br />
can remove every object from its case for study and discussion.<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections, including <strong>the</strong> large<br />
number g<strong>at</strong>hered as part of <strong>the</strong> fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year, represent a scientifi c, cultural, and his<strong>to</strong>rical legacy<br />
th<strong>at</strong> will continue <strong>to</strong> yield new meanings.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
My sincerest appreci<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> following individuals<br />
who shared <strong>the</strong>ir expert knowledge about whaling, Iñupiaq<br />
culture, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections: Jacob Ahwinona<br />
(Kawerak Elders’ Advisory Committee), Martha Aiken<br />
(North Slope Borough School District), Ronald Brower Sr<br />
(University of Alaska, Fairbanks)., Jane Brower (Iñupi<strong>at</strong><br />
Heritage Center), Kenneth Toovak ( Barrow Arctic Science<br />
Consortium), Marie Saclamana (Nome Public Schools),<br />
and Doreen Simmonds (Iñupi<strong>at</strong> His<strong>to</strong>ry, Language, and<br />
Culture Commission). Deborah Hull-Walski (N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry) and P<strong>at</strong>ricia Nietfeld (N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian) and <strong>the</strong>ir staffs<br />
assisted with <strong>the</strong> collections consult<strong>at</strong>ions in Washing-<br />
THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 111<br />
<strong>to</strong>n; coordin<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Alaska end were Terry Dickey,<br />
Wanda Chin, and Karen Brewster of <strong>the</strong> University of<br />
Alaska Museum. Dawn Biddison (Arctic Studies Center,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry) provided supporting<br />
research and edited <strong>the</strong> transcripts and transl<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n consult<strong>at</strong>ions. Project funding and support<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Rasmuson Found<strong>at</strong>ion, N<strong>at</strong>ional Park Service<br />
Shared Beringian Heritage Program, University of<br />
Alaska Museum, and <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution is gr<strong>at</strong>efully<br />
acknowledged. Thanks <strong>to</strong> Igor Krupnik (Arctic Studies<br />
Center, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry) and Karen<br />
Brewster (University of Alaska, Fairbanks) for reviews<br />
th<strong>at</strong> helped <strong>to</strong> improve this paper.<br />
NOTES<br />
1. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 34A:096–<br />
112.<br />
2. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 30A:<br />
413– 430.<br />
3. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A:<br />
158– 172.<br />
4. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 20B:<br />
412– 434.<br />
5. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A:<br />
052– 059.<br />
6. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A: 135.<br />
7. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A:<br />
152– 170.<br />
8. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 34A:<br />
031– 116.<br />
9. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A: 063.<br />
10. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A: 378.<br />
11. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 31A: 166.<br />
12. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 31A:<br />
166– 220.<br />
13. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 32A:<br />
148– 159.<br />
14. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 28A:<br />
221– 311.<br />
15. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 34A:<br />
241– 334.<br />
16. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 29A:<br />
217– 259.<br />
17. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 28A:<br />
003– 037.<br />
18. Alaska Collections/Sharing Knowledge Project, Tape 27A:<br />
398– 436.<br />
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Arctic, ed. A. P. McCartney, pp. 427– 432. Salt Lake City: University<br />
of Utah Press.<br />
Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce, J. R. 1977. Eskimos of Northwest Alaska in <strong>the</strong> Early Nineteenth<br />
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McCartney, pp. 253– 280. Edmon<strong>to</strong>n: Canadian Circumpolar Institute,<br />
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Brewster, K., ed. 2004. The Whales, They Give Themselves: Convers<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
with Harry Brower, Sr. Fairbanks: University of Alaska<br />
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Brower, C. 1943. Fifty Years Below Zero: A Lifetime of Adventure in <strong>the</strong><br />
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———. 2005. Alliance and Confl ict: The World System of <strong>the</strong> Iñupiaq<br />
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———. 2009. “<strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Alaskan Ethnography:<br />
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Clifford, J. 2004. Looking Several Ways: Anthropology and N<strong>at</strong>ive Heritage<br />
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Crowell, A. L., and E. Oozevaseuk, 2006. The St. Lawrence Island Famine<br />
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Fienup- Riordan, A. 1996. The Living Tradition of Yup’ik Masks: Agayuliyararput,<br />
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———. 2005. Yup’ik Elders <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ethnologisches Museum Berlin:<br />
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Krupnik, and M. G. Stevenson. 1998. Inuit, Whaling, and Sustainability.<br />
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George, J. C., H. P. Hunting<strong>to</strong>n, K. Brewster, H. Eicken, D. W. Nor<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
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Ivanov, S. V. 1930. “Aleut Hunting Headgear and Its Ornament<strong>at</strong>ion.” In<br />
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Jochelson, W. 1908. “The Koryak.” In The Jesup North Pacifi c Expedition,<br />
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Kaplan, S. A., R. H. Jordan, and G. W. Sheehan. 1984. An Eskimo Whaling<br />
Outfi t from Sledge Island, Alaska. Expedition, 26(2): 16– 23.<br />
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<strong>the</strong> King Island Wolf Dance. Ph.D. diss., University of Alaska, Fairbanks.<br />
Krupnik, Igor. 2009. “‘The Way We See It Coming’: Building <strong>the</strong> Legacy<br />
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of <strong>the</strong> Qargi in Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Alaska.” In Hunting <strong>the</strong> Largest<br />
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THE ART OF IÑUPIAQ WHALING 113<br />
Van Valin, W. B. 1941. Eskimoland Speaks. Caldwell, Idaho: Cax<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Printers.<br />
VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, J. 1962. Point Hope: An Eskimo Village in Transition. Se<strong>at</strong>tle:<br />
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pp. 305– 321. Senri Ethnological Studies No. 4. Osaka, Japan: N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of Ethnology.
From Tent <strong>to</strong> Trading Post and Back Again:<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Anthropology in Nunavut,<br />
Nunavik, Nitassinan, and Nun<strong>at</strong>siavut—<br />
The Changing IPY Agenda, 1882– 2007<br />
Stephen Loring<br />
Stephen Loring, Arctic Studies Center, Department<br />
of Anthropology, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, P.O. Box<br />
37012, MRC 112, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-7012,<br />
USA (lorings@si.edu). Accepted 9 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. As part of <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
established a meteorological and astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ory <strong>at</strong> Ft. Chimo (Kuujjuaq) in<br />
Ungava Bay in 1881– 1883. Sent <strong>to</strong> man <strong>the</strong> post was <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s most prominent<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn n<strong>at</strong>uralist, Lucien Turner. Turner developed a close rapport with Inuit and Innu<br />
families from whom he acquired an extraordinary array of scientifi c specimens and ethnological<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials. While intrepid and inspired, <strong>the</strong> work of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s pioneering<br />
Arctic scientists refl ects <strong>the</strong> biases of western scientifi c tradition. Nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
were viewed as part of <strong>the</strong> arctic ecosystem <strong>to</strong> be observed, c<strong>at</strong>aloged, and described. For<br />
<strong>the</strong> most part, <strong>the</strong> intellectual landscape of Innu and Inuit groups was overlooked and<br />
ignored. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections are a powerful talisman for evoking knowledge,<br />
appreci<strong>at</strong>ion, and pride in Innu and Inuit heritage and serve as one point of departure for<br />
research during <strong>the</strong> Fourth IPY in 2007– 2008. Recognition th<strong>at</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ives have<br />
a mand<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in and inform nor<strong>the</strong>rn research is an important change in <strong>the</strong><br />
production of nor<strong>the</strong>rn scientifi c research.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
This essay considers <strong>the</strong> changes in <strong>the</strong> practices of museum anthropology<br />
and archaeology <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution between <strong>the</strong> First IPY in 1882–<br />
1883 and <strong>the</strong> current IPY of 2007– 2008. To know a place is <strong>to</strong> name it. The<br />
place we call <strong>the</strong> Arctic means different things <strong>to</strong> different people. A cultural<br />
construct defi ned by different eyes and different ways of knowing, it is both real<br />
and intangible. Archaeologist Robert McGhee (2007) calls it “<strong>the</strong> last imaginary<br />
place.” It is only in <strong>the</strong> twentieth century th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> technologies and <strong>the</strong> ins<strong>at</strong>iable<br />
appetites of <strong>the</strong> developed world have been able <strong>to</strong> overcome environmental and<br />
logistical constraints <strong>to</strong> establish a permanent presence throughout <strong>the</strong> north.<br />
There are libraries and research institutes devoted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> complexity and variety<br />
of human experiences <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes. For visi<strong>to</strong>rs, <strong>the</strong> Arctic is as much a cultural<br />
construct as it is a physical one, with perceptions repe<strong>at</strong>edly shaped and<br />
reshaped by time and circumstance.<br />
One has only <strong>to</strong> consider <strong>the</strong> transform<strong>at</strong>ion of Arctic landscapes from <strong>the</strong><br />
fantastic fairy-tale visions— gothic c<strong>at</strong>hedrals of ice— of <strong>the</strong> early-nineteenthcentury<br />
explorers, subsequently morphed by suffering and danger in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> grim
116 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
and foreboding visions of <strong>the</strong> ubiqui<strong>to</strong>us and relentless ice<br />
of <strong>the</strong> post-Franklin era (Figure 1), <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern era with<br />
its coffee-table books of stunning pho<strong>to</strong>graphy of polar<br />
bears and vast unpopul<strong>at</strong>ed expanses (Loomis, 1977;<br />
1986; Grant, 1998). But <strong>the</strong> Arctic is also a homeland, and<br />
has been for thousands of years. Arctic inhabitants have<br />
evolved a remarkable and practical adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
and ecological extremes of <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn polar world.<br />
Indigenous knowledge— based on observ<strong>at</strong>ion and inference<br />
and passed from gener<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> gener<strong>at</strong>ion— forms an<br />
astute and perhaps surprisingly complex interpret<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
FIGURE 1. The terrible tragedy surrounding <strong>the</strong> loss of life during<br />
<strong>the</strong> U.S. North <strong>Polar</strong> Expedition (1879– 1881) following on <strong>the</strong> debacle<br />
of <strong>the</strong> British Northwest Passage Expedition under Sir John<br />
Franklin (1845– 1848) had soured public opinion in <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es<br />
on <strong>the</strong> benefi ts of polar explor<strong>at</strong>ion and transformed perceptions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Arctic as a deadly and foreboding landscape. Edi<strong>to</strong>rial car<strong>to</strong>on,<br />
Frank Leslie’s Illustr<strong>at</strong>ed Newspaper, 20 May 1882, William Dall<br />
papers, RU7073, SI Archives. (S. Loring pho<strong>to</strong>graph.)<br />
<strong>the</strong> world inhabited by indigenous nor<strong>the</strong>rn peoples. Yet<br />
with few exceptions (e.g., Rasmussen, 1929; Rink, 1875),<br />
visiting researchers and scientists have not learned <strong>the</strong> language<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir hosts and thus have been denied much of<br />
<strong>the</strong> complexity of nor<strong>the</strong>rn perceptions th<strong>at</strong> has developed<br />
over gener<strong>at</strong>ions by indigenous peoples.<br />
His<strong>to</strong>rically, science in <strong>the</strong> north began as a handmaiden<br />
of colonial enterprise. Having developed <strong>the</strong> technology<br />
<strong>to</strong> transport <strong>the</strong>m in<strong>to</strong> (if not always out of) <strong>the</strong><br />
polar regions, nineteenth-century explorers, with <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
passion for expanding scientifi c and geographic knowledge,<br />
began <strong>to</strong> collect inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> places <strong>the</strong>y<br />
found <strong>the</strong>mselves in. As was typical on many early and<br />
mid nineteenth-century Arctic voyages, with <strong>the</strong>ir winter<br />
quarters established, observ<strong>at</strong>ories were placed on <strong>the</strong> ice<br />
and rounds of tidal measurements, we<strong>at</strong>her, and geophysical<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions began. Expedition accounts are fi lled<br />
with observ<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> phenomenology of ice and cold,<br />
as navy explorers and scientists confronted <strong>the</strong> mysteries<br />
of Arctic life and returned with <strong>the</strong>ir collections of n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry specimens. Also in <strong>the</strong>se accounts, are anecdotal<br />
and ethnohis<strong>to</strong>rical passages th<strong>at</strong> provide some of <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
descriptions of N<strong>at</strong>ive residents of <strong>the</strong> Arctic. In comparison<br />
<strong>to</strong> more complex societies elsewhere, nor<strong>the</strong>rn bandlevel<br />
societies, with <strong>the</strong>ir more modest m<strong>at</strong>erial remains<br />
(<strong>the</strong> very anti<strong>the</strong>sis of Euro-American values of dominance,<br />
competition and wealth) were perceived as being<br />
backward and marginal, literally frozen in time. Lacking<br />
a critical self-awareness <strong>the</strong> eyes of <strong>the</strong> European explorers<br />
had yet <strong>to</strong> take <strong>the</strong> true measure of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives of <strong>the</strong><br />
eastern arctic who were frequently portrayed as quaint<br />
and childlike, devoid of <strong>the</strong> quarrelsome and bellicose <strong>at</strong>titudes<br />
of some of <strong>the</strong>ir western and sou<strong>the</strong>rn counterparts<br />
(Figure 2).<br />
Gradually <strong>the</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of geographical knowledge,<br />
dearly bought, began <strong>to</strong> make sense of <strong>the</strong> physical<br />
mysteries of <strong>the</strong> arctic. Still little in <strong>the</strong> way of serious<br />
<strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ive cultures was afforded prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
travels of Charles Francis Hall beginning in 1860 (Hall,<br />
1864; Loomis, 1972). More visionary than scientist, Hall<br />
had been drawn <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> arctic by <strong>the</strong> continuing fascin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with <strong>the</strong> f<strong>at</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> lost Sir John Franklin Expedition<br />
(1845) and <strong>the</strong> possibility th<strong>at</strong> survivors might yet<br />
be living amongst <strong>the</strong> Inuit. Severely curtailed by fi nancial<br />
constraints Hall broke from <strong>the</strong> prevailing tradition of using<br />
expedition ships frozen in <strong>the</strong> ice as base st<strong>at</strong>ions from<br />
which <strong>to</strong> launch sledge and small-bo<strong>at</strong> voyages in favor<br />
of adopting Inuit modes of travel. Hall moved in with his<br />
Nunavut hosts, learned <strong>the</strong>ir language, and experienced<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir culture as an active participant. He was fortun<strong>at</strong>e
in befriending an extraordinary Inuit couple, Ebierbing<br />
(“Joe”) and Tookooli<strong>to</strong> (“Hannah”) who provided Hall<br />
with an entrée in<strong>to</strong> Inuit society and served as his guides<br />
and guardians on all of Hall’s three arctic expeditions<br />
(Loomis, 1997). Hall’s receptivity <strong>to</strong> Inuit testimony and<br />
acceptance of <strong>the</strong> validity of Inuit knowledge about <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry and <strong>the</strong>ir homeland both assured his own survival<br />
and <strong>the</strong> success of his expeditions and presaged (by more<br />
than half a century) <strong>the</strong> recognition of <strong>the</strong> validity and<br />
acuity of Inuit oral knowledge by subsequent Arctic scientists<br />
and travelers (Woodman, 1991) (Figure 3).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> eastern Arctic, it is not until nearly 20 years<br />
after Hall th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> fl edgling discipline of Arctic anthropology<br />
emerged as a direct consequence of <strong>the</strong> fi rst Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year with <strong>the</strong> arrival of Lucien Turner in<br />
FROM TENT TO TRADING POST AND BACK AGAIN 117<br />
FIGURE 2. Illustr<strong>at</strong>ions accompanying William Edward Parry’s popular accounts of his search for <strong>the</strong> Northwest Passage (1819– 1834) depict<br />
<strong>the</strong> central Canadian Arctic Inuit as whimsical and childlike c<strong>at</strong>ered <strong>to</strong> a European perception of <strong>the</strong> polar region as a fantastic o<strong>the</strong>rworldly<br />
place (Parry 1821, 1824). Detail from a Staffordshire ceramic pl<strong>at</strong>e, “Arctic Scenery” ca. 1835. (Pho<strong>to</strong>graph by S. Loring of pl<strong>at</strong>e in author’s<br />
collection.)<br />
Ungava in 1882– 1884 and Franz Boas in Baffi n Island<br />
in 1883– 1884 (Loring, 2001a; Cole and Muller-Wille,<br />
1984). Nei<strong>the</strong>r Boas nor Turner was formally trained in<br />
anthropology. Turner’s fi rst interest and abiding passion<br />
was ornithology while Boas came <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> eastern arctic as<br />
a geographer. Boas’ trip <strong>to</strong> Baffi n Island was planned and<br />
partially sponsored by <strong>the</strong> German <strong>Polar</strong> Commission,<br />
which was <strong>the</strong>n processing <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a g<strong>at</strong>hered from <strong>the</strong> German<br />
IPY st<strong>at</strong>ion in Cumberland Sound (Barr, 1985). The<br />
resulting ethnographic monographs of both Boas (1885)<br />
and Turner (1894) were subsequently published by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. These monographs have proved<br />
<strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> emerging discipline of anthropology’s intellectual<br />
bedrock for research pertaining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> indigenous peoples<br />
of Baffi n Island and nor<strong>the</strong>rn Quebec-Labrador, and <strong>the</strong>se
118 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
FIGURE 3. Thule ground-sl<strong>at</strong>e whaling harpoon endblade found<br />
by Charles Francis Hall’s Inuit companion Ebierbing, also known<br />
as “Esquimaux Joe.” His<strong>to</strong>rically, <strong>the</strong> role of Inuit guides and<br />
companions in <strong>the</strong> production of Arctic science was rarely acknowledged.SI-10153,<br />
Charles Francis Hall collection, NMNH. (S. Loring<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>graph)<br />
works remain as some of <strong>the</strong> lasting triumphs of <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
IPY accomplishments.<br />
The scientifi c agendas of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Years, in 1882– 1883, 1932– 1933, and 1957– 1958 have<br />
all been concerned with addressing problems of meteorology,<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric science, and high-l<strong>at</strong>itude geophysics.<br />
Yet, ironically, arguably <strong>the</strong> most lasting accomplishments<br />
of <strong>the</strong> American contribution <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> First IPY— from <strong>the</strong><br />
Point Barrow and Ungava st<strong>at</strong>ions— were <strong>the</strong> collections<br />
of n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry specimens (e.g., Dunbar, 1983) and ethnographic<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials th<strong>at</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> n<strong>at</strong>uralists acquired<br />
around <strong>the</strong> fringes of <strong>the</strong>ir offi cial duties as we<strong>at</strong>her observers<br />
for <strong>the</strong> U.S. Army Signal Service (Murdoch, 1892;<br />
Turner, 1894; Nelson, 1899). Surprisingly, <strong>the</strong> volumes of<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric, oceanic, magnetic, and solar observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
g<strong>at</strong>hered <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dozen IPY 1882– 1883 st<strong>at</strong>ions did not yield<br />
<strong>the</strong> anticip<strong>at</strong>ed insights in<strong>to</strong> global clim<strong>at</strong>ic and geophysical<br />
regimes (Wood and Overland, 2006). Perhaps more<br />
signifi cant than <strong>the</strong> research results in <strong>the</strong> physical sciences<br />
was <strong>the</strong> establishment of a model for intern<strong>at</strong>ional scientifi<br />
c practice based on coordin<strong>at</strong>ion and cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> recognition th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> study of high l<strong>at</strong>itudes (<strong>at</strong> both<br />
poles), as with <strong>the</strong> high seas, was an arena of intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
consequence and signifi cance.<br />
In company with <strong>the</strong> earth sciences and n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
anthropology and archaeology were part of <strong>the</strong> expanding<br />
western economic, social, and intellectual hegemony<br />
of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century. The construction of scientifi c<br />
knowledge about <strong>the</strong> world has, for <strong>the</strong> most part, proceeded<br />
following well-defi ned western notions of logic<br />
and scientifi c explan<strong>at</strong>ion as <strong>the</strong> principle explan<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
process for understanding <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural world and <strong>the</strong> place<br />
of human beings <strong>the</strong>rein. Now, in <strong>the</strong> twenty-fi rst century,<br />
with much of <strong>the</strong> world’s cultural and biological diversity<br />
documented in <strong>at</strong> least a preliminary fashion, anthropology<br />
faces <strong>the</strong> challenge of recognizing, articul<strong>at</strong>ing, interpreting,<br />
and preserving as broad a spectrum of humanity’s<br />
shared cultural diversity as possible.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY, many of <strong>the</strong> indigenous<br />
peoples of North America had been swept from <strong>the</strong>ir traditional<br />
homelands. Secure in <strong>the</strong>ir nor<strong>the</strong>rn redoubts of<br />
ice and s<strong>to</strong>ne, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ives of <strong>the</strong> eastern Arctic had been<br />
spared much of <strong>the</strong> continental disloc<strong>at</strong>ion and genocide<br />
waged against indigenous communities in warmer climes.<br />
The inroads of European explorers, and l<strong>at</strong>er missionaries,<br />
whalers, and traders, had not signifi cantly impeded<br />
traditional Inuit subsistence practices nor had <strong>the</strong>y intruded<br />
far in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir spiritual m<strong>at</strong>ters and beliefs. Under<br />
<strong>the</strong> leadership of Spencer Baird, <strong>the</strong> fi rst cur<strong>at</strong>or of <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum and <strong>the</strong> Institution’s second secretary<br />
(1878– 1887), and l<strong>at</strong>er, John Wesley Powell (Direc<strong>to</strong>r<br />
of <strong>the</strong> B.A.E. 1879– 1902), <strong>Smithsonian</strong> anthropology— in<br />
<strong>the</strong> guise of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of American Ethnology— oper<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
under a paradigm of salvage anthropology in <strong>the</strong> belief<br />
th<strong>at</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive American peoples were f<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> gradually<br />
decline and disappear. Situ<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry (NMNH), <strong>Smithsonian</strong> anthropology<br />
had a decidedly m<strong>at</strong>erialist, collections-based orient<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
th<strong>at</strong> was strongly infl uenced by biological sciences and<br />
Darwin’s evolutionary doctrines. Nor<strong>the</strong>rn n<strong>at</strong>ive cultures<br />
were seen as being somewh<strong>at</strong> uniquely divorced from his<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir remote geography, and many <strong>the</strong>orists of<br />
<strong>the</strong> day considered <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> be a cultural relic of Ice Age<br />
Paleolithic peoples, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> extremity of <strong>the</strong> scale in terms<br />
of human cultural vari<strong>at</strong>ion.
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution’s previous interests in<br />
<strong>the</strong> eastern arctic— beginning with biological studies in<br />
Hudson’s Bay in <strong>the</strong> early 1860s, and support for <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Eclipse Expedition <strong>to</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Labrador in 1860, as well<br />
as its close rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay Company<br />
(Lindsay 1993)— provided a basis for a concerted study in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ungava region. As part of <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year 1882– 1883, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution partnered<br />
with <strong>the</strong> U.S. Signal Corps <strong>to</strong> establish meteorological and<br />
astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ories <strong>at</strong> Point Barrow, Alaska, <strong>at</strong><br />
Ft. Conger on Ellesmere Island, and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay<br />
Company Post <strong>at</strong> Fort Chimo (Kuujjuaq) in Ungava Bay<br />
(Barr, 1985). Sent <strong>to</strong> man <strong>the</strong> post <strong>at</strong> Kuujjuaq was one of<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s most experienced nor<strong>the</strong>rn n<strong>at</strong>uralists,<br />
Lucien Turner, who had previously conducted important<br />
studies for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Aleutian Islands and<br />
Western Alaska (Turner, n.d.; 1886; Loring, 2001a).<br />
Lucien Turner (1848– 1909) was <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of a<br />
small and talented band of young n<strong>at</strong>uralists th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
FROM TENT TO TRADING POST AND BACK AGAIN 119<br />
recruited by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s second secretary, Spencer<br />
Baird. An accomplished ornithologist, linguist, and taxidermist<br />
Turner reveled in <strong>the</strong> opportunities for research<br />
and collecting in <strong>the</strong> North American arctic. Baird arranged<br />
for Turner <strong>to</strong> be posted <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay Company<br />
post <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> mouth of <strong>the</strong> Koksoak River in Ungava<br />
Bay as a member of an IPY-sponsored meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
for <strong>the</strong> U.S. Signal Corps.<br />
Turner’s arrival <strong>at</strong> Fort Chimo in 1882 was something<br />
of a surprise for <strong>the</strong> chief fac<strong>to</strong>r <strong>the</strong>re, as news from <strong>the</strong><br />
outside world only arrived once a year with <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
supply ship. Not easily rebuffed, Turner quickly established<br />
his observ<strong>at</strong>ory and <strong>to</strong>ok up <strong>the</strong> responsibilities of<br />
his post (Figure 4), both those pertaining <strong>to</strong> his IPY agenda<br />
and those dict<strong>at</strong>ed by his <strong>Smithsonian</strong> mand<strong>at</strong>e. Although<br />
constrained by <strong>the</strong> demanding regime of his observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and recording oblig<strong>at</strong>ions, Turner was able <strong>to</strong> develop a<br />
close rapport with Inuit and Innu families visiting <strong>the</strong> post,<br />
from whom he acquired an extraordinary array of scientifi c<br />
FIGURE 4. Lucien Turner <strong>at</strong> his observ<strong>at</strong>ory <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay Company Post <strong>at</strong> Fort Chimo (near present day Kuujjuak), 1881. (SI-6968)
120 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
specimens and ethnological m<strong>at</strong>erials (Turner, 1888, 1894;<br />
Loring 2001a) (see Figure 5).<br />
Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, no traces of a personal diary or letters<br />
survive from Turner’s time <strong>at</strong> Fort Chimo. Diligent<br />
archival research, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> and Hudson’s Bay<br />
Company archives, provide a few tantalizing clues <strong>to</strong> his<br />
rapport with <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ives he came in<strong>to</strong> contact<br />
with (Loring, 2001a). However, for <strong>the</strong> most part <strong>the</strong>se<br />
contacts are only dimly referred <strong>to</strong> as <strong>the</strong> source for<br />
knowledge about <strong>the</strong> local environment, animals (including<br />
mammals, birds, fi sh, and invertebr<strong>at</strong>es), social rel<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
and mythology. The contemporary “intellectual<br />
landscape” of Innu and Inuit groups— <strong>the</strong> complex web of<br />
oral his<strong>to</strong>ries and observ<strong>at</strong>ional knowledge pertaining <strong>to</strong><br />
animals, we<strong>at</strong>her, and <strong>the</strong> land— was largely overlooked<br />
and ignored by <strong>the</strong> IPY-era anthropologists, as <strong>the</strong>ir focus,<br />
stemming from <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry approach of <strong>the</strong>ir missions,<br />
was <strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>egorize and describe <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial culture<br />
of <strong>the</strong> people <strong>the</strong>y encountered. Despite being confi ned by<br />
<strong>the</strong> intellectual framework of <strong>the</strong> day, Turner’s Ungava<br />
collections (as well as <strong>the</strong> collections made by Murdoch<br />
and Ray <strong>at</strong> Point Barrow in 1881– 1883) have become a<br />
powerful instrument for evoking knowledge, appreci<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
and pride in Innu and Inuit heritage. They serve as a point<br />
FIGURE 5. Innu women and children visiting Lucien Turner <strong>at</strong> Fort Chimo, 1881. Pho<strong>to</strong>graphy was deemed an essential component of <strong>the</strong><br />
work of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> n<strong>at</strong>uralists. As some of <strong>the</strong> earliest extent pho<strong>to</strong>graphic images of nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ives, <strong>the</strong>y remain a prominent legacy<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY. (SI-6977)
of departure for research during this IPY in 2007– 2008, as<br />
explained below. Within <strong>the</strong> confi nes of <strong>the</strong>ir training and<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry proclivities, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arctic n<strong>at</strong>uralists<br />
had a demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed sensitivity <strong>to</strong> some aspects of<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ive knowledge pertaining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultural and biological<br />
collections <strong>the</strong>y acquired, though for <strong>the</strong> most part <strong>the</strong>se<br />
are brief and anecdotal not<strong>at</strong>ions. Today, <strong>the</strong>se notes, but<br />
more signifi cantly <strong>the</strong> objects <strong>the</strong>mselves, are being reexamined<br />
and reinterpreted by descendants from <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
from which <strong>the</strong> objects had come more than a<br />
century before.<br />
THE SHIFT IN INTELLECTUAL PARADIGM<br />
The recognition th<strong>at</strong> arctic people have an intellectual,<br />
moral, and sociopolitical mand<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in<br />
and inform nor<strong>the</strong>rn research marked a fundamental and<br />
dram<strong>at</strong>ic shift in <strong>the</strong> practice of scientifi c research in <strong>the</strong><br />
north. It did not arrive until <strong>the</strong> 1970s and more fi rmly,<br />
until <strong>the</strong> 1990s (Berger, 1977; Berkes, 1999; Nadasdy,<br />
1999; Stevenson, 1996; Nicholas and Andrews, 1997) (see<br />
Figure 6).<br />
With <strong>the</strong> passage of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive American Graves Protection<br />
and Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion Act in 1990 (NAGPRA) and <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian Act (in 1996),<br />
<strong>the</strong> intellectual landscape as it pertains <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> use and study<br />
of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ive American collections has been transformed<br />
in<strong>to</strong> a museum anthropology th<strong>at</strong> is more inclusive, more<br />
diverse, and contingent on N<strong>at</strong>ive particip<strong>at</strong>ion and expertise<br />
(Crowell et al., 2001; Fienup-Riordan, 1996, 2005a,<br />
2005b, 2007; Loring 1996, 2001b; Swidler et al., 1997;<br />
Thomas, 2000; W<strong>at</strong>kins, 2003; 2005; Zimmerman et al.,<br />
2003). It is in this context of cooper<strong>at</strong>ion and respect th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> agendas of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> anthropology and IPY converge<br />
as specifi c inform<strong>at</strong>ion about objects in <strong>the</strong> museum<br />
collection are not only interpreted by knowledgeable elders<br />
and descendant community represent<strong>at</strong>ives but also<br />
serve as a <strong>to</strong>uchs<strong>to</strong>ne or g<strong>at</strong>eway <strong>to</strong> discussions about traditional<br />
ecological and environmental knowledge. It thus<br />
seems appropri<strong>at</strong>e, given <strong>the</strong> degree th<strong>at</strong> human agency is<br />
implic<strong>at</strong>ed in clim<strong>at</strong>ic change, th<strong>at</strong> anthropology for <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst time has been formally recognized as a goal of IPY<br />
polar science, under its new mand<strong>at</strong>e:<br />
<strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> cultural, his<strong>to</strong>rical, and social processes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> shape <strong>the</strong> resilience and sustainability of circumpolar human<br />
societies, and <strong>to</strong> identify <strong>the</strong>ir unique contributions <strong>to</strong> global cultural<br />
diversity and citizenship. (ICSU/WHO 2007:13)<br />
FROM TENT TO TRADING POST AND BACK AGAIN 121<br />
FIGURE 6. “We were real red-men in those days!” says Uneam K<strong>at</strong>shinak,<br />
a much revered Innu hunter, as he reminisces about being<br />
covered in blood while spearing caribou from a canoe as a boy. The<br />
continuity of traditional subsistence practices has anchored nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ive perceptions of <strong>the</strong>ir identity and <strong>the</strong>ir homeland belying <strong>the</strong><br />
“vanishing Indian” paradigm of nineteenth-century anthropology.<br />
(S. Loring pho<strong>to</strong>graph <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tshikapisk-sponsored rendezvous <strong>at</strong><br />
Kamestastin, Nitassinan, September 2000)<br />
SEEING AND BELIEVING:<br />
CHANGING PERSPECTIVES<br />
IN MUSEUM ANTHROPOLOGY<br />
At <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e and philosophy<br />
of rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion (Loring, 2001b; 2008), coupled<br />
with <strong>the</strong> moral and inspir<strong>at</strong>ional presence of <strong>the</strong> new N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian (NMAI), has encouraged<br />
<strong>the</strong> emergence of new practices and scholarship.
122 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
The new paradigm is evidenced by <strong>the</strong> signifi cant numbers<br />
and variety of nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ive American and Inuit<br />
scholars, academics, artisans, and visi<strong>to</strong>rs who come <strong>to</strong><br />
acknowledge, study, and appreci<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> collections th<strong>at</strong><br />
were derived from <strong>the</strong>ir ances<strong>to</strong>rs a century or more ago<br />
(Figure 7). The <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s anthropology collections<br />
acquired during <strong>the</strong> First Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year in<br />
Alaska and Nunavik had languished for almost a century,<br />
awaiting an appreci<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong>ir signifi cance— fi rst<br />
as objects of art with The Far North exhibition <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Gallery of Art (Collins et al., 1973) and <strong>the</strong>n as<br />
symbols of cultural glory and scholarly wonder in a pair<br />
of precedent-setting exhibitions, Inua: Spirit World of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo in 1982 and Crossroads of Continents<br />
in 1988 (Fitzhugh and Kaplan, 1982; Fitzhugh and<br />
Crowell, 1988). In opening <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s “<strong>at</strong>tic” and<br />
in returning <strong>to</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ives an awareness of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial culture p<strong>at</strong>rimony, <strong>the</strong> role of <strong>the</strong> museum has<br />
been radically transformed. Today, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> NMNH and <strong>the</strong> NMAI form <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
holding of m<strong>at</strong>erial culture pertaining <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> heritage and<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry of North America’s indigenous peoples. With <strong>the</strong><br />
passage of time and <strong>the</strong> miracle of conserv<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong>se<br />
objects have undergone an extraordinary transform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
from n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry specimens and anthropological curiosities<br />
<strong>to</strong> become <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion s<strong>to</strong>nes for contemporary<br />
community identity and heritage (Figure 8). The challenge<br />
of <strong>the</strong> next century is <strong>to</strong> accommod<strong>at</strong>e this transform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and incorpor<strong>at</strong>e new perspectives and knowledge.<br />
The future of anthropology in <strong>the</strong> museum will encourage—<br />
and necessit<strong>at</strong>e— new ways of thinking about<br />
<strong>the</strong> past th<strong>at</strong> would require museum anthropologists and<br />
archaeologists surrender— or negoti<strong>at</strong>e— <strong>the</strong>ir prerog<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>to</strong> interpret <strong>the</strong> past. Even more important, it is incumbent<br />
upon museum professionals <strong>to</strong> learn new ways of listening,<br />
new ways of recognizing <strong>the</strong> legitimacy of o<strong>the</strong>r voices,<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r ways of knowing and accepting oral tradition as<br />
a valid interpretive <strong>to</strong>ol (Tonkin, 1992). This sea change in<br />
museum anthropology and archaeology is inherent in <strong>the</strong><br />
programs and initi<strong>at</strong>ives th<strong>at</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> anthropology<br />
is conducting during <strong>the</strong> time of IPY 2007– 2008. A joint<br />
NMNH– NMAI exhibition project is bringing more than<br />
500 N<strong>at</strong>ive Alaskan artifacts collected around <strong>the</strong> time<br />
of <strong>the</strong> First IPY <strong>to</strong> Anchorage, Alaska. The exhibit relies<br />
heavily on cur<strong>at</strong>orial input from teams of N<strong>at</strong>ive Alaskan<br />
consultants affi rming <strong>the</strong> legitimacy of <strong>the</strong>ir perspective,<br />
knowledge, and link <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir legacy and heritage.<br />
AN ENDANGERED<br />
PERSPECTIVE ON THE PAST<br />
With <strong>the</strong> passing of <strong>the</strong> Inumariit, <strong>the</strong> knowledgeable<br />
Inuit who lived in <strong>the</strong> country in <strong>the</strong> manner of <strong>the</strong>ir ances<strong>to</strong>rs,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Tsheniu Mantushiu Kantu<strong>at</strong>, <strong>the</strong> old Innu<br />
hunters with special powers, so passes one of <strong>the</strong> last vestiges<br />
of <strong>the</strong> link <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> intellectual landscape of huntingforaging<br />
peoples. To anthropologists and even many indig-<br />
FIGURE 7. Community-orient<strong>at</strong>ed collection consult<strong>at</strong>ion and outreach has been a core concept of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Arctic Studies Center<br />
since its inception in 1991. Here George Williams, from <strong>the</strong> village of Mekoryuk on Nunivak Island, Alaska, points out construction details of<br />
a model kayak th<strong>at</strong> had been collected by Henry B. Collins in 1927. Williams was part of a deleg<strong>at</strong>ion of Nunivak elders and educ<strong>at</strong>ors who<br />
visited <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> in March 1996. (S. Loring pho<strong>to</strong>graph)
FIGURE 8. A drawing of <strong>the</strong> so-called magic doll collected by Lucien<br />
Turner in 1881 from Labrador Inuit visiting <strong>the</strong> Hudson’s Bay<br />
Company Post <strong>at</strong> Ft. Chimo (Kuujjuak) in Nunavik. Such unique<br />
specimens eloquently <strong>at</strong>test <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continuity of shamanistic practices<br />
in country-settings beyond <strong>the</strong> purview of missionaries and traders.<br />
Transformed in<strong>to</strong> museum specimens such objects still retain a<br />
tremendous potency <strong>to</strong> inspire and inform descendant community<br />
members of <strong>the</strong> people from whom <strong>the</strong>y had been acquired. (Fig. 22<br />
in Turner 1894, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> c<strong>at</strong>alog number ET982, NMNH)<br />
enous people <strong>the</strong>mselves, it becomes increasingly diffi cult<br />
<strong>to</strong> grasp <strong>the</strong> richness and complexity of <strong>the</strong> hunters’ worlds<br />
as discerned through artifacts and museum exhibits. The<br />
insights and wisdom derived from centuries of intim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
knowledge and experience on <strong>the</strong> land now exists as a<br />
much impoverished and fragmentary corpus. In Labrador,<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1918 infl uenza pandemic devast<strong>at</strong>ed Inuit communities<br />
and savaged Innu camps, killing off a gener<strong>at</strong>ion of s<strong>to</strong>ry-<br />
FROM TENT TO TRADING POST AND BACK AGAIN 123<br />
tellers and tribal elders and often leaving camps where only<br />
children and dogs survived. Soon, much of wh<strong>at</strong> remains<br />
of this specialized knowledge will only reside in libraries,<br />
museum collections, and in <strong>the</strong> clues th<strong>at</strong> archaeologists<br />
might deduce. However, <strong>the</strong>re is yet a gre<strong>at</strong> potential for<br />
<strong>the</strong> practice of archaeology in <strong>the</strong> north <strong>to</strong> be informed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> knowledge and perceptions of elders, <strong>the</strong> last people <strong>to</strong><br />
be born in snow houses and tents and <strong>to</strong> have spent much<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir lives as subsistence hunters and seamstresses. The<br />
sense of urgency is palpable, as <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>ck of elders’ knowledge<br />
and perceptions is not renewable and will not be with<br />
us much longer. Subsistence str<strong>at</strong>egies are being replaced by<br />
<strong>the</strong> market economy; communal social rel<strong>at</strong>ions predic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
on reciprocity and kinship are subordin<strong>at</strong>ed by government<br />
mand<strong>at</strong>es and initi<strong>at</strong>ives. The problem can be framed in<br />
a global perspective of diminishing ecological, biological,<br />
and cultural diversity. All of which begs <strong>the</strong> question: How<br />
important are “old ways” and “traditional subsistence<br />
practices” in <strong>the</strong> modern world?<br />
In Labrador, as elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> north, <strong>to</strong>day’s Innu<br />
and Inuit youth are village-dwellers. Born in hospitals and<br />
brought up in isol<strong>at</strong>ed rural <strong>to</strong>wns, nor<strong>the</strong>rn young people<br />
have few opportunities <strong>to</strong> acquire country experiences<br />
and knowledge. There is a huge discrepancy between <strong>the</strong><br />
past as experienced by <strong>the</strong>ir grandparents and <strong>the</strong> present.<br />
However well-meaning Canadian government policies may<br />
have been in advancing schooling, health care, and old-age<br />
pensions, <strong>the</strong> results have often been disastrous (Samson,<br />
2003; Shkilnyk, 1985). Suicide r<strong>at</strong>es in Labrador Innu<br />
communities are <strong>the</strong> highest recorded in <strong>the</strong> world and<br />
substance abuse is rampant (Samson et al., 1999). Fueled<br />
by chronic unemployment and inappropri<strong>at</strong>e educ<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
development, <strong>the</strong> impoverishment of village life— devoid<br />
of country values and skills with its concomitant package<br />
of social, health and economic woes— is striking in<br />
comparison <strong>to</strong> ethnohis<strong>to</strong>rical accounts which invariably<br />
describe <strong>the</strong> Innu as arrogant, self-suffi cient, “tiresomely”<br />
independent, and proud (Cabot, 1920; Cooke, 1979).<br />
KNOWLEDGE REPATRIATION<br />
AND ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
In this situ<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> cultural research in<br />
<strong>the</strong> north becomes a component in <strong>the</strong> communities’ response<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> current heritage crisis and social dissolution.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> past decade, in close collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with N<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
elected offi cials, community leaders, and teachers, <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Studies Center has pioneered community archaeology<br />
programs in Labrador with Inuit and Innu communities
124 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
( Loring, 1998; Loring and Rosenmeier, 2005). These programs<br />
have sought <strong>to</strong> develop archaeological fi eld-schools<br />
th<strong>at</strong> would provide N<strong>at</strong>ive youth with opportunities <strong>to</strong> experience<br />
life in <strong>the</strong> country, acquire new job skills, and foster<br />
self-esteem and pride in oneself and one’s heritage. This<br />
type of enterprise, generally called “community archaeology,”<br />
especially as it is practiced in <strong>the</strong> north, is rooted<br />
in applied socially conscious advocacy anthropology. In<br />
addition <strong>to</strong> addressing <strong>the</strong> special scholarly questions th<strong>at</strong><br />
archaeologists commonly pose, community archaeology<br />
seeks additional goals th<strong>at</strong> strive <strong>to</strong> empower and engage<br />
communities in <strong>the</strong> recognition and construction of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own heritage. In <strong>the</strong> north in general, and in Labrador<br />
specifi cally, community archaeology initi<strong>at</strong>ives celebr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
traditional values and share a research focus and practice<br />
th<strong>at</strong> is responsible for cre<strong>at</strong>ing and returning knowledge<br />
<strong>to</strong> communities (Lyons, 2007; Nicholas, 2006; Nicholas<br />
and Andrews, 1997), in a sense coming full circle since <strong>the</strong><br />
years of <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY.<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most important facet of community archaeology<br />
as practiced in Labrador is th<strong>at</strong> it is situ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
outside <strong>the</strong> settlements, in <strong>the</strong> country where <strong>the</strong> knowledge,<br />
wisdom, and experience of elders is relevant and apparent<br />
(Figures 9 and 10). Fieldwork based on mutual respect<br />
and sharing among families, gener<strong>at</strong>ions, and visiting<br />
researchers honors and encourages indigenous knowledge<br />
and different ways of knowing. The practice of community<br />
archaeology with <strong>the</strong> Innu in Nitassinan is culturally<br />
FIGURE 9. No longer <strong>the</strong> exclusive domain of professional researchers, archaeology in <strong>the</strong> north has become a cooper<strong>at</strong>ive initi<strong>at</strong>ive between<br />
local community interests and visiting researchers. Here, community activist and former Innu N<strong>at</strong>ion president Daniel Ashini, left, accompanied<br />
by Dominique Pokue, survey <strong>the</strong> ruined shorelines of former Lake Michikam<strong>at</strong>s during an Innu N<strong>at</strong>ion– sponsored archaeological survey of <strong>the</strong><br />
region in 1995. (S. Loring pho<strong>to</strong>graph)
situ<strong>at</strong>ed experiential educ<strong>at</strong>ion and has an important subsistence<br />
component. An awareness of animals— especially<br />
caribou— trumps <strong>the</strong> mechanics of fi eldwork: Survey is<br />
as much scouting for game as it is searching for <strong>the</strong> sites<br />
where ances<strong>to</strong>rs lived and hunted. The acquisition of game<br />
is an integral part of <strong>the</strong> fi eldwork as young people prepare<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir own trap lines, c<strong>at</strong>ch fi sh, and learn from elders<br />
how <strong>to</strong> prepare food and pay proper respect <strong>to</strong> animals<br />
(Loring, 2001b; 2008). And in contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> practice<br />
of archaeology in <strong>the</strong> strictly scientifi c paradigm, <strong>the</strong> lessons<br />
of community archaeology— sharing resources and<br />
interpret<strong>at</strong>ions and communal decision making— could<br />
be ne<strong>at</strong>ly summed as “don’t be bossy, don’t be greedy.”<br />
Beyond expanding an awareness and appreci<strong>at</strong>ion of in-<br />
FROM TENT TO TRADING POST AND BACK AGAIN 125<br />
digenous knowledge and values, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> archaeology<br />
<strong>to</strong>day is about being socially responsible, recognizing th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> present is connected <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> past, and celebr<strong>at</strong>ing indigenous<br />
heritage and land tenure.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Around <strong>the</strong> campfi re or next <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tent s<strong>to</strong>ve, <strong>the</strong> convers<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
about archaeology with N<strong>at</strong>ive participants is<br />
tumbled <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with thoughts of <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her, caribou,<br />
and seals; of <strong>the</strong> places where one went hunting, berry<br />
picking, or fi shing; and of <strong>the</strong> old places where ances<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
and supern<strong>at</strong>ural cre<strong>at</strong>ures once lived. New directions<br />
FIGURE 10. Coming full-circle in <strong>the</strong> production of knowledge about nor<strong>the</strong>rn people and <strong>the</strong>ir his<strong>to</strong>ry community archaeology returns knowledge<br />
<strong>to</strong> a local setting. Working with local youth, and informed by knowledgeable elders, such initi<strong>at</strong>ives serve <strong>to</strong> celebr<strong>at</strong>e and respect <strong>the</strong><br />
continuity and experiences of N<strong>at</strong>ive nor<strong>the</strong>rn hosts. Here, visiting elders from Makkovik interpret architectural fe<strong>at</strong>ures <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-eighteenthcentury<br />
Labrador Inuit village site <strong>at</strong> Adlavik (GgBq-1) in 2002. With <strong>the</strong>m is Lena Onalik (right) from Makkovik, <strong>the</strong> fi rst professional Inuk<br />
archaeologist from Nun<strong>at</strong>siavut. (Central Coast of Labrador Archaeological Project pho<strong>to</strong>)
126 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LORING<br />
in <strong>the</strong> practice of archaeology in <strong>the</strong> north recognize <strong>the</strong><br />
legitimacy of life “in <strong>the</strong> country.” Because of different<br />
ways of thinking about <strong>the</strong> past, explaining <strong>the</strong> past is a<br />
basic oper<strong>at</strong>ing assumption predic<strong>at</strong>ed on respect of <strong>the</strong><br />
cultures and traditions of <strong>the</strong> people on who live (or used<br />
<strong>to</strong> live) on <strong>the</strong> land (Lorde, 1981). This collabor<strong>at</strong>ive approach<br />
of nor<strong>the</strong>rn anthropological research, predic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
on rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion, recognition, and respect, suggests th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> future of <strong>the</strong> past is likely <strong>to</strong> re-imagine <strong>the</strong> cultural<br />
and physical landscape of <strong>the</strong> Arctic in wholly new ways.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> passing of <strong>the</strong> last vestiges of humanity’s hunting<br />
heritage, future gener<strong>at</strong>ions will need <strong>to</strong> derive new<br />
sources for inspir<strong>at</strong>ion. Nor<strong>the</strong>rn N<strong>at</strong>ive involvement with<br />
Arctic science might be thought <strong>to</strong> have begun with <strong>the</strong><br />
collabor<strong>at</strong>ion and insights provided <strong>to</strong> early explorers and<br />
collec<strong>to</strong>rs, including those affi li<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> First IPY in<br />
1882– 1883. The increased awareness of <strong>the</strong> value and<br />
acuity of n<strong>at</strong>ive knowledge and perception has radically<br />
transformed <strong>the</strong> social construction of nor<strong>the</strong>rn science as<br />
<strong>the</strong> interests and concerns of researchers and indigenous<br />
residents alike come <strong>to</strong> share an interest in <strong>the</strong> ecological<br />
and behavioral consequences of life <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes and a<br />
concern for understanding both <strong>the</strong> past and <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
William Fitzhugh (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution), Igor<br />
Krupnik (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution), and James Fleming<br />
(Colby College) provided helpful comments on an earlier<br />
draft.<br />
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“The Way We See It Coming”:<br />
Building <strong>the</strong> Legacy of Indigenous<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions in IPY 2007– 2008<br />
Igor Krupnik<br />
Igor Krupnik, Department of Anthropology, N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, P.O. Box 37012, MRC 112, Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
DC 20013-7012, USA (krupniki@si.edu).<br />
Accepted 9 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. All early Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year/Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IPY/<br />
IGY) initi<strong>at</strong>ives were primarily geophysical programs and were exemplary products of<br />
<strong>the</strong> long-established paradigm of “polar science.” Under th<strong>at</strong> paradigm, scholarly d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong><br />
be used in academic public<strong>at</strong>ions were <strong>to</strong> be collected by professional scientists and/or by<br />
specially trained observers. Arctic indigenous residents had hardly any documented voice<br />
in <strong>the</strong> early IPY/IGY ventures, except by serving as “subjects” for museum collecting or<br />
while working as dog-drivers, guides, and unskilled assistants <strong>to</strong> research expeditions.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ural scientists with strong interest in N<strong>at</strong>ive cultures were <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>to</strong> break th<strong>at</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern<br />
and <strong>to</strong> seek polar residents as a valuable source of expertise on <strong>the</strong> Arctic environment.<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> has a distinguished tradition in working with indigenous experts<br />
and documenting <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge, from <strong>the</strong> days of <strong>the</strong> First IPY 1882– 1883 <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
recent projects on indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions on Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change. The paper explores<br />
<strong>the</strong> unique role of IPY 2007– 2008 and of recent efforts focused on <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
indigenous knowledge of Arctic environment and clim<strong>at</strong>e change, by using <strong>the</strong> experience<br />
of one IPY project, SIKU— Sea Ice Knowledge and Use— and research collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with<br />
local Yupik Eskimo experts from St. Lawrence Island, Alaska.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
This paper explores <strong>the</strong> emerging links among Arctic people’s ecological<br />
knowledge, clim<strong>at</strong>e change research, and cultural (or “social science”) studies<br />
in <strong>the</strong> polar regions. Residents of <strong>the</strong> Arctic are no strangers <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>day’s deb<strong>at</strong>es<br />
about clim<strong>at</strong>e change and global warming (Kusugak, 2002; W<strong>at</strong>t-Cloutier, 2005).<br />
Their knowledge on <strong>the</strong> Arctic environment is being increasingly sought as a<br />
source of valuable d<strong>at</strong>a for documenting and modeling Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change<br />
(ACIA, 2005). Still, such a rapprochement is not yet an established practice,<br />
as many scientists still view Arctic people’s perspectives on clim<strong>at</strong>e change as<br />
merely “anecdotal evidence.”<br />
Social science’s interest in Arctic people’s observ<strong>at</strong>ions of clim<strong>at</strong>e change is,<br />
similarly, a r<strong>at</strong>her recent phenomenon, barely 10 years old (McDonald et al.,<br />
1997). Of course, Arctic residents have been observing changes and refl ecting<br />
upon fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong>ir environment since time immemorial. Their knowledge,<br />
however, has been “archived” within nor<strong>the</strong>rn communities and was<br />
transmitted in indigenous languages via elders’ s<strong>to</strong>ries, personal observ<strong>at</strong>ions,
130 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK<br />
and inform<strong>at</strong>ion shared among hunters. As scientists became<br />
increasingly <strong>at</strong>tentive <strong>to</strong> indigenous perspectives on<br />
Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change, several barriers <strong>to</strong> productive dialog<br />
and communic<strong>at</strong>ion had <strong>to</strong> be overcome (see discussion in<br />
Krupnik, 2002; Laidler, 2006; Oakes and Riewe, 2006).<br />
Over <strong>the</strong> past decade, this new emerging collabor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
produced numerous papers, volumes, collections, documentaries,<br />
interactive CD-ROMs, and museum exhibits<br />
(Figure 1; Ford et al., 2007; Herlander and Mus<strong>to</strong>nen,<br />
2004; Gearheard et al., 2006; Hunting<strong>to</strong>n and Fox, 2005;<br />
Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; Laidler, 2006; Laidler and Elee,<br />
2006; Oakes and Riewe, 2006).<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> key tasks of <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
(IPY) 2007– 2008, articul<strong>at</strong>ed in its many documents, is<br />
<strong>to</strong> explore how d<strong>at</strong>a gener<strong>at</strong>ed by polar residents can be<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ched with <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions and models used by polar<br />
scientists (Allison et al., 2007:51– 52; Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Coun-<br />
cil for Science, 2004:18). For <strong>the</strong> fi st time, <strong>the</strong> IPY science<br />
program includes a special research <strong>the</strong>me with a goal<br />
<strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> cultural, his<strong>to</strong>rical, and social processes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> shape <strong>the</strong> sustainability of circumpolar human societies, and<br />
<strong>to</strong> identify <strong>the</strong>ir unique contributions <strong>to</strong> global cultural diversity<br />
and citizenship. (Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Council for Science, 2004:15;<br />
Krupnik et al., 2005:91– 92)<br />
The new IPY includes scores of science projects focused<br />
on <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of indigenous environmental<br />
knowledge and observ<strong>at</strong>ions of clim<strong>at</strong>e change (Hovelsrud<br />
and Krupnik, 2006:344– 345; Krupnik, 2007); it serves as<br />
an important driver <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> growing partnership between<br />
Arctic residents and polar researchers. Many Arctic people<br />
also see IPY 2007– 2008 as <strong>the</strong> fi rst intern<strong>at</strong>ional science<br />
venture <strong>to</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y have been invited and one in which<br />
FIGURE 1. New public face of polar science, <strong>the</strong> exhibit Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, 2006.<br />
(Pho<strong>to</strong>graph by Chip Clark, NMNH)
<strong>the</strong>ir environmental expertise is valued and promoted.<br />
This growing partnership in <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of polar<br />
residents’ observ<strong>at</strong>ions of clim<strong>at</strong>e change is widely viewed<br />
as a cutting edge of <strong>to</strong>day’s Arctic social and cultural research.<br />
SOCIAL SCIENCES IN EARLIER<br />
INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEARS<br />
All previous Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year initi<strong>at</strong>ives in<br />
1882– 1883, 1932– 1933, and, particularly, <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957– 1958, were<br />
framed primarily, if not exclusively, as geophysical programs<br />
focused on meteorology, <strong>at</strong>mospheric and geomagnetic<br />
research, and l<strong>at</strong>er, glaciology, geology, space studies,<br />
oceanography, and sea ice circul<strong>at</strong>ion studies (Fleming and<br />
Seitchek, 2009, this volume). We have hardly any record of<br />
Arctic residents’ involvement in previous IPYs, o<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
serving as guides, manual laborers, unskilled assistants,<br />
or being prospects for ethnographic collecting. None of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se earlier IPY ventures organized primarily by meteorologists,<br />
geophysicists, and oceanographers considered<br />
<strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of indigenous perspectives on Arctic<br />
environment a valid <strong>to</strong>pic for scholarly research.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, social scientists and polar residents can<br />
justly claim a solid IPY legacy of <strong>the</strong>ir own th<strong>at</strong> goes back<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY of 1882– 1883. Half of <strong>the</strong> 12 IPY-1 observ<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions and four “auxiliary” missions th<strong>at</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic produced substantial, often extensive,<br />
accounts on local popul<strong>at</strong>ions and <strong>the</strong>ir cultures (Barr,<br />
1985; Krupnik et al., 2005:89– 90). Four seminal ethnographic<br />
monographs, including three on Arctic indigenous<br />
people, were published as direct outcomes of <strong>the</strong> First IPY<br />
(Boas, 1888; Murdoch 1892; Turner 1894), in addition<br />
<strong>to</strong> several chapters in expedition reports, scores of scholarly<br />
articles, and popular accounts (Barr 1985; Burch,<br />
2009, this volume). Some of <strong>the</strong>se contributions— like<br />
those by Murdoch and Ray on Barrow; Tromholt (1885)<br />
on Kau<strong>to</strong>keino, Norway; and Bunge (1895) on <strong>the</strong> Lena<br />
River Delta— were illustr<strong>at</strong>ed by pho<strong>to</strong>graphs and drawings<br />
of local communities, people, and cultural landscapes<br />
(Wood and Overland, 2007). Today, such records are treasures<br />
<strong>to</strong> museum cur<strong>at</strong>ors, anthropologists, and his<strong>to</strong>rians,<br />
but even more so <strong>to</strong> local communities as resources<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir heritage educ<strong>at</strong>ion programs (Crowell, 2009, this<br />
volume; Jensen, 2005).<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most infl uential social science contribution<br />
<strong>to</strong> IPY-1 was <strong>the</strong> research of Franz Boas, a Germanborn<br />
physicist and, l<strong>at</strong>er, <strong>the</strong> founding fi gure of American<br />
“THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 131<br />
anthropology. In 1883, Boas volunteered <strong>to</strong> do a post-doc<br />
study in human geography among <strong>the</strong> Canadian Inuit as<br />
a follow-up <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> German IPY-1 observ<strong>at</strong>ion mission on<br />
Baffi n Island (Cole and Müller-Wille, 1984; Müller-Wille,<br />
1998). Boas’ research among <strong>the</strong> Baffi n Island Inuit in<br />
1883– 1884 introduced <strong>to</strong> polar science much of wh<strong>at</strong><br />
constitutes <strong>to</strong>day <strong>the</strong> core of <strong>the</strong> “human agenda” of IPY<br />
2007– 2008: <strong>the</strong> study of indigenous knowledge, adapt<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
culture change, and Arctic people’s views on <strong>the</strong> environment.<br />
There is no wonder th<strong>at</strong> Boas’ monograph on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Central Inuit of Arctic Canada (1888/1964), as well as<br />
books by Murdoch on <strong>the</strong> people of Barrow (1892/1988)<br />
and by Turner on <strong>the</strong> Inuit and Innu of Ungava Bay<br />
(1894/2001), remain, perhaps, <strong>the</strong> most widely cited public<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> entire IPY-1 program. It is also no accident<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se IPY-1 monographs on Arctic indigenous people<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir cultures were published by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
They also remain <strong>the</strong> only science writings from<br />
<strong>the</strong> First IPY th<strong>at</strong> were ever read and used by Arctic indigenous<br />
people, prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> recent “rediscovery” by <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian Sámi of Sophus Tromholt’s pho<strong>to</strong>graphs of<br />
Kau<strong>to</strong>keino in 1882– 1883. 1<br />
SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution has a distinguished record<br />
of pioneering cultural research and collecting in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
(see Fitzhugh 2002; 2009, this volume). By <strong>the</strong> time of<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY 1882– 1883, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> had established<br />
productive partnerships with many federal agencies, priv<strong>at</strong>e<br />
parties, and individual explorers (Fitzhugh, 1988b; Loring<br />
2001). The connection <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Signal Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> War Department<br />
was essential <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> involvement in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst IPY, since <strong>the</strong> Offi ce was put in charge of <strong>the</strong> prepar<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
for two U.S. IPY expeditions <strong>to</strong> Barrow and Lady<br />
Franklin Bay in 1881. Dr. Spencer Baird, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Secretary, immedi<strong>at</strong>ely seized <strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>to</strong> advance<br />
<strong>the</strong> foremost role of <strong>the</strong> institution in n<strong>at</strong>ional polar research<br />
and <strong>to</strong> expand its Arctic collections. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> was<br />
instrumental in selecting n<strong>at</strong>ural scientists for both U.S. missions<br />
and in training <strong>the</strong>m in conducting observ<strong>at</strong>ions and<br />
collecting specimens. 2 According <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Secretary’s Annual<br />
Reports for 1883 and 1884, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> assumed responsibility<br />
for <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry component of both U.S.<br />
IPY missions and of <strong>the</strong>ir collections (Baird 1885a:15– 16;<br />
1885b:15). Baird’s rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with John Murdoch, one of<br />
two n<strong>at</strong>ural scientists of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow IPY team, is very<br />
well documented (Fitzhugh 1988a, xiv– xxix; Murdoch<br />
1892:19– 20). Lucien Turner’s one-man mission <strong>to</strong> Ungava
132 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK<br />
Bay was primarily a <strong>Smithsonian</strong> (i.e., Baird’s) initi<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
(Barr, 1985:204; Loring, 2001:xv).<br />
To <strong>the</strong> returning IPY missions, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
offered its facilities, libraries, and <strong>the</strong> expertise of<br />
its cur<strong>at</strong>ors for processing <strong>the</strong> records and specimens; for<br />
<strong>the</strong>se and o<strong>the</strong>r efforts <strong>the</strong> Institution was design<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong><br />
receive all of <strong>the</strong> collections brought from <strong>the</strong> north. The<br />
Barrow n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry collections were monumental, as<br />
were Turner’s from Labrador. 3 The ethnological portion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Barrow collection (1,189 specimens upon <strong>the</strong> original<br />
count 4 — see Crowell, 2009, this volume) is <strong>the</strong> second<br />
largest in <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
(NMNH) Alaska ethnology collections, and Turner’s IPY<br />
collection (530 objects) is <strong>the</strong> second largest among <strong>the</strong><br />
ethnology acquisitions from Canada. Even most of <strong>the</strong> illf<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
Greely mission’s n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry specimens, including<br />
some 100 ethnological objects (Greely, 1888:301– 317)<br />
and personal memorabilia, ended up in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
collections (Neighbors, 2005). All three U.S. IPY missions<br />
also produced several dozen pho<strong>to</strong>graphs th<strong>at</strong> are among<br />
<strong>the</strong> earliest from <strong>the</strong>ir respective areas. 5<br />
By <strong>the</strong> very scope of <strong>the</strong>ir assignments, early IPY scientists<br />
combined instrumental meteorological observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
with n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry research and collecting; hence,<br />
<strong>the</strong> changes in local clim<strong>at</strong>e and n<strong>at</strong>ural environment may<br />
have been on <strong>the</strong>ir minds as well. We know th<strong>at</strong> Boas<br />
was deeply interested in Inuit perspectives on <strong>the</strong>ir environment.<br />
He had been system<strong>at</strong>ically documenting Inuit<br />
knowledge of sea ice, snow, we<strong>at</strong>her, place-names, and<br />
navig<strong>at</strong>ion across <strong>the</strong> snow/ice covered terrain as part of<br />
his research program (Cole and Müller-Wille, 1984:51–<br />
53), very much like many IPY scientists are doing <strong>to</strong>day.<br />
In 1912, 30 years after Murdoch and Turner, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
anthropologist Riley Moore visited St. Lawrence<br />
Island, Alaska, and worked with a young hunter named<br />
Paul Silook (Figure 2). Silook assisted Moore in transl<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
elders’ s<strong>to</strong>ries about <strong>the</strong> famine of 1878– 1879 th<strong>at</strong> killed<br />
hundreds of island residents (Moore, 1923:356– 358).<br />
Some scientists believe th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> famine was caused by extraordinary<br />
sea ice and we<strong>at</strong>her conditions th<strong>at</strong> disrupted<br />
<strong>the</strong> islanders’ hunting cycle (Crowell and Oozevaseuk,<br />
2006). In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1920s, ano<strong>the</strong>r <strong>Smithsonian</strong> scientist,<br />
Henry Collins, partnered with Silook in search for local<br />
knowledge about <strong>the</strong> early his<strong>to</strong>ry of island’s popul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Collins also asked Silook <strong>to</strong> maintain a personal diary with<br />
<strong>the</strong> records of we<strong>at</strong>her conditions; this diary has been preserved<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Anthropological Archives<br />
(Jolles, 1995). Silook may have <strong>to</strong>ld Collins about<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>at</strong>astrophic s<strong>to</strong>rms th<strong>at</strong> destroyed his n<strong>at</strong>ive village of<br />
Gambell in 1913 and o<strong>the</strong>r extraordinary events, which he<br />
FIGURE 2. Paul Silook, Siluk (1892– 1946), worked with many scientists<br />
who came <strong>to</strong> his home village of Gambell over more than<br />
three decades, between 1912 and 1949. (Pho<strong>to</strong>graph by Riley D.<br />
Moore, 1912, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. NAA, Neg. # SI 2000-693)<br />
described <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r scholars in l<strong>at</strong>er years (Krupnik et al.,<br />
2002:161– 163).<br />
CONVERTING LOCAL OBSERVATIONS<br />
INTO “IPY SCIENCE”<br />
If partnership between Arctic residents and polar researchers<br />
in IPY 2007– 2008 is <strong>to</strong> bring tangible benefi ts<br />
<strong>to</strong> both sides, each party has <strong>to</strong> understand how <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ional system works. This implies certain steps<br />
needed <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> two systems comp<strong>at</strong>ible or, <strong>at</strong> least,<br />
open <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a exchange. Local knowledge, very much like<br />
science, is based upon long-term observ<strong>at</strong>ion and moni<strong>to</strong>ring<br />
of dozens of environmental parameters, in o<strong>the</strong>r
words, upon multifaceted d<strong>at</strong>a collection. By and large,<br />
indigenous experts follow many of <strong>the</strong> same analytical<br />
steps, though in <strong>the</strong>ir specifi c ways (Berkes 1999:9– 12).<br />
Much like scientists, local hunters exchange individual<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and convert <strong>the</strong>m in<strong>to</strong> a shared body of<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a. They analyze <strong>the</strong> signals of change and seek explan<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> phenomena <strong>the</strong>y observe (Krupnik 2002;<br />
Hunting<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2004).<br />
When <strong>the</strong> fi rst projects in <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of indigenous<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions of Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e change were started,<br />
scientists were literally overwhelmed by <strong>the</strong> sheer wealth<br />
of local records. As a result, much of <strong>the</strong> early work on<br />
indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions, up <strong>to</strong> 2003– 2005, focused on <strong>the</strong><br />
mere document<strong>at</strong>ion of various evidence of change coming<br />
from different areas. 6 Next, scientists tried <strong>to</strong> apply certain<br />
<strong>to</strong>ols, such as typologies, maps, and m<strong>at</strong>rix tables arranged<br />
by ecosystem component, <strong>to</strong> compare reports from<br />
different areas (McDonald et al., 1997:46– 47; Krupnik<br />
and Jolly, 2002; Hunting<strong>to</strong>n and Fox, 2005). These fi rst<br />
applic<strong>at</strong>ions of scientifi c <strong>to</strong>ols illustr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> Arctic residents<br />
observe a consistent p<strong>at</strong>tern of change and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
interpret <strong>the</strong> phenomena <strong>the</strong>y observe in a comprehensive,<br />
integr<strong>at</strong>ed manner. It also became clear th<strong>at</strong> local people<br />
have documented rapid change in <strong>the</strong> Arctic environment<br />
in a profound and unequivocal way.<br />
The next step in scientists’ approach <strong>to</strong> indigenous records<br />
is <strong>to</strong> look for cases and areas where indigenous and<br />
scientifi c d<strong>at</strong>a disagree and offer differing, often confl icting<br />
interpret<strong>at</strong>ions (Hunting<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2004; Krupnik and<br />
Ray, 2007; Nor<strong>to</strong>n, 2002). This approach reveals certain<br />
fe<strong>at</strong>ures of indigenous versus scientifi c observ<strong>at</strong>ion processes,<br />
such as differences in scaling, in <strong>the</strong> use of prime indic<strong>at</strong>ors,<br />
and in causes and linkages cited as explan<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in two knowledge systems. It also offers a much more systemic<br />
vision th<strong>at</strong> goes beyond a popular dicho<strong>to</strong>my th<strong>at</strong><br />
contrasts local or traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> scientifi c knowledge. Under such vision, <strong>the</strong> former<br />
is usually labeled “intuitive, holistic, consensual, and<br />
qualit<strong>at</strong>ive,” whereas <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter is perceived as analytical,<br />
quantit<strong>at</strong>ive, and compartmentalized (Bielawski, 1992;<br />
Krupnik, 2002:184). While <strong>the</strong>se labels contain some<br />
truth, N<strong>at</strong>ive experts have demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed repe<strong>at</strong>edly th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>y can effectively oper<strong>at</strong>e with both types of records<br />
and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y often m<strong>at</strong>ch <strong>the</strong>m more skillfully than scientists<br />
do (Aporta and Higgs, 2005; Bogoslovskaya, 2003;<br />
Krupnik and Ray, 2007; Noongwook et al., 2007).<br />
Scientists commonly argue th<strong>at</strong> Arctic people’s records<br />
of clim<strong>at</strong>e change would be a valuable contribution <strong>to</strong> IPY<br />
2007– 2008 (Allison et al., 2007). Still, such accommod<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
requires substantial mutual adjustment of observa-<br />
“THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 133<br />
tional and analytical practices. Scientists have <strong>to</strong> accept<br />
th<strong>at</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a gener<strong>at</strong>ed by local observers are crucial <strong>to</strong> cover<br />
certain gaps in instrumental or s<strong>at</strong>ellite records, despite<br />
some reserv<strong>at</strong>ions with regard <strong>to</strong> how local observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are collected and transmitted. From <strong>the</strong>ir side, N<strong>at</strong>ive experts<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ing in joint projects have <strong>to</strong> acknowledge<br />
certain standards of science d<strong>at</strong>a collection, like consistency,<br />
transparency, and independent verifi c<strong>at</strong>ion. Here<br />
<strong>the</strong> gap is indeed serious, since indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are mostly non-numerical, are freely and widely shared<br />
within <strong>the</strong> community, and are rarely if ever reported in<br />
writing (B<strong>at</strong>es, 2007:89– 91). Because of <strong>the</strong>se and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
fac<strong>to</strong>rs, indigenous records can rarely be tested by scientists’<br />
analytical procedures, like long-term series, st<strong>at</strong>istical<br />
averaging, correl<strong>at</strong>ion, and trend verifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, among<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
Also, indigenous observers have <strong>the</strong>ir specifi c “terms<br />
of references” when assessing <strong>the</strong> validity of <strong>the</strong>ir d<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
such as individual life experience, community-based memory,<br />
or verifi c<strong>at</strong>ion by elders or individual experts (Noongwook<br />
et al., 2007:48; Gearheard et al., 2006). Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
<strong>the</strong> sheer volume of d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> be gener<strong>at</strong>ed by many<br />
particip<strong>at</strong>ory projects in IPY 2007– 2008 has already triggered<br />
efforts <strong>to</strong> develop procedures and standards for local<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and for management of indigenous records. 7<br />
SIKU— SEA ICE KNOWLEDGE AND USE<br />
The experience of one such project illustr<strong>at</strong>es wh<strong>at</strong><br />
scientists can learn from local experts and how indigenous<br />
knowledge may advance IPY science. “Sea Ice Knowledge<br />
and Use: Assessing Arctic Environmental and Social<br />
Change” (SIKU, IPY #166) is an IPY project aimed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
document<strong>at</strong>ion of indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions of Arctic clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change, with its focus on sea ice and <strong>the</strong> use of icecovered<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s by polar residents. The project’s acronym<br />
SIKU is also <strong>the</strong> most common word for sea ice (siku) in<br />
all Eskimo languages, from Bering Strait <strong>to</strong> Greenland.<br />
As a collabor<strong>at</strong>ive initi<strong>at</strong>ive, SIKU relies on partnership<br />
among anthropologists, geographers, and marine and ice<br />
scientists from <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, Canada, Russia, Greenland,<br />
and France, and indigenous communities in Alaska,<br />
Canada, Greenland, and Russian Chukotka. SIKU is organized<br />
as a consortium of several research initi<strong>at</strong>ives supported<br />
by funds from various n<strong>at</strong>ional agencies. The project<br />
was started in winter 2006– 2007 and it will continue<br />
through 2008 and 2009. The Alaska-Chukotka portion of<br />
SIKU has its three hubs <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Arctic Studies<br />
Center (managed by Igor Krupnik), <strong>the</strong> Russian Institute
134 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK<br />
of Cultural and N<strong>at</strong>ural Heritage in Moscow (Lyudmila<br />
Bogoslovskaya), and <strong>the</strong> University of Alaska, Fairbanks<br />
(Hajo Eicken). The Canadian portion of SIKU is called<br />
Inuit Sea Ice Use and Occupancy Project (ISIUOP); it is coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by Claudio Aporta and Gita Laidler <strong>at</strong> Carle<strong>to</strong>n<br />
University, Ottawa (see http://gcrc.carle<strong>to</strong>n.ca/isiuop).<br />
Research under <strong>the</strong> SIKU-Alaska and SIKU- Chukotka<br />
program takes place in several local communities, such<br />
as Gambell, Shak<strong>to</strong>olik, Wales, Shishmaref, Barrow,<br />
Tununak, Uelen, Lavrentiya, Sireniki, and so on (Figure 3).<br />
It includes daily ice and we<strong>at</strong>her observ<strong>at</strong>ions, collections<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ive terms for sea ice and we<strong>at</strong>her phenomena, document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of ecological knowledge rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> sea ice and<br />
ice use from elders and hunters, and searches for his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
records of ice and clim<strong>at</strong>e conditions (see http://www.ipy<br />
.org/index.php?ipy/detail/sea_ice_knowledge_and_use/).<br />
This paper examines <strong>the</strong> contribution of one of such local<br />
SIKU observers, Leonard Apangalook Sr., a hunter and<br />
community leader from <strong>the</strong> Yupik village of Gambell on<br />
St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Apangalook, 69, is a nephew<br />
of Paul Silook and he continues an almost 100-year tradition<br />
of his family’s collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
scientists (Figure 4). Since spring 2006, Apangalook has<br />
produced daily logs on sea ice, we<strong>at</strong>her, and local subsistence<br />
activities in his n<strong>at</strong>ive community of Gambell. His<br />
personal contribution <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IPY 2007– 2008 now covers<br />
two full “ice years,” 2006– 2007 and 2007– 2008, and will<br />
hopefully extend in<strong>to</strong> 2008– 2009.<br />
St. Lawrence Island residents’ knowledge of sea ice<br />
has been extensively documented in recent years via several<br />
collabor<strong>at</strong>ive projects with two local Yupik communities<br />
of Gambell and Savoonga (Hunting<strong>to</strong>n, 2000; Jolles,<br />
FIGURE 3. The Yupik village of Gambell on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, is one of <strong>the</strong> key research “sites” for <strong>the</strong> SIKU project. (Pho<strong>to</strong>, Igor<br />
Krupnik, February 2008)
FIGURE 4. Leonard Apangalook Sr., SIKU participant and local<br />
observer in <strong>the</strong> village of Gambell, St. Lawrence Island (courtesy of<br />
Leonard Apangalook).<br />
1995; 2003; Krupnik, 2000; 2002; Krupnik and Ray,<br />
2007; Metcalf and Krupnik, 2003; Noongwook et al.,<br />
2007; Oozeva et al., 2004). The island people have long<br />
voiced concerns about shifts in <strong>the</strong> local environment <strong>the</strong>y<br />
observed and about <strong>the</strong> growing impact of clim<strong>at</strong>e change<br />
upon <strong>the</strong>ir economy and way of living. Apangalook’s observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
help convert <strong>the</strong>se st<strong>at</strong>ements in<strong>to</strong> a written record<br />
open <strong>to</strong> scientifi c scrutiny and analysis.<br />
NEW PATTERNS OF FALL ICE FORMATION<br />
St. Lawrence Islanders have a highly nuanced vision on<br />
how <strong>the</strong> new sea ice is being formed in <strong>the</strong>ir area or, r<strong>at</strong>her,<br />
how it used <strong>to</strong> be formed in <strong>the</strong> old days. Their n<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
Yupik language has more than 20 terms for various types<br />
of young ice and freezing conditions. Winds and currents<br />
would drive small chunks of fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice (kulusiit) from <strong>the</strong><br />
north in Oc<strong>to</strong>ber or even in l<strong>at</strong>e September (Oozeva et al.,<br />
2004:133– 134). Most would melt or would be washed<br />
ashore; but some would freeze in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> locally formed slush<br />
or frazil ice. Around <strong>the</strong> time <strong>the</strong> fi rst local ice is established<br />
(in l<strong>at</strong>e Oc<strong>to</strong>ber or early November), <strong>the</strong> prevailing winds<br />
would shift direction, from primarily sou<strong>the</strong>rly <strong>to</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rly,<br />
followed by a drop in daily temper<strong>at</strong>ures. Depending<br />
upon year-<strong>to</strong>-year variability, but usually by l<strong>at</strong>e November,<br />
<strong>the</strong> thick Arctic ice pack, sikupik, would arrive from <strong>the</strong><br />
Chukchi Sea, often smashing <strong>the</strong> young locally formed ice.<br />
Crashing, breaking, and refreezing would continue through<br />
December, until a more solid winter ice was formed <strong>to</strong> last<br />
until spring (Oozeva et al., 2004:136– 137).<br />
“THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 135<br />
Since <strong>the</strong> 1980s, hunters started <strong>to</strong> observe changes<br />
<strong>to</strong> this p<strong>at</strong>tern, which had until <strong>the</strong>n been seen as normal.<br />
First, drifting ice fl oes, kulusiit, were l<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> arrive, often<br />
by a full month, and by <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1990s, <strong>the</strong>y have s<strong>to</strong>pped<br />
coming al<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r. The new ice is now being formed entirely<br />
out of local frozen slush or frazil ice, via its thickening,<br />
consolid<strong>at</strong>ion, repe<strong>at</strong>ed break-ups, and refreezing.<br />
Then <strong>the</strong> main pack ice ceased <strong>to</strong> arrive until January or<br />
even February; and in <strong>the</strong> last few years it did not arrive <strong>at</strong><br />
all. Even when <strong>the</strong> pack ice fi nally comes from <strong>the</strong> north,<br />
it is not a solid thick ice, sikupik, but r<strong>at</strong>her thin new ice<br />
th<strong>at</strong> was formed fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north. Because of this new<br />
set of dynamics, <strong>the</strong> onset of winter ice conditions on St.<br />
Lawrence Island is now delayed by six <strong>to</strong> eight weeks, th<strong>at</strong><br />
is, until l<strong>at</strong>e December or even January. 8<br />
Apangalook’s observ<strong>at</strong>ions during two IPY winters<br />
of 2006– 2007 and 2007– 2008 help document this new<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern in gre<strong>at</strong> detail. In addition, his daily records may<br />
be m<strong>at</strong>ched with <strong>the</strong> logbooks of early teachers from his<br />
village of Gambell th<strong>at</strong> covered three subsequent winters<br />
of 1898– 1899, 1899– 1900, and 1900– 1901 (Doty,<br />
1900:224– 256; Lerrigo, 1901:114– 132; 1902:97– 123; see<br />
Oozeva et al., 2004:168– 191). According <strong>to</strong> Apangalook’s<br />
logs, no drifting ice fl oes were seen in winter 2006– 2007<br />
and none in <strong>the</strong> month of November 2007. Although in<br />
2007– 2008 <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of slush ice started more than<br />
two weeks earlier than in 2006– 2007, <strong>the</strong> ice was quickly<br />
broken up by a warming spell, so th<strong>at</strong> on 22 November<br />
2007, Apangalook reported: “Thanksgiving Day with no<br />
ice in <strong>the</strong> ocean; normally [we] would have ice and hunt<br />
walrus on Thanksgiving Day but not anymore.” In both<br />
2006 and 2007, <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ure dropped solidly below<br />
freezing on <strong>the</strong> fi rst week of December— and th<strong>at</strong> was two<br />
<strong>to</strong> four weeks l<strong>at</strong>er than a century ago. The change of wind<br />
regime, from sou<strong>the</strong>rly <strong>to</strong> predomin<strong>at</strong>ely nor<strong>the</strong>rly winds,<br />
also occurred in early December, th<strong>at</strong> is, two <strong>to</strong> four weeks<br />
l<strong>at</strong>er than in 1898– 1901 (Oozeva et al., 2004:185). Due<br />
<strong>to</strong> shift in wind and temper<strong>at</strong>ure, local slush ice solidifi ed<br />
rapidly. On 16 December 2006, Apangalook reported th<strong>at</strong><br />
“when locally formed ice gets thick and encompasses <strong>the</strong><br />
entire Bering Sea around our island, our elders used <strong>to</strong> say<br />
th<strong>at</strong> we have a winter th<strong>at</strong> is locally formed” (Figure 5).<br />
WINTER WEATHER AND ICE REGIMES<br />
Apangalook’s daily logs substanti<strong>at</strong>e st<strong>at</strong>ements of<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r St. Lawrence hunters about <strong>the</strong> profound change in<br />
winter we<strong>at</strong>her and ice regime over <strong>the</strong> past decades (cf.<br />
Oozeva et al., 2004; Noongwook et al., 2007). With <strong>the</strong>
136 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK<br />
FIGURE 5. The new ice is being formed from <strong>the</strong> pieces of fl o<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
icebergs and newly formed young ice. There are terms for every<br />
single piece of ice in this picture and many more in <strong>the</strong> local language<br />
(“W<strong>at</strong>ching Ice and We<strong>at</strong>her Our Way,” 2004, p. 114; original<br />
pho<strong>to</strong> by Chester Noongwook, 2000).<br />
absence of solid pack ice, people have <strong>to</strong> adapt <strong>to</strong> a far<br />
less stable local new ice th<strong>at</strong> can be easily broken by heavy<br />
winds, s<strong>to</strong>rms, and even strong currents (Figure 6). According<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> elders, this ice is “no good,” as it is very dangerous<br />
for walking and winter hunting on foot or with skin bo<strong>at</strong>s<br />
being dragged over it, as used <strong>to</strong> be a common practice<br />
in <strong>the</strong> “old days” (Oozeva et al., 2004:137– 138, 142– 143,<br />
163– 166). As a result, few hunters dare <strong>to</strong> go hunting on<br />
ice in front of <strong>the</strong> village in wintertime (Figure 7). Instead,<br />
FIGURE 6. “Winter th<strong>at</strong> is locally formed.” Thin young ice solidifi<br />
es along <strong>the</strong> shores of St. Lawrence Island, February 2008. Leonard<br />
Apangalook stands <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> right, next <strong>to</strong> his sled. (Pho<strong>to</strong>, Igor<br />
Krupnik, 2008)<br />
FIGURE 7. Hunters rarely venture on<strong>to</strong> young unstable ice and <strong>the</strong>y<br />
usually prefer <strong>to</strong> be accompanied by an experienced senior person.<br />
(Pho<strong>to</strong>, Hiroko Ikuta, 2006)<br />
<strong>the</strong>y have <strong>to</strong> rely upon shooting <strong>the</strong> animals from <strong>the</strong> shore<br />
or from ice pressure ridges (Figure 8) or upon hunting in<br />
bo<strong>at</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> dense fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice, a technique th<strong>at</strong> is now <strong>the</strong><br />
norm in Gambell during winter months (Figure 9). In <strong>the</strong><br />
early teachers’ era of 100 years ago, bo<strong>at</strong> hunting for walruses<br />
did not start in Gambell until early or even l<strong>at</strong>e March<br />
(Oozeva et al., 2004:187– 188).<br />
Winter conditions in Gambell, with <strong>the</strong> prevailing<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rly winds, are often interrupted by a few days of vi-<br />
FIGURE 8. Two Gambell hunters are looking for seals from ice pressure<br />
ridges. The ridges look high and solid, but <strong>the</strong>y can be quickly<br />
destroyed under <strong>the</strong> impact of strong wind or s<strong>to</strong>rms. (Pho<strong>to</strong>, Igor<br />
Krupnik, February 2008)
FIGURE 9. Hunting in bo<strong>at</strong>s in dense fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice is now a common<br />
practice in Gambell during <strong>the</strong> wintertime. (Pho<strong>to</strong>, G. Carle<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Ray)<br />
olent s<strong>to</strong>rms and warm spells brought by sou<strong>the</strong>rly winds.<br />
This happened twice in <strong>the</strong> winters of 1899– 1900 and<br />
1900– 1901, and three times in <strong>the</strong> winter of 1898– 1899<br />
(Oozeva et al., 2004:185). According <strong>to</strong> Conrad Oozeva,<br />
an elderly hunter from Gambell, <strong>the</strong> warm spells have<br />
been also typical in his early days:<br />
We commonly have three waves of warm we<strong>at</strong>her and thawing<br />
during <strong>the</strong> wintertime. After <strong>the</strong>se warmings, we love <strong>to</strong> go<br />
hunting in bo<strong>at</strong>s on w<strong>at</strong>er opening, before it covers again with<br />
<strong>the</strong> new ice. The only difference I see is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se warm waves<br />
were not long enough, just a few days only. We now have longer<br />
warming waves during <strong>the</strong> winter, often for several days.<br />
(Oozeva et al., 2004:186)<br />
These days, violent winter s<strong>to</strong>rms often lead <strong>to</strong> numerous<br />
episodes of ice breakups and new ice form<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
every winter. Apangalook’s record indic<strong>at</strong>es <strong>at</strong> least four<br />
episodes of complete ice disintegr<strong>at</strong>ion in Gambell in <strong>the</strong><br />
period from December 2006 until March 2007. On 10<br />
January 2007, he wrote in his log, “It is unusual <strong>to</strong> have<br />
swells and <strong>to</strong> lose ice in January compared <strong>to</strong> normal<br />
years in <strong>the</strong> past. Locally formed ice th<strong>at</strong> covered our<br />
area <strong>to</strong> 9/10 easily disappears with rising temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
and s<strong>to</strong>rm gener<strong>at</strong>ed swells.” Then on 31 January 2007,<br />
he reported again:<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> a twist we have in our we<strong>at</strong>her situ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end<br />
of January! Wind driven waves cleared away pressure ridges on<br />
west side with open w<strong>at</strong>er west of <strong>the</strong> Island. Part of <strong>the</strong> shore-<br />
“THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 137<br />
fast ice broke away on <strong>the</strong> north side beach also from <strong>the</strong> swells.<br />
Unusual <strong>to</strong> have so many low pressures channel up <strong>the</strong> Bering<br />
Straits from <strong>the</strong> south in a sequence th<strong>at</strong> brought in high winds<br />
and rain. Much of <strong>the</strong> snow melted, especially along <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>p of<br />
<strong>the</strong> beach where we now have bare gravel. Undeniably, <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change has acceler<strong>at</strong>ed over <strong>the</strong> past fi ve years where severity<br />
of winds and err<strong>at</strong>ic temper<strong>at</strong>ures occur more frequently<br />
every year.<br />
Elders on St. Lawrence Island and in o<strong>the</strong>r nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
communities unanimously point <strong>to</strong>ward ano<strong>the</strong>r big<br />
change in winter conditions. In <strong>the</strong> “old days,” despite<br />
episodic snows<strong>to</strong>rms and warm spells, <strong>the</strong>re were always<br />
extended periods of quiet, cold we<strong>at</strong>her, with no winds.<br />
These long cold stretches were good for hunting and traveling;<br />
<strong>the</strong>y also allowed hunters <strong>to</strong> predict <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her and<br />
ice conditions in advance. In <strong>the</strong> teachers’ records of more<br />
than a century ago, those stretches of calm cold we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
often covered two <strong>to</strong> three weeks. This p<strong>at</strong>tern does not<br />
occur <strong>to</strong>day. According <strong>to</strong> Apangalook’s logs, <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
a few periods of rel<strong>at</strong>ively quiet we<strong>at</strong>her during <strong>the</strong> winter<br />
of 2006– 2007; but <strong>the</strong>y lasted for a few days only. December<br />
2006 was particularly unstable and windy, with just<br />
one calm day. In comparison, during December 1899, <strong>the</strong><br />
we<strong>at</strong>her was quiet for 18 days, in two long stretches. In<br />
December 1900, quiet and calm we<strong>at</strong>her persisted for almost<br />
10 days in a row (Oozeva et al., 2004:185– 186). No<br />
wonder Arctic elders claim th<strong>at</strong> “<strong>the</strong> earth is faster now”<br />
(cf. Krupnik and Jolly, 2002:7).<br />
CHANGES IN MARINE MAMMAL BEHAVIOR AND HABITATS<br />
Local hunters’ observ<strong>at</strong>ions are n<strong>at</strong>urally fi lled with<br />
<strong>the</strong> references <strong>to</strong> wildlife and subsistence activities. When<br />
seen upon a broader his<strong>to</strong>rical timeframe, those records<br />
provide compelling evidence of a dram<strong>at</strong>ic shift th<strong>at</strong> is taking<br />
place in <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn marine ecosystems. Apangalook<br />
reported (6 March 2007):<br />
A few years back when <strong>the</strong> polar pack ice did not reach<br />
our area anymore, we sighted bowhead whales in our area sporadically<br />
in <strong>the</strong> middle of winter. Back when our seasons were<br />
normal, we saw whales in <strong>the</strong> fall going south for <strong>the</strong> winter<br />
and didn’t see any in mid-winter, until <strong>the</strong>y start coming back<br />
in mid-March-April and May. Now, with more whales in our<br />
area in mid-winter we know th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y are (mostly) wintering in<br />
our area. Without polar pack ice we had suspected th<strong>at</strong> some of<br />
<strong>the</strong> whales s<strong>to</strong>pped th<strong>at</strong> migr<strong>at</strong>ion north of our island and are<br />
not going fur<strong>the</strong>r south anymore. . . . We know <strong>to</strong>day th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
wintering area is fur<strong>the</strong>r north.
138 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KRUPNIK<br />
Many local hunters, like Apangalook, argue th<strong>at</strong> whale<br />
migr<strong>at</strong>ions have been deeply affected by clim<strong>at</strong>e change.<br />
Hunters started observing bowhead whales off St. Lawrence<br />
Island in December (usually, a few animals) since<br />
1962. Since 1995, winter whaling has become a common<br />
practice in both Gambell and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r island community<br />
of Savoonga, so th<strong>at</strong> some 40 percent of bowhead whales<br />
are now being taken in wintertime (Noongwook et al.,<br />
2007:51). The difference is indeed remarkable compared <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> conditions of a century ago, when <strong>the</strong> bowhead whales<br />
were not hunted in Gambell until early April (as in 1899)<br />
or even early May, as in 1900 and 1901 (Oozeva et al.,<br />
2004:189). To <strong>the</strong> contrary, in early 2007, Apangalook reported<br />
sightings of bowhead whales on February 6, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> hunters fi rst tried <strong>to</strong> pursue <strong>the</strong>m on 10 February 2007.<br />
The whales were <strong>the</strong>n seen off Gambell repe<strong>at</strong>edly for <strong>the</strong><br />
entire month. Local hunters in Barrow have also spotted<br />
bowhead whales in mid-February 2007; recent underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
acoustic recording off Barrow documented <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) during <strong>the</strong> winter<br />
of 2003/2004 (Stafford et al., 2007:170). If whales have<br />
become frequent in <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Bering Sea and sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Chukchi Sea in mid-winter, th<strong>at</strong> would be a strong indic<strong>at</strong>or<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> dram<strong>at</strong>ic shift in <strong>the</strong>ir migr<strong>at</strong>ion and distribution<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern across <strong>the</strong> North Pacifi c– Western Arctic region.<br />
Pacifi c walrus, ano<strong>the</strong>r marine mammal species of<br />
critical importance <strong>to</strong> St. Lawrence Island hunters is also<br />
becoming more common in wintertime. Back in <strong>the</strong> “olden<br />
days,” walrus used <strong>to</strong> come <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> island in gre<strong>at</strong> numbers<br />
in l<strong>at</strong>e Oc<strong>to</strong>ber or early November, ahead of <strong>the</strong> moving<br />
polar pack ice (Krupnik and Ray, 2007:2950). The bulk of<br />
<strong>the</strong> herd usually moved south of <strong>the</strong> island in December;<br />
but a small number of bull walruses commonly remained<br />
around Gambell in wintertime, mostly in offshore leads<br />
and polynyas. Still, <strong>the</strong> main hunting season for walrus<br />
did not start until l<strong>at</strong>e April or May. According <strong>to</strong> Apangalook’s<br />
records, <strong>the</strong> fall arrival of walrus in both 2006<br />
and 2007 was delayed by several weeks, so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
walruses were not seen until mid-December. After th<strong>at</strong>,<br />
walruses have been hunted in Gambell on almost daily basis<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> winter of 2006– 2007, which indic<strong>at</strong>es<br />
th<strong>at</strong>, like bowhead whales, <strong>the</strong>y are also staying in growing<br />
numbers during <strong>the</strong> winter months.<br />
Besides “wintering” walruses, Gambell hunters in winter<br />
2007– 2008 have observed several ribbon seals (Phoca<br />
fasci<strong>at</strong>a) th<strong>at</strong> are normally not seen in <strong>the</strong> area until l<strong>at</strong>e<br />
April or May. In February 2007, SIKU observers in Wales,<br />
some 200 miles <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north of Gambell, have spotted<br />
belugas (white whales); in <strong>the</strong> “old days,” beluga whales<br />
had not been seen in <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait area until mid-April.<br />
Whereas some species are becoming more common in<br />
winter, o<strong>the</strong>rs are moving out. Apangalook reports:<br />
One species of birds we used <strong>to</strong> hunt ever since I was a young<br />
child was <strong>the</strong> old squaw [Clangula hyemalis— IK]. Flocks of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
birds in <strong>the</strong> thousands would fl y north every morning <strong>at</strong> daybreak<br />
and return in <strong>the</strong> evening <strong>to</strong> [<strong>the</strong>] leeward side of <strong>the</strong> island. This<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern of movement daily I have seen every day in <strong>the</strong> sixty plus<br />
years of my life; but within <strong>the</strong> past fi ve years <strong>the</strong> numbers have<br />
dwindled <strong>to</strong> near zero. [. . .] Are <strong>the</strong>ir food sources moving <strong>to</strong> a<br />
different area or is [it] getting depleted? (1 February 2007)<br />
CONCLUSIONS: MESSAGES FROM<br />
INDIGENOUS OBSERVATION<br />
The evidence from <strong>the</strong> fi rst system<strong>at</strong>ic moni<strong>to</strong>ring by local<br />
IPY observers confi rms a substantial shift in sea ice and<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her regime over th<strong>at</strong> past decade, as has been claimed<br />
by polar scientists and indigenous experts alike. It is characterized<br />
by a much shorter presence of sea ice, often by<br />
several weeks. Many types of ice are becoming rare or have<br />
completely disappeared from <strong>the</strong> area, such as solid pack<br />
ice or forms of multi-layered ice built of old and new ice.<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> ice form<strong>at</strong>ions are now built of young and fragile<br />
fi rst-year ice. The ice is also becoming increasingly unstable<br />
and dangerous for hunters. 9 In Apangalook’s words,<br />
“Even marine mammals avoid this kind of ice condition, as<br />
it is hazardous <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> animals <strong>to</strong>o. It looks like game animal<br />
are taking refuge in more solid ice elsewhere.”<br />
Hunters’ observ<strong>at</strong>ions also confi rm <strong>the</strong> profound<br />
northward shift in <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea marine ecosystem, which<br />
is also detected by scientists (Grebmeier et al., 2006; Litzow,<br />
2007). Arctic residents refer <strong>to</strong> such shift in many<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir descriptions of clim<strong>at</strong>e change, although <strong>the</strong>y<br />
use <strong>the</strong>ir own “fl agship species” as prime indic<strong>at</strong>ors. Indigenous<br />
hunters, n<strong>at</strong>urally, pay most <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> large<br />
marine mammal and bird species as opposed <strong>to</strong> fi sh, invertebr<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
and benthic communities th<strong>at</strong> are popular indic<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
of change among marine biologists and oceanographers<br />
(Grebmeier et al., 2006; Ray et al., 2006; Sarmien<strong>to</strong><br />
et al., 2004).<br />
Arctic residents are extremely worried about <strong>the</strong> impact<br />
of ecosystem change on <strong>the</strong>ir economies, culture, and<br />
lifestyles. As Apangalook put it,<br />
Predictability of our game animals of <strong>the</strong> sea are inconsistent<br />
and err<strong>at</strong>ic compared (<strong>to</strong>) how it used <strong>to</strong> be back in <strong>the</strong> normal<br />
seasons. We, <strong>the</strong> hunters, along with <strong>the</strong> marine mammals
we hunt, are truly <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> mercy of our rapidly changing environment.<br />
(Apangalook, 2 March 2007)<br />
The last message from indigenous records is th<strong>at</strong> local<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions could be a valuable component of any instrumental<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ion network built for IPY 2007– 2008 and<br />
beyond. Many hunters in small Alaskan villages are trained<br />
<strong>to</strong> keep daily we<strong>at</strong>her logs and are very familiar with <strong>the</strong><br />
practices of instrumental observ<strong>at</strong>ion and forecasting. Also,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir daily records can be m<strong>at</strong>ched with his<strong>to</strong>rical instrumental<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a from <strong>the</strong> same areas th<strong>at</strong> sometimes go back <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> years of <strong>the</strong> First IPY of 1882– 1883 (Wood and Overland<br />
2006), as well as with <strong>the</strong> readings of <strong>to</strong>day’s we<strong>at</strong>her<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions and ice s<strong>at</strong>ellite imagery. Such cross-reference with<br />
<strong>the</strong> long-term instrumental series would cre<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> needed<br />
compar<strong>at</strong>ive context <strong>to</strong> indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions and would<br />
help introduce analytical scholarly <strong>to</strong>ols <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysis of<br />
indigenous d<strong>at</strong>a. Arctic residents’ observ<strong>at</strong>ions are <strong>to</strong>o precious<br />
a record <strong>to</strong> be discounted as “anecdotal evidence” in<br />
<strong>to</strong>day’s search for <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion and explan<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
environmental change.<br />
Besides, local observ<strong>at</strong>ions in places like Gambell,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> now-shortened ice season and thinned fi rst-year<br />
ice, may offer a valuable insight in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> future st<strong>at</strong>us of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Arctic sea ice of many clim<strong>at</strong>e models. Those models<br />
predict <strong>the</strong> shrinking, thinning, and eventual loss of<br />
multi-year ice over almost <strong>the</strong> entire Arctic Ocean by <strong>the</strong><br />
middle of this century (Bancroft, 2007; Johannessen et<br />
al., 2004:336– 338; Overland, 2007; Richter-Menge et al.,<br />
2006). Arctic residents’ integr<strong>at</strong>ive vision of <strong>the</strong>ir environment<br />
can be invaluable <strong>to</strong> our understanding of this new<br />
Arctic system in <strong>the</strong> decades <strong>to</strong> come.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This paper is a tribute <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> long-term partnership<br />
with local experts in <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong>ir observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of sea ice and clim<strong>at</strong>e change in <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait<br />
region. Collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with Herbert Anungazuk, Leonard<br />
Apangalook Sr., George Noongwook, Chester Noongwook,<br />
Conrad Oozeva, Willis Walunga, Win<strong>to</strong>n Weyapuk<br />
Jr., and o<strong>the</strong>rs turned in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> bonds of friendship and<br />
gained new momentum under <strong>the</strong> SIKU project in 2006–<br />
2008. I am gr<strong>at</strong>eful <strong>to</strong> Leonard Apangalook Sr.; also <strong>to</strong><br />
Hiroko Ikuta, Chester Noongwook, and G. Carle<strong>to</strong>n Ray,<br />
who shared <strong>the</strong>ir pho<strong>to</strong>s for illustr<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> this paper.<br />
My colleagues Ernest S. Burch Jr., Aron Crowell, William<br />
Fitzhugh, Molly Lee, G. Carle<strong>to</strong>n Ray, Cara Seitchek,<br />
Dennis Stanford, and Kevin Wood offered helpful comments<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst drafts of this paper. I thank <strong>the</strong>m all.<br />
“THE WAY WE SEE IT COMING”: INDIGENOUS OBSERVATIONS 139<br />
NOTES<br />
1. Sophus Tromholt’s pho<strong>to</strong>graphs taken in 1882– 1883 have been<br />
displayed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> “Indigenous Opening” of IPY 2007– 2008 and used in a<br />
special trilingual calendar produced for <strong>the</strong> event. See http://www.ip-py.org/<br />
news_cms/2007/january/tromholdt_exhibit_<strong>at</strong>_<strong>the</strong>_opening_ ceremony/6<br />
(accessed 30 March 2008).<br />
2. Point no. 51 in Hazen’s instructions, “Observ<strong>at</strong>ions and collections<br />
in <strong>the</strong> realms of zoology, botany, geology, &c.” (Ray, 1885:13;<br />
Greely, 1888:104).<br />
3. The Barrow collections included “497 bird-skins, comprising<br />
about 50 species, and 177 sets of eggs; [. . .] a small collection of skins,<br />
skulls, and skele<strong>to</strong>ns of mammals; 11 or 12 species of fi shes; a very few<br />
insects; and some marine and fresh-w<strong>at</strong>er invertebr<strong>at</strong>es. The plants of <strong>the</strong><br />
region were carefully collected. A considerable number of Eskimo vocabularies<br />
were obtained, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with a large collection of implements,<br />
clothing, &c” (Baird, 1885a:15). Turner’s collections from Labrador<br />
were described as “[. . .] of birds, 1,800 specimens; eggs, 1,800 specimens;<br />
fi shes, 1,000 specimens; mammals, 200 specimens; ethnological,<br />
600 artifacts; plants, a gre<strong>at</strong> number; insects, over 200,000; geological<br />
specimens, a gre<strong>at</strong> variety; Eskimo linguistics, over 500 pages of manuscript,<br />
embracing thousands of words and over 800 sentences” (Baird,<br />
1885b:17).<br />
4. In fact, <strong>the</strong>re are 1,068 ethnological objects, according <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>day’s<br />
electronic c<strong>at</strong>alog, with Lt. P. Ray recorded as donor; plus 6 objects don<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by Capt. Herendeen, ano<strong>the</strong>r member of <strong>the</strong> Barrow mission.<br />
5. Barrow team also conducted a census of <strong>the</strong> residents of Barrow,<br />
with 137 names of men, women, and children (Ray, 1885:49); th<strong>at</strong><br />
makes it one of <strong>the</strong> earliest samples of personal Inuit names from Arctic<br />
Alaska.<br />
6. See reviews of several individual document<strong>at</strong>ion projects on indigenous<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions in Krupnik and Jolly, 2002; also Herlander and<br />
Mus<strong>to</strong>nen, 2004; Hunting<strong>to</strong>n and Fox, 2005.<br />
7. One of such projects, ELOKA (Exchange for Local Observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
and Knowledge of <strong>the</strong> Arctic, IPY # 187) works “<strong>to</strong> provide d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
management <strong>to</strong>ols and appropri<strong>at</strong>e means of recording, preserving, and<br />
sharing d<strong>at</strong>a and inform<strong>at</strong>ion” from Arctic communities— See http://<br />
nsidc.org/eloka/ (accessed 30 March 2008).<br />
8. This p<strong>at</strong>tern has been consistently reported by indigenous observers<br />
across <strong>the</strong> Arctic area— see Gearheard et al., 2006; Laidler, 2006;<br />
Laidler and Elee, 2006; Laidler and Ikummaq, 2008; McDonald et al.,<br />
1997; Metcalf and Krupnik, 2003.<br />
9. See similar conclusions from o<strong>the</strong>r projects in <strong>the</strong> document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of indigenous knowledge on sea ice change (Gearheard et al., 2006;<br />
Laidler, 2006; Laidler and Elee, 2006; Nor<strong>to</strong>n, 2002). Murdoch’s work<br />
in Barrow even inspired a special IPY 2007– 2008 project aimed <strong>at</strong> replic<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
his ethnological collections by <strong>to</strong>day’s specimens (Jensen, 2005)<br />
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Species Diversity and Distributions<br />
of Pelagic Calanoid Copepods<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
E. Taisoo Park and Frank D. Ferrari<br />
E. Taisoo Park, Texas A&M University, 29421<br />
Vista Valley Drive, Vista, CA 92084, USA.<br />
Frank D. Ferrari, Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Zoology, N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, 4210 Silver Hill Road, Suitland, MD<br />
20746, USA. Corresponding author: F. D. Ferrari<br />
( ferrarif@si.edu). Accepted 27 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. In <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 205 species of pelagic calanoid copepods have<br />
been reported from 57 genera and 21 families. Eight species are found in <strong>the</strong> coastal<br />
zone; 13 are epipelagic, and 184 are restricted <strong>to</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er. All 8 coastal species and<br />
eight of 13 epipelagic species are endemic, with epipelagic species restricted <strong>to</strong> one<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er mass. Of <strong>the</strong> 184 deepw<strong>at</strong>er species, 50 are endemic, and 24 occur south of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. Most of <strong>the</strong> remaining 134 deepw<strong>at</strong>er species are found<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> oceans with 86% percent reported as far as <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region.<br />
The deepw<strong>at</strong>er genus Paraeuchaeta has <strong>the</strong> largest number of species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, 21; all are carnivores. Scolecithricella is also speciose with 16 species, and more<br />
specimens of <strong>the</strong>se detritivores were collected. Species with a bipolar distribution are<br />
not as common as bipolar species pairs. A bipolar distribution may result from continuous<br />
extinction in middle and low l<strong>at</strong>itudes of a wide spread deepw<strong>at</strong>er species with<br />
shallow polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions. Subsequent morphological divergence results in a bipolar<br />
species pair. Most of <strong>the</strong> numerically abundant calanoids in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are<br />
endemics. Their closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive usually is a rare species found in oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> oceans. Abundant endemics appear adapted <strong>to</strong> high primary and secondary<br />
productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Pelagic endemicity may have resulted from<br />
splitting a widespread, oligotrophic species in<strong>to</strong> a Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean popul<strong>at</strong>ion adapted<br />
<strong>to</strong> productive habit<strong>at</strong>s, and a popul<strong>at</strong>ion, associ<strong>at</strong>ed with low productivity th<strong>at</strong> remains<br />
rare. The families Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae have a gre<strong>at</strong>er number of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
endemic species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. A phylogeny of <strong>the</strong>se families suggests th<strong>at</strong><br />
independent coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion by species from different genera was common. Thus, two<br />
building blocks for <strong>the</strong> evolution of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean pelagic fauna are independent<br />
coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion and adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> high productivity.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Copepods often are referred <strong>to</strong> as <strong>the</strong> insects of <strong>the</strong> seas. They certainly are<br />
comparable <strong>to</strong> insects in survival through deep time, ecological dominance, geographic<br />
range, and breadth of adaptive radi<strong>at</strong>ion (Schminke, 2007). However,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are not comparable <strong>to</strong> insects in numbers of species. Only 11,302 species<br />
of copepods were known <strong>to</strong> science <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> last century (Humes,<br />
1994), and 1,559 have been added since <strong>the</strong>n. In contrast, <strong>the</strong> number of described<br />
insects approaches one million (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005). In terms of<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of individuals alive <strong>at</strong> any one time, however, copepods undoubtedly
144 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
surpass <strong>the</strong> insects. Among <strong>the</strong> copepod orders, calanoid<br />
copepods contribute more numbers of individuals <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Earth’s biomass, primarily because of <strong>the</strong>ir unique success<br />
in exploiting pelagic aqu<strong>at</strong>ic habit<strong>at</strong>s. Calanoid copepods<br />
also are speciose; Bowman and Abele (1982) estim<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
2,300 species of calanoids, and as of this writing, 525 species<br />
have been added. These calanoid species are placed in<br />
313 nominal genera belonging <strong>to</strong> 45 families (F. D. Ferrari,<br />
personal d<strong>at</strong>abase).<br />
Knowledge about <strong>the</strong> distribution and diversity of<br />
calanoid copepods in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean has increased<br />
signifi cantly over <strong>the</strong> past century (Razouls et al., 2000).<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> calanoid copepods reported from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean have been collected from pelagic w<strong>at</strong>ers. However,<br />
more species new <strong>to</strong> science are now being described<br />
from w<strong>at</strong>ers immedi<strong>at</strong>ely over <strong>the</strong> deep-sea fl oor of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Bradford and Wells, 1983; Hulsemann,<br />
1985b; Schulz and Markhaseva, 2000; Schulz, 2004,<br />
2006; Markhaseva and Schulz, 2006a; Markhaseva and<br />
Schulz, 2006b, 2007a, 2007b). The diversity of this benthopelagic<br />
calanoid fauna from o<strong>the</strong>r oceans (Grice, 1973;<br />
Markhaseva and Ferrari, 2006) suggests th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal calanoid<br />
diversity from this habit<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
is signifi cantly underestim<strong>at</strong>ed, and many new species<br />
are expected <strong>to</strong> be described. The present review <strong>the</strong>n is<br />
restricted <strong>to</strong> pelagic calanoid copepods because <strong>the</strong> benthopelagic<br />
fauna has not been well surveyed and <strong>the</strong>ir species<br />
not as well known as pelagic calanoids.<br />
Pelagic calanoid copepods are numerically <strong>the</strong> dominant<br />
species of <strong>the</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n community in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Fox<strong>to</strong>n, 1956; Longhurst, 1985). Beginning<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Challenger expedition (1873– 1876), many expeditions<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have provided specimens<br />
for taxonomic studies of <strong>the</strong> calanoids. Early works by<br />
Brady (1883), based on <strong>the</strong> Challenger collections, Giesbrecht<br />
(1902), based on Belgica collections, Wolfenden<br />
(1905, 1906, 1911), based on <strong>the</strong> Gauss (German deepsea<br />
expedition) collections, and Farran (1929), based on<br />
<strong>the</strong> British Terra Nova collections, led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> discovery<br />
of most of <strong>the</strong> numerically dominant and widespread<br />
pelagic calanoid species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Several<br />
major n<strong>at</strong>ional expeditions followed, such as <strong>the</strong> Meteor<br />
expedition, 1925– 1927, <strong>the</strong> SS Vikingen expedition,<br />
1929– 1930, and <strong>the</strong> Norvegia expedition, 1930– 1931.<br />
However, collections obtained by <strong>the</strong>se expeditions were<br />
studied mainly <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong> vertical or seasonal<br />
distribution or o<strong>the</strong>r aspects of <strong>the</strong> biology of pelagic<br />
animals. Signifi cant public<strong>at</strong>ions resulting from <strong>the</strong>se<br />
studies include Hentschel (1936), Steuer and Hentschel<br />
(1937), and Ottestad (1932, 1936). In 1925 <strong>the</strong> British<br />
Discovery Committee launched a program of extensive<br />
oceanographic research in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, including<br />
intensive studies of <strong>the</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n fauna. Public<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
by Mackin<strong>to</strong>sh (1934, 1937), Hardy and Gun<strong>the</strong>r<br />
(1935), and Ommanney (1936) based on <strong>the</strong> Discovery<br />
collections are notable for <strong>the</strong>ir valuable contributions <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion biology of <strong>the</strong> numerically dominant calanoid<br />
copepods. Continued studies of <strong>the</strong> Discovery collections<br />
led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> public<strong>at</strong>ion of additional papers, such<br />
as Fox<strong>to</strong>n (1956) about <strong>the</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n community and<br />
Andrew (1966) on <strong>the</strong> biology of Calanoides acutus, <strong>the</strong><br />
dominant herbivore of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean copepods became <strong>the</strong> subject of taxonomic<br />
studies once again <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong> last<br />
century with two important monographs (Vervoort, 1951,<br />
1957). These were <strong>the</strong> most comprehensive tre<strong>at</strong>ments<br />
published on pelagic calanoids, <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> time, and began a<br />
new era of taxonomic analyses of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean copepods.<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se two studies, many previously known species<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean calanoids were completely and carefully<br />
redescribed, confusion regarding <strong>the</strong>ir identity was<br />
clarifi ed, and occurrences of <strong>the</strong>se species in o<strong>the</strong>r oceans<br />
were noted from <strong>the</strong> published liter<strong>at</strong>ure. Two papers by<br />
Tanaka (1960, 1964) appeared soon afterward, reporting<br />
on <strong>the</strong> copepods collected by <strong>the</strong> Japanese Antarctic Expedition<br />
in 1957 and 1959. On <strong>the</strong> basis of collections made<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Soviet Antarctic expeditions, 1955– 1958, Brodsky<br />
(1958, 1962, 1964, 1967) published several studies of <strong>the</strong><br />
important herbivorous genus Calanus. More recently, important<br />
contributions <strong>to</strong> taxonomy of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
calanoids have been made by Bradford (1971, 1981) and<br />
Bradford and Wells (1983), reporting on calanoids found<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. Additionally, invaluable contributions<br />
have been made <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> taxonomy of <strong>the</strong> important inshore<br />
genus Drepanopus by Bayly (1982) and Hulsemann<br />
(1985a, 1991).<br />
Beginning in 1962, <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Research Program<br />
funded many oceanographic cruises <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean utilizing <strong>the</strong> USNS Eltanin. Samples taken with<br />
opening-closing Bé plank<strong>to</strong>n nets and Isaacs-Kidd midw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
trawls on <strong>the</strong>se cruises were made available by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution for study through <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Oceanographic Sorting Center. The exhaustive taxonomic<br />
works by Park (1978, 1980, 1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1988,<br />
1993) are based almost exclusively on <strong>the</strong> midw<strong>at</strong>er trawl<br />
samples collected during <strong>the</strong> Eltanin cruises, and <strong>the</strong>se<br />
results signifi cantly increased taxonomic understanding<br />
of most species of pelagic calanoids. O<strong>the</strong>r studies based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Eltanin samples include <strong>the</strong> following: Björnberg’s<br />
(1968) work on <strong>the</strong> Megacalanidae; Heron and Bowman’s
(1971) on postnaupliar developmental stages of three species<br />
belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> genera Clausocalanus and Ctenocalanus;<br />
Björnberg’s (1973) survey of some copepods from<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern Pacifi c Ocean; Yamanaka’s (1976) work<br />
on <strong>the</strong> distribution of some Eucalanidae, Aetideidae, and<br />
Euchaetidae; Fontaine’s (1988) on <strong>the</strong> antarctica species<br />
group of <strong>the</strong> genus Paraeuchaeta; Markhaseva’s (2001) on<br />
<strong>the</strong> genus Metridia; and Markhaseva and Ferrari’s (2005)<br />
work on Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species of Lucicutia. In addition,<br />
four exhaustive monographs have tre<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> taxonomy of<br />
a pelagic calanoid family throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>se also have contributed fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> an understanding<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean fauna: Damkaer’s (1975) work<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Spinocalanidae, Park’s (1995) on <strong>the</strong> Euchaetidae,<br />
Markhaseva’s (1996) on <strong>the</strong> Aetideidae, and Park’s (2000)<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Heterorhabdidae. These monographs were based<br />
on specimens from an extensive set of samples from <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s oceans. As a result, <strong>the</strong> taxonomy and geographical<br />
range of most of <strong>the</strong> widespread species of <strong>the</strong>se families<br />
are now well known.<br />
Recently described new species of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
calanoids are ei<strong>the</strong>r pelagic species th<strong>at</strong> previous authors<br />
failed <strong>to</strong> recognize as distinct from similar rel<strong>at</strong>ives, e.g.,<br />
Pleuromamma antarctica Steuer, 1931 (see Ferrari and<br />
Saltzman, 1998), or species inhabiting extraordinary<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s seldom explored previously, like <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
above <strong>the</strong> seafl oor. Bradford and Wells (1983)<br />
described <strong>the</strong> fi rst benthopelagic calanoid copepods of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, Tharybis magna and Xanthocalanus<br />
harpag<strong>at</strong>us, from a bait bottle. Neoscolecithrix antarctica<br />
was collected in small numbers in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Sound adjacent<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula by Hulsemann (1985b),<br />
who believed <strong>the</strong> species lived in close proximity <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
seafl oor. More recent additions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> benthopelagic calanoid<br />
fauna include Parabradyidius angelikae Schulz and<br />
Markhaseva, 2000, Paraxantharus brittae Schulz, 2006,<br />
and Sensiava longiseta Markhaseva and Schulz, 2006,<br />
each belonging <strong>to</strong> a new genus, and Brachycalanus antarcticus<br />
Schulz, 2005, Scolecitrichopsis elenae Schulz,<br />
2005, Byr<strong>at</strong>his arnei Schulz, 2006, Pseudeuchaeta arcuticornis<br />
Markhaseva and Schulz, 2006, Bradyetes curvicornis<br />
Markhaseva and Schulz, 2006, Brodskius abyssalis<br />
Markhaseva and Schulz, 2007, Rythabis assymmetrica<br />
Markhaseva and Schulz, 2007, and Omorius curvispinus<br />
Markhaseva and Schulz, 2007. These l<strong>at</strong>ter species were<br />
collected from <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea, an arm of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, and from <strong>the</strong> Scotia Sea.<br />
In this paper, all relevant studies of <strong>the</strong> taxonomy of<br />
pelagic Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean calanoid copepods are reviewed.<br />
Lists are compiled of species, genera, and families, and <strong>the</strong><br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 145<br />
geographical range within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
abundance of each species are noted. Morphological<br />
differences are used <strong>to</strong> suggest evolutionary rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
among species. The distribution of all species is reviewed,<br />
and several generalized p<strong>at</strong>terns are hypo<strong>the</strong>sized. Of particular<br />
interest here are <strong>the</strong> species for which fewer than<br />
50 specimens have been collected during <strong>the</strong> extensive<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry of surveys of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean pelagic fauna.<br />
The distribution of <strong>the</strong>se rare, pelagic calanoids, almost<br />
all deepw<strong>at</strong>er species, contributes favorably <strong>to</strong> an understanding<br />
of p<strong>at</strong>terns of distribution and of speci<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
METHODS<br />
Traditionally, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean has been described<br />
physiographically as including <strong>the</strong> ocean basins adjacent<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continent of Antarctica plus <strong>the</strong> following adjoining<br />
seas: Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, Ross Sea, Weddell<br />
Sea, and <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn part of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Sea. In this<br />
review of pelagic calanoid copepods, <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn boundary<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is defi ned physiographically<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent, but <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn boundary is<br />
defi ned hydrographically, by <strong>the</strong> average position of <strong>the</strong><br />
Subtropical Convergence. The Subtropical Convergence<br />
is loc<strong>at</strong>ed around 40ºS (Deacon 1934, 1937), where <strong>the</strong><br />
surface temper<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> sea drops sharply from about<br />
18°C <strong>to</strong> 10°C. In this review, <strong>the</strong>n, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
includes both <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region and <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region.<br />
Antarctic and subantarctic regions are separ<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence, which is loc<strong>at</strong>ed around 55ºS,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ure drops 3°C <strong>to</strong> 5°C over<br />
about 30 miles (48.3 km). Although <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>itudinal positions<br />
of both <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence, among <strong>the</strong> Atlantic,<br />
Pacifi c and Indian oceans, and <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence,<br />
among <strong>the</strong> Atlantic, Pacifi c and Indian sec<strong>to</strong>rs of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, may vary signifi cantly, locally, <strong>the</strong>se<br />
convergences seldom vary more than a degree of l<strong>at</strong>itude<br />
from <strong>the</strong>ir mean position.<br />
Studies of <strong>the</strong> distribution of organisms are one of <strong>the</strong><br />
primary purposes of <strong>the</strong> discipline of taxonomy, and <strong>the</strong><br />
scope and effectiveness of taxonomic studies is dict<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> availability of specimens. Like most pelagic organisms,<br />
calanoid copepods in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have been collected<br />
mainly with <strong>to</strong>w nets oper<strong>at</strong>ed aboard oceangoing<br />
ships, which usually sail <strong>to</strong> a preselected set of geographic<br />
positions in <strong>the</strong> ocean. Because of <strong>the</strong> physical isol<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, studies of its pelagic calanoid<br />
copepods have depended primarily on efforts of n<strong>at</strong>ional
146 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
oceanographic expeditions, many of which routinely carried<br />
out sampling pro<strong>to</strong>cols for pelagic organisms.<br />
The Isaacs-Kidd midw<strong>at</strong>er trawls employed by <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. Antarctic Research Program were particularly effective<br />
in collecting large, pelagic copepods and signifi cantly<br />
increased knowledge about <strong>the</strong> calanoid fauna. More than<br />
1,000 midw<strong>at</strong>er trawl samples were taken, and <strong>the</strong>se samples<br />
are believed <strong>to</strong> have collected nearly all of <strong>the</strong> pelagic<br />
calanoid copepods in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column; most of <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
have been described (Park, 1978, 1980, 1982, 1983a,<br />
1983b, 1988, 1993). The trawls were not fi tted with a<br />
device <strong>to</strong> measure w<strong>at</strong>er fl ow through <strong>the</strong> mouth of <strong>the</strong><br />
trawl, so no quantit<strong>at</strong>ive measure of <strong>the</strong> amount of w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
fi ltered by <strong>the</strong> trawl can be calcul<strong>at</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong>se samples.<br />
Sampling times, ranging from one <strong>to</strong> four hours, have allowed<br />
a calcul<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> number of animals collected per<br />
unit time of trawl oper<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> more abundant species,<br />
e.g., Paraeuchaeta antarctica (see Ferrari and Dojiri, 1987,<br />
as Euchaeta antarctica), but this measure is <strong>to</strong>o coarse for<br />
<strong>the</strong> rare species th<strong>at</strong> are <strong>the</strong> primary focus of this study.<br />
The Isaacs-Kidd midw<strong>at</strong>er trawls were quickly lowered<br />
<strong>to</strong> a specifi ed deepest depth, obliquely <strong>to</strong>wed <strong>at</strong> 3-5 knots <strong>to</strong><br />
a specifi ed shallowest depth, and <strong>the</strong>n quickly retrieved <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> surface again. It is not possible <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> depth<br />
of collection for <strong>the</strong> specimens captured in a sample with<br />
this pro<strong>to</strong>col. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, normally, only one trawl sample<br />
was collected <strong>at</strong> a st<strong>at</strong>ion, and <strong>the</strong>refore, only one depth<br />
range was sampled <strong>at</strong> a particular loc<strong>at</strong>ion. As a result of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se constraints, studies based on <strong>the</strong>se samples cannot<br />
provide direct inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> vertical distribution of<br />
<strong>the</strong> calanoid species. However, by comparing <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
or absence of a species in samples taken <strong>to</strong> different gre<strong>at</strong>est<br />
depths <strong>at</strong> different loc<strong>at</strong>ions here or by calcul<strong>at</strong>ing a frequency<br />
of occurrence for each sampled depth range rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>to</strong> all trawls <strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> depth range (Yamanaka, 1976), it is<br />
possible <strong>to</strong> make a fi rst-order determin<strong>at</strong>ion of how deep a<br />
trawl has <strong>to</strong> be <strong>to</strong>wed in order <strong>to</strong> collect a certain species.<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean pelagic calanoids are c<strong>at</strong>egorized here<br />
in several different ways. Species collected in <strong>the</strong> vicinity<br />
of continental or insular land masses are inshore species,<br />
while species collected away from continental or insular<br />
land masses have been c<strong>at</strong>egorized <strong>to</strong> vertical zones as follows:<br />
epipelagic (0– 200m), mesopelagic (200– 1,000m),<br />
and b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic (1,000– 4,000). The term “deepw<strong>at</strong>er”<br />
refers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> mesopelagic and b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic zones <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
In terms of abundance, species are c<strong>at</strong>egorized by <strong>the</strong><br />
number of specimens collected or known from o<strong>the</strong>r expeditions:<br />
CC, very common (over 100 specimens found);<br />
C, common (between 99 and 50 specimens found); R, rare<br />
(between 49 and 10); and RR, very rare (less than 10 specimens<br />
found). These are not counts per sample, but are all<br />
specimens known <strong>to</strong> science.<br />
A large number of endemic species are found in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and <strong>the</strong>se discoveries are placed within<br />
<strong>the</strong> context of endemicity throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans<br />
for two well-studied families, Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae.<br />
To facilit<strong>at</strong>e comparisons, four noncontiguous<br />
areas of interest were defi ned among <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans:<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong> Arctic (including adjacent boreal<br />
seas of <strong>the</strong> Atlantic and Pacifi c oceans), <strong>the</strong> eastern Pacifi c<br />
Ocean (along <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c coasts of <strong>the</strong> Americas, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> boundary currents), and <strong>the</strong> Indo-West Pacifi c Ocean<br />
(in and around <strong>the</strong> Malay Archipelago). The l<strong>at</strong>ter three<br />
were chosen as areas of interest because most of <strong>the</strong> endemic<br />
species of Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae not<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean occur in one of <strong>the</strong>m. So,<br />
for example, <strong>the</strong> Atlantic Ocean was not considered an<br />
area of interest because its endemic species occur mainly<br />
<strong>to</strong>ward its nor<strong>the</strong>rn and sou<strong>the</strong>rn boundaries, and <strong>the</strong>se<br />
endemic species could be included in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean and<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean areas, respectively. There are no a priori<br />
biological hypo<strong>the</strong>ses th<strong>at</strong> support <strong>the</strong>se utilitarian areas<br />
of interest, although endemicity is discussed in <strong>the</strong> context<br />
of high primary and secondary productivity.<br />
Three broad feeding c<strong>at</strong>egories, herbivory, carnivory,<br />
and detritivory, are recognized for many pelagic calanoids.<br />
Food preferences of calanoid copepods have not<br />
been studied system<strong>at</strong>ically, but <strong>the</strong> following public<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
supported <strong>the</strong> general feeding c<strong>at</strong>egories of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
taxa: Mullin’s (1967) work on <strong>the</strong> herbivory of Calanidae<br />
and Eucalanidae, Yen’s (1983) on <strong>the</strong> carnivory of<br />
Euchaetidae, Ohtsuka et al.’s (1997) on <strong>the</strong> carnivory of<br />
derived Heterorhabdidae, Nishida and Ohtsuka’s (1997)<br />
on <strong>the</strong> detritivory of Scolecitrichidae, and I<strong>to</strong>h’s (1970)<br />
and M<strong>at</strong>suura and Nishida’s (2000) on <strong>the</strong> carnivory of<br />
Augaptilidae. Studies of a few species of <strong>the</strong> large family<br />
Aetideidae (Robertson and Frost, 1977; Auel, 1999)<br />
have suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species may be omnivores, but<br />
on <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> morphology of <strong>the</strong>ir mouthparts, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are considered carnivores here. Feeding is connected <strong>to</strong><br />
environment through areas of high primary and secondary<br />
productivity, and here high primary and secondary<br />
productivity is equ<strong>at</strong>ed with permanent, annually episodic<br />
upwelling areas. These areas of upwelling are associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with western boundary currents adjacent <strong>to</strong> all continents<br />
or are associ<strong>at</strong>ed with three oceanic bands: trans-Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, worldwide equ<strong>at</strong>orial, and boreal Pacifi c (LaFond,<br />
1966; Huber, 2002).
Descriptions of <strong>the</strong> geographical distribution of a species<br />
beyond <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean were initi<strong>at</strong>ed by dividing<br />
<strong>the</strong> world’s oceans in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> following regions, generally<br />
following Backus (1986): Antarctic (south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence), subantarctic (between <strong>the</strong> Antarctic and<br />
Subtropical convergences), south temper<strong>at</strong>e ( Subtropical<br />
Convergence <strong>to</strong> Tropic of Capricorn, about 20°S), tropical<br />
(Tropic of Capricorn <strong>to</strong> Tropic of Cancer, about 20°N),<br />
north temper<strong>at</strong>e (Tropic of Cancer <strong>to</strong> about 50°N), subarctic<br />
(boreal seas adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Circle<br />
<strong>at</strong> 66°N), and <strong>the</strong> region of <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin. Some of <strong>the</strong><br />
boundaries of <strong>the</strong>se areas correspond <strong>to</strong> hydrographic fe<strong>at</strong>ures,<br />
e.g., <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>the</strong> surface manifest<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> boundaries<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er masses. However, <strong>the</strong>se boundaries have not<br />
been shown <strong>to</strong> describe <strong>the</strong> generalized distribution of deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
animals, and, in fact, two o<strong>the</strong>r ways of explaining<br />
<strong>the</strong> distribution of deepw<strong>at</strong>er animals are proposed here.<br />
Distribution records for <strong>the</strong> regions outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean are derived from <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>est reference given <strong>to</strong> each<br />
species in Appendix 1. There has been no <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>to</strong> correct<br />
for differences in sampling intensity among <strong>the</strong>se regions,<br />
although <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region has been sampled least<br />
(only mentioned in reports by Grice and Hulsemann, 1968,<br />
and Björnberg, 1973), and <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e, subarctic,<br />
and Arctic have been sampled <strong>the</strong> most.<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> very common pelagic calanoids are usually<br />
widespread within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and were discovered<br />
during <strong>the</strong> early expeditions th<strong>at</strong> ended in <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
part of <strong>the</strong> twentieth century. These species originally were<br />
described from specimens collected in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than being inferred from descriptions of specimens<br />
from o<strong>the</strong>r oceans, and most of <strong>the</strong>se species have been redescribed<br />
once or twice since <strong>the</strong>ir original description. As<br />
a result, <strong>the</strong>ir taxonomy is stable, and <strong>the</strong>ir morphology<br />
and distribution within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
well known. Many deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids also originally<br />
have been described from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Their morphology<br />
is well known, but most of <strong>the</strong>se deepw<strong>at</strong>er species<br />
are rare. As a result, inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong>ir distribution,<br />
particularly beyond <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, remains limited.<br />
Occurrences of <strong>the</strong>se rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids are based<br />
on only a few specimens captured <strong>at</strong> only a small number<br />
of loc<strong>at</strong>ions, but <strong>at</strong> least some of <strong>the</strong> occurrences beyond<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have been confi rmed by direct comparison<br />
of specimens. In contrast, o<strong>the</strong>r rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
species originally were described from oceans o<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and only subsequently were recorded<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Because specimens of <strong>the</strong>se rare<br />
species from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have not been compared<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 147<br />
<strong>to</strong> specimens from <strong>the</strong> type locality, <strong>the</strong>ir nominal <strong>at</strong>tribution<br />
has yet <strong>to</strong> be verifi ed.<br />
In this study, <strong>the</strong> distribution ranges of many species<br />
outside <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are determined from inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
available in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure. Observ<strong>at</strong>ions about<br />
distributions th<strong>at</strong> are accompanied by species descriptions<br />
are <strong>the</strong> usual source for <strong>the</strong>se d<strong>at</strong>a. However, not all species<br />
descriptions in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure are equally inform<strong>at</strong>ive,<br />
and in some cases, it is not easy <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> identity<br />
of all species reported under <strong>the</strong> same name. In <strong>the</strong> present<br />
study, <strong>the</strong> distribution range assigned for many of <strong>the</strong><br />
rare or very rare species, especially for those reports of a<br />
few specimens from several localities, should be considered<br />
provisional. The defi nitive answer <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> geographical<br />
distribution for <strong>the</strong>se rare species must wait until <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
potential distribution range has been more extensively<br />
sampled.<br />
For rare and, particularly, very rare species, specimens<br />
may not have been reported from all of <strong>the</strong> regions<br />
between <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and <strong>the</strong> region far<strong>the</strong>st north<br />
from which a species has been collected. Initially, a continuous<br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er distribution is assumed if a species is<br />
present in more than one nonadjacent region, although a<br />
possible origin for disjunct distributions is considered here<br />
within a larger context of <strong>the</strong> evolution of bipolar species<br />
pairs.<br />
Because <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn boundary of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
is defi ned hydrographically, certain warm-w<strong>at</strong>er species<br />
have been reported as penetr<strong>at</strong>ing for a rel<strong>at</strong>ively short<br />
distance south in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region, while some<br />
typically subantarctic species have often been found <strong>to</strong><br />
extend north of 40ºS in small numbers. If <strong>the</strong> number of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se reports is small, an extension of <strong>the</strong> species range<br />
is not considered here. In this study, warm-w<strong>at</strong>er species<br />
included in <strong>the</strong> list as subantarctic species are those th<strong>at</strong><br />
have been reported several times, south of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical<br />
Convergence and close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence.<br />
Problems have been resolved in a similar manner for range<br />
extensions of species between <strong>the</strong> Antarctic and subantarctic<br />
regions. The identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of a species as having an<br />
Antarctic distribution as opposed <strong>to</strong> a subantarctic distribution<br />
is based on <strong>the</strong> number of reports in one w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
mass rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> number in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r w<strong>at</strong>er mass.<br />
In this study, <strong>the</strong> morphological divergence of <strong>the</strong> exoskele<strong>to</strong>n<br />
among species is used as a fi rst approxim<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> degree of rel<strong>at</strong>edness among species, with <strong>the</strong> understanding<br />
th<strong>at</strong> allop<strong>at</strong>ric sibling species may not undergo<br />
signifi cant morphological divergence in <strong>the</strong> absence of a<br />
strong adaptive pressure and th<strong>at</strong> secondary sex characters
148 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
of <strong>the</strong> exoskele<strong>to</strong>n are likely <strong>to</strong> diverge over a shorter<br />
period of time than <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> exoskele<strong>to</strong>n. Specimens<br />
from <strong>the</strong> wider geographical regions are reexamined for<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion regarding <strong>the</strong> morphological vari<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
distribution ranges of some of <strong>the</strong> species (T. Park, unpublished<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a).<br />
The abundances found in Tables 1– 7 are derived from<br />
Park (1978, 1980, 1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1988, 1993), who<br />
examined samples selected mainly from <strong>the</strong> Eltanin mid -<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er trawl collections available from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Oceanographic Sorting Center. The selection was made <strong>to</strong><br />
cover as wide an area as possible, but only an aliquot of<br />
<strong>the</strong> original sample was examined systemically and consistently<br />
so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> sorted specimens refl ect <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive abundance<br />
of <strong>the</strong> species in <strong>the</strong> sample in a general way. In this<br />
paper’s introduction, counts of <strong>the</strong> number of species of copepods<br />
and of calanoid copepods were determined by using<br />
an online species d<strong>at</strong>abase (The World of Copepods, N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry) <strong>to</strong> extend <strong>the</strong> counts of<br />
Humes (1994), beginning with <strong>the</strong> year 1993, and Bowman<br />
and Abele (1982), beginning with <strong>the</strong> year 1982.<br />
NUMBER SPECIES OF PELAGIC<br />
CALANOIDS FROM THE<br />
SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
Two hundred and fi ve species of pelagic calanoid copepods<br />
(Appendix 1) in 57 genera from 21 families (Appendix<br />
2) have been reported from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Among<br />
<strong>the</strong>se, 8 (3.9%) species are coastal or inshore, 13 (6.3%) are<br />
epipelagic species, and 184 (89.8%) are deepw<strong>at</strong>er species.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 57 genera of pelagic calanoids reported from <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, Paraeuchaeta is <strong>the</strong> most speciose genus<br />
with 21 species, followed by Scolecithricella (16 species),<br />
Euaugaptilus (14 species), Scaphocalanus (10 species),<br />
Metridia (9 species), Pseudochirella (9 species), Gaetanus<br />
(8 species), Onchocalanus (7 species), and Lucicutia (6 species).<br />
The 16 species included in <strong>the</strong> genus Scolecithricella<br />
are morphologically diverse, and recently, Vyshkvartzeva<br />
(2000) proposed <strong>to</strong> place <strong>the</strong> species of Scolecithricella in<br />
one of three genera. Although we are not comfortable with<br />
this proposal because <strong>the</strong> analysis was not exhaustive, acceptance<br />
would result in <strong>the</strong> following numbers from <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: Scolecithricella (9 species) and Pseudoamallothrix<br />
(6 species), with S. pseudopropinqua being<br />
moved <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Amallothrix.<br />
Species of Paraeuchaeta (Euchaetidae) are deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
calanoids, and some of <strong>the</strong>m can be collected in large numbers<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, e.g., Paraeuchaeta antarctica<br />
(see Park, 1978; Ferrari and Dojiri, 1987) or P. barb<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
P. rasa, and P. biloba (see Park, 1978). Feeding of a few<br />
species of Paraeuchaeta has been studied (Yen, 1983,<br />
1991), and <strong>the</strong>se species are known <strong>to</strong> be carnivores. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> similarity of feeding appendages among<br />
species, this feeding mode is assumed for all species of<br />
<strong>the</strong> genus. In <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, species of Euaugaptilus<br />
(Augaptilidae) are typically b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic and thought<br />
<strong>to</strong> be carnivores on <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
feeding appendages (I<strong>to</strong>h, 1970; M<strong>at</strong>suura and Nishida,<br />
2000); <strong>the</strong>y have not been reported in large numbers. The<br />
family Aetideidae has <strong>the</strong> largest number of species (45)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, with almost 40% of its species<br />
belonging <strong>to</strong> two genera, Pseudochirella and Gaetanus;<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species also are considered <strong>to</strong> be carnivores. The<br />
combined 80 species of Paraeuchaeta, Euaugaptilus, and<br />
Aetideidae, <strong>the</strong>n, represent a signifi cant contribution <strong>to</strong><br />
carnivory in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and so are believed <strong>to</strong><br />
play a major role in <strong>the</strong> dynamics of <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
community.<br />
The Scolecitrichidae is <strong>the</strong> next most speciose family<br />
after Aetideidae. Among <strong>the</strong> 35 species of Scolecitrichidae,<br />
those in <strong>the</strong> genera Scolecithricella and Scaphocalanus<br />
make up 45% of <strong>the</strong> family in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> feeding niche of most species of Scolecitrichidae<br />
is not well known, derived chemosensory setae<br />
on maxilla 2 and maxilliped (Nishida and Ohtsuka, 1997)<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> species of Scolecitrichidae are <strong>the</strong> major detritivores<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. In contrast <strong>to</strong> carnivory<br />
and detritivory, herbivory in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean has been<br />
studied more extensively (Hardy and Gun<strong>the</strong>r, 1935; Andrews,<br />
1966). The herbivore fauna is structured by large<br />
numbers of individuals belonging <strong>to</strong> a few species in genera<br />
of two families: Calanus (three species) and Calanoides<br />
(one species) in Calanidae and Eucalanus (one species)<br />
and Rhincalanus (one species) in Eucalanidae.<br />
Phylogenetic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships among <strong>the</strong> congeneric species<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have been proposed for two<br />
families th<strong>at</strong> have been studied worldwide, Euchaetididae<br />
and Heterorhabdidae. Six monophyletic groups of species<br />
(species groups) of Paraeuchaeta have been identifi ed<br />
(Park, 1995). One or more species in fi ve of <strong>the</strong> six species<br />
groups of Paraeuchaeta are found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
One species group, <strong>the</strong> antarctica species group, consists<br />
of fi ve species, and all of its species are limited <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence; this is <strong>the</strong> only species<br />
group of ei<strong>the</strong>r family th<strong>at</strong> is found only in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Three species in <strong>the</strong> antarctica species group<br />
of Paraeuchaeta appear <strong>to</strong> be restricted <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers along<br />
<strong>the</strong> edge of ice shelf of Antarctica, and all fi ve may share
this same inshore habit<strong>at</strong> (Fontaine, 1988). Species of<br />
<strong>the</strong> antarctica species group are assumed <strong>to</strong> have evolved<br />
after <strong>the</strong> coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by a common<br />
ances<strong>to</strong>r (see <strong>the</strong> Evolution of <strong>the</strong> Pelagic Calanoid<br />
Fauna within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean section). Each species<br />
of Paraeuchaeta in <strong>the</strong> remaining four species groups represented<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean has its closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive in<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r oceans, r<strong>at</strong>her than <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, suggesting<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> remaining species of Paraeuchaeta may have colonized<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic region independently.<br />
The family Heterorhabdidae is represented in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by three genera, Heterorhabdus, Heterostylites,<br />
and Paraheterorhabdus. There are fi ve species in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst genus; a single species in each of <strong>the</strong> last two genera<br />
is found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Park, 2000). Four of <strong>the</strong><br />
fi ve species of Heterorhabdus belong <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> same species<br />
group, <strong>the</strong> abyssalis species group, with 17 species. Two of<br />
<strong>the</strong> four species of this group, H. spinosus and H. paraspinosus,<br />
are morphologically quite similar, suggesting a recent<br />
speci<strong>at</strong>ion event within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. The remaining<br />
two Heterorhabdus species of <strong>the</strong> abyssalis species group,<br />
H. austrinus and H. pustulifer, are morphologically dissimilar;<br />
<strong>the</strong>y may have colonized <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean independently<br />
from one ano<strong>the</strong>r and from <strong>the</strong> pair H. spinosus<br />
and H. paraspinosus. The fi fth species, H. lob<strong>at</strong>us, belongs<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> papilliger species group along with fi ve o<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
found in o<strong>the</strong>r oceans; along with Paraheterorhabdus farrani<br />
and Heterostylites nigrotinctus, H. lob<strong>at</strong>us represents<br />
an independent coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
INSHORE CALANOIDS ALONG<br />
CONTINENTAL AND INSULAR COASTS<br />
OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
Eight species of pelagic calanoids have been found<br />
exclusively in w<strong>at</strong>ers close <strong>to</strong> a land mass of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Table 1): three species of Drepanopus (D. bispinosus,<br />
D. forcip<strong>at</strong>us, and D. pectin<strong>at</strong>us), three species<br />
of Paralabidocera (P. antarctica, P. grandispina, and<br />
P. separabilis), and two species of Stephos (S. longipes<br />
and S. antarcticus). The three species of Drepanopus<br />
have been collected several times, and all three occasionally<br />
have been collected in very large numbers, so<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir distribution is well known. Drepanopus bispinosus<br />
has been reported, often as abundant, from inshore w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vestfold Hills region of Antarctica<br />
(Bayly, 1982), and its popul<strong>at</strong>ion structure has been established<br />
(Bayly, 1986). Drepanopus pectin<strong>at</strong>us occurs<br />
close <strong>to</strong> shores of Crozet Island, Kerguelen Island, and<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 149<br />
TABLE 1. Inshore pelagic calanoid copepods of <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
ocean. Ant, w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence; S-Ant,<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers between <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and <strong>the</strong> Subantarctic<br />
Convergence; CC, very common (over 100 specimens found); C,<br />
common (between 99 and 50 specimens found); R, rare (between<br />
49 and 10 specimens found).<br />
Species name Distribution Abundance<br />
Drepanopus bispinosus Ant CC<br />
Drepanopus forcip<strong>at</strong>us S-Ant CC<br />
Drepanopus pectin<strong>at</strong>us S-Ant CC<br />
Paralabidocera antarctica Ant C<br />
Paralabidocera grandispina Ant R<br />
Paralabidocera separabilis Ant R<br />
Stephos longipes Ant C<br />
Stephos antarcticus Ant R<br />
Heard Island in <strong>the</strong> Indian Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Hulsemann, 1985a); some aspects of its biology<br />
also have been elucid<strong>at</strong>ed (Razouls and Razouls, 1990).<br />
Drepanopus forcip<strong>at</strong>us is restricted <strong>to</strong> Atlantic and Pacifi<br />
c coastal and shelf areas along sou<strong>the</strong>rn South America,<br />
including <strong>the</strong> Falkland Islands, and around South<br />
Georgia Island (Hulsemann, 1985a); its copepodid stages<br />
have been described (Hulsemann, 1991).<br />
The distributions of <strong>the</strong> remaining fi ve inshore species<br />
are not as well known, and only Paralabidocera antarctica<br />
and Stephos longipes have been reported from more than<br />
one locality. Paralabidocera antarctica is now known <strong>to</strong><br />
occur in small numbers in w<strong>at</strong>ers close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> shoreline<br />
<strong>at</strong> several loc<strong>at</strong>ions, including <strong>the</strong> South Shetland Islands,<br />
<strong>the</strong> extreme south of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, two localities in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic<br />
Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r of Antarctica, and one locality in <strong>the</strong><br />
Indian Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r of Antarctica (Vervoort, 1957). The<br />
species is believed <strong>to</strong> inhabit <strong>the</strong> surface w<strong>at</strong>er layers and<br />
is occasionally captured under <strong>the</strong> ice (Vervoort, 1951);<br />
development of its marine and lacustrine popul<strong>at</strong>ions has<br />
been described (Swadling et al., 2004). Paralabidocera<br />
grandispina Waghorn, 1979 and P. separabilis Brodsky<br />
and Zvereva, 1976 are known only from <strong>the</strong>ir type localities,<br />
bene<strong>at</strong>h <strong>the</strong> ice along <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r of<br />
Antarctica and near <strong>the</strong> shore of Antarctica in <strong>the</strong> Indian<br />
Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r, respectively.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> two species of Stephos, S. longipes has been<br />
found close <strong>to</strong> or under <strong>the</strong> ice shelf in <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c and<br />
Indian ocean sec<strong>to</strong>rs of Antarctica including <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea,<br />
where it can be very abundant (Giesbrecht, 1902; Farran,<br />
1929; Tanaka, 1960). Its associ<strong>at</strong>ions with <strong>the</strong> ice and <strong>the</strong><br />
open w<strong>at</strong>er have been described (Kurbjeweit et al., 1993;
150 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
Schnack-Schiel et al., 1995). Stephos antarcticus is known<br />
only from its type locality, McMurdo Sound of <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea (Wolfenden, 1908). Most species of <strong>the</strong> genus Stephos<br />
are closely associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er immedi<strong>at</strong>ely above<br />
<strong>the</strong> seafl oor (Bradford-Grieve, 1999).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>se eight species, <strong>the</strong> three species of Drepanopus<br />
and <strong>the</strong> three species of Paralabidocera clearly seem<br />
<strong>to</strong> be pelagic. The two species of Stephos appear <strong>to</strong> be<br />
ice oriented but are considered pelagic here. All of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
inshore species are characteristically small in size, ranging<br />
from 0.85 <strong>to</strong> 2.80 mm in body length.<br />
EPIPELAGIC FAUNA<br />
OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
The epipelagic calanoid fauna of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence (Table 2) is rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
simple in species composition. There are fi ve species, all are<br />
very common, and <strong>the</strong>ir combined biomass is unsurpassed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> epipelagic calanoid fauna of any o<strong>the</strong>r region of <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s oceans (Fox<strong>to</strong>n, 1956). These fi ve epipelagic species<br />
are, in order of abundance, Calanoides acutus, Rhincalanus<br />
gigas, Calanus propinquus, Metridia gerlachei,<br />
TABLE 2. Epipelagic calanoid copepods of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
CC, very common (over 100 specimens found); C, common<br />
( between 99 and 50 specimens found).<br />
Species name Abundance<br />
Species endemic <strong>to</strong> Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
Calanoides acutus CC<br />
Calanus propinquus CC<br />
Clausocalanus l<strong>at</strong>iceps CC<br />
Metridia gerlachei CC<br />
Rhincalanus gigas CC<br />
Species endemic <strong>to</strong> subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
Calanus simillimus CC<br />
Clausocalanus brevipes CC<br />
Ctenocalanus citer C<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region<br />
Calanus australis C<br />
Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus C<br />
Subeucalanus longiceps C<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region<br />
Eucalanus hyalinus C<br />
Rhincalanus nasutus C<br />
and Clausocalanus l<strong>at</strong>iceps. These are <strong>the</strong> copepods most<br />
often associ<strong>at</strong>ed by plank<strong>to</strong>nologists with <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. All were discovered during <strong>the</strong> early expeditions,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir taxonomy and distribution have been clearly<br />
and carefully defi ned. Although <strong>the</strong>se fi ve species are more<br />
abundant in w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y also may be collected north of <strong>the</strong> convergence, but<br />
here <strong>the</strong>y appear <strong>to</strong> be associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> deeper Antarctic<br />
Intermedi<strong>at</strong>e W<strong>at</strong>er. Calanoides acutus and, <strong>to</strong> a lesser<br />
extent, Rhincalanus gigas and Calanus propinquus are <strong>the</strong><br />
dominant herbivores south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir role in th<strong>at</strong> ecosystem is well known (Chiba et<br />
al., 2002; Pasternak and Schnack-Schiel, 2001).<br />
The analogous epipelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region, between <strong>the</strong> Antarctic and Subtropical convergences,<br />
are Calanus simillimus, Clausocalanus brevipes,<br />
and Ctenocalanus citer. These three herbivores are very<br />
common in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region, but <strong>the</strong>y are not as<br />
numerous in <strong>the</strong>se w<strong>at</strong>ers as <strong>the</strong> previous fi ve epipelagic<br />
calanoids are south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence does not limit <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn boundary of <strong>the</strong> range of <strong>the</strong>se three species as<br />
precisely as it limits <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn boundary of <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
fi ve epipelagic calanoids. The popul<strong>at</strong>ion structure and life<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ries of <strong>the</strong> three have been described (Atkinson, 1991;<br />
Schnack-Schiel and Mizdalski, 1994).<br />
There are three additional large-sized, epipelagic herbivores<br />
th<strong>at</strong> may be collected in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region<br />
as well as in <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e midl<strong>at</strong>itudes: Calanus<br />
australis, Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus, and Subeucalanus longiceps.<br />
Calanus australis is known <strong>to</strong> be distributed along <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn coast of Chile, off Argentina, in New Zealand<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers, and in sou<strong>the</strong>astern Australian w<strong>at</strong>ers (Bradford-<br />
Grieve, 1994). Its distribution during summer has been<br />
investig<strong>at</strong>ed (Sab<strong>at</strong>ini et al., 2000). Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus<br />
is widely distributed in subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers but also may<br />
be found in <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er of <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region;<br />
some aspects of its life his<strong>to</strong>ry are known (Ohman et al.,<br />
1989). Subeucalanus longiceps (Subeucalanidae) occurs<br />
circumglobally in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic and temper<strong>at</strong>e regions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere. These three species are important<br />
herbivores in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic as well as <strong>the</strong> south<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e region.<br />
Two small-sized, epipelagic herbivores, Clausocalanus<br />
parapergens and Ctenocalanus vanus, are found in subantarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers. Clausocalanus parapergens has been reported<br />
as far north as <strong>the</strong> subtropical convergence (Frost<br />
and Fleminger, 1968). Specimens referred <strong>to</strong> as Ctenocalanus<br />
vanus from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by Farran (1929) and<br />
Vervoort (1951, 1957) are Ctenocalanus citer (T. Park,
unpublished observ<strong>at</strong>ions); this species is restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Calanids like Calanoides acutus, Calanus propinquus,<br />
Calanus simillimus, Calanus australis, and Neocalanus<br />
<strong>to</strong>nsus as well as eucalanids like Rhincalanus gigas and<br />
subeucalanids like Subeucalanus longiceps are considered<br />
epipelagic here because <strong>the</strong>y spend <strong>the</strong>ir juvenile and<br />
adult life in near-surface w<strong>at</strong>ers. However, during seasonal<br />
episodes of low primary productivity, some l<strong>at</strong>e juvenile<br />
stages of <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions of each of <strong>the</strong>se species descend<br />
<strong>to</strong> mesopelagic depths (Vervoort, 1957) <strong>to</strong> diapause.<br />
Two epipelagic calanoid species, Eucalanus hyalinus<br />
and Rhincalanus nasutus, do not occur in large numbers<br />
in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region. North of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y often are encountered in warmer w<strong>at</strong>ers,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>y have been collected in <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region.<br />
Their taxonomy and distribution are well unders<strong>to</strong>od.<br />
Usually, only a few specimens are collected in pelagic<br />
samples from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and here <strong>the</strong>se<br />
species are considered <strong>to</strong> be associ<strong>at</strong>ed with habit<strong>at</strong>s of<br />
low primary productivity.<br />
In summary, 13 calanoid species contribute <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
epipelagic fauna of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Five of <strong>the</strong>m<br />
are endemic south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and are<br />
very common throughout this region. Three species are<br />
endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region and occur throughout<br />
th<strong>at</strong> region. However, <strong>the</strong> subantarctic endemics are not<br />
as numerous as <strong>the</strong> fi ve species endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region in midw<strong>at</strong>er trawl samples. Three more epipelagic<br />
calanoid species occur widely in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic and<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e regions of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere. They are<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r common in productive coastal upwelling areas or<br />
are circumglobal in <strong>the</strong> West Wind Drift of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Hemisphere. The broadest l<strong>at</strong>itudinal range exhibited by<br />
subantarctic epipelagic calanoids is th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> two species<br />
of Eucalanidae th<strong>at</strong> have been collected from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region.<br />
DEEPWATER CALANOIDS RESTRICTED<br />
TO THE SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> 184 species of deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids found<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 50 species were originally described<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and, <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, are known exclusively<br />
from <strong>the</strong>re (Table 3). Twenty-four of <strong>the</strong>se deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
calanoids originally were described from w<strong>at</strong>ers south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and subsequently have been<br />
found exclusively in those w<strong>at</strong>ers; <strong>the</strong>y are endemics of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic region. Of <strong>the</strong>se 24 Antarctic endemics, six<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 151<br />
species have a distinctly localized distribution, occurring<br />
almost exclusively along <strong>the</strong> ice edge of Antarctica. There<br />
are four closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed species of <strong>the</strong> antarctica species<br />
group of Paraeuchaeta, plus one species each of Aetideopsis<br />
and Chiridiella. All six species have strongly built bodies<br />
and limbs and a well-sclerotized exoskele<strong>to</strong>n; <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
presumed <strong>to</strong> be carnivores. Chiridiella megadactyla was<br />
described from a single female collected close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> edge<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Ross Ice Shelf and has not been found again. Aetideopsis<br />
antarctica, a rare species, was collected initially from<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers bene<strong>at</strong>h <strong>the</strong> edge of <strong>the</strong> Ross Ice Shelf (Wolfenden,<br />
1908); it subsequently has been found several o<strong>the</strong>r times<br />
from <strong>the</strong> same habit<strong>at</strong>. Three of <strong>the</strong> four species of <strong>the</strong> antarctica<br />
species group of Paraeuchaeta, P. austrina, P. erebi,<br />
and P. tycodesma, have also been reported only a few<br />
times and collected only in small numbers. Paraeuchaeta<br />
similis, <strong>the</strong> fourth species of <strong>the</strong> group, has occasionally<br />
been reported <strong>to</strong> be quite common under <strong>the</strong> ice (Bradford,<br />
1981), unlike <strong>the</strong> above three congeners of its species<br />
group, which are rare. However, P. similis also may<br />
be collected in <strong>the</strong> deeper layer of warm w<strong>at</strong>er (Vervoort,<br />
1965b), well away from <strong>the</strong> ice edge. Here it occasionally<br />
may co-occur with P. antarctica (see Ferrari and Dojiri,<br />
1987), <strong>the</strong> fi fth species of <strong>the</strong> group (Fontaine, 1988; Park,<br />
1995). The three ice edge species of Paraeuchaeta, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
with P. similis and P. antarctica, a species endemic <strong>to</strong> and<br />
abundant throughout Antarctic and <strong>the</strong> subantarctic regions<br />
(Park, 1978; Marín and Antezana, 1985; Ferrari and<br />
Dojiri, 1987), form <strong>the</strong> group of closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed species.<br />
Despite this close rel<strong>at</strong>ionship, all fi ve of <strong>the</strong>se species have<br />
been collected a number of times in <strong>the</strong> same midw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
trawl from w<strong>at</strong>ers adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice edge.<br />
Four o<strong>the</strong>r species, B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta antarctica, B. pubescens,<br />
Pseudochirella formosa, and Onchocalanus subcrist<strong>at</strong>us,<br />
were initially described from deep w<strong>at</strong>er south of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. All have been collected only<br />
once, and each is known only from one or two specimens.<br />
The fi rst three are aetideids and are presumed <strong>to</strong> be carnivores;<br />
<strong>the</strong> last belongs <strong>to</strong> Phaennidae, a family of detritivores<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Scolecitrichidae. These four species<br />
and <strong>the</strong> earlier mentioned Chiridiella megadactyla remain<br />
so poorly known th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir taxonomic st<strong>at</strong>us and distribution<br />
cannot be confi rmed.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> 24 species endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region,<br />
<strong>the</strong> remaining 14 species have been collected widely south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and, except for Euaugaptilus<br />
austrinus and Landrumius antarcticus, are ei<strong>the</strong>r common<br />
or very common, so <strong>the</strong>ir taxonomy and distribution<br />
have been well established. Among <strong>the</strong>m are three species<br />
of small calanoid copepods, Scaphocalanus vervoorti,
152 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
TABLE 3. Abundances of deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. CC, very common; C, common; R, rare; RR, very rare.<br />
Species name Abundance Species name Abundance<br />
Species occurring along <strong>the</strong> ice edge of Antarctica (6 spp.)<br />
Aetideopsis antarctica R<br />
Chiridiella megadactyla R<br />
Paraeuchaeta austrina R<br />
Paraeuchaeta erebi R<br />
Paraeuchaeta similis C<br />
Paraeuchaeta tycodesma R<br />
Species occurring widely in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers (14 spp.)<br />
Euaugaptilus antarcticus CC<br />
Euaugaptilus austrinus R<br />
Euchirella rostromagna CC<br />
Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us CC<br />
Landrumius antarcticus R<br />
Onchocalanus magnus C<br />
Onchocalanus wolfendeni C<br />
Paraeuchaeta eltaninae C<br />
Scaphocalanus antarcticus CC<br />
Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis CC<br />
Scaphocalanus vervoorti CC<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis CC<br />
Scolecithricella vervoorti C<br />
Spinocalanus terranovae C<br />
Species known from 1 or 2 specimens in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers (4 spp.)<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta antarctica RR<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta pubescens RR<br />
Onchocalanus subcrist<strong>at</strong>us RR<br />
Pseudochirella formosa RR<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis, and Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis,<br />
th<strong>at</strong> may occur in particularly large numbers in w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
close <strong>to</strong> continent, where <strong>the</strong>y may be encountered in<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively shallow w<strong>at</strong>er (Park, 1980, 1982). These small,<br />
abundant species all belong <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> family Scolecitrichidae<br />
and are presumed <strong>to</strong> be detritivores. Two o<strong>the</strong>r small,<br />
common, pelagic calanoids, Scolecithricella vervoorti and<br />
Spinocalanus terranovae, are found exclusively in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region but in rel<strong>at</strong>ively smaller numbers than <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst three. The former is a scolecitrichid. Spinocalanus terranovae<br />
belongs <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spinocalanidae; its trophic niche is<br />
not known.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> remaining nine deepw<strong>at</strong>er species restricted <strong>to</strong><br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence, all are rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
large calanoids. They can be divided in<strong>to</strong> two groups. Four<br />
species are very common; in order of <strong>the</strong> number of specimens<br />
collected <strong>the</strong>y are Euchirella rostromagna, Haloptilus<br />
ocell<strong>at</strong>us, Scaphocalanus antarcticus, and Euaugaptilus<br />
antarcticus. Three species are common, Onchocalanus<br />
wolfendeni, Paraeuchaeta eltaninae, and Onchocalanus<br />
Species occurring in both Antarctic and subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers (19 spp.)<br />
Aetideus australis C<br />
Candacia maxima R<br />
Cephalophanes frigidus C<br />
Heterorhabdus pustulifer C<br />
Heterorhabdus austrinus C<br />
Heterostylites nigrotinctus R<br />
Metridia pseudoasymmetrica R<br />
Paraeuchaeta antarctica CC<br />
Paraeuchaeta biloba CC<br />
Paraeuchaeta dactylifera C<br />
Paraeuchaeta parvula C<br />
Paraeuchaeta rasa CC<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani C<br />
Pleuromamma antarctica C<br />
Pseudochirella mawsoni C<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani CC<br />
Scaphocalanus parantarcticus CC<br />
Scolecithricella dentipes CC<br />
Scolecithricella schizosoma CC<br />
Species endemic <strong>to</strong> subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers (7 spp.)<br />
Aetideopsis tumorosa R<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus eltaninae R<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus unicornis R<br />
Bradycalanus enormis R<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus infl <strong>at</strong>us R<br />
Bradycalanus pseudotypicus R<br />
Candacia cheirura C<br />
magnus, and two species are rare, Euaugaptilus austrinus<br />
and Landrumius antarcticus. These large species are<br />
taxonomically diverse and belong <strong>to</strong> fi ve calanoid families<br />
(Appendix 2).<br />
There are 19 endemic species of calanoid copepods<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have been found in both <strong>the</strong> Antarctic and <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
regions, i.e., south of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence.<br />
Most prominent among <strong>the</strong>m are fi ve species of<br />
Paraeuchaeta: P. antarctica, P. biloba, P. rasa, P. parvula,<br />
and P. dactylifera. Paraeuchaeta antarctica and P. rasa<br />
are among <strong>the</strong> most abundant carnivorous calanoids of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. They are usually encountered south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence but may be collected in<br />
small numbers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north in open w<strong>at</strong>ers; P. antarctica<br />
has also been reported as far north as <strong>the</strong> Chilean fjords<br />
(Marín and Antezana, 1985). Paraeuchaeta biloba can<br />
be collected immedi<strong>at</strong>ely adjacent <strong>to</strong>, and on ei<strong>the</strong>r side<br />
of, <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. A unique record of <strong>the</strong><br />
co- occurrence of <strong>the</strong>se three species of Paraeuchaeta is<br />
from a deep midw<strong>at</strong>er trawl sample (0– 1,295 m) taken
off Uruguay (34º43�S, 49º28�W <strong>to</strong> 34º51�S, 49º44�W) in<br />
<strong>the</strong> southwestern Atlantic north of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence<br />
(Park, 1978).<br />
Paraeuchaeta parvula, like P. biloba, has also been<br />
collected both north and south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence.<br />
Paraeuchaeta dactylifera has only been found in<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively small numbers and usually in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region; two specimens captured well south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence (Park, 1978) are exceptions. Two aetideid<br />
species, Aetideus australis and Pseudochirella mawsoni,<br />
can also be found both north and south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence. Aetideus australis has been collected more<br />
often in w<strong>at</strong>ers north of <strong>the</strong> convergence than south. Pseudochirella<br />
mawsoni has been reported from numerous localities<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and has been collected in<br />
large numbers in midw<strong>at</strong>er trawls immedi<strong>at</strong>ely north of<br />
convergence. Both species are presumed <strong>to</strong> be carnivores.<br />
Four very common scolecitrichid species are endemic<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Scolecithricella dentipes and<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani are found throughout <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
and subantarctic regions, where <strong>the</strong>y may be numerous<br />
in some samples. Scaphocalanus parantarcticus and Scolecithricella<br />
schizosoma are also distributed throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and may be very common but are found<br />
in smaller numbers than <strong>the</strong> fi rst two.<br />
There are four species of <strong>the</strong> family Heterorhabdidae<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are well-known endemics of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: Heterorhabdus<br />
pustulifer, H. austrinus, Heterostylites nigrotinctus,<br />
and Paraheterorhabdus farrani. Paraheterorhabdus<br />
farrani is common and has been collected throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; Heterorhabdus pustulifer and H. austrinus<br />
are also common, while Heterostylites nigrotinctus is<br />
rare. Among <strong>the</strong> remaining 4 of <strong>the</strong> 19 endemic species reported<br />
from both Antarctic and subantarctic regions, three<br />
rare species, Candacia maxima, Cephalophanes frigidus,<br />
and Metridia pseudoasymmetrica, and <strong>the</strong> common Pleuromamma<br />
antarctica are not often encountered in samples.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong>re are enough records <strong>to</strong> suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
species are limited <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
There are seven deepw<strong>at</strong>er species th<strong>at</strong> have been<br />
found only in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region (Table 3). Six of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m, Aetideopsis tumerosa, B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus eltaninae,<br />
B. unicornis, Bradycalanus enormis, B. infl <strong>at</strong>us, and B.<br />
pseudotypicus, are known from a few localities and only<br />
a few specimens; <strong>the</strong>ir distribution cannot be determined<br />
with certainty. Of <strong>the</strong>se six species, <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter fi ve belong<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> family Megacalanidae; Aetideopsis tumerosa is an<br />
aetideid. The seventh species, Candacia cheirura, has been<br />
collected often enough <strong>to</strong> be considered <strong>the</strong> only species<br />
of Candaciidae restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region. It is<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 153<br />
common and has been hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> be restricted <strong>to</strong> mesopelagic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers of <strong>the</strong> West Wind Drift (Vervoort, 1957),<br />
also called <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which is<br />
<strong>the</strong> dominant circul<strong>at</strong>ion fe<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
In summary, among <strong>the</strong> 50 deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid copepod<br />
species found exclusively in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, six<br />
species occur close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continent. Although <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
have been captured in rel<strong>at</strong>ively small numbers, <strong>the</strong>y may<br />
have been undersampled due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> diffi culty in collecting<br />
with a midw<strong>at</strong>er trawl in deepw<strong>at</strong>er close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continent.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>se six species, <strong>the</strong> closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed Paraeuchaeta<br />
austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma, all members of <strong>the</strong><br />
antarctica species group, appear <strong>to</strong> be restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same habit<strong>at</strong>. Of <strong>the</strong> 18 species found in open w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence, four were originally<br />
described from one or two specimens collected in a single<br />
sample, have not been rediscovered, and remain poorly<br />
known. The remaining 14 species can be regarded as typical<br />
endemics of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic deep w<strong>at</strong>er. Except for two<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively rare species, <strong>the</strong>y are common or very common<br />
in w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. Nineteen<br />
of <strong>the</strong> 50 Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean deepw<strong>at</strong>er species are typical<br />
endemics of <strong>the</strong> region as a whole, and most of <strong>the</strong>m have<br />
been collected from many localities throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Seven of <strong>the</strong>se species have only been found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> subantarctic region. Their distributions are based on a<br />
small number of specimens and <strong>the</strong>refore are insuffi ciently<br />
known. Candacia cheirura is an exception; it is a common<br />
endemic of <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region.<br />
DEEPWATER CALANOIDS FROM ANTARCTIC<br />
WATERS REPORTED NORTH OF THE<br />
SUBTROPICAL CONVERGENCE<br />
A <strong>to</strong>tal of 127 deepw<strong>at</strong>er species of pelagic calanoid<br />
copepods have been reported from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. Twenty-four<br />
of those species are limited <strong>to</strong> this region (see <strong>the</strong> Deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
Calanoids Restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean section),<br />
and 19 species have been found northward, in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> subantarctic region, with <strong>the</strong>ir distribution termin<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence. Thus, 43 of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
127 deep w<strong>at</strong>er species collected south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence are endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
The remaining 84 species have been reported beyond<br />
<strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence <strong>to</strong> varying degrees. Seven<br />
(8%) of <strong>the</strong>se species have been collected in <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
region, adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Table 4),<br />
and fi ve (6%) species have been collected as far north as
154 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
TABLE 4. Abundances and loc<strong>at</strong>ions of deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species collected south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence th<strong>at</strong> occur north of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence. 1,<br />
south temper<strong>at</strong>e; 2, tropical; 3, north temper<strong>at</strong>e; 4, subarctic; 5, Arctic basin. Abundance in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: CC, very common; C, common; R, rare; RR, very rare.<br />
A “�” indic<strong>at</strong>es presence.<br />
Region<br />
Species name Abundance 1 2 3 4 5<br />
Species ranging from Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region (7 spp.)<br />
Euaugaptilus hadrocephalus RR �<br />
Euaugaptilus perase<strong>to</strong>sus R �<br />
Onchocalanus par<strong>at</strong>rigoniceps R �<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis CC �<br />
Pseudochirella hirsuta C �<br />
Scolecithricella hadrosoma R �<br />
Scolecithricella parafalcifer R �<br />
Species ranging from Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> tropical region (5 spp.)<br />
Cornucalanus robustus CC � �<br />
Farrania frigida R � �<br />
Lucicutia bradyana R � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta abbrevi<strong>at</strong>a R � �<br />
Scaphocalanus major R �<br />
Species ranging from Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region (29 spp.)<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta lamell<strong>at</strong>a R � � �<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris R � �<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus bradyi R � � �<br />
Chiridiella subaequalis R �<br />
Chiridius polaris R �<br />
Cornucalanus chelifer CC � � �<br />
Cornucalanus simplex R � � �<br />
Euaugaptilus bullifer R � �<br />
Euaugaptilus magna C � � �<br />
Euaugaptilus maxillaris R � � �<br />
Euaugaptilus nodifrons C � � �<br />
Gaetanus antarcticus R � � �<br />
Gaetanus paracurvicornis R � �<br />
Haloptilus fons R � � �<br />
Haloptilus oxycephalus CC � �<br />
Lophothrix humilifrons R � � �<br />
Metridia ferrarii R � � �<br />
Onchocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us R � � �<br />
Onchocalanus hirtipes R �<br />
Onchocalanus trigoniceps R � � �<br />
Scaphocalanus elong<strong>at</strong>us C � �<br />
Scolecithricella altera R �<br />
Scolecithricella emargin<strong>at</strong>a CC � � �<br />
Scolecithricella obtusifrons R � �<br />
Scolecithricella ov<strong>at</strong>a C � � �<br />
Talacalanus greeni R � �<br />
Valdiviella oligarthra R � � �<br />
Valdiviella brevicornis R � � �<br />
Valdiviella insignis R � � �<br />
(continued)
Region<br />
Species name Abundance 1 2 3 4 5<br />
Species ranging from Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subarctic region (30 spp.)<br />
Aetideopsis multiserr<strong>at</strong>a R � � � �<br />
Arietellus simplex R � � � �<br />
Candacia falcifera R � � �<br />
Chiridius gracilis R � � �<br />
Haloptilus longicirrus R � � �<br />
Lucicutia curta R � � � �<br />
Lucicutia macrocera R � � � �<br />
Lucicutia magna R � � � �<br />
Lucicutia ovalis R � � � �<br />
Lucicutia wolfendeni R � � � �<br />
Megacalanus princeps R � � � �<br />
Metridia curticauda R � � � �<br />
Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a R � �<br />
Metridia princeps R � � � �<br />
Mimocalanus cultrifer R � � � �<br />
Nullosetigera bident<strong>at</strong>us R � � � �<br />
Pachyptilus eurygn<strong>at</strong>hus R � � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta kurilensis R � � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta tumidula R � � �<br />
Pseudeuchaeta brevicauda R � � � �<br />
Pseudochirella dubia R � � � �<br />
Pseudochirella notacantha R � � �<br />
Pseudochirella obtusa C � � �<br />
Pseudochirella pustulifera R � � � �<br />
Racovitzanus antarcticus CC �<br />
Scolecithricella minor CC � � � �<br />
Scolecithricella valida C � � � �<br />
Spinocalanus abyssalis R � � � �<br />
Spinocalanus magnus R � � � �<br />
Undeuchaeta incisa R � � �<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 155<br />
Species ranging from Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean (13 spp.)<br />
Aetideopsis minor R � �<br />
Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a R � �<br />
Augaptilus glacialis R � � � � �<br />
Gaetanus brevispinus CC � � � � �<br />
Gaetanus tenuispinus CC � � � � �<br />
Microcalanus pygmaeus R � � � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a CC � � � � �<br />
Pseudaugaptilus longiremis R � � �<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa R � � �<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis R � �<br />
Spinocalanus antarcticus R �<br />
Spinocalanus horridus R � � � � �<br />
Temorites brevis R � � � �
156 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
<strong>the</strong> tropical region. There are records of 29 species (35%)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean as far north as <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
region and reports of 30 species (36%) as far north as<br />
<strong>the</strong> subarctic seas (Table 5). Thirteen species (15%) have<br />
been collected as far north as <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean.<br />
Five (71%) of <strong>the</strong> seven species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region are rare or very<br />
rare (Table 4). Euaugaptilus hadrocephalus, E. perase<strong>to</strong>sus,<br />
Onchocalanus par<strong>at</strong>rigoniceps, Scolecithricella hadrosoma,<br />
and S. parafalcifer originally were described from a<br />
few specimens and have not been collected again; <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
poorly known. Two species, Paraeuchaeta regalis and Pseudochirella<br />
hirsuta, have been collected from many localities<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region, and specimens have<br />
been found in small numbers from samples both northward<br />
in <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region and southward in<strong>to</strong> Antarctic<br />
regions. Paraeuchaeta regalis, like its euchaetid congeners,<br />
is probably a carnivore; Pseudochirella hirsuta, an aetideid,<br />
is also presumed <strong>to</strong> be carnivorous on <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> size<br />
and structure of its feeding appendages.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> fi ve Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species th<strong>at</strong> have been<br />
collected in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er of <strong>the</strong> tropical region (Table<br />
4), Farrania frigida, Lucicutia bradyana, Paraeuchaeta<br />
abbrevi<strong>at</strong>a, and Scaphocalanus major are rare (80%)<br />
and remain poorly known; <strong>the</strong>ir records are based on a<br />
small number of specimens collected from a few widely<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ed localities. Only one of <strong>the</strong> fi ve species, Cornucalanus<br />
robustus, occurs throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean;<br />
Park (1983b) recovered it from 37 deepw<strong>at</strong>er st<strong>at</strong>ions in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic and subantarctic regions. Vervoort (1965a)<br />
identifi ed fi ve specimens, including two juvenile copepodids<br />
in <strong>the</strong> deep w<strong>at</strong>er of <strong>the</strong> Gulf of Guinea in <strong>the</strong> tropical<br />
Atlantic, and this remained <strong>the</strong> only record from outside<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean until Björnberg (1973) reported it in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>astern Pacifi c Ocean.<br />
All 29 Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species collected as far north as<br />
<strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region (Table 4) appear <strong>to</strong> be b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic,<br />
found between 1,000 and 4,000 m. Twenty-two<br />
(76%) of <strong>the</strong>se are rare in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Among<br />
<strong>the</strong> remaining seven species, six are ei<strong>the</strong>r common or very<br />
common (number in <strong>the</strong> paren<strong>the</strong>sis is <strong>the</strong> number of specimens<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean): Haloptilus oxycephalus<br />
(388), Scolecithricella emargin<strong>at</strong>a (226), Cornucalanus<br />
chelifer (111), Scolecithricella ov<strong>at</strong>a (76), Euaugaptilus<br />
nodifrons (71), and Scaphocalanus elong<strong>at</strong>us (63). Scolecithricella<br />
emargin<strong>at</strong>a and Cornucalanus chelifer are very<br />
common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Haloptilus oxycephalus<br />
is very common and Euaugaptilus nodifrons is common in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, but only a few specimens of ei<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
have been collected in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic, south temper<strong>at</strong>e,<br />
or tropical regions. Scolecithricella ov<strong>at</strong>a and Scapho-<br />
calanus elong<strong>at</strong>us are common in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region.<br />
Forty-four specimens of <strong>the</strong> seventh species, Euaugaptilus<br />
magnus, have been recovered from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, but<br />
most of <strong>the</strong>se are from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region. It is c<strong>at</strong>egorized<br />
here as rare but is still better represented than <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r 22 rare species.<br />
Thirty species reported from Antarctic region also<br />
have been collected in <strong>the</strong> subarctic region (Table 4). All of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m are b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic, and 87% are rare. The remaining<br />
four species are common or very common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (number in <strong>the</strong> paren<strong>the</strong>sis is <strong>the</strong> number of specimens<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by T. Park): Scolecithricella<br />
minor (1,728), Racovitzanus antarcticus (1,077), Scolecithricella<br />
valida (74), and Pseudochirella obtusa (52). A<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er number of specimens of Scolecithricella minor than<br />
any o<strong>the</strong>r species of this genus was encountered in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Specimens were more likely <strong>to</strong> be collected in<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continent, where <strong>the</strong> species occasionally<br />
has been reported from <strong>the</strong> epipelagic zone. Racovitzanus<br />
antarcticus is more likely <strong>to</strong> be encountered in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region although it also occurs in w<strong>at</strong>ers immedi<strong>at</strong>ely north<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and beyond. Scolecithricella<br />
valida was found widely throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Pseudochirella obtusa was recorded from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region<br />
by Park (1978) as Pseudochirella polyspina.<br />
Thirteen species (Table 4) from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region<br />
have also been collected in <strong>the</strong> Arctic region (Arctic Ocean<br />
basin). They are all b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic, and 77% are rare except<br />
for <strong>the</strong> following three very common species (number<br />
in paren<strong>the</strong>sis is <strong>the</strong> number of specimens found in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by T. Park): Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a (462),<br />
Gaetanus tenuispinus (414), and Gaetanus brevispinus<br />
(150). The nor<strong>the</strong>rn and sou<strong>the</strong>rn polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> species now known as Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a <strong>at</strong> one<br />
time were considered <strong>to</strong> be a bipolar species, Euchaeta<br />
farrani (see Farran, 1929; Vervoort, 1957). L<strong>at</strong>er, Euchaeta<br />
farrani was synonymized with Euchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a<br />
by Park (1978). Euchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a was <strong>the</strong>n considered<br />
<strong>to</strong> have a wide distribution throughout <strong>the</strong> deep w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
of <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans, as recorded under th<strong>at</strong> name by<br />
Mauchline (1992) and l<strong>at</strong>er as Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a by<br />
Park (1995). Throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, P. barb<strong>at</strong>a<br />
is very common in deep w<strong>at</strong>er. Gaetanus tenuispinus is<br />
very common south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence. Specimens<br />
of <strong>the</strong> third very common species, Gaetanus brevispinus<br />
Sars, 1900, were initially described from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean as Gaidius intermedius Wolfenden, 1905, but<br />
specimens of this species now are considered <strong>to</strong> belong <strong>to</strong><br />
Gaetanus brevispinus (see Markhaseva, 1996). Gaetanus<br />
brevispinus is most often encountered in large numbers<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence.
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 157<br />
TABLE 5. Abundances and loc<strong>at</strong>ions of subantarctic deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species absent south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence th<strong>at</strong> occur<br />
north of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence. 1, south temper<strong>at</strong>e; 2, tropical; 3, north temper<strong>at</strong>e; 4, subarctic; 5, Arctic basin. Abundance in<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: CC, very common; C, common; R, rare. A “�” indic<strong>at</strong>es presence.<br />
Region<br />
Species name Abundance 1 2 3 4 5<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic <strong>to</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region (6 spp.)<br />
Euaugaptilus aliquantus R �<br />
Euaugaptilus brevirostr<strong>at</strong>us R �<br />
Heterorhabdus spinosus CC �<br />
Heterorhabdus paraspinosus C �<br />
Paraeuchaeta exigua C �<br />
Scolecithricella pseudopropinqua R �<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic <strong>to</strong> tropical region (2 spp.)<br />
Euchirella similis R � �<br />
Landrumius gigas R � �<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic <strong>to</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region (31 spp.)<br />
Aetideus arcu<strong>at</strong>us R � � �<br />
Euaugaptilus angustus R � �<br />
Euaugaptilus gibbus R � �<br />
Euaugaptilus l<strong>at</strong>iceps R � � �<br />
Euaugaptilus oblongus R �<br />
Euchirella rostr<strong>at</strong>a R � � �<br />
Gaetanus minor R � � �<br />
Gaetanus pile<strong>at</strong>us R � � �<br />
Heterorhabdus lob<strong>at</strong>us C � � �<br />
Lophothrix frontalis C � � �<br />
Metridia lucens R � � �<br />
Metridia venusta R � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta comosa R � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa C � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta sarsi R � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta scotti R � � �<br />
Pleuromamma abdominalis R � � �<br />
Pleuromamma peseki R � � �<br />
Pleuromamma quadrungul<strong>at</strong>a R � � �<br />
Pleuromamma xiphias R � � �<br />
Scaphocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us R �<br />
Scaphocalanus echin<strong>at</strong>us CC � � �<br />
Scaphocalanus medius C � �<br />
Scolecithricella dent<strong>at</strong>a R � � �<br />
Scolecithricella profunda R � � �<br />
Scolecithricella vitt<strong>at</strong>a R � � �<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus securifrons C � � �<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus helenae R � � �<br />
Undeuchaeta major R � � �<br />
Undeuchaeta plumosa R � � �<br />
Valdiviella minor R � � �<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic <strong>to</strong> subarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers (10 spp.)<br />
Centraugaptilus r<strong>at</strong>trayi R � � � �<br />
Chirundina streetsii R � � � �<br />
Disseta palumbii R � � � �<br />
Euchirella maxima R � � � �<br />
Gaetanus kruppii R � � � �<br />
Gaetanus l<strong>at</strong>ifrons R � � � �<br />
Metridia brevicauda R � � � �<br />
Paraeuchaeta hansenii R � � � �<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus thorii R � �<br />
Undinella brevipes R � �<br />
Species ranging from subantarctic <strong>to</strong> Arctic basin (1 sp.)<br />
Paraheterorhabdus compactus R � � � �
158 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
In summary, <strong>the</strong>re are 84 species of deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid<br />
copepods th<strong>at</strong> occur south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence<br />
and have also been reported northward <strong>to</strong> different degrees;<br />
86% of <strong>the</strong>se species have been reported <strong>at</strong> least as far north<br />
as <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region. Two of <strong>the</strong> seven species occurring<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e region<br />
are common or very common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean,<br />
while one of <strong>the</strong> fi ve species found from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region<br />
north <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tropical region is very common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Seven of <strong>the</strong> 29 species reported from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region and <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region are common or<br />
very common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Four of <strong>the</strong> 30 species<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region and reported as far north as<br />
<strong>the</strong> subarctic region are common or very common in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Only 3 of <strong>the</strong> 13 species found in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Ocean are common or very common in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions suggest th<strong>at</strong> most (80%) of <strong>the</strong><br />
rare or very rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er species occurring in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
region appear <strong>to</strong> be distributed widely throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s oceans, where <strong>the</strong>y also are rare or very rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
species. However, <strong>the</strong>re are a small number (17) of<br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er species th<strong>at</strong> may be collected in large numbers in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean th<strong>at</strong> are widely distributed and rare or<br />
very rare outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
In contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> epipelagic calanoid community, <strong>the</strong><br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er pelagic calanoid community of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean is represented by a very diverse group of species.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> endemic species collected in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean are common or very common <strong>the</strong>re, apparently<br />
having adapted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> high primary and secondary productivity<br />
(Park, 1994). Interestingly, a few of <strong>the</strong> species<br />
collected in o<strong>the</strong>r regions are also very common in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, although <strong>the</strong>y are known from only a<br />
few specimens throughout <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong>ir range. These<br />
species appear <strong>to</strong> be capable of surviving in habit<strong>at</strong>s of<br />
low productivity, and yet <strong>the</strong>y can maintain larger popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in some eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s like <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
This small number of deepw<strong>at</strong>er species of pelagic calanoid<br />
copepods may also be well adapted <strong>to</strong> high primary<br />
and secondary productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and<br />
this adapt<strong>at</strong>ion may result in rel<strong>at</strong>ively larger numbers of<br />
specimens (Park, 1994).<br />
SUBANTARCTIC DEEPWATER<br />
CALANOIDS REPORTED NORTH OF<br />
THE SUBTROPICAL CONVERGENCE<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 167 deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species found in <strong>the</strong><br />
subantarctic region, between <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence<br />
and Subtropical Convergence, seven are endemic <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong><br />
region; 110 species were also collected south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence. The remaining 50 species are not collected<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence, but <strong>the</strong>ir distribution<br />
does extend north of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence<br />
(Table 5). Six species (12%) can be found in <strong>the</strong> south<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e region, and two (4%) have been collected in <strong>the</strong><br />
tropical region. There are records of 31 species (62%) in<br />
<strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region, 10 species (20%) in <strong>the</strong> subarctic<br />
region, and 1 species (2%) from <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> six species ranging from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e regions, Heterorhabdus spinosus is<br />
very common, and H. paraspinosus and Paraeuchaeta<br />
exigua are common in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region. The two<br />
species of Heterorhabdus occur <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r and have been<br />
collected from only three o<strong>the</strong>r widely separ<strong>at</strong>ed areas:<br />
off <strong>the</strong> west coast of South Africa, off <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn west<br />
coast of Chile, and off <strong>the</strong> east coast of New Zealand<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> Tasman Sea. Paraeuchaeta exigua has been<br />
found in four widely separ<strong>at</strong>ed areas: <strong>the</strong> eastern and <strong>the</strong><br />
western parts of <strong>the</strong> South Atlantic Ocean, <strong>the</strong> Tasman<br />
Sea, and <strong>the</strong> western Indian Ocean, where it is very common<br />
(Park, 1995). These three species apparently are associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with habit<strong>at</strong>s of high secondary productivity, especially<br />
coastal upwelling systems. The remaining three<br />
species have been found only once and remain poorly<br />
known.<br />
Only two species, Euchirella similis and Landrumius<br />
gigas, have been reported from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> tropical region. They are very rare in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region and remain poorly known. All 31 species ranging<br />
from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
region were originally described from <strong>the</strong> low or middle<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes and subsequently have been reported from <strong>the</strong><br />
subantarctic region. All are believed <strong>to</strong> be mesopelagic<br />
or b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic except for two rel<strong>at</strong>ively shallow living<br />
species, Scolecithricella dent<strong>at</strong>a and Scolecithricella vitt<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
Twenty-fi ve of <strong>the</strong> species are rare in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region, and fi ve species, Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus securifrons,<br />
Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa, Lophothrix frontalis, Scaphocalanus<br />
medius, and Heterorhabdus lob<strong>at</strong>us, are common.<br />
Only Scaphocalanus echin<strong>at</strong>us is very common in<br />
<strong>the</strong> subantarctic region.<br />
Ten of <strong>the</strong> subantarctic species have been found as far<br />
north as <strong>the</strong> subarctic region. They are all rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
calanoids. Paraheterorhabdus compactus is <strong>the</strong> only species<br />
known <strong>to</strong> occur from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region north<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin; it is b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic and occurs in small<br />
numbers throughout its range (Park, 2000).<br />
In summary, <strong>the</strong>re are 50 species th<strong>at</strong> are absent south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence but are found in <strong>the</strong> subantarctic<br />
region and northward <strong>to</strong> varying degrees. Eighty-
four percent of <strong>the</strong>se species have been reported <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong> least<br />
<strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region. Eighty-two percent are rare;<br />
<strong>the</strong> exceptions are three of six species occurring in <strong>the</strong><br />
subantarctic and south temper<strong>at</strong>e regions, where <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
common in <strong>the</strong> productive coastal w<strong>at</strong>ers, and 6 of 31 species<br />
found from <strong>the</strong> subantarctic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
regions. These l<strong>at</strong>ter six are common or very common in<br />
productive <strong>the</strong> subantarctic region.<br />
SOUTHERN OCEAN CALANOIDS<br />
WITH A BIPOLAR DISTRIBUTION<br />
There are nine pelagic calanoids whose distribution<br />
can be described as bipolar (Table 6). Aetideopsis minor,<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis, and Spinocalanus antarcticus<br />
are found south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence and<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin (Table 4); Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a and<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa are found south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence, in <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin and its adjacent boreal<br />
seas (Table 4); Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a and Racovitzanus antarcticus<br />
are found south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence<br />
and in boreal seas adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin (Table 4);<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris and Chiridius polaris are found<br />
both north and south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence<br />
and in boreal seas adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin. Eight of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se nine species are rare or very rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er species<br />
in both polar areas, and three of those eight have<br />
been found in <strong>the</strong> subarctic region but not in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Ocean basin. The ninth species, Racovitzanus antarcticus,<br />
is very common in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence and has been described as common in <strong>the</strong><br />
boreal seas adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin (Brodsky, 1950).<br />
TABLE 6. Nine Calanoid species with a bipolar distribution.<br />
Species name Distribution<br />
Aetideopsis minor Antarctic (61º– 69ºS), Arctic basin<br />
Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a Antarctic, Arctic and boreal seas<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris Antarctic (63ºS), boreal region<br />
(45º– 46ºN)<br />
Chiridius polaris Antarctic (53º– 68ºS), boreal region<br />
(44º– 46ºN)<br />
Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a Antarctic (55º– 70ºS), boreal region<br />
(38º– 57ºN)<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa Antarctic (53º– 66ºS), 86ºN and<br />
44º– 46ºN<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis Antarctic (61º– 68ºS), Arctic basin<br />
Racovitzanus antarcticus Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, boreal seas<br />
Spinocalanus antarcticus Antarctic, Arctic basin<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 159<br />
Park (1983a) examined specimens of R. antarcticus from<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Pacifi c Ocean and found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y are identical<br />
<strong>to</strong> those from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean in an<strong>at</strong>omical<br />
details of <strong>the</strong> exoskele<strong>to</strong>n. In <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong><br />
number of R. antarcticus collected appears <strong>to</strong> decrease<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her abruptly with distance northward from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence, and <strong>the</strong>re is some evidence th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
species may be found in deeper w<strong>at</strong>ers north of <strong>the</strong> convergence<br />
but within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Park, 1983a).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, R. antarcticus seems <strong>to</strong> inhabit<br />
<strong>the</strong> mesopelagic zone (200– 1,000 m).<br />
Two hypo<strong>the</strong>ses can be suggested <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> distribution<br />
of R. antarcticus. The polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions may<br />
be connected through very deep living popul<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong><br />
north temper<strong>at</strong>e, tropical, and south temper<strong>at</strong>e regions <strong>at</strong><br />
depths not adequ<strong>at</strong>ely sampled <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e. This connection<br />
would medi<strong>at</strong>e gene fl ow through <strong>the</strong> undetected deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>e and tropical regions and<br />
would result in <strong>the</strong> stable morphological similarity between<br />
specimens from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn and Nor<strong>the</strong>rn hemispheres.<br />
A similar scenario may explain <strong>the</strong> apparent bipolar distribution<br />
of remaining eight deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid copepods<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are rare or very rare: <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes <strong>the</strong>y inhabit<br />
shallower depths, where individuals can be captured more<br />
easily, perhaps because secondary productivity is higher.<br />
At lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes, popul<strong>at</strong>ions are found much deeper<br />
and are not as readily collected. The altern<strong>at</strong>e hypo<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
is of incipient speci<strong>at</strong>ion from a previously more broadly<br />
distributed deepw<strong>at</strong>er species th<strong>at</strong> is no longer connected<br />
through temper<strong>at</strong>e and tropical deepw<strong>at</strong>er popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(see <strong>the</strong> Compar<strong>at</strong>ive Endemicity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
Fauna section). Morphological similarity in this case is<br />
transi<strong>to</strong>ry because <strong>the</strong> absence of gene fl ow between <strong>the</strong><br />
polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions is expected <strong>to</strong> result in morphological<br />
divergence.<br />
The remaining eight rare species have come <strong>to</strong> be recognized<br />
as having a bipolar distribution in one of three<br />
ways. Aetideopsis minor, Chiridius polaris, Pseudochirella<br />
b<strong>at</strong>illipa, and Spinocalanus antarcticus originally were<br />
described from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and subsequently<br />
reported from <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere. Spinocalanus<br />
antarcticus was discovered in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean ( Damkaer,<br />
1975), while Aetideopsis minor, Chiridius polaris, and<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa recently have been recorded<br />
for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time beyond <strong>the</strong>ir type locality, in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Ocean and adjacent boreal seas (Markhaseva, 1996).<br />
Two species, B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris and Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
originally were described from localities adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic Ocean; subsequently, <strong>the</strong>y were reported from <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time outside <strong>the</strong>ir type locality,<br />
by Markhaseva (1996, 2001). Finally, two species were
160 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
recognized <strong>to</strong> be bipolar when specimens from sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
and nor<strong>the</strong>rn localities, originally considered different species,<br />
subsequently were proposed <strong>to</strong> be identical. Aetideopsis<br />
infl <strong>at</strong>a, originally described from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region,<br />
was synonymized with <strong>the</strong> subarctic species Aetideopsis<br />
rostr<strong>at</strong>a (see Markhaseva, 1996), so Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a<br />
is now a bipolar species. Similarly, Pseudochirella elong<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
also originally described from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region,<br />
was synonymized with <strong>the</strong> Arctic species Pseudochirella<br />
spectabilis (see Markhaseva, 1996); <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter species now<br />
has a bipolar distribution. The geographical distribution<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se rare species, as inferred from a small number of<br />
specimens and from a limited number of localities, however,<br />
may not be completely unders<strong>to</strong>od.<br />
It is worth noting th<strong>at</strong> some species of pelagic calanoid<br />
copepods previously regarded as having disjunct popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn and Arctic oceans have not subsequently<br />
been found <strong>to</strong> be bipolar. R<strong>at</strong>her, <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn and<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn popul<strong>at</strong>ions have been recognized as two separ<strong>at</strong>e<br />
species. As examples, <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn popul<strong>at</strong>ion previously<br />
referred <strong>to</strong> as Calanus fi nmarchicus is now Calanus<br />
australis; <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn popul<strong>at</strong>ion previously known<br />
as Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus is now Neocalanus plumchrus; <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn popul<strong>at</strong>ion originally known as Scaphocalanus<br />
brevicornis is now Scaphocalanus farrani. The fi rst two<br />
species are epipelagic herbivores; <strong>the</strong> third is a deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
detritivore. The taxonomic his<strong>to</strong>ry of Paraeuchaeta<br />
barb<strong>at</strong>a is inform<strong>at</strong>ive but more complex (see <strong>the</strong> Deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
Calanoids from Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers Reported North<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence section). This species originally<br />
was described as Euchaeta farrani from <strong>the</strong> Norwegian<br />
Sea by With (1915); subsequently, it was recorded<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region by Farran (1929) and Vervoort<br />
(1957) and proposed by <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> be a species with a bipolar<br />
distribution. As described more completely above (see<br />
<strong>the</strong> Deepw<strong>at</strong>er Calanoids from Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers Reported<br />
North of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence section), <strong>the</strong>se specimens<br />
have been recognized by Park (1995) as belonging <strong>to</strong><br />
P. barb<strong>at</strong>a, a deepw<strong>at</strong>er carnivore, now unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> be<br />
distributed throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans.<br />
In summary, taxonomic analyses have reversed initial<br />
inferences of a bipolar distribution for Calanus fi nmarchicus,<br />
Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus, and Scaphocalanus brevicornis.<br />
However, taxonomic analyses have established a bipolar<br />
distribution for <strong>the</strong> rare and very rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er species<br />
Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a, Aetideopsis minor, Chiridius polaris,<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis, and Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa.<br />
The distribution of <strong>the</strong> very common P. barb<strong>at</strong>a offers reasons<br />
for caution in hypo<strong>the</strong>sizing a bipolar distribution for<br />
rare and very rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er species.<br />
VERY COMMON PELAGIC CALANOIDS<br />
AND AREAS OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY<br />
All of <strong>the</strong> very common epipelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are herbivores (Table 2). In order of<br />
abundance, <strong>the</strong>y are Calanoides acutus, Rhincalanus gigas,<br />
Calanus propinquus, Calanus simillimus, Metridia<br />
gerlachei, Clausocalanus l<strong>at</strong>iceps, and Clausocalanus<br />
brevipes. These epipelagic calanoids are endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and appear <strong>to</strong> have successfully adapted<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> high primary productivity <strong>the</strong>re. The eutrophic conditions<br />
<strong>the</strong>re may also be responsible for <strong>the</strong> high numbers<br />
of individuals of <strong>the</strong>se endemic herbivores. The seven epipelagic<br />
species <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r make up <strong>the</strong> enormous secondary<br />
biomass of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, a secondary biomass th<strong>at</strong><br />
is unsurpassed in any o<strong>the</strong>r region of <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans<br />
(Fox<strong>to</strong>n, 1956).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, <strong>the</strong>re are 26 species (Table 7) from <strong>the</strong> studies<br />
of Park (1978, 1980, 1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1988, 1993)<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are represented by more than 100 individuals and are<br />
considered very common. A majority, 14 of 26 species,<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se very common deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids are limited in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir distribution <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Among <strong>the</strong> 14<br />
very common deepw<strong>at</strong>er endemic species, eight belong <strong>to</strong><br />
two genera in <strong>the</strong> family Scolecitrichidae (fi ve species of<br />
Scaphocalanus and three of Scolecithricella); all are detritivores.<br />
These are followed, in order of abundance, by<br />
three species of Paraeuchaeta in <strong>the</strong> Euchaetidae.<br />
Twelve very common species are more widely distributed,<br />
found northward <strong>at</strong> varying distances beyond <strong>the</strong><br />
Subtropical Convergence. Four species have been found<br />
as far north as <strong>the</strong> north temper<strong>at</strong>e region, one has been<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> subarctic region, and three o<strong>the</strong>r deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
species have a range extending in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean. Racovitzanus<br />
antarcticus has a bipolar distribution. Most of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se very common species, <strong>the</strong>n, are ei<strong>the</strong>r endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (14 species) or have a broad distribution<br />
extending north of <strong>the</strong> tropical region (9 species).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> 26 common deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 12 species belong <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> family Scolecitrichidae<br />
(six species of Scaphocalanus, fi ve species of Scolecithricella,<br />
and one species of Racovitzanus). The family is<br />
followed, in order of number of species, by <strong>the</strong> families Euchaetidae,<br />
with fi ve species all belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Paraeuchaeta;<br />
Aetideidae, with three species (two of Gaetanus<br />
and one Euchirella); Augaptilidae, also with three species<br />
(two Haloptilus and one Euaugaptilus); Phaennidae, with<br />
two species (both Cornucalanus); and Heterorhabdidae,<br />
with one species belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus Heterorhabdus.
TABLE 7. Very common deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (26 spp.).<br />
Species name Number of of specimens<br />
Species endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (14 spp.)<br />
Euaugaptilus antarcticus 136<br />
Euchirella rostromagna 182<br />
Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us 152<br />
Paraeuchaeta antarctica 602<br />
Paraeuchaeta biloba 370<br />
Paraeuchaeta rasa 546<br />
Scaphocalanus antarcticus 130<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani 1,271<br />
Scaphocalanus parantarcticus 289<br />
Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis 188<br />
Scaphocalanus vervoorti 1,936<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis 929<br />
Scolecithricella dentipes 1,603<br />
Scolecithricella schizosoma 151<br />
Species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> south<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e region (2 spp.)<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis 109<br />
Heterorhabdus spinosus 243<br />
Species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
tropical region (1 sp.)<br />
Cornucalanus robustus 161<br />
Species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
north temper<strong>at</strong>e region (4 spp.)<br />
Haloptilus oxycephalus 388<br />
Scolecithricella emargin<strong>at</strong>a 226<br />
Cornucalanus chelifer 111<br />
Scaphocalanus echin<strong>at</strong>us 114<br />
Species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
subarctic region (1 sp.)<br />
Scolecithricella minor 1,728<br />
Species ranging from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic basin (3 spp.)<br />
Gaetanus brevispinus 150<br />
Gaetanus tenuispinus 414<br />
Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a 462<br />
Species with a bipolar distribution (1 sp.)<br />
Racovitzanus antarcticus 1,077<br />
The 12 scolecitrichid species <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r were represented by<br />
9,642 individuals from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and <strong>the</strong> fi ve<br />
Paraeuchaeta species were represented by 2,089 individuals.<br />
Three aetideid species and three augaptilids were represented<br />
by 746 and 676 individuals, respectively.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively large number of specimens<br />
of Paraeuchaeta, Aetideidae, Heterorhabdidae, and<br />
Augaptilidae th<strong>at</strong> are carnivores, all of <strong>the</strong>se species are<br />
presumed <strong>to</strong> be well adapted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> high secondary productivity<br />
resulting from <strong>the</strong> large popul<strong>at</strong>ions of epipelagic<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 161<br />
herbivores in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Species of Scolecitrichidae<br />
play a major ecological role as pelagic detritivores in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, just as species of Scolecitrichidae and<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed bradfordian families of calanoids play a similar<br />
role (detritivory) in <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er benthopelagic habit<strong>at</strong><br />
of o<strong>the</strong>r oceans (Markhaseva and Ferrari, 2006). Because<br />
of <strong>the</strong>ir rel<strong>at</strong>ively small body size, scolecitrichids may also<br />
serve as a food source for carnivorous calanoids like species<br />
of Paraeuchaeta, <strong>the</strong> aetideids, and <strong>the</strong> augaptilids<br />
during periods when <strong>the</strong> juvenile stages of herbivores are<br />
unavailable as prey for <strong>the</strong>se carnivores.<br />
These conclusions are reinforced by restricting observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> 10 species represented in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean by more than 400 individuals (with number of individuals<br />
in paren<strong>the</strong>sis): Scaphocalanus vervoorti (1,936),<br />
Scolecithricella minor (1,728), S. dentipes (1,603),<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani (1,271), Racovitzanus antarcticus<br />
(1,077), Scolecithricella cenotelis (929), Paraeuchaeta<br />
antarctica (602), Paraeuchaeta rasa (546), Paraeuchaeta<br />
barb<strong>at</strong>a (462), and Gaetanus tenuispinus (414). Four of<br />
<strong>the</strong> scolecitrichid species, Scaphocalanus vervoorti, S. farrani,<br />
Scolecithricella dentipes, and S. cenotelis, and two<br />
of <strong>the</strong> euchaetid species, Paraeuchaeta antarctica and P.<br />
rasa, are endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. The range of <strong>the</strong><br />
very common Scolecithricella minor extends in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> subarctic<br />
region, while Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a and Gaetanus<br />
tenuispinus have been collected as far north as <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
basin. The scolecitrichid Racovitzanus antarcticus is also<br />
among <strong>the</strong> most common species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
but exhibits a bipolar distribution, occurring in boreal w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic basin. These 10 very common<br />
species ei<strong>the</strong>r are endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Scaphocalanus<br />
vervoorti, Scolecithricella dentipes, Scaphocalanus<br />
farrani, Scolecithricella cenotelis, Paraeuchaeta antarctica,<br />
and Paraeuchaeta rasa) or have a distribution th<strong>at</strong> extends<br />
as far north as <strong>the</strong> subarctic region or Arctic basin (Scolecithricella<br />
minor, Racovitzanus antarctica, Paraeuchaeta<br />
barb<strong>at</strong>a, and Gaetanus tenuispinus). None of <strong>the</strong> very<br />
common deepw<strong>at</strong>er Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean pelagic calanoids<br />
have distributions th<strong>at</strong> extend only <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> south temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
region <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tropical region.<br />
Within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>the</strong> abundance and distribution<br />
of deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids are believed <strong>to</strong> be determined,<br />
for <strong>the</strong> most part, by <strong>the</strong> availability of food<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than <strong>the</strong>ir adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> nonbiological environmental<br />
parameters such as w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure (Park,<br />
1994). Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se eutrophic species are endemics or<br />
not, <strong>the</strong>y are restricted <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er of high primary and secondary<br />
productivity. They can be expected <strong>to</strong> be common<br />
or very common due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir adapt<strong>at</strong>ions for exploiting
162 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
<strong>the</strong> available food sources associ<strong>at</strong>ed with th<strong>at</strong> habit<strong>at</strong>.<br />
In contrast, oligotrophic species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
are not presumed <strong>to</strong> be adapted <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers of high productivity.<br />
Their distribution is expected <strong>to</strong> be worldwide<br />
because <strong>the</strong>y are capable of surviving <strong>at</strong> most levels of<br />
food resources anywhere in <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans. However,<br />
oligotrophic species are expected <strong>to</strong> be rare or very<br />
rare in most regions of <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans. With <strong>the</strong>se<br />
constraints, a distribution of common or very common<br />
species is expected <strong>to</strong> be limited <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> highly productive<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; this is observed about half <strong>the</strong> time.<br />
Fourteen of <strong>the</strong> 26 common or very common species of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are endemic.<br />
As noted, among <strong>the</strong> 10 most numerous of <strong>the</strong> very<br />
common species found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, six are endemic.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> remaining four species represented by more<br />
than 400 specimens in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, Scolecithricella<br />
minor, Gaetanus tenuispinus, and Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a<br />
have been reported throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans,<br />
while Racovitzanus antarctica appears <strong>to</strong> have a bipolar<br />
distribution, restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
subarctic region (boreal seas adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean).<br />
The distribution of Scolecithricella minor and Gaetanus<br />
tenuispinus outside <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is based on liter<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
records. Until <strong>the</strong>se records can be verifi ed by direct<br />
comparison of specimens, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean specimens <strong>to</strong> specimens collected elsewhere remains<br />
tent<strong>at</strong>ive, and we are unable <strong>to</strong> contribute more <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong>se distributions.<br />
The distribution of Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a has become<br />
clearer in recent years and can also be unders<strong>to</strong>od within<br />
<strong>the</strong> context of <strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ion of this abundant species<br />
with areas of high primary and secondary productivity.<br />
The polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions of Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a were once<br />
regarded as a separ<strong>at</strong>e, bipolar species (see <strong>the</strong> Deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
Calanoids from Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers Reported north of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence section). When Park (1995)<br />
restudied <strong>the</strong> various popul<strong>at</strong>ions by analyzing a large<br />
number of specimens collected throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s<br />
oceans, he found th<strong>at</strong> specimens exhibited a considerable<br />
but continuous vari<strong>at</strong>ion in size. As a result of this analysis<br />
and an earlier restricted analysis (Mauchline, 1992), body<br />
size was rejected as species-specifi c character st<strong>at</strong>e for P.<br />
barb<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
This considerable and continuous vari<strong>at</strong>ion in body<br />
size of P. barb<strong>at</strong>a was subsequently reexamined in associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with <strong>the</strong> distribution of this species (T. Park, unpublished<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions). Large-sized individuals occur not<br />
only <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes of both hemispheres but also<br />
along <strong>the</strong> west coast of <strong>the</strong> Americas in areas associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with signifi cant coastal upwelling systems. Large individuals<br />
also were recorded in <strong>the</strong> Malay Archipelago and along<br />
<strong>the</strong> east coast of Japan up <strong>to</strong> Kuril and Kamch<strong>at</strong>ka; <strong>the</strong>se<br />
are also seasonally episodic areas of upwelling. Coastal<br />
upwelling systems along <strong>the</strong> west coast of <strong>the</strong> Americas<br />
and <strong>the</strong> east coast of Japan result in high primary and<br />
secondary productivity, which, in turn, may explain <strong>the</strong><br />
larger-size individuals of P. barb<strong>at</strong>a in <strong>the</strong>se areas. The<br />
smallest individuals of P. barb<strong>at</strong>a are found in <strong>the</strong> middle<br />
of <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic, an oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>.<br />
Species like P. barb<strong>at</strong>a, which are distributed throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> world’s oceans, may have become very common<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and o<strong>the</strong>r areas of seasonally episodic<br />
upwelling by taking advantage of <strong>the</strong> high secondary<br />
productivity of eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s; individuals of this<br />
species are also larger in <strong>the</strong>se habit<strong>at</strong>s as a result of <strong>the</strong><br />
availability of prey. In contrast, away from areas of high<br />
productivity, few specimens are collected, and individuals<br />
are smaller in size.<br />
COMPARATIVE ENDEMICITY OF<br />
THE SOUTHERN OCEAN FAUNA<br />
The pelagic calanoid families Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae<br />
have been studied throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s<br />
oceans (Park, 1995, 2000). From <strong>the</strong>se public<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong><br />
number of endemic species belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two families<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean can be compared <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> number<br />
of endemics from three o<strong>the</strong>r areas of interest of <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s oceans: Arctic-boreal (including <strong>the</strong> adjacent boreal<br />
seas of <strong>the</strong> Atlantic and Pacifi c Oceans), Indo-West<br />
Pacifi c, and eastern Pacifi c. The Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, with 10<br />
endemic species of Paraeuchaeta, has <strong>the</strong> highest number<br />
for th<strong>at</strong> genus (Table 8), followed by <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean,<br />
with seven endemic species of Paraeuchaeta, and <strong>the</strong> Indo-<br />
West Pacifi c and <strong>the</strong> eastern Pacifi c, each with four endemic<br />
species. Twenty-three of <strong>the</strong> 25 endemic species of<br />
Paraeuchaeta referred <strong>to</strong> above are b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic; <strong>the</strong> exceptions<br />
are <strong>the</strong> Indo-West Pacifi c epipelagic species Paraeuchaeta<br />
russelli and P. simplex.<br />
Six of <strong>the</strong> 10 Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemics, P. antarctica,<br />
P. biloba, P. dactylifera, P. eltaninae, P. parvula, and P.<br />
rasa, have been found in large numbers. Paraeuchaeta austrina,<br />
P. erebi, and P. tycodesma have not been collected<br />
in large numbers, but <strong>the</strong>y appear <strong>to</strong> be restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ice edge along Antarctica. This habit<strong>at</strong> may not have been<br />
adequ<strong>at</strong>ely sampled with midw<strong>at</strong>er trawls, and as a result,<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species may be underrepresented in trawl samples.<br />
Paraeuchaeta similis and P. antarctica have a broader dis-
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 163<br />
TABLE 8. Endemic species of Paraeuchaeta and Heterorhabdidae found in four different areas of interest. A “�” indic<strong>at</strong>es presence.<br />
Area of interest<br />
Species Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean Arctic-boreal Eastern Pacifi c Indo-West Pacifi c<br />
Paraeuchaeta antarctica �<br />
P. austrina �<br />
P. biloba �<br />
P. dactylifera �<br />
P. eltaninae �<br />
P. erebi �<br />
P. parvula �<br />
P. rasa �<br />
P. similis �<br />
P. tycodesma �<br />
P. birostr<strong>at</strong>a �<br />
P. brevirostris �<br />
P. elong<strong>at</strong>a �<br />
P. glacialis �<br />
P. norvegica �<br />
P. polaris �<br />
P. rubra �<br />
P. californica �<br />
P. copleyae �<br />
P. grandiremis �<br />
P. papilliger �<br />
P. eminens �<br />
P. investig<strong>at</strong>oris �<br />
P. russelli �<br />
P. simplex �<br />
Heterorhabdus austrinus �<br />
H. pustulifer �<br />
H. spinosus �<br />
H. paraspinosus �<br />
Heterostylites nigrotinctus �<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani �<br />
Heterorhabdus fi stulosus �<br />
H. norvegicus �<br />
H. tanneri �<br />
Paraheterorhabdus longispinus �<br />
Heterorhabdus abyssalis �<br />
H. americanus �<br />
H. prolixus �<br />
H. quadrilobus �<br />
Heterostylites echin<strong>at</strong>us �<br />
tribution within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, but only P. antarctica<br />
has been collected in large numbers.<br />
The endemic species of <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean, including<br />
adjacent boreal w<strong>at</strong>ers, and <strong>the</strong> endemics of <strong>the</strong> eastern<br />
Pacifi c have also been found in large numbers. These species<br />
are all believed <strong>to</strong> inhabit w<strong>at</strong>ers of high primary and<br />
secondary productivity, where endemism may have developed<br />
as an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>se eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s (Park,<br />
1994). Of <strong>the</strong> four endemics of <strong>the</strong> Indo-West Pacifi c,<br />
Paraeuchaeta russelli and P. simplex are neritic, inhabit-<br />
ing rel<strong>at</strong>ively shallow w<strong>at</strong>er. Paraeuchaeta eminens and P.<br />
investig<strong>at</strong>oris are deepw<strong>at</strong>er species. All four species are<br />
common in w<strong>at</strong>ers of <strong>the</strong> Malay Archipelago, an area with<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively high primary and secondary productivity. High<br />
primary and secondary productivity, r<strong>at</strong>her than a habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
abiological <strong>at</strong>tributes, appears <strong>to</strong> have been <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
determinant for <strong>the</strong> evolution of endemicity among<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species of Paraeuchaeta.<br />
Within <strong>the</strong> family Heterorhabdidae, six species are endemic<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean as compared <strong>to</strong> fi ve endemic
164 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
species in <strong>the</strong> eastern Pacifi c. Four species are restricted <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Arctic-boreal area, including three species endemic <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> boreal Pacifi c and one endemic species found in <strong>the</strong><br />
boreal Atlantic. No endemic species of Heterorhabdidae is<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Indo-West Pacifi c. All of <strong>the</strong> heterorhabdid<br />
species discussed here are assumed <strong>to</strong> be carnivores, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> exception of Heterostylites echin<strong>at</strong>us (see Ohtsuka<br />
et al., 1997), and carnivory is assumed <strong>to</strong> have arisen from<br />
suspension feeding within <strong>the</strong> Heterorhabdidae only once<br />
(Ohtsuka et al., 1997).<br />
The highest number of endemic heterorhabdid species,<br />
like <strong>the</strong> number of endemics of Paraeuchaeta, is found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. However, in contrast <strong>to</strong> species of Paraeuchaeta,<br />
of <strong>the</strong> six Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemic heterorhabdids,<br />
only Heterorhabdus spinosus is found in large numbers;<br />
it is common in coastal w<strong>at</strong>ers. Beyond <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, among <strong>the</strong> four endemic species of <strong>the</strong> Arctic and<br />
boreal seas, Heterorhabdus norvegicus is very common in<br />
<strong>the</strong> boreal Atlantic. Heterorhabdus fi stulosus, H. tanneri,<br />
and Paraheterorhabdus longispinus are very common along<br />
<strong>the</strong> coasts of <strong>the</strong> boreal Pacifi c, and all occur in large numbers<br />
in some localities. Among <strong>the</strong> fi ve endemic species of<br />
Heterorhabdidae in <strong>the</strong> eastern Pacifi c, all are limited in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir distribution <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> coasts of Americas,<br />
in areas of coastal upwelling, where <strong>the</strong>y have been<br />
found in large numbers. One explan<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> different<br />
occurrences of Paraeuchaeta and heterorhabdid endemics<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> heterorhabdids may be<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively l<strong>at</strong>e colonizers of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; species of<br />
Paraeuchaeta may already have established <strong>the</strong>mselves as<br />
<strong>the</strong> dominant carnivores before coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean by species of Heterorhabdidae.<br />
In summary, within <strong>the</strong> two families of pelagic calanoids<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have been studied worldwide, <strong>the</strong> highest number<br />
of endemic species is found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
All Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemics of Paraeuchaeta are found<br />
in large numbers, except for P. similis and three species<br />
found near <strong>the</strong> ice edge adjacent <strong>to</strong> Antarctica where <strong>the</strong>se<br />
ice edge species may have been undersampled. In contrast,<br />
<strong>the</strong> six endemic species of Heterorhabdidae found in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are rare. However, beyond <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean <strong>the</strong> endemics of both families of carnivores are associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers of high primary and secondary<br />
productivity, where <strong>the</strong>y may be collected in large numbers.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong>se observ<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> endemicity of<br />
many of <strong>the</strong> very common b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, like <strong>the</strong> endemicity of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
epipelagic calanoids, is suggested <strong>to</strong> have resulted from <strong>the</strong><br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions of high primary and secondary<br />
productivity.<br />
EVOLUTION OF THE PELAGIC CALANOID<br />
FAUNA WITHIN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> 184 deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoid species found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 50 species (27%) occur exclusively in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; 20 of those species (40%) are rare or<br />
very rare (Table 3). Several fac<strong>to</strong>rs may be responsible for<br />
<strong>the</strong> evolution of <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er pelagic calanoid fauna, restraining<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir dispersal throughout <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er of <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s oceans and selecting for this endemicity. W<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
as represented by <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>her abrupt changes <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Convergence or <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence, is<br />
unlikely <strong>to</strong> affect <strong>the</strong> structure or <strong>the</strong> distribution of <strong>the</strong><br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er calanoids because w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ures below<br />
1,000 m are uniformly cold within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and<br />
this uniformly cold deepw<strong>at</strong>er is continuous with <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
of <strong>the</strong> adjacent Pacifi c, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.<br />
The proposed rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between habit<strong>at</strong> productivity<br />
and endemism may be a more useful initial condition. The<br />
majority (60%) of deepw<strong>at</strong>er endemic species of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean are common or very common. As mentioned<br />
earlier, this may be <strong>the</strong> product of <strong>the</strong> high primary and<br />
secondary productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, especially<br />
south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence, resulting in <strong>the</strong> evolution<br />
and adapt<strong>at</strong>ion of an oligotrophic species <strong>to</strong> this eutrophic<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>. Endemism of deepw<strong>at</strong>er pelagic calanoids<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong>refore, is hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> have<br />
evolved as rare species th<strong>at</strong> are widely distributed in oligotrophic<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans became<br />
adapted <strong>to</strong> exploit high primary and secondary productive<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s (Park, 1994); <strong>the</strong>se adapt<strong>at</strong>ions have resulted in an<br />
increased popul<strong>at</strong>ion size of <strong>the</strong> eutrophic species.<br />
A second explan<strong>at</strong>ory condition for <strong>the</strong> evolution of<br />
<strong>the</strong> pelagic, marine calanoid fauna in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
depends on whe<strong>the</strong>r polar species within a single genus are<br />
monophyletic, having evolved from a single ancestral species<br />
th<strong>at</strong> initially colonized <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, or polyphyletic,<br />
with each species having evolved independently from<br />
an ances<strong>to</strong>r distributed outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean or by<br />
evolving from more than one initially colonized ancestral<br />
species. There is evidence th<strong>at</strong> supports this l<strong>at</strong>ter model<br />
of independent coloniz<strong>at</strong>ions for Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemic<br />
species of <strong>the</strong> families Euchaetidae and Heterorhabdidae<br />
(see <strong>the</strong> Compar<strong>at</strong>ive Endemicity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
Fauna section), although <strong>the</strong> situ<strong>at</strong>ion is more complex for<br />
<strong>the</strong> antarctica species group of Paraeuchaeta.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r evidence can be found in <strong>the</strong> phenomenon<br />
of sibling species pairs. When morphological details are<br />
closely compared, one species often can be found outside<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean th<strong>at</strong> is very similar <strong>to</strong> each Sou<strong>the</strong>rn
Ocean endemic. These two species, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
endemic and its closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, are referred <strong>to</strong> here as a sibling species pair. Fifteen<br />
endemics among <strong>the</strong> 17 sibling species pairs (Figure 1)<br />
have an allop<strong>at</strong>ric distribution, r<strong>at</strong>her than being symp<strong>at</strong>-<br />
Calanoides acutus<br />
C. carina<strong>at</strong>us<br />
Euchirella rostromagna<br />
E. rostr<strong>at</strong>a<br />
Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us<br />
H. oxycephalus<br />
Heterorhabdus austrinus<br />
H. abyssalis<br />
Onchocalanus par<strong>at</strong>rigoniceps<br />
O. trigoniceps<br />
Paraeuchaeta rasa<br />
P. aequ<strong>at</strong>orialis<br />
P. antarctica sp gr<br />
P. bisinu<strong>at</strong>a<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis<br />
P. calva<br />
Paraeuchaeta eltaninae<br />
P. scotti<br />
Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa<br />
P. <strong>to</strong>nsa<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani<br />
P. robustus<br />
Pseudochirella mawsoni<br />
P. pustulifera<br />
Rhincalanus gigas<br />
R. nasutus<br />
Scaphocalanus antarcticus<br />
S. crist<strong>at</strong>us<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani<br />
S. echin<strong>at</strong>us<br />
Scolecithricella hadrosoma<br />
S. emargin<strong>at</strong>a<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis<br />
S. ov<strong>at</strong>a<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 165<br />
ric with its closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive. In addition, <strong>the</strong> antarctica species<br />
group of Paraeuchaeta is also allop<strong>at</strong>ric with its most<br />
closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed congener, P. bisinu<strong>at</strong>a. The only exception<br />
is <strong>the</strong> pair Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us and H. oxycephalus; <strong>the</strong>se<br />
two species may be considered allop<strong>at</strong>ric but with a narrow<br />
S 35 0 35 N<br />
FIGURE 1. Distribution of selected pelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and <strong>the</strong>ir closest rel<strong>at</strong>ives.
166 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
zone of overlap. For many common or very common deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
calanoid species th<strong>at</strong> are endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Figure 1, Tables 4, 5), <strong>the</strong> closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive is not<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, is widely distributed, is rare,<br />
and is usually associ<strong>at</strong>ed with oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s. Examples<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se deepw<strong>at</strong>er sibling species pairs (Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean species fi rst) include (Figure 1) Euchirella rostromagna<br />
and E. rostr<strong>at</strong>a, Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa and P.<br />
<strong>to</strong>nsa, P. antarctica and P. bisinu<strong>at</strong>a, Scaphocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us<br />
and S. antarcticus, and Paraheterorhabdus farrani and<br />
P. robustus. The members of some sibling species pairs are<br />
so similar <strong>to</strong> each o<strong>the</strong>r morphologically th<strong>at</strong>, originally,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were regarded as <strong>the</strong> same species, e.g., Paraeuchaeta<br />
<strong>to</strong>nsa and P. pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa or Euchirella rostr<strong>at</strong>a and E.<br />
rostromagna. In addition <strong>to</strong> being more numerous, <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemics are usually larger in size than<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir smaller, rare, cosmopolitan counterparts. Between<br />
members of <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er pairs, <strong>the</strong> common or very<br />
common endemics adapted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> have evolved from<br />
a rare widespread species adapted <strong>to</strong> oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
(Park, 1994). This evolutionary event has resulted in<br />
two closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed species, a sibling species pair with <strong>the</strong><br />
species outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean remaining adapted<br />
<strong>to</strong> an oligotrophic environment and <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
species adapted <strong>to</strong> high-productivity habit<strong>at</strong>s. In view of<br />
<strong>the</strong> close morphological similarity between <strong>the</strong> species of a<br />
sibling species pair, this process seems <strong>to</strong> have a rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
short evolutionary his<strong>to</strong>ry. However, this hypo<strong>the</strong>sis does<br />
not imply th<strong>at</strong> all pairs evolved about <strong>the</strong> same time.<br />
The situ<strong>at</strong>ion for Paraeuchaeta antarctica appears <strong>to</strong><br />
be more complic<strong>at</strong>ed than a case of a simple sibling species<br />
pair. Paraeuchaeta antarctica is a very common pred<strong>at</strong>or<br />
and is morphologically similar <strong>to</strong> four o<strong>the</strong>r endemic species,<br />
P. similis, P. austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma. These<br />
fi ve endemic species make up <strong>the</strong> antarctica species group<br />
(Fontaine, 1988). All fi ve of <strong>the</strong>se species can be found <strong>to</strong><br />
occur symp<strong>at</strong>rically adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice edge of Antarctica.<br />
Paraeuchaeta austrina, P. erebi, and P. tycodesma are restricted<br />
<strong>to</strong> this habit<strong>at</strong>, while P. antarctica and P. similis<br />
may be found throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. The most<br />
similar congener, and presumed closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive, of <strong>the</strong><br />
antarctica species group is P. bisinu<strong>at</strong>a. Paraeuchaeta bisinu<strong>at</strong>a<br />
is a rare deepw<strong>at</strong>er species found in all <strong>the</strong> world’s<br />
oceans except <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Paraeuchaeta bisinu<strong>at</strong>a<br />
and <strong>the</strong> common ances<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> antarctica species<br />
group are hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> have been a sibling species pair.<br />
The common ances<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> antarctica species group is<br />
assumed <strong>to</strong> have colonized <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, eventually<br />
adapting and being confi ned <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong>.<br />
All of its descendants, including P. austrina, P. erebi, and<br />
P. tycodesma, which are associ<strong>at</strong>ed with w<strong>at</strong>ers adjacent<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice edge, and <strong>the</strong> more broadly distributed P. similis<br />
and P. antarctica, are restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Paraeuchaeta bisinu<strong>at</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> cosmopolitan species of <strong>the</strong><br />
original pair, remains associ<strong>at</strong>ed with oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans.<br />
To summarize, <strong>the</strong> evolution of deepw<strong>at</strong>er endemic<br />
species of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean can be hypo<strong>the</strong>sized from<br />
an ordered set of changes in distribution and subsequent<br />
morphological divergence in <strong>the</strong> following way: (1) beginning<br />
with a rare, widely distributed species adapted<br />
<strong>to</strong> oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s, e.g., Augaptilus glacialis, (2) a<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean popul<strong>at</strong>ion becomes associ<strong>at</strong>ed with its<br />
eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong> and becomes separ<strong>at</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> rare,<br />
widely distributed, oligotrophic species; (3) <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean endemic popul<strong>at</strong>ion adapts <strong>to</strong> this eutrophic habit<strong>at</strong>,<br />
and its popul<strong>at</strong>ion size increases. It diverges from <strong>the</strong><br />
rare, widely distributed, oligotrophic species, resulting in<br />
a sibling species pair, e.g., Scolecithricella farrani and S.<br />
echin<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r type of species pair identifi ed in this study<br />
requires different explan<strong>at</strong>ory conditions about <strong>the</strong> evolution<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean fauna. A bipolar species pair<br />
consists of two morphologically similar species, presumed<br />
closest rel<strong>at</strong>ives, one th<strong>at</strong> is endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean and a second th<strong>at</strong> is endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean<br />
and adjacent boreal w<strong>at</strong>ers. Several endemic species of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have a morphologically similar congener<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic region (Table 7, Figure 2). The morphological<br />
similarities between <strong>the</strong> members are so close th<strong>at</strong> some of<br />
<strong>the</strong> pairs were recognized as separ<strong>at</strong>e species only recently,<br />
e.g., <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean Scaphocalanus farrani was separ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
from S. brevicornis by Park (1982). In general, <strong>the</strong><br />
number of morphological differences is few and <strong>the</strong> degree<br />
of <strong>the</strong> morphological divergence is slight between members<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se sou<strong>the</strong>rn and nor<strong>the</strong>rn oceanic pairs, e.g., Paraheterorhabdus<br />
farrani and P. longispinus, Scaphocalanus<br />
parantarcticus and S. acrocephalus, and Paraeuchaeta regalis<br />
and P. polaris. The extent of <strong>the</strong> morphological similarity<br />
between <strong>the</strong>se polar species suggests th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y may<br />
have been derived from a common ances<strong>to</strong>r (see below),<br />
although this does not imply th<strong>at</strong> all pairs have evolved<br />
about <strong>the</strong> same time.<br />
The evolution of deepw<strong>at</strong>er bipolar species pairs can<br />
be hypo<strong>the</strong>sized from an ordered set of changes in distribution<br />
and subsequent morphological divergence in <strong>the</strong><br />
following way. Beginning with a widely distributed deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
species with shallow popul<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean and Arctic Ocean, e.g., Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a, (1)
Candacia falcifera<br />
Calanus australis<br />
Chiridiella megadactyla<br />
Drepanopus bispinosus<br />
Heterorhabdus pustulifer<br />
Metridia gerlachei<br />
Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus<br />
Paraeuchaeta eltaninae<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani<br />
Scaphocalanus parantarcticus<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani<br />
Stephos antarcticus<br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er middle- and low-l<strong>at</strong>itude popul<strong>at</strong>ions become<br />
extinct over varying periods of time, resulting in a nonuniform<br />
distribution, e.g., B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris, (2)<br />
complete middle- and low-l<strong>at</strong>itude extinctions eventually<br />
result in a species with a bipolar distribution, e.g., Pseudochirella<br />
spectabilis, and (3) subsequent morphological<br />
divergence of <strong>the</strong> bipolar popul<strong>at</strong>ions results in a bipolar<br />
pair of species, e.g., Paraeuchaeta regalis and P. polaris.<br />
The evolution of epipelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean differs in some respects from deepw<strong>at</strong>er pelagic calanoids.<br />
Throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans, <strong>the</strong>re are many epipelagic<br />
marine calanoids whose distribution is confi ned <strong>to</strong><br />
a w<strong>at</strong>er mass or current system within an ocean basin and<br />
sometimes very narrowly within th<strong>at</strong> basin. Often, such<br />
distributions appear <strong>to</strong> be restricted <strong>to</strong> a zone of l<strong>at</strong>itudes,<br />
although <strong>the</strong> causes may be rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> specifi c nutrient and<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ure regimes (Reid et al., 1978). Epipelagic species<br />
from <strong>the</strong> low or middle l<strong>at</strong>itudes provide many examples<br />
of zonally distributed species (Frost and Fleminger, 1968).<br />
The circumpolar distributions of <strong>the</strong> epipelagic endemics<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, Calanoides acutus, Rhincalanus<br />
gigas, Calanus propinquus, Metridia gerlachei, Clausocalanus<br />
l<strong>at</strong>iceps, Calanus simillimus, Clausocalanus bre-<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 167<br />
S 35 0 35 N<br />
C. parafalcifera<br />
C. helgolandicus<br />
C. abyssalis<br />
D. bungei<br />
H. norvegica<br />
M. longa<br />
N. plumchurus<br />
P. rubra<br />
P. polaris<br />
P. longispinus<br />
S. acrocephalus<br />
S. brevicornis<br />
S. arcticus<br />
FIGURE 2. Distribution of selected pelagic calanoids of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and <strong>the</strong>ir closest rel<strong>at</strong>ives in <strong>the</strong> subarctic region or <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Ocean.<br />
vipes, and Ctenocalanus citer, can be interpreted as zonal<br />
distributions. The fi rst fi ve are restricted <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence; <strong>the</strong> last three are restricted<br />
<strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers south of <strong>the</strong> Subtropical Convergence and north<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Convergence (Table 2). These two sets<br />
of epipelagic species may be adapted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> two different<br />
zones of cold w<strong>at</strong>er bounded by Antarctic Convergence<br />
and Subtropical Convergence, as well as by <strong>the</strong> unique primary<br />
productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong> evolution of epipelagic<br />
calanoids shares some common <strong>at</strong>tributes with deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
pelagic calanoids. High primary productivity may<br />
have enabled <strong>the</strong> evolution of epipelagic species; all fi ve<br />
endemic epipelagic species found south of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Convergence are endemic herbivores utilizing <strong>the</strong> region’s<br />
high primary productivity; all are very common. Three of<br />
<strong>the</strong> eight subantarctic epipelagic species are also endemic<br />
herbivores and are common or very common. Sibling species<br />
pairs can be found among epipelagic species as well<br />
as deepw<strong>at</strong>er species, e.g., Calanoides acutus and C. carin<strong>at</strong>us<br />
or Rhincalanus gigas and R. nasutus. In contrast <strong>to</strong><br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er sibling species pairs, both members of an epipelagic<br />
pair often are common or very common (Figure 1).
168 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
Epipelagic, bipolar species pairs have also been identifi ed,<br />
e.g., Calanus australis and C. helgolandicus and Neocalanus<br />
<strong>to</strong>nsus and N. plumchrus.<br />
The evolution of coastal species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean may refl ect processes similar <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> model for <strong>the</strong><br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er bipolar species pairs. Several species of coastal<br />
genera, such as Drepanopus and Stephos, are present in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean. However, <strong>the</strong><br />
morphological differences between <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean members are more extensive than<br />
those found between members of <strong>the</strong> oceanic genera of<br />
bipolar species pairs. The Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean coastal species<br />
Drepanopus pectin<strong>at</strong>us, D. bispinosus, and D. forcip<strong>at</strong>us<br />
and Stephos longipes and S. antarcticus are readily distinguished<br />
from <strong>the</strong>ir congeners D. bungei and D. furc<strong>at</strong>us<br />
and S. arcticus and its six rel<strong>at</strong>ives in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean.<br />
In contrast, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species of oceanic genera<br />
are diffi cult <strong>to</strong> distinguish from <strong>the</strong>ir Arctic and boreal<br />
congeners because <strong>the</strong>y are very similar morphologically.<br />
Apparently, <strong>the</strong> species of <strong>the</strong>se coastal pelagic genera may<br />
have had a different evolutionary his<strong>to</strong>ry and perhaps a<br />
different biogeographical his<strong>to</strong>ry than <strong>the</strong> oceanic pelagic<br />
calanoid species, although similar processes may have affected<br />
both groups. High productivity may have played an<br />
important role in <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong> nearshore fauna because<br />
fi ve of eight coastal species endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Table 1) are common or very common.<br />
The situ<strong>at</strong>ion for Paralabidocera antarctica, P. grandispina,<br />
and P. separabilis requires fur<strong>the</strong>r consider<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The genus Paralabidocera, an acartiid restricted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, is one of only fi ve pelagic marine<br />
genera th<strong>at</strong> are limited <strong>to</strong> one of <strong>the</strong> two hemispheres.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>rs are Epilabidocera, a pontellid, Eurytemora,<br />
a temorid, Jashnovia, an aetideid, and Pseudocalanus, a<br />
clausocalanid, and <strong>the</strong>se four are limited <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Hemisphere. Species of <strong>the</strong>se genera are found in estuarine<br />
or inshore w<strong>at</strong>ers or in <strong>the</strong> neritic zone of <strong>the</strong> oceans.<br />
Each of <strong>the</strong>se genera has a morphologically similar genus,<br />
and presumed closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive (T. Park, unpublished<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a), distributed broadly throughout <strong>the</strong> world: species<br />
of Paralabidocera are similar <strong>to</strong> those of Acartia, species<br />
of Epilabidocera <strong>to</strong> Labidocera, Eurytemora <strong>to</strong> Temora,<br />
Jashnovia <strong>to</strong> Gaetanus, and Pseudocalanus <strong>to</strong> Clausocalanus.<br />
As a result, it seems reasonable <strong>to</strong> assume th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> species of Paralabidocera have evolved from a cosmopolitan<br />
acartiid ances<strong>to</strong>r. In general, morphological differences<br />
between each limited genus and its cosmopolitan<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ive are not as gre<strong>at</strong> as between each limited genus and<br />
its remaining confamilial rel<strong>at</strong>ives, so th<strong>at</strong> morphological<br />
differences between species of Paralabidocera and Acartia<br />
are not as gre<strong>at</strong> as between Paralabidocera and species<br />
of Acartiella and Paracartia. The evolution of Paralabidocera,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n, may be a rel<strong>at</strong>ively recent event within <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
In summary, most genera of pelagic marine calanoid<br />
copepods found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are also found<br />
north of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; Paralabidocera, restricted<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, may be an exception. Many<br />
species of pelagic calanoid copepods endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are common or very common, refl ecting<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> eutrophic environment <strong>the</strong>re. The<br />
closest rel<strong>at</strong>ive of many Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species is usually<br />
a widely distributed congener adapted <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ers of low<br />
primary and secondary productivity whose range does<br />
not extend in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemics evolved from a<br />
common oligotrophic ances<strong>to</strong>r th<strong>at</strong> split in<strong>to</strong> two popul<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
The widely distributed daughter species retained its<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s; <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
endemic daughter became adapted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> eutrophic environment<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. The antarctica species<br />
group of Paraeuchaeta appears <strong>to</strong> be monophyletic and<br />
may have subsequently evolved from a common Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean eutrophic daughter popul<strong>at</strong>ion after its initial<br />
split from an ances<strong>to</strong>r, similar <strong>to</strong> P. bisinu<strong>at</strong>a, which is<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with oligotrophic habit<strong>at</strong>s. Therefore, most<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean endemic species appear <strong>to</strong> have evolved<br />
after <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean became an area of high primary<br />
and secondary productivity. High productivity is<br />
assumed <strong>to</strong> have developed with a strong circumpolar<br />
current following <strong>the</strong> separ<strong>at</strong>ion of Antarctica from Australia.<br />
A hypo<strong>the</strong>sis structuring <strong>the</strong> benthopelagic calanoid<br />
fauna from <strong>the</strong> divergence in feeding appendages<br />
differentially adapted for detritivory (Markhaseva and<br />
Ferrari, 2006) shares <strong>the</strong> same phenomenon, adapt<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> diversity in food availability as an evolutionary cause<br />
of species diversity.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> endemicity of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean involves species th<strong>at</strong> contribute <strong>to</strong> bipolar<br />
species pairs. These may have evolved from a widely distributed<br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er species with shallow polar popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
whose intervening deepw<strong>at</strong>er popul<strong>at</strong>ions subsequently became<br />
extinct, leaving a species with a bipolar distribution.<br />
The two popul<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>the</strong>n diverged. In this model, bipolar<br />
species are transient n<strong>at</strong>ural phenomena. Finally, this review<br />
provides no unequivocal support for zonal distributions<br />
for mesopelagic or b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic calanoid species. In<br />
general, mesopelagic or b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic calanoids appear <strong>to</strong>
occur broadly throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans and are unrestricted<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudinally or longitudinally.<br />
FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS<br />
Seventy-seven pelagic, marine calanoid copepods had<br />
been reported from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean prior <strong>to</strong> 1950.<br />
Vervoort (1951, 1957) added 26 species, bringing <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
number <strong>to</strong> 103. A <strong>to</strong>tal of 117 calanoid species were<br />
known before Park (1978, 1980, 1982, 1983a, 1983b,<br />
1988, 1993, 2000) added 73 species. During this period,<br />
a few o<strong>the</strong>r authors added several species, so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
reached 201 species by <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> century. Recently,<br />
three species of Metridia and one species of Lucicutia have<br />
been added (Markhaseva, 2001; Markhaseva and Ferrari,<br />
2005), bringing <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal <strong>to</strong> 205 species.<br />
The midw<strong>at</strong>er trawls employed by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic<br />
Research Program have been very effective in sampling<br />
<strong>the</strong> large pelagic copepods of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. There<br />
can be very few pelagic species left <strong>to</strong> be collected with<br />
sampling gear of this kind of device. However, fi ne-mesh<br />
samples, less than 100 micrometers, taken with traditional<br />
sampling gear like <strong>the</strong> conical plank<strong>to</strong>n net may add new<br />
pelagic species or new records of pelagic species already<br />
known from o<strong>the</strong>r areas of <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans.<br />
With new sampling methods capable of reaching unexplored<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s, more species of calanoids, many expected<br />
<strong>to</strong> be new <strong>to</strong> science, can be anticip<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> increase<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean fauna of calanoid copepods. W<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>ely above <strong>the</strong> seabed, where new benthopelagic<br />
calanoid copepods have only recently been collected and<br />
studied carefully, are an example. The diverse fauna of this<br />
habit<strong>at</strong> has been very poorly sampled, and lists of new species<br />
and new records are in a growth phase. However, new<br />
species and new records of benthopelagic copepods are<br />
not expected <strong>to</strong> effect <strong>the</strong> conclusions drawn here about<br />
pelagic calanoids.<br />
Beginning with <strong>the</strong> studies by Vervoort (1950, 1951,<br />
1957), <strong>the</strong> species descriptions available in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean calanoids have been based on <strong>the</strong><br />
complete morphology of <strong>the</strong> exoskele<strong>to</strong>n. Generally, <strong>the</strong>se<br />
descriptions are of excellent quality, and <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are easily repe<strong>at</strong>able with newly collected specimens. Most<br />
of <strong>the</strong> species discovered earlier have been redescribed in<br />
detail by subsequent authors, making <strong>the</strong> identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of specimens of those species reliable. However, <strong>the</strong> zoogeographic<br />
distribution of most species, particularly in<br />
areas outside of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, needs signifi cant<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 169<br />
<strong>at</strong>tention. Inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> vertical distribution of<br />
many species, except for <strong>the</strong> very common ones, remains<br />
insuffi cient. Finally, <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion structure, particularly<br />
for nauplii, remains poorly known. These problems can<br />
be addressed with contemporary sampling gear but will<br />
require <strong>the</strong> kind of intellectual curiosity which drove <strong>the</strong><br />
early explor<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic<br />
Research Program.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We would like <strong>to</strong> thank former Under Secretary for<br />
Science Dr. David Evans and <strong>the</strong> Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary<br />
for Science <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution for sponsoring<br />
<strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Symposium on 3 and<br />
4 May 2007 in Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C. Rafael Lemaitre, Chairman<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Department of Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Zoology, kindly<br />
invited one of us (TP) <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> symposium.<br />
Scott Miller, Senior Program Offi cer, Offi ce of Under Secretary<br />
for Science, edited this contribution.<br />
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APPENDIX 1<br />
This appendix contains a list of pelagic calanoid copepod<br />
species, alphabetical by genus and <strong>the</strong>n species, reported<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Each species name includes <strong>the</strong><br />
author and d<strong>at</strong>e of public<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> original species description.<br />
The author and d<strong>at</strong>e entry listed below a species<br />
name is <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>est taxonomic reference <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> species. Abbrevi<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for distributions are as follows: Ant, Antarctic;<br />
sAnt, subantarctic; Stemp, south temper<strong>at</strong>e; Trop, tropical;<br />
Ntemp, north temper<strong>at</strong>e; sArc, subarctic; Arc, Arctic.<br />
Aetideopsis antarctica (Wolfenden, 1908): Ant<br />
Faroella antarctica Wolfenden, 1908:39, pl. 2, fi gs. 1– 4.<br />
Aetideopsis antarctica Bradford, 1971:18, fi gs. 31– 48.<br />
Aetideopsis minor (Wolfenden, 1911): Ant, Arc<br />
Faroella minor Wolfenden, 1911:214.<br />
Aetideopsis minor Park, 1978:115– 118, fi gs. 8– 9; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:32, fi gs. 20– 21.<br />
Aetideopsis multiserr<strong>at</strong>a (Wolfenden, 1904): Ant, sArc<br />
Faroella multiserr<strong>at</strong>a Wolfenden, 1904:117, pl. 9, fi gs. 26– 28.<br />
Aetideopsis multiserr<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1978:111– 115, fi gs. 6– 7;<br />
Markhaseva, 1996:37, fi gs. 22– 23.<br />
Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a Sars, 1903: Ant, sArc, Arc<br />
Aetideopsis rostr<strong>at</strong>a Sars, 1903:160, pls. 4, 5; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:42, fi gs. 26– 28.<br />
Aetideopsis infl <strong>at</strong>a Park, 1978:118– 122, fi gs. 11– 12.<br />
Aetideopsis tumorosa Bradford, 1969: sAnt<br />
Aetideopsis tumorosa Bradford, 1969:74, fi gs. 1– 28; Park,<br />
1978:118, fi g. 10; Markhaseva, 1996:42, fi g. 29.<br />
Aetideus arcu<strong>at</strong>us (Vervoort, 1949): sAnt, Ntemp<br />
Snelliaetideus arcu<strong>at</strong>us Vervoort, 1949:4, fi g. 1; Park, 1978:108–<br />
111, fi gs. 4– 5.<br />
Aetideus arcu<strong>at</strong>us Markhaseva, 1996:14, fi g. 3.<br />
Aetideus australis (Vervoort, 1957): Ant, sAnt<br />
Euaetideus australis Vervoort, 1957:46, fi gs. 16– 19, 20a; Park,<br />
1978:105– 108, fi gs. 2– 3.<br />
Arietellus simplex Sars, 1905: Ant, sArc<br />
Arietellus simplex Sars, 1905:5, 22; 1925:334, pl. 120, fi gs. 7– 12;<br />
Vervoort, 1957:141.<br />
Augaptilus glacialis Sars, 1900: Ant, Arc<br />
Augaptilus glacialis Sars, 1900:88, pl.s 26, 27; 1925:254, pl. 76,<br />
fi gs.1– 6; Vervoort, 1951:144, fi gs. 80, 81.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta antarctica Markhaseva, 1986: Ant<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta antarctica Markhaseva, 1986:848, fi g. 6; 1996:53,<br />
fi g. 34.
174 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta lamell<strong>at</strong>a Brodsky, 1950: Ant-Ntemp<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta lamell<strong>at</strong>a Brodsky, 1950:189, fi gs. 106– 107;<br />
Markhaseva, 1996:57– 58.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris Markhaseva, 1983: Ant-Ntemp<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta peculiaris Markhaseva, 1983:1740, fi g. 1; 1996:58,<br />
fi gs. 41– 42.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta pubescens Markhaseva, 1986: Ant<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta pubescens Markhaseva, 1986:846, fi g. 5; 1996:58,<br />
fi g. 43.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus bradyi (Wolfenden, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Megacalanus bradyi Wolfenden, 1905:1– 3, pl. 1, fi gs. 1– 6.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus maximus Wolfenden, 1911:198, pl. 23, fi gs. 1– 7, text<br />
fi g. 2.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus bradyi Vervoort, 1957:32, fi g. 7.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus eltaninae Björnberg, 1968: sAnt<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus eltaninae Björnberg, 1968:75, fi gs. 15– 41.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus infl <strong>at</strong>us Björnberg, 1968: sAnt<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus infl <strong>at</strong>us Björnberg, 1968:81, fi gs. 42– 54.<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus unicornis Björnberg, 1968: sAnt<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus unicornis Björnberg, 1968:73, fi gs. 1– 14.<br />
Bradycalanus enormis Björnberg, 1968: sAnt<br />
Bradycalanus enormis Björnberg, 1968:85, fi gs. 64– 77.<br />
Bradycalanus pseudotypicus Björnberg, 1968: sAnt<br />
Bradycalanus pseudotypicus Björnberg, 1968:82, fi gs. 55– 63, 78.<br />
Calanoides acutus (Giesbrecht, 1902): Ant<br />
Calanoides acutus Giesbrecht, 1902:17, pl. 1, fi gs. 10– 14; Vervoort,<br />
1951:42, fi gs. 25– 33.<br />
Calanus australis Brodsky, 1959: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Calanus australis Brodsky, 1959:1539– 1542, pl. 1, fi gs. 9– 12; pl. 2,<br />
fi gs. 4, 8, 10, 11; pl. 3, fi gs. 11, 13, 14; pl. 4, fi gs. 8, 9.<br />
Calanus propinquus Brady, 1883: Ant<br />
Calanus propinquus Brady, 1883:34, pl. 2, fi gs. 1– 7; pl. 14, fi gs.<br />
10– 11; Vervoort, 1951:27, fi gs. 14– 24.<br />
Calanus simillimus Giesbrecht, 1902: sAnt<br />
Calanus simillimus Giesbrecht, 1902:16, fi g. 9; Vervoort, 1951:11,<br />
fi gs. 3– 14.<br />
Candacia cheirura Cleve, 1904: sAnt<br />
Candacia cheirura Cleve, 1904:180, 186, 198, pl. 1, fi gs. 1– 6; pl. 2,<br />
fi gs. 7– 10; Farran, 1929:273, fi g. 29; Vervoort, 1957:142.<br />
Candacia falcifera Farran, 1929: Ant-sArc<br />
Candacia falcifera Farran, 1929:270, fi g. 28; Vervoort, 1957:142,<br />
fi g. 132.<br />
Candacia maxima Vervoort, 1957: Ant-sAnt<br />
Candacia maxima Vervoort, 1957:142– 144, fi gs.132– 138.<br />
Centraugaptilus r<strong>at</strong>trayi (Scott, 1894): sAnt-sArc<br />
Augap<strong>at</strong>ilus r<strong>at</strong>trayi Scott, 1894:36, pl. 2, fi gs. 25– 37.<br />
Centraugaptilus r<strong>at</strong>trayi Sars, 1925:304, pl. 106; Hardy and Gun<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
1935:183.<br />
Cephalophanes frigidus Wolfenden, 1911: Ant-sAnt<br />
Cephalophanes frigidus Wolfenden, 1911:284– 285, fi g. 46; Park,<br />
1983b:321– 325, fi gs. 3– 4.<br />
Chiridiella megadactyla Bradford, 1971: Ant<br />
Chiridiella megadactyla Bradford, 1971:19– 20, fi gs. 49– 60.<br />
Chiridiella subaequalis Grice and Hulsemann, 1965: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Chiridiella subaequalis Grice and Hulsemann, 1965:231– 235, fi g.<br />
10a– l; Markhaseva, 1996:108, fi g. 82.<br />
Chiridius gracilis Farran, 1908: Ant-sArc<br />
Chiridius gracilis Farran, 1908:30, pl. 2, fi gs. 1– 3; Park, 1978:122–<br />
124, fi g. 13; Markhaseva, 1996:111, fi gs. 83– 84.<br />
Chiridius polaris Wolfenden, 1911: Ant, Ntemp<br />
Chiridius polaris Wolfenden, 1911:211, text fi g. 6, pl. 24, fi gs. 9–<br />
12; Markhaseva, 1996:119, fi gs. 94– 97.<br />
Chiridius subantarcticus Park, 1978:125– 127, fi g. 14.<br />
Chirundina streetsii Giesbrecht, 1895: sAnt-sArc<br />
Chirundina streetsii Giesbrecht, 1895:249, pl. 1, fi gs. 5– 10; Park,<br />
1978:179, fi gs. 52– 53.<br />
Clausocalanus brevipes Frost and Fleminger, 1968: sAnt<br />
Clausocalanus brevipes Frost and Fleminger, 1968:70, fi gs. 56– 59.<br />
Clausocalanus brevipes Farran, 1929: Ant<br />
Clausocalanus l<strong>at</strong>iceps Farran, 1929:224, fi g. 4; Frost and Fleminger,<br />
1968:42, fi gs. 24– 28.<br />
Cornucalanus chelifer (Thompson, 1903): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix chelifer Thompson, 1903:21, pl. 5, fi gs. 1– 9; Park,<br />
1983b:352– 357, fi gs. 23– 26.<br />
Cornucalanus robustus Vervoort, 1957: Ant-Trop<br />
Cornucalanus robustus Vervoort, 1957:88– 91, fi gs. 71– 76; Park,<br />
1983:358– 363, fi gs. 27– 30.<br />
Cornucalanus simplex Wolfenden, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Cornucalanus simplex Wolfenden, 1905:22; Park, 1983b:364– 365,<br />
fi g. 31.<br />
Ctenocalanus citer Heron and Bowman, 1971: sAnt<br />
Ctenocalanus citer Heron and Bowman, 1971:142, fi gs. 1, 16– 18,<br />
31– 36, 54– 58, 71– 77, 94– 99, 130– 150.<br />
Ctenocalanus vanus Vervoort, 1951:59– 61; 1957:37.<br />
Disseta palumbii Giesbrecht, 1889: sAnt-sArc<br />
Disseta palumbii Giesbrecht, 1889a:812; 1893:369, pl. 29, fi gs. 2, 8,<br />
14, 19, 23– 25, 27; pl. 38, fi g. 44; Park, 2000:14– 18, fi gs. 1– 3.<br />
Drepanopus bispinosus Bayly, 1982; Ant<br />
Drepanopus bispinosus Bayly, 1982:165, fi gs. 2a– 2h, 3a– 3f.<br />
Drepanopus forcip<strong>at</strong>us Giesbrecht, 1888: sAnt<br />
Drepanopus forcip<strong>at</strong>us Giesbrecht, 1888:335; Hulsemann, 1985: 911,<br />
fi gs. 2– 4, 6– 8, 10, 12, 14, 16– 20, 23, 24, 27– 29, 32– 33.<br />
Drepanopus pectin<strong>at</strong>us Brady, 1883: sAnt<br />
Drepanopus pectin<strong>at</strong>us Brady, 1883:77, pl. 24, fi gs. 1– 11;<br />
Hulsemann, 1985a:910, fi gs. 1, 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 22, 25,<br />
26, 30, 31.<br />
Euaugaptilus aliquantus Park, 1993: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Euaugaptilus aliquantus Park, 1993:13– 14, fi gs. 7– 8.<br />
Euaugaptilus angustus (Sars, 1905): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus angustus Sars, 1905:10– 11.<br />
Euaugaptilus angustus Sars, 1925:281– 282, pl. 91; Park, 1993:27–<br />
30, fi gs. 19– 20.<br />
Euaugaptilus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1911: Ant<br />
Euaugaptilus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1911:334– 336, fi g. 70, pl. 36,<br />
fi gs. 6– 7; Park, 1993:32– 37, fi gs. 23– 25.<br />
Euaugaptilus austrinus Park, 1993: Ant<br />
Euaugaptilus austrinus Park, 1993:37– 41, fi gs. 26– 28.<br />
Euaugaptilus brevirostr<strong>at</strong>us Park, 1993: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Euaugaptilus brevirostr<strong>at</strong>us Park, 1993:19– 22, fi gs. 12– 14.<br />
Euaugaptilus bullifer (Giesbrecht, 1889): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus bullifer Giesbrecht, 1889a:813; 1893:400, pl. 28, fi gs.<br />
6, 21, 24; pl. 39, fi g. 46.<br />
Euaugaptilus bullifer (Giesbrecht, 1889); Park, 1993:22– 25, fi gs.<br />
15– 16.<br />
Euaugaptilus gibbus (Wolfenden, 1904): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus gibbus Wolfenden, 1904:122; 1911:337– 339, fi g. 72, pl.<br />
37, fi gs. 2– 3.<br />
Euaugaptilus gibbus (Wolfenden, 1904); Park, 1993:25– 27, fi gs.<br />
17– 18.<br />
Euaugaptilus hadrocephalus Park, 1993: Ant-Stemp<br />
Euaugaptilus hadrocephalus Park, 1993:6– 9, fi gs. 3, 4.<br />
Euaugaptilus l<strong>at</strong>iceps (Sars, 1905): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus l<strong>at</strong>iceps Sars, 1905b:11.<br />
Euaugaptilus l<strong>at</strong>iceps Sars, 1925:264– 265, pl. 80; Park, 1993:30–<br />
32, fi gs. 21– 22.<br />
Euaugaptilus magnus (Wolfenden, 1904): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus magnus Wolfenden, 1904:111, 122, 142, 145; Wolfenden<br />
1911:341– 343, fi g. 74, pl. 37, fi gs. 4– 9.<br />
Euaugaptilus magnus Park, 1993:41– 44, fi gs. 29– 30.<br />
Euaugaptilus maxillaris Sars, 1920: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Euaugaptilus maxillaris Sars, 1920:15; 1925:287– 288, pl. 95; Park,<br />
1993:5– 6, fi gs. 1– 2.
Euaugaptilus nodifrons (Sars, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus nodifrons Sars, 1905b:13– 14.<br />
Euaugaptilus nodifrons Sars, 1925:267– 269, pl. 82; Park, 1993:14–<br />
19, fi gs. 9– 11.<br />
Euaugaptilus oblongus (Sars, 1905): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Augaptilus oblongus Sars, 1905b:11.<br />
Euaugaptilus oblongus Sars, 1925:266– 267, pl. 81; Park, 1993:44–<br />
47, fi gs. 31– 32.<br />
Euaugaptilus perase<strong>to</strong>sus Park, 1993: Ant-Stemp<br />
Euaugaptilus perase<strong>to</strong>sus Park, 1993:9– 13, fi gs. 5– 6.<br />
Eucalanus hyalinus (Claus, 1866): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Calanella hyaline Claus, 1866:8.<br />
Eucalanus hyalinus Bradford– Grieve, 1994:76, fi gs. 42, 88.<br />
Euchirella maxima Wolfenden, 1905: sAnt-sArc<br />
Euchirella maxima Wolfenden, 1905:18, pl. 6, fi gs. 9– 11; Park,<br />
1978:149– 151, fi g. 30.<br />
Euchirella rostr<strong>at</strong>a (Claus, 1866): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Undina rostr<strong>at</strong>a Claus, 1866:11, pl. 1, fi g. 2.<br />
Euchirella rostr<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1978:147– 149, fi g. 29.<br />
Euchirella rostromagna Wolfenden, 1911: Ant<br />
Euchirella rostromagna Wolfenden, 1911:235; Park, 1978:151–<br />
155, fi gs. 31– 34.<br />
Euchirella similis Wolfenden, 1911: sAnt-Trop<br />
Euchirella similis Wolfenden, 1911:238, text fi g. 23, pl. 28, fi gs.<br />
1– 2; Park, 1978:155– 158, fi gs. 35– 36.<br />
Farrania frigida (Wolfenden, 1911): Ant-Trop<br />
Drepanopsis frigida Wolfenden, 1911:245, text fi g. 29;Vervoort,<br />
1951:61, fi gs. 34– 39.<br />
Farrania frigida Vervoort, 1957:38– 39.<br />
Gaetanus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Gaetanus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1905:7, pl. 3, fi g. 1; Park, 1978: 141–<br />
144, fi gs. 25, 26; Markhaseva, 1996:178, fi gs. 138– 139.<br />
Gaetanus brevispinus (Sars, 1900): Ant-Arc<br />
Chiridius brevispinus Sars, 1900:68, pl. 19; Markhaseva, 1996:187–<br />
195, fi gs. 149– 152.<br />
Gaidius intermedius Wolfenden, 1905:6, pl. 3, fi gs. 4– 5; Park,<br />
1978:131– 136, fi gs. 18– 20.<br />
Gaetanus kruppii Giesbrecht, 1903: sAnt-sArc<br />
Gaetanus kruppii Giesbrecht, 1903:22; Park, 1978:136– 139, fi gs.<br />
21– 22; Markhaseva, 1996:196– 201, fi gs. 157– 158.<br />
Gaetanus l<strong>at</strong>ifrons Sars, 1905: sAnt-sArc<br />
Gaetanus l<strong>at</strong>ifrons Sars, 1905a: 4, 11; Vervoort, 1957:61– 62;<br />
Markhaseva, 1996, p.201– 204, fi gs. 159– 160.<br />
Gaetanus minor Farran, 1905: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Gaetanus minor Farran, 1905:34, pl. 5; Park, 1978:144– 147, fi gs.<br />
27– 28; Markhaseva, 1996:205– 206, fi g. 164.<br />
Gaetanus paracurvicornis Brodsky, 1950: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Gaetanus paracurvicornis Brodsky, 1950:167, fi g. 84; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:211, fi g. 167.<br />
Gaetanus pile<strong>at</strong>us Farran, 1903: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Gaetanus pile<strong>at</strong>us Farran, 1903:16, pl. 17, fi gs. 1– 11; Park,<br />
1978:139– 141, fi gs. 23– 24; Markhaseva, 1996:211– 212, fi gs.<br />
168– 169.<br />
Gaetanus tenuispinus (Sars, 1900): Ant-Arc<br />
Chiridius tenuispinus Sars, 1900:67, pl. 18.<br />
Gaidius tenuispinus Park, 1978, pp.127– 131, fi gs. 15– 17.<br />
Gaetanus tenuispinus Markhaseva, 1996:221– 225, fi gs. 177– 178.<br />
Haloptilus fons Farran, 1908: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Haloptilus fons Farran, 1908:69– 71, pl. 7, fi gs. 11– 15; Park,<br />
1988:3– 4, fi gs. 1– 2.<br />
Haloptilus longicirrus Brodsky, 1950: Ant-sArc<br />
Haloptilus longicirrus Brodsky, 1950:363– 364, fi g. 254; Park,<br />
1988:21– 22, fi g. 13.<br />
Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us Wolfenden, 1905: Ant<br />
Haloptilus ocell<strong>at</strong>us Wolfenden, 1905:14– 15, pl. 5; Park, 1988:4–<br />
9, fi gs. 3– 4.<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 175<br />
Haloptilus oxycephalus (Giesbrecht, 1889): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Hemicalanus oxycephalus Giesbrecht, 1889a:813; Giesbrecht,<br />
1893: 384, pl. 42, fi gs. 16, 23.<br />
Haloptilus oxycephalus Park, 1988:9– 14, fi gs. 5– 6.<br />
Heterorhabdus austrinus Giesbrecht, 1902: Ant-sAnt<br />
Heterorhabdus austrinus Giesbrecht, 1902:28, pl. 6, fi gs. 1– 9; Park,<br />
2000:132– 133, fi gs. 104– 105.<br />
Heterorhabdus lob<strong>at</strong>us Bradford, 1971: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Heterorhabdus lob<strong>at</strong>us Bradford, 1971:131, fi gs. 9, 10a– c; Park,<br />
2000:105– 106, fi g. 74.<br />
Heterorhabdus paraspinosus Park, 2000: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Heterorhabdus paraspinosus Park, 2000:131– 132, fi gs. 102– 103.<br />
Heterorhabdus pustulifer Farran, 1929: Ant-sAnt<br />
Heterorhabdus pustulifer Farran, 1929:266, fi g. 27; Park, 2000:<br />
124– 125, fi gs. 92– 93.<br />
Heterorhabdus spinosus Bradford, 1971: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Heterorhabdus spinosus Bradford, 1971:121, fi gs.1, 2g– k, 3c, 4c;<br />
Park, 2000:130– 131, fi gs. 100– 101.<br />
Heterostylites nigrotinctus Brady, 1918: Ant-sAnt<br />
Heterostylites nigrotinctus Brady, 1918:27, pl. 6, fi gs. 1– 8; Park,<br />
2000:44– 45, fi gs. 22– 23.<br />
Landrumius antarcticus Park, 1983a: Ant<br />
Landrumius antarcticus Park, 1983a:192– 195, fi gs. 15– 16.<br />
Landrumius gigas (Scott, 1909): sAnt-Trop<br />
Brachycalanus gigas Scott, 1909:81– 82, pl. 35, fi gs. 10– 18.<br />
Lophothrix gigas Grice and Hulsemann, 1968:332– 334, fi gs. 63– 74.<br />
Landrumius gigas Park, 1983:195– 197, fi gs. 17– 18.<br />
Lophothrix frontalis Giesbrecht, 1895: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Lophothrix frontalis Giesbrecht, 1895:254– 255, pl. 2, fi gs. 1– 5,<br />
9– 12; Park, 1983a:178– 184, fi gs. 7– 10.<br />
Lophothrix humilifrons Sars, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Lophothrix humilifrons Sars, 1905a:22; 1925:166– 167, pl. 46, fi gs.<br />
15– 22; Park, 1983a:184– 188, fi gs. 11– 12.<br />
Lucicutia bradyana Cleve, 1904: Ant-Trop<br />
Lucicutia bradyana Cleve, 1904:204– 206, pl. 6, fi gs. 33, 34;<br />
Markhaseva and Ferrari, 2005:1084– 1091, fi gs. 3– 7.<br />
Lucicutia curta Farran, 1905: Ant-sArc<br />
Lucicutia curta Farran, 1905:44, pl. 12, fi gs. 1– 7; Vervoort,<br />
1957:128– 129, fi gs. 114– 117.<br />
Lucicutia macrocera Sars, 1920: Ant-sArc<br />
Lucicutia macrocera Sars, 1920:10; 1925:213, pl. 57, fi gs. 12– 15;<br />
Vervoort, 1957:130, fi gs. 118, 119.<br />
Lucicutia magna Wolfenden, 1903: Ant-sArc<br />
Lucicutia magna Wolfenden, 1903:124; Wolfenden, 1911:316– 317,<br />
text fi g. 59; Hulsemann, 1966:727, fi g. 119.<br />
Lucicutia ovalis (Giesbrecht, 1889): Ant-sArc<br />
Isochaeta ovalis Giesbrecht, 1889a:812.<br />
Lucicutia frigida Wolfenden, 1911:320, text fi g. 62; Vervoort,<br />
1957:126– 128, fi gs. 111– 114.<br />
Lucicutia wolfendeni Sewell, 1932: Ant-sArc<br />
Lucicutia wolfendeni Sewell, 1932:289; Markhaseva and Ferrari,<br />
2005:1091– 1094, fi gs. 8– 9.<br />
Megacalanus princeps Wolfenden, 1904: Ant-sArc<br />
Megacalanus princeps Wolfenden, 1904:49, fi g. 4; Vervoort, 1957:<br />
32, fi g. 7.<br />
Metridia brevicauda Giesbrecht, 1889: sAnt-sArc<br />
Metridia brevicauda Giesbrecht, 1889b:24; 1893:340, pl. 33, fi gs.<br />
5, 10– 11, 14, 21, 32; Vervoort, 1957:122.<br />
Metridia curticauda Giesbrecht, 1889: Ant-sArc<br />
Metridia curticauda Giesbrecht, 1889b:24; 1893:340, pl. 33, fi gs.<br />
4, 15, 33; Vervoort, 1951:121, fi gs. 65– 67; 1957:122.<br />
Metridia ferrarii Markhaseva, 2001: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Metridia ferrarii Markhaseva, 2001:44– 46, fi gs. 1– 59.<br />
Metridia gerlachei Giesbrecht, 1902: Ant<br />
Metridia gerlachei Giesbrecht, 1902:27, pl. 5, fi gs. 6– 14; Vervoort,<br />
1951:120; 1957:120– 121, fi gs. 109, 110.
176 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
Metridia lucens Boeck, 1864: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Metridia lucens Boeck, 1864:238; Vervoort, 1957:119.<br />
Metridia hibernica Giesbrecht, 1893:345, pl. 32, fi g. 11; pl. 35,<br />
fi gs. 2, 12, 16, 22, 28, 36, 39.<br />
Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a Brodsky, 1950: Ant-sArc<br />
Metridia orn<strong>at</strong>a Brodsky, 1950:303– 305, fi g. 210; Markhaseva,<br />
2001:48– 49, fi gs. 184– 243.<br />
Metridia princeps Giesbrecht, 1889: Ant-sArc<br />
Metridia princeps Giesbrecht, 1889b:24; Markhaseva, 2001:47– 48,<br />
fi gs. 148– 183.<br />
Metridia pseudoasymmetrica Markhaseva, 2001: Ant-sAnt<br />
Metridia pseudoasymmetrica Markhaseva, 2001:46– 47, fi gs. 60–<br />
110.<br />
Metridia venusta Giesbrecht, 1889: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Metridia venusta Giesbrecht, 1889b:24; 1893:340, pl. 33, fi gs. 7,<br />
17, 29; Vervoort, 1957:121– 122.<br />
Microcalanus pygmaeus (Sars, 1900): Ant-Arc<br />
Pseudocalanus pygmaeus Sars, 1900:73, pl. 21.<br />
Microcalanus pygmaeus Vervoort, 1957:36– 37, fi g. 9; Bradford-<br />
Grieve, 1994:130, fi g. 75.<br />
Mimocalanus cultrifer Farran, 1908: Ant-sArc<br />
Mimocalanus cultrifer Farran, 1908:23, pl. 1, fi gs. 5– 9; Damkaer,<br />
1975:68– 69, fi gs. 164– 168.<br />
Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus (Brady, 1883): sAnt-Stemp<br />
Calanus <strong>to</strong>nsus Brady, 1883:34, pl. 4, fi gs. 8, 9; Vervoort, 1957:27,<br />
fi gs. 3– 6.<br />
Neocalanus <strong>to</strong>nsus Bradford-Grieve, 1994:42, fi gs. 17, 82.<br />
Nullosetigera bident<strong>at</strong>us (Brady, 1883): Ant-sArc<br />
Phyllopus bident<strong>at</strong>us Brady, 1883:78, pl. 5, fi gs. 7– 16; Vervoort,<br />
1957:141.<br />
Onchocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us (Wolfenden, 1904): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Xanthocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us Wolfenden, 1904:119, pl. 9, fi gs. 18– 19.<br />
Onchocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us Park, 1983b:335– 343, fi gs. 13– 15.<br />
Onchocalanus hirtipes Sars, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Onchocalanus hirtipes Sars, 1905a:20– 21; 1925:148– 149, pl. 41,<br />
fi gs. 6– 11; Park, 1983b:351, fi g. 22.<br />
Onchocalanus magnus (Wolfenden, 1906): Ant<br />
Xanthoclanus magnus Wolfenden, 1906:32– 33, pl. 10, fi gs. 7– 9.<br />
Onchocalanus magnus Park, 1983:343– 347, fi gs. 16– 19.<br />
Onchocalanus par<strong>at</strong>rigoniceps Park, 1983b: Ant-Stemp<br />
Onchocalanus par<strong>at</strong>rigoniceps Park, 1983b:333– 335, fi gs. 10– 12.<br />
Onchocalanus subcrist<strong>at</strong>us (Wolfenden, 1906): Ant<br />
Xanthocalanus subcrist<strong>at</strong>us Wolfenden, 1906:31– 32, pl. 10, fi gs.<br />
4– 6.<br />
Onchocalanus subcrist<strong>at</strong>us Wolfenden, 1911:278, pl. 31, fi gs. 6– 8.<br />
Onchocalanus trigoniceps Sars, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Onchocalanus trigoniceps Sars, 1905a:20; 1925:144– 147, pl. 40,<br />
fi gs. 1– 15; Park, 1983b:329– 333, fi gs. 7– 9.<br />
Onchocalanus wolfendeni Vervoort, 1950: Ant<br />
Onchocalanus wolfendeni Vervoort, 1950:22– 26, fi gs. 9– 11; Park,<br />
1983b:347– 351, fi gs. 20– 21.<br />
Pachyptilus eurygn<strong>at</strong>hus Sars, 1920: Ant-sArc<br />
Pachyptilus eurygn<strong>at</strong>hus Sars, 1920:18; 1925:321, pl. 114; Vervoort,<br />
1957:140.<br />
Paraeuchaeta abbrevi<strong>at</strong>a (Park, 1978): Ant-Trop<br />
Euchaeta abbrevi<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1978:240– 244, fi gs. 92, 93.<br />
Paraeuchaeta abbrevi<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1995:63– 64, fi gs. 58– 59.<br />
Paraeuchaeta antarctica (Giesbrecht, 1902): Ant-sAnt<br />
Euchaeta antarctica Giesbrecht, 1902:21, pl. 3, fi gs. 1– 8; Fontaine,<br />
1988:32– 38, fi gs. 3– 8.<br />
Paraeuchaeta antarctica Park, 1995:88– 89, fi gs. 84– 85.<br />
Paraeuchaeta austrina (Giesbrecht, 1902): Ant<br />
Euchaeta austrina Giesbrecht, 1902:22, pl. 3, fi gs. 9– 16; Fontaine,<br />
1988:46– 49, fi gs. 6, 13, 16, 17.<br />
Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a (Brady, 1883): Ant-Arc<br />
Euchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a Brady, 1883:66, pl. 22, fi gs. 6– 12.<br />
Paraeuchaeta barb<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1995:37– 38, fi g. 23.<br />
Paraeuchaeta biloba Farran, 1929: Ant-sAnt<br />
Paraeuchaeta biloba Farran, 1929:242, fi g. 11.<br />
Euchaeta biloba Park, 1978:217– 220, fi gs. 74– 76.<br />
Paraeuchaeta comosa Tanaka, 1958: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Paraeuchaeta comosa Tanaka, 1958:363, fi g. 79a– g; Park, 1995:56–<br />
57, fi g. 50.<br />
Paraeuchaeta dactylifera (Park, 1978) Ant-sAnt<br />
Euchaeta dactylifera Park, 1978:240, fi g. 91.<br />
Paraeuchaeta dactylifera Park, 1995:70, fi g. 67.<br />
Paraeuchaeta eltaninae (Park, 1978): Ant<br />
Euchaeta eltaninae Park, 1978:280– 283, fi gs. 118– 120.<br />
Paraeuchaeta eltaninae Park, 1995:39, fi g. 25.<br />
Paraeuchaeta erebi Farran, 1929: Ant<br />
Paraeuchaeta erebi Farran, 1929:239, fi g. 9.<br />
Euchaeta erebi Fontaine, 1988:41– 45, fi gs. 11– 13.<br />
Paraeuchaeta exigua (Wolfenden, 1911): sAnt-Stemp<br />
Euchaeta exigua Wolfenden, 1911:300, text fi g. 52.<br />
Paraeuchaeta exigua Park, 1995:77– 78, fi g. 74.<br />
Paraeuchaeta hansenii (With, 1915): sAnt-sArc<br />
Euchaeta hansenii With, 1915:181, text fi g. 52.<br />
Paraeuchaeta hansenii Park, 1995:57– 58, fi g. 51.<br />
Paraeuchaeta kurilensis Heptner, 1971: Ant-sArc<br />
Paraeuchaeta kurilensis Heptner, 1971:83, fi g. 4; Park, 1995:62–<br />
63, fi g. 57.<br />
Paraeuchaeta parvula (Park, 1978): Ant-sAnt<br />
Euchaeta parvula Park, 1978:256– 259, fi gs. 102– 104.<br />
Paraeuchaeta parvula Park, 1995:38, fi g. 24.<br />
Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa (Fontaine, 1967): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Euchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa Fontaine, 1967:204, fi gs. 1B, 2B, 3B, 3E, 6B,<br />
6E, 7B, 8B, E, 9A, 9C, 10, 12.<br />
Paraeuchaeta pseudo<strong>to</strong>nsa Park, 1995:74– 75, fi g. 71.<br />
Paraeuchaeta rasa Farran, 1929: Ant-sAnt<br />
Paraeuchaeta rasa Farran, 1929:240, fi g. 10; Park, 1995:46,<br />
fi g. 35.<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis (Grice and Hulsemann, 1968): Ant-Stemp<br />
Euchaeta regalis Grice and Hulsemann, 1968:329, fi gs. 34– 40.<br />
Paraeuchaeta regalis Park, 1995:50, fi g. 41.<br />
Paraeuchaeta sarsi (Farran, 1908): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Euchaeta sarsi Farran, 1908:41, pl. 3, fi gs. 15– 16.<br />
Paraeuchaeta sarsi Park, 1995:47– 48, fi gs. 37– 38.<br />
Paraeuchaeta scotti (Farran, 1908): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Euchaeta scotti Farran, 1908:42, pl. 3, fi gs. 11– 12.<br />
Paraeuchaeta scotti Park, 1995:40– 41, fi g. 27.<br />
Paraeuchaeta similis (Wolfenden, 1908): Ant<br />
Euchaeta similis Wolfenden, 1908:19, pl. 4, fi gs. 1– 4; Park,<br />
1978:227– 229, fi g. 82; Fontaine, 1988:38– 41, fi gs. 6, 9, 10.<br />
Paraeuchaeta tumidula (Sars, 1905): Ant-sArc<br />
Euchaeta tumidula Sars, 1905a:15.<br />
Paraeuchaeta tumidula Park, 1995:82– 83, fi g. 79.<br />
Euchaeta biconvexa Park, 1978:264– 267, fi gs. 108, 109.<br />
Paraeuchaeta tycodesma (Park, 1978): Ant<br />
Euchaeta tycodesma Park, 1978:229– 231, fi g. 83; Fontaine, 1988:<br />
45– 46, fi gs. 13– 15.<br />
Paraheterorhabdus compactus (Sars, 1900): sAnt-Arc<br />
Heterorhabdus compactus Sars, 1900:83, pls. 24, 25.<br />
Paraheterorhabdus compactus Park, 2000:85– 88, fi gs. 56– 58.<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani (Brady, 1918): Ant-sAnt<br />
Heterorhabdus farrani Brady, 1918:27, pl. 4, fi gs.10– 18.<br />
Paraheterorhabdus farrani Park, 2000:78– 80, fi gs. 48, 49.<br />
Paralabidocera antarctica (Thompson, 1898): Ant<br />
Paracartia antarctica Thompson, 1898:295, pl. 18, fi gs. 1– 12.
Paralabidocera hodgsoni Wolfenden, 1908:26, pl. 6, fi gs. 1– 13.<br />
Paralabidocera antarctica Farran, 1929:280; Vervoort, 1951:148.<br />
Paralabidocera grandispina Waghorn, 1979: Ant<br />
Paralabidocera grandispina Waghorn, 1979:465, fi gs. 5– 8.<br />
Paralabidocera separabilis Brodsky and Zvereva, 1976: Ant<br />
Paralabidocera separabilis Brodsky and Zvereva, 1976:234, fi gs.<br />
1– 4.<br />
Pleuromamma abdominalis (Lubbock, 1856): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Diap<strong>to</strong>mus abdominalis Lubbock, 1856:22, pl. 10.<br />
Pleuromamma abdominalis Steuer, 1932:9– 17, kartes 3– 7; Vervoort,<br />
1957:123– 124.<br />
Pleuromamma antarctica Steuer, 1931: Ant-sAnt<br />
Pleuromamma robusta forma antarctica Steuer, 1932:24– 25,<br />
karte 10; Vervoort, 1951:123– 126, fi gs. 68, 69; Vervoort,<br />
1957:125.<br />
Pleuromamma antarctica Ferrari and Saltzman, 1998:217– 220, fi g.<br />
8.<br />
Pleuromamma peseki Farran, 1929: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Pleuromamma gracilis forma peseki Steuer, 1932:34– 36.<br />
Pleuromamma peseki Farran, 1929:260, fi gs. 23, 24; Vervoort,<br />
1957:124.<br />
Pleuromamma quadrungul<strong>at</strong>a (Dahl, 1893): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Pleuromma quadrungul<strong>at</strong>a Dahl, 1893:105.<br />
Pleuromamma quadrungul<strong>at</strong>a Steuer, 1932:26– 30, karte 12– 13;<br />
Vervoort, 1957:124.<br />
Pleuromamma xiphias (Giesbrecht, 1889): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Pleuromma xiphias Giesbrecht, 1889b:25; 1893:347, pl. 32, fi g.<br />
14; pl. 33, fi gs. 42, 45, 50.<br />
Pleuromamma xiphias Steuer, 1932:1– 9, karte 1– 2; Vervoort,<br />
1957:124.<br />
Pseudaugaptilus longiremis Sars, 1907: Ant-Arc<br />
Pseudaugaptilus longiremis Sars, 1907:24; 1925:310, pl. 109; Vervoort,<br />
1951:144– 147, fi g. 82; 1957:140.<br />
Pseudeuchaeta brevicauda Sars, 1905: Ant-sArc<br />
Pseudeuchaeta brevicauda Sars, 1905a:5, 18; Park, 1978:187– 191,<br />
fi gs. 57, 58.<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa Park, 1978: Ant, Ntemp, Arc<br />
Pseudochirella b<strong>at</strong>illipa Park, 1978:176, fi gs. 50, 51; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:255– 256, fi g. 203.<br />
Pseudochirella dubia (Sars, 1905): Ant-sArc<br />
Undeuchaeta dubia Sars, 1905a:15.<br />
Pseudochirella dubia Markhaseva, 1996:262, fi gs. 208– 209.<br />
Pseudochirella formosa Markhaseva, 1989: Ant<br />
Pseudochirella formosa Markhaseva, 1989:33, fi gs. 1, 7; 1996:264,<br />
fi g. 212.<br />
Pseudochirella hirsuta (Wolfenden, 1905): Ant-Stemp<br />
Euchirella hirsuta Wolfenden, 1905:17, pl. 6, fi gs. 7– 8.<br />
Pseudochirella hirsuta Park, 1978:163– 165, fi gs. 41, 42;<br />
Markhaseva, 1996:266, fi gs. 214– 215.<br />
Pseudochirella mawsoni Vervoort, 1957: Ant-sAnt<br />
Pseudochirella mawsoni Vervoort, 1957:64, fi gs. 44– 48; Park,<br />
1978:172– 176, fi gs. 48, 49; Markhaseva, 1996:272– 275, fi gs.<br />
219– 220.<br />
Pseudochirella notacantha (Sars, 1905): Ant-sArc<br />
Gaidius notacanthus Sars, 1905a:9.<br />
Pseudochirella notacantha Markhaseva, 1996:275– 276, fi gs. 221–<br />
222.<br />
Pseudochirella obtusa (Sars, 1905): Ant-sArc<br />
Undeuchaeta obtusa Sars, 1905a:4, 13.<br />
Pseudochirella obtusa Markhaseva, 1996:278, fi gs. 225– 226.<br />
Pseudochirella polyspina Park, 1978:169– 172, fi gs. 45– 47.<br />
Pseudochirella pustulifera (Sars, 1905): Ant-sArc<br />
Undeuchaeta pustulifera Sars, 1905a:14.<br />
Pseudochirella pustulifera Park, 1978:165– 169, fi gs. 43– 44.<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 177<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis (Sars, 1900): Ant, Arc<br />
Undeuchaeta spectabilis Sars, 1900:59, pls. 15, 16.<br />
Pseudochirella spectabilis Markhaseva, 1996:289– 290, fi gs. 233–<br />
235.<br />
Euchirella elong<strong>at</strong>a Wolfenden, 1905:19, pl. 6, fi gs. 12– 13.<br />
Pseudochirella elong<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1978:159– 163, fi gs. 37– 40.<br />
Racovitzanus antarcticus Giesbrecht, 1902: Ant, sAnt, sArc<br />
Racovitzanus antarcticus Giesbrecht, 1902:26– 27, pl. 4, fi gs. 8– 13;<br />
pl. 5, fi gs.1– 5; Park, 1983:172– 177, fi gs. 4– 6.<br />
Rhincalanus gigas Brady, 1883: Ant<br />
Rhincalanus gigas Brady, 1883:42, pl. 8, fi gs. 1– 11; Vervoort,<br />
1951:57; 1957:34.<br />
Rhincalanus nasutus Giesbrecht, 1888: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Rhincalanus nasutus Giesbrecht, 1888:334; 1893:152– 154, 761,<br />
pl. 3, fi g. 6; pl. 9, fi gs. 6, 14; pl. 12, fi gs. 9– 12, 14, 16, 17; pl.<br />
35, fi gs. 46, 47, 49; Vervoort 1957:33.<br />
Scaphocalanus antarcticus Park, 1982: Ant<br />
Scaphocalanus antarcticus Park, 1982:83– 89, fi gs. 3– 7.<br />
Scaphocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us (Giesbrecht, 1895): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix crist<strong>at</strong>a Giesbrecht, 1895:252– 253, pl. 2, fi gs. 6– 8; pl.<br />
3, fi gs. 1– 5.<br />
Scaphocalanus crist<strong>at</strong>us Park, 1982:92– 95, fi g. 10.<br />
Scaphocalanus echin<strong>at</strong>us (Farran, 1905): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix echin<strong>at</strong>a Farran, 1905:37– 38, pl. 4, fi gs. 15– 18; pl. 5,<br />
fi gs. 12– 17.<br />
Scaphocalanus echin<strong>at</strong>us Park, 1982:101– 104, fi gs. 15– 16.<br />
Scaphocalanus elong<strong>at</strong>us Scott, 1909: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Scaphocalanus elong<strong>at</strong>us A. Scott, 1909:98, pl. 32, fi gs. 10– 16;<br />
Park, 1982:106– 108, fi gs. 18– 19.<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani Park, 1982: Ant-sAnt<br />
Scaphocalanus farrani Park, 1982:95– 101, fi gs. 11– 14.<br />
Scaphocalanus major (Scott, 1894): Ant-Trop<br />
Scolecithrix major Scott, 1894:52, pl. 3, fi gs. 24– 26; pl. 5, fi gs.<br />
44– 45.<br />
Scaphocalanus major Park, 1982:108– 110, fi g. 20.<br />
Scaphocalanus medius (Sars, 1907): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Amallophora media Sars, 1907:16.<br />
Scaphocalanus medius Sars, 1925:173– 174, pl. 49, fi gs. 1– 8; Park,<br />
1982:110– 112, fi g. 21.<br />
Scaphocalanus parantarcticus Park, 1982: Ant-sAnt<br />
Scaphocalanus parantarcticus Park, 1982:89– 92, fi gs. 8– 9.<br />
Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis (Wolfenden, 1911): Ant<br />
Amallophora subbrevicornis Wolfenden, 1911:262– 263, text<br />
fi g. 37.<br />
Scaphocalanus subbrevicornis Park, 1982:117– 121, fi g. 26.<br />
Scaphocalanus vervoorti Park, 1982: Ant<br />
Scaphocalanus vervoorti Park, 1982:112– 117, fi gs. 22– 25.<br />
Scolecithricella altera (Farran, 1929): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Amallophora altera Farran, 1929:252, fi g. 19.<br />
Scolecithricella altera Park, 1980:70– 72, fi g. 22.<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis Park, 1980: Ant<br />
Scolecithricella cenotelis Park, 1980:59– 60, fi g. 18.<br />
Scolecithricella dent<strong>at</strong>a (Giesbrecht, 1893): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix dent<strong>at</strong>a Giesbrecht, 1893:266, pl.13, fi gs. 12, 20, 33,<br />
pl. 37, fi gs. 13– 14.<br />
Scolecithricella dent<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1980:42– 43, fi g. 7.<br />
Scolecithricella dentipes Vervoort, 1951: Ant-sAnt<br />
Scolecithricella dentipes Vervoort, 1951:108, fi gs. 55– 59; Park,<br />
1980:46– 50, fi gs. 10– 11.<br />
Scolecithricella emargin<strong>at</strong>a (Farran, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix emargin<strong>at</strong>a Farran, 1905:36, pl. 7, fi gs. 6– 17.<br />
Scolecithricella emargin<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1980:61– 66, fi g. 19.<br />
Scolecithrix polaris Wolfenden, 1911:252– 253, pl. 30, fi gs. 1– 2,<br />
text fi g. 31a– e.
178 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PARK AND FERRARI<br />
Scolecithricella hadrosoma Park, 1980: Ant-Stemp<br />
Scolecithricella hadrosoma Park, 1980:66, fi g. 20.<br />
Scolecithricella minor (Brady, 1883): Ant-sArc<br />
Scolecithrix minor Brady, 1883:58, pl. 16, fi gs. 15– 16.<br />
Scolecithricella minor Park, 1980:31– 36, fi gs. 2– 3.<br />
Scolecithrix glacialis Giesbrecht, 1902:25, pl. 4, fi gs. 1– 7.<br />
Scolecithricella obtusifrons (Sars, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Amallophora obtusifrons Sars, 1905a:22.<br />
Scolecithricella obtusifrons Park, 1980:66– 70, fi g. 21.<br />
Scolecithricella ov<strong>at</strong>a (Farran, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix ov<strong>at</strong>a Farran, 1905:37, pl. 6, fi gs. 13– 18; pl. 7, fi gs.<br />
1– 5.<br />
Scolecithricella ov<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1980:58– 59, fi g. 17.<br />
Scolecithricella parafalcifer Park, 1980: Ant-Stemp<br />
Scolecithricella parafalcifer Park, 1980:50– 51, fi g. 12.<br />
Scolecithricella profunda (Giesbrecht, 1893): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix profunda Giesbrecht, 1893:266, pl. 13, fi gs. 5, 26.<br />
Scolecithricella profunda Park, 1980:36– 37, fi g. 4.<br />
Scolecithricella pseudopropinqua Park, 1980: sAnt-Stemp<br />
Scolecithricella pseudopropinqua Park, 1980:51– 55, fi gs. 13– 14.<br />
Scolecithricella schizosoma Park, 1980: Ant-sAnt<br />
Scolecithricella schizosoma Park, 1980:43– 46, fi gs. 8– 9.<br />
Scolecithricella valida (Farran, 1908): Ant-sArc<br />
Scolecithrix valida Farran, 1908:55, pl. 5, fi gs. 14– 17; pl. 6, fi g. 7.<br />
Scolecithricella valida Park, 1980:55– 58, fi gs. 15– 16.<br />
Scolecithricella vervoorti Park, 1980: Ant<br />
Scolecithricella vervoorti Park, 1980:72– 74, fi gs. 23– 24.<br />
Scolecithricella vitt<strong>at</strong>a (Giesbrecht, 1893): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix vitt<strong>at</strong>a Giesbrecht, 1893:266, pl. 13, fi gs. 2, 23, 32, 34;<br />
pl. 37, fi gs. 5, 8.<br />
Scolecithricella vitt<strong>at</strong>a Park, 1980:37– 42, fi gs. 5– 6.<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus helenae (Lubbock, 1856): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Undina helenae Lubbock, 1856:25– 26, pl. 4, fi g. 4; pl. 7, fi gs.<br />
1– 5.<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus helenae Park, 1983:205– 208, fi gs. 23– 24.<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus securifrons (Scott, 1894): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Scolecithrix securifrons Scott, 1894:47– 48, fi gs. 41, 43– 47, 49– 52,<br />
54, 56, pl. 5, fi g. 1.<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus securifrons Park, 1983:200– 205, fi gs. 19– 22.<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus thorii With, 1915: sAnt-sArc<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus thorii With, 1915:215– 219, pl. 6, fi gs. 14a– 14c;<br />
pl. 8, fi gs. 14a– 14b, text fi gs. 68– 70; Park, 1983:208– 210,<br />
fi g. 25.<br />
Spinocalanus abyssalis Giesbrecht, 1888: Ant-sArc<br />
Spinocalanus abyssalis Giesbrecht, 1888:355; 1893:209, pl. 13,<br />
fi gs. 42– 48; Damkaer, 1975:17– 20, fi gs. 4– 10, 148.<br />
Spinocalanus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1906: Ant, Arc<br />
Spinocalanus antarcticus Wolfenden, 1906:43, pl. 14, fi gs. 6– 9;<br />
Damkaer, 1975:30– 35, fi gs. 43– 68, 152; Bradford-Grieve,<br />
1994:101, 103, fi g. 57.<br />
Spinocalanus horridus Wolfenden, 1911: Ant-Arc<br />
Spinocalanus horridus Wolfenden, 1911:216, text fi g. 7, pl. 25, fi gs.<br />
1– 2; Damkaer, 1975:37– 41, fi gs. 69– 83, 153.<br />
Spinocalanus magnus Wolfenden, 1904: Ant-sArc<br />
Spinocalanus magnus Wolfenden, 1904:118; Damkaer, 1975: 26–<br />
30, fi gs. 35– 42, 150.<br />
Spinocalanus terranovae Damkaer, 1975: Ant<br />
Spinocalanus terranovae Damkaer, 1975:60– 62, fi gs. 141– 147,<br />
159.<br />
Stephos longipes Giesbrecht, 1902: Ant<br />
Stephos longipes Giesbrecht, 1902:20, pl. 2, 6– 14; Tanaka, 1960:37,<br />
pl. 14, fi gs. 1– 10.<br />
Stephos antarcticus Wolfenden, 1908: Ant<br />
Stephos antarcticus Wolfenden, 1908:24, pl. 5, fi gs. 4– 8.<br />
Subeucalanus longiceps (M<strong>at</strong><strong>the</strong>ws, 1925): sAnt-Stemp<br />
Eucalanus longiceps M<strong>at</strong><strong>the</strong>ws, 1925:127, pl. 9; Vervoort, 1957:33,<br />
fi g. 8.<br />
Subeucalanus longiceps Bradford-Grieve, 1994:88, fi gs. 40, 41, 91.<br />
Talacalanus greeni (Farran, 1905): Ant-Ntemp<br />
Xanthocalanus greeni Farran, 1905:39, pl. 8, fi gs. 1– 13; Park,<br />
1983:325– 327, fi gs. 5– 6.<br />
Talacalanus calaminus Wolfenden, 1906, pl. 11, fi gs. 3– 5.<br />
Talacalanus greeni (Farran, 1905); Campaner, 1978:976.<br />
Temorites brevis Sars, 1900: Ant-Arc<br />
Temorites brevis Sars, 1900:100, pls. 30, 31; Vervoort, 1957:115–<br />
118, fi gs. 102– 108.<br />
Undeuchaeta incisa Esterly, 1911: Ant-sArc<br />
Undeuchaeta incisa Esterly, 1911:319, pl. 27, fi gs. 12, 19; pl. 28,<br />
fi g. 28; pl. 29, fi g. 59; Park, 1978:183– 187, fi gs. 54– 56;<br />
Markhaseva, 1996:302, fi gs. 243– 244.<br />
Undeuchaeta major Giesbrecht, 1888: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Undeuchaeta major Giesbrecht, 1888, p.336; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:305, fi gs. 246– 247.<br />
Undeuchaeta plumosa (Lubbock, 1856): sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Undina plumosa Lubbock, 1856:24, pl. 9, fi gs. 3– 5; Markhaseva,<br />
1996:310, fi gs. 248– 249.<br />
Undinella brevipes Farran, 1908: sAnt-sArc<br />
Undinella brevipes Farran, 1908:12, 50, pl. 5, fi gs. 1– 4;Vervoort,<br />
1957:95– 96.<br />
Valdiviella brevicornis Sars, 1905: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Valdiviella brevicornis Sars, 1905a:17; 1925:101, pl. 28, fi gs. 11–<br />
17; Park, 1978:195– 197, fi g. 61.<br />
Valdiviella insignis Farran, 1908: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Valdiviella insignis Farran, 1908:45, pl. 3, fi gs. 1– 6; Park,<br />
1978:197– 199, fi g. 62.<br />
Valdiviella minor Wolfenden, 1911: sAnt-Ntemp<br />
Valdiviella minor Wolfenden, 1911:249, pl. 29, fi gs. 8– 11; Park,<br />
1978:199, fi gs. 63, 64.<br />
Valdiviella oligarthra Steuer, 1904: Ant-Ntemp<br />
Valdiviella oligarthra Steuer, 1904:593, fi gs. 1– 3; Park, 1978:191–<br />
195, fi gs. 59– 60.<br />
APPENDIX 2<br />
This appendix lists families, alphabetically, and genera<br />
within families, alphabetically, with species reported<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Acartiidae<br />
Paralabidocera<br />
Aetideidae<br />
Aetideopsis<br />
Aetideus<br />
B<strong>at</strong>heuchaeta<br />
Chiridiella<br />
Chiridius<br />
Chirundina<br />
Gaetanus<br />
Euchirella<br />
Pseudeuchaeta<br />
Pseudochirella<br />
Undeuchaeta<br />
Valdiviella<br />
Arietellidae<br />
Arietellus
Augaptilidae<br />
Augaptilus<br />
Centraugaptilus<br />
Euaugaptilus<br />
Haloptilus<br />
Pachyptilus<br />
Pseudaugaptilus<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hypontiidae<br />
Temorites<br />
Calanidae<br />
Calanoides<br />
Calanus<br />
Neocalanus<br />
Candaciidae<br />
Candacia<br />
Clausocalanidae<br />
Clausocalanus<br />
Ctenocalanus<br />
Drepanopus<br />
Farrania<br />
Microcalanus<br />
Eucalanidae<br />
Eucalanus<br />
Rhincalanus<br />
Euchaetidae<br />
Paraeuchaeta<br />
Heterorhabdidae<br />
Disseta<br />
Heterorhabdus<br />
Heterostylites<br />
Paraheterorhabdus<br />
Lucicutiidae<br />
Lucicutia<br />
Megacalanidae<br />
B<strong>at</strong>hycalanus<br />
Bradycalanus<br />
Megacalanus<br />
Metridinidae<br />
Metridia<br />
Pleuromamma<br />
Nullosetigeridae<br />
Nullosetigera<br />
Phaennidae<br />
Cornucalanus<br />
Onchocalanus<br />
Talacalanus<br />
Scolecitrichidae<br />
Cephalophanes<br />
Landrumius<br />
Lophothrix<br />
Racovitzanus<br />
Scaphocalanus<br />
Scolecithricella<br />
Scot<strong>to</strong>calanus<br />
Spinocalanidae<br />
Spinocalanus<br />
Stephidae<br />
Stephos<br />
Subeucalanidae<br />
Subeucalanus<br />
Tharybidae<br />
Undinella<br />
PELAGIC CALANOID COPEPODS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 179
Brooding and Species Diversity in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean: Selection for Brooders<br />
or Speci<strong>at</strong>ion within Brooding Clades?<br />
John S. Pearse, Richard Mooi, Susanne J.<br />
Lockhart, and Angelika Brandt<br />
John S. Pearse, Department of Ecology and<br />
Evolutionary Biology, Long Marine Labor<strong>at</strong>ory,<br />
University of California, Santa Cruz,<br />
100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060,<br />
USA. Richard Mooi and Susanne J. Lockhart,<br />
Department of Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Zoology<br />
and Geology, California Academy of<br />
Sciences, 55 Music Concourse Drive, San<br />
Francisco, CA 94118-4503, USA. Angelika<br />
Brandt, Zoologisches Institut und Zoologisches<br />
Museum, Martin-Lu<strong>the</strong>r-King-Pl<strong>at</strong>z<br />
3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany. Corresponding<br />
author: J. S. Pearse (pearse@biology<br />
.ucsc.edu). Accepted 19 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. We summarize and evalu<strong>at</strong>e explan<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> have been proposed <strong>to</strong> account<br />
for <strong>the</strong> unusually high number of benthic marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean with nonpelagic development. These explan<strong>at</strong>ions are divided between those<br />
involving adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> current conditions in this cold-w<strong>at</strong>er environment, selecting for<br />
nonpelagic larval development, and those involving vicariant events th<strong>at</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r extermin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
a high proportion of species with pelagic development (<strong>the</strong> extinction hypo<strong>the</strong>sis)<br />
or enhanced speci<strong>at</strong>ion in taxa th<strong>at</strong> already had nonpelagic development. In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
case, glacial maxima over <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continental Shelf in <strong>the</strong> Pliocene/Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene glacial<br />
cycles could have cre<strong>at</strong>ed refuges where speci<strong>at</strong>ion occurred (<strong>the</strong> ACS hypo<strong>the</strong>sis),<br />
or <strong>the</strong> powerful Antarctic Circumpolar Current passing through Drake Passage for over<br />
30 million years could have transported species with nonpelagic development <strong>to</strong> new<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s <strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e new species (<strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis). We examine <strong>the</strong> distribution and<br />
phylogenetic his<strong>to</strong>ry of echinoderms and crustaceans in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> evalu<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong>se different explan<strong>at</strong>ions. We could fi nd little or no evidence th<strong>at</strong> nonpelagic development<br />
is a direct adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Some evidence supports<br />
<strong>the</strong> three vicariant hypo<strong>the</strong>ses, with <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis perhaps <strong>the</strong> best predic<strong>to</strong>r of<br />
observed p<strong>at</strong>terns, both <strong>the</strong> unusual number of species with nonpelagic development and<br />
<strong>the</strong> notably high biodiversity found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The unusually high incidence of parental care displayed by marine benthic<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean was fi rst noted by members of <strong>the</strong> pioneering<br />
nineteenth century expedition of <strong>the</strong> R/V Challenger (Thomson, 1876, 1885). Examples<br />
were found in four of <strong>the</strong> fi ve classes of echinoderms as well as in molluscs,<br />
polychaetes, and o<strong>the</strong>r groups. By <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> century, <strong>the</strong> idea was widely<br />
accepted: nonpelagic development by brooding or viviparity or within egg capsules<br />
was <strong>the</strong> dominant mode of reproduction by benthic marine animals, not<br />
only for Antarctic and subantarctic forms but also for cold-w<strong>at</strong>er species in general<br />
(Thomson, 1885; Murray, 1895; beautifully reviewed by Young, 1994). This<br />
notion was persuasively reinforced by Thorson (1936, 1950), who focused on<br />
gastropods in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, and Mileikovsky (1971), who termed it<br />
“Thorson’s rule.” Both Thorson (1936) and Mileikovsky (1971), however, recognized<br />
many exceptions, and subsequently, with more inform<strong>at</strong>ion and reanalyses
182 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
of earlier d<strong>at</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> generality of Thorson’s rule weakened<br />
substantially (Pearse et al., 1991; Clarke, 1992; Hain and<br />
Arnaud, 1992; Pearse, 1994; Young, 1994; Stanwell-Smith<br />
et al., 1999; Arntz and Gili, 2001; Schluter and Rachor,<br />
2001; Absher et al., 2003; Sewell, 2005; Vázquez et al.,<br />
2007; Fetzer and Arntz, 2008). We now know th<strong>at</strong> many<br />
of <strong>the</strong> most abundant species in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, especially<br />
those in shallow w<strong>at</strong>er, have pelagic larvae as in o<strong>the</strong>r areas<br />
of <strong>the</strong> world. Moreover, taxa in <strong>the</strong> Arctic (Dell, 1972;<br />
Fetzer and Arntz, 2008) and <strong>the</strong> deep sea (Gage and Tyler,<br />
1991) do not have <strong>the</strong> unusually high numbers of brooding<br />
species found in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, with <strong>the</strong> exception of peracarids,<br />
all of which brood and are abundant in <strong>the</strong> Arctic and<br />
deep sea, though less diverse than in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. Indeed,<br />
as shown by Gallardo and Penchaszadeh (2001), <strong>the</strong> incidence<br />
of brooding species of gastropods depends <strong>at</strong> least as<br />
much on <strong>the</strong> clades present in an area as on loc<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Although Thorson’s rule no longer applies in general<br />
terms, it was originally based on solid observ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
some unusual taxa th<strong>at</strong> brood in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (reviewed<br />
by Pearse and Lockhart, 2004). Initially, <strong>the</strong> fi nding<br />
of species with nonpelagic development was <strong>at</strong>tributed<br />
<strong>to</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions peculiar <strong>to</strong> polar seas (Murray,<br />
1895; Thorson, 1936, 1950; Hardy, 1960: Pearse, 1969;<br />
Mileikovsky, 1971). However, because high incidences of<br />
brooding occur mainly in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers and not in <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic (Ludwig, 1904; Östergren, 1912; Dell, 1972), it became<br />
clear th<strong>at</strong> something besides adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> “harsh”<br />
polar conditions had <strong>to</strong> be involved. Thorson (1936), recognizing<br />
<strong>the</strong> difference between <strong>the</strong> two polar seas, suggested<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic fauna, being younger than those<br />
around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, had not had as much time <strong>to</strong> adapt;<br />
this explan<strong>at</strong>ion was accepted by o<strong>the</strong>rs (e.g., Arnaud,<br />
1974; Picken, 1980). Never<strong>the</strong>less, as recognized by Dell<br />
(1972), <strong>the</strong> discrepancy between <strong>the</strong> two polar seas meant<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> unusual incidence of nonpelagic development in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean was not likely <strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> consequence<br />
of simple adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> some general polar conditions.<br />
While <strong>the</strong>re can be little doubt th<strong>at</strong> developmental<br />
mode is infl uenced by, and <strong>at</strong> least initially determined<br />
by, n<strong>at</strong>ural selection, <strong>the</strong> adaptive n<strong>at</strong>ure of one particular<br />
mode over ano<strong>the</strong>r has been subject <strong>to</strong> considerable<br />
specul<strong>at</strong>ion and deb<strong>at</strong>e (Str<strong>at</strong>hmann, 1993; Havenhand,<br />
1995; Wray, 1995; Gillespie and McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, 2007).<br />
Pelagic development, ei<strong>the</strong>r with feeding or nonfeeding<br />
larvae, has usually been assumed <strong>to</strong> be plesiomorphic,<br />
and benthic development has been assumed <strong>to</strong> be derived<br />
(Jägersten, 1972; Villinski et al., 2002; Gillespie and Mc-<br />
Clin<strong>to</strong>ck, 2007). Moreover, once lost, plank<strong>to</strong>trophic development<br />
is rarely reacquired (Str<strong>at</strong>hmann, 1978; Reid,<br />
1990; Levin and Bridges, 1995; but see Collin et al.,<br />
2007), and this generaliz<strong>at</strong>ion probably applies <strong>to</strong> pelagic<br />
development in general. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> occurrence of<br />
benthic development in a taxon may be an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong><br />
particular conditions (e.g., oligotrophic w<strong>at</strong>er or offshore<br />
currents), or it may be a phyletic constraint refl ecting<br />
earlier adapt<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> no longer apply. Paleon<strong>to</strong>logical<br />
evidence suggests th<strong>at</strong> species of marine molluscs with<br />
nonpelagic development had smaller distributions and<br />
were more susceptible <strong>to</strong> extinction than those with pelagic<br />
development (Jablonski and Lutz, 1983; Jablonski<br />
and Roy, 2003); presumably, <strong>the</strong>se had more genetically<br />
fragmented popul<strong>at</strong>ions as well.<br />
An altern<strong>at</strong>ive explan<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> unusually numerous<br />
brooding species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir high<br />
numbers are <strong>the</strong> consequence of popul<strong>at</strong>ions being repe<strong>at</strong>edly<br />
fragmented, with isol<strong>at</strong>ed units forming new species.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> is, nonpelagic development in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
might not refl ect adapt<strong>at</strong>ion sc<strong>at</strong>tered among several<br />
clades, as it does elsewhere (e.g., Byrne et al., 2003; Collin,<br />
2003), but r<strong>at</strong>her, it may occur mainly in rel<strong>at</strong>ively few<br />
clades in which species prolifer<strong>at</strong>ed. Moreover, some of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se species-rich, brooding clades could contribute substantially<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> unexpected high species diversity found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Brandt et al., 2007a, 2007b; Rogers,<br />
2007). Indeed, in some taxa, species-rich clades of brooders<br />
constitute most of <strong>the</strong> species (e.g., echinoids: Poulin<br />
and Féral, 1996; David et al., 2003, 2005; crustaceans:<br />
Brandt, 2000; Brandt et al., 2007a, 2007b). Consequently,<br />
<strong>the</strong> occurrence of many species with nonpelagic development<br />
may not be due <strong>to</strong> specifi c adapt<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> conditions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic but, instead, may be a consequence of isol<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
after vicariant events th<strong>at</strong> now or in <strong>the</strong> past led <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir prolifer<strong>at</strong>ion. In this paper we evalu<strong>at</strong>e and compare<br />
several adapt<strong>at</strong>ion versus vicariant explan<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong><br />
occurrence of species-rich clades in <strong>the</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
PROPOSED EXPLANATIONS<br />
ADAPTATION<br />
Although some aspect of <strong>the</strong> current polar environment<br />
has usually been assumed <strong>to</strong> have led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> selection<br />
of nonpelagic development in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, identifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> responsible agents has been elusive. The<br />
problem is compounded because unusually high numbers<br />
of brooding species are found in Antarctic and subantarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers but not in ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Arctic or deep sea, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
areas of <strong>the</strong> world ocean with cold w<strong>at</strong>er year-round. We
iefl y consider below some of <strong>the</strong> ideas th<strong>at</strong> have been<br />
proposed, including those th<strong>at</strong> apply <strong>to</strong> cold-w<strong>at</strong>er environments<br />
in general.<br />
Low Temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
Murray (1895:1459) suggested simply th<strong>at</strong> “animals<br />
with pelagic larvae would be killed out or be forced <strong>to</strong><br />
migr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong>wards <strong>the</strong> warmer tropics” when temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
cooled, <strong>to</strong> be replaced by animals without larvae existing<br />
below <strong>the</strong> “mud-line” where he thought very few animals<br />
had pelagic larvae. Similarly, Th<strong>at</strong>je et al. (2005b) argue<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> predominance of developmental lecithotrophy in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic is <strong>the</strong> consequence of <strong>the</strong> near-complete extinction<br />
of benthic communities during glacial maxima and<br />
recoloniz<strong>at</strong>ion from deeper w<strong>at</strong>ers where species had undergone<br />
an “evolutionary temper<strong>at</strong>ure adapt<strong>at</strong>ion” th<strong>at</strong> led<br />
<strong>to</strong> lecithotrophy. However, no evidence supports <strong>the</strong> idea<br />
th<strong>at</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r nonpelagic development or lecithotrophy is an<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ure, and <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong> a wide<br />
variety of both plank<strong>to</strong>trophic and lecithotrophic pelagic<br />
larvae have been found in both Antarctic and Arctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
(e.g., Thorson, 1936; Stanwell-Smith et al., 1999; Sewell,<br />
2005; Palma et al., 2007; Vázquez, 2007; Fetzer and Arntz,<br />
2008) persuasively indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e larvae<br />
are able <strong>to</strong> survive and grow <strong>at</strong> freezing temper<strong>at</strong>ures—<br />
even under high pressures found in <strong>the</strong> deep sea (Tyler et<br />
al., 2000), where many species have pelagic, plank<strong>to</strong>trophic<br />
larvae (Gage and Tyler, 1991; however, see below).<br />
Low Temper<strong>at</strong>ure and Slow Development<br />
Many studies have shown th<strong>at</strong> larval development<br />
is gre<strong>at</strong>ly slowed <strong>at</strong> very low temper<strong>at</strong>ures (e.g., Hoegh-<br />
Guldberg and Pearse, 1995; Peck et al., 2007), and <strong>the</strong><br />
metabolic basis of this effect is gradually being sorted out<br />
(e.g., Peck, 2002; Clarke, 2003; Peck et al. 2006; Pace and<br />
Manahan, 2007). The longer larvae are in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
<strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er <strong>the</strong> chance th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y will perish by pred<strong>at</strong>ion or<br />
be swept away from suitable settling sites. Indeed, Smith et<br />
al. (2007) argued th<strong>at</strong> lecithotrophic development might<br />
be selected because elimin<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> feeding stage substantially<br />
shortens <strong>the</strong> time larvae spend in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n, a<br />
particular advantage for polar areas where development<br />
is slow. Going one step fur<strong>the</strong>r, nonpelagic development<br />
elimin<strong>at</strong>es loss in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n al<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r. However, not<br />
only would this explan<strong>at</strong>ion apply <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cold-w<strong>at</strong>er environment<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Arctic and deep sea as well as <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic,<br />
but as mentioned above, many particularly abundant<br />
polar species do have slow-developing plank<strong>to</strong>trophic pe-<br />
BROODING AND SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 183<br />
lagic larvae; long periods of feeding in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n do not<br />
necessarily appear <strong>to</strong> be selected against.<br />
Low Temper<strong>at</strong>ure, Slow Development,<br />
and Limited Larval Food<br />
Thorson (1936, 1950) developed <strong>the</strong> idea th<strong>at</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>trophic<br />
larvae would be food limited in polar seas because<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>nic food is available only during <strong>the</strong><br />
summer plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom, <strong>to</strong>o briefl y for such larvae <strong>to</strong><br />
complete <strong>the</strong>ir slow development. This durable hypo<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
remains current (e.g., Arntz and Gili, 2001; Th<strong>at</strong>je et<br />
al., 2003, 2005b), although little or no evidence supports<br />
it. Indeed, plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae of a wide range of taxa<br />
are well known in polar seas (see above). Moreover, extremely<br />
low metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es of gastropod and echinoid larvae,<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>ive of very low food requirements, have been<br />
demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed by Peck et al. (2006) and Pace and Manahan<br />
(2007), respectively. There is no evidence th<strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae of polar seas are food limited ei<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
In addition, this proposal is not specifi c <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Finally, it applies only <strong>to</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larval<br />
development, not lecithotrophic pelagic development; our<br />
concern here is pelagic and nonpelagic development, not<br />
mode of nutrition for developing embryos or larvae.<br />
Low Adult Food Supply<br />
Chia (1974) suggested th<strong>at</strong> poor nutritional conditions<br />
for adults might favor nonpelagic development on <strong>the</strong> assumption<br />
th<strong>at</strong> adults require more energy <strong>to</strong> produce <strong>the</strong><br />
multitude of pelagic larvae needed <strong>to</strong> overcome high larval<br />
mortality in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n than <strong>to</strong> produce a few protected<br />
offspring. Such conditions do prevail in polar seas, where<br />
primary production is extremely seasonal (Clarke, 1988), or<br />
especially during periods of maximal multiyear sea ice and<br />
glacial expansion during <strong>the</strong> Pliocene/Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene ice ages<br />
(see below). However, studies on a poecilogonous species<br />
of polychaete indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> nutritional investment is higher<br />
in <strong>the</strong> form th<strong>at</strong> produces lecithotrophic larvae than in one<br />
th<strong>at</strong> produces plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae (Bridges, 1993), countering<br />
Chia’s (1974) assumption. Moreover, even if true,<br />
<strong>the</strong> argument applies <strong>to</strong> both polar seas and is not specifi c<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Finally, <strong>the</strong>re is little evidence th<strong>at</strong><br />
polar species are food limited over an entire year.<br />
Large Egg Sizes<br />
It has long been known th<strong>at</strong> egg size and, presumably,<br />
energy investment in<strong>to</strong> individual eggs increase with
184 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
increasing l<strong>at</strong>itude (reviewed by Laptikhovsky, 2006). If<br />
more energy is alloc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> each egg, fecundity is lowered.<br />
Moreover, larger eggs require more time <strong>to</strong> complete<br />
<strong>the</strong> nonfeeding phase of development than smaller<br />
eggs (Marshall and Bol<strong>to</strong>n, 2007), increasing <strong>the</strong> risk of<br />
embryonic/larval mortality while in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n. With<br />
lower fecundity and increased risk of mortality, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
could be strong selection for nonpelagic development,<br />
elimin<strong>at</strong>ing mortality in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n al<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r. While<br />
<strong>the</strong> underlying reason why egg size increases with l<strong>at</strong>itude<br />
remains <strong>to</strong> be unders<strong>to</strong>od, it could be a fac<strong>to</strong>r leading<br />
<strong>to</strong> nonpelagic development. However, this explan<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
also applies <strong>to</strong> both polar regions and not solely <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Small Adult Size<br />
It is also well known th<strong>at</strong> taxa composed of smaller individuals<br />
tend <strong>to</strong> have nonpelagic development, while those<br />
with larger individuals tend <strong>to</strong> have plank<strong>to</strong>trophic, pelagic<br />
development (reviewed by Str<strong>at</strong>hmann and Str<strong>at</strong>hmann,<br />
1982). This observ<strong>at</strong>ion is also based on fecundity: small<br />
animals cannot produce enough offspring for any of <strong>the</strong>m<br />
<strong>to</strong> have much chance of surviving <strong>the</strong> high mortality faced<br />
in <strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>n. However, <strong>the</strong>re are many examples of species<br />
comprised of very small individuals producing plank<strong>to</strong>trophic<br />
larvae, making generaliz<strong>at</strong>ion diffi cult. Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
most species in some major taxa (e.g., bivalves: Clarke,<br />
1992, 1993) in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are composed of very<br />
small individuals, so this explan<strong>at</strong>ion could apply <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>m,<br />
<strong>at</strong> least in terms of fac<strong>to</strong>rs originally selecting for nonpelagic<br />
development.<br />
Low Salinity<br />
Östergren (1912) suggested th<strong>at</strong> melting ice during<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer would cre<strong>at</strong>e a freshw<strong>at</strong>er layer unfavorable<br />
<strong>to</strong> pelagic larvae and <strong>the</strong>refore could be a fac<strong>to</strong>r selecting<br />
against <strong>the</strong>m. Thorson (1936), Hardy (1960), Pearse<br />
(1969), and Picken (1980) also considered low salinity<br />
<strong>to</strong> be a fac<strong>to</strong>r selecting against pelagic development in<br />
polar seas. The large rivers fl owing in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean<br />
should make low salinity an even gre<strong>at</strong>er problem <strong>the</strong>re<br />
than around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. Yet, as with most of <strong>the</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ionist<br />
explan<strong>at</strong>ions focusing on polar conditions, <strong>the</strong><br />
fact th<strong>at</strong> nonpelagic development is less prevalent in <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic than in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic undermines this explan<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Thus, low salinity is not likely <strong>to</strong> be an important fac<strong>to</strong>r<br />
selecting for nonpelagic development in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean.<br />
Narrow Shelf<br />
Recognizing th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence of unusually high numbers<br />
of species with nonpelagic development is mainly a<br />
fe<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, especially <strong>the</strong> subantarctic, r<strong>at</strong>her<br />
than <strong>the</strong> Arctic, Östergren (1912) also proposed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
narrow shelf and <strong>the</strong> strong winds blowing off <strong>the</strong> continent<br />
would drive larvae offshore, away from suitable settling<br />
sites. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>re would be strong selection<br />
against pelagic larvae in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic but not in <strong>the</strong> Arctic.<br />
This was <strong>the</strong> fi rst <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> high number<br />
of brooding species specifi cally for <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> idea was quickly discounted by Mortensen<br />
(1913), who pointed out th<strong>at</strong> it should apply as well <strong>to</strong><br />
remote oceanic islands in <strong>the</strong> tropics, where pelagic development<br />
was already well known.<br />
SELECTIVE EXTINCTION<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r possibility is th<strong>at</strong> events in <strong>the</strong> past led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
extinction of many or most species with pelagic development<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, leaving a disproportion<strong>at</strong>e number<br />
of species with nonpelagic development. This proposal by<br />
Poulin and Féral (1994) argues th<strong>at</strong> pelagic development<br />
was not adaptive, while nonpelagic development was neutral<br />
<strong>at</strong> certain times in <strong>the</strong> past in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. It<br />
was developed fur<strong>the</strong>r by Poulin and Féral (1996), Poulin<br />
et al. (2002), and Th<strong>at</strong>je et al. (2005b) and is based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> fi nding th<strong>at</strong> during <strong>the</strong> glacial maxima of <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e<br />
Qu<strong>at</strong>ernary ice ages, grounded ice extended <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> edge of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic shelf (Clarke and Crame, 1989), obliter<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
most life on <strong>the</strong> shelf. During such times, thick, multiyear<br />
sea ice probably occurred year-round and extended far<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean surrounding <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, blocking<br />
sunlight and pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis bene<strong>at</strong>h it. Consequently,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re would be little (only l<strong>at</strong>erally advected) phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>nic<br />
food <strong>to</strong> support plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae, and selection<br />
would be strong for lecithotrophic development, whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
pelagic or benthic. Of course, primary production is necessary<br />
<strong>to</strong> support popul<strong>at</strong>ions of juveniles and adults as<br />
well, and although massive extinction would be expected<br />
during <strong>the</strong> glacial maxima of <strong>the</strong> Pliocene/Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene regardless<br />
of developmental mode, this apparently did not<br />
happen (Clarke, 1993).<br />
Poulin and Féral (1994, 1996) suggested th<strong>at</strong> selective<br />
extinction of species with plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae during<br />
<strong>the</strong> glacial maxima would leave behind species with nonpelagic<br />
development, but as Pearse and Lockhart (2004)<br />
pointed out, such selective extinction would leave species<br />
with both pelagic and nonpelagic lecithotrophic develop-
ment. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> selective extinction hypo<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
is inadequ<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> unusual abundance of species<br />
with nonpelagic development. However, in <strong>the</strong> case<br />
of echinoids (<strong>the</strong> taxon of concern for Poulin and Féral,<br />
1994, 1996), <strong>the</strong>re are very few species anywhere with lecithotrophic<br />
pelagic larvae— and none in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic— so<br />
<strong>the</strong> selective extinction hypo<strong>the</strong>sis applies <strong>at</strong> least partly <strong>to</strong><br />
echinoids. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> high diversity of peracarid crustaceans,<br />
most of which brood, and <strong>the</strong> paucity of decapod<br />
crustaceans, most of which have plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae,<br />
also may be <strong>the</strong> consequence, <strong>at</strong> least in part, of selective<br />
extinction (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2003, 2005b).<br />
Recognizing th<strong>at</strong> brooding might have origin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
outside <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, Dell (1972), Arnaud (1974), and<br />
Picken (1980) suggested th<strong>at</strong> brooding species could have<br />
colonized <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean from elsewhere after massive<br />
extinctions, perhaps by rafting (see Thiel and Gu<strong>to</strong>w,<br />
2005). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, polar emergence from <strong>the</strong> deep<br />
sea following <strong>the</strong> retre<strong>at</strong> of multiyear sea ice in interglacial<br />
periods might have taken place for some taxa, which<br />
subsequently speci<strong>at</strong>ed on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic shelf (e.g., isopod<br />
families Munnopsidae, Desmosom<strong>at</strong>idae, Ischnomesidae,<br />
e.g., Brökeland, 2004; Raupach et al., 2007).<br />
ENHANCED SPECIATION<br />
In contrast <strong>to</strong> enhanced extinction of species with<br />
pelagic development, which would leave behind a disproportion<strong>at</strong>e<br />
number of species with nonpelagic development,<br />
speci<strong>at</strong>ion could be enhanced by conditions in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, in <strong>the</strong> past or persisting <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> present, <strong>to</strong><br />
produce species-rich clades of taxa with nonpelagic development.<br />
Nonpelagic development could have developed<br />
well before <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean cooled, or even elsewhere<br />
al<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r, but spread via a founding species <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean and <strong>the</strong>n undergone radi<strong>at</strong>ion. Regardless of<br />
where or how nonpelagic development origin<strong>at</strong>ed, if this<br />
is <strong>the</strong> case, we have not only an explan<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> unusually<br />
high number of species with nonpelagic development<br />
but also, perhaps, an explan<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> unexpected<br />
high species diversity in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Brandt et<br />
al., 2007a, 2007b; Rogers, 2007). At least two different<br />
scenarios about how this might occur are specifi c <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Isol<strong>at</strong>ion and Speci<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Continental Shelf (<strong>the</strong> ACS Hypo<strong>the</strong>sis)<br />
Clarke and Crame (1989, 1992, 1997), Brandt (1991,<br />
2000), and Th<strong>at</strong>je et al. (2005b) pointed out th<strong>at</strong> during<br />
BROODING AND SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 185<br />
<strong>the</strong> glacial maxima, grounded ice probably did not completely<br />
cover <strong>the</strong> shelf areas around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent.<br />
Instead, some isol<strong>at</strong>ed areas would likely be open<br />
and habitable under <strong>the</strong> ice, as seen <strong>to</strong>day under ice shelves<br />
(e.g., Littlepage and Pearse, 1962; Post et al., 2007). These<br />
areas could behave as “islands” with remnants of <strong>the</strong> previously<br />
more widespread shelf fauna. Species with nonpelagic<br />
development would be effectively isol<strong>at</strong>ed. With<br />
<strong>the</strong> retre<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> grounded glaciers, <strong>the</strong> shelf fauna would<br />
reconnect, mixing <strong>the</strong> newly formed species as <strong>the</strong>y expanded<br />
around <strong>the</strong> continent. Similar phenomena might<br />
be happening now after <strong>the</strong> disintegr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Larsen A<br />
and B ice shelves in 2002. During <strong>the</strong> height of interglacial<br />
periods, when <strong>the</strong>re was a minimum of ice cover, <strong>the</strong> Weddell<br />
and Ross seas could have been connected (Scherer et<br />
al., 1998; Thomson, 2004), fur<strong>the</strong>r mixing species, which<br />
would be fragmented again during <strong>the</strong> subsequent glacial<br />
cycle. Clarke and Crame (1989) proposed th<strong>at</strong> such<br />
repe<strong>at</strong>ed cycles of glacial advances and retre<strong>at</strong>s over <strong>the</strong><br />
shelf could favor speci<strong>at</strong>ion, and Clarke and Crame (1992,<br />
1997) fur<strong>the</strong>r developed this idea and suggested th<strong>at</strong> such<br />
oscill<strong>at</strong>ion would act as a “species diversity pump.” It<br />
would be most effective, however, for species having limited<br />
dispersal capabilities, such as those with nonpelagic<br />
development.<br />
Isol<strong>at</strong>ion during glacial maxima is not <strong>the</strong> only possibility<br />
for fragmenting popul<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continental<br />
Shelf. At present, most shallow-w<strong>at</strong>er habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
(�150 m) around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent are covered by<br />
grounded ice or fl o<strong>at</strong>ing ice shelves, and only sc<strong>at</strong>tered<br />
fragments of suitable habit<strong>at</strong>s remain. Raguá-Gil et al.<br />
(2004) found th<strong>at</strong> three such habit<strong>at</strong>s, one on <strong>the</strong> west side<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula and two o<strong>the</strong>rs on <strong>the</strong> eastern<br />
coast of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea, support very different faunas.<br />
The biotas in <strong>the</strong> two habit<strong>at</strong>s in <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea differ<br />
as much from each o<strong>the</strong>r as <strong>the</strong>y do from <strong>the</strong> one on <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Peninsula. According <strong>to</strong> Raguá-Gil et al. (2004),<br />
<strong>the</strong>se differences indic<strong>at</strong>e limited exchange due <strong>at</strong> least in<br />
part <strong>to</strong> a predominance of species with nonpelagic larvae.<br />
Similar differences were detected for isopod composition<br />
<strong>at</strong> sites around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula and in <strong>the</strong> Weddell<br />
Sea (Brandt et al., 2007c). Such isol<strong>at</strong>ion could lead <strong>to</strong><br />
speci<strong>at</strong>ion, particularly of cryptic species formed by nonselective<br />
processes (e.g., genetic drift).<br />
Speci<strong>at</strong>ion of fragmented popul<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Continental Shelf, <strong>the</strong> ACS hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, would result in an<br />
increase of shelf species, so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est species richness<br />
would be expected on <strong>the</strong> shelf, with decreasing richness<br />
down <strong>the</strong> slope in<strong>to</strong> deeper depths. Th<strong>at</strong> was found<br />
<strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> case for amphipods (Brandt, 2000), polychaetes
186 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
(but not isopods or bivalves) (Ellingsen et al., 2007), and<br />
many o<strong>the</strong>r taxa (Brandt et al., 2007a) sampled in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic<br />
sec<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. In addition, because<br />
most of <strong>the</strong> glacial cycles occurred during <strong>the</strong> Pliocene<br />
and Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene over only <strong>the</strong> past few million years, genetic<br />
divergence of <strong>the</strong>se fragmented popul<strong>at</strong>ions would<br />
be rel<strong>at</strong>ively slight, and very similar or cryptic sister species<br />
would be predicted. Molecular analyses have revealed<br />
cryptic species in isopods, which brood (Held, 2003; Held<br />
and Wägele, 2005), and a bivalve th<strong>at</strong> broods (Linse et al.,<br />
2007) as well as in a crinoid, which has pelagic, lecithotrophic<br />
larvae (Wilson et al., 2007).<br />
Isol<strong>at</strong>ion and Speci<strong>at</strong>ion via <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Circumpolar Current (<strong>the</strong> ACC Hypo<strong>the</strong>sis)<br />
Pearse and Bosch (1994) analyzed available d<strong>at</strong>a for<br />
mode of development in shallow-w<strong>at</strong>er Antarctic and subantarctic<br />
echinoderms (128 species) and found <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
proportion of species with nonpelagic development in <strong>the</strong><br />
region of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc (65%), not <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent<br />
or subantarctic islands (42% each). This p<strong>at</strong>tern led <strong>the</strong>m<br />
<strong>to</strong> focus on Drake Passage and <strong>the</strong> powerful Antarctic Circumpolar<br />
Current (ACC) th<strong>at</strong> has been fl owing through<br />
it for more than 30 million years (Thomson, 2004). They<br />
proposed th<strong>at</strong> individuals of species with nonpelagic development<br />
could be rafted infrequently <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r downstream<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s and could become established <strong>to</strong> form new isol<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions, i.e., new species. Moreover, tec<strong>to</strong>nic activity<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc region has continually formed new<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s as crustal pl<strong>at</strong>es shifted, which also infl uenced<br />
complex eddies as w<strong>at</strong>er fl owed through Drake Passage<br />
(Thomson, 2004). With more than 30 million years since<br />
<strong>the</strong> ACC broke through Drake Passage, many new species<br />
could form and accumul<strong>at</strong>e. Pearse and Lockhart (2004)<br />
reviewed <strong>the</strong>se ideas, found fur<strong>the</strong>r support for <strong>the</strong>m, and<br />
suggested ways <strong>to</strong> test <strong>the</strong>m using cidaroids.<br />
The ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis predicts th<strong>at</strong> species richness<br />
would consist of species-rich clades of taxa with nonpelagic<br />
development and would not be an accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
many species-poor clades with a variety of reproductive<br />
modes, including nonpelagic development, which appears<br />
<strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> case (see below). Moreover, species richness<br />
would be gre<strong>at</strong>est within and east of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc,<br />
downstream from Drake Passage. The Scotia Arc region,<br />
in fact, appears <strong>to</strong> be unusually diverse (Barnes, 2005;<br />
Barnes et al., 2006; Linse et al., 2007). Conversely, species<br />
diversity should be lower upstream, on <strong>the</strong> western side<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, and th<strong>at</strong> is exactly <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern<br />
Raguá-Gil et al. (2004) found in <strong>the</strong>ir analysis of three<br />
shallow-w<strong>at</strong>er communities. Similar differences in species<br />
richness between <strong>the</strong> eastern Weddell Sea and <strong>the</strong> western<br />
coast of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula were reported by Starmans<br />
and Gutt (2002). On a different scale, Linse et al.<br />
(2006) likewise found <strong>the</strong> highest diversity of molluscs<br />
<strong>to</strong> be in <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea, east of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc, and <strong>the</strong><br />
lowest on <strong>the</strong> western side of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula (although<br />
this might have been due <strong>to</strong> sampling discrepancies).<br />
It can also be predicted th<strong>at</strong> because <strong>the</strong> ACC hits<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula as it fl ows around <strong>the</strong> continent,<br />
it could carry species <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> western side of <strong>the</strong> peninsula,<br />
where <strong>the</strong>y might accumul<strong>at</strong>e (A. Mahon, Auburn University,<br />
personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
In addition, because <strong>the</strong> ACC is funneled through <strong>the</strong><br />
whole of Drake Passage, <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis does not<br />
necessarily predict a depth gradient of species richness, in<br />
contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ACS hypo<strong>the</strong>sis. No depth gradient is seen<br />
for isopods and bivalves (Ellingsen et al., 2007). Indeed,<br />
<strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis may account for <strong>the</strong> unexpected high<br />
species diversity recently documented for some deep-sea<br />
taxa in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic portion of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Brandt<br />
et al., 2007a, 2007b).<br />
Finally, because <strong>the</strong> ACC continues <strong>to</strong> this day, it<br />
would not be unexpected for species <strong>to</strong> have formed, as<br />
described above, <strong>at</strong> any time over <strong>the</strong> past 30 million years,<br />
including within <strong>the</strong> past few million years, so th<strong>at</strong> closely<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed cryptic species would be found as well as more distantly<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ed species, all in <strong>the</strong> same clade. Unlike <strong>the</strong> ACS<br />
hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis predicts <strong>the</strong> existence of a<br />
spectrum of variously diverged species within <strong>the</strong> clades.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> result is wh<strong>at</strong> has been found in Lockhart’s (2006)<br />
analysis of brooding cidaroids, <strong>the</strong> fi rst thorough phylogenetic<br />
analysis of a major clade of brooders within <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (see below).<br />
Species with nonpelagic development are thought <strong>to</strong><br />
be prone <strong>to</strong> high extinction r<strong>at</strong>es because <strong>the</strong>y typically<br />
have small popul<strong>at</strong>ion sizes and limited distributions,<br />
which make <strong>the</strong>m particularly susceptible <strong>to</strong> environmental<br />
change (Jablonski and Lutz, 1983). Poulin and Féral<br />
(1994) suggested th<strong>at</strong> because of such susceptibility, any<br />
enhanced speci<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean would be<br />
countered by a high extinction r<strong>at</strong>e. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
rejected an enhanced speci<strong>at</strong>ion model for explaining high<br />
species diversity in clades with nonpelagic development.<br />
However, with <strong>the</strong> ACC in effect for over 30 million years,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean has been an extraordinarily stable<br />
marine environment. Jeffery et al. (2003) proposed an idea<br />
similar <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> high proportion<br />
of brooding early Cenozoic echinoids th<strong>at</strong> occurred<br />
on <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn coast of Australia after Australia sepa-
<strong>at</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. Strong currents swept through<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tasmanian G<strong>at</strong>eway <strong>the</strong>n and could have swept individuals<br />
with nonpelagic development <strong>to</strong> new habit<strong>at</strong>s,<br />
where <strong>the</strong>y would have potentially formed new species.<br />
McNamara (1994) earlier recognized <strong>the</strong> importance<br />
of <strong>the</strong> stability provided by <strong>the</strong> strong, constant current<br />
through <strong>the</strong> Tasmanian G<strong>at</strong>eway for favoring <strong>the</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of brooding echinoids; he suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir l<strong>at</strong>er<br />
disappearance was a result of <strong>the</strong> widening of <strong>the</strong> g<strong>at</strong>eway<br />
and a decrease in <strong>the</strong> environmental stability. Similarly,<br />
we suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ACC fl owing through Drake Passage<br />
provides conditions both for enhancing speci<strong>at</strong>ion and for<br />
tempering extinction.<br />
EVALUATING THE EXPLANATIONS<br />
The proposed explan<strong>at</strong>ions above for <strong>the</strong> unusual<br />
abundance of species with nonpelagic development in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are not mutually exclusive of each o<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
and one or more may apply <strong>to</strong> one or more taxa. However,<br />
with recent advances in molecular phylogenetic analyses<br />
(Rogers, 2007), <strong>the</strong>se proposed explan<strong>at</strong>ions may be better<br />
evalu<strong>at</strong>ed than was possible earlier. For example, (1) if<br />
nonpelagic development is sc<strong>at</strong>tered within taxa found in<br />
widely distributed clades and <strong>the</strong>se taxa are found both<br />
within and outside <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, such a mode of<br />
development is not likely <strong>to</strong> be an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. (2) If taxa with nonpelagic<br />
development in widely distributed clades are restricted <strong>to</strong><br />
both polar environments and <strong>the</strong> deep sea, nonpelagic development<br />
might be an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> cold w<strong>at</strong>er; if <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are only in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, specifi c conditions around<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic would more likely be involved. (3) If nonpelagic<br />
development is found in all <strong>the</strong> taxa of clades found<br />
in both <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and elsewhere, where <strong>the</strong><br />
basal taxa are found may indic<strong>at</strong>e where <strong>the</strong> trait origin<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
and conditions <strong>the</strong>re might be involved in <strong>the</strong> selection<br />
of nonpelagic development. (4) If nonpelagic development<br />
is found disproportion<strong>at</strong>ely more in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
taxa of clades than elsewhere, ei<strong>the</strong>r this development is<br />
a consequence of adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions specifi c <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, or it is <strong>the</strong> result of extinction of taxa<br />
with pelagic development. (5) If nonpelagic development<br />
is found in many taxa of clades in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
but only in a few taxa of basal clades found elsewhere,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean taxa may have prolifer<strong>at</strong>ed because<br />
of unusual conditions <strong>the</strong>re (not necessarily because nonpelagic<br />
development was adaptive). (6) If most taxa with<br />
nonpelagic development appeared only over <strong>the</strong> past few<br />
BROODING AND SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 187<br />
million years, when massive glacial advances and retre<strong>at</strong>s<br />
occurred, <strong>the</strong>y may have been gener<strong>at</strong>ed on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Continental Shelf when <strong>the</strong> glacial advances separ<strong>at</strong>ed and<br />
fragmented popul<strong>at</strong>ions (<strong>the</strong> ACS hypo<strong>the</strong>sis). (7) If <strong>the</strong><br />
taxa appeared more or less steadily since Antarctica separ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
from South America, about 30 million years ago,<br />
and are most abundant in and east of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
may have been gener<strong>at</strong>ed by infrequently rafting with <strong>the</strong><br />
ACC <strong>to</strong> new loc<strong>at</strong>ions (<strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis).<br />
SELECTED TAXA<br />
Below we review some of <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion now available<br />
for taxa of two major groups in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean:<br />
echinoderms and crustaceans. Species in <strong>the</strong>se taxa are<br />
major components of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean biota, and <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are rel<strong>at</strong>ively well known. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses<br />
are now available for some groups within <strong>the</strong>m, including<br />
speciose, brooding clades. O<strong>the</strong>r taxa could also<br />
be evalu<strong>at</strong>ed for a stronger compar<strong>at</strong>ive analysis, in particular,<br />
molluscs, pycnogonids, and teleosts; we hope th<strong>at</strong><br />
research is done by o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
ECHINODERMS<br />
Nonpelagic development in echinoderms caught <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong>tention of n<strong>at</strong>uralists with <strong>the</strong> Challenger expedition in<br />
<strong>the</strong> nineteenth century (Thomson, 1876, 1885; Murray,<br />
1895), setting <strong>the</strong> found<strong>at</strong>ion for wh<strong>at</strong> became “Thorson’s<br />
rule.” Echinoderms now are among <strong>the</strong> fi rst groups of animals<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic <strong>to</strong> have <strong>the</strong>ir phylogenetic rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
documented. Echinoids, in particular, are revealing.<br />
Only four major clades are present in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean,<br />
echinids, cidaroids, holasteroids, and schizasterids (David<br />
et al., 2003, 2005). The near absence of o<strong>the</strong>r clades<br />
suggests ei<strong>the</strong>r th<strong>at</strong> major extinctions have occurred or<br />
th<strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r taxa did not fi nd a foothold in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. It is interesting <strong>to</strong> note th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are presently no<br />
clypeasteroids (sand dollars and allies) in Antarctica <strong>to</strong>day,<br />
in spite of <strong>the</strong>ir ubiquity in cold w<strong>at</strong>ers both in <strong>the</strong><br />
past and present, and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong> least one species has been<br />
recorded from <strong>the</strong> Paleogene of Black Island, McMurdo<br />
Sound (Hotchkiss and Fell, 1972). Hotchkiss (1982) used<br />
this and o<strong>the</strong>r fossil evidence <strong>to</strong> call in<strong>to</strong> question <strong>the</strong> supposed<br />
slow r<strong>at</strong>e of evolution in cidaroids and any connection<br />
between <strong>the</strong> fossil Eocene faunas of Australasia and<br />
those of <strong>the</strong> so-called “Weddellian Province” of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Hotchkiss (1982:682) pointed out th<strong>at</strong> any<br />
supposed “shallow-marine connection had disappeared
188 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
by middle Oligocene time because <strong>the</strong>re is evidence for <strong>the</strong><br />
deep-fl owing Antarctic Circumpolar Current south of <strong>the</strong><br />
South Tasman Rise <strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> time.”<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> three major clades, <strong>the</strong>re are only seven presently<br />
recognized species of echinids, all in <strong>the</strong> genus Sterechinus.<br />
Phylogenetic analysis using mi<strong>to</strong>chondrial DNA<br />
sequences indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus diverged from Loxechinus<br />
in South America 24– 35 million years ago, when<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic separ<strong>at</strong>ed from South America (Lee et al.,<br />
2004). Two species, Sterechinus neumayeri and S. antarcticus,<br />
are abundant and widespread around <strong>the</strong> continental<br />
shelf (Brey and Gutt, 1991). The former is known <strong>to</strong> have<br />
typical echinoid plank<strong>to</strong>trophic development (Bosch et<br />
al., 1987). The o<strong>the</strong>r species are less well known and are<br />
taxonomically questionable but almost certainly also have<br />
pelagic development.<br />
Although an extensive revision is pending (see Lockhart,<br />
2006), as of 2005, <strong>the</strong>re were more than 20 recognized<br />
cidaroid taxa, and <strong>the</strong> vast majority of those have<br />
been recorded <strong>to</strong> be brooders— and present evidence (Lockhart,<br />
2006) strongly suggests th<strong>at</strong> all of <strong>the</strong>m are brooders.<br />
A recent phylogenetic cladogram developed by Lockhart<br />
(2006) used fossils and a penalized likelihood analysis of<br />
CO1, Cy<strong>to</strong>chrome b (Cytb), and 18-s mi<strong>to</strong>chondrial sequences<br />
<strong>to</strong> establish divergence times for <strong>the</strong> taxa of cidarids<br />
(see Smith et al., 2006, for an evalu<strong>at</strong>ion of using fossils<br />
for d<strong>at</strong>ing cladograms). The d<strong>at</strong>ed cladogram revealed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean cidaroids are monophyletic with <strong>the</strong><br />
most likely sister taxon being <strong>the</strong> subfamily Goniocidarinae,<br />
now found in <strong>the</strong> southwest Pacifi c, including New<br />
Zealand and Australia, but not in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
A few species of goniocidarines are known <strong>to</strong> brood, but<br />
it is not yet known whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se are sister species <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean clade (making goniocidarines paraphyletic).<br />
The oldest fossil goniocidarine, from <strong>the</strong> Perth Basin<br />
of Western Australia when Australia and Antarctica<br />
were connected, is more than 65 million years old, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> oldest cidaroid in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean clade is Austrocidaris<br />
seymourensis, from Eocene deposits on Seymour<br />
Island in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc, d<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> 51 million years ago.<br />
Austrocidaris seymourensis had distinctive aboral brood<br />
chambers, showing th<strong>at</strong> brooding was established in this<br />
clade long before cooling began. Consequently, brooding<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se animals is not an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> present-day conditions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Lockhart (2006) also showed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are two sister<br />
clades of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean cidaroids: <strong>the</strong> subfamily Astrocidarinae<br />
with two <strong>to</strong> three recently diverged species in a<br />
single genus (Austrocidaris) found in subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
on <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn edge of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc and <strong>the</strong> sub family<br />
Ctenocidarinae with more than 20 species in <strong>at</strong> least fi ve<br />
genera found in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn and eastern portions of <strong>the</strong><br />
Scotia Arc and around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continent. Moreover,<br />
clades within <strong>the</strong> ctenocidarines diverged more or<br />
less steadily over <strong>the</strong> last 30 million years, th<strong>at</strong> is, since <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Circumpolar Current was established. This p<strong>at</strong>tern<br />
is precisely wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis predicts.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> 16 species of Holasteroida found south of<br />
<strong>the</strong> convergence, very few are found <strong>at</strong> depths less than<br />
2000 m. Only three genera occur in rel<strong>at</strong>ively shallow w<strong>at</strong>ers:<br />
Pourtalesia, Plexechinus, and two of <strong>the</strong> three known<br />
species of Antrechinus. With <strong>the</strong> exception of <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
two genera, all holasteroids belong <strong>to</strong> widespread deepsea<br />
clades th<strong>at</strong> occur well north of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean,<br />
and none are known <strong>to</strong> have nonpelagic, lecithotrophic<br />
development. However, within Antrechinus, we fi nd <strong>the</strong><br />
most extreme form of brooding known in <strong>the</strong> Echinoidea—<br />
species th<strong>at</strong> brood <strong>the</strong>ir young internally and “give<br />
birth” (David and Mooi, 1990; Mooi and David, 1993).<br />
The two species known <strong>to</strong> brood are found no deeper than<br />
1500 m. The third species ascribed <strong>to</strong> Antrechinus, A. drygalskii,<br />
was only provisionally considered a plesiomorphic<br />
sister group <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>se remarkable brooders (Mooi and David,<br />
1996) and occurs below 3000 m. There are no known<br />
fossil holasteroids from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic region.<br />
There are 30 recognized species of schizasterid Sp<strong>at</strong>angoida<br />
recorded by David et al. (2003, 2005) <strong>to</strong> occur in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic region. These are distributed in seven genera:<br />
Ab<strong>at</strong>us with 11 species, Amphipneustes with 9, Tripylus<br />
with 4, Brisaster with 2, and Brachysternaster, Delop<strong>at</strong>agus,<br />
Genicop<strong>at</strong>agus, and Tripylaster each with a single<br />
species. Most phylogenetic analyses recognize Brisaster and<br />
Tripylaster as a monophyletic assemblage th<strong>at</strong> is, <strong>at</strong> best, a<br />
sister taxon <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Schizasteridae (Féral,<br />
et al., 1994; Hood and Mooi, 1998; Madon-Senez, 1998;<br />
David et al., 2005; S<strong>to</strong>ckley et al., 2005). The ranges of<br />
Brisaster and Tripylaster are best considered subantarctic,<br />
as <strong>the</strong>re is only a single record from south of 55ºS, and none<br />
have been recorded in <strong>the</strong> shelf regions of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent.<br />
Interestingly, <strong>the</strong>se genera are <strong>the</strong> only species not<br />
known <strong>to</strong> brood. All o<strong>the</strong>r schizasterids have nonpelagic<br />
development, brooding <strong>the</strong> young in well-developed marsupia<br />
in <strong>the</strong> aboral, ambulacral petaloid areas (Magniez,<br />
1980; Sch<strong>at</strong>t, 1988; Pearse and McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, 1990; Poulin<br />
and Féral, 1994; David et al., 2005; Galley et al., 2005).<br />
The brooding schizasterids almost undoubtedly constitute<br />
a single clade (Madon-Senez, 1998; David et al.,<br />
2005). Recognizing early on <strong>the</strong> need for understanding<br />
evolutionary his<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong>ir phylogenies,<br />
Féral et al. (1994) compared RNA sequences in species of
<strong>the</strong> four main genera of brooding schizasterids <strong>the</strong>n recognized<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, supporting <strong>the</strong> monophyly<br />
of <strong>the</strong> brooding genera but partially undermining <strong>the</strong><br />
monophyly of some of <strong>the</strong> constituent genera and <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
reinforcing <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>er morphological work of Madon-<br />
Senez (1998).<br />
Fossils assigned <strong>to</strong> Ab<strong>at</strong>us, with distinctive brood<br />
chambers, are known from <strong>the</strong> Eocene of Seymour Island<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc (McKinney et al., 1988). Consequently,<br />
as with <strong>the</strong> cidaroids, brooding appeared in <strong>the</strong>se animals<br />
well before <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Seas cooled, and th<strong>at</strong> mode of<br />
development cannot be <strong>at</strong>tributed <strong>to</strong> polar conditions.<br />
Poulin and Féral (1994) showed th<strong>at</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong><br />
brooding schizasterid echinoid Ab<strong>at</strong>us cord<strong>at</strong>us in embayments<br />
around Kerguelen Island are genetically distinct, presumably<br />
because of limited gene fl ow. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is genetic differenti<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong>se popul<strong>at</strong>ions of brooding<br />
echinoids, and it is likely <strong>to</strong> be occurring with o<strong>the</strong>r brooding<br />
species with limited dispersal elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean, leading <strong>to</strong> many shallow divergences in genetic<br />
structure. This is also borne out by morphological vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
among specimens from different regions (Madon-Senez,<br />
1998) and <strong>the</strong> small amounts of morphological divergence<br />
among <strong>the</strong> species <strong>the</strong>mselves (David et al., 2005).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> brooding schizasterids, very few have<br />
ranges west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula. Most are distributed<br />
east of Drake Passage, along <strong>the</strong> South Shetlands and<br />
eastward through <strong>the</strong> Weddell region. For example, <strong>the</strong><br />
genus Amphipneustes does not seem <strong>to</strong> occur immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> west of <strong>the</strong> peninsula but has abundant represent<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> east of <strong>the</strong> Drake Passage, with major centers<br />
of diversity in <strong>the</strong> South Shetlands and in <strong>the</strong> region of <strong>the</strong><br />
Weddell Sea (Figure 1). This p<strong>at</strong>tern is repe<strong>at</strong>ed for Ab<strong>at</strong>us<br />
and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r brooding schizasterid genera. Although<br />
sampling bias could remain a mitig<strong>at</strong>ing fac<strong>to</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> accuracy<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se distributions, we do not believe th<strong>at</strong> is <strong>the</strong><br />
case for echinoids because David et al. (2003) shows th<strong>at</strong><br />
forms such as <strong>the</strong> echinids are well represented <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> west<br />
of <strong>the</strong> peninsula. Even <strong>the</strong> most diffi cult taxa <strong>to</strong> sample,<br />
<strong>the</strong> abyssal holasteroids, are almost evenly distributed<br />
around Antarctica, with no obvious gaps in <strong>the</strong> overall<br />
distribution of this clade.<br />
The implic<strong>at</strong>ion is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ranges of <strong>the</strong>se brooding<br />
forms are being infl uenced by <strong>the</strong> prevailing ACC, which<br />
tends <strong>to</strong> force <strong>the</strong> ranges “downstream” of <strong>the</strong> Drake Passage.<br />
The precise mechanism by which brooding schizasterids<br />
are redistributed and <strong>the</strong>n speci<strong>at</strong>e remains unknown,<br />
but it does not overextend present d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> suggest th<strong>at</strong><br />
once established, new popul<strong>at</strong>ions of brooding forms can<br />
rapidly diverge from <strong>the</strong> origin<strong>at</strong>ing popul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
BROODING AND SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 189<br />
FIGURE 1. Distribution of nine species of Amphipneustes around<br />
Antarctica. D<strong>at</strong>a were compiled from David et al. (2003) and<br />
<strong>Polar</strong>stern and Antarctic Marine Living Resources expeditions.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> echinids, cidaroids, holasteroids, and<br />
schizasterids, <strong>the</strong>re are a few o<strong>the</strong>r echinoid taxa known<br />
from <strong>the</strong> deeper portions of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. One<br />
species of echinothurioid is known (Mooi et al., 2004);<br />
all species so far studied in this monophyletic, widespread,<br />
mostly deep-w<strong>at</strong>er clade have pelagic, lecithotrophic<br />
development, and <strong>the</strong> Antarctic species presumably<br />
does as well.<br />
Unusual brooding in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean was also<br />
highlighted in <strong>the</strong> Challenger expedition reports for <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r classes of echinoderms (Thomson, 1885). However,<br />
<strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>re has been no phylogenetic analysis examining<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r brooders belong <strong>to</strong> a few speciose clades in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
classes, as is becoming evident for echinoids. In addition,<br />
members of <strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r classes do not have as good a fossil<br />
record, and <strong>the</strong>y do not have fossilizable structures indic<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
of brooding, as do many echinoids. Never<strong>the</strong>less, if <strong>the</strong><br />
major taxonomic groups of <strong>the</strong>se classes are monophyletic,<br />
<strong>the</strong> brooding species do belong <strong>to</strong> a few speciose clades.<br />
The majority of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean asteroids, for example,<br />
are forcipul<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> family Asteriidae. Brooding<br />
is rare in asteriids in most of <strong>the</strong> world, limited <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
speciose genus Leptasterias in north temper<strong>at</strong>e/polar w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
(Foltz et al., 2008) and several species in genera th<strong>at</strong><br />
are mainly Antarctic/subantarctic but are also found in<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn South America (e.g., Anasterias, Gil and Zaixso,
190 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
2007; Diplasterias, Kim and Thurber, 2007) and sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Australia (Smilasterias, Rowe and G<strong>at</strong>es, 1995; Kom<strong>at</strong>su<br />
et al, 2006). However, most if not all species of asteriids<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are brooders. Arnaud (1974) lists<br />
22 species, Pearse and Bosch (1994) list 25 species, and<br />
Clarke and Johns<strong>to</strong>n (2003) report th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
37 species of asteriids in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Foltz<br />
et al. (2007) analyzed 31 species of forcipul<strong>at</strong>es using<br />
mi<strong>to</strong>chondrial and nuclear sequences and found th<strong>at</strong> 30<br />
formed a clade. Only three were Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean species<br />
(Psalidaster mordax, Cryptasterias turqueti, and Notasterias<br />
pedicellaris), but <strong>the</strong>y formed a clade within <strong>the</strong> forcipul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
clade. There are 11 brooding species of asteroids<br />
on <strong>the</strong> subantarctic islands; seven of <strong>the</strong>m are in <strong>the</strong> asteriid<br />
genus Anasterias (Pearse and Bosch, 1994). Of <strong>the</strong><br />
24 species of brooding asteroids known from Antarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers, 18 are asteriids, and 13 of <strong>the</strong>se are in two genera,<br />
Diplasterias and Lyasasterias (Pearse and Bosch, 1994).<br />
Moreover, 19 of <strong>the</strong> 24 brooding asteroids in Antarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers are found in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc region, as would be<br />
expected from <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand,<br />
most of <strong>the</strong> genera with brooding species are circumpolar<br />
(Clark, 1962; C. Mah, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, personal<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion), and it may be <strong>to</strong>o early <strong>to</strong> conclude th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a disproportional number of species in <strong>the</strong> Scotia<br />
Arc region, which has been most heavily sampled <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
There is evidence th<strong>at</strong> even brooding species of asteroids<br />
are capable of wide dispersal. Diplasterias brucei, for<br />
example, is not only found around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn portion of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc but also<br />
north of <strong>the</strong> polar front on Burdwood Bank and in <strong>the</strong><br />
Falklands Island (Kim and Thurber, 2007). Such a wide<br />
distribution by a brooding species suggests unusual capabilities<br />
of dispersal, such as by rafting. Moreover, genetic<br />
analyses would be expected <strong>to</strong> show considerable genetic<br />
differenti<strong>at</strong>ion, as found for Ab<strong>at</strong>us cord<strong>at</strong>us <strong>at</strong> Kerguelen<br />
Islands (Poulin and Féral, 1994). Such analyses would be<br />
most welcome.<br />
Although some of <strong>the</strong> asteriid species with nonpelagic<br />
development are commonly found in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean,<br />
<strong>the</strong> most frequently encountered asteroids on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
shelf are species of Odontasteridae, especially Odontaster<br />
validus, which like <strong>the</strong> echinid echinoid Sterechinus<br />
neumayeri, is found around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent, often<br />
in very high numbers. There are about 11 species of odontasterids<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Clarke and Johns<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
2003), two or three in <strong>the</strong> genus Odontaster. All, including<br />
O. validus (Pearse and Bosch, 1986), have pelagic<br />
development as far as is known. Consequently, as with<br />
echinoids, asteroid clades with nonpelagic development<br />
are speciose, but most individuals are not very abundant;<br />
those with pelagic development have few species, but individuals<br />
of some species can be very abundant. Pearse et al.<br />
(1991) and Poulin et al. (2002) suggest th<strong>at</strong> this difference<br />
in abundance p<strong>at</strong>terns is due <strong>to</strong> ecological fac<strong>to</strong>rs: species<br />
with pelagic development colonize and thrive in shallow<br />
areas disturbed by ice, while those with nonpelagic development<br />
occur in more stable, deeper habit<strong>at</strong>s, where<br />
interspecifi c competition is more intense. Comparing two<br />
shallow-w<strong>at</strong>er habit<strong>at</strong>s, Palma et al. (2007) found th<strong>at</strong><br />
an ice-disturbed habit<strong>at</strong> is domin<strong>at</strong>ed by O. validus and<br />
S. neumayeri, species with plank<strong>to</strong>trophic development,<br />
while a less disturbed habit<strong>at</strong> is domin<strong>at</strong>ed by brooding<br />
Ab<strong>at</strong>us agassizii.<br />
Brooding is widespread among holothurians in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Seventeen of <strong>the</strong> 41 brooding species of<br />
holothurians listed worldwide by Smiley et al. (1991) are<br />
found in Antarctic and subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers. Moreover, 15<br />
of those species are in <strong>the</strong> order Dendrochirotida, with six<br />
each in <strong>the</strong> genera Cucumaria and Psolus, and brooding by<br />
an addition species of Psolus was described by Gutt (1991).<br />
In addition, 12 of <strong>the</strong> brooding species of holothuroids are<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc area (Pearse and Bosch, 1994). These<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns mirror those seen in echinoids and asteroids.<br />
Brooding is also widespread among ophiuroids in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; Mortensen (1936) estim<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> about<br />
50% of <strong>the</strong> species in Antarctic and subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
are brooders. Pearse and Bosch (1994) list 33 species of<br />
brooding ophiuroids, 21 of which are found in <strong>the</strong> Scotia<br />
Arc area. Moreover, most of <strong>the</strong>se species are in <strong>the</strong><br />
most diverse families in <strong>the</strong>se w<strong>at</strong>ers, amphiurids, ophiacanthids,<br />
and ophiurids (Hendler, 1991). In contrast <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively few speciose genera with brooders in <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, brooding species <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes are<br />
sc<strong>at</strong>tered among different genera; Hendler (1991:477)<br />
suggests from this difference th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re “may be selection<br />
for brooding within clades, r<strong>at</strong>her than a propensity for<br />
certain clades <strong>to</strong> evolve brooding” in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic ophiuroid<br />
fauna. Th<strong>at</strong> is, once brooding is established in a clade,<br />
speci<strong>at</strong>ion is likely <strong>to</strong> occur.<br />
There has been no phylogenetic analysis of <strong>the</strong> 12 species<br />
of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean crinoids reported <strong>to</strong> brood, all of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m occurring in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc region (Pearse and Bosch,<br />
1994). However, phylogenetic analyses of Promachocrinus<br />
kerguelensis in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic section of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
revealed <strong>at</strong> least fi ve “species-level” clades (Wilson et al.,<br />
2007). P. kerguelensis is found throughout Antarctic and<br />
subantarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, and <strong>the</strong> one popul<strong>at</strong>ion studied, in<br />
McMurdo Sound, produces large numbers of pelagic, lecithotrophic<br />
larvae (McClin<strong>to</strong>ck and Pearse, 1987). Find-
ing such cryptic speci<strong>at</strong>ion suggests th<strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
might brood or have o<strong>the</strong>r means of reducing dispersal.<br />
CRUSTACEANS<br />
Peracarid crustaceans, especially amphipods and isopods,<br />
are among <strong>the</strong> most diverse taxa in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Held, 2003; Raupach et al., 2004, 2007; Lörz et<br />
al., 2007) and are <strong>the</strong> major contribu<strong>to</strong>r <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> high species<br />
diversity in those w<strong>at</strong>ers. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> extraordinary<br />
species richness of peracarids documented by recent Antarctic<br />
deep-sea benthic biodiversity (ANDEEP) cruises<br />
(Brandt et al., 2004, 2007a, 2007b) in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic sec<strong>to</strong>r<br />
of <strong>the</strong> deep Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean challenges <strong>the</strong> idea th<strong>at</strong> a l<strong>at</strong>itudinal<br />
gradient exists in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere. Moreover,<br />
molecular analyses have revealed additional cryptic<br />
species in isopods (Held, 2003; Held and Wägele, 2005;<br />
Raupach et al., 2007). All peracarids brood embryos, and<br />
most release juveniles th<strong>at</strong> remain close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir parents<br />
after being released (<strong>the</strong> exceptions include exoparasitic<br />
isopods, e.g., Dajidae and Bopyridae, and pelagic forms<br />
such as mysids and hyperiid amphipods).<br />
In contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> peracarids, species of decapod crustaceans,<br />
almost all of which release pelagic larvae after<br />
brooding embryos, are remarkably few in <strong>to</strong>day’s Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. Only a few species of caridean shrimps inhabit <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, and all produce pelagic larvae, even those<br />
in <strong>the</strong> deep sea (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005a). Brachyuran crabs are<br />
important components of P<strong>at</strong>agonian benthic ecosystems<br />
(Arntz et al., 1999; Gorny, 1999), yet <strong>the</strong>y are entirely absent<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc and Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers. Recent records<br />
of lithodid anomuran crabs in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e a return of <strong>the</strong>se crabs <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, perhaps as<br />
a consequence of global warming, after <strong>the</strong>ir extinction in<br />
<strong>the</strong> lower Miocene ((15 Ma) (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005b).<br />
The dicho<strong>to</strong>my in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean between a scarcity<br />
of decapods, which have pelagic larvae, and a richness<br />
of peracarids, which do not have pelagic larvae, fi ts <strong>the</strong> extinction<br />
hypo<strong>the</strong>sis (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005b). Peracarids constitute<br />
an important part of <strong>the</strong> prey of lithodid crabs (Comoglio<br />
and Amin, 1999). After <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e deterior<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Eocene/Oligocene and benthic decapods became<br />
extinct, <strong>the</strong> absence or scarcity of <strong>the</strong>se <strong>to</strong>p pred<strong>at</strong>ors may<br />
well have cre<strong>at</strong>ed new adaptive zones, leading <strong>to</strong> a selective<br />
advantage for peracarids and favoring <strong>the</strong>ir diversifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion. Indeed, free ecological niches may have opened<br />
opportunities for spectacular adaptive radi<strong>at</strong>ions, as seen<br />
in some peracarid taxa (Brandt, 1999, 2005; Held, 2000;<br />
Lörz and Brandt, 2004; Lörz and Held, 2004), which were<br />
also favored because of <strong>the</strong>ir brooding biology.<br />
BROODING AND SPECIES DIVERSITY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN 191<br />
The exceptionally high species diversity of peracarids,<br />
especially isopods in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and its deep environment,<br />
cannot, however, be due simply <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>y are brooders without pelagic larvae. Peracarids are<br />
found throughout <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans, including <strong>the</strong> Arctic.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean deep-sea samples revealed a<br />
strikingly high biodiversity (Brandt et al., 2007a, 2007b).<br />
R<strong>at</strong>her, <strong>the</strong> high diversity of peracarids in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean may better be accounted for by <strong>the</strong> unusual oceanographic<br />
and <strong>to</strong>pographic conditions <strong>the</strong>re, namely, <strong>the</strong><br />
ACC th<strong>at</strong> has been sweeping through Drake Passage for<br />
30 million years or more. If brooding individuals have<br />
been continually displaced by th<strong>at</strong> current and survive<br />
downstream in isol<strong>at</strong>ion from <strong>the</strong> parent popul<strong>at</strong>ion, a<br />
major “species diversity pump” would result, producing<br />
many species over time. The distribution of species in <strong>the</strong><br />
well-studied isopod genus Antarcturus reveals <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern<br />
predicted by <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis (Figure 2); 7 of <strong>the</strong> 15 species<br />
are found in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc– Weddell Sea sec<strong>to</strong>r, and an<br />
additional 6 are found on <strong>the</strong> coast of eastern Antarctica.<br />
Considering <strong>the</strong> extensive amount of work th<strong>at</strong> has been<br />
done in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea during <strong>the</strong> twentieth century, <strong>the</strong> bias<br />
in species richness <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc– Weddell Sea and<br />
eastern Antarctic coast is unlikely <strong>to</strong> be a sampling artifact.<br />
Several o<strong>the</strong>r conditions may have contributed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
high diversity of peracarids in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Gas<strong>to</strong>n<br />
(2000), for example, correl<strong>at</strong>ed high habit<strong>at</strong> heterogeneity<br />
with high diversity, and high levels of tec<strong>to</strong>nic activity in<br />
FIGURE 2. Distribution of 15 species of Antarcturus around Antarctica.<br />
D<strong>at</strong>a were compiled from Brandt (1991), Brandt et al. (2007c),<br />
and unpublished records from <strong>Polar</strong>stern expeditions.
192 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / PEARSE ET AL.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc region could have produced rel<strong>at</strong>ively high<br />
habit<strong>at</strong> heterogeneity, although not as high as coral reef<br />
areas in lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes (Crame, 2000).<br />
Mi<strong>to</strong>chondrial gene sequence analyses of iphimediid<br />
amphipods, endemic <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> age<br />
of <strong>the</strong> last common ances<strong>to</strong>r of this group is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
34 million years (Lörz and Held, 2004), after <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean was isol<strong>at</strong>ed from o<strong>the</strong>r fragments of Gondwanaland<br />
but well before <strong>the</strong> Pliocene-Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene glacial sheets<br />
extended over <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continental Shelf. Speci<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore, has probably taken place throughout <strong>the</strong> time<br />
since <strong>the</strong> ACC became established with <strong>the</strong> breakthrough<br />
of Drake Passage.<br />
In summary, crustaceans appear <strong>to</strong> have p<strong>at</strong>terns of diversity<br />
similar <strong>to</strong> those seen in echinoderms: rel<strong>at</strong>ively few<br />
major taxa, which are likely monophyletic clades. Some<br />
of <strong>the</strong> peracarid clades are extremely diverse and speciose,<br />
while <strong>the</strong> decapod clades present, which have pelagic development,<br />
are rel<strong>at</strong>ively depauper<strong>at</strong>e in terms of species richness.<br />
This p<strong>at</strong>tern indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> brooding is not so much an<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> conditions in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic but th<strong>at</strong> exceptional<br />
conditions in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers enhance speci<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
brooders.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
1. While nonpelagic development is certainly an adapt<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
resulting from n<strong>at</strong>ural selection, it may not be an<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> any condition in <strong>the</strong> present-day Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. There is no evidence th<strong>at</strong> nonpelagic development<br />
is adaptive <strong>to</strong> polar conditions or, in particular, <strong>to</strong> conditions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Instead, it may have developed<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r environments long ago and is now phylogenetically<br />
constrained.<br />
2. It is possible th<strong>at</strong> most species with lecithotrophic<br />
development (pelagic as well as nonpelagic) survived periods<br />
when <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continental Shelf was largely covered<br />
with glacial ice and <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean was largely<br />
covered with multiyear sea ice, while most species with<br />
plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae went extinct because of severely<br />
reduced primary production of food for <strong>the</strong> larvae. The<br />
net effect would be (1) an increase in <strong>the</strong> proportion of<br />
species with lecithotrophic development (both pelagic and<br />
nonpelagic) and (2) an overall decrease in species richness/<br />
biodiversity. However, <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is notable for<br />
its high species richness/diversity.<br />
3. Speci<strong>at</strong>ion could be enhanced in taxa with nonpelagic<br />
development when <strong>the</strong> following occur: (1) Refuges<br />
form on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Continental Shelf during <strong>the</strong> glacial<br />
maxima, fragmenting popul<strong>at</strong>ions in<strong>to</strong> small isol<strong>at</strong>ed units<br />
th<strong>at</strong> could undergo speci<strong>at</strong>ion. If <strong>the</strong>se formed repe<strong>at</strong>edly<br />
during <strong>the</strong> glacial-interglacial cycles of <strong>the</strong> Pliocene-<br />
Pleis<strong>to</strong>cene, a “species diversity pump” would be cre<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
This idea, termed ACS hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, predicts <strong>the</strong> presence of<br />
many closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed cryptic species around <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
continent, mainly <strong>at</strong> shelf and slope depths. (2) Individuals<br />
of species with nonpelagic development are infrequently<br />
carried <strong>to</strong> new habit<strong>at</strong>s by <strong>the</strong> ACC fl owing through <strong>the</strong><br />
Drake Passage and over <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc, where, if established,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y form new species. Over more than 30 million<br />
years, such a process could gener<strong>at</strong>e many species. This<br />
idea, termed <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, predicts <strong>the</strong> existence of<br />
many species in clades of varied divergence times, <strong>at</strong> a wide<br />
range of depths but with highest diversity downstream of<br />
Drake Passage, in <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc and Weddell Sea.<br />
4. All <strong>the</strong>se possibilities appear <strong>to</strong> be important, depending<br />
on <strong>the</strong> taxon of concern, for explaining <strong>the</strong> unusual<br />
abundance of species with nonpelagic development<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, but emerging d<strong>at</strong>a are giving most<br />
support for <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis. In addition, <strong>the</strong> ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
may help account for <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively high diversity<br />
found for many taxa in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, especially in<br />
<strong>the</strong> area of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc and Weddell Sea.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We are indebted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> superb library of Stanford University’s<br />
Hopkins Marine St<strong>at</strong>ion for making accessible<br />
most of <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure reviewed in this paper. K<strong>at</strong>rin Linse,<br />
British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, provided useful suggestions<br />
when <strong>the</strong> manuscript was being developed, and<br />
Vicki Pearse, University of California, Santa Cruz, added<br />
substantially both <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> thinking and content th<strong>at</strong> went<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> work as well as with her edi<strong>to</strong>rial skills. We thank<br />
Andy Clarke, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge; Ingo<br />
Fetzer, UFZ-Center for Environmental Research, Leipzig;<br />
Andy Mahon, Auburn University; Chris Mah, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution; Jim McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, University of Alabama <strong>at</strong><br />
Birmingham, and anonymous reviewers for comments and<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>ly improved <strong>the</strong> manuscript. We<br />
also thank Rafael Lemaitre, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, for<br />
inviting us <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year Symposium, where <strong>the</strong> ideas for this syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
came <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r. Support for this work was provided by <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (grant OPP-0124131 <strong>to</strong> JSP)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> German Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion. This is ANDEEP<br />
public<strong>at</strong>ion number 112.
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Persistent Elev<strong>at</strong>ed Abundance of Oc<strong>to</strong>pods<br />
in an Overfi shed Antarctic Area<br />
Michael Vecchione, Louise Allcock, Uwe<br />
Pi<strong>at</strong>kowski, Elaina Jorgensen, and Iain Barr<strong>at</strong>t<br />
Michael Vecchione, N<strong>at</strong>ional Marine Fisheries<br />
Service, System<strong>at</strong>ics Labor<strong>at</strong>ory, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, P.O. Box 37012, MRC<br />
153, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-7012, USA. Louise<br />
Allcock, Martin Ryan Marine Science Institute,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional University of Ireland, Galway, University<br />
Road, Galway, Ireland. Uwe Pi<strong>at</strong>kowski,<br />
Institute for Marine Research, Universit<strong>at</strong> Kiel,<br />
Dusternbrooker Weg 20, D-24105, Kiel, Germany.<br />
Elaina Jorgensen, N<strong>at</strong>ional Marine Fisheries<br />
Service, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, 7600<br />
Sand Point Way N.E., Se<strong>at</strong>tle, WA 98115, USA.<br />
Iain Barr<strong>at</strong>t, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology,<br />
School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University<br />
Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK.<br />
Corresponding author: M. Vecchione (vecchiom@<br />
si.edu). Accepted 19 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Trawl surveys conducted between 1996 and 2007 show th<strong>at</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of oc<strong>to</strong>pods have signifi cantly higher abundances around Elephant Island, off <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Peninsula, than in similar areas nearby. This elev<strong>at</strong>ed abundance was fi rst detected<br />
following <strong>the</strong> cess<strong>at</strong>ion of commercial fi shing and has persisted for many years beyond,<br />
possibly indic<strong>at</strong>ing an enduring shift in <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong> ecosystem.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Concern about <strong>the</strong> effects of overfi shing on marine ecosystems has increased<br />
substantially in recent years (e.g., Jackson et al., 2001). One of <strong>the</strong>se potential<br />
effects is a shift in <strong>the</strong> suite of dominant pred<strong>at</strong>ors in <strong>the</strong> ecosystem (Fogarty<br />
and Murawski, 1998; Choi et al., 2004). Unusually high abundances of squids<br />
and oc<strong>to</strong>pods in some areas have been rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> man’s removal of <strong>the</strong>ir fi nfi sh<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors and competi<strong>to</strong>rs (Caddy and Rodhouse, 1998). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, anthropogenic<br />
changes in polar regions are of particular conserv<strong>at</strong>ion concern (e.g.,<br />
Smith et al., 2002). In Antarctica, a bot<strong>to</strong>m-trawl fi shery primarily targeting<br />
mackerel icefi sh (Champsocephalus gunnari) and marbled no<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>nia (No<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>nia<br />
rossii) developed in 1978 around Elephant Island, in <strong>the</strong> South Shetland<br />
Archipelago off <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula. The fi shery continued until 1988/1989<br />
but rapidly depleted <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> target species (Kock and Stransky,<br />
2000). We report here th<strong>at</strong> in this overfi shed area, popul<strong>at</strong>ions of oc<strong>to</strong>pods have<br />
signifi cantly higher abundances than in similar areas nearby. This elev<strong>at</strong>ed abundance<br />
has persisted for years beyond <strong>the</strong> cess<strong>at</strong>ion of commercial fi shing, possibly<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>ing an enduring shift in <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong> ecosystem.<br />
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
R/V <strong>Polar</strong>stern cruises ANT XIV/2 (November– December 1996), ANT<br />
XIX/ 3 (January– February 2002), and ANT XXIII/8 (December 2006 <strong>to</strong> January<br />
2007) were conducted <strong>to</strong> assess <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>us of fi sh s<strong>to</strong>cks in <strong>the</strong> region around Elephant<br />
Island moni<strong>to</strong>red intern<strong>at</strong>ionally under <strong>the</strong> Convention on Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion
198 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / VECCHIONE ET AL.<br />
of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Sampling st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were selected randomly from depth str<strong>at</strong>a between 50 and<br />
500 m. These st<strong>at</strong>ions were sampled by 30-min <strong>to</strong>ws with<br />
a large double-warp otter trawl. The 2002 cruise also conducted<br />
similar sampling off <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn South Shetland<br />
Islands and off Joinville Island across <strong>the</strong> Bransfi eld Strait<br />
(both areas with shelves of similar widths and depths <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Elephant Island area), as well as an intensive sampling<br />
series of 20 <strong>to</strong>ws in a shallow-w<strong>at</strong>er grid near Elephant Island.<br />
The 2006– 2007 cruise similarly sampled additional<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions across <strong>the</strong> Bransfi eld Strait close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> peninsula<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> western Weddell Sea (Figure 1). We identifi ed<br />
and counted all cephalopods collected on <strong>the</strong>se cruises, including<br />
both <strong>the</strong> cod end sample and specimens entangled<br />
in <strong>the</strong> net mesh. The m<strong>at</strong>erial included many more species<br />
than were recognized previous <strong>to</strong> this work (Allcock,<br />
FIGURE 1. Study area showing sampling loc<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
2005). We fi rst noticed <strong>the</strong> abundance p<strong>at</strong>terns reported<br />
here during <strong>the</strong> 2002 cruise and have since examined <strong>the</strong><br />
2006– 2007 cruise as a test of our unpublished 2002 hypo<strong>the</strong>sis.<br />
Because <strong>the</strong> sample sizes, depths, etc., were balanced<br />
between <strong>the</strong> Elephant Island area and <strong>the</strong> out-groups<br />
in 2002, we emphasize <strong>the</strong>se results and present <strong>the</strong> 1996<br />
and 2006– 2007 results for temporal comparisons.<br />
For some of <strong>the</strong> comparisons presented below, we have<br />
elimin<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> shallow-grid samples and pooled <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
from <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn South Shetland Islands, close <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, Joinville Island, and Weddell Sea<br />
(termed “out-groups” below) because this cre<strong>at</strong>ed similarsized<br />
sets of samples with similar ranges and variances in<br />
depth, a controlling fac<strong>to</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> abundance and diversity<br />
of Antarctic oc<strong>to</strong>pods (Figure 2). Intensive shallow-grid<br />
sampling was not conducted in <strong>the</strong> out-group areas. A
ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 199<br />
FIGURE 2. Rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between mean depth of <strong>to</strong>w and oc<strong>to</strong>pod c<strong>at</strong>ch in 2002 trawl samples from around Elephant Island and similar nearby<br />
areas: (a.) <strong>to</strong>tal number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w, (b.) approxim<strong>at</strong>e number of oc<strong>to</strong>pod species per <strong>to</strong>w.
200 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / VECCHIONE ET AL.<br />
TABLE 1. Summary of oc<strong>to</strong>pod collections by cruise year and loc<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
summary of <strong>the</strong> collections is presented in Table 1. St<strong>at</strong>istical<br />
comparisons used two-sample t-tests assuming unequal<br />
variances, with <strong>the</strong> a priori confi dence level for signifi cance<br />
<strong>at</strong> � � 0.05 (two tailed). Depths presented are based on <strong>the</strong><br />
mean depth of each <strong>to</strong>w, calcul<strong>at</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong> average of <strong>the</strong><br />
depth <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> beginning and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>w.<br />
RESULTS<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> depths of <strong>the</strong> 28 Elephant Island st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
sampled in 2002 were slightly shallower than <strong>the</strong> 26<br />
out-group st<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong> difference was not st<strong>at</strong>istically signifi<br />
cant. However, <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods collected<br />
per <strong>to</strong>w <strong>at</strong> Elephant Island averaged over twice as high<br />
(Table 2) as th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> out-group st<strong>at</strong>ions (signifi cant, p �<br />
0.001). Had we included <strong>the</strong> 20 shallow-grid st<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong><br />
difference in c<strong>at</strong>ch between <strong>the</strong> areas would have been even<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er (Table 1) because <strong>the</strong>se <strong>to</strong>ws included two c<strong>at</strong>ches<br />
th<strong>at</strong> were anomalously high (98 and 306 oc<strong>to</strong>pods) for<br />
th<strong>at</strong> depth range and strongly domin<strong>at</strong>ed by one shallowdwelling<br />
species, Pareledone charcoti (Joubin, 1905). Although<br />
<strong>the</strong> difference between areas in number of species<br />
collected was not gre<strong>at</strong>, it was st<strong>at</strong>istically signifi cant. This<br />
Number 95% confi dence<br />
Year Loc<strong>at</strong>ion of st<strong>at</strong>ions Parameter a Maximum Mean interval Minimum<br />
2006– 2007 Elephant Island 51 Depth (m) 486 208 26 62<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 169 18 8 0<br />
no. spp. 8 3 0.5 0<br />
2006– 2007 out-group 38 depth (m) 490 275 35 87<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 35 7 2 0<br />
no. spp. 5 2 0.5 0<br />
2002 Elephant Island 28 depth (m) 455 257 32 127<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 145 42 16 1<br />
no. spp. 9 6 1 1<br />
2002 shallow grid 20 depth (m) 209 146 18 74<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 306 37 15 4<br />
no. spp. 7 4 1 2<br />
2002 out-group 26 depth (m) 468 266 49 85<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 80 18 10 1<br />
no. spp. 10 4 1 1<br />
1996 Elephant Island 38 depth (m) 477 243 33 89<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch 135 52 10 9<br />
a Depth is based on mean depth of each <strong>to</strong>w, c<strong>at</strong>ch is <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w, and no. spp. is <strong>the</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>e number of species per <strong>to</strong>w; no. spp. is not included for<br />
1996 cruise because identifi c<strong>at</strong>ions have not yet been revised based on upd<strong>at</strong>ed taxonomy resulting from 2002 cruise.<br />
is likely because an increased number of specimens in <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>at</strong>ch generally includes a higher number of species (Figure<br />
3) r<strong>at</strong>her than because of a difference in species richness in<br />
<strong>the</strong> two areas. Depths of <strong>the</strong> 38 st<strong>at</strong>ions sampled around<br />
Elephant Island in 1996 were not signifi cantly different<br />
from those sampled in 2002, nor was <strong>the</strong> average c<strong>at</strong>ch<br />
signifi cantly different from <strong>the</strong> 2002 c<strong>at</strong>ch in <strong>the</strong> same<br />
area. Only three samples were collected in 1996 from <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn South Shetland Islands (in <strong>the</strong> same area as <strong>the</strong><br />
out-groups in 2002) with <strong>the</strong> same net <strong>at</strong> similar depths;<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ches in <strong>the</strong>se samples were very low (12, 7, and<br />
5 oc<strong>to</strong>pods). The few samples th<strong>at</strong> were collected from<br />
Joinville Island in 2002 included <strong>the</strong> lowest numbers of<br />
oc<strong>to</strong>pods caught th<strong>at</strong> year, but those were qualit<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
similar <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> oc<strong>to</strong>pod fauna of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea (Allcock<br />
et al., 2001).<br />
In 2006– 2007, both <strong>the</strong> mean depth and number of<br />
oc<strong>to</strong>pods per sample around Elephant Island were less than<br />
in 2002. The mean depth <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> out-group st<strong>at</strong>ions in 2006–<br />
2007 was somewh<strong>at</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er than in 2002 and signifi cantly<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er than <strong>the</strong> Elephant Island st<strong>at</strong>ions in 2006– 2007.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per sample around Elephant<br />
Island was �2.5 times higher than in <strong>the</strong> out-group<br />
samples, a st<strong>at</strong>istically signifi cant difference (Table 3). As in
ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 201<br />
FIGURE 3. Rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods collected and approxim<strong>at</strong>e number of species collected in 2002.<br />
2002, <strong>the</strong> larger c<strong>at</strong>ches of oc<strong>to</strong>pods around Elephant Island<br />
included a signifi cantly gre<strong>at</strong>er number of species than<br />
in <strong>the</strong> smaller out-group samples.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
We have no quantit<strong>at</strong>ive inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> abundance<br />
of oc<strong>to</strong>pods in <strong>the</strong> area of Elephant Island prior <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> onset of commercial fi shing in <strong>the</strong> area. Therefore,<br />
some unknown n<strong>at</strong>ural fac<strong>to</strong>r in th<strong>at</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion could have<br />
resulted in high oc<strong>to</strong>pod abundances rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> levels in<br />
similar areas nearby. However, <strong>at</strong> least eight bot<strong>to</strong>m-trawl<br />
surveys of <strong>the</strong> fi sh fauna around Elephant Island were conducted<br />
between 1976 and 1987 (Kock and Stransky, 2000),<br />
and we know of no indic<strong>at</strong>ion of elev<strong>at</strong>ed oc<strong>to</strong>pod abundance<br />
in those surveys. Conversely, during a U.S. trawl<br />
survey in 1998, oc<strong>to</strong>pod abundance was higher around<br />
Elephant Island than off <strong>the</strong> South Shetland Islands (C.<br />
Jones, NMFS Antarctic Program, Southwest Fisheries Science<br />
Center, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ions, 2002). These sampling<br />
efforts, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> present surveys, revealed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> byc<strong>at</strong>ch fi sh species had recovered by <strong>the</strong> early 1990s<br />
but popul<strong>at</strong>ions of target species had not fully recovered<br />
(Kock and Stransky, 2000; K.-H. Kock, Institute for Sea<br />
Fisheries, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion, 2002). The abun-<br />
dance of oc<strong>to</strong>pods may have increased coincidently with<br />
<strong>the</strong> recovery of popul<strong>at</strong>ions of fi nfi sh byc<strong>at</strong>ch.<br />
We are not sure why <strong>the</strong> overall abundance of oc<strong>to</strong>pods<br />
around Elephant Island was lower in 2006– 2007<br />
than during previous surveys. Perhaps this is because <strong>the</strong><br />
sampling was concentr<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> somewh<strong>at</strong> shallower depths,<br />
which resulted in fewer c<strong>at</strong>ches with very high numbers of<br />
oc<strong>to</strong>pods (Figure 2). However, details of <strong>the</strong> confi gur<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> trawl, such as height of <strong>the</strong> footrope above <strong>the</strong> rollers<br />
and <strong>the</strong> presence of a “tickler” chain, were modifi ed<br />
during this cruise <strong>to</strong> reduce <strong>the</strong> byc<strong>at</strong>ch of sessile megafauna<br />
(e.g., sponges and cnidarians). It seems quite likely<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se modifi c<strong>at</strong>ions affected <strong>the</strong> net’s sampling characteristics<br />
for benthic oc<strong>to</strong>pods. An indic<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> high<br />
numbers of oc<strong>to</strong>pods remained around Elephant Island<br />
during 2006– 2007 is found in <strong>the</strong> very high numbers of<br />
small specimens caught <strong>at</strong> three st<strong>at</strong>ions (59 specimens <strong>at</strong><br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion 614-3, 24 <strong>at</strong> 642-1, and 15 <strong>at</strong> 654-6) using a different<br />
gear type, an Agassiz beam trawl, not included in <strong>the</strong><br />
comparisons presented here.<br />
The p<strong>at</strong>tern reported here is consistent with o<strong>the</strong>r reports<br />
from around <strong>the</strong> world of elev<strong>at</strong>ed cephalopod abundances<br />
coincident with reduction of fi nfi sh popul<strong>at</strong>ions by<br />
commercial harvesting. As <strong>the</strong> inferred increase in oc<strong>to</strong>pod<br />
abundance appears <strong>to</strong> be coincident with recovery of<br />
byc<strong>at</strong>ch fi sh popul<strong>at</strong>ions, release from pred<strong>at</strong>ion pressure
202 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / VECCHIONE ET AL.<br />
TABLE 2. Two-sample t-test assuming unequal variances comparing areas in February 2002. a<br />
Parameter Elephant Island Out-groups<br />
St<strong>at</strong>ion depths<br />
Mean 256.9892857 265.8461538<br />
Variance 6694.207844 14457.90058<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 28 26<br />
df 44<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic �0.314090727<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.377468272<br />
t critical one-tail 1.680230071<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.754936545<br />
t critical two-tail 2.0153675<br />
Number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w<br />
Mean 42.85714286 18.07692308<br />
Variance 1652.941799 609.6738462<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 28 26<br />
df 45<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic 2.728499663<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.004521735<br />
t critical one-tail 1.679427442<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.009043469<br />
t critical two-tail 2.014103302<br />
Number of species per <strong>to</strong>w<br />
Mean 5.535714286 4<br />
Variance 6.406084656 7.36<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 28 26<br />
df 51<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic 2.146507581<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.018305786<br />
t critical one-tail 1.675284693<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.036611573<br />
t critical two-tail 2.007582225<br />
a Out-groups are pooled samples from sou<strong>the</strong>rn South Shetland Islands plus Joinville Island. On <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong>se analyses, <strong>the</strong> depths of <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ions sampled do not differ<br />
signifi cantly between <strong>the</strong> areas, but both <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w and <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pod species per <strong>to</strong>w were signifi cantly higher in <strong>the</strong> area around Elephant<br />
Island than in o<strong>the</strong>r areas.<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than competitive processes seems <strong>to</strong> be responsible<br />
for <strong>the</strong> good fortune of <strong>the</strong> oc<strong>to</strong>pods. Because ecological<br />
processes in polar regions tend <strong>to</strong> be compar<strong>at</strong>ively slow,<br />
such ecosystem-level impacts of fi shing may take longer <strong>to</strong><br />
become apparent than <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes but also may be<br />
very persistent.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We thank Karl-Hermann Kock and <strong>the</strong> Institute for<br />
Sea Fisheries in Hamburg, Germany, for allowing us <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se cruises, which were conducted by <strong>the</strong> Alfred<br />
Wegener Institute for <strong>Polar</strong> Research in Bremerhaven,<br />
Germany. Silke Stiemer (Universit<strong>at</strong> Kiel) assisted with <strong>the</strong><br />
fi eld work, and R. E. Young (University of Hawaii) and<br />
C. F. E. Roper (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution) provided helpful<br />
comments on an early draft of <strong>the</strong> manuscript.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Allcock, A. L. 2005. On <strong>the</strong> Confusion Surrounding Pareledone charcoti:<br />
Endemic Radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. Zoological Journal of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Linnean Society, 143(1): 75– 108.<br />
Allcock, A. L., U. Pi<strong>at</strong>kowski, P. K. G. Rodhouse, and J. P. Thorpe. 2001.<br />
A Study on Oc<strong>to</strong>podids from <strong>the</strong> Eastern Weddell Sea, Antarctica.<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Biology, 24: 832– 838.<br />
Caddy, J. F., and P. G. Rodhouse. 1998. Cephalopod and Groundfi sh<br />
Landings: Evidence for Ecological Change in Global Fisheries? Reviews<br />
in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 8: 431– 444.<br />
Choi, J. S., K. T. Frank, W. C. Leggett, and K. Drinkw<strong>at</strong>er. 2004. Transition<br />
<strong>to</strong> an Altern<strong>at</strong>e St<strong>at</strong>e in a Continental Shelf Ecosystem. Canadian<br />
Journal of Fisheries and Aqu<strong>at</strong>ic Sciences, 61:505– 510.
ABUNDANCE OF ANTARCTIC OCTOPODS 203<br />
TABLE 3. Two-sample t-test assuming unequal variances comparing areas in December 2006 <strong>to</strong> January 2007. a<br />
Parameter Elephant Island Out-groups<br />
St<strong>at</strong>ion depths<br />
Mean 208.2411765 274.6736842<br />
Variance 8640.174871 11619.0328<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 51 38<br />
df 73<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic �3.047557645<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.001605534<br />
t critical one-tail 1.665996224<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.003211069<br />
t critical two-tail 1.992997097<br />
Number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w<br />
Mean 18.23529412 7.184210526<br />
Variance 733.5835294 45.66785206<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 51 38<br />
df 58<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic 2.799243278<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.003472082<br />
t critical one-tail 1.671552763<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.006944163<br />
t critical two-tail 2.001717468<br />
Number of species per <strong>to</strong>w<br />
Mean 3.215686275 2.473684211<br />
Variance 3.77254902 1.877667141<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions 51 38<br />
Hypo<strong>the</strong>sized mean difference 0<br />
df 87<br />
t st<strong>at</strong>istic 2.11239907<br />
P(T � t) one-tail 0.018759109<br />
t critical one-tail 1.66255735<br />
P(T � t) two-tail 0.037518218<br />
a Out-groups are pooled samples from areas o<strong>the</strong>r than Elephant Island. In <strong>the</strong>se analyses, <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pods per <strong>to</strong>w and <strong>the</strong> number of oc<strong>to</strong>pod species per <strong>to</strong>w were<br />
signifi cantly higher in <strong>the</strong> area around Elephant Island than in o<strong>the</strong>r areas, but <strong>the</strong> sampled depths around Elephant Island were shallower, which could be a confounding<br />
fac<strong>to</strong>r.<br />
Fogarty, M. J., and S. A. Murawski. 1998. Large-Scale Disturbance and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Structure of Marine Systems: Fishery Impacts on Georges Bank.<br />
Ecological Applic<strong>at</strong>ions, 8(S1): S6– S22.<br />
Jackson, J., M. X. Kirby, W. H. Berger, K. A. Bjorndal, L. W. Botsford,<br />
B. J. Bourque, R. H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, J. Erlandson, J. A. Estes,<br />
T. P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C. B. Lange, H. S. Lenihan, J. M. Pandolfi ,<br />
C. H. Peterson, R. S. Steneck, M. J. Tegner, and R. R. Warner. 2001.<br />
His<strong>to</strong>rical Overfi shing and <strong>the</strong> Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems.<br />
Science, 293: 629– 638.<br />
Kock, K.-H., and C. Stransky. 2000. The Composition of <strong>the</strong> Coastal<br />
Fish Fauna around Elephant Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica).<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Biology, 23: 825– 832.<br />
Smith, J., R. S<strong>to</strong>ne, and J. Fahrenkamp-Uppenbrink. 2002. Trouble in<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Paradise. Science 297: 1489.
Cold Comfort: System<strong>at</strong>ics and Biology<br />
of Antarctic Bryozoans<br />
Judith E. Wins<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Judith E. Wins<strong>to</strong>n, Department of Marine Biology,<br />
Virginia Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, 21<br />
Starling Avenue, Martinsville, VA 24112, USA<br />
(judith.wins<strong>to</strong>n@vmnh.virginia.gov). Accepted 19<br />
May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Antarctic bryozoans are spectacular. They are often larger and more colorful<br />
than <strong>the</strong>ir temper<strong>at</strong>e rel<strong>at</strong>ives. Antarctic bryozoans are also outstanding in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
diversity. Well over 300 species have been described, and new descriptions continue <strong>to</strong><br />
appear. In <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP) collections we have identifi ed<br />
389 species so far, mostly belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cheilos<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> dominant order in Recent<br />
seas. Much about <strong>the</strong>ir ecology can be learned from study of <strong>the</strong> abundant m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
preserved in <strong>the</strong> USARP collections. Yearly growth bands demonstr<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> colonies may<br />
live for decades and th<strong>at</strong> growth r<strong>at</strong>es are very close <strong>to</strong> those of rel<strong>at</strong>ed temper<strong>at</strong>e species.<br />
The presence of embryos in <strong>the</strong> brood chambers of many species allows determin<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
seasonality of reproduction and fecundity of colonies of different sizes. A large proportion<br />
of Antarctic bryozoan species (81% for cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes) are endemic. Endemic groups<br />
include bizarre and unusual forms in which polymorphism, <strong>the</strong> occurrence of individuals<br />
specialized <strong>to</strong> perform different tasks, is highly developed. Behavioral studies carried out<br />
with living colonies in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic have shown how different polymorphs function in<br />
cleaning and protecting colonies from trespassers or pred<strong>at</strong>ors: capturing motile animals<br />
such as amphipods, polychaetes, and nem<strong>at</strong>odes and sweeping colonies free of debris.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The more than 5,000 members of <strong>the</strong> phylum Bryozoa, belonging <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Lophotrochozoa group of pro<strong>to</strong>s<strong>to</strong>me invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, are found in marine and<br />
freshw<strong>at</strong>er habit<strong>at</strong>s worldwide, including <strong>the</strong> seas th<strong>at</strong> surround Antarctica.<br />
Bryozoans are colonial, benthic, sessile animals. They reproduce asexually by<br />
budding new members of a colony or, in some cases, by fragment<strong>at</strong>ion of an existing<br />
colony. Colonies also reproduce sexually. Embryos, often brooded, develop<br />
in<strong>to</strong> free-swimming larvae th<strong>at</strong> settle and metamorphose <strong>to</strong> begin a new colony.<br />
Although individual bryozoan zooids are microscopic (ranging from about 0.30<br />
<strong>to</strong> 2.0 mm in length), colonies can be quite large, consisting of many thousands<br />
of individuals and, in some places, cre<strong>at</strong>ing three-dimensional benthic habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
th<strong>at</strong> serve as shelter, feeding, and nursery grounds for o<strong>the</strong>r organisms. Bryozoans<br />
are suspension feeders, part of <strong>the</strong> benthic biological fi lter system made up<br />
of sessile fi lter-feeding animals. Bryozoans also produce physical and chemical<br />
defenses against <strong>the</strong>ir enemies. Many members of <strong>the</strong> dominant Recent order of<br />
bryozoans, <strong>the</strong> cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes, have developed a high degree of polymorphism,
206 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
with heterozooids specialized for reproduction, <strong>at</strong>tachment,<br />
cleaning, and defense. Their chemical defenses consist<br />
of n<strong>at</strong>ural products such as alkaloids or terpenoids,<br />
which are <strong>to</strong>xic or discouraging <strong>to</strong> pred<strong>at</strong>ors or disease<br />
agents (Sharp et al., 2007).<br />
The chilly Antarctic seafl oor, where seaw<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
are near or below freezing year-round, might not seem<br />
like an ideal habit<strong>at</strong> for benthic organisms. Food is plentiful<br />
for only part of <strong>the</strong> year, and, in shallow w<strong>at</strong>er, icebergs may<br />
scour <strong>the</strong> seafl oor, destroying everything <strong>the</strong>y <strong>to</strong>uch. Yet<br />
more than 300 species of bryozoans have been found <strong>the</strong>re,<br />
including a large number of distinctive endemic taxa. This<br />
paper will discuss some results from more than 20 years<br />
of study of <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP)<br />
bryozoan collections by <strong>the</strong> author and collabor<strong>at</strong>ors A. E.<br />
Bernheimer, P. J. Hayward, and B. F. Heimberg.<br />
TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION<br />
OF USARP BRYOZOANS<br />
BRYOZOAN COLLECTION IN THE ANTARCTIC<br />
The beginning of bryozoan collecting in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
d<strong>at</strong>es from <strong>the</strong> last part of <strong>the</strong> nineteenth century and <strong>the</strong><br />
early part of <strong>the</strong> twentieth, <strong>the</strong> era of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ional expeditions<br />
for <strong>the</strong> explor<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> continent. Although a few<br />
species from Cape Adare in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea were recorded by<br />
Kirkp<strong>at</strong>rick (1902), <strong>the</strong> fi rst major report on <strong>the</strong> bryozoan<br />
fauna was by W<strong>at</strong>ers (1904) on <strong>the</strong> 89 taxa collected in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Bellingshausen Sea by <strong>the</strong> Belgica Expedition. Analysis<br />
of collections from o<strong>the</strong>r expeditions followed (Calvet,<br />
1904a, 1904b, 1909; Kluge, 1914; Thornely, 1924; Livings<strong>to</strong>ne,<br />
1928). A second wave of collecting began with<br />
a series of voyages carried out by <strong>the</strong> British Discovery Investig<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(of which some of <strong>the</strong> bryozoans appeared in<br />
Hastings, 1943). The fi rst U.S. specialist <strong>to</strong> study Antarctic<br />
bryozoans was Mary Rogick, who published 13 papers on<br />
<strong>the</strong> taxonomy of <strong>the</strong> bryozoans collected during <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Navy’s 1947– 1948 Antarctic Expedition between 1955<br />
and 1965 (summarized in Rogick, 1965).<br />
THE USARP BRYOZOAN COLLECTIONS<br />
The Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year of 1957– 1958<br />
marked a new era of marine research and benthic collecting<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. The USARP bryozoan collections<br />
consist of more than 5,000 lots collected by various U.S.<br />
research groups between 1958 and 1982. The earliest lots<br />
in <strong>the</strong> collection were obtained during benthic studies by<br />
Stanford University researchers working in <strong>the</strong> McMurdo<br />
Sound and <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. L<strong>at</strong>er system<strong>at</strong>ic collections of<br />
all benthos, including bryozoans, were made by scientists<br />
and technicians during oceanographic cruises of USNS<br />
Eltanin (1962– 1968) and R/V Hero (1968– 1982). These<br />
collections were returned <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>to</strong> be processed<br />
by technicians <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Oceanographic<br />
Sorting Center (SOSC) and were distributed <strong>to</strong> taxonomic<br />
specialists on each group. The st<strong>at</strong>ions from which bryozoans<br />
were collected ranged from 10°W <strong>to</strong> 70°E but were<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> following Antarctic and subantarctic<br />
areas: <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, off <strong>the</strong> islands<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Scotia Arc, and from Tierra del Fuego <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Falkland<br />
Islands (Figure 1).<br />
My involvement with <strong>the</strong> collections included training<br />
SOSC technicians in bryozoan identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion and working<br />
with technicians and volunteers <strong>at</strong> SOSC, <strong>the</strong> American<br />
Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, and <strong>the</strong> Virginia Museum of<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong> sort and identify those lots, now separ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in<strong>to</strong> almost 8,000 vials and jars. It also led <strong>to</strong> a 1985<br />
NSF grant <strong>to</strong> work <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> study ecology and<br />
behavior of living colonies of some Antarctic species. In<br />
spite of <strong>the</strong> large amount of marine biology carried out<br />
in Antarctica, rel<strong>at</strong>ively little <strong>at</strong>tention had been paid <strong>to</strong><br />
benthic community structure or <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecology of benthic<br />
organisms. For this reason, as part of <strong>the</strong> project on behavioral<br />
and chemical ecology of Antarctic bryozoans,<br />
FIGURE 1. Loc<strong>at</strong>ion of USARP st<strong>at</strong>ions containing bryozoans processed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Oceanographic Sorting Center.
we <strong>at</strong>tempted <strong>to</strong> learn more about <strong>the</strong> role <strong>the</strong>se animals<br />
played in one particular benthic community, th<strong>at</strong> off<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn end of Low Island, South Shetland Islands.<br />
Finally, as a lecturer on <strong>the</strong> American Museum’s Discovery<br />
<strong>to</strong>urs, I made three additional trips <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Peninsula and South Shetland Islands, where I was able<br />
<strong>to</strong> observe beach drift organisms and intertidal bryozoan<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s <strong>at</strong> a number of loc<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
TAXONOMIC DISTRIBUTION OF USARP BRYOZOANS<br />
Two classes, Gymnolaem<strong>at</strong>a and Stenolaem<strong>at</strong>a, and<br />
three orders of bryozoans are recorded from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic.<br />
The Gymnolaem<strong>at</strong>a include <strong>the</strong> orders Ctenos<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>a<br />
and Cheilos<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>a. The Cyclos<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>a are <strong>the</strong> only living<br />
order of <strong>the</strong> Stenolaem<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
The dominant bryozoans in Recent oceans are <strong>the</strong><br />
cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes, a group whose diversity and abundance has<br />
increased gre<strong>at</strong>ly since its origin in <strong>the</strong> Cretaceous. Cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes<br />
have box-like zooids, variously reinforced with<br />
calcium carbon<strong>at</strong>e skele<strong>to</strong>ns, a hinged operculum protecting<br />
<strong>the</strong> orifi ce through which <strong>the</strong> polypide extends <strong>to</strong><br />
feed, and colonies often displaying a high degree of polymorphism.<br />
Most cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes brood <strong>the</strong>ir embryos <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
larval stage in variously formed reproductive structures<br />
called ovicells.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 389 species so far recorded in <strong>the</strong> sorted and<br />
identifi ed USARP collections, 344 (88.5%) are cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes.<br />
Four new species have been described so far from<br />
<strong>the</strong> collection (Hayward and Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1994) with more<br />
<strong>to</strong> follow. Although most of <strong>the</strong> major groups of cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes<br />
are represented in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic and subantarctic,<br />
several groups have undergone a good deal of radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with numerous species, most of <strong>the</strong>m endemic. Families<br />
especially well represented (10 or more species) include<br />
<strong>the</strong> Flustridae, Calloporidae, Bugulidae, Cabereidae, Cellariidae,<br />
Arachnopusiidae, Exochellidae, Sclerodomidae,<br />
Smittinidae, Microporellidae, Celleporidae, and Reteporidae<br />
(Hayward, 1995). This p<strong>at</strong>tern is refl ected in <strong>the</strong><br />
USARP collections. Some represent<strong>at</strong>ive species are shown<br />
in Figure 2.<br />
Although cyclos<strong>to</strong>me bryozoans rank well below cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes<br />
in terms of species diversity, <strong>the</strong>y are abundant<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, forming large colonies, easily recognizable<br />
as cyclos<strong>to</strong>mes, although often diffi cult or impossible<br />
<strong>to</strong> determine <strong>to</strong> species level because colonies lack<br />
gonozooids, a vital taxonomic character in <strong>the</strong> group. Like<br />
cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes, cyclos<strong>to</strong>me bryozoans have calcifi ed walls.<br />
Their zooids are tubular. The zooid orifi ce, <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> distal<br />
end of <strong>the</strong> tube, has no operculum but closes by a sphinc-<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 207<br />
ter instead. Polymorphism is much less common, but some<br />
species have nanozooids. They brood embryos in one or<br />
more brood chambers or gonozooids, and sexual reproduction<br />
is unusual, involving polyembryony: larval fi ssion<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> original fertilized egg results in many genetically<br />
identical larvae. Thirty-seven cyclos<strong>to</strong>mes (9.55% of<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal USARP bryozoan fauna) were found in USARP<br />
collections. Figure 3 (left) shows an erect branching cyclos<strong>to</strong>me<br />
of <strong>the</strong> genus Hornera.<br />
Members of <strong>the</strong> order Ctenos<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>a have chitinous<br />
and/or gel<strong>at</strong>inous walls. Some form encrusting or massive<br />
colonies. O<strong>the</strong>rs form delic<strong>at</strong>e vine-like colonies consisting<br />
of single or clumps of tubular zooids along s<strong>to</strong>lons or with<br />
zooid bases constricting in<strong>to</strong> s<strong>to</strong>lon<strong>at</strong>e tubes th<strong>at</strong> join adjacent<br />
zooids. They have no operculum but close <strong>the</strong> orifi ce<br />
by muscular constriction. Sexual reproduction may involve<br />
brooding embryos in body cavities of m<strong>at</strong>ernal zooids or<br />
broadcasting fertilized eggs in<strong>to</strong> seaw<strong>at</strong>er, where development<br />
in<strong>to</strong> larvae takes place. Although <strong>the</strong> fi rst bryozoan<br />
described from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic continent was a ctenos<strong>to</strong>me,<br />
Alcyonidium fl abelliforme (Kirkp<strong>at</strong>rick, 1902), in terms of<br />
species diversity <strong>the</strong> group is less well represented <strong>the</strong>re than<br />
in some o<strong>the</strong>r environments. Only eight species (2%) of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong>tal bryozoan fauna were found in <strong>the</strong> USARP collections,<br />
but three of <strong>the</strong>m represented new species (Wins<strong>to</strong>n and<br />
Hayward, 1994), one encrusting on o<strong>the</strong>r bryozoans and<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two boring in<strong>to</strong> live bryozoan colonies or living<br />
in dead zooids or crevices (e.g., Bowerbankia antarctica,<br />
Figure 3).<br />
The most abundant species in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula<br />
and South Shetland Islands form foliaceous, lightly calcifi<br />
ed colonies (Carbasea ovoidea, Kymella polaris, Flustra<br />
astrovae, Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum antarcticum, and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra<br />
fl agell<strong>at</strong>a), delic<strong>at</strong>e jointed branching colonies (Cellaria<br />
divisa), or encrusting colonies (e.g., Micropora brevissima,<br />
Inversiula nutrix, Celleporella antarctica, Ellisina<br />
antarctica, Harpecia spinosissima, Lacerna hosteensis,<br />
Escharoides tridens, and Lichenopora canalicul<strong>at</strong>a). From<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, <strong>the</strong> most abundant species in <strong>the</strong> USARP<br />
collections in shallow w<strong>at</strong>er (less than 50 m) is Eminoecia<br />
carsonae, with rigidly branching erect colonies. In deeper<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er, erect forms are also common, including Cellaria<br />
monilor<strong>at</strong>a, Arachnopusia l<strong>at</strong>iavicularis, Antarcticae<strong>to</strong>s<br />
bubecc<strong>at</strong>a, Thryp<strong>to</strong>cirrus phylactellooides, Melicerita<br />
obliqua, species of Cellarinellidae, Reteporella antarctica<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r Reteporidae, with well-calcifi ed branching or<br />
reticul<strong>at</strong>e colony forms (see Figure 4), as well as some of<br />
<strong>the</strong> same epizoic species found in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula<br />
area: Celleporella antarctica, Ellisina antarctica, and Harpecia<br />
spinosissima.
208 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
FIGURE 2. Morphologies common in bryozoans from USARP collections. (a) Large foliaceous colony of Carbasea ovoidea from Low Island.<br />
Scale � 5 cm. Arrow points <strong>to</strong> pycnogonid. (b) Rigid branching colony of Cellarinella foveol<strong>at</strong>a <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> glacial pebble. (c) Living colony of<br />
Kymella polaris pinned out for study of reproduction and fouling. (d) Encrusting colonies of Inversiula nutrix on underside of an intertidal rock,<br />
shown by arrows. Branching hydroid above colonies and crus<strong>to</strong>se algae (dark p<strong>at</strong>ches) are also visible.<br />
The Antarctic intertidal zone has been considered<br />
<strong>to</strong> be almost barren due <strong>to</strong> scouring by seasonal sea ice<br />
(Barnes, 1994a; Knox, 2007). This is not <strong>the</strong> case, however,<br />
in many localities along <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula and<br />
in <strong>the</strong> South Shetlands. Sheltered intertidal sites, often<br />
with plank<strong>to</strong>n-rich eutrophic w<strong>at</strong>er due <strong>to</strong> runoff from<br />
adjacent colonies of birds or marine mammals, contain<br />
tide pools and crevices whose inhabitants include calcareous<br />
and macroalgae, limpets, amphipods, Glyp<strong>to</strong>notus,<br />
brittle stars, starfi sh, and sea urchins. A number of bryozoans,<br />
of which Inversiula nutrix (Figure 2d) was most<br />
common, encrust intertidal rocks or <strong>at</strong>tach <strong>to</strong> seaweed<br />
in intertidal <strong>to</strong> shallow subtidal habit<strong>at</strong>s (Wins<strong>to</strong>n and<br />
Hayward, 1994).
BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF<br />
ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS<br />
STUDY AREAS, METHODS, AND MATERIALS<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> long-term taxonomic projects, o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
studies using preserved USARP m<strong>at</strong>erial, ecological and<br />
behavioral work on living Antarctic bryozoans, were carried<br />
out during <strong>the</strong> austral summer and fall of 1985 <strong>at</strong><br />
Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion and off <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost of <strong>the</strong> South<br />
Shetland Islands. Low Island (l<strong>at</strong>itude 63°25�S, longitude<br />
62°10�W) lies off <strong>the</strong> western coast of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula.<br />
The Low Island area was a favorite collecting site<br />
for fi sh biologists working out of Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion during<br />
our stay. It was close enough <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion (within 12<br />
hours’ cruise time) th<strong>at</strong> fi sh could be maintained in good<br />
condition, and <strong>the</strong> sea bot<strong>to</strong>m off its sou<strong>the</strong>rn side slopes<br />
off <strong>to</strong> a rel<strong>at</strong>ively fl <strong>at</strong> surface, free of projecting ledges or<br />
pinnacles th<strong>at</strong> would tear <strong>the</strong> trawls used <strong>to</strong> collect specimens.<br />
By sharing cruise time with fi sh and krill biologists<br />
we were able <strong>to</strong> return <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> site several times during <strong>the</strong><br />
summer and fall. A 4 � 10 ft (1.2 � 3 m) otter trawl was<br />
used <strong>to</strong> collect both fi sh and bryozoans. Proportion<strong>at</strong>e biomass<br />
of benthic organisms was determined on shipboard<br />
by averaging <strong>the</strong> blotted wet weights of different groups of<br />
organisms taken in three timed trawls of equal length. For<br />
studies of <strong>the</strong> food of <strong>the</strong> bryozoans we froze a number of<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 209<br />
FIGURE 3. (left) An Antarctic cyclos<strong>to</strong>me, Hornera sp. (scanning electron microscope image). (right) Living colony of an Antarctic ctenos<strong>to</strong>me,<br />
Bowerbankia antarctica. Arrow points <strong>to</strong> lophophore emerging from crevice between two spirorbid tubes. Tentacle crown of spirorbid is visible<br />
below th<strong>at</strong> of bryozoan.<br />
freshly trawled colonies of <strong>the</strong> most common species in<br />
<strong>the</strong> ultracold freezer on <strong>the</strong> ship. They were l<strong>at</strong>er defrosted<br />
in <strong>the</strong> lab, and polypides were dissected and gut contents<br />
were examined by light and epifl uorescence microscopy.<br />
For o<strong>the</strong>r studies of living m<strong>at</strong>erial <strong>the</strong> bryozoans collected<br />
were maintained in holding tanks with running seaw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
until <strong>the</strong> ship returned <strong>to</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion. On return <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lab <strong>the</strong>y were placed in running seaw<strong>at</strong>er tanks and<br />
examined as soon as possible. Specimens for behavioral<br />
studies were collected both from Low Island by trawling<br />
and from Arthur Harbor, using a hand dredge from an<br />
infl <strong>at</strong>able bo<strong>at</strong>. Au<strong>to</strong>zooid feeding and behavior of avicularian<br />
polymorphs was recorded using a macrovideo setup<br />
in <strong>the</strong> lab <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion. Freshly collected m<strong>at</strong>erial was<br />
maintained <strong>at</strong> close <strong>to</strong> normal seaw<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure during<br />
behavioral observ<strong>at</strong>ions by an ice b<strong>at</strong>h surrounding<br />
<strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion dish.<br />
To analyze growth and injury, colonies were pinned<br />
out in seaw<strong>at</strong>er in a shallow dissecting tray. A piece of<br />
clear Mylar fi lm was <strong>the</strong>n placed over <strong>the</strong>m, and <strong>the</strong> colony<br />
outline, including growth checks, was traced with a<br />
w<strong>at</strong>erproof marking pen. The traced version was immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
copied and used as a map <strong>to</strong> record areas of injury<br />
and fouling. Each colony was examined under <strong>the</strong> dissecting<br />
microscope, and all injuries, discolor<strong>at</strong>ion, bites,<br />
rips, empty zooids, and fouling organisms were recorded.
210 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
Growth of individual colonies was analyzed by measuring<br />
<strong>the</strong> distance between yearly growth checks.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> reproductive study fi ve colonies (if possible)<br />
were examined after each collection. Each colony was<br />
pinned out fl <strong>at</strong> in a dissecting tray fi lled with seaw<strong>at</strong>er. It<br />
was <strong>the</strong>n examined under a dissecting microscope for <strong>the</strong><br />
following: developing ovicells, developing embryos, m<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
embryos, and empty ovicells. The colonies were also<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>graphed and fi nally preserved in 70% ethanol.<br />
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS<br />
Outstanding characteristics of invertebr<strong>at</strong>es occurring<br />
in Antarctic benthic communities include a high degree<br />
of endemism, large body size in comparison with temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
or tropical rel<strong>at</strong>ives, and <strong>the</strong> prevalence of suspension<br />
feeding organisms (Hedgpeth, 1969, 1970; Dell, 1972;<br />
Arnaud, 1974; White, 1984; Gallardo, 1987; Arntz et al.,<br />
1994, 1997; Clarke and Johns<strong>to</strong>n, 2003; Knox, 2007).<br />
Many Antarctic bryozoans are large in size. Figure<br />
2a shows a large colony of Carbasea ovoidea, a fl exible,<br />
lightly calcifi ed, foliaceous species collected <strong>at</strong> Low<br />
Island, South Shetland Islands. The size of <strong>the</strong> colony is<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 20 cm in width by 15 cm in height. Individual<br />
zooids of many Antarctic species also are large in<br />
size, many of <strong>the</strong>m between 1 and 2 mm long, versus <strong>the</strong><br />
more common 0.4– 0.9 mm zooid length of species found<br />
in warmer w<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
Figures 2 and 3 show some of <strong>the</strong> range of colony<br />
morphology found in species in <strong>the</strong> USARP collections.<br />
Branching colonies consisting of rooted seaweed-like<br />
fronds, wide or narrow, are abundant, especially in <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Peninsula and South Shetland Islands. Jointed<br />
and rigid erect forms, branching, unbranched, or anas<strong>to</strong>mosing<br />
and reticul<strong>at</strong>e, may be <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r substr<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
such as glacial pebbles (Figure 2b), vertical walls, or <strong>the</strong><br />
dead colonies of o<strong>the</strong>r bryozoans or rooted in sediment<br />
(Figure 2c). Encrusting species are also abundant and diverse.<br />
Some form massive or nodular colonies consisting<br />
of several layers of frontally budded zooids. O<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
form single-layered crusts, loosely or tightly <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r bryozoans, o<strong>the</strong>r organisms, or hard substr<strong>at</strong>a<br />
( Figure 2d).<br />
Many Antarctic bryozoans are also more colorful than<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir temper<strong>at</strong>e rel<strong>at</strong>ives. Bryozoans derive <strong>the</strong>ir pigment<br />
from <strong>the</strong> carotenoids in <strong>the</strong>ir phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n food or, in<br />
some cases, from color<strong>at</strong>ion present in symbiotic bacteria<br />
inhabiting zooids (Sharp et al., 2007). Colors of living colonies<br />
range from dark red (e.g., Carbasea curva) <strong>to</strong> orange<br />
brown (e.g., Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a), <strong>to</strong> yellow orange<br />
(e.g., Kymella polaris), <strong>to</strong> peach (e.g., Orthoporidra spp.),<br />
purple, pink (e.g., chaperiids and reteporids), and tan <strong>to</strong><br />
white. The one Bugula species known, Bugula longissima,<br />
has dark green color<strong>at</strong>ion when living, apparently derived<br />
from bacterial symbionts (Lebar et al., 2007).<br />
The dark red Carbasea curva, which lacks <strong>the</strong> physical<br />
defense of avicularia, was found <strong>to</strong> show moder<strong>at</strong>e haemolytic<br />
activity, killing 60% of human and 50% of dog<br />
erythrocytes (Wins<strong>to</strong>n and Bernheimer, 1986). Some of <strong>the</strong><br />
species from Low Island were also tested for antibiotic activity.<br />
Kymella polaris and Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum antarcticum both<br />
strongly inhibited <strong>the</strong> growth of Staphylococcus aureus.<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a, Caberea darwinii, and Austrofl<br />
ustra vulgaris moder<strong>at</strong>ely inhibited growth. Only Beania<br />
livings<strong>to</strong>nei was noninhibi<strong>to</strong>ry (Colon-Urban et al., 1985).<br />
STUDIES OF BRYOZOANS FROM THE LOW<br />
ISLAND BENTHIC COMMUNITY<br />
Shallow shelf environments (less than 500 m) in many<br />
areas of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic are domin<strong>at</strong>ed by communities<br />
made up largely of sessile suspension feeders like sponges,<br />
bryozoans, hydroids, gorgonians, and tunic<strong>at</strong>es, whose<br />
colonies may form dense thicket-like growths spreading<br />
over large areas of <strong>the</strong> sea bot<strong>to</strong>m (Belyaev, 1958; Uschakov,<br />
1963; Propp, 1970; White and Robins, 1972; Barnes,<br />
1995b, 1995c; Saíz-Salinas et al., 1997; Saíz-Salinas and<br />
Ramos, 1999; San Vincente et al., 2007). In contrast <strong>to</strong><br />
epifaunal communities elsewhere, which are mostly limited<br />
<strong>to</strong> hard substr<strong>at</strong>a, such communities in Antarctica<br />
commonly rest on or are rooted in soft sediments or are<br />
<strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> sc<strong>at</strong>tered rocks and pebbles. Gallardo (1987)<br />
fi rst called <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> for recognizing <strong>the</strong> distinctiveness<br />
of this epi-infaunal or soft-bot<strong>to</strong>m epifaunal<br />
community as a prerequisite <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> study of its structure.<br />
The community we studied fi t this epi-infaunal p<strong>at</strong>tern.<br />
Biomass<br />
Inshore, in depths of 70 m or less, benthic biomass consisted<br />
primarily of macroalgae and echinoderms, a community<br />
similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> reported <strong>at</strong> a number of localities<br />
along <strong>the</strong> peninsula (Gruzov and Pushkin, 1970; Delaca<br />
and Lipps, 1976; Moe and Delaca, 1976) and in <strong>the</strong> South<br />
Orkney Islands as well (White and Robins, 1972).<br />
Between about 80 and 110 m a soft-bot<strong>to</strong>m epi-infaunal<br />
community of <strong>the</strong> type discussed by Gallardo (1987)<br />
occurred. By wet weight (Figure 4) <strong>the</strong> dominant components<br />
of this community were sponges (31.4%); echinoderms,<br />
chiefl y holothurians (24.6%); ascidians (18.7%);
yozoans (14.6%) and coelenter<strong>at</strong>es, mostly gorgonians,<br />
especially Ophidogorgia paradoxa and Thouarella<br />
spp.; and hydroids (10.0%) (Wins<strong>to</strong>n and Heimberg,<br />
1988). Over 30 species of bryozoans occurred. The fi ve<br />
most abundant species (Carbasea ovoidea, Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra<br />
fl agell<strong>at</strong>a, Austrofl ustra vulgaris, Kymella polaris, and<br />
Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum antarcticum) all have fl exible, foliaceous,<br />
lightly calcifi ed colonies (e.g., Figure 2a,c). Therefore, in<br />
terms of volume or area of sea bot<strong>to</strong>m covered, bryozoans<br />
are an even more important component of <strong>the</strong> community<br />
than would be indic<strong>at</strong>ed by biomass alone. Although<br />
not <strong>the</strong> highest bryozoan biomass reported from<br />
Antarctic benthic communities (Starmans et al., 1999, reported<br />
22% bryozoan biomass in Amundsen and Bellingshausen<br />
seas), <strong>the</strong> biomass of bryozoans is typical of <strong>the</strong><br />
multilayered, microhabit<strong>at</strong>-rich, fi lter-feeding community<br />
reported from many areas of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic shelf from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (e.g., Bullivant, 1959:488, fi g. 3; Day<strong>to</strong>n<br />
et al., 1974; Day<strong>to</strong>n, 1990), <strong>to</strong> King George Island (e.g.,<br />
Rauschert, 1991:67, fi g. 23), <strong>to</strong> Signy Island (Barnes,<br />
1995b), <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea (Starmans et al., 1999).<br />
Large motile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es found in this habit<strong>at</strong> included<br />
<strong>the</strong> isopods Glyp<strong>to</strong>notus antarcticus and Serolis<br />
sp., <strong>the</strong> echinoid Sterechinus neumayeri, and various asteroids,<br />
e.g., Odontaster validus and Labidaster annul<strong>at</strong>us.<br />
Demersal fi sh species included no<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>niids (No<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>nia<br />
gibberifrons, N. larseni, N. nudifrons, and N. coriiceps)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> icefi sh Chaenocephalus acer<strong>at</strong>us.<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 211<br />
FIGURE 4. Biomass of organisms from three trawl collections <strong>at</strong> 100 m, Low Island, Antarctic Peninsula.<br />
Growth and Longevity of Most Abundant Species<br />
Life his<strong>to</strong>ry characteristics of Antarctic bryozoans<br />
are amenable <strong>to</strong> analysis for <strong>the</strong> following three reasons:<br />
(1) Growth is in discrete modules (zooids), making increments<br />
of growth easy <strong>to</strong> measure. (2) Colony fronds of<br />
perennial Antarctic species, like those of some temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
species, show yearly growth checks where growth s<strong>to</strong>ps<br />
during winter months, making it possible <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong><br />
age of fronds as well as <strong>the</strong>ir yearly growth r<strong>at</strong>e by back<br />
measurement (Stebbing, 1971b; Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1983; Pätzold et<br />
al., 1987; Barnes, 1995c; Brey et al., 1998). (3) Embryos,<br />
usually brooded in zooid cavities or in ovicells, are easily<br />
detectable in living colonies, making it possible <strong>to</strong> quantify<br />
reproductive effort.<br />
Carbasea ovoidea was <strong>the</strong> most abundant bryozoan<br />
species in <strong>the</strong> Low Island community, often comprising<br />
more than half <strong>the</strong> bryozoan biomass in a trawl sample.<br />
The delic<strong>at</strong>e, tan, unilaminar fronds of Carbasea colonies<br />
showed no growth checks, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> all <strong>the</strong> growth of<br />
a particular frond <strong>to</strong>ok place during one season, although<br />
basal rhizoids and s<strong>to</strong>lons (of this and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species)<br />
might be perennial, producing new fronds yearly. The<br />
mean increase in height for Carbasea fronds was 8.6 cm<br />
per year.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r dominant species, both colonies and fronds<br />
were perennial. The narrow, curling fronds of Himantzoum<br />
could not be accur<strong>at</strong>ely measured and so were excluded
212 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
from this part of <strong>the</strong> study. The o<strong>the</strong>r three perennial species<br />
grew much more slowly than Carbasea. Figure 5 compares<br />
growth in height for individual colonies of all three species<br />
as determined by back measurement. Two of <strong>the</strong>m, Austrofl<br />
ustra vulgaris and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a are rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong><br />
Carbasea (family Flustridae). Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fronds showed<br />
a mean increase in height of only 0.92 cm per year, whereas<br />
Austrofl ustra fronds increased 1.2 cm per year. The ascophoran<br />
cheilos<strong>to</strong>me Kymella polaris is not closely rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species but grew <strong>at</strong> a similar r<strong>at</strong>e. On average,<br />
Kymella fronds increased 1.3 cm in height per year.<br />
The oldest fronds of Kymella were <strong>at</strong> least six years<br />
in age, and those of Austrofl ustra and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra were<br />
seven years. As none were complete colonies, <strong>the</strong> genetic<br />
individuals <strong>the</strong>y represented may have persisted much longer.<br />
The life spans of <strong>the</strong>se species appear somewh<strong>at</strong> shorter<br />
than <strong>the</strong> 10– 50� year life spans of some of <strong>the</strong> rigid erect<br />
bryozoan species found in deeper Antarctic shelf habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
(Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1983; Brey et al., 1998). However, both growth<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es and life spans for both Austrofl ustra and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl<br />
ustra were in <strong>the</strong> same range as those of temper<strong>at</strong>e perennials<br />
like Flustra foliacea (12 years) (Stebbing, 1971b).<br />
Barnes (1995c) also studied growth of Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra in<br />
shallow w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>at</strong> Signy Island. He found an average yearly<br />
increase in height of 0.7 cm and estim<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> oldest<br />
colonies <strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion were 26 years old.<br />
Reproduction<br />
Three methods of protecting developing embryos<br />
were represented among <strong>the</strong> dominant species. Austrofl ustra<br />
vulgaris and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a brood eggs internally<br />
in zooid body cavities, while Kymella polaris broods<br />
eggs in ovicells of m<strong>at</strong>ernal zooids. In contrast, Carbasea<br />
ovoidea broods developing embryos externally in embryo<br />
sacs <strong>at</strong>tached in clusters of four or fi ve <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> orifi ce of<br />
each fertile zooid.<br />
The reproductive p<strong>at</strong>tern of Carbasea also contrasted<br />
with th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r common species. Reproductive effort<br />
in Carbasea was very high (averaging 2953 embryos<br />
per colony) <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time of our fi rst census in l<strong>at</strong>e austral<br />
summer (1 March) and may have peaked earlier in <strong>the</strong><br />
summer. By <strong>the</strong> next sampling period, reproduction had<br />
ceased entirely, although zooids, like those of o<strong>the</strong>r species,<br />
continued <strong>to</strong> contain actively feeding polypides<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> study period.<br />
The mean number of embryos per colony was lower<br />
in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species studied: Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra, Austrofl ustra,<br />
FIGURE 5. Annual growth of individual colonies of three species of Low Island bryozoans determined by back measurement.
Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum, and Kymella, averaging a few hundred per<br />
colony <strong>at</strong> any one census (Table 1). In <strong>the</strong>se species, sexual<br />
reproduction was still occurring <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> last d<strong>at</strong>e sampled.<br />
For Kymella and Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum, <strong>the</strong> two species in which<br />
embryos were brooded in ovicells, we could determine <strong>the</strong><br />
percentage of ovicells brooding embryos versus empty ovicells<br />
over <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong> season (Table 2). The percentage<br />
of empty ovicells gradually increased until by 20 April,<br />
72% of all Kymella ovicells and 95% of all Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum<br />
ovicells were empty, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> reproductive<br />
season was approaching for <strong>at</strong> least <strong>the</strong>se two species.<br />
In Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra <strong>the</strong> number of embryos fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
slightly from census <strong>to</strong> census but showed no signifi cant<br />
decline as of 20 April. Austrofl ustra vulgaris colonies contained<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ure embryos <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> 7 March census (mean of<br />
258 per colony), while colonies collected on 20 April had<br />
an average of 227 embryos per colony. Although <strong>the</strong>re<br />
was no way for us <strong>to</strong> tell how long <strong>the</strong> embryos present<br />
in l<strong>at</strong>e April would be brooded, it may well be as l<strong>at</strong>er<br />
workers (e.g., Barnes and Clarke, 1995; Bowden, 2005;<br />
Knox, 2007) have suggested, th<strong>at</strong> “winter” may not be as<br />
long for <strong>the</strong> benthos as predicted on <strong>the</strong> basis of light and<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n abundance.<br />
TABLE 1. Mean number of embryos produced per colony for<br />
most abundant Low Island species.<br />
Mean Number<br />
Total number number of<br />
Species of embryos per colony colonies<br />
Carbasea 15,355 1536 10<br />
Austrofl ustra 5920 321 20<br />
Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum 6326 452 14<br />
Kymella 3698 247 15<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra 19,277 741 26<br />
TABLE 2. Percent of ovicells empty for two Low Island species<br />
<strong>at</strong> three census periods.<br />
Species 1 March 2 April 20 April<br />
Kymella 19% 40% 75%<br />
Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum 46% 62% 95%<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 213<br />
Partial Mortality and Pred<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Like most clonal organisms, bryozoans have retained<br />
extensive powers of regener<strong>at</strong>ion and can <strong>to</strong>ler<strong>at</strong>e a high<br />
degree of injury or de<strong>at</strong>h of portions of <strong>the</strong> colony without<br />
de<strong>at</strong>h of <strong>the</strong> entire colony. Such partial mortality may be<br />
caused by physical disturbance of <strong>the</strong> environment or by<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors or grazers. A few invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, including some<br />
pycnogonids and nudibranchs, are specialized as singlezooid<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors of bryozoans. These animals pierce a zooid<br />
with proboscis or radula and suck out body fl uids and<br />
tissues, leaving an empty or broken zooid behind. Single<br />
or small p<strong>at</strong>ches of empty zooids were probably <strong>the</strong> result<br />
of such pred<strong>at</strong>ors. The grazing or browsing activities of<br />
fi sh, echinoids, and mollusks leave larger scrapes, rips, and<br />
bites on colony fronds. We examined colonies for injuries<br />
of <strong>the</strong> different types and noted where <strong>the</strong>y occurred on <strong>the</strong><br />
fronds. Table 3 shows th<strong>at</strong> all species sustained a considerable<br />
amount of damage. Carbasea colonies showed <strong>the</strong><br />
least amount of injury <strong>to</strong> growing tips (<strong>the</strong> most delic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and accessible portion of <strong>the</strong> frond). This is most likely<br />
due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir much higher growth r<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
Evidence from studies of gut contents of associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
macrobenthic organisms also suggested th<strong>at</strong> most of <strong>the</strong><br />
injuries observed were not due <strong>to</strong> feeding by specialized<br />
bryozoan pred<strong>at</strong>ors. A search of <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure revealed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> small quantities (from less than 1% <strong>to</strong> about 3%)<br />
of bryozoans had been found in gut contents of several<br />
Antarctic fi sh and echinoderms (Day<strong>to</strong>n et al., 1974;<br />
Dearborn, 1977). We examined gut contents of a number<br />
of invertebr<strong>at</strong>es from Low Island trawls (including polychaetes,<br />
echinoderms, and crustaceans) <strong>to</strong> learn whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
any of <strong>the</strong>m were feeding on bryozoans. Two Low Island<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> echinoid Sterechinus neumayeri and <strong>the</strong><br />
isopod Glyp<strong>to</strong>notus antarcticus, did contain bryozoan<br />
fragments. But our results, like those of l<strong>at</strong>er workers, indic<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> gut contents of invertebr<strong>at</strong>e carnivores and<br />
scavengers, like those of <strong>the</strong> demersal fi sh, consisted primarily<br />
of small motile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es: amphipods, isopods,<br />
polychaetes, and mollusks (Schwartzbach, 1988; Ekau<br />
and Gutt, 1991: McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, 1994).<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r source of damage <strong>to</strong> colonies is caused by<br />
fouling of colonies by o<strong>the</strong>r organisms. Table 4 shows<br />
<strong>the</strong> most common organisms found <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> frontal<br />
surfaces of colonies of <strong>the</strong> fi ve most abundant Low Island<br />
species. Some of <strong>the</strong>m, such as <strong>the</strong> stalked barnacles<br />
found in branch bifurc<strong>at</strong>ions or <strong>the</strong> colonies of <strong>the</strong> bryozoan<br />
Beania livings<strong>to</strong>nei, which <strong>at</strong>tach loosely <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> host<br />
colony, may benefi t <strong>the</strong> host, augmenting colony w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
currents by <strong>the</strong>ir own feeding activities. O<strong>the</strong>rs, such as
214 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
TABLE 3. Mean number of injuries per colony and percent of branch tips injured.<br />
Number of Number of Number of Number of<br />
rips <strong>to</strong>rn injuries <strong>to</strong> bites <strong>to</strong> injuries <strong>to</strong> Percentage of<br />
in branches branch tip branch edges center of a Number of branch tips<br />
Species (growing edge) (sides of branches) branch empty zooids injured<br />
Carbasea 1.7 3.4 1.1 1.4 130 4.4%<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra 4.0 3.5 5.0 7.2 41 23.5%<br />
Austrofl ustra 1.4 2.8 3.0 3.8 81 52%<br />
Kymella 1.2 4.1 0.5 0.2 50 53%<br />
encrusting bryozoans like Ellisina and Harpecia, disable<br />
<strong>the</strong> host zooids <strong>the</strong>y overgrow. Table 5 shows <strong>the</strong> diversity<br />
and density of fouling on Low Island species compared<br />
with th<strong>at</strong> on NE Atlantic Flustra foliacea, as studied by<br />
Stebbing (1971a). The overall number of taxa and number<br />
of epizoans per colony was lower for all <strong>the</strong> Low Island<br />
species studied than for Flustra. However, when <strong>the</strong><br />
number of epizoans per square centimeter was calcul<strong>at</strong>ed,<br />
two species, Austrofl ustra (1.10/cm 2 ) and Kymella (1.2/<br />
cm 2 ), were in <strong>the</strong> same range as Flustra foliacea (1.0/cm 2 ).<br />
Barnes (1994) studied <strong>the</strong> epibiota of two erect species,<br />
Alleofl ustra tenuis and Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a, from<br />
shallow (36– 40 m) and deeper (150 m) habit<strong>at</strong>s <strong>at</strong> Signy<br />
Island. The frontal surface of Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra showed fewer<br />
colonizers than <strong>the</strong> abfrontal surface, and for both species<br />
<strong>the</strong> amount of fouling decreased <strong>to</strong> almost zero <strong>at</strong> 150 m.<br />
The number of taxa encrusting both species was also low<br />
(median � 3.0 for Alleofl ustra and 2.0 for Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra).<br />
Our methods were somewh<strong>at</strong> different, but it appears<br />
th<strong>at</strong> overall diversity of epibiotic taxa was higher <strong>at</strong> Low<br />
Island, but <strong>the</strong> diversity of epibiotic bryozoan taxa was<br />
much higher <strong>at</strong> Signy Island.<br />
Food Sources<br />
Gut contents of <strong>the</strong> bryozoans studied are summarized<br />
in Table 6. Each au<strong>to</strong>zooid polypide has a mouth <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
base of <strong>the</strong> lophophore funnel. Mouth size is slightly variable,<br />
as <strong>the</strong> mouth expands and contracts slightly with particle<br />
swallowing, but it is closely correl<strong>at</strong>ed with zooid size<br />
(Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1977). These Antarctic species had large mouths<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> species from warmer w<strong>at</strong>er but, somewh<strong>at</strong> surprisingly,<br />
were still feeding primarily on very small plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
cells, mostly tiny di<strong>at</strong>oms and dark, rough-walled cysts<br />
less than 20 �m in size, probably resting stages of ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
choanofl agell<strong>at</strong>es (Marchant, 1985; Marchant and McEldowny,<br />
1986) or di<strong>at</strong>oms (Bodungen et al., 1986). Most of<br />
<strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n component of <strong>the</strong>ir diet was thus within<br />
<strong>the</strong> nanoplank<strong>to</strong>n, a size range which has been shown <strong>to</strong><br />
account for much of <strong>the</strong> primary productivity in some areas<br />
of Antarctic seas (Bracher, 1999; Knox, 2007). The Bransfi<br />
eld Strait area is an important breeding ground for krill,<br />
which feed on larger plank<strong>to</strong>n. Nanoplank<strong>to</strong>n and picoplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions increase as microplank<strong>to</strong>n blooms<br />
diminish (Varela et al., 2002). Some studies have found<br />
TABLE 4. Dominant epizoans <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> dominant Low Island bryozoan species; a “�” indic<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong>ir presence on a particular bryozoan<br />
species.<br />
Epizoan organisms Carbasea Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra Flustra Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum Kymella<br />
Foraminiferans � � �<br />
Di<strong>at</strong>oms �<br />
Hydroids � �<br />
Stalked barnacles � �<br />
Beania livings<strong>to</strong>nei � �<br />
Harpecia spinosissima �<br />
Ellisina antarctica � �<br />
Osthimosia sp. �<br />
Cyclos<strong>to</strong>me bryozoans �
nanoplank<strong>to</strong>n making up 83% of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n carbon<br />
in February and March (Kang and Lee, 1995). Sediments<br />
in <strong>the</strong> peninsula are also rich in organic m<strong>at</strong>ter (Bodungen<br />
et al., 1989). Benthic microalgae (Vincent, 1988; Gilbert,<br />
1991) may also be important in areas reached by light.<br />
The bryozoans studied also ingested large amounts<br />
of “brown particul<strong>at</strong>e m<strong>at</strong>erial.” This m<strong>at</strong>erial contained<br />
chlorophyll and may have been derived from <strong>the</strong> fecal pellets<br />
of zooplank<strong>to</strong>n or those of o<strong>the</strong>r benthos. Fecal m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
could also have derived from benthos (Nöthig and von<br />
Bodungen, 1989; T<strong>at</strong>ián et al., 2004). Feeding on dead organisms<br />
or fecal m<strong>at</strong>erial has been shown <strong>to</strong> occur in o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Antarctic animals and may aid <strong>the</strong>m in surviving seasons<br />
of low food supply. Sediment particles may indic<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
importance of an advected food supply, as Gutt (2007)<br />
has specul<strong>at</strong>ed, which might explain <strong>the</strong> sediment grains<br />
found in bryozoan gut contents.<br />
Some food resource besides phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n seems<br />
likely <strong>to</strong> be part of Antarctic bryozoan life his<strong>to</strong>ries. Polypides<br />
of colonies of all species we observed were still actively<br />
feeding <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of our stay in l<strong>at</strong>e April. This is in<br />
keeping with <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions made by Barnes and Clarke<br />
(1994), who moni<strong>to</strong>red colony activity every month for<br />
a two-year period <strong>at</strong> Signy Island. Most bryozoans <strong>the</strong>y<br />
observed s<strong>to</strong>pped feeding for only a two- <strong>to</strong> three-month<br />
period in mid– austral winter.<br />
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 215<br />
TABLE 5. Diversity and density of epizoans fouling Low Island bryozoans compared with fouling on nor<strong>the</strong>ast Atlantic Flustra foliacea.<br />
Species Number of epizoic taxa Mean number of epizoans/colony Mean number/cm 2 of colony surface<br />
Carbasea ovoidea 9 28 0.56<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a 13 14 0.24<br />
Austrofl ustra vulgaris 12 36 1.10<br />
Himan<strong>to</strong>zoum antarcticum 9 9 —<br />
Kymella polaris 9 28 1.2<br />
Flustra foliacea 42 558 1.0<br />
TABLE 6. Gut contents of Low Island bryozoans.<br />
Species Mean mouth size (�m) Dominant particle types a Particle size range (�m)<br />
Carbasea ovoidea 59 BPM, di<strong>at</strong>oms, cysts 3– 66<br />
Austrofl ustra vulgaris 96 BPM, cysts 3– 45<br />
Kymella polaris 94 BPM, sediment grains 6– 60<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a 87 Cysts, di<strong>at</strong>oms 9– 69<br />
Beania livings<strong>to</strong>nei 114 BPM, di<strong>at</strong>oms, cysts, sediment grains 3– 93<br />
a BPM � brown particul<strong>at</strong>e m<strong>at</strong>erial.<br />
Habit<strong>at</strong> and Ecosystem Role<br />
The primary role of bryozoans in <strong>the</strong> Low Island ecosystem<br />
appeared <strong>to</strong> be th<strong>at</strong> of habit<strong>at</strong> and foraging ground<br />
for demersal fi sh and motile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es. To assess <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
importance in th<strong>at</strong> regard, we selected three large clusters<br />
of Carbasea ovoidea from a single trawl and immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
immersed <strong>the</strong>m in large jars of seaw<strong>at</strong>er formalin <strong>to</strong> kill<br />
and preserve <strong>the</strong>ir inhabitants for l<strong>at</strong>er analysis. Table 7<br />
shows <strong>the</strong> results. When living, <strong>the</strong>se clumps contained<br />
about 0.09 m 3 of habit<strong>at</strong> space (in overall volume, not<br />
counting areas of each frond) and held almost 500 individual<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es. Most were arthropods (81.6%), of<br />
which amphipods comprised <strong>the</strong> majority: 345 individuals<br />
(69.6%). Nem<strong>at</strong>odes were <strong>the</strong> next largest group present,<br />
with 54 individuals (10.8%). O<strong>the</strong>r motile and sessile<br />
groups made up <strong>the</strong> remainder of <strong>the</strong> inhabitants. Most<br />
of <strong>the</strong>m fi gure in <strong>the</strong> diets of demersal fi shes and benthic<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula region (Targett,<br />
1981; Daniels, 1982).<br />
Figure 6 is a diagramm<strong>at</strong>ic represent<strong>at</strong>ion of a Low<br />
Island food web, placing <strong>the</strong> bryozoans within it as part<br />
of <strong>the</strong> link <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> benthos. The major role of bryozoans<br />
within <strong>the</strong> Low Island ecosystem is as a three-dimensional,<br />
layered habit<strong>at</strong> and shelter for <strong>the</strong> small invertebr<strong>at</strong>es on<br />
which larger demersal fi sh and benthic invertebr<strong>at</strong>es feed
216 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
TABLE 7. Animals inhabiting three Carbasea ovoidea colonies<br />
collected <strong>at</strong> Low Island.<br />
Group Number of specimens<br />
Amphipods 345<br />
Nem<strong>at</strong>odes 54<br />
Isopods 41<br />
Pycnogonids 19<br />
Ascidians 17<br />
Bivalves 12<br />
Holothurians 4<br />
Sponges 2<br />
Sipunculans 1<br />
Asteroids 1<br />
Total 496<br />
and a part of <strong>the</strong> epibenthic nursery ground for juveniles<br />
of demersal fi sh and motile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es. Along with<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sessile epifauna, <strong>the</strong>y may also provide large epibiotic<br />
fi lter-feeding invertebr<strong>at</strong>es with a higher perch and<br />
better access <strong>to</strong> food (Gutt and Shickan, 1998). The bryozoans<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves are suspension-feeding consumers of microplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
and nanoplank<strong>to</strong>n, as well as fecal m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
or detritus supplied from above <strong>the</strong>ir colonies. They may<br />
also play a minor role as a food source for single-zooid<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors and a few fi sh and invertebr<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
FIGURE 6. Low Island food web. Diagramm<strong>at</strong>ic represent<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
links between benthic and pelagic communities.<br />
BEHAVIOR OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS<br />
Morphological studies of avicularia and vibracula<br />
(Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1984) and behavioral studies carried out with<br />
living colonies (Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1991) have shown how different<br />
polymorphs, including those of Antarctic species, function<br />
within colonies. These functions include sweeping debris<br />
from zooids and colonies, protecting <strong>the</strong> colony from<br />
trespassers, and capturing motile organisms and possible<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors.<br />
NEMATOFLUSTRA— VIBRACULA<br />
Distal <strong>to</strong> each au<strong>to</strong>zooid of Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra fl agell<strong>at</strong>a is<br />
a vibraculum zooid with a long, curved, bristle-like mandible<br />
(Figure 7a). Mechanical stimul<strong>at</strong>ion or <strong>the</strong> vibr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of a small organism, such as a pycnogonid or polychaete,<br />
triggered a wave of vibracular movement over a part or all<br />
of <strong>the</strong> colony surface. The circumrotary reversal of <strong>the</strong> vibracula<br />
mandibles was sequentially synchronized <strong>at</strong> fi rst,<br />
traveling proximally from <strong>the</strong> branch tip, but l<strong>at</strong>er waves<br />
became less synchronous. The waves of moving setae effectively<br />
carried organisms or debris from <strong>the</strong> branches<br />
(Figure 7b) (Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1991).<br />
BEANIA— BIRD’S HEAD AVICULARIA<br />
Unlike sessile avicularia and vibracula, <strong>the</strong> peduncul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
(bird’s head) avicularia found in <strong>the</strong> cellularine group<br />
of bryozoans close and open mandibles frequently, even<br />
when undisturbed, showing a species-specifi c p<strong>at</strong>tern of<br />
ongoing activity. For example, in Beania livings<strong>to</strong>nei (Figure<br />
7c) <strong>the</strong> avicularium bends forward on its peduncle,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n snaps back in<strong>to</strong> an upright position, while <strong>the</strong> mandible<br />
closes. Once <strong>the</strong> avicularium is upright, <strong>the</strong> mandible<br />
slowly reopens. Although <strong>the</strong> avicularian movements did<br />
not increase in <strong>the</strong> presence of trespassers, <strong>the</strong>ir activity<br />
was still effective as organisms caught by one avicularium<br />
were usually captured by <strong>the</strong> mandibles of several more in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir struggles <strong>to</strong> free <strong>the</strong>mselves (e.g., Figure 7d). Some<br />
were eventually able <strong>to</strong> pull free, detaching <strong>the</strong> avicularia<br />
from <strong>the</strong>ir peduncles in <strong>the</strong> process (Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1991).<br />
CAMPTOPLITES— LONG-STALKED BIRD’S HEAD AVICULARIA<br />
The long-stalked avicularia of Camp<strong>to</strong>plites species<br />
(Figure 7e) show an even more complex p<strong>at</strong>tern. The long,<br />
slender peduncles of <strong>the</strong>se avicularia sway slowly back<br />
and forth across <strong>the</strong> frontal surface of colony branches. As<br />
<strong>the</strong>y sway, <strong>the</strong> mandibles of <strong>the</strong> avicularia snap open and
SYSTEMATICS AND BIOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC BRYOZOANS 217<br />
FIGURE 7. Avicularia and vibracula of some Antarctic bryozoan species studied. (a) Living branch of Nem<strong>at</strong>ofl ustra with vibracula in undisturbed<br />
position. (b) Vibracula-sweeping polychaete from colony surface (still pho<strong>to</strong> from video). (c) Beania livings<strong>to</strong>nei. Arrow points <strong>to</strong><br />
one of <strong>the</strong> bird’s head avicularia. (d) Nem<strong>at</strong>ode caught by several avicularia (still pho<strong>to</strong> from video). (e) Long-stalked bird’s head avicularia of<br />
Camp<strong>to</strong>plites colony. (f) Worm speared by one of <strong>the</strong> sharp-pointed mandibles of Micropora brevissima. Tiny arrow points <strong>to</strong> mandible inside<br />
worm’s translucent body.
218 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WINSTON<br />
shut. They show no increase in activity when a trespassing<br />
organism <strong>to</strong>uches <strong>the</strong> branches, but when a mandible<br />
intercepts an object soft and narrow enough <strong>to</strong> grasp (such<br />
as a polychaete chaeta or arthropod appendage), it snaps<br />
shut upon it. The swaying activity <strong>the</strong>n carries <strong>the</strong> organism<br />
<strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> edge of <strong>the</strong> colony (Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1991).<br />
MICROPORA— SESSILE AVICULARIA<br />
Micropora brevissima (Figure 7f) has sessile avicularia<br />
with sharply pointed mandibles. In avicularia of this type,<br />
<strong>the</strong> bodies of <strong>the</strong> avicularia are fi xed on <strong>the</strong> colony, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir mandibles close rarely, remaining in an open position<br />
even when zooid opercula are shut. The mandible shuts in<br />
response <strong>to</strong> physical stimuli, probing, jarring, or vibr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of pal<strong>at</strong>e or mandible. Despite <strong>the</strong>ir small size, such avicularia<br />
are able <strong>to</strong> capture and hold rel<strong>at</strong>ively large trespassers<br />
by <strong>the</strong>ir appendages, e.g., cirri of polychaetes or legs of<br />
amphipods or pycnogonids. During observ<strong>at</strong>ions of living<br />
colonies of this species carried out <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion, avicularia<br />
of Micropora captured several annelids and held<br />
<strong>the</strong>m despite <strong>the</strong>ir much gre<strong>at</strong>er size (Wins<strong>to</strong>n, 1991).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Antarctic bryozoans are taxonomically rich and, like<br />
many o<strong>the</strong>r Antarctic organisms, show a high degree of<br />
endemism. Preliminary analysis of USARP bryozoan collections<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea and Antarctic Peninsula yielded<br />
222 species from all three marine orders: fi ve ctenos<strong>to</strong>mes,<br />
28 cyclos<strong>to</strong>mes, and 189 cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes. Hayward (1995)<br />
studied Antarctic cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes, primarily from British<br />
Antarctic research programs but also including some inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
from USARP collections. He listed 264 species<br />
of cheilos<strong>to</strong>mes, of which 215 (81%) were endemic.<br />
Moyano (2005) <strong>to</strong>ok a different approach in summarizing<br />
taxonomic research on Antarctic bryozoans through<br />
2004. He included taxa from all three orders, but some<br />
of his <strong>to</strong>tals included subantarctic species. His list <strong>to</strong>taled<br />
315 species, 250 (79%) of which were endemic.<br />
Antarctic bryozoans are abundant. It is hard <strong>to</strong> fi nd a<br />
published underw<strong>at</strong>er benthic pho<strong>to</strong>graph from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
in which a bryozoan colony cannot be seen, and<br />
in many areas, <strong>the</strong>ir skele<strong>to</strong>ns, along with sponge spicules<br />
and glacial pebbles, make up a signifi cant component of<br />
<strong>the</strong> sediment. As shown in results from work <strong>at</strong> Low Island<br />
and elsewhere, bryozoans play a signifi cant role in benthic<br />
ecosystems, providing habit<strong>at</strong> and foraging ground as well<br />
as a minor food resource for fi sh and motile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> erect, branching, and foliose bryozoans which<br />
form such three-dimensional habit<strong>at</strong>s are perennial, with<br />
life spans lasting several years, perhaps several decades.<br />
Their growth r<strong>at</strong>es are slow and <strong>the</strong>ir fecundity low. Carbasea<br />
ovoidea, <strong>the</strong> exception <strong>to</strong> this p<strong>at</strong>tern <strong>at</strong> Low Island,<br />
is a species whose nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost range extends in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> subantarctic and probably reaches <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost<br />
extent of its range somewhere along <strong>the</strong> peninsula (Hayward,<br />
1995).<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic fi sh and many o<strong>the</strong>r benthic invertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
th<strong>at</strong> feed among <strong>the</strong> bryozoans are similarly<br />
slow growing and long-lived. Their survival has depended<br />
on long-term stability of <strong>the</strong>ir environment. Two fac<strong>to</strong>rs,<br />
trawling (illegal fi shing), which has already decim<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
s<strong>to</strong>cks of <strong>the</strong> most desirable fi sh species, and global clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change, could have severe consequences for such<br />
communities.<br />
The impact of clim<strong>at</strong>e change will differ depending<br />
on <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ure scenario. As pointed out by Th<strong>at</strong>je et<br />
al. (2005), <strong>the</strong> lowering of temper<strong>at</strong>ures, leading <strong>to</strong> a glacial<br />
period, could almost completely elimin<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> benthic<br />
fauna of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic shelf and slope. Increasing temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
(as seen <strong>to</strong>day, especially in <strong>the</strong> West Antarctic) will<br />
probably lead <strong>to</strong> enhanced diversity in a few habit<strong>at</strong>s (e.g.,<br />
<strong>the</strong> intertidal zone of <strong>the</strong> peninsula) but also <strong>to</strong> a change in<br />
present-day communities due <strong>to</strong> human impact and temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
stress. Human impact, including increased travel,<br />
both scientifi c and <strong>to</strong>uristic, will increase <strong>the</strong> likelihood<br />
of ship fouling (Lewis et al., 2005; Barnes and Conlan,<br />
2007). In addition, an increase in growth r<strong>at</strong>e with higher<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures has already been detected in one bryozoan,<br />
Cellarinella nutti (Barnes et al., 2006).<br />
As Collie et al. (2000) noted in <strong>the</strong>ir analysis of <strong>the</strong><br />
impacts of fi shing on shelf benthos, <strong>the</strong>re are large gaps in<br />
our knowledge of <strong>the</strong> effects of trawling on three-dimensional<br />
epifaunal communities. Reduction in habit<strong>at</strong> complexity<br />
caused by intensive bot<strong>to</strong>m fi shing may have longterm<br />
neg<strong>at</strong>ive consequences for fi sh communities (loss of<br />
nest sites and nursery and breeding grounds).<br />
Although benthic habit<strong>at</strong>s with a high degree of structural<br />
heterogeneity occur in areas besides Antarctica, such<br />
as New Zealand (Brads<strong>to</strong>ck and Gordon, 1983; B<strong>at</strong>son<br />
and Probert, 2000) and Helgoland (de Kluijver, 1991),<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are rare. In only one (Tasman Bay, New Zealand)<br />
have erect bryozoan communities been protected in an <strong>at</strong>tempt<br />
<strong>to</strong> res<strong>to</strong>re a fi shery (Brads<strong>to</strong>ck and Gordon, 1983).<br />
Finally, despite all <strong>the</strong> biological work th<strong>at</strong> has occurred<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic since <strong>the</strong> 1980s, we still have a<br />
very poor idea of <strong>the</strong> link between wh<strong>at</strong> happens in pelagic<br />
communities and <strong>the</strong> benthos. A solid understanding
of benthic-pelagic coupling, fac<strong>to</strong>ring in life his<strong>to</strong>ries of<br />
structural epibenthos and <strong>the</strong>ir epibionts as well as resting<br />
stages of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n, importance of fecal pellets, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> role of benthic meiofauna in food chains and shelf ecosystems,<br />
has hardly begun (Marcus and Boero, 1998).<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Thanks go <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> staff members of SOSC and staff and<br />
volunteers <strong>at</strong> American Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry and<br />
Virginia Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, who sorted thousands<br />
of specimens, and <strong>to</strong> my colleagues Peter J. Hayward, University<br />
of Wales, Swansea, for making several trips <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
United St<strong>at</strong>es <strong>to</strong> work on <strong>the</strong> collections with me, sorting,<br />
identifying, and verifying preliminary identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, and<br />
Beverly Heimberg, American Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
for her work with me <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion and American Museum<br />
of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry. Thanks also go <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution for <strong>the</strong> loan of <strong>the</strong> specimens and several SOSC<br />
and Invertebr<strong>at</strong>e Biology contracts th<strong>at</strong> helped support <strong>the</strong><br />
sorting, identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, and c<strong>at</strong>aloging of results and <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion for NSF grant DPP-8318457<br />
(1984), which supported <strong>the</strong> work on ecology and behavior<br />
of living Antarctic bryozoans. Thanks <strong>to</strong> support staff<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r scientists <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion in l<strong>at</strong>e summer and fall of<br />
1985 and <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> crew of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Duke for <strong>the</strong>ir logistical<br />
support and entertainment.<br />
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———. 1984. Why Bryozoans Have Avicularia— A Review of <strong>the</strong> Evidence.<br />
American Museum Novit<strong>at</strong>es, 2789: 1– 26.<br />
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———. 1991. Avicularian Behavior— A Progress Report. Bulletin de la<br />
Société des Sciences N<strong>at</strong>urelles de l’Ouest de la France, Mémoire,<br />
HS 1: 531– 540.<br />
Wins<strong>to</strong>n, J. E., and A. W. Bernheimer. 1986. Haemolytic Activity in an<br />
Antarctic Bryozoan. Journal of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry, 20: 69– 374.<br />
Wins<strong>to</strong>n, J. E., and P. J. Hayward. 1994. “Bryozoa of <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic<br />
Research Program: A Preliminary Report.” In Biology and Paleobiology<br />
of Bryozoans, ed. P. J. Hayward, J. S. Ryland, and P. D.<br />
Taylor, pp. 205– 210. Fredensborg, Denmark: Olsen & Olsen.<br />
Wins<strong>to</strong>n, J. E., and B. F. Heimberg. 1988. The Role of Bryozoans in <strong>the</strong><br />
Benthic Community <strong>at</strong> Low Island, Antarctica. Antarctic Journal of<br />
<strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es, 21: 188– 189.
Consider<strong>at</strong>ions of An<strong>at</strong>omy,<br />
Morphology, Evolution, and<br />
Function for Narwhal Dentition<br />
Martin T. Nweeia, Frederick C. Eichmiller,<br />
Cornelius Nutarak, Naomi Eidelman,<br />
Anthony A. Giuseppetti, Janet Quinn, James<br />
G. Mead, Kaviqanguak K’issuk, Peter V.<br />
Hauschka, Ethan M. Tyler, Charles Potter,<br />
Jack R. Orr, Rasmus Avike, Pavia Nielsen,<br />
and David Angn<strong>at</strong>siak<br />
Martin T. Nweeia, Harvard University, School of<br />
Dental Medicine, Bos<strong>to</strong>n, MA, USA. Cornelius<br />
Nutarak and David Angn<strong>at</strong>siak, Community<br />
of Mittim<strong>at</strong>ilik, Nunavut, Canada. Frederick C.<br />
Eichmiller, Delta Dental of Wisconsin, Stevens<br />
Point, WI, USA. Naomi Eidelman, Anthony A.<br />
Giuseppetti, and Janet Quinn, ADAF Paffenbarger<br />
Research Center, N<strong>at</strong>ional Institute of Standards<br />
and Technology, Gai<strong>the</strong>rsburg, MD, USA.<br />
James G. Mead and Charles Potter, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, Division of Mammals, Department of<br />
Zoology, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC, USA. Kaviqanguak<br />
K’issuk and Rasmus Avike, Community of Qaanaaq,<br />
Greenland. Peter V. Hauschka, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, Division of Mammals, Department of<br />
Zoology, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC, USA. Ethan M. Tyler,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Institutes of Health, Clinical Center,<br />
Be<strong>the</strong>sda, MD, USA. Jack R. Orr, Fisheries and<br />
Oceans Canada, Arctic Research Division, Winnipeg,<br />
MB, Canada. Pavia Nielsen, Community of<br />
Uummannaq, Greenland. Corresponding author:<br />
M. T. Nweeia (martin_nweeia@hsdm.harvard.<br />
edu). Accepted 19 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Interdisciplinary studies of narwhal cranial and <strong>to</strong>oth an<strong>at</strong>omy are combined<br />
with Inuit traditional knowledge <strong>to</strong> render a more complete description of <strong>to</strong>oth- rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
structures and <strong>to</strong> propose a new hypo<strong>the</strong>sis for tusk function in <strong>the</strong> adult male. Gross<br />
an<strong>at</strong>omy fi ndings from computed <strong>to</strong>mography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging<br />
and dissections of an adult male and female and one fetus, four <strong>to</strong> six months in development,<br />
were documented. Computed <strong>to</strong>mography scans rendered images of <strong>the</strong> tusks and<br />
vestigial teeth and <strong>the</strong>ir shared sources of innerv<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> tusks. Paired and<br />
asymmetrical tusks and vestigial teeth were observed in all three samples, and <strong>the</strong>ir rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
positions reversed during development. Vestigial teeth shifted anteriorly during growth,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> developing tusks moved posteriorly as <strong>the</strong>y developed. Examin<strong>at</strong>ion of tusk microan<strong>at</strong>omy<br />
revealed <strong>the</strong> presence of a dentinal tubule network with lumena approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
2 micrometers in diameter and 10– 20 micrometers apart over <strong>the</strong> pulpal and erupted tusk<br />
surfaces. Orifi ces were present on <strong>the</strong> cementum surface indic<strong>at</strong>ing direct communic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and sensory capability from <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> inner pulpal wall. Flexural strength of<br />
95 MPa <strong>at</strong> mid tusk and 165 MPa <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base indic<strong>at</strong>ed resistance <strong>to</strong> high fl exural stresses.<br />
Inuit knowledge describes a tusk with remarkable and combined strength and fl exibility.<br />
Elder observ<strong>at</strong>ions of an<strong>at</strong>omy are described by variable phenotypes and classifi ed by skin<br />
color<strong>at</strong>ion, sex, and tusk expression. Behavioral observ<strong>at</strong>ions of males leading seasonal<br />
migr<strong>at</strong>ion groups, nonaggressive tusk encounters, and frequent sightings of smaller groups<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ed by sex add <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> discussion of tusk function.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The narwhal is unique among <strong>to</strong>o<strong>the</strong>d marine mammals and exhibits unusual<br />
fe<strong>at</strong>ures, which are described in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure (Figure 1). A single 2– 3 m tusk is<br />
characteristic of adult males (Tomlin, 1967). Tusks are horizontally imbedded in
224 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
<strong>the</strong> upper jaw and erupt through <strong>the</strong> left side of <strong>the</strong> maxillary<br />
bone, while <strong>the</strong> smaller tusk on <strong>the</strong> right side, usually<br />
not longer than 30 cm, remains embedded in <strong>the</strong> bone.<br />
Narwhal thus exhibit an extreme form of dental asymmetry<br />
(Hay and Mansfi eld, 1989; Harrison and King, 1965). One<br />
and a half percent of narwhal exhibit double tusks. Such<br />
expression is marked by a right tusk th<strong>at</strong> is slightly shorter<br />
than <strong>the</strong> left (Fraser, 1938) and has <strong>the</strong> same left-handed<br />
helix surface morphology (Clark, 1871; Gervais, 1873;<br />
Thompson, 1952). An expected tusk antemere would be<br />
equal in size and have a mirror-imaged morphology. Thus,<br />
narwhal dental asymmetry is uncharacteristic in size and<br />
shape. Only in rare instances, such as <strong>the</strong> fossil record of<br />
Odobenocep<strong>to</strong>ps peruvianus, a walrus-like cetacean hypo<strong>the</strong>sized<br />
<strong>to</strong> be in <strong>the</strong> Delphinoidae family and possibly rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> Monodontidae, does such tusk asymmetry exist<br />
(de Muizon et al., 1999; de Muizon and Domning, 2002).<br />
Thus, narwhal dental asymmetry is uncharacteristic in size<br />
and shape.<br />
FIGURE 1. Male narwhal whales with <strong>the</strong>ir characteristic tusks.<br />
Erupted tusks pierce through <strong>the</strong> lip, while <strong>the</strong> embedded<br />
tusk remains in bone. Tusk surface morphology is distinguished<br />
by a characteristic left-handed helix (Kingsley<br />
and Ramsay, 1988; Brear et al., 1990) rarely seen in o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
tusked mammals, with <strong>the</strong> exception of unusual examples<br />
like elephants th<strong>at</strong> undergo trauma shortly after birth<br />
and develop spiraled tusks (Busch, 1890; Colyer, 1915;<br />
Goe<strong>the</strong>, 1949). Most male narwhal have a tusk, while only<br />
15% of females have a tusk (Roberge and Dunn, 1990).<br />
When exhibited, female tusks are shorter and narrower<br />
than male tusks (Clark, 1871; Pedersen, 1931). Narwhal<br />
tusk expression is thus an unusual example of sexual dimorphism<br />
in mammalian teeth. Compar<strong>at</strong>ive fi ndings<br />
are limited for o<strong>the</strong>r beaked whales th<strong>at</strong> exhibit sexually<br />
dimorphic teeth (Heyning, 1984; Mead, 1989). Fetal narwhal<br />
develop six pairs of maxillary teeth and two pairs of<br />
mandibular teeth. Only two pairs of upper teeth form in<br />
<strong>the</strong> adult narwhal, <strong>the</strong> second pair being vestigial and serving<br />
no known function.
Many <strong>the</strong>ories have been hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong><br />
purpose and function of <strong>the</strong> erupted tusk. Proposed explan<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
include a weapon of aggression between males<br />
(Brown, 1868; Beddard, 1900; Lowe, 1906; Geist et al.,<br />
1960), a secondary sexual characteristic <strong>to</strong> establish social<br />
hierarchy among males (Scoresby, 1820; Hartwig,1874;<br />
Mansfi eld et al., 1975; Silverman and Dunbar, 1980),<br />
an instrument for breaking ice (Scoresby, 1820; Tomlin,<br />
1967), a spear for hunting (Vibe, 1950; Harrison and<br />
King, 1965; Bruemmer, 1993:64; Ellis, 1980), a bre<strong>at</strong>hing<br />
organ, a <strong>the</strong>rmal regul<strong>at</strong>or, a swimming rudder (Kingsley<br />
and Ramsay, 1988), a <strong>to</strong>ol for digging (Freuchen, 1935;<br />
Pederson, 1960; Newman, 1971), and an acoustic organ<br />
or sound probe (Best, 1981; Reeves and Mitchell, 1981).<br />
Examin<strong>at</strong>ion of tusk an<strong>at</strong>omy, his<strong>to</strong>logy, and biomechanics<br />
combined with traditional knowledge of Inuit elders<br />
and hunters has revealed fe<strong>at</strong>ures th<strong>at</strong> support a new<br />
sensory hypo<strong>the</strong>sis for tusk function (Nweeia et al., 2005).<br />
Narwhal tusk reaction and response <strong>to</strong> varying salinity gradients<br />
introduced during fi eld experiments support this.<br />
GROSS CRANIAL AND TOOTH ANATOMY<br />
Three narwhal head samples, obtained during legal<br />
Inuit harvests in 2003 and 2005 were examined by computerized<br />
axial <strong>to</strong>mography and magnetic resonance imaging<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n dissected. They included one adult male,<br />
one adult female, and one fetal specimen between four<br />
and six months in its development. The department of radiology<br />
<strong>at</strong> Johns Hopkins Hospital conducted computed<br />
<strong>to</strong>mography (CT) scans on all three specimens using a Siemens<br />
Medical Solutions SOMATOM Sens<strong>at</strong>ion Cardiac<br />
64. The scanner gener<strong>at</strong>ed 0.5-mm-thick slices on each of<br />
<strong>the</strong> three specimens. Original d<strong>at</strong>a from <strong>the</strong>se scans has<br />
been archived <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. M<strong>at</strong>erialize<br />
Mimics 8.0 and Discreet 3D Studio Max 7 was used<br />
<strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e digital 3-D models of narwhal dental an<strong>at</strong>omy.<br />
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was also used <strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and visualize narwhal dental an<strong>at</strong>omy. Scientists<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Institutes of Health MRI Research Facility<br />
conducted MRI on <strong>the</strong> thawed narwhal heads. D<strong>at</strong>a<br />
from MRI assisted verifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of known cranial an<strong>at</strong>omy<br />
and enabled examin<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>to</strong>oth vascul<strong>at</strong>ure. The narwhal<br />
heads were dissected <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Osteo-Prep Labor<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, and digital pho<strong>to</strong>graphs<br />
were taken <strong>to</strong> record an<strong>at</strong>omical landmarks and fe<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
of gross an<strong>at</strong>omy.<br />
The skull of <strong>the</strong> fetus was 6.23 cm in length and<br />
4.96 cm in width <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> most distal points on its frontal<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 225<br />
bones (Figure 2). Computed <strong>to</strong>mography d<strong>at</strong>a were collected<br />
for <strong>the</strong> entire body of <strong>the</strong> fetus, though only <strong>the</strong><br />
head was investig<strong>at</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong> purpose of this research.<br />
The <strong>to</strong>tal length of <strong>the</strong> specimen was 31.68 cm. Calcifi -<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion of major bones of <strong>the</strong> skull was incomplete in <strong>the</strong><br />
fetal narwhal specimen. The <strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> skull was smoothly<br />
rounded, with a large anterior fontanelle, and <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
l<strong>at</strong>eral vacuities where ossifi c<strong>at</strong>ion was incomplete. Most<br />
of <strong>the</strong> main membrane bones were present <strong>at</strong> this stage.<br />
The nasal bones were small elliptical bones positioned on<br />
<strong>the</strong> summit of <strong>the</strong> head dorsal <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tectum nasi; <strong>the</strong>y<br />
did not make medial contact. The premaxillae were long,<br />
narrow shafts of bone medial <strong>to</strong> maxillae. The maxillae<br />
were large bones th<strong>at</strong> were excav<strong>at</strong>ed anteroventrally <strong>to</strong><br />
form two conspicuous pairs of <strong>to</strong>oth sockets, or alveoli.<br />
The maxillae overlapped <strong>the</strong> frontal bones. Pre- and pos<strong>to</strong>rbital<br />
processes were well developed. The parietal bones<br />
were small l<strong>at</strong>eral bones th<strong>at</strong> made contact with frontal<br />
FIGURE 2. A drawing made from CT scans of <strong>the</strong> skull and teeth of<br />
a narwhal fetus showing <strong>the</strong> positions of <strong>the</strong> teeth.
226 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
bones on <strong>the</strong>ir anterior borders. As some of <strong>the</strong> bone was<br />
very thin and articul<strong>at</strong>ed with cartilage, digital models of<br />
<strong>the</strong> specimen had some minor artifacts.<br />
Two pairs of teeth were evident in <strong>the</strong> upper jaw of <strong>the</strong><br />
fetal narwhal specimen. Future tusks and vestigial teeth<br />
were loc<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong>ir respective sockets in <strong>the</strong> maxillary<br />
bones. The future tusks were loc<strong>at</strong>ed anteromedially <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vestigial pair of teeth. These moved in a posterior direction<br />
during development, forming <strong>the</strong> two large tusks in<br />
<strong>the</strong> adult narwhal (Figure 3). In <strong>the</strong> male, <strong>the</strong> left future<br />
tusk usually becomes <strong>the</strong> erupted tusk, and <strong>the</strong> right tusk<br />
typically remains embedded in <strong>the</strong> maxilla. The future<br />
tusks exhibited asymmetry, with <strong>the</strong> right being 0.44 cm<br />
FIGURE 3. A drawing showing <strong>the</strong> migr<strong>at</strong>ion and reversal of position<br />
of <strong>the</strong> teeth from fetus <strong>to</strong> adult th<strong>at</strong> occurs during development.<br />
in length and 0.38 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point and <strong>the</strong><br />
left being 0.36 cm length and 0.36 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest<br />
point.<br />
The vestigial pair of teeth also exhibited asymmetry.<br />
The right vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth was 0.26 cm in length and 0.25<br />
cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point, and <strong>the</strong> left vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth<br />
was 0.32 cm in length and 0.25 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest<br />
point. No teeth were evident in <strong>the</strong> mandible of this fetus,<br />
though dental papillae in <strong>the</strong> lower jaw have been documented<br />
in a report th<strong>at</strong> describes up <strong>to</strong> six pairs of teeth<br />
in <strong>the</strong> upper jaw and two pairs in <strong>the</strong> lower jaw (Eales,<br />
1950). The vestigial pair of teeth and <strong>the</strong>ir shared blood<br />
and nerve supply with <strong>the</strong> tusks suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> narwhal<br />
may have exhibited <strong>at</strong> least two well-developed pairs of<br />
teeth <strong>at</strong> some point in its evolution.<br />
The head of <strong>the</strong> adult female narwhal was 55.82 cm in<br />
length and 47.90 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its base. The skull of <strong>the</strong><br />
specimen was 53.96 cm in length and 35.08 cm in width <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> bases of <strong>the</strong> embedded tusks. Like most cetaceans<br />
in <strong>the</strong> family Odon<strong>to</strong>ceti, <strong>the</strong> skull of <strong>the</strong> narwhal<br />
was asymmetrical, with bony structures skewed <strong>to</strong>ward<br />
<strong>the</strong> left side of <strong>the</strong> head.<br />
Two pairs of teeth were visible in <strong>the</strong> upper jaw of <strong>the</strong><br />
female narwhal specimen (Figures 4 and 5). Both pairs,<br />
tusks and vestigial, were found in <strong>the</strong>ir respective sockets<br />
in <strong>the</strong> maxillae. The tusks were loc<strong>at</strong>ed posteromedially <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> vestigial pair. In <strong>the</strong> female, <strong>the</strong> paired tusks typically<br />
remain embedded in <strong>the</strong> maxillae, as was <strong>the</strong> case for this<br />
specimen. The tusks exhibited asymmetry. The right tusk<br />
was 17.47 cm in length, 2.39 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its base, and<br />
0.80 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its distal end. The left tusk was 18.33<br />
cm in length, 2.06 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its base, and 1.07 cm<br />
in width <strong>at</strong> its distal end. In rare cases, <strong>the</strong> left tusk of <strong>the</strong><br />
female erupts from <strong>the</strong> maxilla. Sockets for <strong>the</strong> tusks in <strong>the</strong><br />
skull begin <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> bases of <strong>the</strong> teeth and termin<strong>at</strong>e in<br />
<strong>the</strong> most distal part of each respective maxillary bone.<br />
The vestigial pair of teeth also exhibited asymmetry.<br />
The right vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth was 2.39 cm in length and 0.98<br />
cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point. The left vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth was<br />
1.90 cm in length and 0.98 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point.<br />
Sockets for <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth began near <strong>the</strong> bases of <strong>the</strong><br />
tusks and, like <strong>the</strong> tusks, termin<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> most distal part<br />
of each maxillary bone. The right vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth slightly<br />
protruded from <strong>the</strong> bone. During dissection and prepar<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
vestigial teeth may be lost because <strong>the</strong>y are not securely<br />
embedded in <strong>the</strong> bone. There is limited document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on <strong>the</strong> presence and morphology of vestigial teeth.<br />
Evidence of developed sockets for <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth in <strong>the</strong><br />
narwhal is signifi cant, as it suggests th<strong>at</strong> this species may<br />
have exhibited <strong>at</strong> least two well-developed pairs of teeth
FIGURE 4. A three dimensional reconstruction made from CT d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
of <strong>the</strong> adult female dentition of M. monoceros showing (A) <strong>the</strong> dorsal<br />
view and (C ) l<strong>at</strong>eral view of <strong>the</strong> unerupted tusks with (B) detail<br />
of left vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth.<br />
<strong>at</strong> some point in its evolution. The two pairs of teeth also<br />
effectively reverse positions during development.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> basis of intracranial dissection of <strong>the</strong> trigeminal<br />
or fi fth cranial nerve, <strong>the</strong> optic nerve branch passed<br />
through <strong>the</strong> superior orbital fi ssure (Figure 6). The maxillary<br />
branch, a sensory nerve, passed through <strong>the</strong> foramen<br />
rotundum, and <strong>the</strong> mandibular nerve branch, a mo<strong>to</strong>r and<br />
sensory nerve, passed through <strong>the</strong> foramen ovale.<br />
The head of <strong>the</strong> male narwhal was 62.33 cm in length<br />
and 49.70 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its base. The skull of <strong>the</strong> speci-<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 227<br />
FIGURE 5. (A) L<strong>at</strong>eral view of <strong>the</strong> complete female head with coronal<br />
cuts (B) and (C). (B) shows <strong>the</strong> embedded tusks and vestigial<br />
teeth and (C) shows vestigial teeth with vascularized tusk sockets.<br />
men was 57.24 cm in length and 35.01 cm in width <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
level of <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> left tusk. Like <strong>the</strong> female narwhal,<br />
<strong>the</strong> skull of <strong>the</strong> male narwhal was asymmetrical, and bony<br />
structures skewed <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> left side of <strong>the</strong> head.
228 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 6. (A) Three dimensional reconstruction made from CT d<strong>at</strong>a showing <strong>the</strong> posterior view of <strong>the</strong> adult female M. monoceros skull with<br />
<strong>the</strong> access opening for intracranial dissection, and (B, C) a drawing from pho<strong>to</strong>graphs taken during dissection showing <strong>the</strong> nerves and foramen<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> cranial base.<br />
Two pairs of teeth were visible in <strong>the</strong> upper jaw of <strong>the</strong><br />
male narwhal specimen (Figure 7). The paired tusks were<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ed posteromedially <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> vestigial pair of teeth. As is<br />
typical with <strong>the</strong> species, <strong>the</strong> right tusk remained embedded<br />
in <strong>the</strong> skull, and <strong>the</strong> left tusk erupted from <strong>the</strong> maxilla.<br />
The right tusk was 20.81 cm in length and 2.51 cm <strong>at</strong> its<br />
base; it was 0.96 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its distal end. The left tusk<br />
was 89.62 cm in length and 4.33 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its base. It<br />
was 4.36 cm in width as it exited <strong>the</strong> maxilla, and 2.96 cm<br />
in width <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> termin<strong>at</strong>ion of CT d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>at</strong> 56.45 cm distal<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> maxilla. Bony sockets for <strong>the</strong> tusks began <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
bases of <strong>the</strong> teeth and termin<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> most distal part of<br />
each respective maxillary bone. The vestigial pair of teeth<br />
also exhibited asymmetry. Unlike <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth of <strong>the</strong><br />
female specimen, <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth of <strong>the</strong> male narwhal<br />
were not embedded in bone; <strong>the</strong>y were suspended in <strong>the</strong><br />
tissue l<strong>at</strong>eral <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> maxillae. The right vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth was<br />
0.59 cm in length and 0.21 cm in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point;<br />
<strong>the</strong> left vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth was 0.67 cm in length and 0.20 cm<br />
in width <strong>at</strong> its widest point.<br />
The Inuit classify narwhal with separ<strong>at</strong>e names on <strong>the</strong><br />
basis of skin color and tusk expression. For example, a<br />
male with black color<strong>at</strong>ion is eiJ4g6, and a male with<br />
white color<strong>at</strong>ion is cfJ4g6. Males with a shorter and<br />
wider tusk are called g]Zwg8, and those with a longer, narrower<br />
tusk and black skin color<strong>at</strong>ion are gZE8i3nw. Several<br />
Inuit from High Arctic communities in northwestern<br />
Greenland are able <strong>to</strong> recognize and differenti<strong>at</strong>e narwhal<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions from Canada and Greenland by <strong>the</strong>ir body<br />
form and <strong>the</strong>ir behavior. They describe Canadian narwhal<br />
as being narrower through <strong>the</strong> length of <strong>the</strong>ir bodies and<br />
more curious and social, while <strong>the</strong> Greenlandic narwhal
are wider and more bulbous in <strong>the</strong> anterior two thirds of<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir bodies and taper <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tail. Their personalities are<br />
described as being shyer, and thus <strong>the</strong>y are more elusive.<br />
GROSS TUSK MORPHOLOGY<br />
A 220-cm-long tusk harvested in 2003 <strong>at</strong> Pond Inlet,<br />
Nunavut, Canada, during <strong>the</strong> Inuit hunting season was<br />
sectioned in <strong>the</strong> fi eld using a reciproc<strong>at</strong>ing saw in<strong>to</strong> transverse<br />
slices averaging approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 5 cm in length. Sectioning<br />
was started approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 40 cm inside <strong>the</strong> skull<br />
from <strong>the</strong> point of tusk eruption and as close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> devel-<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 229<br />
FIGURE 7. (A) Three dimensional reconstruction made from CT d<strong>at</strong>a of <strong>the</strong> adult male dentition of M. monoceros showing <strong>the</strong> dorsal view of<br />
<strong>the</strong> fully developed tusk, <strong>the</strong> unerupted tusk, and <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth, and (B) a l<strong>at</strong>eral view of <strong>the</strong> complete head illustr<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong><br />
coronal slice <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> right vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth.<br />
oping base as possible. The sections were immersed in an<br />
aqueous solution of 0.2% sodium azide and frozen in individual<br />
serially identifi ed containers. The sections were fi rst<br />
evalu<strong>at</strong>ed for gross fe<strong>at</strong>ures and dimensions while intact,<br />
and selected specimens were fur<strong>the</strong>r sectioned for more<br />
detailed microscopy.<br />
Gross section measurements revealed an outer diameter<br />
tapering evenly from approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 6 cm <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base<br />
<strong>to</strong> 1.6 cm <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip (Figure 8). The tusk diameter increased<br />
evenly <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> point of eruption <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 175 cm<br />
from <strong>the</strong> tip and <strong>the</strong>n decreased rapidly within <strong>the</strong> skull. A<br />
regression of average outer diameter <strong>to</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong><br />
tip for <strong>the</strong> length of tusk starting <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> point of eruption
230 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 8. (<strong>to</strong>p) A plot of <strong>the</strong> average cross sectional diameter in cm of <strong>the</strong> outer surface and pulp chambers of <strong>the</strong> sectioned tusk as a function<br />
of distance from <strong>the</strong> tip. (bot<strong>to</strong>m) Pho<strong>to</strong>graph shows pulpal tissue removed from an intact tusk.<br />
resulted in an equ<strong>at</strong>ion yielding <strong>the</strong> average diameter in<br />
centimeters as follows: Diameter � 1.75 � 0.025 � (distance<br />
from tip), with an R 2 value of 0.989.<br />
The average pulp chamber diameter is shown in lower<br />
plot of <strong>the</strong> graph in Figure 8 and does not mirror <strong>the</strong> linear<br />
trend of <strong>the</strong> outer diameter. The chamber tapers evenly for<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst 100 cm from <strong>the</strong> tip and <strong>the</strong>n reaches a pl<strong>at</strong>eau of<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 1.75 cm for <strong>the</strong> next 50 cm and decreases<br />
in diameter slightly <strong>at</strong> 150 <strong>to</strong> 175 cm from <strong>the</strong> tip. The<br />
pulp diameter increases dram<strong>at</strong>ically over <strong>the</strong> last 10 cm<br />
<strong>at</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> tusk. Soft tissue remnants were visible in<br />
<strong>the</strong> pulp chamber of all <strong>the</strong> frozen sections. A pho<strong>to</strong> of an<br />
intact tusk with <strong>the</strong> entire body of pulp tissue removed is<br />
shown in <strong>the</strong> pho<strong>to</strong>graph in Figure 8.<br />
The cross sections of <strong>the</strong> tusk were often not symmetric,<br />
but r<strong>at</strong>her slightly oblong, with a major diameter<br />
in many sections being several millimeters larger than <strong>the</strong><br />
minor diameter. The shape of <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber generally
mimicked <strong>the</strong> shape and profi le of <strong>the</strong> outer surface. The<br />
walls of <strong>the</strong> inner pulp chamber were very smooth when<br />
observed after removing <strong>the</strong> soft tissue remnants.<br />
The outer surface of <strong>the</strong> tusk demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed a series of<br />
major and minor ridges and valleys th<strong>at</strong> progressed down<br />
<strong>the</strong> length of <strong>the</strong> tusk following a left-hand helix. The<br />
major ridges were anywhere from 2 <strong>to</strong> 10 mm in width<br />
and 1 <strong>to</strong> 2 mm in depth, while <strong>the</strong> minor ridges were approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
0.1 mm in width and depth. Brown and green<br />
deposits covered <strong>the</strong> major valleys, while <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>ps of <strong>the</strong><br />
highest and broadest ridges were clean and white, accentu<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>the</strong> helical p<strong>at</strong>tern of <strong>the</strong>se fe<strong>at</strong>ures (Figure 9).<br />
The tip section was rel<strong>at</strong>ively smooth with an oblique,<br />
slightly concave facet approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 3 cm in length extending<br />
backward from <strong>the</strong> rounded end (Figure 10). A<br />
small stained deposit was present in <strong>the</strong> deepest depression<br />
of <strong>the</strong> facet. Higher magnifi c<strong>at</strong>ion did not reveal surface<br />
scr<strong>at</strong>ches indic<strong>at</strong>ing abrasive wear, and a small occluded<br />
remnant of <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber could be seen <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip. The<br />
surface of <strong>the</strong> facet had wh<strong>at</strong> appeared <strong>to</strong> be many small<br />
grooves and smooth indent<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> surface th<strong>at</strong> may<br />
be due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> exposure of softer areas in <strong>the</strong> layered tissue<br />
described l<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> microanalysis. The lack of abrasion<br />
scr<strong>at</strong>ches, <strong>the</strong> concave profi le, and <strong>the</strong>se small depressions<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 231<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> facet is more likely due <strong>to</strong> a combin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of abrasion and erosion from abrasive slurry, such as sand,<br />
r<strong>at</strong>her than being caused by rubbing against a hard abrasive<br />
surface. Facets were found on many but not all tusks<br />
observed during <strong>the</strong> hunting season, while all exhibit <strong>the</strong><br />
smoothly polished or clean tip section of approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
10 cm in length. It was not possible <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> an<strong>at</strong>omical<br />
orient<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> facet in <strong>the</strong> sectioned tusk, but<br />
fi eld observ<strong>at</strong>ions describe it as varying in orient<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
from right, left, and downward, with an upward orient<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
rarely being reported.<br />
Inuit descriptions of gross tusk morphology are described<br />
by vari<strong>at</strong>ions of form within each sex and dimorphic<br />
traits th<strong>at</strong> differenti<strong>at</strong>e tusk expression in females.<br />
Most hunters note th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> blood and nerve supply in <strong>the</strong><br />
pulp extends <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip, and indeed, some hunters are experienced<br />
in <strong>the</strong> extirp<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> pulp <strong>to</strong> its entire length.<br />
They describe a receding pulpal chamber for older narwhal,<br />
which is a consistent fi nding with <strong>the</strong> increased age<br />
of most mammalian teeth. However, <strong>the</strong> female tusk is<br />
quite different in morphology. Female tusks are shorter,<br />
narrower, and evenly spiraled and denser, with little or no<br />
pulp chamber, even <strong>at</strong> an early age. Such an observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
suggests a difference in functional adapt<strong>at</strong>ion as females<br />
FIGURE 9. A pho<strong>to</strong>graph showing <strong>the</strong> helical staining due <strong>to</strong> surface deposits of algae th<strong>at</strong> remain in <strong>the</strong> deeper grooves of <strong>the</strong> tusk.
232 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 10. A close-up pho<strong>to</strong>graph of <strong>the</strong> fl <strong>at</strong> facet on <strong>the</strong> tip of <strong>the</strong> tusk. A translucent remnant of <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber can be seen <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip as<br />
well as many minor grooves and indent<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
would lack substantial tusk innerv<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> sense <strong>the</strong>ir environment.<br />
TUSK MICROMORPHOLOGY<br />
A mid-length section was chosen for visible and scanning<br />
electron microscopy (SEM). A 1-mm-thick slice was<br />
cut from <strong>the</strong> end of a section and polished using a metallographic<br />
polishing wheel and a series of abrasives down<br />
<strong>to</strong> 4000 grit size. Care was taken <strong>to</strong> retain <strong>the</strong> hydr<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> section during processing and observ<strong>at</strong>ion. The crosssectional<br />
visual observ<strong>at</strong>ion of this slice showed <strong>the</strong> tusk<br />
<strong>to</strong> be composed of several distinct layers (Figure 11). An<br />
outermost layer described as cementum was more translucent<br />
and approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 1.5 <strong>to</strong> 2 mm thick. There was<br />
a distinct boarder between this outermost layer and <strong>the</strong><br />
underlying dentin. The bulk of <strong>the</strong> section was made up<br />
of a rel<strong>at</strong>ively homogenous dentin th<strong>at</strong> had numerous distinct<br />
rings, appearing much like <strong>the</strong> growth rings in a tree.<br />
The outermost rings were slightly whiter in color while<br />
<strong>the</strong> innermost ring adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber appeared<br />
slightly darker opaque than <strong>the</strong> surrounding dentin rings.<br />
The dark lines radi<strong>at</strong>ing outward from <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface were associ<strong>at</strong>ed with microtubules observable<br />
under SEM and are described l<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
An additional pie-shaped section was cut from this<br />
polished slice <strong>to</strong> include both <strong>the</strong> pulpal and outer sur-
faces for SEM observ<strong>at</strong>ion. The specimen was cleaned <strong>to</strong><br />
remove surface debris using a mild HCL acid etch followed<br />
by rinsing in dilute sodium hypochlorite. This piece<br />
was <strong>the</strong>n dried in a vacuum dessic<strong>at</strong>or and gold sputter<br />
co<strong>at</strong>ed for conductivity. The SEM images of <strong>the</strong> outer surface<br />
showed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dark stain m<strong>at</strong>erial found <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base<br />
of <strong>the</strong> grooves was made up of microscopic di<strong>at</strong>oms from<br />
algae deposits adhering in multiple layers <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
(Figure 12).<br />
The smooth white ridge areas were regions where<br />
<strong>the</strong>se deposits were ei<strong>the</strong>r very sparse or completely missing.<br />
The level of artifacts and debris on <strong>the</strong> surface made it<br />
diffi cult <strong>to</strong> observe <strong>the</strong> underlying <strong>to</strong>oth surface as cleaning<br />
did not remove <strong>the</strong> tightly adhered deposits in <strong>the</strong> grooves<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 233<br />
FIGURE 11. A transillumin<strong>at</strong>ed corner of a polished cross section showing <strong>the</strong> many distinct layer or rings within <strong>the</strong> tissue. The wide band of<br />
tissue making up <strong>the</strong> outer surface is described as “cementum.”<br />
but did occasionally expose <strong>the</strong> ends of small tubule-like<br />
canals opening <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tusk surface. A more thorough<br />
cleaning removed more of <strong>the</strong> deposits and exposed <strong>the</strong><br />
outer openings with regular frequency (Figure 13). These<br />
openings were approxim<strong>at</strong>ely one <strong>to</strong> two micrometers in<br />
diameter and were similar in appearance <strong>to</strong> those found<br />
on <strong>the</strong> pulpal surface of <strong>the</strong> dentin.<br />
Scanning electron microscopy observ<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> pulpal<br />
surface of <strong>the</strong> section revealed <strong>the</strong> openings of multiple dentin<br />
tubules. These dentin tubules ranged from 0.5 <strong>to</strong> several<br />
micrometers in diameter and were evenly distributed with<br />
spacing of approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 10 <strong>to</strong> 20 micrometers between<br />
tubules (Figure 14). This spacing was less dense than th<strong>at</strong><br />
observed on <strong>the</strong> pulpal surfaces of human or bovine teeth,
234 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 12. A scanning electron micrograph of <strong>the</strong> outside tusk surface showing stain deposits composed of di<strong>at</strong>oms and algae.<br />
where spacing is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 3 <strong>to</strong> 5 micrometers between<br />
tubules. The appearance of <strong>the</strong> bell-shaped openings and lumen<br />
of <strong>the</strong> tubules was similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> observed in <strong>the</strong> teeth<br />
of o<strong>the</strong>r mammals. The cross-sectional surface of one pieshaped<br />
piece was acid etched <strong>to</strong> remove <strong>the</strong> collagen smear<br />
layer th<strong>at</strong> forms as an artifact of polishing. This section<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r serial sections taken across <strong>the</strong> tubules revealed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tubules radi<strong>at</strong>ed outward from <strong>the</strong> pulpal surface<br />
through <strong>the</strong> entire thickness of <strong>the</strong> dentin and appeared <strong>to</strong><br />
communic<strong>at</strong>e in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> outermost cementum surface layer<br />
(Figure 15). This observ<strong>at</strong>ion is in contrast <strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> is found<br />
in mastic<strong>at</strong>ing teeth of mammals, where tubules radi<strong>at</strong>e<br />
through <strong>the</strong> body of <strong>the</strong> dentin but termin<strong>at</strong>e within dentin<br />
or <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> outer enamel layer.<br />
The fl exural strength of <strong>the</strong> dentin from two fresh<br />
sections, one close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> base and one mid length down<br />
<strong>the</strong> tusk, was measured using 2 � 2 � 15 mm rectangular<br />
bars cut longitudinally down <strong>the</strong> length of <strong>the</strong> tusk.<br />
These bars were loaded <strong>to</strong> fracture in a three-point bending<br />
mode over a 10-mm span using a universal testing machine.<br />
Nine specimens were cut from <strong>the</strong> midsection of<br />
<strong>the</strong> tusk and four from <strong>the</strong> base section. The transverse<br />
rupture strength <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> midsection was 94.6 � 7.0 MPa<br />
(mean � standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion) and 165.0 � 11.7 MPa near<br />
<strong>the</strong> base. The bars from near <strong>the</strong> base underwent much<br />
more deform<strong>at</strong>ion prior <strong>to</strong> fracture than those from <strong>the</strong><br />
midsection with approxim<strong>at</strong>ely twice <strong>the</strong> amount of strain<br />
occurring <strong>at</strong> fracture.
DISCUSSION<br />
Imaging and dissection of adult male, adult female,<br />
and fetal narwhal specimens recorded a detailed visual record<br />
of <strong>the</strong> cranial and dental an<strong>at</strong>omy. Among <strong>the</strong> fi ndings<br />
were three new discoveries of <strong>the</strong> dental an<strong>at</strong>omy and<br />
one observ<strong>at</strong>ion of growth and development for <strong>the</strong> tusks.<br />
The fi rst major fi nding was <strong>the</strong> presence of paired vestigial<br />
teeth in all three specimens. Although a previous report in<br />
<strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure found single vestigial teeth in a small collection<br />
of narwhal skulls (Fraser, 1938), this is <strong>the</strong> fi rst study<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 235<br />
FIGURE 13. A scanning electron micrograph <strong>at</strong> 1000X magnifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> outer surface of <strong>the</strong> tusk after cleaning deposits from <strong>the</strong> surface.<br />
Tubule openings can be observed on <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>at</strong> a regular frequency. The large center orifi ce is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely two micrometers in diameter.<br />
<strong>to</strong> document paired vestigial teeth. The lack of prior document<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on vestigial teeth may be due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir loc<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y were embedded in bone in <strong>the</strong> female specimen and<br />
suspended in <strong>the</strong> tissue loc<strong>at</strong>ed l<strong>at</strong>eral <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> anterior third<br />
of <strong>the</strong> maxillary bone pl<strong>at</strong>e. Radiography and digital imaging<br />
provided an undisturbed view of <strong>the</strong>se teeth in situ.<br />
The second discovery was linked <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> an<strong>at</strong>omical loc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of all four maxillary teeth and <strong>the</strong>ir rel<strong>at</strong>ive loc<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
during growth and development as <strong>the</strong> two pairs of teeth<br />
reverse positions. In <strong>the</strong> fetus, <strong>the</strong> future tusks are loc<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
anteromedially <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth pair of teeth <strong>at</strong> four <strong>to</strong>
236 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 14. A scanning electron micrograph of <strong>the</strong> pulpal wall showing <strong>the</strong> opening of a dentin tubule. The tubule orifi ce is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 1<br />
micrometer in diameter. The size and shape of <strong>the</strong> tubules is similar <strong>to</strong> those found in human and o<strong>the</strong>r mammalian teeth.<br />
six months in development. The fully developed tusks are<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ed posteromedially <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> vestigial pair of teeth in <strong>the</strong><br />
adult narwhal. The third fi nding was evidence of developed<br />
sockets for <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth th<strong>at</strong> extend posteriorly<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> developed tusks and communic<strong>at</strong>e with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir nerve and blood supply. Evidence of <strong>the</strong>se developed<br />
vestigial <strong>to</strong>oth sockets suggests th<strong>at</strong> this species may have<br />
exhibited <strong>at</strong> least two pairs of well-developed teeth <strong>at</strong> some<br />
point in its evolution. Likewise, if <strong>the</strong> vestigial teeth never<br />
existed beyond <strong>the</strong>ir current st<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>n well-developed<br />
sockets for <strong>the</strong>se structures would not be expected as visualized<br />
in <strong>the</strong> fetal and adult female specimen. Intracranial<br />
dissection revealed fi fth cranial nerve p<strong>at</strong>hways th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
consistent with o<strong>the</strong>r mammals, though <strong>the</strong>re were some<br />
expected modifi c<strong>at</strong>ions based on <strong>the</strong> skull asymmetry.<br />
The gross morphology of <strong>the</strong> male narwhal tusk<br />
showed a surprisingly unique fe<strong>at</strong>ure by having a nearly<br />
full length pulp chamber. This observ<strong>at</strong>ion is confi rmed<br />
by most of <strong>the</strong> Inuit interviewed, though this fe<strong>at</strong>ure has<br />
dimorphic characteristics, as traditional knowledge describes<br />
females with little <strong>to</strong> no pulp chamber, even <strong>at</strong><br />
younger ages. This is much different from o<strong>the</strong>r tusked<br />
mammals, where <strong>the</strong> pulp chamber is often only a small<br />
proportion of <strong>the</strong> tusk length. It would also seem counterintuitive<br />
for a <strong>to</strong>oth evolving in a harsh and cold environment<br />
<strong>to</strong> contain vital vascular and nervous tissue through-
out its length. The pulp chamber also compromises <strong>the</strong><br />
strength of this long and seemingly fragile <strong>to</strong>oth. The residual<br />
chamber seen <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip of <strong>the</strong> tusk indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> chamber forms throughout tusk growth and development.<br />
One convers<strong>at</strong>ion with a broker of harvested tusks<br />
revealed th<strong>at</strong> occasionally, a tusk is seen where <strong>the</strong> pulp<br />
chamber is very small and narrow and this usually occurs<br />
in larger and older tusks. It was not possible <strong>to</strong> verify <strong>the</strong><br />
order or timing of dentin deposition using <strong>the</strong> methods of<br />
this study, but <strong>the</strong> possibility exists th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> inner pulpal<br />
layer of dentin may be a fe<strong>at</strong>ure of dentin formed <strong>at</strong> a l<strong>at</strong>er<br />
stage of <strong>to</strong>oth development or as a process of aging.<br />
The left-hand helical n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>to</strong>oth development has<br />
been hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> be a functional adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> main-<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 237<br />
FIGURE 15. A scanning electron micrograph of a polished section of dentin shows <strong>the</strong> radi<strong>at</strong>ing and continuous n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> tubules. Serial<br />
cross sections of tubules confi rmed <strong>the</strong>ir presence throughout <strong>the</strong> tusk wall.<br />
tain <strong>the</strong> overall concentric center of mass during growth.<br />
This hypo<strong>the</strong>sis certainly makes a gre<strong>at</strong> deal of sense when<br />
one considers <strong>the</strong> hydrodynamic loads th<strong>at</strong> would develop<br />
if <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>oth were curved or skewed <strong>to</strong> one side. The clean<br />
smooth tip and facet observed in this specimen appears <strong>to</strong><br />
be a secondary fe<strong>at</strong>ure resulting from some form of abrasion<br />
and/or erosion. The lack of scr<strong>at</strong>ch p<strong>at</strong>terns and <strong>the</strong><br />
presence of large and small concavities across <strong>the</strong> facet indic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
it is not formed by abrasion against a hard surface,<br />
but r<strong>at</strong>her could result from gradual <strong>at</strong>trition by an abrasive<br />
slurry, such as sand or sediment. This cleanly polished tip<br />
appears on every tusk observed, regardless of <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
or absence of <strong>the</strong> facet. The behavior th<strong>at</strong> causes this fe<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
must be almost universal and is likely <strong>to</strong> be continuous,
238 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
as <strong>the</strong> algae deposits th<strong>at</strong> stain <strong>the</strong> surface would likely reappear<br />
if not continually removed. W<strong>at</strong>er turbulence alone<br />
would probably not account for removal of <strong>the</strong>se deposits<br />
from <strong>the</strong> tip and ridge areas of <strong>the</strong> tusk. The cleaned ridges<br />
are also smoo<strong>the</strong>d, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y could be cleaned by<br />
physically rubbing against a surface such as ice. There have<br />
also been traditional knowledge descriptions of “tusking,”<br />
where males will g<strong>at</strong>her in small groups and rub tusks in<br />
a nonaggressive manner. Hunters clean harvested tusks by<br />
rubbing <strong>the</strong>m with sand <strong>to</strong> remove <strong>the</strong>se deposits. Perhaps<br />
tusks come in contact with sand and sediment when narwhal<br />
feed close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m.<br />
The cementum layer on <strong>the</strong> outer surface of <strong>the</strong> tusk<br />
is also a rare fe<strong>at</strong>ure for an erupted <strong>to</strong>oth. Cementum is<br />
generally found as a transitional layer between dentin and<br />
<strong>the</strong> periodontal ligaments th<strong>at</strong> hold teeth in<strong>to</strong> bone. These<br />
ligaments are able <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tach <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cementum with small<br />
fi bers, tying it <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surrounding bone. This appears <strong>to</strong> be<br />
consistent with <strong>the</strong> cementum observed in sections from<br />
<strong>the</strong> tusk base th<strong>at</strong> were <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> segments of bone. In<br />
human teeth, however, if cementum becomes exposed <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> oral environment, it is rapidly worn away, exposing<br />
<strong>the</strong> root dentin. In <strong>the</strong> tusk, <strong>the</strong> cementum layer appears<br />
<strong>to</strong> remain intact, even after long exposure <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ocean<br />
FIGURE 16. A section (2.0 cm corresponding <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> third plotted<br />
point in Figure 8) cut near <strong>the</strong> tusk tip showing multiple dentin rings<br />
under transillumin<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
environment. The thickness of <strong>the</strong> cementum layer also<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> increase as <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>oth increases in diameter.<br />
Cementum in mammalian teeth is generally a more proteinaceous<br />
tissue with gre<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong>ughness than enamel or<br />
dentin. A <strong>to</strong>ughened outer layer th<strong>at</strong> increases in thickness<br />
<strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> tusk base would be consistent with <strong>the</strong> mechanics<br />
of fracture resistance, where tensile stresses would<br />
also be highest <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tusk surface and base. This <strong>to</strong>ughened<br />
layer of tissue would resist cracking under functional<br />
stresses th<strong>at</strong> could lead <strong>to</strong> tusk fracture.<br />
It is impossible <strong>to</strong> tell from <strong>the</strong>se studies wh<strong>at</strong> causes<br />
color changes th<strong>at</strong> distinguish <strong>the</strong> rings observed within<br />
<strong>the</strong> dentin, but one possibility would be a change in developmental<br />
growth conditions, such as nutrition (Nweeia et<br />
al., in press) (Figure 16). The fl exural strength and work of<br />
fracture both increased for dentin when comparing <strong>the</strong> tusk<br />
base <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> midsection. The fl exural strengths of 95 MPa<br />
<strong>at</strong> mid tusk and 165 MPa <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base compare <strong>to</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
100 MPa for human dentin. These are adapt<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for a <strong>to</strong>oth th<strong>at</strong> must withstand high fl exural stresses and<br />
deform<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>her than <strong>the</strong> compressive loads of chewing.<br />
The microan<strong>at</strong>omy of <strong>the</strong> tusk also provides insight<br />
in<strong>to</strong> potential function. Scanning electron micrographs of<br />
<strong>the</strong> pulpal surface revealed tubule fe<strong>at</strong>ures th<strong>at</strong> are similar<br />
in size and shape <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> dentin tubules found in mastic<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
teeth. The tubule diameters are similar <strong>to</strong> those observed<br />
in human teeth, but <strong>the</strong> spacing of <strong>the</strong>se tubules across <strong>the</strong><br />
pulpal wall is three <strong>to</strong> fi ve times wider than th<strong>at</strong> seen in<br />
human dentin. The polished cross sections show th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
tubules run continuously throughout <strong>the</strong> entire thickness<br />
of dentin, just as <strong>the</strong>y do in human dentin. A surprising<br />
fi nding, however, was <strong>the</strong> presence of tubule orifi ces on <strong>the</strong><br />
outer surface of <strong>the</strong> cementum. This indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dentin<br />
tubules communic<strong>at</strong>e entirely through <strong>the</strong> wall of <strong>the</strong><br />
tusk with <strong>the</strong> ocean environment. It is well established th<strong>at</strong><br />
dentin tubules in human and animal teeth provide sensory<br />
capabilities. Exposure of <strong>the</strong>se tubules <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> oral environment<br />
in human teeth is responsible for sensing temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
changes, air movement, and <strong>the</strong> presence of chemicals,<br />
such as sugar. An example of this phenomenon would be<br />
<strong>the</strong> pain one senses in a cavity when <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>oth is exposed<br />
<strong>to</strong> sugar or cold air. The decay from <strong>the</strong> cavity removes<br />
<strong>the</strong> overlying protective enamel and exposes <strong>the</strong> underlying<br />
dentin, allowing <strong>the</strong> dentin tubules <strong>to</strong> communic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
directly with <strong>the</strong> oral cavity. Changes in temper<strong>at</strong>ure, air<br />
movement, or osmotic gradient set up by <strong>the</strong> sugar cause<br />
movement of fl uid within <strong>the</strong>se tubules. This movement is<br />
detected by neurons <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> pulpal end of <strong>the</strong> tubule, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>se neurons send <strong>the</strong> pain signal <strong>to</strong> our brains. Narwhal<br />
teeth have similar physiology <strong>to</strong> human teeth, having both
pulpal neurons and dentin tubules. The most distinguishing<br />
difference is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tubules in <strong>the</strong> narwhal tusk are<br />
not protected by an overlying layer of enamel. This raises<br />
<strong>the</strong> distinct possibility th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tusk could provide a variety<br />
of sensory capabilities. Any stimulus th<strong>at</strong> would result<br />
in movement of fl uid within <strong>the</strong>se tubules could possibly<br />
elicit a response (Figure 17). These include ion gradients,<br />
such as w<strong>at</strong>er salinity, pressure gradients caused by dive<br />
depth or <strong>at</strong>mospheric pressure changes, air temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
and movement, or possibly o<strong>the</strong>r chemical stimuli specifi c<br />
<strong>to</strong> food sources or environment. Field experiments on three<br />
captive male narwhal completed during August 2007 in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Canadian High Arctic provided evidence th<strong>at</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
salinity is one stimulus th<strong>at</strong> can be sensed by this tusk.<br />
Introduction of a high salt ion solution (approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
42 psu), immedi<strong>at</strong>ely after freshw<strong>at</strong>er exposure, within<br />
a fi xed gasket isol<strong>at</strong>ing a 35-cm portion of tusk surface,<br />
produced a marked movement of <strong>the</strong> head region and coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
respir<strong>at</strong>ory response. Two separ<strong>at</strong>e salt ion solution<br />
stimuli in two males and one stimulus in <strong>the</strong> third<br />
FIGURE 17. Tusk of male M. monoceros as a hydrodynamic sensor.<br />
The an<strong>at</strong>omic fe<strong>at</strong>ures of <strong>the</strong> narwhal tusk provide <strong>the</strong> potential<br />
for sensing stimuli th<strong>at</strong> would result in movement of interstitial fl uid<br />
within <strong>the</strong> dentin tubules. This fl uid movement stimul<strong>at</strong>es neurons<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> cellular odon<strong>to</strong>blastic layer found <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> base of each tubule.<br />
CONSIDERATIONS OF NARWHAL DENTITION 239<br />
male were witnessed by twelve team members. Responses<br />
subsided immedi<strong>at</strong>ely after freshw<strong>at</strong>er was reintroduced<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> tusk gasket. Though moni<strong>to</strong>ring equipment was <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> whale during experiment<strong>at</strong>ion, physiologic<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a recordings (EEG and ECG) were hindered by diffi cult<br />
fi eld conditions.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Our sincere and kind thanks, qujanamik, <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Inuit<br />
High Arctic communities of Nunavut and northwestern<br />
Greenland and <strong>the</strong> 55 elders and hunters who gave <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
time and Inuit Qaujimaj<strong>at</strong>uqangit, knowledge <strong>to</strong> add <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> understanding for this extraordinary marine mammal<br />
and its unique tusk. We also wish <strong>to</strong> acknowledge <strong>the</strong> support<br />
of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion; Astromed’s Grass<br />
Telefac<strong>to</strong>r Division for <strong>the</strong>ir gracious support in loaning<br />
electroencephalographic equipment; Arctic Research Division,<br />
Fisheries and Oceans, Canada; <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Geographic<br />
Society, The Explorers Club, World Center for<br />
Explor<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Institutes of Health’s (NIH)<br />
Imaging Department, and <strong>the</strong> Johns Hopkins University’s<br />
Integr<strong>at</strong>ed Imaging Center, as well as individuals, including<br />
Leslee Parr, San Jose St<strong>at</strong>e University; Sam Ridegway,<br />
Judith St. Ledger, and Keith Yip, Sea World, San Diego;<br />
Joseph Meehan; Jim (Wolverine) Orr; Giuseppe Grande;<br />
Glenn Williams, Direc<strong>to</strong>r of Wildlife, Nunavut Tunngavik,<br />
Inc.; Doug Morris and John Butman, NIH MRI Research<br />
Facility; Sandie Black, Head of Veterinary Services, Calgary<br />
Zoo Animal Care Centre; Rune Dietz, Department<br />
of Arctic Environment, N<strong>at</strong>ional Environmental Research<br />
Institute; Mosesie Kenainak; Mogens Andersen, Assistant<br />
Cur<strong>at</strong>or, Vertebr<strong>at</strong>e Department, Zoological Museum<br />
of Copenhagen; Michel Gosselin and N<strong>at</strong>alia Rybczynski,<br />
Canadian Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ure; Judith Chupasko and<br />
Mark Omura, Museum of Compar<strong>at</strong>ive Zoology, Harvard<br />
University; Lisa Marie Leclerc, University of Quebec<br />
<strong>at</strong> Rimouski; Kevin Hand, Newsweek Corpor<strong>at</strong>ion; Bruce<br />
Crumley, Hawk Enterprises; and William Fitzhugh, Daryl<br />
Domning, and Dee Allen, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution.<br />
EXPANDED AUTHOR INFORMATION<br />
Martin T. Nweeia, Harvard University, School of Dental<br />
Medicine, 188 Longwood Ave, Bos<strong>to</strong>n, MA 02115,<br />
USA; also <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Division of Mammals,<br />
Department of Zoology, 100 Constitution Avenue, Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
DC 20056, USA. Cornelius Nutarak and David<br />
Angn<strong>at</strong>siak, Community of Mittim<strong>at</strong>ilik, Nunavut X0A
240 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NWEEIA ET AL.<br />
0S0, Canada. Frederick C. Eichmiller, Delta Dental of Wisconsin,<br />
2801 Hoover Road, Stevens Point, WI 54481, USA.<br />
Naomi Eidelman, Anthony A. Giuseppetti, and Janet Quinn,<br />
ADAF Paffenbarger Research Center, N<strong>at</strong>ional Institute of<br />
Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gai<strong>the</strong>rsburg,<br />
MD 20899-8546, USA. James G. Mead and Charles<br />
Potter, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Division of Mammals, Department<br />
of Zoology, 100 Constitution Avenue, Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
DC 20056, USA. Kaviqanguak K’issuk and Rasmus<br />
Avike, Community of Qaanaaq, Greenland 3980. Peter V.<br />
Hauschka, Children’s Hospital, Department of Orthopaedic<br />
Surgery, Bos<strong>to</strong>n, MA 02115, USA. Ethan M. Tyler, N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, 9000 Rockville<br />
Pike, Be<strong>the</strong>sda, MD 20892, USA. Jack R. Orr, Fisheries and<br />
Oceans, Canada, Arctic Research Division, 501 University<br />
Crescent, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N6, Canada. Pavia Nielsen,<br />
Community of Uummannaq, Greenland 3962.<br />
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of Sectioned Tusks of Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) and Tusk<br />
Growth R<strong>at</strong>es. Annals of <strong>the</strong> Transvaal Museum.<br />
Nweeia, M. T., N. Eidelman, F. C. Eichmiller, A. A. Giuseppetti, Y. G.<br />
Jung, and Y. Zhang. 2005. Hydrodynamic Sensor Capabilities and<br />
Structural Resilience of <strong>the</strong> Male Narwhal Tusk. Abstract presented<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> 16th Biennial Conference on <strong>the</strong> Biology of Marine Mammals,<br />
San Diego, Calif., 13 December 2005.<br />
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His<strong>to</strong>ry, 90(8): 50– 57.<br />
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Harvest and Biology of Narwhal (Monodon monoceros L.) from<br />
Admiralty Inlet, Baffi n Island, Northwest Terri<strong>to</strong>ries (Canada)<br />
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Scoresby, W., Jr. 1820. An Account of <strong>the</strong> Arctic Regions, with a His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
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London: Archibald Constable and Co.<br />
Silverman, H. B., and M. J. Dunbar. 1980. Aggressive Tusk Use by <strong>the</strong><br />
Narwhal (Monodon monoceros L.). N<strong>at</strong>ure, 284: 57.<br />
Thompson, D. W. 1952. On Growth and Form. Volume 2. 2nd ed. London:<br />
Cambridge University Press.<br />
Tomlin, A. G. 1967. Mammals of <strong>the</strong> U.S.S.R. Volume 9. Cetacea. Jerusalem:<br />
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Vibe, C. 1950. The Marine Mammals and Marine Fauna in <strong>the</strong> Thule<br />
District (N.W. Greenland) with Observ<strong>at</strong>ions on Ice Conditions in<br />
1939, 1940, and 1941. Meddelelser om Grønland, 150(6): 117.
Scientifi c Diving Under Ice: A 40-Year<br />
Bipolar Research Tool<br />
Michael A. Lang and Rob Robbins<br />
Michael A. Lang, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Offi<br />
ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science, P.O. Box<br />
37102, MRC 009, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20013-7012,<br />
USA. Rob Robbins, Ray<strong>the</strong>on <strong>Polar</strong> Services<br />
Company, 7400 South Tucson Way, Centennial,<br />
CO 80112, USA. Corresponding author: M. Lang<br />
(langm@si.edu). Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Approxim<strong>at</strong>ely four decades ago, scientists were fi rst able <strong>to</strong> enter <strong>the</strong> undersea<br />
polar environment <strong>to</strong> make biological observ<strong>at</strong>ions for a nominal period of time.<br />
The conduct of underw<strong>at</strong>er research in extreme environments requires special consider<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of diving physiology, equipment design, diver training, and oper<strong>at</strong>ional procedures,<br />
all of which enable this under-ice approach. Since those fi rst ice dives in wetsuits and<br />
double-hose regul<strong>at</strong>ors without buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>ors or submersible pressure gauges,<br />
novel ice diving techniques have expanded <strong>the</strong> working envelope based on scientifi c<br />
need <strong>to</strong> include <strong>the</strong> use of dive computers, oxygen-enriched air, rebre<strong>at</strong>her units, bluew<strong>at</strong>er<br />
diving, and drysuit systems. The 2007 Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Diving Workshop in<br />
Svalbard promulg<strong>at</strong>ed consensus polar diving recommend<strong>at</strong>ions through <strong>the</strong> combined<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional, interdisciplinary expertise of particip<strong>at</strong>ing polar diving scientists, equipment<br />
manufacturers, physiologists and decompression experts, and diving safety offi cers.<br />
The N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion U.S. Antarctic Program scientifi c diving exposures,<br />
in support of underw<strong>at</strong>er research, enjoy a remarkable safety record and high scientifi c<br />
productivity due <strong>to</strong> a signifi cant alloc<strong>at</strong>ion of logistical support and resources <strong>to</strong> ensure<br />
personnel safety.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Miles<strong>to</strong>nes of U.S. Antarctic diving activities (Table 1) start with <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
dive by Americans in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers made just after New Year’s Day in 1947<br />
as part of Oper<strong>at</strong>ion Highjump, <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es’ fi rst major postwar Antarctic<br />
venture. Lieutenant Commander Tommy Thompson and a Chief Dixon<br />
used “Jack Brown” masks and Desco® oxygen rebre<strong>at</strong>hers. Early scuba divers<br />
braved McMurdo Sound’s �1.8ºC w<strong>at</strong>er with wetsuits and double-hose regul<strong>at</strong>ors.<br />
Equipment advances since <strong>the</strong>n have led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of variable volume<br />
drysuits, buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>ors (BCs), and dive computers. Because of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
resistance <strong>to</strong> freezing, however, double-hose regul<strong>at</strong>ors were used almost exclusively<br />
in <strong>the</strong> McMurdo area from 1963 until 1990. Since <strong>the</strong>n, single-hose<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ors th<strong>at</strong> also resist freeze-up failure have been used. From 1947 <strong>to</strong> 1967,<br />
research diving oper<strong>at</strong>ions fell under <strong>the</strong> control of <strong>the</strong> U.S. Naval Support<br />
Force Antarctica and divers adhered <strong>to</strong> established U.S. Navy diving regul<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
In 1967, James R. Stewart, Scripps Institution of Oceanography diving<br />
offi cer, established guidelines for <strong>the</strong> conduct of research diving in <strong>the</strong> polar
242 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS<br />
TABLE 1. Miles<strong>to</strong>nes of USAP Dive Program (adapted from Brueggeman, 2003).<br />
D<strong>at</strong>e(s) Miles<strong>to</strong>ne<br />
1947 First dive by Americans in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, LCDR Thompson and Chief Dixon, as part of Oper<strong>at</strong>ion Highjump, using Jack<br />
Brown masks and Desco oxygen rebre<strong>at</strong>hers<br />
1951 First Antarctic open-circuit scuba dive<br />
1947– 1967 Research diving oper<strong>at</strong>ions under USN Support Force, Antarctica<br />
1961– 1962 Verne E. Peckham (Donald E. Wohlschlag project, Stanford University) logged 35 science dives tended <strong>to</strong>pside on occasion by<br />
Arthur Devries and Gerry Kooyman<br />
1962– 1963 John S. Bunt (Donald E. Wohlschlag project, Stanford University) logged 7 science dives<br />
1963– 1964 G. Carle<strong>to</strong>n Ray (New York Zoological Society), Elmer T. Feltz and David O. Lavallee logged 10 scuba dives<br />
1963– 1964 Gerald Kooyman started diving under ice with Weddell Seals with Paul K. Day<strong>to</strong>n tending <strong>to</strong>pside<br />
1963– 1964 Willard I. Simmonds (Jacques S. Zaneveld project, Old Dominion University) logged 45 te<strong>the</strong>red science dives<br />
1964– 1965 Gerry Kooyman, Jack K. Fletcher and James M. Curtis logged 71 science dives<br />
1965– 1966 David M. Bresnahan (NSF OPP) and Leonard L. Nero dived on Zaneveld’s project<br />
1965– 1966 G. Carle<strong>to</strong>n Ray, Michael A. deCamp, and David O. Lavallee diving with Weddell seals<br />
1967 NSF-SIO agreement for polar research diving (James R. Stewart)<br />
1968 Paul K. Day<strong>to</strong>n benthic ecology project divers Charles Gault, Gerry Kooyman, Gordon Robilliard. Day<strong>to</strong>n has logged over<br />
500 hundred dives under McMurdo ice<br />
1978– 1979 Dry Valley Lake diving: George F. Simmons, Bruce C. Parker and Dale T. Andersen<br />
1987 USAP Guidelines for Conduct of Research Diving<br />
1990 Double-hose regul<strong>at</strong>ors phased out in favor of single-hose regul<strong>at</strong>ors.<br />
1992 AAUS <strong>Polar</strong> Diving Workshop (Lang, M.A and J.R. Stewart, eds.)<br />
1995 RPSC on-site Scientifi c Diving Coordin<strong>at</strong>or (Rob Robbins)<br />
2001 NSF-<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Interagency Agreement for polar research diving (Michael A. Lang)<br />
2003– 2007 Svalbard ice diving courses (Michael A. Lang)<br />
2007 Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Diving Workshop, Svalbard (M.A. Lang and M.D.J. Sayer, eds.)<br />
2008 <strong>Smithsonian</strong>/NSF ice-diving regul<strong>at</strong>or evalu<strong>at</strong>ion project, McMurdo (Michael A. Lang, P. I.)<br />
regions for <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF) Offi<br />
ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs (OPP). Since 1995, Rob Robbins,<br />
Ray<strong>the</strong>on <strong>Polar</strong> Services Company, has served as onsite<br />
scientifi c diving coordin<strong>at</strong>or. In 2001, Michael A. Lang,<br />
direc<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Scientifi c Diving Program,<br />
enacted an Interagency Agreement between <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution and <strong>the</strong> NSF for <strong>the</strong> management of <strong>the</strong><br />
U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) scientifi c diving program.<br />
As NSF OPP Diving Safety Offi cer (DSO), <strong>the</strong>se responsibilities<br />
include, with <strong>the</strong> USAP Diving Control Board,<br />
promulg<strong>at</strong>ion of diving safety standards and procedures,<br />
evalu<strong>at</strong>ion and training of prospective divers, and authoriz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of dive plans. The USAP Standards for <strong>the</strong> Conduct<br />
of Scientifi c Diving (USAP, 1991) references <strong>the</strong> scientifi c<br />
diving standards published by <strong>the</strong> American Academy of<br />
Underw<strong>at</strong>er Sciences (AAUS). Approxim<strong>at</strong>ely half of <strong>the</strong><br />
Principal Investig<strong>at</strong>ors (Table 2) are employees of AAUS<br />
organiz<strong>at</strong>ional member institutions. The USAP researchers<br />
understand th<strong>at</strong> polar diving demands <strong>the</strong> acceptance<br />
of responsibility for an increased level of risk and diver<br />
prepar<strong>at</strong>ion. <strong>Polar</strong> conditions are more rigorous and de-<br />
manding of scientifi c divers and <strong>the</strong>ir equipment than<br />
most o<strong>the</strong>r diving environments.<br />
Approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 36 scientists dive each year through<br />
USAP and have logged more than 11,400 scientifi c ice dives<br />
since 1989 (Figure 1). Average dive times are 45 minutes;<br />
generally, no more than two dives are made per day within<br />
<strong>the</strong> no-decompression limits. The USAP scientifi c diving<br />
authoriz<strong>at</strong>ion process requires submission of inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on diver training and his<strong>to</strong>ry, depth certifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, diving<br />
fi rst aid training (Lang et al., 2007) and drysuit experience.<br />
Minimum qualifi c<strong>at</strong>ion criteria for NSF diving authoriz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
include: (a) a one-year diving certifi c<strong>at</strong>ion; (b)<br />
50 logged open-w<strong>at</strong>er dives; (c) 15 logged drysuit dives;<br />
and, (d) 10 logged drysuit dives in <strong>the</strong> past six months.<br />
Somers (1988) described ice diver training curricula consider<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
A pre-dive orient<strong>at</strong>ion and checkout dive(s)<br />
are done on site <strong>to</strong> ensure th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> diver exhibits a s<strong>at</strong>isfac<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
level of comfort under <strong>the</strong> ice with <strong>the</strong>ir equipment.<br />
Divers new <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic program are usually accompanying<br />
experienced Antarctic research teams and are thus<br />
men<strong>to</strong>red in an “apprentice” mode. However, divers must
TABLE 2. Principal Investig<strong>at</strong>ors and Co-PIs of USAP diving<br />
projects (1989– 2006).<br />
Investig<strong>at</strong>or Project<br />
Amsler, C. University of Alabama, Birmingham*<br />
Baker, W. Florida Institute of Technology/University of South<br />
Florida*<br />
Barry, J. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute*<br />
Bosch, I. SUNY-Geneseo<br />
Bowser, S. NY Dept. of Health-Wadsworth Center<br />
Conlan, K. Canadian Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Davis, R. Texas A&M University*<br />
Day<strong>to</strong>n, P. Scripps Institution of Oceanography*<br />
DeVries, A. University of Illinois-Urbana<br />
Doran, P. University of Illinois-Chicago<br />
Dun<strong>to</strong>n, K. University of Texas-Austin*<br />
Harbison, R. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution*<br />
Kaiser, H. N/A<br />
Kennicutt, M. University of Texas-Austin*<br />
Kim, S. Moss Landing Marine Labor<strong>at</strong>ories*<br />
Kooyman, G. Scripps Institution of Oceanography*<br />
Kvitek, R. California St<strong>at</strong>e University, Monterey Bay<br />
Lang, M. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution*<br />
Lenihan, H. University of North Carolina*<br />
Madin, L. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution*<br />
Manahan, D. University of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn California*<br />
Marsh, A. University of Delaware<br />
McClin<strong>to</strong>ck, J. University of Alabama, Birmingham*<br />
McFeters, G. Montana St<strong>at</strong>e University<br />
Miller, M. Explor<strong>at</strong>orium, San Francisco<br />
Moran, A. Clemson University<br />
Oliver, J. Moss Landing Marine Labor<strong>at</strong>ories*<br />
Pearse, J. University of California, Santa Cruz*<br />
Ponganis, P. Scripps Institution of Oceanography*<br />
Quetin, L. University of California, Santa Barbara*<br />
Torres, J. University of South Florida*<br />
Whar<strong>to</strong>n, R. University of Nevada-Desert Research Institute<br />
Wu, N. Mo Yung Productions<br />
*AAUS organiz<strong>at</strong>ional member institution.<br />
become profi cient with <strong>the</strong> gear and techniques <strong>the</strong>y will<br />
be using prior <strong>to</strong> deployment.<br />
THE POLAR DIVING ENVIRONMENT<br />
ICE FORMATION<br />
Ice crystalliz<strong>at</strong>ion begins <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> air-sea interface where<br />
<strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ure differential is gre<strong>at</strong>est. Because <strong>the</strong> air may<br />
be as much as 50°C colder than <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, he<strong>at</strong> conduction<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> air from <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er promotes <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of ice.<br />
Under calm conditions, this congel<strong>at</strong>ion ice is composed<br />
of needles, small disks, and dendritic stars and will form<br />
a smooth sheet over <strong>the</strong> sea. When <strong>the</strong> freezing sea is sub-<br />
SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 243<br />
FIGURE 1. (<strong>to</strong>p) USAP dive summary, 1989– 2006. (bot<strong>to</strong>m) USAP<br />
authorized diver summary, 1989– 2006.<br />
jected <strong>to</strong> wind and wave action, frazil ice crystals clump<br />
<strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r in<strong>to</strong> pancake ice (0.5 m <strong>to</strong> 2 m in diameter) th<strong>at</strong><br />
consists of roughly circular, porous slabs with upturned<br />
edges. If <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er between <strong>the</strong>m freezes, <strong>the</strong> “pancakes”<br />
may solidify and join <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r. O<strong>the</strong>rwise, pancake ice<br />
continually interacts with wind, waves, and o<strong>the</strong>r ice <strong>to</strong><br />
cre<strong>at</strong>e complex, many-layered fl oes of pack ice. When <strong>the</strong><br />
ice sheet, whe<strong>the</strong>r congel<strong>at</strong>ion or frazil ice in origin, becomes<br />
a solid surface joined <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> shoreline, it forms fast<br />
ice. Once <strong>the</strong> ice sheet is established, it continues <strong>to</strong> grow<br />
from bene<strong>at</strong>h. Low-density seaw<strong>at</strong>er eman<strong>at</strong>ing from bene<strong>at</strong>h<br />
ice shelves and fl o<strong>at</strong>ing glaciers undergoes adiab<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
supercooling. Pl<strong>at</strong>elet ice crystals form in this supercooled<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er and fl o<strong>at</strong> upward, accumul<strong>at</strong>ing in an initially loose<br />
and porous layer <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> surface ice sheet.<br />
This unfrozen pl<strong>at</strong>elet layer (1 cm <strong>to</strong> several m thick) continually<br />
solidifi es by freezing, increasing <strong>the</strong> thickness of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice sheet. The pl<strong>at</strong>elet layer forms a substr<strong>at</strong>e for <strong>the</strong>
244 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS<br />
growth of microbial communities domin<strong>at</strong>ed by microalgae<br />
fed upon by amphipods and ice fi sh. Ice may also crystallize<br />
on <strong>the</strong> benthos. This anchor ice generally forms <strong>at</strong><br />
depths of 15 m or less, <strong>at</strong>taching <strong>to</strong> rocks and debris— and<br />
even <strong>to</strong> live invertebr<strong>at</strong>es. If enough ice forms on <strong>the</strong>se<br />
objects, <strong>the</strong>y will fl o<strong>at</strong> up and may become incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice sheet.<br />
FAST ICE<br />
Diving conditions are usually associ<strong>at</strong>ed with solid<br />
fast-ice cover for most of <strong>the</strong> austral diving season <strong>at</strong> Mc-<br />
Murdo St<strong>at</strong>ion (annual average thickness 2 m, multiyear<br />
4 m), limited freezing <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion (under 30 cm),<br />
periodically in <strong>the</strong> Svalbard fjords (average 1 m), and <strong>the</strong><br />
perennially ice-covered Dry Valley lakes (gre<strong>at</strong>er than 6 m;<br />
Andersen, 2007). A solid fast-ice cover provides a calm,<br />
surge-free diving environment and offers a stable working<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>form with no surface wave action. Fast-ice strength<br />
and thickness varies with time of year and ambient temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
affecting diving oper<strong>at</strong>ional support. The underice<br />
<strong>to</strong>pography varies dram<strong>at</strong>ically <strong>at</strong> dive site, time of year,<br />
microalgal activity, ocean current, age of ice, and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
oceanographic and physical fac<strong>to</strong>rs. When viewed from<br />
below, a fast-ice sheet may appear rel<strong>at</strong>ively homogenous<br />
as a hard, fl <strong>at</strong> surface but in places can be punctu<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
cracks and openings th<strong>at</strong> appear as bright lines in an o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
dark roof. If pl<strong>at</strong>elet ice is present, <strong>the</strong> underside of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice appears rough and uneven. Areas of multiyear ice<br />
and thick snow cover are darker. Where pressure ridges<br />
and tidal cracks are present, <strong>the</strong> under-ice <strong>to</strong>pography has<br />
more relief. Large and small chunks of broken ice may<br />
jut down in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column in profusion, cre<strong>at</strong>ing an<br />
environment reminiscent of cave diving. Brine channels or<br />
ice stalactites form as seaw<strong>at</strong>er cools and freezes and salt<br />
is excluded. This salt forms a supercooled brine solution<br />
th<strong>at</strong> sinks because of its increased density and freezes <strong>the</strong><br />
seaw<strong>at</strong>er around it resulting in a thin, hollow tube of ice<br />
stretching down from <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> ice sheet. These<br />
brine channels can reach several m in length and may appear<br />
singly or in clusters.<br />
PACK ICE<br />
Fast-ice diving differs from pack-ice diving (Quetin and<br />
Ross, 2009, this volume), where broken ice cover usually<br />
elimin<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> cut access holes for diving because<br />
of easy access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface. The pack-ice environment<br />
tends <strong>to</strong> be more heterogeneous than th<strong>at</strong> of fast ice. Ice<br />
may be present in all stages of development and <strong>the</strong> fl oes<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves may vary in size, age, structure, and integrity.<br />
Pack-ice divers will fi nd <strong>the</strong>mselves under an ever-shifting<br />
and dynamic surface and wave action and currents must be<br />
considered. At sites where <strong>the</strong> pack ice is forced against <strong>the</strong><br />
shore and is solid but unstable, an access hole will have <strong>to</strong><br />
be opened near shore in shallow w<strong>at</strong>er. Tidal fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
may alter <strong>the</strong> size of dive holes or vary <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er depth<br />
under <strong>the</strong> holes.<br />
UNDERWATER VISIBILITY<br />
In August and September in <strong>the</strong> McMurdo region, underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
visibility may range up <strong>to</strong> a record 300 m. As<br />
solar radi<strong>at</strong>ion increases during <strong>the</strong> austral summer, an<br />
annual plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom develops and quickly diminishes<br />
visibility <strong>to</strong> as little as 1 m by l<strong>at</strong>e December. O<strong>the</strong>r w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
visibility fac<strong>to</strong>rs infl uencing <strong>the</strong> polar regions include glacial<br />
melt and wind and temper<strong>at</strong>ure conditions. Visibility<br />
in <strong>the</strong> open w<strong>at</strong>ers of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula may vary<br />
from 300 m <strong>to</strong> less than 3 m, depending on plank<strong>to</strong>n densities<br />
and sea st<strong>at</strong>e. As glacial or sea ice melts, <strong>the</strong> resulting<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er may form a brackish w<strong>at</strong>er lens over <strong>the</strong> seaw<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Visibility within <strong>the</strong>se lenses is markedly reduced, even<br />
when <strong>the</strong> visibility in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er is still good o<strong>the</strong>rwise. It<br />
may be possible <strong>to</strong> lose sight of <strong>the</strong> entry hole even when<br />
divers are near <strong>the</strong> surface.<br />
POLAR DIVING OPERATIONS<br />
DIVE ACCESS THROUGH ICE<br />
Tidal action, currents, and o<strong>the</strong>r forces produce open<br />
cracks and leads th<strong>at</strong> divers may use <strong>to</strong> enter <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Divers working from USAP research vessels often use <strong>the</strong><br />
leads cut by <strong>the</strong> vessel for <strong>the</strong>ir access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er (Quetin<br />
and Ross, 2009, this volume). A hydraulically oper<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
mobile drill can be used <strong>to</strong> cut 1.3 m diameter holes in<br />
ice th<strong>at</strong> is over 5 m in thickness. In addition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
dive hole, <strong>at</strong> least one safety hole is required. Hole<br />
melters consisting of coiled copper tubing fi lled with hot<br />
circul<strong>at</strong>ing glycol or alcohol are used <strong>to</strong> open a clean, 1 m<br />
diameter hole in <strong>the</strong> thick ice cap th<strong>at</strong> covers <strong>the</strong> freshw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
Dry Valley Lakes (Andersen, 2007), taking from several<br />
hours <strong>to</strong> several days. Chain saws can also be used <strong>to</strong><br />
cut an access hole through ice th<strong>at</strong> is 15 <strong>to</strong> 60 cm thick.<br />
Access holes are cut in<strong>to</strong> square or triangular shapes and<br />
made large enough <strong>to</strong> accommod<strong>at</strong>e two divers in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
simultaneously. Ano<strong>the</strong>r method is <strong>to</strong> use Jiffy drills<br />
th<strong>at</strong> bore pilot holes in ice 15 <strong>to</strong> 30 cm thick and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
saws can be used <strong>to</strong> cut a large dive hole between <strong>the</strong>m;
<strong>at</strong>taching ice anchors <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> chunks of ice allows for easy<br />
removal once <strong>the</strong>y are sawed free. For ice from 15 <strong>to</strong> 25<br />
cm thick, ice saws and breaker bars (2 m lengths of steel<br />
pipe or solid bar with a sharpened tip) are used <strong>to</strong> cut and<br />
break away <strong>the</strong> ice <strong>to</strong> form a hole. Divers enter <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
through pack ice from shore, from an infl <strong>at</strong>able bo<strong>at</strong><br />
launched from shore or a research vessel, or from large ice<br />
fl oes or a fast-ice edge.<br />
If dive holes are required in ice thicker than 5 m or in<br />
ice out of range of <strong>the</strong> mobile drill, explosives may be necessary.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> use of explosives is generally discouraged<br />
for environmental reasons and requires several hours<br />
of clearing ice from <strong>the</strong> hole before a dive can be made.<br />
Fast-ice diving requires one or more safety holes in<br />
addition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary dive hole. During times of <strong>the</strong> year<br />
when air temper<strong>at</strong>ures are extremely cold, dive holes freeze<br />
over quickly. Positioning a he<strong>at</strong>ed hut or o<strong>the</strong>r portable<br />
shelter over a dive hole will delay <strong>the</strong> freezing process. Solar<br />
powered electric muffi n fans are used <strong>to</strong> blow warm<br />
air from near <strong>the</strong> ceiling of <strong>the</strong> hut <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice hole through<br />
a plastic tube. Down lines must mark all holes available<br />
for use on each dive because safety holes th<strong>at</strong> are allowed<br />
<strong>to</strong> freeze <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface are hard <strong>to</strong> distinguish from viable<br />
holes while diving under <strong>the</strong> ice.<br />
DOWN LINES AND TETHERS<br />
A down line is required on all unte<strong>the</strong>red dives conducted<br />
from fast ice or any o<strong>the</strong>r stable overhead environment<br />
with limited surface access. Specifi c down line<br />
characteristics and components are described by Lang and<br />
Robbins (2007).<br />
A minimum of one supervisor/tender per dive is required.<br />
Because <strong>the</strong>y are a critical part of <strong>the</strong> diving oper<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and <strong>the</strong> fi rst responders in case of accident, tenders<br />
receive training in diving fi rst aid (Lang et al., 2007), radio<br />
use and communic<strong>at</strong>ion procedures, scuba gear assembly,<br />
te<strong>the</strong>r management, and vehicle or bo<strong>at</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Dives conducted under fast ice where <strong>the</strong>re is a current,<br />
reduced visibility or open blue w<strong>at</strong>er, or where <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er is<br />
<strong>to</strong>o shallow <strong>to</strong> maintain visual contact with <strong>the</strong> dive hole,<br />
require individual diver te<strong>the</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> are securely <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface. Use of <strong>the</strong> T- or L-shaped te<strong>the</strong>r system is<br />
not ideal, making line-pull communic<strong>at</strong>ion signals diffi cult<br />
and te<strong>the</strong>r entanglement a possibility. Surface tender training<br />
is necessary <strong>to</strong> maintain enough positive tension on <strong>the</strong><br />
te<strong>the</strong>r line <strong>to</strong> immedi<strong>at</strong>ely recognize line-pull signals from<br />
<strong>the</strong> safety diver, without impeding <strong>the</strong> activity or motion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> scientists working under <strong>the</strong> ice. The safety diver’s function<br />
is <strong>to</strong> keep te<strong>the</strong>rs untangled, w<strong>at</strong>ch for large pred<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 245<br />
and communic<strong>at</strong>e via line-pull signals <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r working divers.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r hole-marking techniques <strong>to</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r protect<br />
against loss of <strong>the</strong> dive hole are snow removal (straight<br />
lines radi<strong>at</strong>ing outward from <strong>the</strong> dive hole th<strong>at</strong> are very<br />
visible from under w<strong>at</strong>er) and benthic ropes which consist<br />
of 30 m lines laid out by divers when <strong>the</strong>y fi rst reach<br />
<strong>the</strong> benthos, radi<strong>at</strong>ing outward like <strong>the</strong> spokes of a wheel<br />
from a spot directly bene<strong>at</strong>h <strong>the</strong> dive hole and marked so<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> direction <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> dive hole is clearly discernible.<br />
POLAR DIVING EQUIPMENT<br />
Members of <strong>the</strong> dive team take particular care in<br />
<strong>the</strong> selection and maintenance of polar diving equipment<br />
(Lang and Stewart, 1992; Lang and Sayer, 2007). Antarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers are among <strong>the</strong> coldest a research diver can expect<br />
<strong>to</strong> experience (�1.8°C in McMurdo Sound). In <strong>the</strong>se<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures, not all diving equipment can be expected<br />
<strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e properly and freeze-ups may be more frequent.<br />
Diving under <strong>to</strong>tal ice cover also imposes safety consider<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are refl ected in <strong>the</strong> choice of gear. We have<br />
developed specifi c care and maintenance procedures <strong>to</strong> ensure<br />
<strong>the</strong> reliability of life support equipment.<br />
Divers are required <strong>to</strong> have two fully independent<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ors <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir air supply whenever <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are diving under a ceiling. Modifi ed Sherwood Maximus<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ors (SRB3600 models, Figure 2) have been used<br />
successfully through <strong>the</strong> install<strong>at</strong>ion of a he<strong>at</strong> retention<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>e and adjustment of <strong>the</strong> intermedi<strong>at</strong>e pressure <strong>to</strong> 125<br />
FIGURE 2. Sherwood Maximus SRB3600 second stage with he<strong>at</strong><br />
retention pl<strong>at</strong>e.
246 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS<br />
psi. These units are rebuilt <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> beginning of each season<br />
and with more than 7,000 dives have a freeze-up incident<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e of 0.3 percent. Proper use and pre- and post-dive care<br />
substantially improves <strong>the</strong> reliability of ice diving regul<strong>at</strong>ors,<br />
which must be kept warm and dry before a dive.<br />
Divers should not bre<strong>at</strong>he through <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or before<br />
submersion except <strong>to</strong> briefl y ensure th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or is<br />
functioning because of ice crystalliz<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> air delivery<br />
mechanism from bre<strong>at</strong>h moisture. This is particularly<br />
important if <strong>the</strong> dive is being conducted outside in very<br />
cold air temper<strong>at</strong>ures. During a dive, a regul<strong>at</strong>or is never<br />
used <strong>to</strong> fi ll a lift bag (small “pony bottles” are available<br />
for this purpose) because large volumes of air exhausted<br />
rapidly through a regul<strong>at</strong>or will almost certainly result in a<br />
free-fl ow failure. Infl <strong>at</strong>or hoses are <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> backup<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>or in case <strong>the</strong> air supply <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
must be turned off <strong>to</strong> stem a free fl ow. The backup regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
second stage is <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cylinder harness or<br />
buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>or (BC) such th<strong>at</strong> it is readily accessible<br />
and easily detached. If <strong>the</strong> second stage is allowed<br />
<strong>to</strong> hang loosely from <strong>the</strong> cylinder and drag on <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m,<br />
it will become contamin<strong>at</strong>ed with mud and sediment<br />
and may not function properly when required. After <strong>the</strong><br />
dive, <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ors are rinsed and allowed <strong>to</strong> dry. During<br />
rinsing, care is taken <strong>to</strong> exclude w<strong>at</strong>er from <strong>the</strong> interior<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>or mechanism. The diver ensures th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
cap is se<strong>at</strong>ed tightly, th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> hoses and plugs on <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
stage are secure, and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> purge on <strong>the</strong> second stage is<br />
not accidentally depressed during <strong>the</strong> rinse. The primary<br />
cause of regul<strong>at</strong>or free-fl ow failure is from w<strong>at</strong>er entry<br />
within <strong>the</strong> mechanism th<strong>at</strong> freezes once <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or is<br />
used (Clarke and Rainone, 1995). Freshw<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
may freeze simply with submersion of <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
in seaw<strong>at</strong>er or upon exposure <strong>to</strong> extremely cold surface<br />
air temper<strong>at</strong>ures. If multiple dives are planned, it is recommended<br />
<strong>to</strong> postpone a freshw<strong>at</strong>er rinse of <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or<br />
until all dives are completed for <strong>the</strong> day.<br />
Infl <strong>at</strong>or valves are also subject <strong>to</strong> free-fl ow failure, because<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er entry in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> infl <strong>at</strong>ion mechanism. Drysuit<br />
and BC infl <strong>at</strong>ors must be kept completely dry and hose<br />
connec<strong>to</strong>rs blown free of w<strong>at</strong>er and snow before <strong>at</strong>tachment<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> valve. When infl <strong>at</strong>ing a drysuit or a BC, frequent<br />
short bursts of air are used. Infl <strong>at</strong>or but<strong>to</strong>ns must<br />
never be depressed for longer than one second <strong>at</strong> a time<br />
because rapid air expansion, adiab<strong>at</strong>ic cooling (5°C drop),<br />
and subsequent condens<strong>at</strong>ion and freezing may cause a<br />
free fl ow.<br />
Buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>ors need <strong>to</strong> allow unimpeded access<br />
<strong>to</strong> drysuit infl <strong>at</strong>or and exhaust valves. W<strong>at</strong>er must be<br />
removed from <strong>the</strong> BC bladder after diving and rinsing be-<br />
cause freshw<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> bladder may freeze upon submersion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> BC in ambient seaw<strong>at</strong>er. In <strong>the</strong> McMurdo area,<br />
BC use is not currently required when <strong>the</strong> dive is conducted<br />
under a fast-ice ceiling because of <strong>the</strong> lack of need for surface<br />
fl ot<strong>at</strong>ion. A BC must never be used <strong>to</strong> compens<strong>at</strong>e<br />
for excess hand-carried weight. Because of <strong>the</strong>ir buoyancy<br />
characteristics and durability in cold temper<strong>at</strong>ures, steel,<br />
instead of aluminum, scuba cylinders are used.<br />
Divers must wear suffi cient weight, without overweighting,<br />
<strong>to</strong> allow for maintenance of neutral buoyancy<br />
with a certain amount of air in <strong>the</strong> drysuit. Runaway neg<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
buoyancy is as gre<strong>at</strong> a safety problem <strong>to</strong> recover from<br />
as out-of-control ascent. Because of <strong>the</strong> amount of weight<br />
(30 <strong>to</strong> 40 lbs) and potential for accidental release, weight<br />
belts are not used. Diving Unlimited Intern<strong>at</strong>ional (DUI)<br />
has developed weight and trim systems (Fig. 3) th<strong>at</strong> retain<br />
<strong>the</strong> benefi ts of a harness while still allowing full or partial<br />
FIGURE 3. DUI weight and trim system with bil<strong>at</strong>erally removable<br />
weight pockets (by pulling surgical tubing loops) and shoulder<br />
harness.
dumping of weight under w<strong>at</strong>er. The weight system prevents<br />
accidental release and improves comfort by shifting<br />
<strong>the</strong> weight load from <strong>the</strong> diver’s hips <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> shoulders.<br />
Drysuit choice depends on <strong>the</strong> diver’s preference, <strong>the</strong><br />
requirement for range and ease of motion, and <strong>the</strong> options<br />
available with each suit. Vulcanized rubber suits must be<br />
used when diving in contamin<strong>at</strong>ed w<strong>at</strong>er because of postdive<br />
suit decontamin<strong>at</strong>ion requirements. Drysuits must be<br />
equipped with hands-free, au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ic exhaust valves. Overinfl<br />
<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> drysuit should never be used as a means<br />
<strong>to</strong> compens<strong>at</strong>e for excess hand-carried weight. The choice<br />
of drysuit underwear is perhaps more important than <strong>the</strong><br />
choice of drysuit construction m<strong>at</strong>erial, because it is <strong>the</strong><br />
underwear th<strong>at</strong> provides most of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal protection.<br />
Many divers wear an underlayer of expedition-weight polypropylene<br />
with an outer layer of 400 g Thinsul<strong>at</strong>e®. Dry<br />
gloves or mitts with an inner liner instead of wet gloves are<br />
now used with <strong>the</strong> drysuit. The DUI zipseal dry gloves enjoy<br />
widespread use and are effective <strong>at</strong> warm air equaliz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
from <strong>the</strong> drysuit in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> glove <strong>at</strong> depth. A disadvantage of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se dry-glove systems is <strong>the</strong> complete lack of <strong>the</strong>rmal protection<br />
if <strong>the</strong> gloves fl ood or are punctured, and <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
inevitability of fl ooding <strong>the</strong> entire drysuit.<br />
Severe cold can damage o-ring seals exposed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
environment requiring frequent cleaning and lubric<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Compressor care and adequ<strong>at</strong>e pre-oper<strong>at</strong>ion warming are<br />
necessary <strong>to</strong> ensure a reliable supply of clean air checked<br />
by air-quality tests conducted <strong>at</strong> six-month intervals. Air<br />
fi lters and crankcase oil are scheduled <strong>to</strong> be changed on a<br />
regular basis. The fi ltering capacity of portable compressors<br />
is usually limited, necessit<strong>at</strong>ing air intake hose positioning<br />
upwind and well away from compressor engine exhaust.<br />
Manual condens<strong>at</strong>e drains are purged frequently <strong>to</strong> prevent<br />
moisture contamin<strong>at</strong>ion and freezing of <strong>the</strong> fi lter.<br />
Each diver conducts a functional check of all equipment<br />
before each dive. Particular <strong>at</strong>tention is paid <strong>to</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
and infl <strong>at</strong>or valves. If leakage or free fl ow is detected<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface, <strong>the</strong> dive is postponed and <strong>the</strong> gear serviced<br />
because it will certainly free fl ow <strong>at</strong> depth. All divers must<br />
be able <strong>to</strong> disconnect, with gloved hands, <strong>the</strong> low-pressure<br />
hose from a free-fl owing drysuit infl <strong>at</strong>or valve <strong>to</strong> avoid an<br />
uncontrolled ascent.<br />
Because a drysuit must be infl <strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> prevent “suit<br />
squeeze” with increasing pressure, it is most effi cient <strong>to</strong><br />
regul<strong>at</strong>e buoyancy <strong>at</strong> depth by <strong>the</strong> amount of air in <strong>the</strong><br />
drysuit. Drysuits must be equipped with a hands-free exhaust<br />
valve (Lang and Egstrom, 1990). The BCs are considered<br />
emergency equipment, <strong>to</strong> be used only in <strong>the</strong> event<br />
of a drysuit failure. This procedure elimin<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong><br />
vent two air sources during ascent, reduces <strong>the</strong> chance of<br />
SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 247<br />
BC infl <strong>at</strong>or free-fl ow, and simplifi es <strong>the</strong> maintenance of<br />
neutral buoyancy during <strong>the</strong> dive. The main purpose of<br />
air in a drysuit is <strong>to</strong> provide <strong>the</strong>rmal insul<strong>at</strong>ion as a lowconductivity<br />
gas. Buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>ors and drysuits<br />
must never be used as lift bags. When heavy items must be<br />
moved underw<strong>at</strong>er, separ<strong>at</strong>e lift bags designed specifi cally<br />
for th<strong>at</strong> purpose are used. Lang and Stewart (1992) concluded<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re may be occasions when <strong>the</strong> drysuit diver<br />
is more <strong>at</strong> risk with a BC than without one. Accordingly,<br />
BCs are not required for dives under fast ice where a down<br />
line is deployed and <strong>the</strong> dive is not a blue-w<strong>at</strong>er dive.<br />
SURFACE-SUPPLIED DIVING UNDER ICE<br />
Robbins (2006) described USAP’s surface-supplied<br />
diving activities, his<strong>to</strong>ry, equipment, training, oper<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
and costs. By taking advantage of <strong>the</strong> equipment and expertise<br />
brought <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> USAP program by commercial divers,<br />
scientifi c diving has benefi ted from <strong>the</strong> use of surfacesupplied<br />
diving techniques. Safety, comfort, and effi ciency<br />
are enhanced in some applic<strong>at</strong>ions by using this mode long<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with industry but rarely used in <strong>the</strong> scientifi c<br />
arena. Since 1992, USAP has supported surface- supplied<br />
diving. In th<strong>at</strong> period, 459 surface-supplied dives (of<br />
8,441 <strong>to</strong>tal dives) were logged by 32 divers (of 107 <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
divers). The vast majority of surface-supplied dives were<br />
performed by 8 divers.<br />
The USAP’s experience with EXO-26 masks has been<br />
11 free-fl ows in 106 dives (10.4 percent failure r<strong>at</strong>e). AGA<br />
masks have had 2 free-fl ows in 26 dives (7.7 percent failure<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e). These d<strong>at</strong>a come from dives in <strong>the</strong> Dry Valley<br />
Lakes where w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ures range between 0°C and<br />
2°C. The failure r<strong>at</strong>e would be even higher in �1.8°C w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
of McMurdo Sound.<br />
A minimum of two familiariz<strong>at</strong>ion dives are made by<br />
each new surface-supplied diver over two days in addition<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>pside and underw<strong>at</strong>er training. A three-person crew is<br />
<strong>the</strong> minimum personnel requirement including a supervisor/tender,<br />
a diver, and a suited standby diver using ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
scuba or surface supply.<br />
Currently, <strong>the</strong> majority of surface-supplied diving is<br />
done utilizing 2-m tall high-pressure gas cylinders as an<br />
air source. A large 35 cfm/150 psi diesel compressor and<br />
smaller 14 cfm/125 psi gas compressor are available but<br />
used rarely for scientifi c diving oper<strong>at</strong>ions. The USAP uses<br />
Kirby-Morgan Heliox-18 bandmasks and Superlite-17<br />
helmets. While <strong>the</strong>se units have a gre<strong>at</strong>er propensity <strong>to</strong><br />
freeze and free-fl ow than Sherwood Maximus scuba regul<strong>at</strong>ors,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir track record is as good as ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> EXO-26<br />
or AGA Div<strong>at</strong>or full-face masks.
248 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS<br />
POLAR DIVING HAZARDS<br />
AND EMERGENCIES<br />
FAST-ICE DIVING HAZARDS<br />
Lighting is often dim under a solid ice cover, particularly<br />
early in <strong>the</strong> austral spring when <strong>the</strong> sun is low on <strong>the</strong><br />
horizon. The amount of snow cover and ice thickness will<br />
also <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>e light transmission. Microalgal blooms and<br />
increasing zooplank<strong>to</strong>n during <strong>the</strong> austral summer reduces<br />
available light, making it diffi cult for divers <strong>to</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>e buddies,<br />
down lines, and underw<strong>at</strong>er landmarks. High visibility<br />
early in <strong>the</strong> austral summer season may make under-ice<br />
or benthic objects seem closer than <strong>the</strong>y are. This illusion<br />
may entice divers <strong>to</strong> travel far<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> access hole<br />
than is prudent.<br />
The gre<strong>at</strong>est hazard associ<strong>at</strong>ed with fast-ice diving is<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential loss of <strong>the</strong> dive hole or lead. Access holes,<br />
leads, and cracks in <strong>the</strong> ice are often highly visible from<br />
below because of downwelling daylight streaming through<br />
<strong>the</strong>m. However, dive holes may be diffi cult <strong>to</strong> see due <strong>to</strong><br />
conditions of darkness or of covering <strong>the</strong> holes with portable<br />
shelters. Therefore, a well-marked down line is required<br />
for fast-ice dives. Divers maintain positive visual<br />
contact with <strong>the</strong> down line during <strong>the</strong> dive and avoid becoming<br />
so distracted by <strong>the</strong>ir work th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y fail <strong>to</strong> take<br />
frequent note of <strong>the</strong>ir position in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> access<br />
hole or lead. Problems requiring an emergency ascent are<br />
serious, since a vertical ascent is impossible except when<br />
a diver is directly under <strong>the</strong> dive hole or lead. Additional<br />
safety holes amelior<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> danger of losing <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
dive hole but former dive holes th<strong>at</strong> have frozen over may<br />
still look like safety holes from below. To elimin<strong>at</strong>e confusion<br />
in a frequently drilled area, all active holes are marked<br />
with a down line.<br />
PACK-ICE DIVING HAZARDS<br />
Pack ice is inherently unstable and its conditions can<br />
change rapidly, primarily from surface wind conditions.<br />
An offshore wind may blow pack ice away from <strong>the</strong> shoreline<br />
and loosen <strong>the</strong> pack, whereas an onshore wind may<br />
move signifi cant quantities of pack ice against shorelines<br />
or fast-ice edges, obstructing wh<strong>at</strong> may have been clear<br />
access areas when divers entered <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er. Similarly, increased<br />
wind pressure on pack ice may make driving and<br />
maneuvering an infl <strong>at</strong>able Zodiac more diffi cult or impossible.<br />
Under a jumble of pack ice, <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pography is reminiscent<br />
of cave diving. The condition of <strong>the</strong> pack must be<br />
continually moni<strong>to</strong>red by divers and tenders for changes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> may affect dive safety and <strong>the</strong> entry area must be kept<br />
clear. Down lines and te<strong>the</strong>rs can be disturbed by shifting<br />
pack ice, forcing dive tenders <strong>to</strong> be alert in keeping <strong>the</strong>se<br />
lines free of moving ice.<br />
Surface swells, even if only light <strong>to</strong> moder<strong>at</strong>e, may cause<br />
pack ice <strong>to</strong> oscill<strong>at</strong>e up and down. In shallow w<strong>at</strong>er, it is<br />
possible for a diver <strong>to</strong> be crushed between rising and falling<br />
pack ice and <strong>the</strong> benthos. At Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion, surges from<br />
<strong>the</strong> calving glacier in Arthur Harbor may cre<strong>at</strong>e a similar<br />
hazard. Divers avoid diving under pack ice if <strong>the</strong> clearance<br />
between <strong>the</strong> ice and <strong>the</strong> benthos is 3 m or less. In addition,<br />
lighting may be dim under a heavy pack-ice cover.<br />
Open w<strong>at</strong>er develops in McMurdo Sound when <strong>the</strong><br />
fast ice breaks up in l<strong>at</strong>e December or early January. In <strong>the</strong><br />
Palmer region, any existing fast ice usually breaks up by<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of Oc<strong>to</strong>ber. Pack ice may be present for ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
month or two, and intermittently after th<strong>at</strong>, but open w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
generally characterizes <strong>the</strong> diving environment after<br />
early December. Kongsfjorden in Svalbard has not formed<br />
a substantial ice cover since 2005. Clim<strong>at</strong>ic conditions will<br />
cause vari<strong>at</strong>ion in annual ice conditions.<br />
Divers oper<strong>at</strong>ing in open w<strong>at</strong>er and from small bo<strong>at</strong>s<br />
fl y a “diver down” or “Alpha” fl ag <strong>to</strong> warn o<strong>the</strong>r bo<strong>at</strong> traffi<br />
c in <strong>the</strong> area. When diving from small bo<strong>at</strong>s a rapid exit<br />
from <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> may be necessary. Because this<br />
can be diffi cult when fully laden with gear, lines with clips<br />
hang over <strong>the</strong> side of <strong>the</strong> bo<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> temporarily secure gear<br />
and a ladder facilit<strong>at</strong>es diver exit.<br />
When diving in blue w<strong>at</strong>er (a deep open w<strong>at</strong>er environment<br />
devoid of visual cues as <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> diver’s vertical position<br />
in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column) blue w<strong>at</strong>er diving guidelines<br />
generally apply (Haddock and Heine, 2005). Divers are<br />
te<strong>the</strong>red and wear buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>ors and a down<br />
line is deployed if conditions warrant. Divers oper<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
under pack ice in blue w<strong>at</strong>er often perceive current<br />
increases. Wind action causes <strong>the</strong> pack <strong>to</strong> move, which<br />
in turn moves <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er directly below it. This effect decreases<br />
with depth, such th<strong>at</strong> divers in still w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>at</strong> 10 m<br />
will have <strong>the</strong> illusion of movement as <strong>the</strong> pack ice above<br />
<strong>the</strong>m drifts.<br />
Ice-edge diving is usually conducted in blue w<strong>at</strong>er, and<br />
it tends <strong>to</strong> be shallow (less than 10 m). The underside of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice sheet provides a depth reference lacking in ice-free<br />
blue w<strong>at</strong>er dives. Divers w<strong>at</strong>ch continuously for leopard<br />
seals known <strong>to</strong> lunge out of <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tack people <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ice edge. They may also lurk under <strong>the</strong> ice waiting for<br />
a penguin, or a diver, <strong>to</strong> enter <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er. If penguins in <strong>the</strong><br />
area demonstr<strong>at</strong>e a reluctance <strong>to</strong> enter <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, it may be<br />
an indic<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> a leopard seal is nearby.
MARINE LIFE HAZARDS<br />
Few polar animal species are considered dangerous <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> diver. Sou<strong>the</strong>rn elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) and<br />
Antarctic fur seals (Arc<strong>to</strong>cephalus gazelli) may become<br />
aggressive during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e spring/early summer breeding<br />
season. Crabe<strong>at</strong>er seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) have<br />
demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed curiosity <strong>to</strong>ward divers and aggression <strong>to</strong><br />
humans on <strong>the</strong> surface. Leopard seals (Hydrurga lep<strong>to</strong>nyx)<br />
have been known <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tack humans on <strong>the</strong> surface and<br />
have thre<strong>at</strong>ened divers in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er. A case report of <strong>the</strong><br />
single known in-w<strong>at</strong>er f<strong>at</strong>ality caused by a leopard seal is<br />
described by Muir et al. (2006). Should any aggressive seal<br />
approach divers in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, similar techniques <strong>to</strong> those<br />
protecting against sharks are applied. <strong>Polar</strong> bears (Ursus<br />
maritimus) and walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
are considered pred<strong>at</strong>ory mammals against which diving<br />
personnel must be safeguarded. Encounters with all of <strong>the</strong><br />
aforementioned mammals are usually restricted <strong>to</strong> areas of<br />
open w<strong>at</strong>er, ice edges, or pack ice.<br />
Divers in <strong>the</strong> fast ice around McMurdo may encounter<br />
Weddell seals (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddelli) in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Occasionally a Weddell seal returning from a dive may<br />
surface <strong>to</strong> bre<strong>at</strong>he in a dive hole <strong>to</strong> replenish its oxygen<br />
s<strong>to</strong>res after a hypoxic diving exposure (Kooyman, 2009,<br />
this volume). Usually <strong>the</strong> seal will vac<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> hole once<br />
it has taken a few bre<strong>at</strong>hs particularly if divers are approaching<br />
from below and preparing <strong>to</strong> surface. Divers<br />
must approach such a seal with caution, since an oxygenhungry<br />
seal may aggressively protect its air supply.<br />
Weddell seals protecting <strong>the</strong>ir surface access will often<br />
invert in<strong>to</strong> a head-down, tail-up posture <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>ch for rivals.<br />
Divers entering or exiting <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er are particularly<br />
vulnerable <strong>to</strong> aggressive male Weddells, who tend <strong>to</strong> bite<br />
each o<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> fl ipper and genital regions. There are no<br />
recorded incidents of killer whale (Orcinus orca) <strong>at</strong>tacks<br />
on divers.<br />
POLAR DIVING EMERGENCIES<br />
The best method <strong>to</strong> mitig<strong>at</strong>e scuba diving emergencies<br />
is through prevention. Divers must halt oper<strong>at</strong>ions any<br />
time <strong>the</strong>y become unduly stressed because of cold, f<strong>at</strong>igue,<br />
nervousness, or any o<strong>the</strong>r physiological reason. Similarly,<br />
diving is termin<strong>at</strong>ed if equipment diffi culties occur, such<br />
as free-fl owing regul<strong>at</strong>ors, te<strong>the</strong>r-system entanglements,<br />
leaking drysuits, or buoyancy problems. Emergency situ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
and accidents stem rarely from a single major cause<br />
and <strong>the</strong>y generally result from <strong>the</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of several<br />
SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 249<br />
minor problems. Maintaining <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> not panic and<br />
<strong>to</strong> think clearly is <strong>the</strong> best prepar<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> unexpected.<br />
Most diving emergencies can be mitig<strong>at</strong>ed by assistance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> dive buddy, reinforcing <strong>the</strong> importance of maintaining<br />
contact between two comparably equipped scientifi<br />
c divers while in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Loss of contact with <strong>the</strong> dive hole may require divers<br />
<strong>to</strong> retrace <strong>the</strong>ir p<strong>at</strong>h. Scanning <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column for<br />
<strong>the</strong> down line is done slowly and deliber<strong>at</strong>ely because<br />
<strong>the</strong> strobe light fl ash r<strong>at</strong>e is reduced in <strong>the</strong> cold w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> hole cannot be found, an altern<strong>at</strong>e access <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
surface may have <strong>to</strong> be loc<strong>at</strong>ed. Often <strong>the</strong>re will be open<br />
cracks <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> point where fast ice <strong>to</strong>uches a shoreline.<br />
Lost divers will have <strong>to</strong> constantly balance a desirable<br />
lower air consumption r<strong>at</strong>e in shallow w<strong>at</strong>er with <strong>the</strong><br />
need for <strong>the</strong> wider fi eld of vision available from deeper<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er. Maintaining a safe proximity <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface access<br />
point has made losing <strong>the</strong> dive hole an extremely<br />
unlikely occurrence.<br />
Loss of <strong>the</strong> te<strong>the</strong>r on a fast-ice dive th<strong>at</strong> requires its<br />
use is one of <strong>the</strong> most serious polar diving emergencies.<br />
Lost diver search procedures are initi<strong>at</strong>ed immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
(i.e., assumption of a vertical position under <strong>the</strong> ice where<br />
<strong>the</strong> te<strong>the</strong>red buddy will swim a circular search p<strong>at</strong>tern just<br />
under <strong>the</strong> ceiling <strong>to</strong> c<strong>at</strong>ch <strong>the</strong> unte<strong>the</strong>red diver). The danger<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> loss of a te<strong>the</strong>r in low visibility is<br />
mitig<strong>at</strong>ed if <strong>the</strong> divers have previously deployed a series<br />
of benthic lines. If a diver becomes disconnected from <strong>the</strong><br />
te<strong>the</strong>r down current under fast ice, it may be necessary <strong>to</strong><br />
crawl along <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> down line. To clearly mark<br />
<strong>the</strong> access hole divers deploy a well-marked down line,<br />
establish recognizable “landmarks” (such as specifi c ice<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ions) under <strong>the</strong> hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> outset of <strong>the</strong> dive, leave<br />
a strobe light, a fl ag, or o<strong>the</strong>r highly visible object on <strong>the</strong><br />
substr<strong>at</strong>e just below <strong>the</strong> hole or shovel surface snow off<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice in a radi<strong>at</strong>ing spoke p<strong>at</strong>tern th<strong>at</strong> points <strong>the</strong> way <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> dive hole.<br />
The under-ice pl<strong>at</strong>elet layer can be several meters<br />
thick and can become a safety concern if positively buoyant<br />
divers become trapped within this layer, become disoriented,<br />
and experience diffi culty extric<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
The most obvious solution is <strong>to</strong> exhaust air from <strong>the</strong> drysuit<br />
<strong>to</strong> achieve neg<strong>at</strong>ive buoyancy. If this is not possible<br />
and <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>elet layer is not <strong>to</strong>o thick, <strong>the</strong> diver may stand<br />
upside down on <strong>the</strong> hard under surface of <strong>the</strong> ice so th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> head is out of <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>elet ice <strong>to</strong> orient <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> position<br />
of <strong>the</strong> dive hole and buddy. Ano<strong>the</strong>r concern is th<strong>at</strong><br />
abundant pl<strong>at</strong>elet ice dislodged by divers will fl o<strong>at</strong> up and<br />
plug a dive hole.
250 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / LANG AND ROBBINS<br />
Fire is one of <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est hazards <strong>to</strong> any scientifi c<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ion in polar environments. The low humidity ultim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
renders any wooden structure susceptible <strong>to</strong> combustion<br />
and once a fi re has started, it spreads quickly. Dive<br />
teams must always exercise <strong>the</strong> utmost care when using<br />
he<strong>at</strong> or open fl ame in a dive hut. If divers recognize during<br />
<strong>the</strong> dive th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> dive hut is burning <strong>the</strong>y must termin<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> dive and ascend <strong>to</strong> a safety hole or <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> under surface<br />
of <strong>the</strong> ice next <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> hole (but not below it) in order <strong>to</strong><br />
conserve air.<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION<br />
There are research diving sites in Antarctica (e.g.,<br />
Palmer sewage outfall, McMurdo sewage outfall, and Winter<br />
Quarters Bay) th<strong>at</strong> must be tre<strong>at</strong>ed as contamin<strong>at</strong>ed w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
environments because of <strong>the</strong> high levels of E. coli bacteria<br />
(th<strong>at</strong> have been measured up <strong>to</strong> 100,000/100 ml) or<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence of a hydrogen-sulfi de layer (e.g., Lake Vanda).<br />
Diving with standard scuba or bandmask, where a diver<br />
may be exposed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, is prohibited in <strong>the</strong>se areas.<br />
Surface-supplied/contamin<strong>at</strong>ed-w<strong>at</strong>er diving equipment is<br />
used <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se sites ranging from Heliox-18 bandmasks for<br />
use with a vulcanized rubber drysuit <strong>to</strong> Superlite-17 helmets<br />
th<strong>at</strong> m<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> special Viking suits.<br />
All researchers must avoid degrading <strong>the</strong> integrity of <strong>the</strong><br />
environment in which <strong>the</strong>y work. In particular, polar divers<br />
should avoid over-collecting, <strong>to</strong> not deplete an organism’s<br />
abundance and alter <strong>the</strong> ecology of a research site; unduly<br />
disturbing <strong>the</strong> benthos; mixing of w<strong>at</strong>er layers such as haloclines;<br />
using explosives for opening dive holes; and, spilling<br />
oil, gasoline, or o<strong>the</strong>r chemicals used with machinery or in<br />
research. Increased <strong>at</strong>tention <strong>to</strong> Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y pro<strong>to</strong>cols<br />
on environmental protection and implement<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion Act have made human– seal interactions<br />
a more sensitive issue. Dive groups should avoid<br />
Weddell seal breeding areas during <strong>the</strong> breeding season and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir bre<strong>at</strong>hing holes in particular.<br />
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS<br />
COLD<br />
Cold ambient temper<strong>at</strong>ure is <strong>the</strong> overriding limiting<br />
fac<strong>to</strong>r on dive oper<strong>at</strong>ions, especially for <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal protection<br />
and dexterity of hands. Dives are termin<strong>at</strong>ed before<br />
a diver’s hands become <strong>to</strong>o cold <strong>to</strong> effectively oper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
dive gear or grasp a down line. This loss of dexterity can occur<br />
quickly (5– 10 min if hands are inadequ<strong>at</strong>ely protected).<br />
Grasping a camera, net, or o<strong>the</strong>r experimental appar<strong>at</strong>us<br />
will increase <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>e <strong>at</strong> which a hand becomes cold. Switching<br />
<strong>the</strong> object from hand <strong>to</strong> hand or <strong>at</strong>taching it <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> down<br />
line may allow hands <strong>to</strong> rewarm. Dry glove systems have<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>ly improved <strong>the</strong>rmal protection of <strong>the</strong> hands.<br />
The cold environment can also cause chilling of <strong>the</strong><br />
diver, resulting in a reduced cognitive ability with progressive<br />
cooling. Moni<strong>to</strong>ring <strong>the</strong> progression of <strong>the</strong> following<br />
symp<strong>to</strong>ms <strong>to</strong> avoid life-thre<strong>at</strong>ening hypo<strong>the</strong>rmia<br />
is important: cold hands or feet, shivering, increased air<br />
consumption, f<strong>at</strong>igue, confusion, inability <strong>to</strong> think clearly<br />
or perform simple tasks, loss of memory, reduced strength,<br />
cess<strong>at</strong>ion of shivering while still cold, and fi nally hypo<strong>the</strong>rmia.<br />
He<strong>at</strong> loss occurs through inadequ<strong>at</strong>e insul<strong>at</strong>ion, exposed<br />
areas (such as <strong>the</strong> head under an inadequ<strong>at</strong>e hood<br />
arrangement), and from bre<strong>at</strong>hing cold air. Scuba cylinder<br />
air is initially <strong>at</strong> ambient temper<strong>at</strong>ure and chills from expansion<br />
as it passes through <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>or. Air consumption<br />
increases as <strong>the</strong> diver cools, resulting in additional<br />
cooling with increased ventil<strong>at</strong>ion. Signifi cant chilling also<br />
occurs during safety s<strong>to</strong>ps while <strong>the</strong> diver is not moving.<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> diving requires gre<strong>at</strong>er insul<strong>at</strong>ion, which results in<br />
decreasing general mobility and increasing <strong>the</strong> potential<br />
for buoyancy problems. This also means th<strong>at</strong> an increased<br />
drag and swimming effort, along with <strong>the</strong> donning and<br />
doffi ng of equipment, all increase f<strong>at</strong>igue.<br />
SURFACE COLD EXPOSURE<br />
Dive teams are aware th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> we<strong>at</strong>her can change<br />
quickly in polar environments. While <strong>the</strong>y are in <strong>the</strong> fi eld,<br />
all divers and tenders have in <strong>the</strong>ir possession suffi cient<br />
cold-we<strong>at</strong>her clothing for protection in any circumstance.<br />
Possible circumstances include loss of vehicle power or loss<br />
of fi sh hut caused by fi re. Bo<strong>at</strong> mo<strong>to</strong>r failure may strand<br />
dive teams away from <strong>the</strong> base st<strong>at</strong>ion. Supervisors/tenders<br />
on dives conducted outside must also be prepared for<br />
<strong>the</strong> cooling effects of inactivity while waiting for <strong>the</strong> divers<br />
<strong>to</strong> surface. In addition, some food and w<strong>at</strong>er is a part<br />
of every dive team’s basic equipment. Besides serving as<br />
emergency r<strong>at</strong>ions, w<strong>at</strong>er is important for diver rehydr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
after <strong>the</strong> dive.<br />
HYDRATION<br />
Besides <strong>the</strong> dehydr<strong>at</strong>ing effect of bre<strong>at</strong>hing fi ltered,<br />
dry, compressed air on a dive, Antarctica and <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
are extremely low-humidity environments where dehydr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
can be rapid and insidious. Continuous effort is advised<br />
<strong>to</strong> stay hydr<strong>at</strong>ed and maintain proper fl uid balance.
Urine should be copious and clear and diuretics (coffee,<br />
tea, and alcohol) should be avoided before a dive.<br />
DECOMPRESSION<br />
Mueller (2007) reviewed <strong>the</strong> effect of cold on decompression<br />
stress. The rel<strong>at</strong>ive contributions of tissue<br />
N2 solubility and tissue perfusion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> etiology of decompression<br />
sickness (DCS) are not resolved completely.<br />
Over-warming of divers, especially active warming of cold<br />
divers following a dive, may induce DCS. Divers in polar<br />
environments should, <strong>the</strong>refore, avoid getting cold during<br />
decompression and/or after <strong>the</strong> dive and if <strong>the</strong>y feel hypo<strong>the</strong>rmic,<br />
wait before taking hot showers until <strong>the</strong>y have<br />
rewarmed <strong>the</strong>mselves, for example, by walking. The effect<br />
of cold on bubble grades (as measured by Doppler scores)<br />
may be <strong>the</strong> same for a diver who is only slightly cold as<br />
for one who is severely hypo<strong>the</strong>rmic. Long-term health effects<br />
for divers with a high proportion of coldw<strong>at</strong>er dives<br />
should be considered in <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
Dive computers were examined for use by scientifi c<br />
divers (Lang and Hamil<strong>to</strong>n, 1989) and have now been effectively<br />
used in scientifi c diving programs for almost two<br />
decades in lieu of U.S. Navy or o<strong>the</strong>r dive tables. Currently,<br />
<strong>the</strong> decompression st<strong>at</strong>us of all USAP divers is moni<strong>to</strong>red<br />
through <strong>the</strong> use of dive computers ( UWATEC Aladin Pro)<br />
and d<strong>at</strong>a loggers (Sensus Pro). B<strong>at</strong>tery changes may be<br />
needed more frequently because of higher discharge r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
in extreme cold. Advantages of dive computers over tables<br />
include <strong>the</strong>ir display of ascent r<strong>at</strong>es, no- decompression<br />
time remaining <strong>at</strong> depth, and <strong>the</strong>ir dive profi le downloading<br />
function. Generally, no more than two repetitive<br />
dives are conducted <strong>to</strong> depths less than 130fsw (40msw)<br />
and reverse dive profi les for no- decompression dives less<br />
than 40msw (130fsw) and depth differentials less than<br />
12 msw (40fsw) are authorized (Lang and Lehner, 2000).<br />
Oxygen-enriched air ( nitrox) capability (Lang, 2006)<br />
and rebre<strong>at</strong>her use have, <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, not been requested nor<br />
implemented by <strong>the</strong> USAP Diving Program. Cold and<br />
<strong>the</strong> physical exertion required <strong>to</strong> deal with heavy gear in<br />
polar diving can increase <strong>the</strong> risk of DCS. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,<br />
because of <strong>the</strong> polar <strong>at</strong>mospheric effect, <strong>the</strong> mean annual<br />
pressure altitude <strong>at</strong> McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion is 200 meters. Under<br />
certain conditions, pressure altitude may be as low as<br />
335 meters <strong>at</strong> sea level. Surfacing from a long, deep dive<br />
(on dive computer sea level settings) <strong>to</strong> an equivalent altitude<br />
of 335 meters may increase <strong>the</strong> probability of DCS.<br />
Safety s<strong>to</strong>ps of three <strong>to</strong> fi ve minutes between 10- <strong>to</strong> 30foot<br />
(3.3 <strong>to</strong> 10 m) depths are required for all dives (Lang<br />
and Egstrom, 1990).<br />
SCIENTIFIC DIVING UNDER ICE 251<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
The authors wish <strong>to</strong> thank <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Offi ce<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs, <strong>the</strong> U.K. NERC Facility<br />
for Scientifi c Diving, Diving Unlimited Intern<strong>at</strong>ional,<br />
Inc., and Ray<strong>the</strong>on <strong>Polar</strong> Services Company.<br />
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Environmental and Molecular Mechanisms<br />
of Cold Adapt<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>Polar</strong> Marine<br />
Invertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
Adam G. Marsh<br />
Adam G. Marsh, Professor, College of Marine<br />
and Earth Studies, University of Delaware, 700<br />
Pilot<strong>to</strong>wn Road, Smith Labor<strong>at</strong>ory 104, Lewes,<br />
DE 19958, USA (amarsh@udel.edu). Accepted<br />
28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The under-ice environment places extreme selective pressures on polar marine<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es (sea urchins, starfi sh, clams, worms) in terms of <strong>the</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
oligotrophic w<strong>at</strong>ers, and limited light availability. Free-swimming embryos and larvae<br />
face inordin<strong>at</strong>e challenges of survival with almost nonexistent food supplies establishing<br />
near starv<strong>at</strong>ion conditions <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal limits of cellular stress th<strong>at</strong> would appear <strong>to</strong><br />
require large energy reserves <strong>to</strong> overcome. Yet, despite <strong>the</strong> long developmental periods<br />
for which <strong>the</strong>se embryos and larvae are adrift in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column, <strong>the</strong> coastal under-ice<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> polar regions support a surprising degree of vibrant marine life. How can<br />
so many animals be adapted <strong>to</strong> live in such an extreme environment? We all recognize<br />
th<strong>at</strong> environmental adapt<strong>at</strong>ions are coded in <strong>the</strong> DNA sequences th<strong>at</strong> comprise a species<br />
genome. The fi eld of polar molecular ecology <strong>at</strong>tempts <strong>to</strong> unravel <strong>the</strong> specifi c imprint<br />
th<strong>at</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> life in a polar habit<strong>at</strong> have left in <strong>the</strong> genes and genomes of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
animals. This work requires a unique integr<strong>at</strong>ion of both fi eld studies (under ice scuba<br />
diving and experiments) and labor<strong>at</strong>ory work (genome sequencing and gene expression<br />
studies). Understanding <strong>the</strong> molecular mechanisms of cold adapt<strong>at</strong>ion is critical <strong>to</strong> our<br />
understanding of how <strong>the</strong>se organisms will respond <strong>to</strong> potential future changes in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
polar environments associ<strong>at</strong>ed with global clim<strong>at</strong>e warming.<br />
INTRODUCTION: THE NECESSITY OF SCIENCE DIVING<br />
Looking across <strong>the</strong> coastal margins of most polar habit<strong>at</strong>s, one is immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
struck by <strong>the</strong> stark, frozen wasteland th<strong>at</strong> hides <strong>the</strong> transition from land <strong>to</strong><br />
sea bene<strong>at</strong>h a thick layer of snow and ice. Standing on <strong>the</strong> sea ice surface along<br />
any shore line above 70° l<strong>at</strong>itude, it is hard <strong>to</strong> imagine th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is fl uid ocean<br />
anywhere nearby, and even harder <strong>to</strong> think th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is even a remote possibility<br />
of animal life in such an environment. Yet under <strong>the</strong> fi ve meters of solid sea ice, a<br />
rich and active community of marine organisms exists. The real challenge is getting<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Scientists studying how <strong>the</strong>se organisms are adapted <strong>to</strong> survive and persist<br />
near <strong>the</strong> poles are limited by <strong>the</strong> logistical constraints in getting access under <strong>the</strong><br />
ice <strong>to</strong> collect animals and plants for study. The sea ice cover establishes an effective<br />
barrier <strong>to</strong> using most of <strong>the</strong> common collection techniques th<strong>at</strong> marine biologists<br />
employ from vessel-based sampling oper<strong>at</strong>ions. The time and effort th<strong>at</strong> is<br />
invested in opening a hole in <strong>the</strong> ice gre<strong>at</strong>ly precludes <strong>the</strong> number of sampling sites
254 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARSH<br />
th<strong>at</strong> one can establish. Thus, from one ice hole, we need <strong>to</strong><br />
be able <strong>to</strong> collect or observe as many animals as possible. To<br />
this end, scuba diving is an invaluable <strong>to</strong>ol for <strong>the</strong> marine<br />
biologist because <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> move away from <strong>the</strong> dive<br />
hole after entering <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er gre<strong>at</strong>ly expands <strong>the</strong> effective<br />
sampling area th<strong>at</strong> can be accessed from each individual<br />
hole. There is just no way <strong>to</strong> drill or blast a hole in <strong>the</strong> ice<br />
and drop a “collection-device” down <strong>the</strong> hole and get more<br />
than one good sample. The fi rst deployment would collect<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> is under <strong>the</strong> hole, and after th<strong>at</strong>, <strong>the</strong>re is little left <strong>to</strong><br />
collect. At present, <strong>the</strong>re is still no better method (in terms<br />
of observ<strong>at</strong>ional d<strong>at</strong>a, reliability, and cost effectiveness)<br />
than scuba diving for providing a scientist <strong>the</strong> necessary access<br />
<strong>to</strong> collect and study benthic marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es living<br />
along <strong>the</strong> coastal zones of polar seas.<br />
Although scuba diving under harsh, polar conditions<br />
is diffi cult and strenuous and not without risks, it is an<br />
absolute necessity for scientists <strong>to</strong> work in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er under<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice. We need <strong>to</strong> be able <strong>to</strong> collect, observe, manipul<strong>at</strong>e,<br />
and study <strong>the</strong>se unique polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own environment. This is especially true for <strong>the</strong> developing<br />
fi eld of environmental genomics, where scientists are<br />
<strong>at</strong>tempting <strong>to</strong> decipher <strong>the</strong> molecular and genetic level<br />
changes in <strong>the</strong>se organisms th<strong>at</strong> make <strong>the</strong>m so successful<br />
<strong>at</strong> surviving under extreme conditions of cold, dark and<br />
limited food. This paper will describe how important it is<br />
<strong>to</strong> ultim<strong>at</strong>ely understand how <strong>the</strong>se adapt<strong>at</strong>ions work in<br />
<strong>the</strong> very sensitive early life stages of embryos and larvae,<br />
and how efforts <strong>to</strong> begin culturing <strong>the</strong>se embryos and larvae<br />
under in situ conditions under <strong>the</strong> sea ice will contribute<br />
<strong>to</strong> this gre<strong>at</strong>er understanding.<br />
ADAPTATIONS IN POLAR<br />
MARINE INVERTEBRATES<br />
Antarctic marine organisms have faced unique challenges<br />
for survival and persistence in polar oceans and<br />
seas. The impacts of low temper<strong>at</strong>ures and seasonally<br />
limited food availability have long been recognized as<br />
primary selective forces driving <strong>the</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ional processes<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have led <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> evolution of many endemic<br />
species in Antarctica (Clarke, 1991; Peck et al., 2004;<br />
Portner 2006; Clarke et al., 2007). Many elegant studies<br />
have demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed a wide-array of specifi c molecular adapt<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have been fi xed in specifi c genera or families<br />
of Antarctic fi sh, including chaperonins (Pucciarelli<br />
et al., 2006), he<strong>at</strong> shock proteins (Buckley et al., 2004;<br />
Hofmann et al., 2005), red blood cells (O’Brien and Sidell,<br />
2000; Sidell and O’Brien, 2006), tubulin kinetics ( Detrich<br />
et al., 2000), and anti-freeze proteins (Devries and Cheng,<br />
2000; Cheng et al., 2006). In contrast, <strong>the</strong> work with invertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
has been less molecular and more focused on<br />
physiology and ecology, in terms of identifying adapt<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in life-his<strong>to</strong>ry str<strong>at</strong>egies (Pearse et al., 1991; Poulin<br />
and Feral, 1996; Pearse and Lockhart, 2004; Peck et al.,<br />
2007), secondary metabolites ( McClin<strong>to</strong>ck et al., 2005),<br />
energy budgets and aging (Philipp et al., 2005a; Philipp<br />
et al., 2005b; Portner et al., 2005, Portner, 2006), and an<br />
ongoing controversy over <strong>the</strong> ATP costs of protein syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
(Marsh et al., 2001b; S<strong>to</strong>rch and Portner, 2003;<br />
Fraser et al., 2004; Fraser and Rogers, 2007; Pace and<br />
Manahan, 2007).<br />
Although much progress has been made over <strong>the</strong> last<br />
decade, we still barely have a glimmer as <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> full set of<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> all levels of organiz<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> have guided<br />
species evolution in polar environments. Each genetic description,<br />
each physiological summary provides a snapshot<br />
of a component of <strong>the</strong> process, but we are still much in <strong>the</strong><br />
dark as <strong>to</strong> how all <strong>the</strong> expressed phenotypes of an organism<br />
are integr<strong>at</strong>ed in<strong>to</strong> one functional whole, upon which<br />
selection is active. The survival of any one individual will<br />
depend upon <strong>the</strong> integr<strong>at</strong>ed effectiveness of “millions” of<br />
phenotypic character st<strong>at</strong>es ranging from molecular <strong>to</strong><br />
organismal level processes. How do you apply one snap<br />
shot <strong>to</strong> such a broad continuum spanning different organiz<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
scales? At present, <strong>the</strong>re is a daunting lack of<br />
any specifi c indic<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> “key” genetic adapt<strong>at</strong>ions in<br />
single gene loci of any marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e. This is in stark<br />
contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure th<strong>at</strong> exists for adapt<strong>at</strong>ions in fi sh<br />
genes and microbial genomes (Peck et al., 2005). Without<br />
<strong>the</strong> guidance of knowing “where <strong>to</strong> look,” we are faced<br />
with identifying <strong>the</strong> best str<strong>at</strong>egy for surveying an entire<br />
genome <strong>to</strong> pinpoint any possible genetic adapt<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong><br />
survival in polar environments.<br />
The unique fe<strong>at</strong>ure of cold-adapt<strong>at</strong>ion in polar marine<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y are always exposed <strong>to</strong> a nearfreezing<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ure. Their entire lifecycle must be successfully<br />
completed <strong>at</strong> �1.8°C (from embryo development<br />
<strong>to</strong> adult game<strong>to</strong>genesis). Cold w<strong>at</strong>er (�2 <strong>to</strong> 2°C) is an extreme<br />
environmental condition because of <strong>the</strong> complexity<br />
of <strong>the</strong> hydrogen bonding interactions between w<strong>at</strong>er molecules<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> transition between liquid and solid phases. For<br />
a simple three <strong>at</strong>om molecule, <strong>the</strong> structure of w<strong>at</strong>er near<br />
freezing is very complex, with over four solid phases and<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential for two different liquid phases <strong>at</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ures.<br />
In polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, signifi cant changes<br />
in <strong>the</strong> molecular activity of w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> liquid-solid inter-
face (�1.8°C) are likely <strong>to</strong> pose a strong selective force on<br />
biochemical and molecular function. Understanding how<br />
some organisms have adapted <strong>to</strong> this level of n<strong>at</strong>ural selection<br />
will provide inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> essential set of<br />
genetic components necessary for survival <strong>at</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
margins of our biosphere.<br />
EMBRYOS IN THE COLD<br />
The fact th<strong>at</strong> polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es can maintain<br />
a complex program of embryological development<br />
<strong>at</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ures has received much discussion in <strong>the</strong><br />
liter<strong>at</strong>ure in terms of life-his<strong>to</strong>ry adapt<strong>at</strong>ions. Of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
ecological studies, Thorson’s rule has provided a focal<br />
point for numerous consider<strong>at</strong>ions of why development<br />
is so prolonged in marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
(Pearse et al., 1991; Pearse and Lockhart, 2004). The limited<br />
availability of food in polar oceans has lead <strong>to</strong> uncertainty<br />
regarding <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance of low food<br />
availability compared with low temper<strong>at</strong>ures as <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
selective force limiting developmental r<strong>at</strong>es (Clarke,<br />
1991; Clarke et al., 2007). Overall, limits on metabolism<br />
have now received considerable <strong>at</strong>tention in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
and a general syn<strong>the</strong>sis of <strong>the</strong> physiological constraints on<br />
organismal function in polar environments now appears<br />
<strong>to</strong> primarily involve cellular energetics <strong>at</strong> molecular and<br />
biochemical levels (Peck et al., 2004; Peck et al., 2006a;<br />
Peck et al., 2006b; Clarke et al., 2007). Recent work with<br />
<strong>the</strong> plank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic sea urchin, Sterechinus<br />
neumayeri, has demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> changes in <strong>the</strong><br />
nutritional st<strong>at</strong>e of this feeding larvae do not alter its r<strong>at</strong>e<br />
of early larval development (Marsh and Manahan, 1999;<br />
2000). Low temper<strong>at</strong>ures are likely a primary selective<br />
force and <strong>the</strong>se larvae exhibit unique molecular adapt<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> conserve cellular energy (Marsh et al., 2001b).<br />
This may be a general characteristic of polar invertebr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
larvae, and could account for <strong>the</strong> predominance of nonfeeding<br />
developmental modes found among benthic, macrofaunal<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es in Antarctica, particularly among<br />
echinoderms.<br />
EMBRYO ENERGY METABOLISM<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> most striking characteristics of embryonic<br />
development in Antarctic marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es is <strong>the</strong> slow<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e of cell division. In <strong>the</strong> sea urchin S. neumayeri, early<br />
cleavage has a cell cycle period of 12 h, which is an order<br />
of magnitude slower than in a temper<strong>at</strong>e sea urchin embryo<br />
<strong>at</strong> 15°C. In <strong>the</strong> Antarctic asteroid Odontaster validus <strong>the</strong><br />
COLD ADAPTATION IN POLAR MARINE INVERTEBRATES 255<br />
embryonic cell cycle period is just as long, and in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
mollusk Tri<strong>to</strong>nia antarctica, it is extended <strong>to</strong> almost<br />
48 h (Marsh, University of Delware, unpublished d<strong>at</strong>a). In<br />
general we assume th<strong>at</strong> cell division is linked or coordin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> increase in cell cycle<br />
period results from an overall decrease in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>e<br />
processing <strong>at</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ures. Embryos of S. neumayeri<br />
are sensitive <strong>to</strong> changes in temper<strong>at</strong>ures around 0°C. Between<br />
�1.5°C and �0.5°C, cell division exhibits a large<br />
change in <strong>the</strong> cycle period th<strong>at</strong> is equivalent <strong>to</strong> a Q10 value<br />
of 6.2 (i.e., a 6.2-fold increase in cell division r<strong>at</strong>es if extrapol<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> a �10°C temper<strong>at</strong>ure difference, Figure 1A).<br />
A Q10 gre<strong>at</strong>er than 3 indic<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> long cell division cycles<br />
are determined by processes o<strong>the</strong>r than just <strong>the</strong> simple kinetic<br />
effects of temper<strong>at</strong>ure on biochemical reaction r<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
In contrast, metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es in S. neumayeri do not evidence<br />
a change over this same temper<strong>at</strong>ure gradient (�2°C;<br />
Figure 1B). There is no difference in oxygen consumption<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es in embryos <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> h<strong>at</strong>ching blastula stage between<br />
�0.5°C and �1.5°C, despite large differences in cell division<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es. This directly implies th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> cell cycle period<br />
is not determined by a functional control or coordin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es. The S. neumayeri results suggest th<strong>at</strong><br />
embryo development is not tied <strong>to</strong> metabolism <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se low<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures and <strong>the</strong> current notions of a selective mechanism<br />
th<strong>at</strong> could favor p<strong>at</strong>terns of protracted development<br />
by direct coordin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es (ATP turnover)<br />
remain <strong>to</strong> be investig<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
FIGURE 1. Temper<strong>at</strong>ure Q10 for developmental r<strong>at</strong>es and energy<br />
utiliz<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri. (A)<br />
Embryogenesis <strong>at</strong> �1.5°C was much faster than <strong>at</strong> – 1.5°C and was<br />
equivalent <strong>to</strong> a 6-fold r<strong>at</strong>e change per 10°C (i.e., Q10 estim<strong>at</strong>e). (B)<br />
The metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es of h<strong>at</strong>ching blastulae <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
did not reveal any impact of temper<strong>at</strong>ure (i.e., Q10 � 0).
256 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARSH<br />
EMBRYO MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY<br />
Some embryos of polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es appear<br />
<strong>to</strong> have specialized programs of gene expression th<strong>at</strong> suggest<br />
a coordin<strong>at</strong>ed system of activity as a component of<br />
metabolic cold-adapt<strong>at</strong>ion. Most notable are <strong>the</strong> recent<br />
fi ndings in S. neumayeri embryos th<strong>at</strong> mRNA syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es are �5-fold higher than in temper<strong>at</strong>e urchin embryos<br />
(Marsh et al., 2001b). These d<strong>at</strong>a were determined from<br />
a time course study of whole-embryo RNA turnover r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and show th<strong>at</strong> despite a large difference in environmental<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures (� �25°C) r<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>to</strong>tal RNA syn<strong>the</strong>sis are<br />
nearly equivalent. In comparing <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>e constants for <strong>the</strong><br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis of <strong>the</strong> mRNA fraction <strong>the</strong>re is a clear 5x upregul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of transcriptional activity in <strong>the</strong> S. neumayeri<br />
embryos. Wh<strong>at</strong> we need <strong>to</strong> know about this increased<br />
transcriptional activity is whe<strong>the</strong>r or not <strong>the</strong> upregul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of expression is limited <strong>to</strong> a discrete set of genes, or represents<br />
a unil<strong>at</strong>eral increase in expression of all genes. In<br />
order <strong>to</strong> perform <strong>the</strong>se kinds of studies, we need <strong>to</strong> be able<br />
<strong>to</strong> work with embryos and larvae in <strong>the</strong>ir n<strong>at</strong>ural environment<br />
under <strong>the</strong> sea ice.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> deciphering <strong>the</strong> magnitude of changes<br />
in transcriptional activities, we are now just beginning <strong>to</strong><br />
realize <strong>the</strong> importance of how transcript levels may vary<br />
among individuals within a cohort. Vari<strong>at</strong>ion is a necessity<br />
of biological systems. We generally think in terms of point<br />
mut<strong>at</strong>ions when we conceptualize <strong>the</strong> underlying basis of<br />
how individual organisms differ from one ano<strong>the</strong>r within<br />
a species, and how novel phenotypes arise through <strong>the</strong><br />
slow incremental accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of changes in nucleotide<br />
sequence (evolution). At odds with this ideology is <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
th<strong>at</strong> human and chimpanzee genes are <strong>to</strong>o identical<br />
in DNA sequence <strong>to</strong> account for <strong>the</strong> phenotypic differences<br />
between <strong>the</strong>m. This lead A.C. Wilson (King and<br />
Wilson, 1975) <strong>to</strong> conclude th<strong>at</strong> most phenotypic vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
is derived from differences in gene expression r<strong>at</strong>her than<br />
differences in gene sequence. Microarray studies are now<br />
revealing <strong>to</strong> us an inordin<strong>at</strong>e amount of vari<strong>at</strong>ion in gene<br />
expression p<strong>at</strong>terns in n<strong>at</strong>ural popul<strong>at</strong>ions, and we need <strong>to</strong><br />
understand both <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>to</strong> which th<strong>at</strong> variance may be<br />
determined by <strong>the</strong> environment, and <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>to</strong> which<br />
th<strong>at</strong> variance may be signifi cantly adaptive.<br />
Although it is clear th<strong>at</strong> interindividual variance in gene<br />
expression r<strong>at</strong>es is a hallmark of adapt<strong>at</strong>ion and evolution<br />
in biological systems, <strong>at</strong> present, only a few studies have<br />
looked <strong>at</strong> this vari<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> linkages <strong>to</strong> physiological<br />
function in fi eld popul<strong>at</strong>ions. For Antarctic marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
most of <strong>the</strong> molecular and biochemical work looking<br />
<strong>at</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ions in developmental processes has focused<br />
on trying <strong>to</strong> fi nd “extraordinary” physiological mechanisms<br />
<strong>to</strong> account for <strong>the</strong> adaptive success of <strong>the</strong>se embryos<br />
and larvae. But wh<strong>at</strong> if <strong>the</strong> mechanism of adapt<strong>at</strong>ion is not<br />
extra-ordinary for polar environments? Wh<strong>at</strong> if <strong>the</strong> mechanism<br />
is just “ordinary” environmental adapt<strong>at</strong>ion: n<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
selection of individual genotype fi tness from a popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
distribution of expressed phenotypes. Understanding adaptive<br />
processes in early life-his<strong>to</strong>ry stages of polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
will ultim<strong>at</strong>ely require an understanding of <strong>the</strong><br />
contribution th<strong>at</strong> interindividual variance in gene expression<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns plays in determining lifespan <strong>at</strong> an individual<br />
level, survival <strong>at</strong> a popul<strong>at</strong>ion level and adapt<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> a species<br />
level in extreme environments.<br />
THE PROCESS OF ADAPTATION<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ural selection oper<strong>at</strong>es <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of an individual<br />
<strong>to</strong> remove less-fi t phenotypes from subsequent gener<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
However, it is clear th<strong>at</strong> a hallmark of biological<br />
systems is <strong>the</strong> “maintenance” of interindividual variance<br />
among individuals <strong>at</strong> both organismal (Eastman 2005)<br />
and molecular levels (Oleksiak et al., 2002; Oleksiak et<br />
al., 2005; Whitehead and Crawford, 2006). Although<br />
early life-his<strong>to</strong>ry stages (embryos and larvae) are a very<br />
good system for looking <strong>at</strong> selective processes because<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a continual loss of genotypes/phenotypes during<br />
development, <strong>the</strong>y are diffi cult <strong>to</strong> work with in terms of<br />
making individual measurements <strong>to</strong> describe a popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(cohort) distribution. Their small size limits <strong>the</strong> amount<br />
of biomass per individual and consequently most of wh<strong>at</strong><br />
we know about molecular and physiological processes in<br />
polar invertebr<strong>at</strong>e larvae is derived from samples where<br />
hundreds <strong>to</strong> thousands of individuals have been pooled for<br />
a single measurement.<br />
However, methodological advances have allowed for<br />
quantit<strong>at</strong>ive measurements of molecular and physiological<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e processes <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of individual larvae in terms<br />
metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es (Szela and Marsh, 2005), enzyme activities<br />
(Marsh et al., 2001a), and transcrip<strong>to</strong>me profi ling (Marsh<br />
and Fielman, 2005). We are now beginning <strong>to</strong> understand<br />
<strong>the</strong> ecological importance of assessing <strong>the</strong> phenotypic variance<br />
of characteristics likely experiencing high selective<br />
pressures. In Figure 2, <strong>the</strong> phenotype distributions of two<br />
species are presented <strong>to</strong> illustr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> signifi cant functional<br />
difference between how a change in <strong>the</strong> mean metabolic<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e of a cohort (A) could be functionally equivalent <strong>to</strong> a<br />
change in <strong>the</strong> variance of metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es within a cohort<br />
(B), where a decrease in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es (equivalent <strong>to</strong> an<br />
increase in potential larval lifespan) could arise from ei<strong>the</strong>r
FIGURE 2. Illustr<strong>at</strong>ed selection shifts in <strong>the</strong> frequency distributions<br />
of larval metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es in an environment favoring gre<strong>at</strong>er energy<br />
conserv<strong>at</strong>ion (black) over one th<strong>at</strong> does not (gray). A change in metabolic<br />
effi ciency within a cohort could arises <strong>at</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> level of: (A)<br />
<strong>the</strong> mean phenotype or (B) <strong>the</strong> interindividual variance around <strong>the</strong><br />
same mean in <strong>the</strong> phenotype.<br />
process. N<strong>at</strong>ural selection acts <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> phenotype<br />
of an individual, not <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> mean phenotype of<br />
a popul<strong>at</strong>ion or cohort. Thus, in order <strong>to</strong> understand most<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fi ne-scale biological processes by which organisms<br />
are adapted <strong>to</strong> polar environments (integr<strong>at</strong>ed phenotypes<br />
from multiple gene loci), we must be able <strong>to</strong> describe <strong>the</strong><br />
distribution of <strong>the</strong> potential phenotypic space encoded by<br />
a genome rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> distribution of successful (surviving)<br />
phenotypes <strong>at</strong> a cohort (popul<strong>at</strong>ion) scale.<br />
Hofmann et al.’s recent review (2005) of <strong>the</strong> applic<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of genomics based techniques <strong>to</strong> problems in marine<br />
ecology clearly describes a new landscape of primary<br />
research in which it is possible <strong>to</strong> pursue <strong>the</strong> mechanistic<br />
linkages between an organism and its environment.<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> most interesting aspects of this revolution is<br />
<strong>the</strong> use of microarray hybridiz<strong>at</strong>ion studies for assessing<br />
gene expression profi les <strong>to</strong> identify <strong>the</strong> level of interindividual<br />
variance th<strong>at</strong> does exist in gene expression activities<br />
within a popul<strong>at</strong>ion (Oleksiak et al., 2005; Whitehead and<br />
Crawford, 2006). Although <strong>the</strong>re are clearly some primary<br />
responses th<strong>at</strong> organisms exhibit following specifi c environmental<br />
stresses or cues in terms of gene up- or downregul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(Giaever et al., 2002; Huening et al., 2006), <strong>the</strong><br />
power of assessing <strong>the</strong> expression p<strong>at</strong>terns of thousands of<br />
genes simultaneously has opened an intriguing avenue of<br />
biological research: Why are gene expression p<strong>at</strong>terns so<br />
COLD ADAPTATION IN POLAR MARINE INVERTEBRATES 257<br />
variable, where is <strong>the</strong> source of th<strong>at</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion, wh<strong>at</strong> determines<br />
<strong>the</strong> adaptive signifi cance of this vari<strong>at</strong>ion? Although<br />
<strong>the</strong> mechanistic linkage between gene expression events<br />
and physiological r<strong>at</strong>e changes may yet remain obscure,<br />
it is clear th<strong>at</strong> a signifi cant level of biological variance is<br />
introduced <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> transcrip<strong>to</strong>me level, and <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>to</strong><br />
which th<strong>at</strong> variance may be signifi cantly adaptive requires<br />
explor<strong>at</strong>ion (Figure 2).<br />
HYPOTHESIS<br />
Overall, this research focus is <strong>at</strong>tempting <strong>to</strong> describe a<br />
component of environmental adapt<strong>at</strong>ion as an integr<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
process <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong> mechanisms th<strong>at</strong> may contribute<br />
<strong>to</strong> long lifespans of larvae in polar environments. The<br />
over arching hypo<strong>the</strong>sis is th<strong>at</strong> embryos and larvae from<br />
<strong>the</strong> eggs of different females exhibit substantial vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in transcrip<strong>to</strong>me expression p<strong>at</strong>terns and consequently<br />
metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es, and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se differences are an important<br />
determinant of <strong>the</strong> year-long survival of <strong>the</strong> few larvae<br />
th<strong>at</strong> will successfully recruit <strong>to</strong> be juveniles.<br />
BIG PICTURE<br />
Vari<strong>at</strong>ion is an inherent property of biological systems.<br />
We know th<strong>at</strong> genetic vari<strong>at</strong>ion gener<strong>at</strong>es phenotypic<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ion within a popul<strong>at</strong>ion. However, we also know<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is more phenotypic vari<strong>at</strong>ion evident within a<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion than can be accounted for by <strong>the</strong> underlying<br />
DNA sequence differences in genotypes. Much recent <strong>at</strong>tention<br />
has been focused on <strong>the</strong> role of epigenetic inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
systems in regul<strong>at</strong>ing gene expression events, but<br />
<strong>the</strong>re has been no consider<strong>at</strong>ion yet of <strong>the</strong> contribution of<br />
epigenetics <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of vari<strong>at</strong>ion in a phenotypic character,<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r morphological, physiological, or molecular.<br />
This idea focuses on a potential genome-wide control th<strong>at</strong><br />
could serve as a primary g<strong>at</strong>ing mechanism for setting<br />
limits on cellular energy utiliz<strong>at</strong>ion within a specifi c individual,<br />
while <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> same time allowing for gre<strong>at</strong>er potential<br />
interindividual variance in metabolic activities within<br />
a larval cohort. Understanding <strong>the</strong> sources of vari<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
gene transcription r<strong>at</strong>es, metabolic energy utiliz<strong>at</strong>ion, and<br />
ultim<strong>at</strong>ely lifespans in polar larvae (i.e., <strong>the</strong> “potential”<br />
range in responses <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> selection pressures in polar environments)<br />
is essential for our understanding of how popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are adapted <strong>to</strong> cold environments in <strong>the</strong> short-term,<br />
and ultim<strong>at</strong>ely how some endemic species have evolved in<br />
<strong>the</strong> long term.<br />
Within a cohort of larvae, it is now likely show th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> variance <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of gene expression events is
258 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARSH<br />
amplifi ed <strong>to</strong> a gre<strong>at</strong>er level of expressed phenotypic variance.<br />
Thus, subtle changes in gene promoter methyl<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns (epigenetics) may have very pronounced impacts<br />
on downstream phenotypic processes (physiological energy<br />
utiliz<strong>at</strong>ion). Describing how genomic inform<strong>at</strong>ion is<br />
ultim<strong>at</strong>ely expressed <strong>at</strong> a phenotypic level is vital for our<br />
understanding of <strong>the</strong> processes of organismal adapt<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and species evolution. Although phenotypic plasticity is<br />
documented in marine organisms (particularly with regard<br />
<strong>to</strong> metabolic p<strong>at</strong>hways), wh<strong>at</strong> is absolutely novel<br />
in this idea is th<strong>at</strong> we may be able <strong>to</strong> demonstr<strong>at</strong>e how<br />
changes in <strong>the</strong> phenotype distribution within a cohort of<br />
a character such as metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es can routinely arise<br />
independently of genetic mut<strong>at</strong>ions (i.e., epigenetic controls).<br />
Conceptually, almost all studies of <strong>the</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
gene expression events have been focused on a functional<br />
interpret<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> fi tness of an individual.<br />
Our work <strong>to</strong> describe <strong>the</strong> variance in <strong>the</strong> distribution of<br />
expression r<strong>at</strong>es within a group of larvae opens up a new<br />
dimension of trying <strong>to</strong> describe adapt<strong>at</strong>ional mechanisms<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger level of <strong>to</strong>tal cohort fi tness.<br />
INTERINDIVIDUAL VARIATION<br />
IN EMBRYOS AND LARVAE<br />
DEVELOPMENT<br />
Embryos and larvae are rarely considered as popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of individuals. They are normally just cultured in<br />
huge v<strong>at</strong>s and mass sampled with <strong>the</strong> assumption th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>re is negligible interindividual variance among sibling<br />
cohorts. In S. neumayeri, we have observed substantial<br />
functional differences in <strong>the</strong> distribution of “r<strong>at</strong>e” phenotypes<br />
when <strong>the</strong> effort is made <strong>to</strong> collect d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of<br />
individual embryos and larvae. In Figure 3, eggs from fi ve<br />
females were fertilized and individual zygotes of each were<br />
scored for <strong>the</strong>ir r<strong>at</strong>e of development <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> morula stage<br />
(�4 days <strong>at</strong> �1.5°C). Even in this short span of time, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
was clearly a difference in <strong>the</strong> embryo performance from<br />
different females with an almost two-fold variance in <strong>the</strong><br />
mean cohort r<strong>at</strong>es and an order of magnitude difference in<br />
<strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>es among all individuals. We normally think faster<br />
is better, <strong>at</strong> least in temper<strong>at</strong>e and tropical marine environments,<br />
but is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> case in polar environments? Are <strong>the</strong><br />
fastest developing embryos and larvae <strong>the</strong> ones th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
<strong>the</strong> most likely <strong>to</strong> survive and recruit 12 months l<strong>at</strong>er?<br />
ENERGY METABOLISM<br />
A novel methodology for measuring respir<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
in individual embryos and larvae has been developed for<br />
FIGURE 3. Normal Distributions of development r<strong>at</strong>es in l<strong>at</strong>e morula<br />
embryos of S. neumayeri produced from different females. After<br />
fertiliz<strong>at</strong>ion, individual zygotes were transferred <strong>to</strong> 96-well pl<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n scored individually for <strong>the</strong> time <strong>to</strong> reach 2-, 4-, 8-, 16-cell,<br />
and morula stages (n � 90 for each distribution).<br />
measuring metabolism in many individual embryos or larvae<br />
simultaneously (Szela and Marsh, 2005). This highthroughput,<br />
op<strong>to</strong>de-based technique has been successfully<br />
used <strong>to</strong> measure individual respir<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es in small volumes<br />
(5 ul) as low as 10 pmol O2 x h �1 . The largest advantage<br />
of this technique is th<strong>at</strong> hundreds of individuals<br />
can be separ<strong>at</strong>ely moni<strong>to</strong>red for continuous oxygen consumption<br />
in real-time. The most striking observ<strong>at</strong>ions we<br />
have made so far with S. neumayeri embryos is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are large differences in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es between individuals<br />
and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se differences appear <strong>to</strong> be infl uenced by<br />
<strong>the</strong> eggs produced by different females (Figure 4). Understanding<br />
<strong>the</strong> distribution of metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es among individuals<br />
within a cohort of embryos or larvae is critical for<br />
understanding how metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es may be “tuned” <strong>to</strong><br />
polar environments.<br />
In Figure 4, <strong>the</strong> most intriguing aspect of <strong>the</strong> distributions<br />
is <strong>the</strong> 2- <strong>to</strong> 3-fold difference in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong><br />
can be found among individual embryos. Clearly <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
large degree of interindividual variance in <strong>the</strong> cellular r<strong>at</strong>e<br />
processes th<strong>at</strong> set <strong>to</strong>tal embryo metabolism, and we need<br />
<strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong> mechanistic determinants of th<strong>at</strong> variance.<br />
Wh<strong>at</strong> we need <strong>to</strong> know now is how <strong>the</strong> biological<br />
variance <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> transcrip<strong>to</strong>me (gene expression<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es) impacts <strong>the</strong> variance <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of physiological<br />
function (respir<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es). To d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> embryos and larvae<br />
of most polar invertebr<strong>at</strong>es studied appear <strong>to</strong> evidence<br />
a str<strong>at</strong>egy of metabolic down-regul<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> apparent
FIGURE 4. Distribution of respir<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es in l<strong>at</strong>e gastrula embryos<br />
of S. neumayeri. Eggs from 6 females were fertilized with <strong>the</strong> sperm<br />
from one male and maintained as separ<strong>at</strong>e cultures. The distribution<br />
of metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong>se cultures is not equivalent (n � 15 for each<br />
culture; 90 individuals <strong>to</strong>tal).<br />
effect of extending larval lifespan (Peck et al., 2004; Peck<br />
et al., 2005; Peck et al., 2006a; Peck et al., 2006b). Th<strong>at</strong><br />
is <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> a popul<strong>at</strong>ion level. At an individual<br />
level this could be achieved by one of two mechanisms: (1)<br />
embryos in a cohort could maintain <strong>the</strong> same rel<strong>at</strong>ive distribution<br />
of metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es around a lower mean r<strong>at</strong>e (as<br />
in Figure 1A), or (2) embryos in a cohort could express a<br />
larger degree of interindividual variance (s<strong>to</strong>chastic regul<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
in respir<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es such th<strong>at</strong> a larger fraction of<br />
<strong>the</strong> cohort would have lower metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> might<br />
concomitantly contribute <strong>to</strong> extended larval lifespans (as<br />
in Figure 1B).<br />
GENE EXPRESSION<br />
Physiological changes in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es must have an<br />
underlying basis in molecular events associ<strong>at</strong>ed with gene<br />
expression r<strong>at</strong>es. In order <strong>to</strong> compare changes within embryos<br />
or larvae <strong>to</strong> changes in gene activities, a novel methodology<br />
based on reannealing kinetics is employed for <strong>the</strong><br />
rapid, high-throughput, effi cient, and economical profi ling<br />
of <strong>the</strong> sequence complexity of a transcrip<strong>to</strong>me (Marsh and<br />
Fielman, 2005; Hoover et al., 2007a; b; c). Measuring ren<strong>at</strong>ur<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es of cDNA along a temper<strong>at</strong>ure gradient can<br />
provide inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong> transcript sequence complexity<br />
of a nucleic acid pool sample. In our assay, <strong>the</strong> reannealing<br />
curves <strong>at</strong> discrete temper<strong>at</strong>ure intervals can be described<br />
by a second-order r<strong>at</strong>e function. A full kinetic profi le can be<br />
constructed by analyzing all <strong>the</strong> curves using an inform<strong>at</strong>ics<br />
st<strong>at</strong>istic (Shannon-Weaver entropy) for individual S. neumayeri<br />
embryos (h<strong>at</strong>ching blastula stage). In Figure 5, each<br />
COLD ADAPTATION IN POLAR MARINE INVERTEBRATES 259<br />
FIGURE 5. Individual cDNA libraries were constructed for four embryos<br />
and profi led for sequence complexity using a novel approach<br />
<strong>to</strong> measuring reannealing kinetics. Large differences in <strong>the</strong> sequence<br />
distribution and abundance of <strong>the</strong> transcrip<strong>to</strong>me pool are evident<br />
among <strong>the</strong>se sibling embryos.<br />
point represents <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal mRNA pool complexity <strong>at</strong> a given<br />
Tm class with a mean (sd) of 4 duplic<strong>at</strong>e assays <strong>at</strong> each Tm.<br />
Our novel revel<strong>at</strong>ion is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se mRNA pools among embryos<br />
are not identical. We can detect discrete differences in<br />
<strong>the</strong> distribution and abundance of component transcripts<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong>se individuals, even though <strong>the</strong>y are all<br />
apparently progressing through <strong>the</strong> same developmental<br />
program. Thus, <strong>the</strong>re is a large variance component th<strong>at</strong><br />
arises <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of gene expression within <strong>the</strong>se Antarctic<br />
sea urchin embryos.<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> most prominent mechanisms determining<br />
gene expression p<strong>at</strong>terns is <strong>the</strong> system of chemical modifi -<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ions on DNA th<strong>at</strong> establish an epigenetic p<strong>at</strong>tern of inform<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Epigenetic processes refer <strong>to</strong> heritable mole cular<br />
structures th<strong>at</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>e gene expression events independent<br />
of any DNA nucleotide sequence within a genome. There is<br />
currently a clear recognition th<strong>at</strong> a large component of gene<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ion can oper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>at</strong> this level of local DNA structure<br />
and composition and th<strong>at</strong> DNA methyl<strong>at</strong>ion is one of <strong>the</strong><br />
dominant mechanisms. Methyl<strong>at</strong>ion of promoter domains<br />
is one of <strong>the</strong> key mechanisms th<strong>at</strong> can account for temporal<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns of differential gene expression during embryological<br />
development (MacKay et al., 2007; Sasaki et al., 2005;<br />
Haaf, 2006). During cell division, this genome methyl<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern is re-established with high fi delity in daughter cells<br />
by a suite of methyl-transferases immedi<strong>at</strong>ely after DNA<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis. Consequently, an established regul<strong>at</strong>ory “imprint”<br />
can be perpetu<strong>at</strong>ed during development and across<br />
gener<strong>at</strong>ions. In this sense, methyl<strong>at</strong>ion serves as a cell-based
260 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARSH<br />
memory system for maintaining a p<strong>at</strong>tern of gene expression<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Methyl<strong>at</strong>ion is also evident in invertebr<strong>at</strong>e genomes,<br />
although <strong>the</strong> distribution of methyl<strong>at</strong>ed sites appears <strong>to</strong><br />
be more variable than in vertebr<strong>at</strong>es, being mainly concentr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
within areas of gene loci (Levenson and Swe<strong>at</strong>t,<br />
2006; Schaefer and Lyko, 2007; Suzuki et al., 2007). Some<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es exhibit mammalian-type levels of DNA methyl<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(up <strong>to</strong> 15 percent of all cy<strong>to</strong>sine residues methyl<strong>at</strong>ed).<br />
In many invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, DNA methylases appear <strong>to</strong><br />
be very active during development (Meehan et al., 2005)<br />
and we can measure �4 percent methyl-cy<strong>to</strong>sine levels in<br />
S. neumayeri (Kendall et al., 2005). More importantly, <strong>the</strong><br />
presence/absence of specifi c methyl<strong>at</strong>ion sites within a genome<br />
can be rapidly assessed using an Amplifi ed Fragment<br />
Length Polymorphism derived assay. The key observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
here are th<strong>at</strong> methyl<strong>at</strong>ion fi ngerprints can be rapidly assessed<br />
following experimental tre<strong>at</strong>ments, and th<strong>at</strong> methyl<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
sites in gene promoters can be identifi ed and scored<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ely (Kaminsk et al., 2006; Rauch et al. 2007). The<br />
number and diversity of methyl<strong>at</strong>ion sites we can identify<br />
in early S. neumayeri embryos indic<strong>at</strong>es an active DNA<br />
methyl<strong>at</strong>ion system th<strong>at</strong> could be gener<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> variance<br />
in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es and developmental r<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> we have<br />
observed.<br />
DIVING WITH EMBRYOS<br />
AND LARVAE UNDER THE ICE<br />
The previous sections have documented <strong>the</strong> prevalence<br />
of a high component of interindividual variance among<br />
individual embryos of S. neumayeri. In order <strong>to</strong> fully understand<br />
<strong>the</strong> implic<strong>at</strong>ions for this variance in terms of its<br />
impact on <strong>the</strong> survival of a cohort of larvae and <strong>the</strong> persistence<br />
of a sea urchin popul<strong>at</strong>ion through time, we need<br />
<strong>to</strong> study lots of individual larvae under n<strong>at</strong>ural conditions.<br />
This is absolutely impossible <strong>to</strong> do in a labor<strong>at</strong>ory setting<br />
because of <strong>the</strong> large volumes of sea w<strong>at</strong>er th<strong>at</strong> would have<br />
<strong>to</strong> be maintained. As an altern<strong>at</strong>ive, a pilot program is<br />
underway <strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> success of culturing embryos<br />
and larvae in fl ow-through containers under <strong>the</strong> sea ice in<br />
McMurdo Sound. The concept is simple: Let <strong>the</strong> embryos<br />
and larvae grow n<strong>at</strong>urally without investing much time or<br />
effort in <strong>the</strong>ir husbandry.<br />
Current efforts <strong>to</strong> mass culture sea urchin larvae utilize<br />
200-liter drums s<strong>to</strong>cked <strong>at</strong> densities of �10 per ml. At<br />
those densities, <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er needs <strong>to</strong> be changed every two<br />
days. One w<strong>at</strong>er change on one 200 liter drum can take<br />
2 hours in order <strong>to</strong> “gently” fi lter all <strong>the</strong> larvae out fi rst<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n put <strong>the</strong>m in<strong>to</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r clean 200 liter drum. The<br />
word gently is emphasized here for irony, because <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is nothing gentle about using a small-mesh screen <strong>to</strong> fi lter<br />
out all <strong>the</strong> embryos and larvae. It is a very physically<br />
stressful process, and mortality r<strong>at</strong>es are signifi cant.<br />
An altern<strong>at</strong>ive approach utilizing in situ chambers<br />
could allow for <strong>the</strong> embryos and larvae <strong>to</strong> develop without<br />
human intervention. The under ice environment around<br />
McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion is very stable and <strong>the</strong> epiphytic fouling<br />
community of organisms is almost nonexistent. In<br />
Figure 6, pho<strong>to</strong>graphs of under ice culture bags in use in<br />
McMurdo Sound are shown. These trial bags were fi tted<br />
with two open ports having a 40 �m mesh Nytek screen<br />
coverings so th<strong>at</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er could be freely exchanged through<br />
<strong>the</strong> bag. Low densities of embryos from different marine<br />
FIGURE 6. Culture bags with embryos and larvae of different marine<br />
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es are te<strong>the</strong>red <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m rubble of <strong>the</strong> McMurdo<br />
Jetty under 6 m of solid sea ice and 25 m <strong>to</strong>tal w<strong>at</strong>er depth (pho<strong>to</strong>s<br />
by Adam G. Marsh).
invertebr<strong>at</strong>es were placed in <strong>the</strong> bag and sampled <strong>at</strong> different<br />
time intervals. We have been successful <strong>at</strong> culturing<br />
larvae of <strong>the</strong> clam L<strong>at</strong>ernula eliptica for over 13 months<br />
under <strong>the</strong> ice, and recovering fully metamorphosed juveniles<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of th<strong>at</strong> time period.<br />
The ability <strong>to</strong> place embryos and larvae under <strong>the</strong> ice<br />
in culture containers in <strong>the</strong> Austral summer, <strong>the</strong>n leave<br />
<strong>the</strong>m in place through <strong>the</strong> winter season, means th<strong>at</strong> we<br />
now have <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>to</strong> work with <strong>the</strong> full lifecycle of<br />
some marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e larvae. Because of <strong>the</strong> slow developmental<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>the</strong>se larvae and protracted lifespans,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are rel<strong>at</strong>ively few studies th<strong>at</strong> have been able <strong>to</strong> collect<br />
any d<strong>at</strong>a on <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>er life-stage as <strong>the</strong>y approach metamorphosis.<br />
However, divers can now establish cultures in<br />
situ under <strong>the</strong> ice, <strong>the</strong>n return <strong>at</strong> any time point l<strong>at</strong>er on<br />
<strong>to</strong> sample individuals. This increase in <strong>the</strong> time span for<br />
which we can now study will fi ll in <strong>the</strong> large gap in our<br />
current knowledge of wh<strong>at</strong> happens <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> Austral<br />
winter period when <strong>the</strong> larvae are ready <strong>to</strong> become<br />
juveniles.<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> understand how larvae are adapted <strong>to</strong><br />
survive in polar environments, we really need <strong>to</strong> make<br />
our best measurements and execute our most exact experiments<br />
on <strong>the</strong> individuals th<strong>at</strong> have survived for <strong>the</strong><br />
complete developmental period and are now ready <strong>to</strong> become<br />
juveniles. If only 10 percent of a cohort survives <strong>to</strong><br />
this stage (�12 months development), <strong>the</strong>n making early<br />
measurements on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r 90% (<strong>at</strong> 1 month) th<strong>at</strong> were<br />
destined <strong>to</strong> die would essentially just give you inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
about wh<strong>at</strong> does not work. It is <strong>the</strong> survivors th<strong>at</strong> hold <strong>the</strong><br />
key <strong>to</strong> understanding how <strong>the</strong>se organisms are adapted <strong>to</strong><br />
persist in a harsh polar environment. In essence, all <strong>the</strong><br />
existing studies on adapt<strong>at</strong>ions in polar marine larvae th<strong>at</strong><br />
have made measurements from bulk cultures <strong>at</strong> early developmental<br />
time points could be grossly misleading. All<br />
of those individuals are not likely <strong>to</strong> survive <strong>the</strong> full year <strong>to</strong><br />
recruitment. Consequently, we need an experimental culturing<br />
system th<strong>at</strong> will allow scientists <strong>to</strong> work with larvae<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have survived <strong>the</strong> harsh polar environment. Those are<br />
<strong>the</strong> individuals th<strong>at</strong> have <strong>the</strong> key <strong>to</strong> understanding adaptive<br />
processes.<br />
Overall, <strong>the</strong> in situ culturing approach offers us three<br />
main advantages:<br />
1. Large numbers of individuals can be cultured with rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
little husbandry effort. Once <strong>the</strong> culture containers<br />
are setup and s<strong>to</strong>cked, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> only effort necessary<br />
is for a dive team <strong>to</strong> periodically sample and remove<br />
individuals. There is no feeding and little maintenance<br />
required.<br />
COLD ADAPTATION IN POLAR MARINE INVERTEBRATES 261<br />
2. Larvae can be cultured under very n<strong>at</strong>ural conditions<br />
without labor<strong>at</strong>ory artifacts. The most important variable<br />
<strong>to</strong> control is temper<strong>at</strong>ure and by not having open<br />
culture containers in an aquarium room, <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
worry about <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ure in <strong>the</strong> vessels changing<br />
because of problems with electricity supply, pumps<br />
breaking down and losing <strong>the</strong> cold sea w<strong>at</strong>er supply<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e, or someone just changing <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmost<strong>at</strong> within<br />
<strong>the</strong> aquarium room. The second most important variable<br />
is food, and under in situ conditions, <strong>the</strong> feeding<br />
larvae will receive a diet of n<strong>at</strong>ural species and in a<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural supply.<br />
3. Long term cultures can be maintained across <strong>the</strong> entire<br />
developmental period, which in most polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
can easily extend upwards of a year. This<br />
approach will provide access <strong>to</strong> larvae th<strong>at</strong> have successfully<br />
survived <strong>the</strong>ir full lifecycle in a harsh polar<br />
environment.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
The S. neumayeri distributions in developmental r<strong>at</strong>e<br />
(Figure 3), respir<strong>at</strong>ion distributions (Figure 4), transcrip<strong>to</strong>me<br />
profi les (Figure 5), and gene methyl<strong>at</strong>ion (d<strong>at</strong>a not<br />
shown) have focused our <strong>at</strong>tention on trying <strong>to</strong> understand<br />
<strong>the</strong> functional signifi cance of interindividual variability<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se levels of biological organiz<strong>at</strong>ion. In a lifehis<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
model th<strong>at</strong> selects for a prolonged larval lifespan,<br />
it is intriguing <strong>to</strong> ask whe<strong>the</strong>r or not it is a reduction in<br />
individual metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es (Figure 2A) or an increase in <strong>the</strong><br />
cohort variance in metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es (Figure 2B) th<strong>at</strong> could<br />
account for <strong>the</strong> adapt<strong>at</strong>ion in metabolic phenotypes. The<br />
metabolic lifespans of polar invertebr<strong>at</strong>e larvae could be<br />
under <strong>the</strong> same genetic determinants as o<strong>the</strong>r temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
species, but changes in p<strong>at</strong>terns of gene regul<strong>at</strong>ion could<br />
substantially alter <strong>the</strong> distribution of physiological phenotypes<br />
within a cohort. Being able <strong>to</strong> study long-lived larvae<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are ready <strong>to</strong> become juveniles holds <strong>the</strong> key for deciphering<br />
<strong>the</strong> adaptive mechanism th<strong>at</strong> may be oper<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> level of a full cohort <strong>to</strong> ensure th<strong>at</strong> some percentage<br />
is capable of surviving. Selection is surely not oper<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>to</strong> force <strong>the</strong> survival function of all individuals within a<br />
cohort. Only enough need <strong>to</strong> survive <strong>to</strong> keep a popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
established and stable.<br />
Scientifi c diving will be an important component of<br />
discovering how <strong>the</strong>se animals are adapted <strong>to</strong> survive. The<br />
opportunity <strong>to</strong> now work in situ with embryos and larvae<br />
will open new avenues of research and understanding. Even<br />
though <strong>the</strong> under ice work is not complex, it is none<strong>the</strong>less
262 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARSH<br />
rigorous and demanding. Any diver working on <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m<br />
for more than 45 minutes will readily <strong>at</strong>test <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> extreme<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> cold th<strong>at</strong> impacts all organisms in th<strong>at</strong> environment.<br />
Being in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er gives one a unique perspective<br />
on <strong>the</strong> survival challenges th<strong>at</strong> are facing <strong>the</strong> embryos and<br />
larvae of <strong>the</strong>se polar marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>es.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This work was conducted with <strong>the</strong> help, collabor<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
and particip<strong>at</strong>ion of numerous students and postdoc<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>es in my lab and I am gr<strong>at</strong>eful for <strong>the</strong>ir efforts,<br />
energies and cold <strong>to</strong>lerance. The research was supported<br />
by a grant from <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion, Offi ce<br />
of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs (#02– 38281 <strong>to</strong> AGM).<br />
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Miles<strong>to</strong>nes in <strong>the</strong> Study of Diving<br />
Physiology: Antarctic Emperor<br />
Penguins and Weddell Seals<br />
Gerald Kooyman<br />
Gerald Kooyman, Research Professor, Scholander<br />
Hall, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University<br />
of California– San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive,<br />
La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA ( gkooyman@<br />
ucsd.edu). Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, is <strong>the</strong> best place <strong>to</strong> conduct diving physiology<br />
studies on marine birds and mammals under free-diving conditions. Both emperor<br />
penguins and Weddell seals live n<strong>at</strong>urally in areas of extensive sea ice under which <strong>the</strong>y<br />
dive and hunt for prey. The fi rst experimental diving studies were conducted on Weddell<br />
seals in 1964 using <strong>the</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>ed bre<strong>at</strong>hing hole pro<strong>to</strong>col for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time. Sea ice,<br />
2 m thick, covers McMurdo Sound until l<strong>at</strong>e December. Below <strong>the</strong> ice is <strong>the</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
environment where Antarctic pred<strong>at</strong>ors hunt <strong>the</strong>ir prey. Here in <strong>the</strong> Sound diving studies<br />
involve <strong>at</strong>tachment of a recording device <strong>to</strong> a seal or bird and release of <strong>the</strong> animal in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> hole cut in sea ice. This procedure sets <strong>the</strong> stage for a bird or mammal <strong>to</strong> hunt without<br />
competition, and <strong>the</strong> only restrictive condition is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y must return <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> release<br />
hole <strong>to</strong> bre<strong>at</strong>he. After <strong>the</strong> animal surfaces, <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tached recording devices can be retrieved<br />
and <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion downloaded. Results from using this experimental pro<strong>to</strong>col range<br />
from determining <strong>the</strong> fi rst foraging p<strong>at</strong>terns of any diving mammal, <strong>to</strong> measuring <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
blood and muscle chemistry fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions during <strong>the</strong> extended and unrestrained dives.<br />
These experiments are <strong>the</strong> standard for understanding <strong>the</strong> hypoxic <strong>to</strong>lerance of diving<br />
animals, <strong>the</strong>ir aerobic diving limits, and <strong>the</strong>ir str<strong>at</strong>egies of foraging, <strong>to</strong> mention a few.<br />
The pro<strong>to</strong>col will continue <strong>to</strong> be used in 2008 for studies of both emperor penguins and<br />
Weddell seals by several investig<strong>at</strong>ors.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
My goal in this present<strong>at</strong>ion is <strong>to</strong> engender an understanding of <strong>the</strong> valuable<br />
resource we have next <strong>to</strong> McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> largest base in Antarctica.<br />
Th<strong>at</strong> asset is McMurdo Sound itself, which is covered by perhaps <strong>the</strong> largest and<br />
most sou<strong>the</strong>rly annual fast-ice sheet in Antarctica. The ice cover most commonly<br />
ranges in thickness from 1 <strong>to</strong> 4 m in thickness, and extends from <strong>the</strong> McMurdo<br />
Ice Shelf <strong>to</strong> Cape Royds <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north, and east <strong>to</strong> west from Ross Island <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
continent (Figure 1). It covers an oceanic area reaching <strong>to</strong> depths of 600 m. It<br />
is also one of <strong>the</strong> most stable fast ice areas and it persists until l<strong>at</strong>e December.<br />
Like almost every fi rst-time visi<strong>to</strong>r, when I arrived in 1961, I was not impressed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Sound’s uniqueness. However, McMurdo Sound may have <strong>the</strong> only such<br />
annual fast-ice shelf anywhere in Antarctica where it can be used extensively for<br />
innumerable projects. Among <strong>the</strong> many uses are: (1) <strong>the</strong> largest and most active<br />
airport in Antarctica, (2) “<strong>at</strong>-sea” marine biological and oceanographic st<strong>at</strong>ions
266 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOYMAN<br />
FIGURE 1. Loc<strong>at</strong>ion of McMurdo Sound. The annual sea ice nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
limit is usually <strong>at</strong> Cape Royds, but occasionally extends <strong>to</strong> Cape<br />
Bird. The two major research st<strong>at</strong>ions of McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion (US) and<br />
Scott Base (NZ) are near <strong>the</strong> tip of Cape Armitage.<br />
without <strong>the</strong> inconveniences and cost of research vessels,<br />
(3) scuba diving st<strong>at</strong>ions, and (4) <strong>at</strong> least three <strong>to</strong> four experimental<br />
labor<strong>at</strong>ories for <strong>the</strong> study of marine organisms.<br />
These st<strong>at</strong>ions are sc<strong>at</strong>tered throughout <strong>the</strong> Sound in <strong>the</strong><br />
spring and sometimes in <strong>the</strong> winter. As an example of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sound’s value as a scientifi c asset I will describe wh<strong>at</strong> is<br />
most familiar <strong>to</strong> me. For <strong>the</strong> past 43 years, <strong>the</strong> Sound has<br />
been <strong>the</strong> premier study site for <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ion of diving<br />
and behavioral physiology of birds and mammals, and <strong>the</strong><br />
training of three gener<strong>at</strong>ions of scientists. These kinds of<br />
studies began not long after <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion was established<br />
in 1957, and <strong>the</strong>re was a surge in scientifi c endeavor promoted<br />
by, and in celebr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Second Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Year, or Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (IGY), as it<br />
was called <strong>the</strong>n. The diving studies have been continuous<br />
ever since.<br />
The crucial <strong>at</strong>tributes th<strong>at</strong> a pl<strong>at</strong>e of fast ice must have<br />
<strong>to</strong> make it useful year-round, is a large surface area of <strong>at</strong><br />
least 10s of km 2 . It must have an ice thickness th<strong>at</strong> will<br />
support large vehicles such as C<strong>at</strong>erpillar D8’s, substantial<br />
buildings, and large aircraft of <strong>at</strong> least <strong>the</strong> size of an<br />
LC 130. McMurdo Sound fast ice will support <strong>the</strong> Boeing<br />
C5, <strong>the</strong> largest aircraft known. Ross Island, where Mc-<br />
Murdo St<strong>at</strong>ion resides, also provides protection for <strong>the</strong><br />
Sound from ocean currents and s<strong>to</strong>rms so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
fast ice persists until early January. In fact, in <strong>the</strong> last few<br />
years, since about 2001 until 2006, little of <strong>the</strong> Sound ice<br />
broke up and departed. This was a result of <strong>the</strong> added<br />
protection given <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sound by <strong>the</strong> giant iceberg B15. As<br />
a consequence of <strong>the</strong> Sound’s fast-ice stability, <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
airport in Antarctica was built in McMurdo Sound during<br />
<strong>the</strong> IGY (1957), and a new one has been built every<br />
spring since th<strong>at</strong> fi rst season. In addition, <strong>the</strong>re is a large,<br />
local Weddell seal popul<strong>at</strong>ion in McMurdo Sound th<strong>at</strong> has<br />
been <strong>the</strong> object of intensive ecology and physiology studies<br />
since <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> two bases of McMurdo<br />
St<strong>at</strong>ion and Scott Base.<br />
McMurdo Sound fulfi lls all <strong>the</strong> above requirements. It<br />
is about 64 km across <strong>the</strong> Sound from Ross Island <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mainland, and it is about 32 km from Cape Royds <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
McMurdo Ice Shelf near Cape Armitage (Figure 1). The sea<br />
ice forms in April and decays in January, usually breaking<br />
out annually on <strong>the</strong> eastern half by mid <strong>to</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e February.<br />
The ice grows through Oc<strong>to</strong>ber <strong>at</strong> which <strong>the</strong> maximum is<br />
usually about 2 m thick <strong>at</strong> its sou<strong>the</strong>rn base next <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
McMurdo Ice Shelf, and about 1.5 m thick near <strong>the</strong> edge <strong>at</strong><br />
Cape Royds. It is noteworthy <strong>to</strong> illustr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> variability of<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea ice breakout, form<strong>at</strong>ion, and extent. In 1981 during<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst overwintering study of Weddell seals, investig<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
were hampered by <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e development of sea ice well in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> winter after a previous extensive summer ice breakout<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> McMurdo Ice Shelf. In contrast, in 2001 after <strong>the</strong> arrival<br />
of B15 <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn edge of Ross Island, <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
fast ice became multi-year ice and extended well beyond<br />
Beaufort Island. This condition persisted until 2006 when<br />
<strong>the</strong> last remnants of this iceberg drifted north of <strong>the</strong> zone<br />
of infl uence on McMurdo Sound. Because of <strong>the</strong> numerous<br />
science programs <strong>at</strong> McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion and Scott Base, as<br />
well as McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion’s function as <strong>the</strong> logistic center<br />
for supplying South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> airport, th<strong>at</strong> has hundreds<br />
of landings every season, is essential for this region<br />
of Antarctica. In addition, sea ice <strong>to</strong> land access for large<br />
vehicles <strong>to</strong> reach McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion and Scott Base is ideal<br />
with gently sloping land down <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea ice edge. Finally,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Weddell seal popul<strong>at</strong>ion along <strong>the</strong> coast of Ross Island<br />
from Turtle Rock <strong>to</strong> Cape Royds (~15 km) harbors about<br />
500 breeding females and it is one of <strong>the</strong> largest concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of seals in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea.<br />
The above-described <strong>at</strong>tributes of McMurdo Sound<br />
are m<strong>at</strong>chless. There are no o<strong>the</strong>r st<strong>at</strong>ions throughout Antarctica<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have <strong>the</strong> air support or base size and support<br />
of McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion. Consider <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea.<br />
There are two possibilities: Terra Nova Bay (TNB) and<br />
Moubray Bay both of which have extensive fast ice sheets.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn end of Terra Nova Bay resides <strong>the</strong> Italian<br />
base of Zuchelli St<strong>at</strong>ion. The Campbell Ice Tongue bisects<br />
<strong>the</strong> bay. The small sou<strong>the</strong>rn section would be feasible for<br />
only limited bird and mammal work. Here <strong>the</strong>re is a small
airstrip and a few offshore marine st<strong>at</strong>ions. The nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
portion of TNB is much larger and has both a large popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of Weddell seals, and one of <strong>the</strong> largest known emperor<br />
penguin colonies. This part of <strong>the</strong> bay is bordered by<br />
high ice cliffs and is not accessible from land. There is also<br />
a large perennial ice crack th<strong>at</strong> bisects <strong>the</strong> eastern part of<br />
TNB from east <strong>to</strong> west th<strong>at</strong> limits its usefulness for bird and<br />
mammal studies. There is also no access <strong>to</strong> land so th<strong>at</strong> a<br />
shore st<strong>at</strong>ion could not be established <strong>to</strong> support <strong>the</strong> kind of<br />
programs th<strong>at</strong> are carried out from McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion and,<br />
<strong>at</strong> least for seals, it would be diffi cult <strong>to</strong> establish a functional<br />
sea ice st<strong>at</strong>ion where <strong>the</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>ed hole pro<strong>to</strong>col (IHP)<br />
would work. Wood Bay <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north of Cape Washing<strong>to</strong>n<br />
has no bases except for a small fi eld camp <strong>at</strong> Edmons<strong>to</strong>n<br />
Point for Adélie penguin research, and <strong>the</strong>re is no good site<br />
for a st<strong>at</strong>ion. Little is known about this area, but it appears<br />
<strong>to</strong> have a substantial seal popul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The only accessible land <strong>to</strong> sea ice in Moubray Bay is<br />
on Hallett Peninsula where a large Adélie penguin colony<br />
occupies <strong>the</strong> entire land surface area, and consequently is<br />
not an option for a research st<strong>at</strong>ion now, although <strong>the</strong>re<br />
was a research st<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>the</strong>re in <strong>the</strong> past. In <strong>the</strong> eastern Ross<br />
Sea adjacent <strong>to</strong> Cape Colbeck, Bartlett Inlet forms about<br />
a 15 km bight in<strong>to</strong> an embayment of fast ice, which <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most sou<strong>the</strong>rn extension is found a large emperor penguin<br />
colony. Little is known about this very isol<strong>at</strong>ed region th<strong>at</strong><br />
is no<strong>to</strong>rious for foul we<strong>at</strong>her and extensive pack ice. There<br />
is no easy access <strong>to</strong> land where a permanent st<strong>at</strong>ion might<br />
be established. All of <strong>the</strong> described areas are small compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> McMurdo Sound and would provide a much more<br />
limited program of research than is possible <strong>at</strong> McMurdo<br />
Sound. These are <strong>the</strong> areas th<strong>at</strong> I have fi rst hand knowledge.<br />
As far as <strong>the</strong> rest of Antarctica is concerned, <strong>to</strong> my knowledge,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are no areas with air strips <strong>to</strong> handle routine air<br />
support from outside of Antarctica, with <strong>the</strong> exception of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, and none of those in <strong>the</strong> peninsula<br />
have extensive fast-ice sounds for <strong>the</strong> conduct of marine research.<br />
In short, <strong>the</strong>re are no o<strong>the</strong>r places in <strong>the</strong> Antarctica<br />
or <strong>the</strong> world, where marine research, especially on birds and<br />
mammals can be conducted in <strong>the</strong> way I describe below.<br />
METHODS<br />
With a 2-meter-thick layer of ice over <strong>the</strong> Sound, <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst objective is <strong>to</strong> pierce through it <strong>to</strong> reach <strong>the</strong> marine<br />
environment below. In <strong>the</strong> early days, this was a major,<br />
backbreaking task <strong>to</strong> cut a hole through <strong>the</strong> ice with a<br />
chainsaw and lift out <strong>the</strong> cut blocks from <strong>the</strong> developing<br />
hole with ice <strong>to</strong>ngs. Depending upon <strong>the</strong> number of labor-<br />
MILESTONES IN THE STUDY OF DIVING PHYSIOLOGY 267<br />
ers and <strong>the</strong> thickness of <strong>the</strong> ice, <strong>the</strong> task of penetr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
could take from a few hours <strong>to</strong> several days. Thankfully,<br />
soon after <strong>the</strong> cutting task was assisted by using explosives<br />
and <strong>the</strong> sea ice landscape began <strong>to</strong> be peppered with<br />
marine st<strong>at</strong>ions. However, this was not ideal for several<br />
reasons one of which was <strong>the</strong> potential harm <strong>to</strong> seals diving<br />
under <strong>the</strong> ice. By <strong>the</strong> early 1970s, a 1.2 m diameter<br />
augur was employed for hole cutting. Because <strong>the</strong> holes<br />
even in <strong>the</strong> thickest ice can be cut in about 20 min, this has<br />
become one of <strong>the</strong> most valuable assets in <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>olbox of<br />
marine work in McMurdo Sound.<br />
The sea ice st<strong>at</strong>ions have a range of functions. Some<br />
are pl<strong>at</strong>forms for setting fi sh and invertebr<strong>at</strong>e traps <strong>to</strong> capture<br />
benthic specimens for ecology and physiology studies.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs are used for setting up a long-line <strong>to</strong> capture<br />
<strong>the</strong> large Antarctic cod, Dissostichus mawsoni, which may<br />
weigh gre<strong>at</strong>er than 100 kg. From <strong>the</strong>se specimens much<br />
has been learned about anti-freeze properties of <strong>the</strong> body<br />
fl uids, <strong>the</strong>ir physiology, and <strong>the</strong>ir n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry. My own<br />
personal experience has been <strong>to</strong> use <strong>the</strong> sea ice st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for conducting detailed diving studies on unrestrained<br />
Weddell seals and emperor penguins. For <strong>the</strong>se kinds of<br />
experiments <strong>the</strong>re is no m<strong>at</strong>ch for <strong>the</strong> situ<strong>at</strong>ion. In 1964<br />
I established <strong>the</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>ed hole pro<strong>to</strong>col wherein <strong>the</strong> dive<br />
hole was established a distance of 1 <strong>to</strong> 4 km from any<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r hole, ei<strong>the</strong>r manmade or n<strong>at</strong>ural. Under <strong>the</strong>se circumstances<br />
a penguin or seal released in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
hole had <strong>to</strong> return <strong>to</strong> this same bre<strong>at</strong>hing hole, and <strong>the</strong>refore,<br />
instruments could be deployed and recovered after<br />
each or a series of subsequent dives. Normally <strong>the</strong> diving<br />
seals would remain and use <strong>the</strong> hole for hours <strong>to</strong> days.<br />
During this period <strong>the</strong> hole was covered with a he<strong>at</strong>ed hut<br />
for <strong>the</strong> convenience of <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ors. The emperor penguins<br />
were peculiar because <strong>the</strong>y would never surface in<br />
a hole covered with a hut if <strong>the</strong>y had an option <strong>to</strong> go <strong>to</strong><br />
a hole in <strong>the</strong> open. At <strong>the</strong> open air hole <strong>the</strong>y would leave<br />
<strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er after almost every dive. The IHP has been used<br />
continuously by a variety of investig<strong>at</strong>ors over <strong>the</strong> past 43<br />
years (as of 2007), and several projects are planned for<br />
<strong>the</strong> future. A gre<strong>at</strong> deal of inform<strong>at</strong>ion has been collected<br />
during <strong>the</strong>se studies and <strong>the</strong> following are a few highlights<br />
most familiar <strong>to</strong> me.<br />
RESULTS (BIRDS AND MAMMALS)<br />
BEHAVIOR— WEDDELL SEALS<br />
The fi rst diving studies ever conducted on a diving animal,<br />
in which detailed diving inform<strong>at</strong>ion was obtained,<br />
occurred in 1964 in McMurdo Sound. Using time-depth
268 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOYMAN<br />
recorders full advantage of <strong>the</strong> IHP was used <strong>to</strong> determine<br />
<strong>the</strong> behavior and physiology of Weddell seals (Kooyman,<br />
1968). Investig<strong>at</strong>ions of this kind have been in progress<br />
ever since. The fi rst results broke new ground in many<br />
ways, and one of <strong>the</strong> most signifi cant was <strong>to</strong> show th<strong>at</strong><br />
we had been far <strong>to</strong>o conserv<strong>at</strong>ive in assumptions about<br />
marine mammal diving capacities. Indeed, even <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
two public<strong>at</strong>ions on Weddell seals were <strong>to</strong>o conserv<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
on <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es of wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se animals could do (De Vries<br />
and Wohlschlag, 1964; Kooyman, 1966). In <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter report<br />
it was proposed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> maximum depths and dur<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were proposed <strong>to</strong> be 600 m and 46 min, respectively.<br />
At present <strong>the</strong> depth and dur<strong>at</strong>ion records for Weddell<br />
seals now stand <strong>at</strong> 714 m (Testa, 1994), and 96 min (Zapol,<br />
Harvard Medical School, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
Seals accomplished all of <strong>the</strong>se exceptionally long dives<br />
while diving from an isol<strong>at</strong>ed hole. This procedure brings<br />
out <strong>the</strong> extremes in bre<strong>at</strong>h holding of <strong>the</strong>se animals. Presumably<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are responding <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> trauma of capture<br />
and transport <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> hole, and are trying <strong>to</strong> fi nd an escape<br />
route from <strong>the</strong> new environment. However, within a few<br />
hours <strong>the</strong>y settle in <strong>to</strong> routine hunting dives, and take<br />
advantage of <strong>the</strong> isol<strong>at</strong>ion and being away from competition<br />
with o<strong>the</strong>r seals. This provides <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>or <strong>the</strong><br />
best of both worlds. One is <strong>the</strong> discovery of some of <strong>the</strong><br />
limits <strong>the</strong> seals may press <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>to</strong>ward followed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> ordinary kind of effort th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y do routinely. Both<br />
are of interest <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> behaviorist and physiologist.<br />
BEHAVIOR— EMPEROR PENGUINS<br />
Emperor penguins have responded in a somewh<strong>at</strong> different<br />
way from Weddell seals <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> IHP. They still achieve<br />
some of <strong>the</strong> longest dives recorded by emperor penguins<br />
and this record stands <strong>at</strong> 23 min (P. J. Ponganis, Scripps<br />
Institution of Oceanography, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> 21.8 min obtained from a free ranging bird<br />
(Wienecke et al., 2007). However, emperor penguins seldom<br />
make deep dives during <strong>the</strong> IHP compared <strong>to</strong> animals<br />
foraging under more n<strong>at</strong>ural conditions of <strong>the</strong> pack ice.<br />
The maximum depth of <strong>the</strong> IHP is 250 m (Ponganis et<br />
al., 2004), while th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> free ranging animals is 560 m<br />
(Wienecke et al., 2007). At least part of <strong>the</strong> reason for <strong>the</strong><br />
shallow dives by emperor penguins during IHP is <strong>the</strong> lack<br />
of incentive. Free ranging birds feed primarily on Antarctic<br />
silver fi sh <strong>at</strong> mid-w<strong>at</strong>er depths in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. However,<br />
birds hunting under thick fast ice of <strong>the</strong> Sound switch<br />
from silver fi sh, even though <strong>the</strong>se are abundant and <strong>the</strong><br />
primary prey of Weddell seals, <strong>to</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r fi sh, Pago<strong>the</strong>nia<br />
borchgrevinki, which is present in large numbers just un-<br />
der <strong>the</strong> ice. This has been a frustr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> physiologist<br />
who wants <strong>to</strong> explore <strong>the</strong> responses of <strong>the</strong> animals under<br />
extreme conditions. However, deep dives are so rare th<strong>at</strong><br />
it is purely by chance when physiological pro<strong>to</strong>cols are in<br />
place when <strong>the</strong> animals dive <strong>to</strong> extremes.<br />
Indeed, in <strong>the</strong> many thousands of dives observed in<br />
Weddell seals only once were some of <strong>the</strong> responses made.<br />
In one case, a blood lact<strong>at</strong>e sample was obtained after a 66<br />
min dive (Kooyman et al., 1980), and pulmonary function<br />
measurements were obtained from a seal th<strong>at</strong> made an 82<br />
min dive (Kooyman et al., 1971). However, a benefi t for<br />
<strong>the</strong> behaviorist and ecologist working in McMurdo Sound<br />
is th<strong>at</strong> it has been possible <strong>to</strong> deploy “Crittercams” or<br />
“VDAPS” on emperor penguins and Weddell seals, respectively.<br />
These are animal borne imaging devices th<strong>at</strong> have<br />
made it possible <strong>to</strong> observe <strong>the</strong>ir hunting tactics. With <strong>the</strong><br />
Crittercam on emperor penguins taped images show how<br />
<strong>the</strong> birds c<strong>at</strong>ch P. borchgrevinki hiding in ice crystals <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fast ice undersurface (Ponganis et al., 2000).<br />
Similarly, with <strong>the</strong> VDAP Weddell seals’ captures of Antarctic<br />
silverfi sh and Antarctic cod were documented (Davis<br />
et al., 1999). All of <strong>the</strong>se imaging results proved exciting<br />
both <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> scientifi c community and <strong>the</strong> media.<br />
PHYSIOLOGY— WEDDELL SEALS<br />
For <strong>the</strong> compar<strong>at</strong>ive physiologist working on diving<br />
physiology McMurdo Sound has been a magnet because<br />
of <strong>the</strong> IHP. This pro<strong>to</strong>col has made possible <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tachment<br />
of complex instruments <strong>to</strong> record heart r<strong>at</strong>e, measure<br />
blood chemistry, and <strong>to</strong> determine oxygen and nitrogen<br />
tension in blood <strong>at</strong> known depths and times in <strong>the</strong> dive.<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong> results have been <strong>the</strong> gener<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>e<br />
endurance curve from blood samplings of several different<br />
seals (Kooyman et al., 1980). This curve has defi ned<br />
<strong>the</strong> aerobic diving limit (ADL) of Weddell seals by <strong>the</strong> infl<br />
ection area within <strong>the</strong> curve (Figure 2). The concept was<br />
defi ned by Kooyman (1985), and st<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> “The ADL<br />
is defi ned as <strong>the</strong> maximum bre<strong>at</strong>h hold th<strong>at</strong> is possible<br />
without any increase in blood LA concentr<strong>at</strong>ion during or<br />
after <strong>the</strong> dive.” It was fur<strong>the</strong>r explained th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
ADL (cADL) could be estim<strong>at</strong>ed if <strong>the</strong> body oxygen s<strong>to</strong>re<br />
and diving metabolic r<strong>at</strong>e were known. This concept has<br />
motiv<strong>at</strong>ed many research projects <strong>to</strong> make estim<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>the</strong><br />
ADL in a variety of diving animals. Several of <strong>the</strong>se studies<br />
have been done on Antarctic divers including <strong>the</strong> emperor<br />
penguin using <strong>the</strong> IHP for <strong>the</strong> study in McMurdo Sound.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r landmark study on Weddell seals, among<br />
<strong>the</strong> many th<strong>at</strong> have occurred, was <strong>the</strong> determin<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
blood N2 levels while Weddell seals were diving <strong>to</strong> depth
(Falke et al., 1985) (Figure 3). This result corrobor<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
more artifi cial studies conducted on elephant seals forcibly<br />
submerged and compressed in a hyperbaric chamber<br />
( Kooyman et al., 1971) a number of years earlier. The salient<br />
fe<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong>se blood pN2 results was th<strong>at</strong> no m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
<strong>the</strong> depth of <strong>the</strong> dive <strong>the</strong> N2 tensions do not rise above a<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively low value th<strong>at</strong> is unlikely <strong>to</strong> cause decompression<br />
sickness. The only similar measurements on o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
species diving under unrestrained conditions are those of<br />
<strong>the</strong> emperor penguin using <strong>the</strong> IHP in McMurdo Sound<br />
(Ponganis, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
PHYSIOLOGY— EMPEROR PENGUINS<br />
Using <strong>the</strong> same procedures as applied <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Weddell<br />
seal, <strong>the</strong> ADL of emperor penguins has been determined<br />
(Ponganis et al., 1997), and it has equally important implic<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for diving birds as <strong>the</strong> studies of Weddell seals<br />
had for diving mammals. To probe this problem fur<strong>the</strong>r a<br />
recent study has asked <strong>the</strong> question of how emperor penguins<br />
manage <strong>the</strong>ir oxygen s<strong>to</strong>res. This question is of exceptional<br />
importance <strong>to</strong> understanding <strong>the</strong> physiological<br />
principles of how diving animals overcome <strong>the</strong> problems<br />
of limited oxygen and endure hypoxia on a routine basis.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong>se studies <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ors have shown<br />
MILESTONES IN THE STUDY OF DIVING PHYSIOLOGY 269<br />
FIGURE 2. Lact<strong>at</strong>e endurance curve of <strong>the</strong> Weddell seal. The gray<br />
dots are peak arterial post-dive lactic acid concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of aerobic<br />
dives. The black dots are <strong>the</strong> peak arterial post-dive lactic acid<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions after dives with a lact<strong>at</strong>e accumul<strong>at</strong>ion above resting<br />
levels (modifi ed from Kooyman et al., 1980). FIGURE 3. Arterial N2 tensions in a Weddell seal. The seal made a<br />
free dive <strong>to</strong> 89 m under McMurdo Sound fast ice. The dive began<br />
<strong>at</strong> zero on <strong>the</strong> abscissa, reached a maximum depth <strong>at</strong> 5 min, and <strong>the</strong><br />
dive ended after 8 min.<br />
th<strong>at</strong> emperor penguins can <strong>to</strong>ler<strong>at</strong>e exceptionally low arterial<br />
O2 tensions in <strong>the</strong> range of 5– 10 mmHg (Ponganis,<br />
personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion). These values are <strong>at</strong> levels below<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> could maintain consciousness in most terrestrial<br />
birds and mammals, including humans. Indeed <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
substantially below <strong>the</strong> expected arterial O2 tension of a<br />
person standing on Mt. Everest (Chomolungma), and <strong>the</strong>y<br />
raise a series of questions about how this diving bird overcomes<br />
such extreme hypoxia.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
I have briefl y mentioned several types of studies on<br />
birds and mammals th<strong>at</strong> have had a signifi cant impact<br />
on diving behavior and physiology of marine animals. If<br />
this were a comprehensive review of work accomplished<br />
in McMurdo Sound <strong>the</strong>re would be many disciplines and<br />
investig<strong>at</strong>ors represented and <strong>the</strong> number of public<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
would be in <strong>the</strong> hundreds if not thousands. Many<br />
of <strong>the</strong> studies could not have been done anywhere o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than in McMurdo Sound. As for <strong>the</strong> birds and mammals<br />
studies <strong>the</strong>re are <strong>at</strong> least three gener<strong>at</strong>ions of investig<strong>at</strong>ors,
270 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KOOYMAN<br />
spanning 45 years th<strong>at</strong> have found <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est contributions<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir fi eld in McMurdo Sound. In regard <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
diving studies mentioned above, many of <strong>the</strong> results are<br />
fundamental <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi eld of behavior and physiology of<br />
diving.<br />
Refl ecting on <strong>the</strong>se accomplishments and many o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
such as <strong>the</strong> long-term works of Siniff’s trends in Weddell<br />
seal popul<strong>at</strong>ions (Siniff et al., 1977), DeVries’s range of<br />
work on ecology <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular n<strong>at</strong>ure of antifreeze compounds<br />
in fi sh (DeVries, 1971) and long term c<strong>at</strong>ch d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
on <strong>the</strong> highly sought after Antarctic cod (DeVries, University<br />
of Illinois, unpublished d<strong>at</strong>a), and Day<strong>to</strong>n’s cage exclusion<br />
studies of benthic organisms (Day<strong>to</strong>n et al., 1974;<br />
Day<strong>to</strong>n, 1985), I wonder if McMurdo Sound is not underappreci<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> early days it was not coveted <strong>at</strong> all, and<br />
was used as a dumping ground for human waste and many<br />
harmful inorganic and organic products. Thankfully those<br />
“bad old days” ended a long time ago, and like Antarctica<br />
in general, it is tre<strong>at</strong>ed by a much softer human footprint.<br />
Still, <strong>to</strong> recognize <strong>the</strong> distinct value of McMurdo Sound<br />
it should be given some sanctuary or museum st<strong>at</strong>us as<br />
<strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> contribu<strong>to</strong>r <strong>to</strong> biological sciences, because as I<br />
hoped <strong>to</strong> achieve in this review, <strong>the</strong>re is no o<strong>the</strong>r place<br />
like it. We do not know wh<strong>at</strong> specifi c effects <strong>the</strong> changing<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e in Antarctica will have on <strong>the</strong> seas th<strong>at</strong> surround<br />
<strong>the</strong> continent, but with <strong>the</strong> long-term his<strong>to</strong>ry of science in<br />
McMurdo Sound, it will be one of <strong>the</strong> areas invaluable in<br />
assessing some of <strong>the</strong> changes. Especially with <strong>the</strong> large<br />
modern labor<strong>at</strong>ory of Crary Center adjacent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sound<br />
where researchers can study <strong>the</strong> animals with some of <strong>the</strong><br />
most sophistic<strong>at</strong>ed techniques in <strong>the</strong> world.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Thanks <strong>to</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> for making this symposium<br />
possible and providing <strong>the</strong> travel funds <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tend. All my<br />
work over <strong>the</strong> past 45 years <strong>at</strong> McMurdo Sound has been<br />
supported by numerous NSF OPP grants for which I will<br />
always be gr<strong>at</strong>eful. I give thanks, as well, <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> many<br />
support contrac<strong>to</strong>rs and <strong>the</strong>ir staff on land, sea, and air<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have made <strong>the</strong> journeys such a fi ne experience. In <strong>the</strong><br />
background always has been my wife Melba and my sons,<br />
Carsten and Tory. It was also an inestimable joy <strong>to</strong> see both<br />
sons become <strong>the</strong> best fi eld assistants one could ever want.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Davis, R., L. Fuiman, T. Williams, S. Collier, W. Hagey, S. Kan<strong>at</strong>ous,<br />
S. Kohin, and M. Horning. 1999. Hunting Behavior of a Marine<br />
Mammal bene<strong>at</strong>h <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Fast Ice. Science, 283: 993– 996.<br />
Day<strong>to</strong>n, P. K. 1985. Antarctica and Its Biota (A Review of Antarctic<br />
Ecology). Science, 229: 157– 158.<br />
Day<strong>to</strong>n, P. K., G. A. Robilliard, R. T. Paine, and L. B. Day<strong>to</strong>n. 1974. Biological<br />
Accommod<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Benthic Community <strong>at</strong> McMurdo<br />
Sound, Antarctica. Ecology (Monograph), 44: 105– 128.<br />
DeVries, A. L. 1971. Glycoproteins as Biological Antifreeze Agents in<br />
Antarctic Fishes. Science, 172: 1152– 1155.<br />
DeVries, A. L., and D. E. Wohlschlag. 1964. Diving Depths of <strong>the</strong><br />
Weddell Seal. Science, 145: 292.<br />
Falke, K. J., R. D. Hill, J. Qvist, R. C. Schneider, M.Guppy, G. C. Liggins,<br />
P. W. Hochachka, and Z. Elliot. 1985. Seal Lungs Collapse during<br />
Free Diving: Evidence from Arterial Nitrogen Tensions. Science,<br />
229: 556– 558.<br />
Kooyman, G. L. 1966. Maximum Diving Capacities of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Seal<br />
(Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddelli). Science, 151: 1553– 1554.<br />
Kooyman, G. L. 1968. An Analysis of Some Behavioral and Physiological<br />
Characteristics Rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> Diving in <strong>the</strong> Weddell Seal. In Biology<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Seas III, ed. G. A. Llano and W. L. Schmitt.<br />
Antarctic Research Series, Vol. 11. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: American<br />
Geophysical Union.<br />
———. 1985. Physiology without Restraint in Diving Mammals. Marine<br />
Mammal Science, 1: 166– 178.<br />
Kooyman, G. L., D. H. Kerem, W. B. Campbell, and J. J. Wright. 1971.<br />
Pulmonary Function in Freely Diving Weddell Seals (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes<br />
weddelli). Respir<strong>at</strong>ory Physiology, 12: 271– 282.<br />
Kooyman, G. L., E. Wahrenbrock, M. Castellini, R. W. Davis, and<br />
E. Sinnett. 1980. Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism during Voluntary<br />
Diving in Weddell Seals: Evidence of Preferred P<strong>at</strong>hways from<br />
Blood Chemistry and Behavior. Journal of Compar<strong>at</strong>ive Physiology,<br />
138: 335– 346.<br />
Ponganis, P. J., G. L. Kooyman, L. N. Starke, C. A. Kooyman, and T. G.<br />
Kooyman. 1997. Post-Dive Blood Lact<strong>at</strong>e Concentr<strong>at</strong>ions in Emperor<br />
Penguins, Aptenodytes forsteri. Journal of Experimental Biology,<br />
200: 1623– 1626.<br />
Ponganis, P. J., R. P. Van Dam, G. Marshall, T. Knower, and D. Levenson.<br />
2000. Sub-Ice Foraging Behavior of Emperor Penguins. Journal of<br />
Experimental Biology, 203: 3275– 3278.<br />
Ponganis, P. J., R. P. van Dam, D. H. Levenson, T. Knower, and K. V.<br />
Ponganis. 2004. Deep Dives and Aortic Temper<strong>at</strong>ures of Emperor<br />
Penguins: New Directions for Biologging <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Isol<strong>at</strong>ed Dive Hole.<br />
Memoirs of N<strong>at</strong>ional Institute of <strong>Polar</strong> Research Special Issue No.<br />
58, Biologging Science, pp. 155– 161.<br />
Siniff, D. B., D. P. Demaster, R. J. Hofman, and L. L. Eberhart. 1977. An<br />
Analysis of <strong>the</strong> Dynamics of a Weddell Seal Popul<strong>at</strong>ion. Ecological<br />
Monographs, 47(3): 319– 335.<br />
Testa, J. 1994. Over-Winter Movements and Diving Behaviour of Female<br />
Weddell Seals (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddellii). Canadian Journal of<br />
Zoology, 72: 1700– 1710.<br />
Wienecke, B., G. Robertson, R. Kirkwood, and K. Law<strong>to</strong>n. 2007. Extreme<br />
Dives by Free-Ranging Emperor Penguins. <strong>Polar</strong> Biology, 30:<br />
133– 142.
Interannual and Sp<strong>at</strong>ial Variability in Light<br />
Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion: Evidence from Three Decades<br />
of Growth in <strong>the</strong> Arctic Kelp, Laminaria<br />
solidungula<br />
Kenneth H. Dun<strong>to</strong>n, Susan V. Schonberg,<br />
and Dale W. Funk<br />
Kenneth H. Dun<strong>to</strong>n and Susan V. Schonberg,<br />
University of Texas Marine Science Institute, 750<br />
Channel View Dr., Port Aransas, TX 78373, USA.<br />
Dale W. Funk, LGL Alaska Research Associ<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
Inc., 1101 East 76th Avenue, Suite B, Anchorage,<br />
AK 99516, USA. Corresponding author: K. Dun<strong>to</strong>n<br />
(ken.dun<strong>to</strong>n@mail.utexas.edu). Accepted 28<br />
May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. We examined long-term vari<strong>at</strong>ions in kelp growth in coincidence with<br />
recent (2004– 2006) measurements of underw<strong>at</strong>er pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(PAR), light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients, chlorophyll concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, and <strong>to</strong>tal suspended<br />
solids (TSS) <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> impact of sediment resuspension on <strong>the</strong> productivity of an<br />
isol<strong>at</strong>ed kelp bed community on <strong>the</strong> Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast. Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients<br />
exhibited distinct geographical p<strong>at</strong>terns and interannual vari<strong>at</strong>ions between 2004 and<br />
2006 th<strong>at</strong> were correl<strong>at</strong>ed with temporal and geographical p<strong>at</strong>terns in TSS (range 3.5–<br />
23.8 mg L �1 ). The low chlorophyll levels (�3.0 �g L �1 ) in all three years were unlikely<br />
<strong>to</strong> have contributed signifi cantly <strong>to</strong> periods of low summer w<strong>at</strong>er transparency. Blade<br />
elong<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> arctic kelp, Laminaria solidungula, are excellent integr<strong>at</strong>ors of<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er transparency since <strong>the</strong>ir annual growth is completely dependent on PAR received<br />
during <strong>the</strong> summer open-w<strong>at</strong>er period. We noted th<strong>at</strong> blade growth <strong>at</strong> all sites steadily<br />
increased between 2004 and 2006, refl ective of increased underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR in each successive<br />
year. Mean blade growth <strong>at</strong> all sites was clearly lowest in 2003 (�8 cm) compared <strong>to</strong><br />
2006 (18– 47 cm). We <strong>at</strong>tribute <strong>the</strong> low growth in 2003 <strong>to</strong> reported intense s<strong>to</strong>rm activity<br />
th<strong>at</strong> likely produced extremely turbid w<strong>at</strong>er conditions th<strong>at</strong> resulted in low levels of<br />
ambient light. Examin<strong>at</strong>ion of a 30-year record of annual growth <strong>at</strong> two sites revealed<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r periods of low annual growth th<strong>at</strong> were likely rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> summers characterized by<br />
exceptional strong s<strong>to</strong>rm activity. Although kelp growth is expected <strong>to</strong> be higher <strong>at</strong> shallower<br />
sites, <strong>the</strong> reverse occurs, since sediment re-suspension is gre<strong>at</strong>est <strong>at</strong> shallower w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
depths. The exceptionally low growth of kelp in 2003 indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se plants are living<br />
near <strong>the</strong>ir physiological light limits, but represent excellent indic<strong>at</strong>ors of interannual<br />
changes in w<strong>at</strong>er transparency th<strong>at</strong> result from vari<strong>at</strong>ions in local clim<strong>at</strong>ology.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Research studies conducted over <strong>the</strong> past two decades have clearly documented<br />
th<strong>at</strong> kelp biomass, growth, and productivity in <strong>the</strong> Alaskan Beaufort<br />
Sea are strongly regul<strong>at</strong>ed by light availability (pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
PAR). Results from a variety of experimental studies, including <strong>the</strong> linear<br />
growth response of kelp plants <strong>to</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural changes in <strong>the</strong> underw<strong>at</strong>er light fi eld<br />
(Dun<strong>to</strong>n, 1984; 1990; Dun<strong>to</strong>n and Schell, 1986;), carbon radioiso<strong>to</strong>pe tracer experiments<br />
(Dun<strong>to</strong>n and Jodwalis, 1988), and labor<strong>at</strong>ory and fi eld physiological<br />
work ( Henley and Dun<strong>to</strong>n, 1995; 1997) have been used successfully <strong>to</strong> develop<br />
models of kelp productivity in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> PAR. Yet, until recently, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship
272 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
between w<strong>at</strong>er turbidity— as measured by <strong>to</strong>tal suspended<br />
solids (TSS) or optical instruments— and benthic algal production<br />
was unknown. Aumack et al. (2007) were <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
<strong>to</strong> establish <strong>the</strong> quantit<strong>at</strong>ive link between w<strong>at</strong>er column<br />
turbidity, PAR and kelp production through a model th<strong>at</strong><br />
uses TSS d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> predict estim<strong>at</strong>es of kelp productivity in<br />
an area known as <strong>the</strong> Stefansson Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch on<br />
<strong>the</strong> central Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast. This inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
is essential for evalu<strong>at</strong>ing how changes in w<strong>at</strong>er transparency<br />
are rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> higher suspended sediment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
from anthropogenic activities near <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch,<br />
coastal erosion, and increased freshw<strong>at</strong>er infl ow (McClelland<br />
et al., 2006). The quantit<strong>at</strong>ive measurements of TSS<br />
collected by Aumack et al. (2007) in summers 2001 and<br />
2002 were a critical fi rst step in <strong>the</strong> establishment of an<br />
accur<strong>at</strong>e basin-wide production model for <strong>the</strong> Stefansson<br />
Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch.<br />
The productivity of Laminaria solidungula in subtidal<br />
coastal ecosystems is an important fac<strong>to</strong>r th<strong>at</strong> regul<strong>at</strong>es<br />
benthic biodiversity and ultim<strong>at</strong>ely, <strong>the</strong> intensity of biological<br />
interactions such as competition, facilit<strong>at</strong>ion, pred<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
recruitment, and system productivity (Petraitis et al.,<br />
1989; Worm et al., 1999; Mittelbach et al., 2001; Paine<br />
2002). On a larger scale, biodiversity measurements can<br />
serve as an indic<strong>at</strong>or of <strong>the</strong> balance between speci<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and extinction (McKinney, 1998a; 1998b; Rosenzweig,<br />
2001). The interesting biogeographic affi nities of organisms<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch led Dun<strong>to</strong>n (1992) <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area as an “arctic benthic paradox,” based on <strong>the</strong> Atlantic<br />
origin of many of <strong>the</strong> benthic algae (e.g. <strong>the</strong> red algae<br />
Odonthalia dent<strong>at</strong>a, Phycodrys rubens, Rhodomela confervoides)<br />
in contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c orient<strong>at</strong>ion of many of<br />
<strong>the</strong> invertebr<strong>at</strong>es (most polychaetes and gastropods). This<br />
unique character of <strong>the</strong> biological assemblage, combined<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch’s isol<strong>at</strong>ed loc<strong>at</strong>ion (Dun<strong>to</strong>n et al.,<br />
1982), suggests <strong>the</strong> potential of <strong>the</strong> area as a biogeographic<br />
stepping-s<strong>to</strong>ne. Thus, <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch likely has large<br />
biological and ecological roles outside Stefansson Sound.<br />
The overarching objective of our study was <strong>to</strong> use synoptic<br />
and long-term measurements of PAR, light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
coeffi cients, <strong>to</strong>tal suspended solids (TSS; mg L �1 ), and<br />
indices of kelp biomass <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> impact of sediment<br />
resuspension on kelp productivity and ecosystem st<strong>at</strong>us in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stefansson Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch. Between 2004 and<br />
2006, we initi<strong>at</strong>ed studies <strong>to</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>r w<strong>at</strong>er quality, light,<br />
kelp growth, and <strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ed invertebr<strong>at</strong>e community in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch. This research program was designed <strong>to</strong><br />
address ecosystem change as rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> anthropogenic activities<br />
from oil and gas development. Our initial effort was<br />
focused on establishing a quantit<strong>at</strong>ive rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between<br />
<strong>to</strong>tal suspended solids (TSS) and benthic kelp productivity<br />
(see Aumack, 2003; Aumack et al., 2007). Our current<br />
objectives included (1) defi ning <strong>the</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial variability in<br />
annual productivity and biomass of kelp, (2) moni<strong>to</strong>ring<br />
incident and in situ ambient light (as PAR) and TSS, and<br />
(3) using his<strong>to</strong>rical d<strong>at</strong>asets of kelp growth <strong>to</strong> establish a<br />
long-term record of kelp productivity.<br />
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
Our overall sampling str<strong>at</strong>egy during summers 2004,<br />
2005, and 2006 incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed: (1) semi-synoptic maps of<br />
TSS and light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion parameters gener<strong>at</strong>ed through<br />
sampling <strong>at</strong> 30 randomly-selected points in a 300 km 2 area<br />
th<strong>at</strong> included <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch and <strong>the</strong> region south of<br />
Narwhal Island <strong>to</strong> Point Brower on <strong>the</strong> Sagavanirk<strong>to</strong>k Delta<br />
(Figure 1; 70°23�N; 147°50�W); (2) long-term vari<strong>at</strong>ions in<br />
underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR <strong>at</strong> three fi xed sites and incident PAR <strong>at</strong><br />
one coastal site during <strong>the</strong> summer open-w<strong>at</strong>er period; and<br />
(3) kelp growth <strong>at</strong> several moni<strong>to</strong>ring st<strong>at</strong>ions established<br />
during <strong>the</strong> 1984– 1991 Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch Moni<strong>to</strong>ring Program<br />
(LGL Ecological Research Associ<strong>at</strong>es and Dun<strong>to</strong>n, 1992). A<br />
majority of our study sites were loc<strong>at</strong>ed within <strong>the</strong> Stefansson<br />
Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, which is characterized by noncontiguous<br />
p<strong>at</strong>ches of �10% rock cover. These p<strong>at</strong>ches are<br />
depicted by gray con<strong>to</strong>ur lines in Figures 1–5.<br />
SYNOPTIC SAMPLING<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> describe <strong>the</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial extent and p<strong>at</strong>terns<br />
of TSS, light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion, chlorophyll, nutrients, and<br />
physiochemical properties across Stefansson Sound, we<br />
sampled 30 sites across <strong>the</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>ring area (Figure 1),<br />
which ranges in depth from 3 <strong>to</strong> 7 m. The loc<strong>at</strong>ion for<br />
each site was chosen by laying a probability-based grid<br />
over <strong>the</strong> area and randomly choosing a loc<strong>at</strong>ion within<br />
each grid cell. This method allowed sampling loc<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> be spaced quasi-evenly across <strong>the</strong> landscape while still<br />
maintaining assumptions required for a random sample<br />
(i.e., all loc<strong>at</strong>ions have an equal chance of being sampled).<br />
All 30 sites were visited on three separ<strong>at</strong>e occasions during<br />
summers 2004, 2005, and 2006 using a high-speed vessel<br />
(R/V Proteus). We measured TSS, incident PAR, inorganic<br />
nutrients (ammonia, phosph<strong>at</strong>e, silic<strong>at</strong>e, nitrogen), w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
column chlorophyll, and physiochemical parameters (temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH) during each<br />
synoptic sampling effort.
FIGURE 1. The project study area showing 30 synoptic collection<br />
sites used in summers 2004, 2005, and 2006. SDI: S<strong>at</strong>ellite Drilling<br />
Island. Gray con<strong>to</strong>ur lines show �10% rock cover.<br />
Replic<strong>at</strong>e w<strong>at</strong>er samples were collected <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m<br />
depths using a van Dorn bottle. All samples were placed in<br />
pre-labeled plastic bottles, with sampling point geographic<br />
coordin<strong>at</strong>es (L<strong>at</strong>/Long) recorded using a handheld Garmin<br />
Global Positioning System, GPSMap 76S (Garmin Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Inc., Ol<strong>at</strong>he, Kansas, USA). In situ physiochemical<br />
measurements were made from <strong>the</strong> vessel. All o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
samples were s<strong>to</strong>red in a dark cooler and transported <strong>to</strong> a<br />
labor<strong>at</strong>ory on Endicott Island for processing.<br />
Light Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Simultaneous surface and underw<strong>at</strong>er measurements<br />
of PAR d<strong>at</strong>a were collected using LI-190SA and LI-192SA<br />
cosine sensors, respectively, connected <strong>to</strong> a LI-1000 d<strong>at</strong>alogger<br />
(LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska, USA). The LI-<br />
190SA sensor was placed <strong>at</strong> a 4 m height on <strong>the</strong> vessel mast.<br />
Coincident underw<strong>at</strong>er measurements with <strong>the</strong> LI-192SA<br />
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 273<br />
sensor were made using a lowering frame deployed <strong>at</strong> 2<br />
and 4 m depths. Care was taken <strong>to</strong> avoid interference from<br />
shading of <strong>the</strong> sensor by <strong>the</strong> vessel. The Brouger-Lambert<br />
Law describes light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion with w<strong>at</strong>er depth:<br />
k= ln( Io/ Iz)<br />
(a)<br />
z<br />
where Io is incident (surface) light intensity, Iz is light intensity<br />
<strong>at</strong> depth z, and k is <strong>the</strong> light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cient<br />
(m �1 ).<br />
TSS<br />
A known volume of w<strong>at</strong>er from each sample was fi ltered<br />
through pre-weighed, pre-combusted glass fi ber fi lters<br />
(Pall Corpor<strong>at</strong>ion, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA). Following<br />
a distilled w<strong>at</strong>er rinse fi lters were oven-dried <strong>to</strong> constant<br />
weight <strong>at</strong> 60°C. The net weight of particles collected in<br />
each sample was calcul<strong>at</strong>ed by subtracting <strong>the</strong> fi lter’s initial<br />
weight from <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal weight following fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Chlorophyll<br />
For chlorophyll measurement, 100 ml of w<strong>at</strong>er from each<br />
replic<strong>at</strong>e sample was fi ltered through a 0.45 �m cellulose<br />
nitr<strong>at</strong>e membrane fi lter (Wh<strong>at</strong>man, Maids<strong>to</strong>ne, England) in<br />
darkness. After fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> fi lters and residue were placed<br />
in pre-labeled opaque vials and frozen. The frozen fi lters<br />
were transported <strong>to</strong> The University of Texas Marine Science<br />
Institute (UTMSI) in Port Aransas, Texas, for chlorophyll<br />
analysis. At UTMSI, fi lters were removed from <strong>the</strong> vials and<br />
placed in pre-labeled test tubes containing 5 ml of methanol<br />
for overnight extraction ( Parsons et al., 1984:3– 28).<br />
Chlorophyll a concentr<strong>at</strong>ion, in �g L �1 , was determined<br />
using a Turner Designs 10-AU fl uorometer (Turner Design,<br />
Sunnyvale, California, USA). Non- acidifi c<strong>at</strong>ion techniques<br />
are used <strong>to</strong> account for <strong>the</strong> presence of chlorophyll b and<br />
phaeopigments ( Welschmeyer, 1994).<br />
Nutrients<br />
W<strong>at</strong>er samples were frozen and transferred <strong>to</strong> UTMSI<br />
for nutrient analysis. Nutrient concentr<strong>at</strong>ions for NH4 � ,<br />
PO4 3� , SiO4, and NO2 � � NO3 � were determined by<br />
continuous fl ow injection analysis using colorimetric techniques<br />
on a Lach<strong>at</strong> QuikChem 8000 (Zellweger Analytics<br />
Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA) with a minimum detection<br />
level of 0.03 �M.
274 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
Physiochemical Parameters<br />
Temper<strong>at</strong>ure ( o C), salinity (‰), dissolved oxygen (%<br />
and mg L �1 ) pH, and w<strong>at</strong>er depth (m), were measured<br />
using a YSI D<strong>at</strong>a Sonde (YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio,<br />
USA).<br />
PERMANENT SITES<br />
Underw<strong>at</strong>er Irradiance<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> synoptic sampling, we established<br />
eight permanent sites for collection of long-term d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
Continuous underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR measurements were collected<br />
<strong>at</strong> three sampling sites (DS-11, E-1, and W-1) in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch study area (Figure 2) and terrestrial<br />
PAR measurements <strong>at</strong> one coastal loc<strong>at</strong>ion (Endicott Island).<br />
These sites have been <strong>the</strong> focus of previous longterm<br />
moni<strong>to</strong>ring efforts; measurements of PAR and<br />
kelp growth are reported in published liter<strong>at</strong>ure (Dun<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1990). Site DS-11, established as a reference site,<br />
has been a primary research site for <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch<br />
since 1978. This site lies well outside <strong>the</strong> area most likely<br />
impacted by sediment plumes origin<strong>at</strong>ing from <strong>the</strong> pro-<br />
FIGURE 2. The project study area. The indic<strong>at</strong>ed sites are his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch st<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> have been visited repe<strong>at</strong>edly since 1984.<br />
During summers 2004, 2005, and 2006, long-term light was measured<br />
<strong>at</strong> sites DS-11, E-1, and W-1; kelp blade length d<strong>at</strong>a were also<br />
collected <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se sites.<br />
posed Liberty Project, including construction of a buried<br />
pipeline and S<strong>to</strong>ckpile Zone 1 (Ban et al., 1999). All three<br />
Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch sites are loc<strong>at</strong>ed on seabed characterized<br />
by �25% rock cover. Sites were chosen based on ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir sou<strong>the</strong>rn-most loc<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch (W-1,<br />
E-1), existence of his<strong>to</strong>rical PAR d<strong>at</strong>a (W-1, E-1, and DS-<br />
11), and <strong>the</strong>ir likelihood of being impacted by oil and gas<br />
development through dredging activities associ<strong>at</strong>ed with<br />
pipeline or island construction.<br />
Underw<strong>at</strong>er d<strong>at</strong>a were collected using LI-193SA spherical<br />
quantum sensor (for scalar measurements) connected<br />
<strong>to</strong> a LI-1000 d<strong>at</strong>alogger (LI-COR Inc., Lincoln, Nebraska,<br />
USA) <strong>at</strong> each site. Sensors were mounted on PVC poles and<br />
positioned just above <strong>the</strong> kelp canopy <strong>to</strong> prevent fouling<br />
or shading by kelp fronds. Instantaneous PAR measurements<br />
were taken <strong>at</strong> 1 min intervals and integr<strong>at</strong>ed over<br />
1 h periods. Coincident surface PAR measurements were<br />
taken with LI-190SA terrestrial cosine sensor connected <strong>to</strong><br />
LI-1000 d<strong>at</strong>alogger loc<strong>at</strong>ed on Endicott Island.<br />
Kelp Elong<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
At each of <strong>the</strong> nine dive sites (depth range 5– 7 m)<br />
within <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch (DS-11, Brower-1, E-1, E-2, E-3,<br />
L-1, L-2, W-1, and W-3), SCUBA divers collected 15– 30<br />
individual specimens of Laminaria solidungula <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>to</strong> large cobbles and boulders in summers 2004, 2005,<br />
and 2006. Samples were placed in pre-labeled black bags,<br />
transported <strong>to</strong> Endicott, and processed. Blade segments<br />
from every specimen, which corresponded <strong>to</strong> one year’s<br />
growth (Dun<strong>to</strong>n, 1985), were measured and recorded <strong>to</strong><br />
produce a recent (3– 4 yr) growth record of linear blade<br />
expansion <strong>at</strong> each site. Blades measured in summer refl ect<br />
growth during both <strong>the</strong> present and previous calendar<br />
year since more than 90% of a kelp’s frond expansion occurs<br />
between November and June under nearly complete<br />
darkness (Dun<strong>to</strong>n and Schell, 1986). Linear growth in L.<br />
solidungula from <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch is heavily dependent<br />
on pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic carbon reserves th<strong>at</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>e during<br />
<strong>the</strong> previous summer in proportion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> underw<strong>at</strong>er light<br />
environment. A growth year (GWYR) is dict<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion of a new blade segment, which begins in mid-<br />
November every year and is defi ned by <strong>the</strong> summer th<strong>at</strong><br />
precedes new blade form<strong>at</strong>ion (e.g., basal blade growth<br />
measured in summer 2007 depicts GWYR 2006).<br />
Kelp Biomass<br />
Frond lengths of Laminaria solidungula plants were<br />
measured <strong>at</strong> W-3, E-1, E-3, and DS-11 along four 25 m
transects. Transects radi<strong>at</strong>ed from a central point <strong>at</strong> random<br />
chosen directions <strong>at</strong> 280°, 80°, 260°, and 110°Magnetic.<br />
St<strong>at</strong>istics and GIS<br />
TSS concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, chlorophyll a concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cient (k) were m<strong>at</strong>ched with <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
respective geographic coordin<strong>at</strong>es and plotted using GIS<br />
software ArcMap 9.2 (ERSI, Redlands, California). D<strong>at</strong>a<br />
were interpol<strong>at</strong>ed across a polygon of Stefansson Sound,<br />
including <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, using Geosp<strong>at</strong>ial Analyst extension<br />
and Kriging function in ArcMap following Aumack<br />
et al. (2007). D<strong>at</strong>a were analyzed using standard parametric<br />
models. Sp<strong>at</strong>ial and interannual signifi cance among k,<br />
TSS, and chlorophyll measurements were determined using<br />
a paired t-test <strong>to</strong> examine signifi cant differences (p � 0.05)<br />
among tre<strong>at</strong>ment variables using Microsoft Excel. Signifi -<br />
cant differences in PAR among years and sites was tested<br />
using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using time<br />
as a block with a general linear models procedure (SAS Institute<br />
Inc, 1985) following Dun<strong>to</strong>n (1990).<br />
RESULTS<br />
SYNOPTIC SAMPLING<br />
Light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion (k) was derived from coincident in<br />
situ measurements of surface and underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR <strong>at</strong> 2<br />
and 4 m depths collected <strong>at</strong> 30 st<strong>at</strong>ions on three differ-<br />
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 275<br />
ent occasions each summer. Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion was consistently<br />
elev<strong>at</strong>ed in coastal zones with highest k values observed<br />
near Endicott Island and SDI (S<strong>at</strong>ellite Drilling Island)<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>ing more turbid w<strong>at</strong>er closer <strong>to</strong> shore (Figure 3).<br />
Lower k values were recorded offshore along <strong>the</strong> eastern<br />
and nor<strong>the</strong>astern sides of Stefansson Sound. In summer<br />
2004, k ranged from 0.43– 1.34 m �1 (mean 0.73 � 0.14)<br />
throughout Stefansson Sound. In 2005 k ranged from<br />
0.47– 1.32 m �1 (mean 0.69 � 0.03) and in 2006, k was<br />
0.54– 1.08 m �1 (mean 0.72 � 0.01). The majority of <strong>the</strong><br />
Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, including areas with dense kelp popul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
(�25% rock cover), were found predominantly in<br />
offshore w<strong>at</strong>ers where <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion measurements were<br />
consistently less than 1.0 m �1 .<br />
The TSS concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were dram<strong>at</strong>ically lower in<br />
summers 2004 and 2006 compared with 2005, yet <strong>the</strong> same<br />
general trends were observed (Figure 4). Since a paired<br />
t-test indic<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> TSS values measured <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m<br />
depths were not signifi cantly different in ei<strong>the</strong>r year (2004<br />
p � 0.065; 2005 p � 0.156) <strong>the</strong> means of <strong>the</strong> two depths<br />
are displayed. In 2004, <strong>the</strong> highest concentr<strong>at</strong>ions (7.6– 8.3<br />
mg L �1 ) were found near Endicott Island and SDI and in a<br />
turbid area just north of Narwhal Island (5.7– 6.1 mg L �1 ).<br />
The TSS ranged from 3.8– 7.6 mg L �1 outside <strong>the</strong> Boulder<br />
P<strong>at</strong>ch with a mean of 5.0 mg L �1 . Inside <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch<br />
<strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a ranged from 4.0 <strong>to</strong> 8.3 mg L �1 (mean 5.0 mg L �1 );<br />
<strong>the</strong> overall site average was 5.0 � 1.8 mg L �1 .<br />
The TSS measurements were much higher and varied<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>ly throughout Stefansson Sound during summer<br />
FIGURE 3. Combined mean <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cient (k) values calcul<strong>at</strong>ed from measurements collected <strong>at</strong> 2 m and 4 m w<strong>at</strong>er depths in summers<br />
2004, 2005, and 2006.<br />
k (m-1)<br />
0.41 - 0.50<br />
0.51 - 0.60<br />
0.61 - 0.70<br />
0.71 - 0.80<br />
0.81 - 0.90<br />
0.91 - 1.00<br />
1.01 - 1.10<br />
1.11 - 1.20<br />
1.21 - 1.30<br />
1.31 - 1.40
276 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
FIGURE 4. Combined mean <strong>to</strong>tal suspended solids (TSS) from samples collected <strong>at</strong> 2 m and 4 m w<strong>at</strong>er depths in 2004, 2005, and 2006.<br />
2005 (7.5– 23.8 mg L �1 ; mean 11.1 � 1.1 mg L �1 ). The<br />
highest values (17.6– 23.8 mg L �1 ) were loc<strong>at</strong>ed nearshore,<br />
adjacent <strong>to</strong> Endicott Island, SDI, and Point Brower. Outside<br />
<strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, TSS ranged from 7.5 <strong>to</strong> 23.8 mg<br />
L �1 (mean 11.2 mg L �1 ). Inside <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, values<br />
ranged from 9.0 <strong>to</strong> 17.6 mg L �1 (mean 11.0 mg L �1 ).<br />
In 2006, TSS concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were similar <strong>to</strong> those measured<br />
in 2004 (range of 3.5– 6.9 mg L �1 ; mean of 4.7 � 0.2<br />
mg L �1 ). The highest values were again adjacent <strong>to</strong> Endicott<br />
Island, SDI and Point Brower. Outside <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch,<br />
TSS ranged from 3.6 <strong>to</strong> 6.9 mg L �1 (mean 4.6 � 0.2 mg<br />
L �1 ). The TSS values ranged from 3.5 <strong>to</strong> 5.9 mg L �1 inside<br />
<strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch with a mean of 4.6 � 0.2 mg L �1 .<br />
Chlorophyll a measurements from 2 and 4 m depths<br />
were rel<strong>at</strong>ively low but signifi cantly different from each<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r in all years (p � 0.05). In all three years, 4 m chlorophyll<br />
values were higher than <strong>the</strong> 2 m measurements<br />
(Figure 5). The 2005 chlorophyll means were <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
followed by 2004 means, with <strong>the</strong> lowest values occurring<br />
in 2006. In 2004, chlorophyll measurements ranged from<br />
0.11 <strong>to</strong> 2.63 �g L �1 (mean 0.39 � 0.2 �g L �1 ). In summer<br />
2005, values ranged from 0.11 <strong>to</strong> 3.54 �g L �1 (mean 0.76<br />
� 0.08 �g L �1 ) compared <strong>to</strong> 0.11– 0.41 �g L �1 (mean 0.18<br />
� 0.01 �g L �1 ) in 2006.<br />
Ammonium concentr<strong>at</strong>ions (Table 1) were signifi -<br />
cantly different among samples collected <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m in<br />
all years (p � 0.05); all values were low (0.12 � 0.06 �M<br />
<strong>at</strong> 2 m and 0.17 � 0.07 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m in 2004; 0.40 � 0.04<br />
�M <strong>at</strong> 2 m and 0.65 � 0.04 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m in 2005 and<br />
TSS<br />
(mg/L)<br />
3.01 - 4.00<br />
4.01 - 5.00<br />
5.01 - 6.00<br />
6.01 - 7.00<br />
7.01 - 8.00<br />
8.01 - 9.00<br />
9.01 - 11.00<br />
11.01 - 13.00<br />
13.01 - 15.00<br />
15.01 - 17.00<br />
17.01 - 19.00<br />
19.01 - 21.00<br />
21.01 - 23.00<br />
0.25 � 0.05 �M <strong>at</strong> 2 m and 0.12 � 0.02 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m).<br />
Ammonium ranged from 0.0– 0.52 �M in 2006. Highest<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were noted <strong>at</strong> sites adjacent <strong>to</strong> barrier islands<br />
(Sites 13 and 15); lowest values were noted offshore<br />
(0.0– 0.02 �M).<br />
In general, phosph<strong>at</strong>e concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were low. Mean<br />
values in 2004 were 0.24 � 0.03 �M <strong>at</strong> 2 m and 0.19 �<br />
0.05 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m. Phosph<strong>at</strong>e values ranged from 0.11– 0.39<br />
�M with <strong>the</strong> highest concentr<strong>at</strong>ions collected <strong>at</strong> sites adjacent<br />
<strong>to</strong> Endicott. Several o<strong>the</strong>r random sites displayed<br />
higher values <strong>at</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r 2 or 4 m. The lowest values were observed<br />
<strong>at</strong> sites seaward of Narwhal Island (0.0– 0.02) �M.<br />
In 2005, phosph<strong>at</strong>e measurements were lower in 2 m samples<br />
(mean 0.29 � 0.01 �M) versus <strong>the</strong> 4 m samples (mean<br />
0.35 � 0.01 �M). The same p<strong>at</strong>tern held for <strong>the</strong> 2006 (2 m<br />
mean 0.17 � 0.01 �M; 4 m mean 0.20 � 0.01 �M).<br />
Silic<strong>at</strong>e values collected from 2 and 4 m in 2004 were<br />
not signifi cantly different (p � 0.51), ranging from 0.07–<br />
4.90 �M; mean 1.84 � 0.26 �M (Table 1). Silic<strong>at</strong>e was<br />
quite low <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m in 2004 compared <strong>to</strong> 2005 (2 m<br />
mean 5.64 � 0.19 �M; 4 m mean 5.19 � 0.16 �M) and<br />
2006 (2 m mean 7.05 � 0.14 �M; 4 m mean 6.89 � 0.16<br />
�M).<br />
NO2 � � NO3 � measurements throughout Stefansson<br />
Sound were also generally low, with 2004 st<strong>at</strong>ion means<br />
ranging from 0.0– 0.29 �M <strong>at</strong> 2 m; 0.12 � 0.21 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m<br />
(Table 1). The 2005 st<strong>at</strong>ion means ranged from 0.0– 0.61<br />
�M <strong>at</strong> 2 m; 0.03– 1.98 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m, and 2006 means were<br />
0.03– 0.33 �M <strong>at</strong> 2 m; 0.02– 0.44 �M <strong>at</strong> 4 m. In all three
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 277<br />
FIGURE 5. Chlorophyll a (chl) values measured in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Samples were collected <strong>at</strong> (<strong>to</strong>p) 2 m and (bot<strong>to</strong>m) 4 m w<strong>at</strong>er depth.<br />
TABLE 1. Measurements of ammonium, phosph<strong>at</strong>e, silic<strong>at</strong>e, and nitr<strong>at</strong>e � nitrite <strong>at</strong> 30 sites measured annually in July and August 2004,<br />
2005, and 2006. Samples were collected <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m w<strong>at</strong>er column depths. Values are x � SE.<br />
Nitr<strong>at</strong>e � Nitr<strong>at</strong>e �<br />
Phosph<strong>at</strong>e Phosph<strong>at</strong>e Silic<strong>at</strong>e Silic<strong>at</strong>e Nitrite Nitrite<br />
YEAR Ammonium Ammonium (PO4 3� ) (PO4 3� ) (SiO4) (SiO4) (NO 2� � (NO 2� �<br />
�M (NH4 � ) 2 m (NH4 � ) 4 m 2 m 4 m 2 m 4 m NO 3� ) 2 m NO 3� ) 4 m<br />
2004 0.12 � 0.06 0.17 � 0.07 0.24 � 0.03 0.19 � 0.05 1.76 � 0.18 1.84 � 0.26 0.14 � 0.10 0.15 � 0.01<br />
2005 0.40 � 0.04 0.65 � 0.05 0.29 � 0.01 0.35 � 0.01 5.64 � 0.19 5.19 � 0.16 0.21 � 0.04 0.29 � 0.08<br />
2006 0.25 � 0.05 0.12 � 0.02 0.17 � 0.01 0.20 � 0.01 7.05 � 0.14 6.89 � 0.16 0.07 � 0.01 0.10 � 0.02<br />
Chl<br />
(�g/L)<br />
0.00 - 0.25<br />
0.26 - 0.50<br />
0.51 - 0.75<br />
0.76 - 1.00<br />
1.01 - 1.25<br />
1.26 - 1.50<br />
1.51 - 1.75<br />
1.76 - 2.00<br />
2.01 - 2.25<br />
2.26 - 2.50<br />
2.51 - 2.75
278 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
sampling years, <strong>the</strong> 4 m nitr<strong>at</strong>e concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were slightly<br />
higher than <strong>the</strong> 2 m but were not signifi cantly different.<br />
Mean sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ure (2 m and 4 m) increased<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch each year between 2004 and<br />
2006 (Table 2). Summer 2004 was characterized by frequent<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rm activity, which was refl ected in depressed surface<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ures th<strong>at</strong> were neg<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>at</strong> some sites.<br />
The 2006 mean 2 m temper<strong>at</strong>ure (4.6 � 0.2°C) was more<br />
than double <strong>the</strong> value measured in 2004 (2.1 � 0.6°C).<br />
The 4 m mean temper<strong>at</strong>ure increased more than fourfold<br />
between 2004 and 2006 (0.9 � 0.7; 4.2 � 0.2).<br />
Salinity measurements were homogeneous across <strong>the</strong><br />
Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch and means were consistent between summers<br />
2004 and 2005 <strong>at</strong> both 2 m (23.8 � 1.0‰; 23.8 �<br />
1.7 ‰) and 4 m (26.8 � 1.2 ‰; 26.6� 1.4 ‰) depths, but<br />
values dropped precipi<strong>to</strong>usly in 2006 (2 m 16.9 � 0.35‰;<br />
4 m 20.7� 0.5‰; Table 2). In 2004, <strong>the</strong> salinity range<br />
<strong>at</strong> 2 m was 20.4– 27.4‰; <strong>the</strong> 4 m 2004 range was 23.5<br />
<strong>to</strong> 31.7‰. In summer 2005, measurements <strong>at</strong> 2 m ranged<br />
from 17.7 <strong>to</strong> 26.21‰ and <strong>at</strong> 4 m salinity varied from 24.9<br />
<strong>to</strong> 30.8‰. During 2006, <strong>the</strong> 2 m salinity low was measured<br />
<strong>at</strong> 11.3 ‰ and <strong>the</strong> high was 23.5‰; <strong>the</strong> 4 m low<br />
was 12.3 ‰ and high 30.0‰. At 2 m, w<strong>at</strong>ers were slightly<br />
fresher than <strong>at</strong> 4 m during all three years.<br />
We only report pH d<strong>at</strong>a from 2004 and 2006 since <strong>the</strong><br />
probe malfunctioned during <strong>the</strong> 2005 fi eld season (Table<br />
2). In 2004, pH measurement means were remarkably<br />
constant <strong>at</strong> 8.2 � 0.04 <strong>at</strong> both 2 and 4 m. The measurements<br />
in 2006 were also very consistent (7.9 � 0.01 ‰)<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> sampling area and between <strong>the</strong> 2 and 4 m<br />
depths, but were more acidic than <strong>the</strong> 2004 values. Measurements<br />
of dissolved oxygen revealed values <strong>at</strong> or near<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ur<strong>at</strong>ion in all years (Table 2). The range in values refl ect<br />
differences in w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure and wind induced turbulence<br />
of surface w<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
PERMANENT STATIONS<br />
Blade elong<strong>at</strong>ion in Laminaria solidungula displayed<br />
large sp<strong>at</strong>ial and temporal variability as refl ected in measurements<br />
from nine sites (Table 3). Mean site blade<br />
growth was lower <strong>at</strong> every site in GWYR 2003 compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> GWYRs 2004, 2005, and 2006, refl ecting <strong>the</strong> exceptionally<br />
poor we<strong>at</strong>her conditions in summer 2003 th<strong>at</strong><br />
produced extremely low levels of ambient PAR. Kelp collected<br />
in 2004 (GWYR 2003) had annual average growth<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es ranging between 4.4 and 10.4 cm. In contrast, blade<br />
elong<strong>at</strong>ion ranged from 10 <strong>to</strong> 25.5 cm in GWYR 2004<br />
and from 16.7 <strong>to</strong> 47.3 cm in GWYR in 2005 and 2006,<br />
comparable <strong>to</strong> previous studies (Dun<strong>to</strong>n, 1990; Martin<br />
and Gallaway, 1994). Specimens from DS-11 showed <strong>the</strong><br />
gre<strong>at</strong>est annual growth of all sites in most years.<br />
In conjunction with blade elong<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>es, we collected<br />
PAR measurements during summers 2004, 2005,<br />
and 2006. Surface irradiance followed a typical cyclical<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern, peaking between 1200– 1400 �mol pho<strong>to</strong>ns m �2<br />
s �1 in <strong>the</strong> afternoon before declining <strong>to</strong> nearly undetectable<br />
levels after midnight (Figure 6). Highest levels of underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
PAR were normally recorded by scalar sensors in<br />
<strong>the</strong> early afternoon (1400 hrs), which also corresponded<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> period of maximum incident PAR. In 2004, from 31<br />
July <strong>to</strong> 6 August, underw<strong>at</strong>er irradiance dropped <strong>to</strong> near<br />
zero <strong>at</strong> all three sites (DS-11, E-1, and W-1). These low<br />
values were coincident with a series of intense s<strong>to</strong>rms th<strong>at</strong><br />
gener<strong>at</strong>ed winds in excess of 10 m s �1 from <strong>the</strong> southwest<br />
and sou<strong>the</strong>ast. Extremely low underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
continued through 9 August followed by four days<br />
of slightly higher values, <strong>at</strong> which point <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>aloggers<br />
were removed. Prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>rm, underw<strong>at</strong>er scalar irradiance<br />
<strong>at</strong> DS-11 ranged from 180 <strong>to</strong> 200 �mol m �2 s �1<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> less than 20 �mol m �2 s �1 during <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>rm,<br />
TABLE 2. Average temper<strong>at</strong>ure, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH measurements for 30 sites measured annually in July and August<br />
2004, 2005, and 2006. Samples were collected <strong>at</strong> 2 and 4 m w<strong>at</strong>er column depths. Values are means � SE. ND indic<strong>at</strong>es no d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
Temp Temp Salinity Salinity Dissolved Dissolved pH pH<br />
(°C) (°C) (‰) (‰) O2 (mg L �1 ) O2 (mg L �1 ) (m �1 ) (m �1 )<br />
YEAR 2 m 4 m 2 m 4 m 2 m 4 m 2 m 4 m<br />
2004 2.11 � 0.55 0.88 � 0.75 23.80 � 0.99 26.81 � 1.16 13.18 � 0.35 14.22 � 0.38 8.19 � 0.05 8.22 � 0.04<br />
2005 2.62 � 1.07 1.97 � 1.32 23.85 � 1.66 26.65 � 1.36 11.48 � 0.45 11.53 � 0.39 ND ND<br />
2006 4.64 � 0.16 4.21 � 0.22 16.91 � 0.35 20.67 � 0.49 11.45 � 0.02 11.57 � 0.05 7.90 � 0.01 7.88 � 0.01
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 279<br />
TABLE 3. Average Laminaria solidungula basal blade length from nine sites in Stefansson Sound. Blade lengths were measured during<br />
summers 2004– 2007. A growth year (GWYR) is defi ned as <strong>the</strong> period beginning 15 November one year and ending 15 November <strong>the</strong><br />
following year. Values are means � SE. ND is no d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
GWYR DS-11 cm E-1 cm E-2 cm E-3 cm L-1 cm L-2 cm B-1 cm W-1 cm W-3 cm<br />
2003 7.20 � 0.50 4.38 � 0.36 7.85 � 0.40 5.24 � 0.40 6.56 � 0.54 6.53 � 0.86 7.16 � 0.60 7.93 � 0.51 10.45 � 0.94<br />
2004 25.46 � 0.93 10.93 � 0.37 9.98 � 0.38 22.79 � 0.76 18.03 � 0.59 14.67 � 0.59 18.59 � 0.69 13.73 � 0.53 20.88 � 1.04<br />
2005 27.65 � 0.85 18.97 � 0.53 19.10 � 0.76 28.54 � 0.93 23.77 � 0.91 21.82 � 0.84 24.76 � 1.02 18.49 � 0.71 24.94 � 1.05<br />
2006 47.32 � 1.64 16.71 � 0.71 18.04 � 0.96 25.84 � 1.07 18.85 � 0.75 36.77 � 1.72 20.70 � 1.00 ND ND<br />
FIGURE 6. Continuous measurements of surface and underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR in Stefansson Sound in summers 2004, 2005, and 2006. W<strong>at</strong>er depths<br />
ranged from 5 m (E-1) <strong>to</strong> 6.5 m (DS-11 and W-1). Missing surface PAR d<strong>at</strong>a in 2004 and 2005 were obtained from an irradiance sensor maintained<br />
5 km distant <strong>at</strong> SDI by Veltkamp and Wilcox (2007).
280 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
before rebounding <strong>to</strong> about 100 �mol m �2 s �1 . In 2005,<br />
underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR was lowest <strong>at</strong> E-1 and W-1 from 26– 31<br />
July in response <strong>to</strong> a s<strong>to</strong>rm event th<strong>at</strong> gener<strong>at</strong>ed winds in<br />
excess of 9 m s �1 from <strong>the</strong> east-nor<strong>the</strong>ast but which had<br />
little effect on underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR <strong>at</strong> DS-11.<br />
Overall, w<strong>at</strong>er transparency, as refl ected by consistently<br />
low k values (generally �1.0 m �1 ) and high light<br />
transmission (�55% m �1 ) <strong>at</strong> all three sites, was highest in<br />
2006 as refl ected by <strong>the</strong> absence of signifi cant s<strong>to</strong>rm events<br />
during <strong>the</strong> study period (Figure 7). In all three years, mean<br />
irradiance was signifi cantly (p � 0.05) lower <strong>at</strong> site W-1<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> all o<strong>the</strong>r sites (Table 4) for <strong>the</strong> period 26 July<br />
<strong>to</strong> 10 August although <strong>the</strong> surface irradiance was high on<br />
most days. Values recorded from both surface and underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
PAR sensors are similar <strong>to</strong> irradiance measurements<br />
made in Stefansson Sound during previous studies ( Dun<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1990). Lowest light transmission (�10% m �1 ) and highest<br />
k values (2– 3 m �1 ) were observed <strong>at</strong> all three sites in<br />
2004. Conditions in 2005 improved considerably, with just<br />
one peak in w<strong>at</strong>er turbidity occurring in l<strong>at</strong>e July as noted<br />
earlier. The shallower depth <strong>at</strong> E-1, compared <strong>to</strong> W-1 and<br />
DS-11 amplifi es <strong>the</strong> k values <strong>at</strong> this site for similar levels of<br />
underw<strong>at</strong>er PAR recorded <strong>at</strong> all three sites.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
The rel<strong>at</strong>ively uniform and low w<strong>at</strong>er column chlorophyll<br />
a concentr<strong>at</strong>ions measured across Stefansson Sound<br />
from 2004– 2006 (Figure 5) agree well with earlier assessments<br />
made through <strong>the</strong> same area in 2001, but were lower<br />
than those recorded in 2002 by Aumack (2003). Chlorophyll<br />
was consistently lower <strong>at</strong> 2 m than <strong>at</strong> 4 m depths,<br />
which may refl ect <strong>the</strong> consistently higher availability of inorganic<br />
nutrients <strong>at</strong> depth in all three years for silic<strong>at</strong>e, ammonium,<br />
phosph<strong>at</strong>e, and nitr<strong>at</strong>e � nitrite (Table 1). W<strong>at</strong>er<br />
FIGURE 7. Measurements of w<strong>at</strong>er transparency <strong>at</strong> various sites in Stefansson Sound from 2004 <strong>to</strong> 2006. Top panel: percentage of surface<br />
irradiance (%SI). Bot<strong>to</strong>m panel: diffuse <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cient expressed as k-values (left axis) and as % m �1 (right axis). Underw<strong>at</strong>er measurements<br />
were made <strong>at</strong> kelp canopy levels <strong>at</strong> E-1 (4.6 m), W-1 (5.8 m), and DS-11 (6.1 m) with a spherical quantum sensor.
TABLE 4. Mean PAR for each site for <strong>the</strong> period 26 July– 10<br />
August (n � 1071 hourly measurements for each site) from<br />
2004– 2006. Asterisks denote site means th<strong>at</strong> are signifi cantly<br />
different (p � 0.05) within years. Average surface PAR for <strong>the</strong><br />
same period is provided for reference.<br />
Mean PAR (�mol m �2 s �1 )<br />
Year W-1 E-1 DS-11 Surface<br />
2004 15.3* 23.3 28.0 314.9<br />
2005 28.3* 45.1* 59.2* 356.0<br />
2006 23.3* 48.1 42.0 347.9<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures were about 2°C warmer in 2006 compared <strong>to</strong><br />
2004 and 2005, which was coincident with a 6– 7‰ drop in<br />
surface and bot<strong>to</strong>m w<strong>at</strong>er salinities in 2006. Decreased salinities<br />
and pH in 2006 likely refl ect freshw<strong>at</strong>er input from<br />
<strong>the</strong> nearby Sagavanirk<strong>to</strong>k River, which produced a distinct<br />
brackish w<strong>at</strong>er layer <strong>to</strong> 4 m depths th<strong>at</strong> was not evident in<br />
2004 or 2005. Measurement of bot<strong>to</strong>m salinity <strong>at</strong> depths<br />
exceeding 6 m <strong>at</strong> various sites (d<strong>at</strong>a not reported here) indic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
th<strong>at</strong> this brackish w<strong>at</strong>er layer seldom extended <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> seafl oor, sparing benthic organisms <strong>at</strong> depths gre<strong>at</strong>er<br />
than 5 m exposure <strong>to</strong> widely fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ing salinities and temper<strong>at</strong>ures.<br />
However, vertical gradients in temper<strong>at</strong>ure and/<br />
or salinity were apparent all three years, producing a clear<br />
pycnocline.<br />
Based on in situ frond length measurements made on<br />
Laminaria solidungula plants in summers 2005 and 2006,<br />
we were able <strong>to</strong> make new calcul<strong>at</strong>ions of kelp biomass <strong>at</strong><br />
sites DS-11 (n � 226) and E-1 (n � 53). Areal biomass <strong>at</strong><br />
each site was calcul<strong>at</strong>ed using a correl<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cient between<br />
basal blade dry weight (gdw) and basal blade length<br />
(cm) developed for <strong>the</strong> Stefansson Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch using<br />
specimens collected between 1980 and 1984 (n � 912;<br />
Figure 8). Biomass <strong>at</strong> DS-11 (>25% rock cover) ranged<br />
from 5 <strong>to</strong> 45 gdw m �2 (mean 23 gdw m �2 ) compared <strong>to</strong><br />
a range of 0.5 <strong>to</strong> 2.7 gdw m �2 (mean 1.7 gdw m �2 ) <strong>at</strong> site<br />
E-1 (10– 25% rock cover). Intermedi<strong>at</strong>e levels of biomass<br />
were recorded <strong>at</strong> sites W-3 (10.1 gdw m �2 ) and E-3 (14.8<br />
gdw m �2 ), both design<strong>at</strong>ed as sites with �25% rock cover<br />
by Toimil (1980). The range in biomass <strong>at</strong> DS-11 is within<br />
<strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es reported by Dun<strong>to</strong>n et al. (1982). Estim<strong>at</strong>es<br />
of benthic biomass <strong>at</strong> sites in Stefansson Sound are critical<br />
for calcul<strong>at</strong>ion of realistic basin-wide benthic production<br />
models in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> changes in PAR.<br />
Blade elong<strong>at</strong>ion in Laminaria solidungula displays<br />
large sp<strong>at</strong>ial and temporal variability as refl ected in mea-<br />
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 281<br />
FIGURE 8. Correl<strong>at</strong>ion between basal blade dry weight (g) and basal<br />
blade length (cm) in Laminaria solidungula.<br />
surements from nine sites over <strong>the</strong> past decade (Figure 9).<br />
In addition, mean blade growth <strong>at</strong> two sites, DS-11 and<br />
E-1, made since 1977 and 1981, respectively, reveal some<br />
interesting long-term interannual vari<strong>at</strong>ions (Figure 10).<br />
The two years of lowest growth (1999 and 2003) occurred<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively recently and coincide with summers characterized<br />
by intense s<strong>to</strong>rm activity th<strong>at</strong> likely produced extremely<br />
turbid w<strong>at</strong>er conditions resulting in extremely<br />
FIGURE 9. Vari<strong>at</strong>ion in annual growth in Laminaria solidungula<br />
from 1996 <strong>to</strong> 2006 <strong>at</strong> sites occupied in <strong>the</strong> Stefansson Sound Boulder<br />
P<strong>at</strong>ch. Measurements are based on blade lengths of plants collected<br />
between 2001 and 2006. Values are means � SE.
282 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / DUNTON, SCHONBERG, AND FUNK<br />
FIGURE 10. Mean annual linear growth of Laminaria solidungula<br />
from 1977 <strong>to</strong> 2006 <strong>at</strong> sites DS-11 (blue) and E-1 (green) in Stefansson<br />
Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch.<br />
low levels of ambient light. Wind speed d<strong>at</strong>a collected <strong>at</strong><br />
SDI by Veltcamp and Wilcox (2007) from 2001 <strong>to</strong> 2006<br />
revealed th<strong>at</strong> 2003 was marked by <strong>the</strong> highest maximum<br />
wind speeds and lowest light levels in July and August<br />
when compared <strong>to</strong> all o<strong>the</strong>r years (Table 5). In addition,<br />
since light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion was lowest in offshore w<strong>at</strong>ers and<br />
increased with proximity <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> coastline, kelp growth <strong>at</strong><br />
site E-1 was consistently much less than <strong>at</strong> DS-11 (Table<br />
3). Changes in local clim<strong>at</strong>ology clearly has an important<br />
role in regul<strong>at</strong>ing kelp growth as a consequence of increased<br />
cloud cover and sustained winds th<strong>at</strong> neg<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
impact kelp growth (Figure 11).<br />
The exceptionally low growth of kelp in 2003 (4– 7<br />
cm) indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> kelp in <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch are living close<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir physiological light limits and might die if subjected<br />
<strong>to</strong> multiple years of low w<strong>at</strong>er transparency. O<strong>the</strong>r fac<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
FIGURE 11. Annual mean linear growth of Laminaria solidungula<br />
as a function of <strong>the</strong> number of hours th<strong>at</strong> wind speed exceeded 10 m<br />
s �1 <strong>at</strong> SDI in July and August, from 2001 <strong>to</strong> 2006. Wind speed d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
from Veltcamp and Wilcox, 2007. Sites DS-11 (blue) and E-1 (green)<br />
are loc<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> Stefansson Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch.<br />
th<strong>at</strong> could exacerb<strong>at</strong>e light limit<strong>at</strong>ion include increases<br />
in temper<strong>at</strong>ure and lower salinities. As noted above, between<br />
2004 and 2006 mean w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure over <strong>the</strong><br />
study area more than doubled and salinity measurements<br />
dropped signifi cantly <strong>to</strong> depths of 4 m. Since much of <strong>the</strong><br />
Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch occurs <strong>at</strong> depths less than 6 m, kelp could<br />
be exposed <strong>to</strong> periods of lower salinities and higher temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
during periods of higher than normal precipit<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and/or freshw<strong>at</strong>er infl ows. Thus, continuous moni<strong>to</strong>ring<br />
of kelp growth in Stefansson Sound provides valuable<br />
insights in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> role of local clim<strong>at</strong>e in affecting w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
transparency through processes th<strong>at</strong> suspend and/or promote<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n (chlorophyll) production.<br />
TABLE 5. Open-w<strong>at</strong>er meteorological d<strong>at</strong>a collected <strong>at</strong> SDI from 2001– 2006 for <strong>the</strong> period 10 July– 9 September (from Veltkamp and<br />
Wilcox, 2007).<br />
Wind Speed m s �1 Number of Hours Average Wind Direction Average Solar Radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Year Average Maximum �10 meters s �1 °Mag W m �2<br />
2001 5.10 7.18 64 157 133.7<br />
2002 4.67 6.50 65 174 145.8<br />
2003 5.62 7.98 158 172 123.3<br />
2004 5.46 7.37 119 149 150.6<br />
2005 5.57 7.47 87 125 145.8<br />
2006 5.12 6.94 65 148 131.5
We derived measures of light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion from both<br />
synoptic measurements collected <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> 30 survey sites, and<br />
continuously from d<strong>at</strong>aloggers deployed on <strong>the</strong> seabed.<br />
These coincident measurements of surface and underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
light exhibited distinct geographical p<strong>at</strong>terns and interannual<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ions between 2004 and 2006 (Figures 3 and 7).<br />
Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion was consistently elev<strong>at</strong>ed in coastal zones, with<br />
highest values observed near Endicott Island and SDI indic<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
more turbid w<strong>at</strong>er closer <strong>to</strong> shore. Lower values were<br />
recorded offshore along <strong>the</strong> eastern and nor<strong>the</strong>astern sides<br />
of Stefansson Sound. Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients were also<br />
highest in shallower w<strong>at</strong>er depths as refl ected by site E-1,<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower k values <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> deeper sites (W-1 and<br />
DS-11). The higher k values recorded <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> permanent sites<br />
refl ect <strong>the</strong> value of continuously recording instruments; during<br />
major s<strong>to</strong>rms it is virtually impossible <strong>to</strong> conduct fi eld<br />
measurements, but <strong>the</strong>se events are perhaps <strong>the</strong> most interesting<br />
and important in computing an accur<strong>at</strong>e assessment<br />
of benthic production. We noted th<strong>at</strong> k values were nearly<br />
three times higher <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> three permanent sites than <strong>at</strong> any<br />
point during synoptic sampling <strong>at</strong> 30 sites, despite <strong>the</strong> use<br />
of a scalar sensor in <strong>the</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>ion of k <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> permanent<br />
sites. The applic<strong>at</strong>ion of cosine measurements of PAR from<br />
<strong>the</strong> permanent sites would have resulted in still higher values<br />
for k.<br />
Our d<strong>at</strong>a and th<strong>at</strong> of Aumack et al. (2007) strongly<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> both <strong>the</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial and interannual vari<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in w<strong>at</strong>er transparency are correl<strong>at</strong>ed with TSS. In general,<br />
<strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, including areas with<br />
dense kelp popul<strong>at</strong>ions (�25% rock cover), was found<br />
predominantly in clear offshore w<strong>at</strong>ers where <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
measurements were consistently less than 1.0 m �1 . Our<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a show th<strong>at</strong> years characterized by frequent s<strong>to</strong>rm activity<br />
are likely <strong>to</strong> have signifi cant impacts on annual kelp<br />
growth and production. Local clim<strong>at</strong>ic change th<strong>at</strong> results<br />
in more frequent s<strong>to</strong>rm events are thus likely <strong>to</strong> have a<br />
signifi cant and detrimental impact on nearshore kelp bed<br />
community production, and could lead <strong>to</strong> large scale<br />
losses of <strong>the</strong>se plants and <strong>the</strong>ir associ<strong>at</strong>ed diverse epilithic<br />
and epiphytic fauna.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We thank Ted Dun<strong>to</strong>n and John Dun<strong>to</strong>n (University<br />
of Texas <strong>at</strong> Austin) for <strong>the</strong>ir mechanical expertise and piloting<br />
of <strong>the</strong> R/V Proteus. Special appreci<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> Brenda<br />
Konar, K<strong>at</strong>rin Iken, and N<strong>at</strong>han Stewart (all <strong>at</strong> University<br />
of Alaska Fairbanks) for <strong>the</strong>ir diving assistance and with<br />
kelp collection. We are gr<strong>at</strong>eful <strong>to</strong> Bill Streever (BP Explor<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
for ocean access and <strong>the</strong> kindness and hospitality<br />
INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IN LIGHT ATTENUATION 283<br />
extended <strong>to</strong> us by <strong>the</strong> entire Endicott facility of BP Explor<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Constructive comments <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> paper were kindly<br />
provided by Craig Aumack (University of Alabama) and<br />
Lanny Miller (Algenol Biofuels, Inc.). This study was<br />
funded by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Department of <strong>the</strong> Interior, Minerals<br />
Management Service (MMS), Alaska Outer Continental<br />
Shelf Region, Anchorage, Alaska under Contract Numbers<br />
1435– 01– 99-CT-30998 and 1435-01-04-CT-32148<br />
as part of <strong>the</strong> continu<strong>at</strong>ion (cANIMIDA) of <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
Nearshore Impact Moni<strong>to</strong>ring in <strong>the</strong> Development Area<br />
(ANIMIDA) Project and <strong>the</strong> MMS Alaska Environmental<br />
Studies Program under <strong>the</strong> superb leadership of Richard<br />
Prentki (MMS COTR).<br />
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Life under Antarctic Pack Ice:<br />
A Krill Perspective<br />
Langdon B. Quetin and Robin M. Ross<br />
Langdon B. Quetin and Robin M. Ross, University<br />
of California <strong>at</strong> Santa Barbara, Marine Science<br />
Institute-UCSB, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-6150,<br />
USA. Corresponding author: L. Quetin (Langdon@icess.ucsb.edu).<br />
Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The life cycle of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, intersects in space<br />
and time with <strong>the</strong> expansion and contraction of annual pack ice. Consequently, <strong>the</strong><br />
circumpolar distribution of krill has often been defi ned as generally limited <strong>to</strong> an area<br />
bounded by <strong>the</strong> maximum extent of pack ice. Pack ice has both direct and indirect effects<br />
on <strong>the</strong> life cycle of krill. During <strong>the</strong> austral winter, larval krill are found in direct associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> ice and feed on <strong>the</strong> small plants and animals th<strong>at</strong> constitute<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea ice microbial community, a food source rel<strong>at</strong>ively abundant in winter compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> food sources in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column. Indirectly, melting pack ice in l<strong>at</strong>e winter or early<br />
spring stabilizes <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column and promotes growth of <strong>the</strong> preferred food of krill,<br />
which, in turn, likely provides <strong>the</strong> fuel for egg production during <strong>the</strong> summer months.<br />
Thus, <strong>the</strong> warming trend west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula with <strong>at</strong>tendant changes in both<br />
<strong>the</strong> timing and dur<strong>at</strong>ion of winter ice has implic<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics of<br />
krill. Given <strong>the</strong> complexity of <strong>the</strong> habit<strong>at</strong>– life cycle interaction, research on Antarctic<br />
krill involves diverse sampling <strong>to</strong>ols th<strong>at</strong> are dependent on <strong>the</strong> size and habit<strong>at</strong> of krill<br />
during a particular stage of <strong>the</strong>ir life cycle, and <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> study itself. In particular,<br />
and pertinent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pic of diving in polar research, <strong>the</strong> research has been gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
enhanced by diving techniques developed <strong>to</strong> allow both observ<strong>at</strong>ion and sampling of krill<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir winter pack-ice habit<strong>at</strong>.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> reasons th<strong>at</strong> Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, has been a focus<br />
of intern<strong>at</strong>ional research in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic since <strong>the</strong> Discovery days, before<br />
World War II, is th<strong>at</strong> it is viewed as a key species in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean ecosystem.<br />
Various investig<strong>at</strong>ors have referred <strong>to</strong> Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba,<br />
as a keys<strong>to</strong>ne (Moline et al., 2004) or core or key (Quetin and Ross, 2003) or<br />
dominant (Ju and Harvey, 2004) species in <strong>the</strong> pelagic ecosystem of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. The r<strong>at</strong>ionale for <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong>se terms has been based on <strong>the</strong> facts<br />
th<strong>at</strong> it is among <strong>the</strong> world’s most abundant metazoan species (Nicol, 1994) and<br />
th<strong>at</strong> it is important in <strong>the</strong> diets of many of <strong>the</strong> species of <strong>the</strong> upper trophic levels<br />
(Everson, 2000). However, given <strong>the</strong> suggestion th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> term keys<strong>to</strong>ne species<br />
only refers <strong>to</strong> those species exercising an effect on ecosystem function disproportion<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>to</strong> abundance and thus is almost always a pred<strong>at</strong>or (Power et al., 1996),<br />
Antarctic krill may be more accur<strong>at</strong>ely defi ned as a found<strong>at</strong>ion species in <strong>the</strong>
286 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS<br />
sense of Day<strong>to</strong>n (1972). A found<strong>at</strong>ion species is one th<strong>at</strong><br />
controls community dynamics and modul<strong>at</strong>es ecosystem<br />
processes such as energy fl ux, and whose loss would lead<br />
<strong>to</strong> system-wide changes in <strong>the</strong> structure and function of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ecosystem (Ellison et al., 2005). Understanding th<strong>at</strong><br />
Antarctic krill may be a found<strong>at</strong>ion species in many regions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> pelagic Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean highlights <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong><br />
elucid<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> fac<strong>to</strong>rs affecting its popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics and<br />
its possible response <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e change. After introducing<br />
<strong>the</strong> concept of Antarctic krill as a found<strong>at</strong>ion species,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> pack ice as a habit<strong>at</strong>, we focus on wh<strong>at</strong> has been<br />
learned about interactions between krill life his<strong>to</strong>ry and<br />
<strong>the</strong> pack ice habit<strong>at</strong>, as well as <strong>the</strong> importance of viewing<br />
seasonal sea ice dynamics from a krill perspective.<br />
FOUNDATION SPECIES<br />
Distribution and Biomass<br />
Several characteristics of <strong>the</strong> distribution and biomass<br />
of Antarctic krill suggest it is a found<strong>at</strong>ion species. First,<br />
<strong>the</strong> distribution of Antarctic krill is circumpolar. However,<br />
abundance is p<strong>at</strong>chy with highest abundances in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
Atlantic. Most krill are found within <strong>the</strong> area south<br />
of <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn extent of annual sea ice and within <strong>the</strong><br />
boundaries of minimal and maximal sea ice, with <strong>the</strong> exception<br />
of krill around South Georgia (Marr, 1962; Laws,<br />
1985; Siegel, 2005). This coherence led investig<strong>at</strong>ors <strong>to</strong><br />
postul<strong>at</strong>e a key role for seasonal pack ice in <strong>the</strong> life cycle<br />
and popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics of Antarctic krill.<br />
Second, Antarctic krill often domin<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
biomass in <strong>the</strong> upper 200 m of <strong>the</strong> seasonal sea ice zone<br />
(Hopkins, 1985; Hopkins and Torres, 1988; Miller and<br />
Hamp<strong>to</strong>n, 1989; Ward et al., 2004; Siegel, 2005). Antarctic<br />
krill biomass was recently resurveyed in Area 48, <strong>the</strong> southwest<br />
Atlantic, during <strong>the</strong> CCAMLR 2000 Survey (Hewitt<br />
et al., 2004). From <strong>the</strong>se results, acoustic estim<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>the</strong><br />
circumpolar krill biomass were estim<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> be 60– 155<br />
million metric <strong>to</strong>nes (Nicol et al., 2000), within <strong>the</strong> range<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ed consumed by pred<strong>at</strong>ors (Everson, 2000; Barrera-<br />
Oro, 2002). However, krill biomass in a region varies substantially—<br />
seasonally with shifts in popul<strong>at</strong>ion distribution,<br />
interannually due <strong>to</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion in recruitment success during<br />
its lifespan, and within a season due <strong>to</strong> local oceanographic<br />
variables (Siegel, 2005; Ross et al., 2008).<br />
Role in Ecosystem<br />
Due in part <strong>to</strong> its high biomass and in part <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are no true prey substitutes in <strong>the</strong> seasonal seaice<br />
zone for upper-level pred<strong>at</strong>ors, Antarctic krill domin<strong>at</strong>e<br />
energy fl ow <strong>to</strong> upper trophic levels (Barrera-Oro, 2002).<br />
In a review of <strong>the</strong> diets of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean birds, Croxall<br />
(1984) identifi ed both (1) species highly dependent on<br />
Antarctic krill, for example, <strong>the</strong> brushtail penguins up <strong>to</strong><br />
98%, and (2) species whose diet was only 16– 40% krill,<br />
namely, fl ying seabirds such as alb<strong>at</strong>rosses and petrels. All<br />
Antarctic seals depend somewh<strong>at</strong> on Antarctic krill, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> exception of <strong>the</strong> elephant seal (Laws, 1984). The crabe<strong>at</strong>er<br />
seal is a specialist on <strong>the</strong>se euphausiids whereas <strong>the</strong><br />
diet of leopard seals is only about 50% krill. Baleen whales<br />
(minke, blue, fi n, sei, and humpback) feed predominantly<br />
on Antarctic krill. Lastly, both fi sh and squid (Everson<br />
2000) are known pred<strong>at</strong>ors of krill. In particular, <strong>the</strong> mesopelagic<br />
myc<strong>to</strong>phid Electrona antarctica is an important<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>or of krill (Hopkins and Torres, 1988; Lancraft et<br />
al., 1989; 1991; Barrera-Oro, 2002).<br />
One aspect of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean ecosystem th<strong>at</strong><br />
lends support <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> characteriz<strong>at</strong>ion of Antarctic krill<br />
as a found<strong>at</strong>ion species is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is little functional<br />
redundancy in prey items for <strong>the</strong> upper-trophic-level<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors in <strong>the</strong> food web. Ano<strong>the</strong>r large and sometimes<br />
biomass- dominant grazer in <strong>the</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n is<br />
<strong>the</strong> salp, Salpa thompsoni. However, although some fi sh<br />
are known <strong>to</strong> ingest S. thompsoni, its high w<strong>at</strong>er content<br />
and <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion in biomass by orders of magnitude<br />
during <strong>the</strong> spring/ summer season due <strong>to</strong> its characteristic<br />
altern<strong>at</strong>ion of gener<strong>at</strong>ions rends it a less desirable food<br />
item. The pelagic fi sh fauna in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, a<br />
logical altern<strong>at</strong>e source of food, is rel<strong>at</strong>ively scarce and<br />
only a minor component of <strong>the</strong> epiplank<strong>to</strong>n of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Ocean (Morales-Nin et al., 1995; Hoddell et al.,<br />
2000), except in <strong>the</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itude regions of <strong>the</strong> cold continental<br />
shelf (high Antarctic) such as <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea or<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Weddell Sea, <strong>the</strong> habit<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> no<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>niid<br />
Pleuragramma antarcticum. In deeper pelagic w<strong>at</strong>ers,<br />
(�500 m) <strong>the</strong> mesopelagic myc<strong>to</strong>phid E. antarctica is <strong>the</strong><br />
dominant fi sh (Barrera-Oro, 2002), and is available as<br />
prey <strong>to</strong> diving birds and seals when it migr<strong>at</strong>es in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
upper 0– 300 m during <strong>the</strong> night (Robison, 2003; Loots<br />
et al., 2007). However, in many regions of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean nei<strong>the</strong>r of <strong>the</strong>se two species would be available in<br />
high enough biomass as an altern<strong>at</strong>e prey if Euphausia<br />
superba disappeared.<br />
Although Antarctic krill <strong>the</strong>mselves are omnivorous<br />
and do ingest both plant and animal m<strong>at</strong>ter (Atkinson and<br />
Snÿder, 1997; Schmidt et al., 2006), <strong>the</strong>y are very important<br />
herbivorous grazers and <strong>the</strong>ir growth and reproduction<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es appear <strong>to</strong> be tightly linked <strong>to</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n concentr<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
particularly di<strong>at</strong>oms (Ross et al., 2000; Schmidt et<br />
al., 2006; Atkinson et al., 2006). This short link between
primary producers and <strong>the</strong> upper trophic levels cre<strong>at</strong>es a<br />
very effi cient transfer of energy <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>p-level pred<strong>at</strong>ors.<br />
The role of Antarctic krill as one of <strong>the</strong> dominant macrozooplank<strong>to</strong>nic<br />
grazers, particularly of <strong>the</strong> larger phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
suggests th<strong>at</strong> grazing by krill affects phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
community composition and is a signifi cant loss term<br />
in some years (Ross et al., 1998; Garibotti et al., 2003;<br />
Daniels et al., 2006). Daniels et al. (2006), in a network<br />
analysis of <strong>the</strong> pelagic food web on <strong>the</strong> shelf west of <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Peninsula, found th<strong>at</strong> in years of high primary<br />
production and high krill abundance, more than 50% of<br />
<strong>the</strong> large phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n cells were ingested by Antarctic<br />
krill. In addition, its production of large fast-sinking fecal<br />
pellets (Ross et al., 1985; Fowler and Small, 1972; Cadée et<br />
al., 1992; González, 1992; Turner, 2002) enhances its contribution<br />
<strong>to</strong> carbon sequestr<strong>at</strong>ion (Smetacek et al., 2004).<br />
PACK ICE HABITAT FROM KRILL PERSPECTIVE<br />
Three types of pack ice can be deline<strong>at</strong>ed: seasonal,<br />
perennial, and marginal (Eicken, 1992). During <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
growth and melt cycle, <strong>the</strong> proportion of each type<br />
varies, which in turn means th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
provided by each vary in space and time. Seasonal pack<br />
ice is a circumpolar environment th<strong>at</strong> grows each fall<br />
and shrinks each spring, covering a vast area <strong>at</strong> its gre<strong>at</strong>est<br />
extent. In <strong>the</strong> winter and spring, seasonal pack ice has<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n/ ice algal standing s<strong>to</strong>cks th<strong>at</strong> are one <strong>to</strong><br />
three orders of magnitude higher than in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column<br />
immedi<strong>at</strong>ely below. This annual phenomenon thus<br />
provides a source of food for grazers (microheterotrophs,<br />
copepods, euphausiids) during times in <strong>the</strong> annual cycle<br />
when food resources in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column are low. The<br />
process of form<strong>at</strong>ion of seasonal pack ice involves frazil<br />
ice form<strong>at</strong>ion scavenging particles from <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column,<br />
congel<strong>at</strong>ion in<strong>to</strong> pancake ice, and aggreg<strong>at</strong>ion in<strong>to</strong> ice<br />
fl oes. Once <strong>the</strong> fl oes are 0.5 <strong>to</strong> 0.7 m thick, <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
ice only thickens by processes of deform<strong>at</strong>ion, particularly<br />
over-rafting. The seasonal pack ice, particularly <strong>the</strong> zone<br />
of highly over-rafted ice, is a favored habit<strong>at</strong> of Antarctic<br />
krill (Euphausia superba) in winter (Marschall, 1988;<br />
Smetacek et al., 1990; Quetin et al., 1996; Frazer et al.<br />
1997; 2002). The perennial pack ice, in contrast, is a mixture<br />
of annual and primarily second year sea ice, and <strong>the</strong><br />
w<strong>at</strong>er column below perennial pack ice tends <strong>to</strong> have even<br />
lower phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n concentr<strong>at</strong>ions than below seasonal<br />
sea ice due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> increased light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> main body of this contribution, we will illustr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
how putting one’s self in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> winter habit<strong>at</strong> as a diver,<br />
or taking on <strong>the</strong> krill perspective, has allowed unique in-<br />
LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 287<br />
sight in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> physiological and behavioral adapt<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
Antarctic krill <strong>to</strong> winter conditions. In turn, this insight<br />
allows us <strong>to</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r our understanding of <strong>the</strong> impact of clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change. We will focus on <strong>the</strong> increased understanding<br />
over <strong>the</strong> last 25 years of interactions between <strong>the</strong> krill<br />
life cycle and seasonal sea ice dynamics as gained from<br />
both long-term research conducted in <strong>the</strong> summer months<br />
and from cruises conducted during winter months. Lastly,<br />
we will put <strong>the</strong>se results in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> context of clim<strong>at</strong>e warming<br />
and its effect on seasonal sea ice dynamics west of <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Peninsula.<br />
BACKGROUND OBSERVATIONS<br />
LIFE HISTORY OF ANTARCTIC KRILL<br />
Characteristics of Life Cycle<br />
Antarctic krill is a rel<strong>at</strong>ively large (maximum length<br />
about 60 mm) and long-lived crustacean th<strong>at</strong> occurs in<br />
schools, leading Hamner et al. (1983) <strong>to</strong> suggest th<strong>at</strong> it has<br />
<strong>at</strong>tributes more like small fi sh such as an anchovy or sardine<br />
than like a zooplankter. The life cycle of this euphausiid<br />
is complex, with 11 larval stages over <strong>the</strong> fi rst 9 <strong>to</strong> 10<br />
months, <strong>at</strong> least 1 year as a juvenile/subadult, and <strong>the</strong>n 3<br />
<strong>to</strong> 4 years as an adult. First reproduction can be as early<br />
as <strong>the</strong> third summer (Age Class 2�), but may be delayed<br />
if food resources are inadequ<strong>at</strong>e (Ross and Quetin, 2000).<br />
Ovarian development begins in <strong>the</strong> spring, fueled by food<br />
ingested during th<strong>at</strong> time and not by s<strong>to</strong>red reserves ( Hagen<br />
et al., 2001). The embryos sink rapidly and h<strong>at</strong>ch in deep<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er and <strong>the</strong> nauplii swim <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> surface (Marr, 1962;<br />
Quetin and Ross, 1984; Hofmann et al., 1992). The krill<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir fi rst feeding stage (Calyp<strong>to</strong>pis 1) reach <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely three weeks after h<strong>at</strong>ching, and must fi nd<br />
suffi cient food for continued development within a few<br />
weeks or else <strong>the</strong>y die (Ross and Quetin, 1989). The larvae<br />
spend <strong>the</strong>ir fi rst winter in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e furcilia stages; <strong>the</strong>y begin<br />
<strong>to</strong> metamorphosize in<strong>to</strong> juveniles and <strong>the</strong>n subadults <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
end of winter and throughout <strong>the</strong> spring.<br />
Critical Periods<br />
Three facets of <strong>the</strong> infl uence of seasonal pack ice on<br />
<strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics of Antarctic krill have emerged<br />
from <strong>the</strong> research of multiple investig<strong>at</strong>ors. Here we briefl y<br />
describe how two of <strong>the</strong> three critical periods interact with<br />
<strong>the</strong> seasonal cycles within <strong>the</strong> pack ice habit<strong>at</strong> (Figure 1).<br />
First, in <strong>the</strong> austral spring as <strong>the</strong> ovary begins <strong>to</strong> develop,<br />
investig<strong>at</strong>ors postul<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> female must s<strong>to</strong>re
288 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS<br />
lipid in <strong>the</strong> “f<strong>at</strong> body” from ongoing ingestion <strong>to</strong> reach<br />
a threshold or ovarian development cannot continue<br />
(Cuzin-Roudy, 1993; Cuzin-Roudy and Lab<strong>at</strong>, 1992;<br />
Ross and Quetin, 2000; Quetin and Ross, 2001), as<br />
shown for ano<strong>the</strong>r species of euphausiid (Cuzin-Roudy,<br />
2000). Thus, an individual female will only reproduce<br />
during a summer following a spring with adequ<strong>at</strong>e food<br />
sources. Each austral spring, <strong>the</strong> retre<strong>at</strong> and melting of<br />
<strong>the</strong> seasonal pack ice sets up <strong>the</strong> conditions for marginal<br />
ice-edge blooms, providing an important and timely food<br />
resource for female krill for ovarian development and<br />
eventual spawning.<br />
Second, <strong>the</strong> larva needs <strong>to</strong> feed within 10–14 days of<br />
<strong>the</strong> time of metamorphosis in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst feeding stage or<br />
it passes <strong>the</strong> point-of-no-return and will not survive even<br />
if food becomes available l<strong>at</strong>er (Ross and Quetin, 1989).<br />
For this critical period, <strong>the</strong> effect of seasonal sea ice is<br />
indirect, through <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> seasonal sea ice cycle<br />
on annual primary production and <strong>the</strong> timing of blooms<br />
(Vernet et al., 2008).<br />
Lastly, although adult krill <strong>to</strong>ler<strong>at</strong>e prolonged starv<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and could survive a winter without food (Ikeda and<br />
Dixon, 1982), larval krill have a much lower starv<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong>lerance (for furcilia 6, about 6 wks) (Ross and Quetin,<br />
1991; Quetin et al., 1996; Meyer and Oettl, 2005). Sea-ice<br />
microbial communities (SIMCOs) provide larval krill an<br />
altern<strong>at</strong>e food source in <strong>the</strong> winter when food in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
column is <strong>at</strong> an annual low. In winter, larval krill from <strong>the</strong><br />
under-ice habit<strong>at</strong> are in better condition than those from<br />
open w<strong>at</strong>er, as measured by condition fac<strong>to</strong>r, lipid content<br />
and in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es (Ross and Quetin, 1991), supporting<br />
this concept.<br />
FIGURE 1. Life cycle of Antarctic krill with three critical periods; two are directly infl uenced by seasonal sea ice dynamics: ovarian development<br />
in <strong>the</strong> austral spring and survival during <strong>the</strong> fi rst winter.
Variability in <strong>the</strong> environment, including seasonal<br />
sea ice dynamics, impacts food available <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
krill during <strong>the</strong>se critical periods and is a primary fac<strong>to</strong>r<br />
driving variability in recruitment success or year class<br />
strength. Recruitment in this species shows high interannual<br />
variability as illustr<strong>at</strong>ed by two long-term research<br />
programs in <strong>the</strong> region of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula— Antarctic<br />
Marine Living Resources (AMLR), Siegel and<br />
Loeb (1995), and Palmer Long Term Ecological Research<br />
(LTER), Quetin and Ross (2003)— and by shorter series<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r regions (W<strong>at</strong>kins, 1999; Siegel 2000, 2005).<br />
Within <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER study region, recruitment has<br />
been episodic with two sequential high years followed<br />
by two <strong>to</strong> three years of low or zero recruitment (Quetin<br />
and Ross, 2003), a 5– 6 year cycle. Fur<strong>the</strong>r north, with<br />
a longer time series, <strong>the</strong> frequency of high recruitment<br />
years has not been as repetitive (Siegel and Loeb, 1995;<br />
Siegel, 2005), although <strong>the</strong>re is a rough correspondence<br />
between successful recruitment years between <strong>the</strong> two regions<br />
800 km apart (Siegel et al., 2003; Ducklow et al.,<br />
2007). However, with several possible reproductive summers,<br />
Antarctic krill would not need successful recruitment<br />
every year, and models suggest th<strong>at</strong> several years of<br />
low <strong>to</strong> zero recruitment would not preclude recovery of<br />
<strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>ck (Priddle et al., 1988).<br />
These results provide <strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>to</strong> use correl<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
with environmental variability <strong>to</strong> formul<strong>at</strong>e potential<br />
mechanisms th<strong>at</strong> drive <strong>the</strong> variability (Siegel and Loeb,<br />
1995; Quetin and Ross, 2003; Quetin and Ross, 2001).<br />
From <strong>the</strong>se long-term studies, correl<strong>at</strong>ions have been found<br />
between both reproduction and recruitment success and<br />
various aspects of seasonal sea ice dynamics, including timing,<br />
dur<strong>at</strong>ion, and maximum extent, with <strong>the</strong> dominant<br />
parameter varying with <strong>the</strong> study region and/or l<strong>at</strong>itude.<br />
Evidence from two long-term studies suggests th<strong>at</strong> timing<br />
and extent of sea ice in winter and/or spring impact <strong>the</strong> reproductive<br />
cycle (Siegel and Loeb, 1995; Loeb et al., 1997;<br />
Quetin and Ross, 2001). We will use examples from <strong>the</strong><br />
Palmer LTER 1 as illustr<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ions found and<br />
potential mechanisms suggested.<br />
Our fi rst example illustr<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> timing<br />
of sea ice retre<strong>at</strong> in <strong>the</strong> spring on <strong>the</strong> reproductive cycle.<br />
The most important fac<strong>to</strong>r in estim<strong>at</strong>es of popul<strong>at</strong>ion fecundity<br />
(numbers of larvae produced in a region during <strong>the</strong><br />
season) is <strong>the</strong> intensity of reproduction (percentage female<br />
krill in <strong>the</strong> reproductive cycle for a season), an index th<strong>at</strong><br />
can vary by a fac<strong>to</strong>r of 10 interannually (Quetin and Ross,<br />
2001). The intensity of reproduction correl<strong>at</strong>ed with both<br />
dynamics of sea ice in spring and with annual primary production,<br />
which are both environmental fac<strong>to</strong>rs associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 289<br />
with food availability, as seasonal sea ice dynamics medi<strong>at</strong>es<br />
<strong>the</strong> availability of food in <strong>the</strong> austral spring. Intensity<br />
of reproduction was consistently low when sea ice retre<strong>at</strong><br />
was ei<strong>the</strong>r early (August) or l<strong>at</strong>e (November), and highest<br />
when retre<strong>at</strong> occurred around <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>ological mean for<br />
<strong>the</strong> region (Quetin and Ross, 2001). We emphasize here<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> timing of retre<strong>at</strong> infl uences <strong>the</strong> timing of <strong>the</strong> food<br />
available for ovarian development, critical for a successful<br />
reproductive season. As discussed by Cuzin-Roudy<br />
(1993), Cuzin-Roudy and Lab<strong>at</strong> (1992), and Quetin and<br />
Ross (2001), accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of s<strong>to</strong>res in <strong>the</strong> “f<strong>at</strong> body” by<br />
l<strong>at</strong>e spring is hypo<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>to</strong> be necessary for continued<br />
ovarian development. If development does not or cannot<br />
continue because of lack of adequ<strong>at</strong>e food in <strong>the</strong> spring,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> intensity of reproduction is low.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> second example, we examine recruitment success<br />
and timing of sea ice advance. Our measure of recruitment<br />
success, <strong>the</strong> recruitment index, R1, is a consequence<br />
of both <strong>the</strong> numbers of larval krill entering <strong>the</strong> winter<br />
(reproductive output in <strong>the</strong> summer) and larval mortality<br />
during <strong>the</strong> winter (availability of winter food sources),<br />
and thus refl ects two critical periods in <strong>the</strong> life cycle. From<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ches of krill from each st<strong>at</strong>ion during <strong>the</strong> summer cruise,<br />
we calcul<strong>at</strong>e a recruitment index for <strong>the</strong> year, <strong>the</strong> proportion<br />
of one-year-old krill of <strong>the</strong> entire popul<strong>at</strong>ion one-year<br />
and older, as described in Quetin and Ross (2003). For<br />
<strong>the</strong> time series <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e (Quetin and Ross, 2003; Ducklow<br />
et al., 2007) R1 decreases exponentially with delay in sea<br />
ice advance. With advance in April, R1 is gre<strong>at</strong>er than 0.4<br />
(defi ned as a high recruitment year; Ducklow et al., 2007),<br />
but if advance is delayed until May or June, <strong>the</strong>n R1 is<br />
usually below 0.4. The suggestion is th<strong>at</strong> if sea ice does<br />
not advance until l<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> fall, th<strong>at</strong> is, May, <strong>the</strong>n recruitment<br />
tends <strong>to</strong> be low. However, <strong>the</strong> outliers or exceptions<br />
also provide insight in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> mechanisms involved, in this<br />
instance <strong>the</strong> year classes of 1992 and 2001, as detailed<br />
in Quetin and Ross (2003). For <strong>the</strong> year class of 1992,<br />
although sea ice advanced early (March), retre<strong>at</strong> was also<br />
early (July), so SIMCOs were not available as an altern<strong>at</strong>e<br />
food source in l<strong>at</strong>er winter, and presumably larval mortality<br />
was high. For <strong>the</strong> year class of 2001, sea ice did not<br />
advance until July, yet <strong>the</strong> R1 (0.9) indic<strong>at</strong>ed a very successful<br />
year class. In this year, we had observed a strong reproductive<br />
output in <strong>the</strong> summer, leading <strong>to</strong> high numbers<br />
of larval krill entering <strong>the</strong> winter, so even with presumed<br />
high mortality due <strong>to</strong> a lack of SIMCOs early in <strong>the</strong> winter,<br />
enough larvae survived for a strong year class. This<br />
l<strong>at</strong>ter point emphasizes <strong>the</strong> importance of understanding<br />
<strong>the</strong> reproductive cycle and popul<strong>at</strong>ion fecundity, as well as<br />
mortality during <strong>the</strong> fi rst year.
290 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS<br />
DIVING IN THE PACK ICE<br />
The above examples illustr<strong>at</strong>e how seasonal sea ice<br />
dynamics is correl<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics of<br />
Antarctic krill. Wh<strong>at</strong> have we learned about <strong>the</strong> interaction<br />
between Antarctic krill and <strong>the</strong> pack ice habit<strong>at</strong> from<br />
entering <strong>the</strong> habit<strong>at</strong> itself?<br />
His<strong>to</strong>rical Overview<br />
The pack ice environment is dynamic— on both seasonal<br />
and shorter time scales— which cre<strong>at</strong>es challenges<br />
for investig<strong>at</strong>ors. In <strong>the</strong> early 1960s, biologists began <strong>to</strong><br />
realize th<strong>at</strong> sea ice presents a variety of different modes<br />
and contains distinct communities of plants and animals<br />
(Fogg, 2005). Scuba diving with observ<strong>at</strong>ions of both <strong>the</strong><br />
habit<strong>at</strong> and its inhabitants has played a key role in revealing<br />
<strong>the</strong> mysteries of <strong>the</strong> seasonal pack ice habit<strong>at</strong>, and<br />
scuba diving has become a key <strong>to</strong>ol in investig<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> pack ice environment. Bunt (1963) used scuba diving<br />
<strong>to</strong> examine sea ice algal communities in situ and suggested<br />
ice algae could add appreciably <strong>to</strong> primary production in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. He gave one of <strong>the</strong> earliest hints of<br />
<strong>the</strong> possible importance of sea ice algae as a food source<br />
for grazers. Early observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> pack ice habit<strong>at</strong> were<br />
infrequent due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> lack of dedic<strong>at</strong>ed ice-capable research<br />
vessels. This limit<strong>at</strong>ion was relieved with <strong>the</strong> introduction<br />
of <strong>the</strong> RVIB <strong>Polar</strong>stern, commissioned in 1982 and oper<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Alfred Wegener Institute of Germany, and<br />
shortly <strong>the</strong>reafter, <strong>the</strong> MV <strong>Polar</strong> Duke, which began oper<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> USA<br />
in 1985. The advent of dedic<strong>at</strong>ed, ice-worthy research vessels<br />
led <strong>to</strong> a prolifer<strong>at</strong>ion of studies in ice-covered w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
(Ross and Quetin, 2003).<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong> earliest observ<strong>at</strong>ions of Antarctic krill under<br />
<strong>the</strong> pack ice were made by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)<br />
scuba divers during spring (November 1983) and fall<br />
(March 1986) cruises in <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea for <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Marine Ecosystem Ice Edge Zone (AMERIEZ) program<br />
(Daly and Macaulay, 1988; 1991). Subsequently, in l<strong>at</strong>e<br />
winter 1985 west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula during <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst of a series of six winter cruises (WinCruise I, Quetin<br />
and Ross, 1986), divers investig<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> SIMCOs associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> ice (Kottmeier and Sullivan,<br />
1987) observed larval krill in <strong>the</strong> under-ice habit<strong>at</strong>. Quetin<br />
and Ross (1988) began research on <strong>the</strong> physiology and<br />
distribution of larval krill found on <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong><br />
ice with WinCruise II in 1987; recently Quetin and Ross<br />
(2007) published detailed pro<strong>to</strong>cols, based on <strong>the</strong>ir experience,<br />
for diving in pack ice under various conditions th<strong>at</strong><br />
included a table of <strong>the</strong> year and month of <strong>the</strong>ir pack ice<br />
diving activities (Table 1). O’Brien (1987) observed both<br />
Antarctic krill and ice krill (Euphausia crystallorophias)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> under-ice habit<strong>at</strong> in austral spring of 1985. Hamner<br />
et al. (1989) found larval krill in austral fall 1986 associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with newly forming sea ice. In all cases, <strong>the</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
observed larval krill in higher abundance associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> sea ice than with <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column, and observed<br />
larval krill feeding on <strong>the</strong> sea ice algae (Table 1). Investig<strong>at</strong>ors<br />
made complementary observ<strong>at</strong>ions onboard ships<br />
both west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula (Guzman, 1983) and<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea in spring (Marschall, 1988).<br />
Gains from Diving Activities<br />
Distinct advances in our understanding of <strong>the</strong> interaction<br />
of Antarctic krill and <strong>the</strong> pack ice environment<br />
emerged from diving activities. Not only were larval krill<br />
observed directly feeding on sea ice algae (as detailed<br />
above), but scuba observ<strong>at</strong>ions also documented th<strong>at</strong> a<br />
clear habit<strong>at</strong> segreg<strong>at</strong>ion existed between adult and larval<br />
krill in winter (Quetin et al., 1996), with adult krill away<br />
from <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> pack ice, and larval krill coupled<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> pack ice. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions led <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> concept of “risk-balancing” as put forth by Pitcher et<br />
al. (1988) for <strong>the</strong>se two life stages of krill in winter; for<br />
example, <strong>the</strong> degree of associ<strong>at</strong>ion with <strong>the</strong> under-ice surface<br />
and its SIMCOs (food source) is a balance between<br />
<strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> acquire energy and <strong>the</strong> need <strong>to</strong> avoid pred<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The two life stages differ in both starv<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong>lerance<br />
and vulnerability <strong>to</strong> pred<strong>at</strong>ion. The smaller larvae appear<br />
<strong>to</strong> have a refuge in size (Hamner et al., 1989), as most<br />
vertebr<strong>at</strong>e pred<strong>at</strong>ors ingest primarily adults (Lowry et al.,<br />
1988; Croxall et al., 1985). Thus, <strong>the</strong> risk of pred<strong>at</strong>ion for<br />
<strong>the</strong> adults is higher near <strong>the</strong> pack ice th<strong>at</strong> is used as a pl<strong>at</strong>form<br />
for many upper-level pred<strong>at</strong>ors. Quantit<strong>at</strong>ive surveys<br />
also revealed th<strong>at</strong> larval krill occurred in over-rafted pack<br />
ice and not smooth fast ice, and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were more commonly<br />
found on <strong>the</strong> fl oors of <strong>the</strong> “caves” formed by <strong>the</strong><br />
over-rafting pack ice than <strong>the</strong> walls or ceilings (Frazer,<br />
1995; Frazer et al., 1997; 2002). Not only were gains<br />
made in our understanding of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry and habit<strong>at</strong><br />
use of Antarctic krill in winter, but also <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong><br />
collect krill directly from <strong>the</strong> habit<strong>at</strong> has advantages over<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r collection methods such as <strong>to</strong>wing through ice. First,<br />
<strong>the</strong> gentle collection of specimens by scuba divers with<br />
aquarium nets yields larval krill in excellent physiological<br />
conditions for experiments, for example, growth and grazing.<br />
Second, this method allows for immedi<strong>at</strong>e processing<br />
of larval krill for time-dependent indices such as pigment
TABLE 1. Diving projects <strong>at</strong> Palmer St<strong>at</strong>ion and on cruises in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 1983– 2005.<br />
content, an index of feeding on ice algae in situ (Ross et al.,<br />
2004). Entry in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> under-ice habit<strong>at</strong> also meant th<strong>at</strong><br />
larval krill and <strong>the</strong>ir food resource (SIMCOs on <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m<br />
surface of <strong>the</strong> pack ice) could be collected simultaneously,<br />
allowing for close temporal/sp<strong>at</strong>ial linkages.<br />
PROCESS CRUISES— SOUTHERN<br />
OCEAN GLOBEC<br />
ICE CAMPS<br />
With <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> suggested mechanisms and<br />
<strong>the</strong> scuba diving pro<strong>to</strong>cols in place, <strong>the</strong> next step was <strong>to</strong><br />
move beyond <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ions and explore and test mechanisms<br />
consistent with <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ions. The evolution of<br />
pack ice diving is far from complete, however. Although<br />
long-term ice camps have been occupied in <strong>the</strong> perennial<br />
ice of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea on fl oes of much gre<strong>at</strong>er dimension<br />
than we describe below (Melnikov and Spiridonov 1996),<br />
LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 291<br />
Cruises<br />
Palmer<br />
Fall Winter Spring Summer<br />
St<strong>at</strong>ion Year A M J J A S O N D J F M Ship<br />
1983 AZ<br />
1984<br />
1985 W W O’B PD<br />
1986 H AZ PD (H)<br />
1987 W W PD<br />
1988<br />
1989 W PD<br />
1990 K PD<br />
L 1991 K W PD<br />
L 1992<br />
L 1993 L L W L PD<br />
L 1994 W W PD<br />
L 1995<br />
L 1996<br />
L 1997<br />
L 1998<br />
1999 L LMG<br />
L 2000 A A NBP<br />
L 2001 G G L L LMG (G) NBP (L)<br />
L 2002 G G LMG<br />
L 2003<br />
L 2004<br />
L 2005<br />
AZ– AMERIEZ, W– WinCruise krill studies <strong>to</strong> Ross and Quetin, K– krill studies <strong>to</strong> Ross and Quetin, H– krill studies <strong>to</strong> Hamner, O’B– krill studies <strong>to</strong> O’Brien, L– Palmer<br />
Long-Term Ecological Research project, A– Antarctic Pack Ice Seals research project, G– Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean GLOBEC, PD– M/V <strong>Polar</strong> Duke, LMG– ARSV Laurence M Gould,<br />
NBP– RVIB N<strong>at</strong>haniel B. Palmer.<br />
shorter term ice camps on smaller fl oes west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Peninsula had not been <strong>at</strong>tempted. On some recent<br />
cruises with both <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER and U.S. Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean GLOBEC (Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics)<br />
programs, we pulled <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r many his<strong>to</strong>rical observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of ways <strong>to</strong> cope with <strong>the</strong> dynamics of <strong>the</strong> pack ice<br />
environment west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, and developed<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> dive from small (�50 m) consolid<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
fl oes west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula repe<strong>at</strong>edly for periods<br />
up <strong>to</strong> nine days (Ross et al., 2004; Quetin et al., 2007).<br />
These ice camps entailed sampling from consolid<strong>at</strong>ed pack<br />
ice fl oes occupied for periods of days using <strong>the</strong> research<br />
vessel <strong>to</strong> stage oper<strong>at</strong>ions (Quetin and Ross, 2007). Diving<br />
on fl oes for days <strong>at</strong> a time enabled us <strong>to</strong> explore local<br />
variability in <strong>the</strong> pack ice community associ<strong>at</strong>ed with an<br />
individual fl oe over time as <strong>the</strong> fl oe drifted within <strong>the</strong> pack<br />
ice. Scuba diving was not <strong>the</strong> only activity th<strong>at</strong> occurred<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se ice camps. In fact, <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> do simultaneous<br />
sampling both from <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>pside and underside of <strong>the</strong> ice
292 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS<br />
fl oes made for effi cient sampling and better linkage between<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a sets.<br />
During ice camps on two winter cruises for Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean GLOBEC west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic peninsula in<br />
2001 and 2002 (methods and results described in Quetin<br />
et al., 2007), <strong>to</strong>tal integr<strong>at</strong>ed chlorophyll a in multiple ice<br />
cores (Fritsen et al., 2008) was measured on <strong>the</strong> same ice<br />
fl oes where larval krill were collected by scuba divers. The<br />
amount of chlorophyll a in <strong>the</strong> ice cores was used as a<br />
proxy for <strong>the</strong> SIMCOs available as food <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> larval krill<br />
living on <strong>the</strong> underside of <strong>the</strong> pack ice. Some of <strong>the</strong> larval<br />
krill were used immedi<strong>at</strong>ely for an index of feeding (pigment<br />
content) (as described in Ross et al., 2004), while<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs were used in instantaneous growth r<strong>at</strong>e experiments<br />
(in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>e estim<strong>at</strong>es as described in Ross<br />
and Quetin, 1991; Quetin et al., 2003; Ross et al., 2004).<br />
Growth of larval krill in <strong>the</strong>ir winter habit<strong>at</strong> refl ects <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
feeding his<strong>to</strong>ry over <strong>the</strong> past three weeks <strong>to</strong> one month,<br />
and may be an indic<strong>at</strong>or of <strong>the</strong>ir ability <strong>to</strong> survive, th<strong>at</strong><br />
is, better growth indic<strong>at</strong>es higher survivorship than lower<br />
growth. Evidence for similar linkages has been found<br />
for larval fi sh; larvae in better condition will have lower<br />
mortality r<strong>at</strong>es and hence lead <strong>to</strong> stronger year classes, all<br />
else being equal (Pepin, 1991; Ottersen and Loeng, 2000;<br />
Takahashi and W<strong>at</strong>anabe, 2004).<br />
CONTRAST TWO YEARS<br />
The contrast in <strong>the</strong> results for <strong>to</strong>tal integr<strong>at</strong>ed chlorophyll<br />
a in ice cores, pigment content in larval krill, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es of larvae for 2001 and 2002 was<br />
marked (Table 2) (fi g. 5 in Quetin et al., 2007). Generally,<br />
in 2002 <strong>the</strong> ice cores contained an order of magnitude<br />
more chlorophyll a than in 2001 (Fritsen et al., 2008),<br />
leading us <strong>to</strong> suggest th<strong>at</strong> more food was available <strong>to</strong> larval<br />
krill in 2002 than 2001. The median pigment content<br />
and in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es were also higher in larval krill<br />
in 2002 than in 2001. In both years, <strong>the</strong> distribution of<br />
pigment content was skewed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> left, but in 2002 more<br />
than 70% of <strong>the</strong> samples showed higher pigment content<br />
than those of larval krill collected from under <strong>the</strong> ice in<br />
2001. A similar difference in distribution occurred for <strong>the</strong><br />
in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es (Table 2). In 2002, more than 60%<br />
of <strong>the</strong> growth increments were positive, whereas in 2001<br />
only 13% were positive.<br />
The hypo<strong>the</strong>sis th<strong>at</strong> high concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of ice algae<br />
lead <strong>to</strong> higher growth r<strong>at</strong>es is supported by a comparison<br />
of <strong>the</strong> in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> larvae and an index of<br />
feeding for larvae collected from <strong>the</strong> same place and <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> same time. For this comparison, in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
TABLE 2. Comparison of d<strong>at</strong>a from ice camps in 2001 and<br />
2002 during two winter process cruises west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Peninsula near Marguerite Bay: median values of integr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
chlorophyll a in ice cores, pigment content in larval krill, and<br />
in situ growth r<strong>at</strong>es in larval krill. Ranges are in paren<strong>the</strong>ses<br />
below median values; n � number of samples. D<strong>at</strong>a in graph<br />
form in Quetin et al. (2007).<br />
D<strong>at</strong>a type (unit)<br />
and st<strong>at</strong>istic 2001 2002<br />
Integr<strong>at</strong>ed Chl a (mg m �3 ) 1 10<br />
Pigment Content 0.148 2.594<br />
(median �g chl a gwwt �1 ) (0.074– 0.226) (0.088– 16.615)<br />
n 29 71<br />
In situ Growth R<strong>at</strong>e �1.31 1.54<br />
(% intermolt period �1 ) (�6.10– 5.13) (�3.23– 11.69)<br />
n 114 132<br />
in units of percent per intermolt period (<strong>the</strong> growth increment)<br />
were converted <strong>to</strong> growth in units of mm d �1 . For<br />
larvae th<strong>at</strong> molted we used <strong>the</strong> median intermolt period<br />
of 30 d found for both years (Quetin et al., 2007), and<br />
individual growth increments and <strong>to</strong>tal lengths <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
growth in mm d �1 :<br />
(<strong>to</strong>tal length (mm) • % IMP �1 )/(IMP (d)).<br />
The rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between growth and <strong>the</strong> index of<br />
feeding for <strong>the</strong> eight in situ growth experiments from both<br />
years for which we have complimentary pigment content<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a is exponential, similar <strong>to</strong> a functional response curve<br />
with a maximum growth r<strong>at</strong>e above a threshold feeding<br />
intensity or pigment level (Figure 2). The different symbols<br />
for <strong>the</strong> two years illustr<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a from ice camps from<br />
one year alone would not have yielded as comprehensive<br />
an illustr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between <strong>the</strong> feeding<br />
index and growth r<strong>at</strong>es. Larvae with very low pigment<br />
content and neg<strong>at</strong>ive growth r<strong>at</strong>es were those from 2001,<br />
whereas larvae with a range of pigment content above<br />
0.2 �g chl a g wwt �1 and with positive growth r<strong>at</strong>es were<br />
those from 2002. Thus, <strong>the</strong> combined d<strong>at</strong>a presents strong<br />
evidence th<strong>at</strong> larval krill with a higher feeding index are<br />
growing <strong>at</strong> higher r<strong>at</strong>es than those with lower feeding indices,<br />
and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship holds <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> large scale of<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire cruise (Table 2), and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> smaller scale of ice<br />
camps (Figure 2) with simultaneously collected d<strong>at</strong>a sets.<br />
This rel<strong>at</strong>ionship and <strong>the</strong> difference between years in <strong>the</strong><br />
chlorophyll a in <strong>the</strong> ice cores gives support <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> infer-
FIGURE 2. Growth r<strong>at</strong>e (mm d �1 ) of larval krill as a function of<br />
feeding index (pigment content, �g chl a g wwt �1 ) of krill from same<br />
school. Growth r<strong>at</strong>e is average for an experiment, with n � 3 <strong>to</strong> 14<br />
individual measurements per experiment. Pigment content is average<br />
of 3 <strong>to</strong> 6 subsamples of larvae from same school, with 15– 20 larvae<br />
per subsample. Filled circles � 2001, open circles � 2002. Exponential<br />
equ<strong>at</strong>ion, r 2 � 0.81.<br />
ence th<strong>at</strong> larval krill have higher growth r<strong>at</strong>es during years<br />
when <strong>the</strong>re is more ice algae in <strong>the</strong> pack ice.<br />
INTERACTION OF KRILL POPULATION<br />
DYNAMICS AND SEA ICE DYNAMICS<br />
CONCEPTS DEVELOPED<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> major concepts developed from <strong>the</strong>se results<br />
and from <strong>the</strong> results of a diagnostic algal growth<br />
and ice dynamics model (Fritsen et al., 1998) is th<strong>at</strong> not<br />
all pack ice has <strong>the</strong> same value as habit<strong>at</strong> for larval krill.<br />
Not only have we learned th<strong>at</strong> larval krill appear <strong>to</strong> prefer<br />
over-rafted pack ice in preference <strong>to</strong> fast ice or un-rafted<br />
pack ice, but we have learned th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is signifi cant variability<br />
in <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>the</strong> habit<strong>at</strong> th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> over-rafted<br />
pack ice habit<strong>at</strong> affords larval krill. Wh<strong>at</strong> causes <strong>the</strong>se<br />
differences in habit<strong>at</strong> quality for larval krill? The hypo<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> timing of ice form<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> austral fall<br />
impacts two aspects of production in SIMCOs and thus<br />
food available: (1) <strong>the</strong> amount of m<strong>at</strong>erial in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
column <strong>to</strong> be scavenged and incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> forming<br />
ice, or <strong>the</strong> base standing s<strong>to</strong>ck, and (2) <strong>the</strong> amount<br />
of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically available radi<strong>at</strong>ion (PAR) for in situ<br />
growth of <strong>the</strong> ice algae <strong>to</strong> take place integr<strong>at</strong>ed over <strong>the</strong><br />
time between ice form<strong>at</strong>ion and mid-winter darkness. In<br />
general <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>e of accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of SIMCO biomass slows<br />
during <strong>the</strong> transition from fall <strong>to</strong> winter as <strong>the</strong> daily PAR<br />
decreases (Hoshiai, 1985; Fritsen and Sullivan, 1997; Melnikov,<br />
1998), following <strong>the</strong> decrease in day length.<br />
LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 293<br />
Simul<strong>at</strong>ions predict th<strong>at</strong> in winters when ice forms<br />
early, chlorophyll a will be higher in <strong>the</strong> pack ice due <strong>to</strong><br />
both fac<strong>to</strong>rs. Even a 10-day delay may cause an effect (C.<br />
H. Fritsen, unpublished d<strong>at</strong>a). Timing of ice form<strong>at</strong>ion is<br />
critical since <strong>the</strong> earlier ice forms, <strong>the</strong> higher <strong>the</strong> probability<br />
of incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion of high abundances of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
from fall blooms in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice l<strong>at</strong>tice, and earlier ice form<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
also means more <strong>to</strong>tal light available for <strong>the</strong> ice algae<br />
<strong>to</strong> grow before mid-winter when light levels are <strong>to</strong>o low<br />
for net primary production <strong>at</strong> most l<strong>at</strong>itudes. The vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in PAR is signifi cant, as illustr<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> decrease by<br />
more than 50% in <strong>the</strong> day length from March <strong>to</strong> April <strong>to</strong><br />
May: 12.8 h <strong>to</strong> 9.2 h <strong>to</strong> 5.6 h <strong>at</strong> 66°S (Figure 3) and 12.8<br />
h <strong>to</strong> 4.4 h <strong>at</strong> 68°S (Quetin et al. 2007). For our two-year<br />
comparison, <strong>the</strong> sea ice advance was a month earlier in<br />
2002 than in 2001, April versus May. Thus, day length<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time of sea ice advance was about twice as long in<br />
2002, 9 h versus 5 h, possibly one of <strong>the</strong> fac<strong>to</strong>rs leading<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> order of magnitude difference in <strong>the</strong> biomass of ice<br />
algae in <strong>the</strong> ice cores between <strong>the</strong> years (Table 2).<br />
Thus, in mid-winter when larval krill need <strong>to</strong> feed, earlier<br />
forming ice will have higher concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of ice algae<br />
than l<strong>at</strong>er forming ice. Ultim<strong>at</strong>ely with l<strong>at</strong>er forming ice,<br />
lower food concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of ice algae leads <strong>to</strong> less food<br />
available for <strong>the</strong> larval krill, lower growth r<strong>at</strong>es, and lower<br />
predicted survivorship r<strong>at</strong>es (Figure 3). We suggest th<strong>at</strong> this<br />
mechanism underlies <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ion seen between <strong>the</strong> timing<br />
of sea ice advance and recruitment success in <strong>the</strong> Palmer<br />
FIGURE 3. Concept of mechanism underlying <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ion found<br />
between timing of ice advance and recruitment in Antarctic krill<br />
( Siegel and Loeb, 1995; Quetin and Ross, 2003).
294 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / QUETIN AND ROSS<br />
LTER study region (Quetin and Ross, 2003; Quetin et al.,<br />
2007). When ice does not form until May or June <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
little in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column <strong>to</strong> scavenge and PAR is near or<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> minimum for <strong>the</strong> year. Thus, net primary production<br />
from ice form<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> mid-winter will be low, and as a consequence<br />
so will food for larval krill.<br />
POTENTIAL IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE<br />
The development of this conceptual view of <strong>the</strong><br />
mechanism(s) underlying <strong>the</strong> correl<strong>at</strong>ion found between<br />
timing of sea ice advance and recruitment success in <strong>the</strong><br />
Palmer LTER study region west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula<br />
underscores <strong>the</strong> importance of sea ice in <strong>the</strong> life cycle of Antarctic<br />
krill, and enhances our ability <strong>to</strong> predict how clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
changes might impact krill popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics (Quetin et<br />
al., 2007). In a recent paper, Quetin et al. (2007) discuss <strong>the</strong><br />
various scenarios and combin<strong>at</strong>ions of sea ice, light regime,<br />
and presence of Antarctic Circumpolar Deep W<strong>at</strong>er th<strong>at</strong><br />
would cre<strong>at</strong>e an optimal habit<strong>at</strong> for Antarctic krill.<br />
The Palmer LTER study region is situ<strong>at</strong>ed in one of<br />
<strong>the</strong> fastest warming regions of <strong>the</strong> world, with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
two in <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn hemisphere, <strong>the</strong> Svalbard Island group<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea. The evidence of warming west of <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Peninsula comes from multiple studies: <strong>the</strong> air<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures are rapidly warming, with an increase in<br />
winter temper<strong>at</strong>ures over <strong>the</strong> last 50 years of about 6°C<br />
(Smith and Stammerjohn, 2001; Vaughan et al., 2003);<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a warming of ocean temper<strong>at</strong>ures <strong>at</strong> both surface<br />
and sub-surface depths (Gille, 2002; Meredith and King,<br />
2005); and ice shelves and marine glaciers are retre<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
(Scambos et al., 2003; Cook et al., 2005). With <strong>the</strong> warming<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> dur<strong>at</strong>ion of winter sea ice is shorter, but<br />
perhaps more importantly <strong>the</strong> timing is changing— sea ice<br />
advance is now l<strong>at</strong>er and retre<strong>at</strong> earlier (Parkinson, 2002;<br />
Smith et al., 2003; Stammerjohn et al., 2008). Sea ice advance<br />
west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula is now usually in<br />
April or May, whereas in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e 1970s sea ice advanced<br />
in March (Parkinson, 2002). In a recent analysis of <strong>the</strong> 25year<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellite record for sea ice, Stammerjohn found th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> mean day of advance is 20– 30 days l<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
half of th<strong>at</strong> period (1992– 2004) than in <strong>the</strong> earlier half<br />
(1979– 1991) (Stammerjohn et al., 2008). From <strong>the</strong> model<br />
simul<strong>at</strong>ions of Fritsen (1998), <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> 20- <strong>to</strong> 30day<br />
delay in advance on accumul<strong>at</strong>ed SIMCO biomass in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea ice between ice form<strong>at</strong>ion and mid-winter is likely<br />
<strong>to</strong> be substantial.<br />
Do we have any evidence of changes in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
krill popul<strong>at</strong>ion concurrent with this regional warming?<br />
Two studies <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north of <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER study region<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions of Antarctic krill are in decline.<br />
Atkinson et al. (2004) coll<strong>at</strong>ed and compared trawl d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
from diverse studies in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean between 1926–<br />
2003, and concluded th<strong>at</strong> s<strong>to</strong>cks of Antarctic krill in <strong>the</strong><br />
southwest Atlantic have declined since <strong>the</strong> 1970s by a fac<strong>to</strong>r<br />
of two. Shorter-term and smaller-space scale studies <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn tip of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula have included<br />
both net and bioacoustic d<strong>at</strong>a. The net d<strong>at</strong>a suggest a decline<br />
in krill s<strong>to</strong>cks (Siegel, 2000) whereas <strong>the</strong> acoustic d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
suggest a cycle (Hewitt et al., 2003). One of <strong>the</strong> diffi culties<br />
in <strong>the</strong> analysis of <strong>the</strong>se time-series d<strong>at</strong>a is th<strong>at</strong> detecting a<br />
linear trend in d<strong>at</strong>a th<strong>at</strong> exhibit a repetitive cycle will take<br />
many years. In <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER study region, where we<br />
have shown th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern of episodic recruitment leads <strong>to</strong><br />
a fi ve- <strong>to</strong> six-year cycle in <strong>the</strong> abundance of Antarctic krill<br />
(Quetin and Ross, 2003), a linear trend was not detectable<br />
in <strong>the</strong> 12-year time series (Ross et al., 2008). In this last section,<br />
we show <strong>the</strong> same d<strong>at</strong>a (methods and results in Quetin<br />
and Ross (2003) and Ross et al. (2008) from a different<br />
perspective, incorpor<strong>at</strong>ing our understanding of <strong>the</strong> predictability<br />
of <strong>the</strong> cycle in <strong>the</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics and interannual<br />
variability in <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern of abundance. With <strong>the</strong><br />
fi ve- <strong>to</strong> six-year cycle and two sequential years of successful<br />
recruitment followed by several years of low <strong>to</strong> no recruitment<br />
(Quetin and Ross 2003) in <strong>the</strong> LTER study region, <strong>the</strong><br />
peak biomass in <strong>the</strong> cycle will appear in <strong>the</strong> January following<br />
<strong>the</strong> second good year class— in <strong>the</strong> time-series <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e,<br />
in January of 1997 and 2003 (Figure 4). We can also look<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> trend in <strong>the</strong> abundance during <strong>the</strong> fourth January:<br />
1993, 1998 and 2004 (Figure 4). In both instances (year<br />
of maximum abundance, year 4 in cycle) <strong>the</strong> abundance<br />
FIGURE 4. Mean abundance of Antarctic krill within <strong>the</strong> Palmer<br />
LTER study region from 1993 <strong>to</strong> 2004, calcul<strong>at</strong>ed with equ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> delta distribution as detailed in Ross et al. (2008). The dotted line<br />
follows <strong>the</strong> year of maximum abundance within <strong>the</strong> 5– 6 yr cycle,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> solid line follows <strong>the</strong> fourth year within <strong>the</strong> cycle.
has declined by 40%– 45% (Figure 4). We suggest th<strong>at</strong> this<br />
analysis provides preliminary evidence from <strong>the</strong> Palmer<br />
LTER study region th<strong>at</strong> popul<strong>at</strong>ions of Antarctic krill are<br />
declining in this region in concert with <strong>the</strong> change in timing<br />
of advance of sea ice. However, <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> analysis only<br />
encompasses two full cycles; an additional cycle may yield<br />
a different trend.<br />
SUMMARY<br />
Scuba diving research during <strong>the</strong> past 30 years has<br />
enhanced our understanding of <strong>the</strong> linkages between Antarctic<br />
krill and sea ice. We have been able <strong>to</strong> make key<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions and conduct experiments on <strong>the</strong> dependency<br />
of larval Antarctic krill on <strong>the</strong> SIMCOs in <strong>the</strong> pack ice<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>. Our conceptual understanding of <strong>the</strong> ecology of<br />
<strong>the</strong> pack ice habit<strong>at</strong> and <strong>the</strong> intricacies of <strong>the</strong> interactions<br />
has gre<strong>at</strong>ly increased due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>se activities.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We would like <strong>to</strong> gr<strong>at</strong>efully acknowledge <strong>the</strong> captains,<br />
crews, and support teams (from <strong>the</strong> NSF contrac<strong>to</strong>r, technicians,<br />
and volunteers) th<strong>at</strong> have made our research over<br />
<strong>the</strong> years both possible and enjoyable. Discussions with<br />
some of our colleagues have helped develop <strong>the</strong> concepts<br />
and ideas contained within this manuscript, and those<br />
from whom we have most benefi ted in recent years are C.<br />
H. Fritsen (Desert Research Institute), M. Vernet (Scripps<br />
Institution of Oceanography), and S. Stammerjohn<br />
(NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies). This m<strong>at</strong>erial<br />
is based upon work supported by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion, Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs, under Award Nos.<br />
OPP-9011927 and OPP-9632763, and OPP-0217282<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER, OPP-9909933 for Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
GLOBEC, and ANT-0529087 for PIIAK, The Regents of<br />
<strong>the</strong> University of California, <strong>the</strong> University of California<br />
<strong>at</strong> Santa Barbara, and <strong>the</strong> Marine Science Institute, UCSB.<br />
This is Palmer LTER contribution no. 315.<br />
NOTE<br />
1. Since 1993 <strong>the</strong> Palmer LTER, a multidisciplinary program focused<br />
on <strong>the</strong> pelagic ecosystem west of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula (Smith<br />
1995), has conducted research cruises in January/February, sampling a<br />
geographical area from <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn end of Anvers Island <strong>to</strong> Marguerite<br />
Bay <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> south. The sampling grid is composed of fi ve transect lines extending<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 200 km offshore, with st<strong>at</strong>ions every 20 km, and<br />
100 km apart alongshore, and covers an area of nearly 80,000 km 2 .<br />
LIFE UNDER ANTARCTIC PACK ICE 295<br />
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Inhibition of Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and<br />
Bacterial Productivity by Solar<br />
Radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea Polynya<br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick J. Neale, Wade H. Jeffrey, Cristina<br />
Sobrino, J. Dean Pakulski, Jesse Phillips-<br />
Kress, Amy J. Baldwin, Linda A. Franklin,<br />
and Hae-Cheol Kim<br />
P<strong>at</strong>rick J. Neale, Jesse Phillips-Kress, and Linda A.<br />
Franklin, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research<br />
Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgew<strong>at</strong>er,<br />
MD 21037, USA. Wade H. Jeffrey and J. Dean<br />
Pakulski, Center for Environmental Diagnostics<br />
and Bioremedi<strong>at</strong>ion, University of West Florida,<br />
11000 University Parkway, Building 58, Pensacola,<br />
FL 32514, USA. Cristina Sobrino, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Environmental Research Center; now <strong>at</strong><br />
Departamen<strong>to</strong> de Ecología y Biología Animal,<br />
University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain. Amy J.<br />
Baldwin, Center for Environmental Diagnostics<br />
and Bioremedi<strong>at</strong>ion; now <strong>at</strong> Florida Department<br />
of Environmental Protection, 160 Governmental<br />
Center, Pensacola, FL 32502-5794, USA. Hae-<br />
Cheol Kim, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental Research<br />
Center; now <strong>at</strong> Harte Research Institute for Gulf<br />
of Mexico Studies, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus<br />
Christi, TX 78412, USA. Corresponding author:<br />
P. Neale (nealep@si.edu). Submitted 26 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber<br />
2007; revised 21 June 2008; accepted 28 May<br />
2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The Ross Sea polynya is one of <strong>the</strong> most productive areas of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean; however, little is known about how plank<strong>to</strong>n <strong>the</strong>re respond <strong>to</strong> inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry solar<br />
exposure, particularly during <strong>the</strong> early-spring period of enhanced UVB (290– 320 nm)<br />
due <strong>to</strong> ozone depletion. Responses <strong>to</strong> solar exposure of <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and bacterial<br />
assemblages were studied aboard <strong>the</strong> research ice breaker N<strong>at</strong>haniel B. Palmer during<br />
cruises NBP0409 and NBP0508. Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis and bacterial production (thymidine<br />
and leucine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion) were measured during in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> upper 10<br />
m <strong>at</strong> three st<strong>at</strong>ions, which were occupied before, during, and after <strong>the</strong> annual peak of<br />
a phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom domin<strong>at</strong>ed by Phaeocystis antarctica. Near-surface production<br />
was consistently inhibited down <strong>to</strong> 5– 7 m, even when some surface ice was present.<br />
Rel<strong>at</strong>ive inhibition of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n increased and productivity decreased with increasing<br />
severity of nutrient limit<strong>at</strong>ion as diagnosed using Fv/Fm, a measure of <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic quantum yield. Rel<strong>at</strong>ive inhibition of bacterial production was high for<br />
both <strong>the</strong> high-biomass and postbloom st<strong>at</strong>ions, but sensitivity of thymidine and leucine<br />
uptake differed between st<strong>at</strong>ions. These results provide <strong>the</strong> fi rst direct evidence th<strong>at</strong> solar<br />
exposure, in particular solar ultraviolet radi<strong>at</strong>ion, causes signifi cant inhibition of Ross<br />
Sea productivity.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Solar radi<strong>at</strong>ion, particularly th<strong>at</strong> in <strong>the</strong> ultraviolet waveband (UV, 290– 400<br />
nm), affects plank<strong>to</strong>nic processes in <strong>the</strong> surface layer of diverse aqu<strong>at</strong>ic environments<br />
(polar and elsewhere) and, in particular, <strong>the</strong> metabolism and survival of<br />
bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n, phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n, and zooplank<strong>to</strong>n. A subject of much recent<br />
work has been <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>to</strong> which <strong>the</strong>se effects are augmented by enhanced UVB<br />
(290– 320 nm) due <strong>to</strong> Antarctic ozone depletion, which is most severe during <strong>the</strong><br />
springtime “ozone hole.” UVB-induced DNA damage has been measured in a<br />
wide variety of environments and trophic levels, for example, plank<strong>to</strong>nic communities<br />
from tropical (Visser et al., 1999) and subtropical w<strong>at</strong>ers (Jeffrey et al.,<br />
1996a, 1996b), coral reefs (Lyons et al., 1998), and <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Kelley<br />
et al., 1999; Buma et al., 2001; Meador et al., 2002). DNA damage in zoo-
300 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEALE ET AL.<br />
plank<strong>to</strong>n and fi sh larvae has been reported in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean (Malloy et al., 1997) and in anchovy eggs and larvae<br />
( Vetter et al., 1999).<br />
The UV responses of Antarctic phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n have<br />
been <strong>the</strong> focus of many studies (e.g., El-Sayed et al., 1990;<br />
Holm-Hansen and Mitchell, 1990; Mitchell, 1990; Helbling<br />
et al., 1992; Lubin et al., 1992; Smith et al., 1992; Boucher<br />
and Prézelin, 1996). However, <strong>the</strong>re is little quantit<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic response <strong>to</strong> UV in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea and on <strong>the</strong> responses of n<strong>at</strong>ural assemblages of<br />
<strong>the</strong> colonial prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis antarctica, despite<br />
<strong>the</strong> important contribution of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea <strong>to</strong> overall productivity<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (see Smith and Comiso,<br />
2009, and references <strong>the</strong>rein). P. antarctica is <strong>the</strong> dominant<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plankter in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, particularly during <strong>the</strong><br />
early-spring period of ozone depletion. At this time of year<br />
most of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is covered by ice, so phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
growth occurs in an open w<strong>at</strong>er area, or polynya, loc<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
just north of <strong>the</strong> Ross Ice Shelf (for more background, see<br />
DiTullio and Dunbar, 2004). Our lack of knowledge about<br />
responses <strong>to</strong> UV is not only for P. antarctica but also for<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and <strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ed bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
community.<br />
Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n abundance can reach 3 � 10 9 cells/L<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, equal <strong>to</strong> bacterial blooms in o<strong>the</strong>r oceanic<br />
systems. Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n do bloom in response <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Phaeocystis bloom, but with a delay of one or two months<br />
after <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom (Ducklow et<br />
al., 2001). DOC release by Phaeocystis is low, but is believed<br />
<strong>to</strong> be labile (Carlson et al., 1998) and may limit bacterial<br />
production in <strong>the</strong> upper w<strong>at</strong>er layer (Ducklow et al.,<br />
2001). Bacterial production in deeper w<strong>at</strong>ers is rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
high (Ducklow et al., 2001) and may be rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> sinking<br />
Phaeocystis POC (DiTullio et al., 2000).<br />
There are many o<strong>the</strong>r measurements <strong>to</strong> suggest th<strong>at</strong><br />
enhanced UVB and environmental UV in general have effects<br />
on organismal physiology and survival (reviewed in de<br />
Mora et al., 2000). Direct measurements of quantit<strong>at</strong>ive in<br />
situ effects, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, are diffi cult <strong>to</strong> make for most<br />
cases. However, estim<strong>at</strong>es can be made using m<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ical<br />
models. The quantit<strong>at</strong>ive response <strong>to</strong> UV exposure is characterized<br />
well enough for some processes th<strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ements<br />
can be made about integr<strong>at</strong>ed effects over <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column<br />
as a function of vertical mixing in <strong>the</strong> surface layer (Neale<br />
et al., 1998; Huot et al., 2000; Kuhn et al., 2000). These<br />
model results, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with profi les of UV-specifi c effects<br />
like DNA damage under qualit<strong>at</strong>ively different mixing conditions<br />
(Jeffrey et al., 1996b; Huot et al., 2000), argue th<strong>at</strong><br />
mixing signifi cantly modifi es w<strong>at</strong>er column effects (Neale<br />
et al., 2003). However, <strong>the</strong>re are no instances where UV responses<br />
and vertical mixing have been quantit<strong>at</strong>ively measured<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> same time.<br />
Here we present results from fi eld work conducted<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya <strong>to</strong> assess <strong>the</strong> quantit<strong>at</strong>ive impact<br />
of UV on <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n communities.<br />
Both communities play a crucial role in carbon<br />
and nutrient cycling. They are also tightly coupled, so it is<br />
important <strong>to</strong> examine both communities simultaneously<br />
<strong>to</strong> understand UV impacts on <strong>the</strong> system as a whole. For<br />
example, a decrease in phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n production may<br />
result in a decline in bacterial production th<strong>at</strong> may be<br />
compounded by direct UVB effects on bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n.<br />
A primary physical fac<strong>to</strong>r controlling exposure of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
communities <strong>to</strong> UV is vertical mixing. Thus, our work examined<br />
<strong>the</strong> effects of vertical mixing using a combin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of fi eld measurements and modeling approaches.<br />
Our assessments of UV responses of Ross Sea plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
used three approaches: labor<strong>at</strong>ory spectral incub<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
surface (on deck) time series studies, and daylong in situ<br />
incub<strong>at</strong>ions. The fi rst two approaches enable estim<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
spectral response (biological weighting functions, Cullen<br />
and Neale, 1997) and kinetic response. From this inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
we are constructing general, time-dependent models<br />
of UV response <strong>to</strong> variable irradiance in <strong>the</strong> mixed layer.<br />
While providing less detail on specifi c responses, in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
have <strong>the</strong> advantage of using n<strong>at</strong>ural irradiance<br />
regimes. However, <strong>the</strong>y are not suffi cient in <strong>the</strong>mselves in<br />
measuring actual w<strong>at</strong>er column effects since <strong>the</strong>y introduce<br />
<strong>the</strong> artifact of keeping samples <strong>at</strong> a constant depth<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> day. For example, depending on <strong>the</strong> kinetics<br />
of UV inhibition, a st<strong>at</strong>ic incub<strong>at</strong>ion may overestim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> response <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface but underestim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> integr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
response over <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column (Neale et al., 1998).<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ions still provide useful inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on responses of n<strong>at</strong>ural plank<strong>to</strong>n assemblages.<br />
They provide direct evidence th<strong>at</strong> UV exposure is suffi -<br />
ciently high <strong>to</strong> cause some effect, in particular, inhibition<br />
of near-surface productivity. Moreover, in situ observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
can be compared <strong>to</strong> predictions of labor<strong>at</strong>ory-formul<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
models evalu<strong>at</strong>ed using measured irradiance <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
depths and thus provide an independent valid<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> models.<br />
Here we present measurements of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
productivity ( 14 C-HCO3 � incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion) and bacterial<br />
production ( 3 H-leucine and 3 H-thymidine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
for daylong incub<strong>at</strong>ions conducted in <strong>the</strong> near surface<br />
(upper 10 m) of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya for three d<strong>at</strong>es<br />
spanning <strong>the</strong> early-spring through summer period.
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
IRRADIANCE MEASUREMENTS<br />
Radiometers were mounted on <strong>to</strong>p of a science mast<br />
(nominally 33 m above ocean surface). Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically<br />
available radi<strong>at</strong>ion (PAR, 400– 700 nm) incident on a fl <strong>at</strong><br />
plane (2-� collec<strong>to</strong>r) was measured with a Biospherical<br />
Instruments (San Diego, California, USA) GUV 2511.<br />
Spectral UV irradiance was recorded with a <strong>Smithsonian</strong>designed<br />
multifi lter radiometer, <strong>the</strong> SR19, which measures<br />
between 290 and 324 nm with 2-nm bandwidth (FWHM)<br />
and resolution and <strong>at</strong> 330 nm with 10-nm bandwidth<br />
(technical description in Lantz et al., 2002). Broadband<br />
UV measurements (nominal 10 nm bandwidth) in <strong>the</strong> UV<br />
were also made by <strong>the</strong> GUV 2511. The transmission of<br />
downwelling irradiance (Ed[λ]) through <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column<br />
was measured by a free-fall, profi ling radiometer, <strong>the</strong> Biospherical<br />
Instruments PUV 2500. Four <strong>to</strong> fi ve casts were<br />
made near solar noon from 0 <strong>to</strong> 50 m, and <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
coeffi cients (kd[λ]) were computed from <strong>the</strong> regression of<br />
log(Ed[λ]) versus depth. Profi les of Ed were recorded <strong>at</strong><br />
305, 313, 320, 340, and 395 nm (only kd[λ] are presented<br />
here) and for PAR.<br />
PRODUCTIVITY ASSAYS<br />
Sample w<strong>at</strong>er for <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ions was obtained with<br />
30-L “Go-Flo” Niskin bottles (General Oceanics) mounted<br />
on a conductivity-temper<strong>at</strong>ure-depth (CTD) rosette. The<br />
CTD cast was made in open w<strong>at</strong>er <strong>at</strong> 5-m depth <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
0500 local time (LT) (GMT�13), ensuring minimal<br />
exposure <strong>to</strong> UV prior <strong>to</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ion. The sample was immedi<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
dispensed through wide-bore tubing and s<strong>to</strong>red<br />
in <strong>the</strong> dark <strong>at</strong> 0°C until use. For pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis assays, UVtransparent<br />
polyethylene sample bags (113-mL Whirl-Pak<br />
bag) were prepared by extensive rinsing with sample w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
Then 14 C-bicarbon<strong>at</strong>e was added <strong>to</strong> 700 mL of sample<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er (�1 �Ci/mL), which was distributed in<strong>to</strong> 14 sample<br />
bags in 50-mL aliquots. The unfi lled portion of <strong>the</strong> bag was<br />
tightly rolled and twist sealed <strong>to</strong> prevent leakage. A second<br />
set of bags was prepared for measurements of bacterial productivity.<br />
Tritium ( 3 H) labeled thymidine (60 Ci/mmol) or<br />
3 H-leucine (60 Ci/mmol) was added <strong>to</strong> 175 mL of seaw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
<strong>to</strong> a fi nal concentr<strong>at</strong>ion of 10 nM for 19 January and 21<br />
November and 20 nM for 28 November. Five milliliters of<br />
<strong>the</strong> amended solution were added <strong>to</strong> each of three Whirl-<br />
Pak bags, as for pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis, such th<strong>at</strong> triplic<strong>at</strong>es for<br />
each substr<strong>at</strong>e were placed <strong>at</strong> each depth. After inocul<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
<strong>the</strong> bags for both pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis and bacterial productiv-<br />
INHIBITION OF PHYTOPLANKTON AND BACTERIAL PRODUCTIVITY 301<br />
ity were secured with plastic ties <strong>to</strong> 25 � 25 cm “crosses”<br />
made of UV-transparent acrylic sheet (Plexiglas) (Figure 1).<br />
Each “arm” was 10 cm wide; one set of replic<strong>at</strong>e pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
bags was fastened <strong>to</strong> one set of opposing arms,<br />
and triplic<strong>at</strong>e 3 H-thymidine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion and triplic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
3 H-leucine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion bags were <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> each of <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r two arms. Crosses were kept <strong>at</strong> 0°C and in <strong>the</strong> dark<br />
until just before deployment. These Plexiglas pieces were<br />
<strong>the</strong>n secured <strong>at</strong> 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 7.5- and 10-m depth <strong>to</strong><br />
a weighted line which passed through <strong>the</strong> center of each<br />
cross. A primary fl o<strong>at</strong> was <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface along<br />
with a second fl o<strong>at</strong> containing a radar refl ec<strong>to</strong>r and a radio<br />
beacon. The array was hand deployed from <strong>the</strong> stern of <strong>the</strong><br />
research vessel and followed for 12 h. Upon retrieval of<br />
<strong>the</strong> array, bags were quickly removed from <strong>the</strong> arms and<br />
transported <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> labor<strong>at</strong>ory in <strong>the</strong> dark. For pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis,<br />
fi ve replic<strong>at</strong>e aliquots (5 mL) were removed from <strong>the</strong><br />
bags and analyzed for incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed organic 14 C-carbon by<br />
acidifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, venting and scintill<strong>at</strong>ion counting. Replic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
1.5-mL samples for 3 H-thymidine or 3 H-leucine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
were removed from each Whirl-Pak bag and placed<br />
in 2-mL microfuge tubes containing 100 �L of 100% trichloroacetic<br />
acid (TCA). Samples were processed via <strong>the</strong><br />
FIGURE 1. Schem<strong>at</strong>ic diagram of “cross” supports for <strong>the</strong> in situ<br />
array. The cross pieces are 25 cm in length. Darker shaded boxes<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e position of <strong>the</strong> UV-transparent polyethylene (Whirl-Pak) incub<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
bags. The center circle indic<strong>at</strong>es where <strong>the</strong> support <strong>at</strong>tached<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ion line.
302 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEALE ET AL.<br />
microcentrifug<strong>at</strong>ion method described by Smith and Azam<br />
(1992) as modifi ed by Pakulski et al. (2007).<br />
BIOMASS AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC QUANTUM YIELD<br />
Chlorophyll concentr<strong>at</strong>ion and bacterial cell abundance<br />
was measured on aliquots of <strong>the</strong> early-morning 5-m sample<br />
<strong>at</strong> all cruise st<strong>at</strong>ions (including <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ion st<strong>at</strong>ions).<br />
Samples for chlorophyll were concentr<strong>at</strong>ed on glass fi ber fi lters<br />
(GF/F, Wh<strong>at</strong>man Inc., Florham Park, New Jersey, USA)<br />
and extracted with 90% ace<strong>to</strong>ne overnight <strong>at</strong> 0ºC. After<br />
extraction, chlorophyll concentr<strong>at</strong>ion was measured as <strong>the</strong><br />
fl uorescence emission in a Turner 10-AU fl uoro meter calibr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with pure chlorophyll a (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis,<br />
Missouri, USA). Bacterial abundances were determined by<br />
epifl uorescence microscopy of 5– 10 mL of 4�, 6-diamidino-<br />
2-phenylindole (DAPI) stained samples collected on black<br />
0.2-�m polycarbon<strong>at</strong>e fi lters (Porter and Feig, 1980). A<br />
pulse-amplitude-modul<strong>at</strong>ed fl uoro meter (Walz W<strong>at</strong>er PAM,<br />
Effeltrich, Germany) with red LED (650 nm) excit<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
was used <strong>to</strong> assess <strong>the</strong> maximum pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic effi ciency<br />
(quantum yield) of <strong>the</strong> samples. Measurements on <strong>the</strong> 5-m<br />
sample were made after <strong>at</strong> least one hour of dark incub<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> 0ºC. The d<strong>at</strong>a are expressed as <strong>the</strong> PSII quantum<br />
yield, Fv/Fm � (Fm-F0)/Fm, which has been correl<strong>at</strong>ed with<br />
<strong>the</strong> maximum quantum yield of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis (Genty et<br />
al., 1989). F0 is <strong>the</strong> steady-st<strong>at</strong>e yield of in vivo chlorophyll<br />
fl uorescence in dark-adapted phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n, and Fm is <strong>the</strong><br />
maximum yield of fl uorescence obtained from <strong>the</strong> same<br />
sample during applic<strong>at</strong>ion of a s<strong>at</strong>ur<strong>at</strong>ing light pulse (400ms<br />
dur<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
SITE DESCRIPTION<br />
The Ross Sea polynya was sampled in two research<br />
cruises aboard <strong>the</strong> R/V N<strong>at</strong>haniel B. Palmer taking place in<br />
December 2004 <strong>to</strong> January 2005 (NBP0409) and Oc<strong>to</strong>ber<br />
through November 2005 (NBP0508). Overall trends<br />
in surface biomass are shown in Figure 2. During both<br />
years, this south central region of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea supported<br />
a strong bloom of P. antarctica in November, peaking in<br />
early December (on <strong>the</strong> basis of Moder<strong>at</strong>e Resolution Imaging<br />
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) s<strong>at</strong>ellite images). The<br />
bloom slowly declined through January, becoming mixed<br />
with o<strong>the</strong>r species, mostly di<strong>at</strong>oms. Bacterial biomass displayed<br />
a more complex p<strong>at</strong>tern, with biomass peaks occurring<br />
during each of <strong>the</strong> cruise periods. Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
FIGURE 2. Time series of chlorophyll and bacterial cell concentr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> 5 m for all st<strong>at</strong>ions in two cruises <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya. Bars indic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion of triplic<strong>at</strong>e determin<strong>at</strong>ions. The two sampling periods for NBP0409 (December 2004 <strong>to</strong> January 2005) and NBP0508<br />
(November 2005) are indic<strong>at</strong>ed by horizontal lines, and vertical arrows indic<strong>at</strong>e d<strong>at</strong>es of incub<strong>at</strong>ions.
are seen <strong>to</strong> increase along with <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong> bloom<br />
followed by a second peak occurring in mid-January as<br />
<strong>the</strong> bloom receded. Our d<strong>at</strong>a from Oc<strong>to</strong>ber– November is<br />
very similar <strong>to</strong> Ducklow et al. (2001), but this previous<br />
study and ours differ for <strong>the</strong> December– January period.<br />
We observed rel<strong>at</strong>ively low bacterial numbers <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of<br />
December when <strong>the</strong> cruise began. Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n <strong>the</strong>n<br />
increased <strong>to</strong> a second peak occurring <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely <strong>the</strong><br />
same time as th<strong>at</strong> reported by Ducklow et al. (2001) but <strong>at</strong><br />
a maximum density of only 0.6 � 10 9 cells/L compared <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> �2 � 10 9 cells/L reported in <strong>the</strong> previous study. These<br />
contrasting observ<strong>at</strong>ions may be due <strong>to</strong> differences in specifi<br />
c bloom conditions between years or specifi c sampling<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ions within <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. Deployment loc<strong>at</strong>ions and<br />
times of <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ions are given in Table 1. During <strong>the</strong><br />
early-spring (Oc<strong>to</strong>ber– November) cruise, <strong>the</strong> surface was<br />
covered with moder<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> heavy pack ice interspersed with<br />
leads until <strong>the</strong> last week in November. For <strong>the</strong> fi rst incub<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(21 November), samples were obtained and <strong>the</strong> array<br />
was deployed while <strong>the</strong> ship was in a lead. Shortly after<br />
deployment, <strong>the</strong> array became surrounded with a raft of<br />
“pancake” ice extending <strong>at</strong> least a 100 m in all directions<br />
(Figure 3), and this continued until retrieval. The 28 November<br />
and 19 January deployments were conducted in<br />
open w<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
RESULTS<br />
SOLAR IRRADIANCE<br />
Surface UV and PAR were similar between all three<br />
days, with midday PAR in <strong>the</strong> range of 1000– 1200 �mol<br />
m �2 s �1 and midday UV <strong>at</strong> 320 nm between 100 and 150<br />
mW m �2 nm �1 (Figure 4). Transmission of UV and PAR<br />
varied between d<strong>at</strong>es in inverse rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
biomass. Attenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients were similar for <strong>the</strong><br />
prebloom and postbloom st<strong>at</strong>ions but were considerably<br />
higher in both UV and PAR for <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion on 28 November<br />
near <strong>the</strong> peak of <strong>the</strong> bloom (Table 1).<br />
INHIBITION OF PHYTOPLANKTON AND BACTERIAL PRODUCTIVITY 303<br />
FIGURE 3. Typical surface conditions during <strong>the</strong> 21 November incub<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The surface fl o<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> array sitting on <strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> ice is<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 75 cm in diameter.<br />
PHOTOSYNTHESIS<br />
All in situ profi les exhibited lowest r<strong>at</strong>es <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
and higher r<strong>at</strong>es with depth, with <strong>the</strong> near-surface “pho<strong>to</strong>active”<br />
zone of inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry effect extending <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong> least 5 m<br />
on all d<strong>at</strong>es (Figure 5). The 21 November profi le shows an<br />
inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry trend over <strong>the</strong> full profi le, but differences below<br />
4 m are not signifi cant due <strong>to</strong> high sample variability. This<br />
high variability may be associ<strong>at</strong>ed with ice-cover-gener<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
heterogeneity in <strong>the</strong> underw<strong>at</strong>er light fi eld. Interestingly,<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ive inhibition <strong>at</strong> 1 m is only 10% less than in <strong>the</strong> 28<br />
November profi le, despite <strong>the</strong> presence of ice cover on 21<br />
November (Figure 2). On 28 November, <strong>the</strong> depth maximum<br />
in productivity was observed <strong>at</strong> 5 m, which was much<br />
shallower than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r d<strong>at</strong>es. This is consistent with <strong>the</strong><br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively low transparency <strong>to</strong> both PAR and UV on this d<strong>at</strong>e<br />
due <strong>to</strong> high phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n biomass (5.5 mg m �3 ), mostly<br />
TABLE 1. Background inform<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> three st<strong>at</strong>ions where in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ions were conducted. LT � local time.<br />
D<strong>at</strong>e (LT) L<strong>at</strong>itude Longitude Chl a (mg m �3 ) kd[320] (m �1 ) kd PAR (m �1 )<br />
21 Nov 2005 �77°35.113� 178°23.435� 1.9 0.32 0.15<br />
28 Nov 2005 �77°34.213� �178°57.763� 5.5 0.54 0.27<br />
19 Jan 2005 �74°30.033� 173°30.085� 2.8 0.32 0.17
304 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEALE ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 4. Daily vari<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> surface quantum fl ux of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically available radi<strong>at</strong>ion (�mol m �2 s �1 PAR, 400– 700 nm, solid line)<br />
and spectral irradiance <strong>at</strong> 320 nm (mW m �2 nm �1 , 2.0-nm bandwidth <strong>at</strong> half maximum, dashed line). Vertical lines indic<strong>at</strong>e period of incub<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on each d<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
comprised of P. antarctica (d<strong>at</strong>a not shown). The presence<br />
of P. antarctica decreased not only PAR transparency because<br />
of absorbance by pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic pigments but also<br />
UV transparency (Table 1). The decreased UV transparency<br />
is caused in part by <strong>the</strong> presence of UV screening pigments,<br />
<strong>the</strong> mycosporine-like amino acids, which are known <strong>to</strong> be<br />
accumul<strong>at</strong>ed by this species and were present in separ<strong>at</strong>e<br />
absorbance scans of particul<strong>at</strong>es (d<strong>at</strong>a not shown). The 19<br />
January incub<strong>at</strong>ion was <strong>at</strong> a postbloom st<strong>at</strong>ion for which<br />
<strong>the</strong> depth of UV effects is comparable <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> prebloom 21<br />
November st<strong>at</strong>ion and rel<strong>at</strong>ive inhibition <strong>at</strong> 1 m was <strong>the</strong><br />
highest of all profi les.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> three profi les are regarded as showing <strong>the</strong> sequential<br />
development of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya bloom<br />
(despite <strong>the</strong> 19 January st<strong>at</strong>ion being from <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
season), a couple of trends are apparent. One is <strong>the</strong> large<br />
increase in productivity associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> high biomass<br />
on 28 November. Also, productivity was higher in<br />
<strong>the</strong> prebloom st<strong>at</strong>ion compared <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> postbloom st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
despite similar biomass. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, biomass-specifi c<br />
maximum productivity in <strong>the</strong> profi le (P B max, <strong>at</strong> 5 m on 28<br />
November and 10 m on 21 November and 19 January)<br />
was highest before <strong>the</strong> bloom and actually decreased with<br />
time (Figure 6). Parallel <strong>to</strong> this result was a decrease in <strong>the</strong><br />
maximum quantum yield of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis as measured<br />
by PAM fl uorometry (Figure 6). The most likely reason for<br />
<strong>the</strong> declining quantum yield, which has been observed previously<br />
for postbloom phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (e.g.,<br />
Peloquin and Smith, 2007), is <strong>the</strong> depletion of dissolved<br />
iron, <strong>the</strong> limiting nutrient for phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n growth in<br />
most areas of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (Smith et al., 2000). An additional<br />
fac<strong>to</strong>r could be <strong>the</strong> cumul<strong>at</strong>ive effect of recurring<br />
inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry solar exposure on <strong>the</strong> functioning of <strong>the</strong> pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
appar<strong>at</strong>us.<br />
BACTERIOPLANKTON PRODUCTION<br />
Similar <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern observed for pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es, bacterial incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion of ei<strong>the</strong>r leucine or thymidine<br />
was most inhibited <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> high-biomass and postbloom<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions. For leucine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> lowest r<strong>at</strong>es and<br />
least inhibition <strong>at</strong> 1 m were observed for <strong>the</strong> early-season<br />
sample, while <strong>the</strong> highest production r<strong>at</strong>es were observed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> high-biomass sample. The p<strong>at</strong>tern was similar for<br />
thymidine incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion, although <strong>the</strong>re was minimal difference<br />
between <strong>the</strong> high-biomass and postbloom samples.<br />
The p<strong>at</strong>tern of dark leucine r<strong>at</strong>es generally followed bacterial<br />
biomass (Figure 2), with minor vari<strong>at</strong>ion in r<strong>at</strong>es per<br />
cell (not shown). In contrast, thymidine r<strong>at</strong>es remained<br />
high <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> postbloom st<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
The results presented here show some of <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> effects of full-spectrum, near-surface<br />
solar exposure on plank<strong>to</strong>n assemblages in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
polynya from which we can already make several conclu-
INHIBITION OF PHYTOPLANKTON AND BACTERIAL PRODUCTIVITY 305<br />
FIGURE 5. Hourly productivity r<strong>at</strong>es for pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis (P) and bacterial incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion of leucine (Leu) and thymidine (Tdr) for <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
on 21 November, 28 November, and 19 January (all in 2005). The bot<strong>to</strong>m symbols for Leu and Tdr show r<strong>at</strong>es for samples incub<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> dark. Horizontal bars indic<strong>at</strong>e assay standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion (P, n � 10; Leu/Tdr, n � 6). The numbers below each profi le show <strong>the</strong> percent<br />
inhibition <strong>at</strong> 1 m rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> peak r<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> profi le (pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis) or r<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> dark (bacterial incorpor<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
FIGURE 6. Measurements on <strong>the</strong> early-morning 5-m sample used<br />
for <strong>the</strong> in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ions. Maximum chlorophyll-specifi c r<strong>at</strong>e of<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis of <strong>the</strong> in situ incub<strong>at</strong>ion (black bars, left axis) and<br />
maximum pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic quantum yield as measured with PAM<br />
fl uorometry (gray bars, right axis). These are two independent approaches<br />
<strong>to</strong> indic<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive vari<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> overall pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
capacity of <strong>the</strong> sampled phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n assemblage.<br />
sions. First, it is clear th<strong>at</strong> incident solar exposure is suffi<br />
ciently high and plank<strong>to</strong>n assemblages are suffi ciently<br />
sensitive th<strong>at</strong> inhibition of near-surface algal and bacterial<br />
productivity is a regular occurrence during <strong>the</strong> spring–<br />
summer period in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ross Sea. Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
was more strongly inhibited than bacterial productivity,<br />
such th<strong>at</strong> effects on phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n could even be observed<br />
below light ice cover (21 November). These effects were<br />
also observed even though UVB exposure was not signifi -<br />
cantly enhanced by ozone depletion. Although low ozone<br />
can occur throughout November in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea region<br />
(Bernhard et al., 2006), <strong>the</strong> “ozone hole” was not present<br />
during <strong>the</strong> NBP0508 incub<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Indeed, UV and PAR exposure in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya<br />
were not high compared <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r observ<strong>at</strong>ions in Antarctic<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers (Kieber et al., 2007; Pakulski et al., 2007). Thus,<br />
<strong>the</strong> assemblages must be particularly sensitive <strong>to</strong> solar exposure<br />
in order for effects <strong>to</strong> be so pronounced despite<br />
moder<strong>at</strong>e exposure levels. This conclusion is consistent<br />
with <strong>the</strong> preliminary results of our labor<strong>at</strong>ory measurements<br />
of biological weighting functions for UV inhibition.<br />
These showed <strong>the</strong> highest sensitivity <strong>to</strong> UV yet recorded<br />
for Antarctic phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and modest sensitivity <strong>to</strong> UV<br />
for Ross Sea bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n (Neale et al., 2005; Jeffrey<br />
et al., 2006). They also showed th<strong>at</strong> most of <strong>the</strong> inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
effect of near-surface irradiance on pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis was
306 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / NEALE ET AL.<br />
due <strong>to</strong> UV, with PAR having only a small effect. Similarly,<br />
Smith et al. (2000) did not observe signifi cant near- surface<br />
inhibition when <strong>the</strong>y measured daily in situ primary productivity<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea using UV-opaque enclosures,<br />
although PAR inhibition was observed in on-deck incub<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
receiving higher than in situ irradiance. This high<br />
sensitivity <strong>to</strong> UV may be a consequence of <strong>the</strong> acclim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> low-irradiance conditions in <strong>the</strong> early-season assemblage<br />
(before iron depletion) and iron limit<strong>at</strong>ion during<br />
<strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e season. The lower sensitivity of bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
<strong>to</strong> UVR may have been rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> nutrient replete conditions.<br />
Three separ<strong>at</strong>e experiments over <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong><br />
sampling period during November 2005 indic<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n were not nutrient (Fe, N, C) limited<br />
(d<strong>at</strong>a not shown). Our previous work has suggested<br />
th<strong>at</strong> allevi<strong>at</strong>ion of nutrient limit<strong>at</strong>ion often reduced UVR<br />
sensitivity (Jeffrey et al., 2003). Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, no d<strong>at</strong>a is<br />
available for <strong>the</strong> summer 2005 samples. Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
abundance increased as did chl a during this period, in<br />
contrast <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> lags reported by o<strong>the</strong>rs. Our observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
may be, in part, due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> apparent replete nutrient conditions<br />
we observed. Although Ducklow et al. (2001) reported<br />
low DOC production by <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis bloom, it<br />
is labile (Carlson et al., 1998) and it has been hypo<strong>the</strong>sized<br />
th<strong>at</strong> macronutrient depletion seldom occurs in <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea (Ducklow et al., 2001).<br />
Results have been combined for two years; however,<br />
<strong>the</strong> time course of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n biomass in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
for both 2004– 2005 and 2005– 2006 followed <strong>the</strong> normal<br />
p<strong>at</strong>tern of peak biomass <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of November (Peloquin<br />
and Smith, 2007). Although species composition shifted between<br />
<strong>the</strong> cruises, inhibition was consistently high for all<br />
profi les. In contrast, bacterial response was less consistent<br />
between <strong>the</strong> cruises. The r<strong>at</strong>io between leucine and thymidine<br />
dark uptake was �10 in November 2005 but �10<br />
in January 2005, suggesting basic metabolic differences<br />
between assemblages. The abundance p<strong>at</strong>terns during <strong>the</strong><br />
cruises also show separ<strong>at</strong>e growth “events” occurring during<br />
each cruise (though some of <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion may be due<br />
<strong>to</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial differences). These observ<strong>at</strong>ions suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
two cruises sampled physiologically distinct bacterial assemblages,<br />
a conclusion th<strong>at</strong> is consistent with differences<br />
in sample genetic composition as determined using terminal<br />
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (TRFLP) analysis<br />
(A. Baldwin, University of West Florida, and W. H. Jeffrey,<br />
University of West Florida, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion).<br />
In summary, our results provide direct evidence th<strong>at</strong><br />
in situ UV irradiance in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is inhibi<strong>to</strong>ry for<br />
both phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis and bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
production. In terms of <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> responses<br />
observed in <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ions, <strong>the</strong>se should be conserv<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>es of <strong>the</strong> effects of solar exposure on in situ plank<strong>to</strong>nic<br />
production. Models of UV- and PAR-dependent<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic response, when evalu<strong>at</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong> exposure<br />
occurring <strong>at</strong> each depth in <strong>the</strong> array, predict a comparable<br />
response as observed in situ (Neale et al., 2005). In<br />
contrast, vertical profi les of fl uorescence-based pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
quantum yield showed th<strong>at</strong> inhibited phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
are found deeper in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column than <strong>the</strong> 5-7 m<br />
depth of <strong>the</strong> pho<strong>to</strong>active zone in <strong>the</strong> incub<strong>at</strong>ions. This enhancement<br />
of inhibition in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column is consistent<br />
with vertical exchange due <strong>to</strong> both Langmuir cicul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and near-surface internal waves, both of which increase<br />
<strong>the</strong> proportion of surface layer phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n exposed <strong>to</strong><br />
inhibiting irradiance. The oper<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong>se mechanisms<br />
was confi rmed by physical measurements. Detailed comparisons<br />
of production estim<strong>at</strong>es using <strong>the</strong>se multiple approaches<br />
will be presented in subsequent reports.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We thank <strong>the</strong> captain and crew of <strong>the</strong> R/V N<strong>at</strong>haniel<br />
B. Palmer and Ray<strong>the</strong>on <strong>Polar</strong> Services Co. for <strong>the</strong> fi eld<br />
support provided. The authors gr<strong>at</strong>efully acknowledge<br />
Ronald Kiene, Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Chief Scientist<br />
on NBP0409, for providing <strong>the</strong> PAM fl uorometer, and<br />
Hyakubun Harada, Dauphin Island Sea Lab, for assistance<br />
in its use. Support was provided by N<strong>at</strong>ional Science<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ion Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs grant 0127037 <strong>to</strong><br />
PJN and 0127022 <strong>to</strong> WHJ. CS was supported by an Asturias<br />
Fellowship from <strong>the</strong> Scientifi c Committee for Antarctic<br />
Research (SCAR) and by <strong>the</strong> Spanish Ministry of<br />
Educ<strong>at</strong>ion and Science (MEC).<br />
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Leucine. Marine Microbial Food Webs, 6: 107– 114.<br />
Smith, R. C., B. B. Prézelin, K. S. Baker, R. R. Bidigare, N. P. Boucher,<br />
T. Coley, D. Karentz, S. MacIntyre, H. A. M<strong>at</strong>lick, D. Menzies,<br />
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Ultraviolet Radi<strong>at</strong>ion and Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n Biology in Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
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Smith, W. O., Jr., and J. C. Comiso. 2009. “Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean Primary<br />
Productivity: Variability and a View <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future.” In <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>: <strong>Contributions</strong> <strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Science, ed.<br />
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in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, Antarctica. Deep-Sea Research, Part II, 47:<br />
3119– 3140.<br />
Vetter, R. D., A. Kurtzman, and T. Mori. 1999. Diel Cycles of DNA Damage<br />
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mordax, Exposed <strong>to</strong> Solar Ultraviolet Radi<strong>at</strong>ion. Pho<strong>to</strong>chemistry<br />
and Pho<strong>to</strong>biology, 69: 27– 33.<br />
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van Duyl. 1999. Effects of UV Radi<strong>at</strong>ion on DNA Pho<strong>to</strong>damage<br />
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Aqu<strong>at</strong>ic Microbial Ecology, 20: 49– 58.
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean Primary Productivity:<br />
Variability and a View <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future<br />
Walker O. Smith Jr. and Josefi no C. Comiso<br />
Walker O. Smith Jr., Virginia Institute of Marine<br />
Sciences, College of William and Mary, Gloucester<br />
Point, VA 23062, USA. Josefi no C. Comiso,<br />
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Code 614.1,<br />
Greenbelt, MD 27701, USA. Corresponding author:<br />
W. O. Smith (wos@vims.edu). Accepted 28<br />
May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The primary productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean south of 58ºS is assessed<br />
using s<strong>at</strong>ellite d<strong>at</strong>a on ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ures, and pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
a vertically generalized production model, and modeled pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically<br />
active radi<strong>at</strong>ion. Daily productivity is integr<strong>at</strong>ed by month and by year <strong>to</strong> provide an<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>e of new production. The productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is extremely low<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r oceanic regions, with annual net r<strong>at</strong>es throughout <strong>the</strong> region of less<br />
than 10 g C m �2 . This low annual value is largely <strong>the</strong> result of negligible productivity<br />
throughout much of <strong>the</strong> year due <strong>to</strong> low irradiance and high ice cover. Despite <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
oligotrophic st<strong>at</strong>e, monthly productivity during <strong>the</strong> summer (December through February)<br />
is substantially gre<strong>at</strong>er, averaging from 100 <strong>to</strong> 1,500 mg C m �2 mo �1 . Substantial<br />
interannual variability occurs, and certain subregions within <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean experience<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er interannual vari<strong>at</strong>ions than o<strong>the</strong>rs. Those regions, like <strong>the</strong> West Antarctic<br />
Peninsula, <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya region, and <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea, are characterized as being<br />
continental shelf regions and/or those th<strong>at</strong> are substantially impacted by ice. Despite<br />
this rel<strong>at</strong>ionship, no signifi cant changes in primary production were observed in regions<br />
where large trends in ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions have been noted. The driving forces for this variability<br />
as well as <strong>the</strong> implic<strong>at</strong>ions for long-term changes in regional and Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
productivity are discussed.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is a vast region within <strong>the</strong> world’s oceans th<strong>at</strong> has presented<br />
some signifi cant challenges <strong>to</strong> oceanographers. It is <strong>the</strong> site of large numbers<br />
of birds, marine mammals, and fi shes and extensive sedimentary deposits of<br />
biogenic m<strong>at</strong>erial, and is presently being impacted by physical forcing external<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> region, such as ozone depletion (Neale et al., 1998, 2009, this volume)<br />
and clim<strong>at</strong>e change (e.g., Vaughan et al., 2003). However, because of its size and<br />
remoteness, it is diffi cult <strong>to</strong> conduct experimental programs <strong>to</strong> adequ<strong>at</strong>ely assess<br />
<strong>the</strong> role of various environmental fac<strong>to</strong>rs on biological processes in <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
In addition, a large fraction of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is ice covered for much of <strong>the</strong><br />
year, restricting access <strong>to</strong> many loc<strong>at</strong>ions and making sampling of o<strong>the</strong>r regions<br />
nearly impossible. To assess <strong>the</strong> productivity of <strong>the</strong> entire Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, it is<br />
necessary <strong>to</strong> “sample” using techniques th<strong>at</strong> can quantify processes over large
310 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMITH AND COMISO<br />
sp<strong>at</strong>ial scales through time. At present, <strong>the</strong> only means <strong>to</strong><br />
accomplish this on <strong>the</strong> appropri<strong>at</strong>e scales is via s<strong>at</strong>ellite<br />
oceanography.<br />
S<strong>at</strong>ellites presently have <strong>the</strong> capability <strong>to</strong> accur<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
map <strong>the</strong> distributions of ice (Comiso, 2004), sea surface<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ure (SST; Comiso, 2000; Kwok and Comiso,<br />
2002), and pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions (Moore and Abbott,<br />
2000), as well as o<strong>the</strong>r parameters such as winds, b<strong>at</strong>hymetry,<br />
cloud cover, and some gas concentr<strong>at</strong>ions such<br />
as ozone (Comiso, 2009). Some measurements use visible<br />
wavelengths and refl ectance from <strong>the</strong> surface, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a returned are reduced in space and time<br />
because of clouds; o<strong>the</strong>rs are ei<strong>the</strong>r passively detected or<br />
use o<strong>the</strong>r wavelengths <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> distribution of <strong>the</strong><br />
variable. In biological oceanography a major variable of<br />
interest is ocean color, which is converted in<strong>to</strong> quantit<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>es of pigment (chlorophyll) concentr<strong>at</strong>ions. While<br />
<strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es include signifi cant error terms (because of<br />
<strong>the</strong> dependence of pigment estim<strong>at</strong>es as a function of l<strong>at</strong>itude,<br />
<strong>the</strong> limit<strong>at</strong>ion of refl ectance <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> optical surface<br />
layer r<strong>at</strong>her than <strong>the</strong> entire euphotic zone, and <strong>the</strong> interference<br />
in some w<strong>at</strong>ers of dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter), <strong>the</strong>se<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>es remain, and will remain, <strong>the</strong> only means <strong>to</strong> obtain<br />
synoptic assessments of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n distributions<br />
over large areas as well as <strong>the</strong>ir temporal changes over<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively short (e.g., days) periods.<br />
Two s<strong>at</strong>ellites have provided nearly all of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a in <strong>the</strong><br />
past three decades on pigment distributions in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean. The fi rst was <strong>the</strong> Nimbus 7 s<strong>at</strong>ellite, launched<br />
in 1978, which carried <strong>the</strong> Coastal Zone Color Scanner<br />
(CZCS). While questions concerning <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a quality and<br />
coverage from CZCS have been voiced, <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a were used<br />
<strong>to</strong> investig<strong>at</strong>e both <strong>the</strong> large-scale distributions of pigments<br />
in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> oceanographic variables (Sullivan et al., 1993;<br />
Comiso et al., 1993) and also <strong>the</strong> specifi c processes and<br />
regions (e.g., Arrigo and McClain, 1994). However, given<br />
<strong>the</strong> orbit, <strong>the</strong> frequency of d<strong>at</strong>a collection in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean was quite restricted, and when compounded by <strong>the</strong><br />
loss of d<strong>at</strong>a from cloud cover, <strong>the</strong> temporal frequency was<br />
far from optimal. In 1996 <strong>the</strong> ORBView-2 s<strong>at</strong>ellite was<br />
launched, which included <strong>the</strong> Sea-viewing Wide Field-ofview<br />
Sensor (SeaWiFS). This s<strong>at</strong>ellite proved <strong>to</strong> be an extremely<br />
useful <strong>to</strong>ol for biological oceanographers, as <strong>the</strong><br />
sampling frequency was much gre<strong>at</strong>er and <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a return<br />
in polar regions was far gre<strong>at</strong>er. For example, Moore et al.<br />
(1999) were able <strong>to</strong> detect a short-lived bloom in <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c<br />
sec<strong>to</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean th<strong>at</strong> was only infrequently<br />
sampled by ships. Dierssen et al. (2002) assessed <strong>the</strong> variability<br />
of productivity in <strong>the</strong> West Antarctic Peninsula region<br />
and found (based on a model) th<strong>at</strong> pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were <strong>the</strong> dominant variable cre<strong>at</strong>ing vari<strong>at</strong>ions in space and<br />
time. Smith and Comiso (2008) assessed <strong>the</strong> productivity of<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> “hot spots”<br />
of production were limited <strong>to</strong> continental shelf regions,<br />
and suggested th<strong>at</strong> this was a result of low iron concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
coupled with deeper mixing in <strong>the</strong> offshore regions.<br />
The interaction of low iron and low irradiance (Sunda and<br />
Huntsman, 1997; Boyd and Abraham, 2001) gives rise <strong>to</strong> a<br />
large sp<strong>at</strong>ial limit<strong>at</strong>ion over broad areas.<br />
It is <strong>the</strong> purpose of this manuscript <strong>to</strong> look <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
scales of variability in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean as a whole and<br />
<strong>to</strong> determine where such vari<strong>at</strong>ions are large by using primary<br />
production derived from SeaWiFS ocean color and<br />
advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) SST<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a in conjunction with a bio-optical model. We also will<br />
compare <strong>the</strong> modeled productivity with observed values,<br />
where those d<strong>at</strong>a are available <strong>to</strong> test <strong>the</strong> robustness of <strong>the</strong><br />
model. Finally, some aspects of <strong>the</strong> temporal p<strong>at</strong>terns of<br />
productivity in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean are reviewed.<br />
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
Primary productivity was estim<strong>at</strong>ed using various d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
derived from s<strong>at</strong>ellites and a bio-optical model. The model<br />
was a vertically generalized production model (Behrenfeld<br />
and Falkowski, 1997b), in which primary productivity<br />
(PPeu, in units of mg C m �2 d �1 ) was estim<strong>at</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong><br />
following equ<strong>at</strong>ion:<br />
eu<br />
B<br />
opt<br />
o<br />
o<br />
PP = 0. 66125 × P<br />
E<br />
C × Z × D<br />
E + 41 .<br />
S<strong>at</strong> eu Irr<br />
B<br />
where Popt is <strong>the</strong> optimal r<strong>at</strong>e of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis within<br />
<strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column (mg C (mg chl) �1 h�1 ) and is a function<br />
of temper<strong>at</strong>ure, Eo is <strong>the</strong> surface daily pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically<br />
active radi<strong>at</strong>ion (PAR, mol pho<strong>to</strong>ns m�2 d�1 ), Cs<strong>at</strong> is <strong>the</strong><br />
surface chlorophyll concentr<strong>at</strong>ion (mg chl m�3 ) determined<br />
by s<strong>at</strong>ellite, Zeu is <strong>the</strong> depth of <strong>the</strong> euphotic zone<br />
B<br />
(m), and DIrr is <strong>the</strong> pho<strong>to</strong>period (h). Popt was estim<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
from sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ures by <strong>the</strong> polynomial equ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
B<br />
of Behrenfeld and Falkowski (1997b), and all Popt values<br />
<strong>at</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ures less than �1.0ºC were set <strong>to</strong> 1.13.<br />
Temper<strong>at</strong>ure, PAR, ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, and chlorophyll<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were derived from different s<strong>at</strong>ellite<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a sets. Different s<strong>at</strong>ellite d<strong>at</strong>a were mapped <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same grid as described below. We arbitrarily defi ned <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean roughly as <strong>the</strong> region impacted by seasonal<br />
ice movements and hence set <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn bound-
ary <strong>at</strong> 58ºS. Ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions and associ<strong>at</strong>ed parameters<br />
(e.g., ice extent and area) were derived using d<strong>at</strong>a from <strong>the</strong><br />
Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) on <strong>the</strong> Defense<br />
Meteorological S<strong>at</strong>ellite Program and mapped on a polar<br />
stereographic grid <strong>at</strong> a 25 � 25 km resolution. Ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
were derived from s<strong>at</strong>ellite passive microwave<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a using <strong>the</strong> enhanced bootstrap algorithm used for Advanced<br />
Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS d<strong>at</strong>a and<br />
adapted for SSM/I d<strong>at</strong>a (e.g., Comiso et al., 2003; Comiso,<br />
2004). Sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ures were derived from <strong>the</strong>rmal<br />
infrared channels of <strong>the</strong> NOAA AVHRR as described<br />
in Comiso (2003). Pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions derived from<br />
SeaWiFS d<strong>at</strong>a were provided by <strong>the</strong> NASA Goddard Earth<br />
Sciences Distributed Active Archive Center. Surface temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
and pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ion d<strong>at</strong>a have been gridded<br />
in <strong>the</strong> same manner as <strong>the</strong> sea ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ion d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
but on a 6.25 � 6.25 km resolution. Mean daily pigment<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were estim<strong>at</strong>ed using <strong>the</strong> standard SeaWiFS<br />
algorithm with OC4 (Version 4) calibr<strong>at</strong>ion (P<strong>at</strong>t et al.,<br />
2003) and used <strong>to</strong> gener<strong>at</strong>e weekly (seven-day bins) and<br />
monthly d<strong>at</strong>a sets from 1997 <strong>to</strong> 2006. Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically<br />
active radi<strong>at</strong>ion d<strong>at</strong>a were extracted as part of <strong>the</strong> Sea-<br />
WiFS d<strong>at</strong>a but were not used in <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es of productivity<br />
because a large fraction of <strong>the</strong> valuable polar d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
was inadvertently masked as ice covered by <strong>the</strong> SeaWiFS<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a processing group. We used a modeled PAR instead<br />
(which provided basically <strong>the</strong> same results) for much improved<br />
coverage. It is important <strong>to</strong> recognize th<strong>at</strong> because<br />
of cloud and ice masking <strong>the</strong> weekly and monthly averages<br />
do not refl ect true averages but are averages of daylight<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a (for each d<strong>at</strong>a element) available during clear-sky,<br />
ice-free conditions only.<br />
Productivity was calcul<strong>at</strong>ed on a daily basis and<br />
binned in a manner similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> of chlorophyll. The<br />
gridding technique (Smith and Comiso, 2008) and <strong>the</strong><br />
presence of clouds caused a large fraction of d<strong>at</strong>a elements<br />
(pixels) in <strong>the</strong> daily maps <strong>to</strong> have missing d<strong>at</strong>a. In <strong>the</strong> case<br />
where an empty pixel is surrounded by pixels with d<strong>at</strong>a,<br />
a simple interpol<strong>at</strong>ion technique is utilized <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
pigment level in <strong>the</strong> empty pixel. For larger d<strong>at</strong>a gaps, a<br />
combin<strong>at</strong>ion of sp<strong>at</strong>ial and temporal interpol<strong>at</strong>ion was<br />
utilized. Such interpol<strong>at</strong>ion fi lled only a very small fraction<br />
of missing d<strong>at</strong>a in <strong>the</strong> daily maps, and for time series studies,<br />
weekly averages were produced as <strong>the</strong> basic product.<br />
In a similar manner, annual productivity was estim<strong>at</strong>ed by<br />
summing weekly averages over an entire year. Standard<br />
devi<strong>at</strong>ions were calcul<strong>at</strong>ed for all pixels, but because of <strong>the</strong><br />
variable number of d<strong>at</strong>a points within each pixel, we arbitrarily<br />
used only those loc<strong>at</strong>ions where <strong>at</strong> least fi ve means<br />
were available <strong>to</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>e vari<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
SOUTHERN OCEAN PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 311<br />
We recognize th<strong>at</strong> regional algorithms have been developed<br />
for certain parts of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (e.g., Ross<br />
Sea: Arrigo et al., 1998; Dierssen and Smith, 2000) and<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se formul<strong>at</strong>ions provide a more accur<strong>at</strong>e estim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n biomass in each area. We chose <strong>to</strong> use<br />
<strong>the</strong> output from <strong>the</strong> standard global algorithm <strong>to</strong> simplify<br />
<strong>the</strong> comparison of regions and of various years, <strong>to</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e<br />
a comparison among all regions, and <strong>to</strong> avoid problems of<br />
defi ning boundaries of optically different regions. While<br />
this approach may introduce error in<strong>to</strong> absolute estim<strong>at</strong>es<br />
of productivity within a region, it provides a uniform basis<br />
<strong>to</strong> compute productivity throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean,<br />
as regional algorithms (some of which need more rigorous<br />
valid<strong>at</strong>ion) are not available for all areas.<br />
RESULTS<br />
SPATIAL MEANS AND VARIABILITY<br />
Annual productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is highly<br />
variable but also quite low rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r oceans, as<br />
has been suggested based on discrete measurements (e.g.,<br />
Smith and Nelson, 1986; Nelson et al., 1996; Tremblay and<br />
Smith, 2007). Much of <strong>the</strong> region off <strong>the</strong> continental shelf<br />
is oligotrophic and is characterized by primary production<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es of less than 50 g C m �1 y �1 (Figure 1). Regions of<br />
FIGURE 1. Mean (1998– 2006) modeled productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean as derived from a vertically integr<strong>at</strong>ed productivity model.
312 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMITH AND COMISO<br />
enhanced (threefold gre<strong>at</strong>er than <strong>the</strong> low-productivity offshore<br />
areas) do occur on <strong>the</strong> continental shelf, with three<br />
areas being noteworthy: <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, <strong>the</strong> Amundsen Sea,<br />
and Prydz Bay/East Antarctic shelf. Productivity in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea is sp<strong>at</strong>ially extensive, but <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est absolute<br />
productivity is in <strong>the</strong> Amundsen Sea region (150 g C m �1<br />
y �1 <strong>at</strong> �73ºS, 110ºW). It is interesting th<strong>at</strong> this particular<br />
region has never been sampled because of <strong>the</strong> diffi culty of<br />
gaining access by ships.<br />
Productivity in <strong>the</strong> more nor<strong>the</strong>rn regions (near <strong>the</strong><br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and<br />
its associ<strong>at</strong>ed fronts, e.g., Abbott et al., 2000) is elev<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c sec<strong>to</strong>r (between 45° and 135ºW) and south<br />
of New Zealand (between 155ºW and 165ºE), averaging<br />
�75 g C m �1 y �1 , and can be contrasted with <strong>the</strong> very<br />
low productivity w<strong>at</strong>ers of <strong>the</strong> South Atlantic and Indian<br />
Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>rs (Figure 1). Productivity of <strong>the</strong> South Atlantic<br />
is gre<strong>at</strong>er far<strong>the</strong>r north than th<strong>at</strong> in our selected study region<br />
(58ºS; Moore and Abbott, 2000; Smith and Comiso,<br />
2008), and <strong>the</strong> region we analyzed is also largely south of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ACC (Moore and Abbott, 2000) and largely free of<br />
frontal enhancements. The Indian Ocean sec<strong>to</strong>r is among<br />
<strong>the</strong> windiest areas on Earth, and hence deep mixing would<br />
be expected <strong>to</strong> occur. Regardless, <strong>the</strong> annual productivity<br />
in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Indian Ocean and South Atlantic areas is<br />
less than 20 g C m �1 y �1 , among <strong>the</strong> lowest anywhere in<br />
<strong>the</strong> world’s oceans.<br />
Computed standard devi<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong> entire Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean suggest th<strong>at</strong> while <strong>the</strong> absolute vari<strong>at</strong>ions occur<br />
in <strong>the</strong> most productive continental shelf regions such as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive sp<strong>at</strong>ial vari<strong>at</strong>ions are actually<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er elsewhere (Figure 2). For example, in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
<strong>the</strong> standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion expressed as a percentage of <strong>the</strong><br />
mean is only 2.8%, whereas in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Weddell Sea<br />
<strong>the</strong>y range from 5.4% <strong>to</strong> 20%, suggesting <strong>the</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial variability<br />
in th<strong>at</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion is much gre<strong>at</strong>er. This likely is due<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> impact of ice, which varies gre<strong>at</strong>ly in this loc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
interannually (Smith and Comiso, 2008). The highest productivity<br />
occurs in areas of polynyas; in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea <strong>the</strong><br />
standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion is not as large because <strong>the</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> polynya is basically <strong>the</strong> same from one year <strong>to</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Vari<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> Amundsen Sea, <strong>the</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> productivity<br />
maximum, are also less than in o<strong>the</strong>r regions, being<br />
similar <strong>to</strong> those in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (�1.5%– 3%). Vari<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> South Atlantic can be substantial (�10% near<br />
<strong>the</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> Weddell Sea polynya and Maud Rise)<br />
as well. Conversely, <strong>the</strong> elev<strong>at</strong>ed productivity region in <strong>the</strong><br />
Pacifi c sec<strong>to</strong>r north of 62ºS exhibits quite low variability<br />
(generally less than 1%).<br />
FIGURE 2. Standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> derived annual productivity<br />
values. Only those pixels where <strong>the</strong>re were <strong>at</strong> least fi ve years of d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
(from 1998 <strong>to</strong> 2006) were included. Black regions are those with<br />
fewer than fi ve values; white areas have no d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
SEASONAL PRODUCTIVITY AND<br />
VARIABILITY ON MONTHLY SCALES<br />
The broad seasonal progression of productivity in<br />
some regions of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic is rel<strong>at</strong>ively well known. For<br />
example, in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea a rapid increase in phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
biomass and productivity occurs in spring, and a decline<br />
begins in mid-December <strong>to</strong> early January. Much of<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer is characterized by rel<strong>at</strong>ively low biomass and<br />
productivity (Smith et al., 2000, 2003). Productivity in <strong>the</strong><br />
West Antarctic Peninsula region also is characterized by a<br />
similar p<strong>at</strong>tern (Ducklow et al., 2006), although <strong>the</strong> magnitude<br />
of <strong>the</strong> productivity is far less (Smith and Comiso,<br />
2008). December productivity in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
parallels <strong>the</strong> annual p<strong>at</strong>tern, with <strong>the</strong> maximum productivity<br />
occurring in <strong>the</strong> Amundsen and Ross seas and East<br />
Antarctic continental shelf (Figure 3). Clearly, <strong>the</strong> highproductivity<br />
areas are those of <strong>the</strong> continental shelf. Productivity<br />
north of 62ºS is also higher in <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c sec<strong>to</strong>r.<br />
January productivity is characterized by increased r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and sp<strong>at</strong>ial extents in <strong>the</strong> Amundsen and Weddell seas,<br />
as well as <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> tip of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula, but by a<br />
decrease in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. February r<strong>at</strong>es show a general<br />
decrease, with decreases being most noticeable in <strong>the</strong> East<br />
Antarctic region, <strong>the</strong> peninsula area, Amundsen Sea, and
FIGURE 3. Mean monthly productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
for <strong>the</strong> years 1998– 2006 for (a) December, (b) January, and (c)<br />
February.<br />
SOUTHERN OCEAN PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 313<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pacifi c sec<strong>to</strong>r north of 62ºS. All sites show <strong>the</strong> generalized<br />
maximum in l<strong>at</strong>e spring or early summer, followed by<br />
a decrease, although <strong>the</strong> timing of various sites varies.<br />
Variability on a monthly basis appears <strong>to</strong> be larger<br />
than on an annual basis (Figure 4). For example, rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea are �7% in all months, suggesting<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual vari<strong>at</strong>ions are somewh<strong>at</strong> dampened<br />
by <strong>the</strong> effects of long low-productivity periods. December<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ions are diffi cult <strong>to</strong> assess, as many loc<strong>at</strong>ions have<br />
fewer than fi ve years of d<strong>at</strong>a and hence no standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
was calcul<strong>at</strong>ed. However, variability in general seems<br />
<strong>to</strong> increase slightly in February, which may refl ect <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
s<strong>to</strong>chastic occurrence of s<strong>to</strong>rms (and hence deep<br />
mixing) during th<strong>at</strong> period.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
Primary productivity estim<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
have been made for decades but have resulted in a biased<br />
picture of pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis and growth. This is largely because<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rically, estim<strong>at</strong>es have been made in ice-free<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers (e.g., Holm-Hansen et al., 1977; El-Sayed et al.,<br />
1983), whereas polynyas, which are known <strong>to</strong> be sites of<br />
intensive productivity (Tremblay and Smith, 2007), have<br />
rarely been sampled. Additionally, open w<strong>at</strong>er regions<br />
of low production have largely been ignored, and sampling<br />
has concentr<strong>at</strong>ed on <strong>the</strong> high-productivity loc<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
thought <strong>to</strong> support local food webs. The richness of upper<br />
trophic levels th<strong>at</strong> has been observed for over 100 years<br />
(e.g., Knox, 1994) was so marked th<strong>at</strong> it was assumed<br />
th<strong>at</strong> primary production must occur <strong>to</strong> support this abundance.<br />
However, we now recognize th<strong>at</strong> productivity in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean is not gre<strong>at</strong> (Smith and Nelson, 1986),<br />
particularly on an annual basis, and <strong>the</strong> abundant higher<br />
trophic level standing s<strong>to</strong>cks and extensive biogenic sedimentary<br />
deposits are forced by food web effi ciency, altern<strong>at</strong>e<br />
food sources, and uncoupling of carbon with silica in<br />
biogeochemical cycles (Nelson et al., 1996).<br />
With <strong>the</strong> advent of s<strong>at</strong>ellite oceanography, large, synoptic<br />
measurements of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n biomass became<br />
available. Such estim<strong>at</strong>es in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean were far<br />
less common than in tropical and temper<strong>at</strong>e w<strong>at</strong>ers, but<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were very useful in showing <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship of chlorophyll<br />
with ice distributions (Nelson et al., 1987; Sullivan<br />
et al., 1993), hydrographic fe<strong>at</strong>ures and fronts (Moore<br />
and Abbott, 2000), and depth (Comiso et al., 1993). In<br />
general, early s<strong>at</strong>ellite studies suggested th<strong>at</strong> coastal zones<br />
and marginal ice zones were sites of large phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n
314 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMITH AND COMISO<br />
FIGURE 4. Standard devi<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> monthly productivity of <strong>the</strong><br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean for <strong>the</strong> years 1998– 2006 for (a) December, (b) January,<br />
and (c) February. Black regions are those with fewer than fi ve<br />
values; white areas have no d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
biomass accumul<strong>at</strong>ion (Sullivan et al., 1993; Arrigo and<br />
McLain, 1994). More refi ned tre<strong>at</strong>ments suggested th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean had a number of hot spots and shortlived<br />
increases in biomass (Moore et al., 1999) but, in<br />
large part, was extremely oligotrophic in n<strong>at</strong>ure.<br />
For many years it was uncertain why <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
was so oligotrophic. Many considered th<strong>at</strong> vertical<br />
mixing cre<strong>at</strong>ed low-irradiance conditions, superimposed<br />
on <strong>the</strong> seasonal aspects of ice distributions and solar<br />
angle, both which restricted irradiance penetr<strong>at</strong>ion in<strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> surface (e.g., Smith and Nelson, 1985; Mitchell and<br />
Holm- Hansen, 1991). Macronutrients such as nitr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and phosph<strong>at</strong>e were always in excess, and it was suggested<br />
th<strong>at</strong> micronutrients such as iron or vitamin B-12<br />
might limit production (e.g., Hart, 1934). However, reliable<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a on <strong>the</strong> concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong>se micronutrients<br />
was lacking until <strong>the</strong> 1990s, when trace-metal clean measurements<br />
were made (e.g., Martin et al., 1990; Fitzw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
et al., 2000). Iron concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were indeed found <strong>to</strong><br />
be vanishingly small— in many cases less than 0.3 nM,<br />
even in coastal regions (Sedwick and DiTullio, 1997;<br />
Sedwick et al., 2000; Boyd and Abraham, 2001; Coale<br />
et al., 2003; de Baar et al., 2005). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, on <strong>the</strong><br />
basis of labor<strong>at</strong>ory studies and <strong>the</strong>n fi eld work, under<br />
low-irradiance conditions, iron demands increase; hence,<br />
<strong>the</strong> interactive effects between iron and light exacerb<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
<strong>the</strong> limit<strong>at</strong>ion, and this interaction was suggested <strong>to</strong> be<br />
of paramount importance in deeper, offshore regions<br />
(Boyd and Abraham, 2001; Smith and Comiso, 2008).<br />
Recently, it has been found th<strong>at</strong> vitamin B-12 can limit or<br />
colimit phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n growth in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (Bertrund<br />
et al., 2007), but <strong>the</strong> large-scale colimit<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> entire<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean remains <strong>to</strong> be demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r potential productivity-limiting fac<strong>to</strong>rs have been<br />
addressed as well, such as grazing (Tagliabue and Arrigo,<br />
2003) and temper<strong>at</strong>ure. However, herbivore biomass inven<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
are available only in selected regions and hence<br />
cannot be extrapol<strong>at</strong>ed over <strong>the</strong> entire Antarctic; fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,<br />
<strong>the</strong> effects of temper<strong>at</strong>ure have been considered <strong>to</strong><br />
be of secondary importance in limiting growth and pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
(Arrigo, 2007), although temper<strong>at</strong>ure may have a<br />
signifi cant role in controlling assemblage composition.<br />
It is useful <strong>to</strong> compare s<strong>at</strong>ellite means with o<strong>the</strong>r estim<strong>at</strong>es<br />
th<strong>at</strong> have been made, ei<strong>the</strong>r via in situ measurements<br />
or numerical models. However, <strong>the</strong>re are surprisingly few<br />
regions in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean th<strong>at</strong> have adequ<strong>at</strong>e time<br />
series d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> resolve <strong>the</strong> annual production signal; similarly,<br />
few regions have been <strong>the</strong> focus of intensive modeling.<br />
One region th<strong>at</strong> has received assessments from both<br />
detailed measurements and numerical modeling is <strong>the</strong>
Ross Sea. Tremblay and Smith (2007, table 2) used <strong>the</strong><br />
nutrient clim<strong>at</strong>ology compiled by Smith et al. (2003) and<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> productivity by month and by year. The annual<br />
productivity based on nitrogen uptake was 155 g C<br />
m �1 y �1 , remarkably similar <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> value estim<strong>at</strong>ed from<br />
our s<strong>at</strong>ellite model (Table 1). Smith and Gordon (1997)<br />
used measurements taken during November, along with<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r estim<strong>at</strong>es, and calcul<strong>at</strong>ed production <strong>to</strong> be 134 g C<br />
m �1 y �1 . Arrigo et al. (1998), using a numerical model,<br />
estim<strong>at</strong>ed productivity <strong>to</strong> be �160 g C m �1 y �1 . The similarity<br />
between all of <strong>the</strong>se estim<strong>at</strong>es, ei<strong>the</strong>r direct or indirect,<br />
and ours derived from s<strong>at</strong>ellite estim<strong>at</strong>es and a vertically<br />
integr<strong>at</strong>ed production model is striking and gives us<br />
confi dence th<strong>at</strong> our procedure accur<strong>at</strong>ely assesses <strong>the</strong> production,<br />
despite <strong>the</strong> suggestion th<strong>at</strong> chlorophyll retrievals<br />
from space in this area may contain signifi cant errors (Arrigo<br />
et al., 1998). As <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is <strong>the</strong> Antarctic’s most<br />
sp<strong>at</strong>ial extensive phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom, <strong>the</strong> mean annual<br />
productivity is also near <strong>the</strong> maximum for <strong>the</strong> Antarctic.<br />
Our results suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> productivity of <strong>the</strong> Amundsen<br />
Sea may be slightly gre<strong>at</strong>er. The region is <strong>the</strong> site of a number<br />
of spring polynyas, and <strong>the</strong> optical properties of <strong>the</strong><br />
w<strong>at</strong>er are likely similar <strong>to</strong> those in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. However,<br />
currently <strong>the</strong>re are very limited in situ measurements available<br />
<strong>to</strong> confi rm this substantial productivity.<br />
It has been suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> high productivity of <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea is derived from substantial vertical str<strong>at</strong>ifi c<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
early removal of ice, and adequ<strong>at</strong>e macro- and micronutrients<br />
for much of <strong>the</strong> growing season (Smith and Asper,<br />
2001; Smith et al., 2003, 2006), coupled with limited<br />
grazing (Tagliabue and Arrigo, 2003). It has also been<br />
SOUTHERN OCEAN PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 315<br />
shown th<strong>at</strong> during some summers a large “secondary”<br />
bloom occurs (Peloquin and Smith, 2007) and th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
blooms occur approxim<strong>at</strong>ely every three years. Peloquin<br />
and Smith (2007) suggested th<strong>at</strong> summer iron limit<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
is occasionally reduced or elimin<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> intrusion of<br />
Modifi ed Circumpolar Deep W<strong>at</strong>er on<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> continental<br />
shelf by oceanographic processes. Such a process would<br />
contribute gre<strong>at</strong>ly <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> increased February variability we<br />
observed <strong>at</strong> some loc<strong>at</strong>ions. A similar p<strong>at</strong>tern of oceanic<br />
circul<strong>at</strong>ion has been suggested for <strong>the</strong> Prydz Bay/East Antarctica<br />
region as well (Smith et al., 1984), and it would<br />
be interesting <strong>to</strong> know if a similar infl uence of currents is<br />
responsible for <strong>the</strong> high productivity we observed in <strong>the</strong><br />
Amundsen Sea.<br />
TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF PRODUCTIVITY<br />
IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN<br />
The d<strong>at</strong>a th<strong>at</strong> are used <strong>to</strong> derive <strong>the</strong> mean productivity<br />
shown in Figure 1 have also been analyzed for temporal<br />
trends (Figure 5). Mean Antarctic productivity for <strong>the</strong> past<br />
decade has shown a signifi cant increase; fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, this<br />
increase is driven by changes th<strong>at</strong> are largely confi ned <strong>to</strong><br />
January and February (Smith and Comiso, 2008). Models<br />
have suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> productivity of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean will increase under <strong>at</strong>mospheric temper<strong>at</strong>ure increases<br />
driven by CO2 loading (Sarmien<strong>to</strong> and Le Quéré,<br />
1996; Sarmien<strong>to</strong> et al., 1998; Behrenfeld et al., 2006). The<br />
change will result from increased ice melting, which, in<br />
turn, should increase str<strong>at</strong>ifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, r<strong>at</strong>her than a direct temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
effect. An increase in str<strong>at</strong>ifi c<strong>at</strong>ion would increase<br />
TABLE 1. Summary of annual productivity estim<strong>at</strong>es and method of comput<strong>at</strong>ion for various portions of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. “ Sou<strong>the</strong>rn”<br />
means <strong>the</strong> assessment was confi ned <strong>to</strong> regions south of 75ºS.<br />
Region Annual productivity (g C m �2 y �1 ) Method of estim<strong>at</strong>ion Reference<br />
Ross Sea 112 biomass accumul<strong>at</strong>ion Nelson et al. (1996)<br />
Ross Sea (sou<strong>the</strong>rn) 190 biomass accumul<strong>at</strong>ion Smith and Gordon (1997)<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean 95.4– 208 bio-optical model Behrenfeld and Falkowski (1997a)<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean 105 bio-optical model Arrigo et al. (1998)<br />
Ross Sea 57.6 � 22.8 nutrient defi cits Sweeney et al. (2000)<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean 62.4 bio-optical model Moore and Abbott (2000)<br />
Ross Sea 151 � 21 bio-optical model Arrigo and van Dijken (2003)<br />
Ross Sea (sou<strong>the</strong>rn) 145 numerical model Arrigo et al. (2003)<br />
Ross Sea 84– 218 nutrient defi cits Smith et al. (2006)<br />
Ross Sea (sou<strong>the</strong>rn) 153 nutrient defi cits Tremblay and Smith (2007)<br />
Ross Sea (sou<strong>the</strong>rn) 54– 65 bio-optical model Smith and Comiso (2008)<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean 20– 150 bio-optical model this study
316 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / SMITH AND COMISO<br />
<strong>the</strong> net irradiance environment available <strong>to</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
and also decrease <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> iron-irradiance<br />
interaction, resulting in a decreased iron demand. Should<br />
iron inputs and concentr<strong>at</strong>ions remain <strong>the</strong> same, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
increased productivity would result in large-scale increases<br />
in phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n growth and productivity. The observed<br />
change in <strong>the</strong> productivity estim<strong>at</strong>ed from s<strong>at</strong>ellites are not<br />
necessarily indic<strong>at</strong>ive of <strong>the</strong> changes predicted by <strong>the</strong> models<br />
and may refl ect shorter-term trends th<strong>at</strong> have altered<br />
current p<strong>at</strong>terns, <strong>at</strong>mospheric inputs of iron, or o<strong>the</strong>r fac<strong>to</strong>rs.<br />
It should also be noted th<strong>at</strong> models do not include<br />
any colimit<strong>at</strong>ion effects of vitamin B-12, and if this effect<br />
were signifi cant throughout <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
increase in productivity would be smaller than predicted.<br />
Regardless, <strong>the</strong> observed increase in annual productivity<br />
was unexpected, and <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a analysis should be continued<br />
(using <strong>the</strong> same methods) as far in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> future as possible<br />
<strong>to</strong> confi rm this p<strong>at</strong>tern.<br />
Smith and Comiso (2008) also <strong>at</strong>tempted <strong>to</strong> ascertain<br />
if <strong>the</strong> s<strong>at</strong>ellite d<strong>at</strong>a could be used <strong>to</strong> detect changes in productivity<br />
on a regional scale. Given th<strong>at</strong> certain regions are<br />
having signifi cant alter<strong>at</strong>ions in ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ions (e.g., <strong>the</strong><br />
West Antarctic Peninsula– Amundsen/ Bellingshausen Sea<br />
sec<strong>to</strong>r has had a �7% decrease per decade in ice concentr<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
while <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea sec<strong>to</strong>r has had an increase of<br />
�5%; Kwok and Comiso, 2002), it might be expected th<strong>at</strong><br />
FIGURE 5. The temporal p<strong>at</strong>tern of productivity for <strong>the</strong> entire<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean as derived from s<strong>at</strong>ellite d<strong>at</strong>a and a productivity<br />
model (from Smith and Comiso, 2008). The trend is derived from a<br />
linear regression of all points and is highly signifi cant.<br />
changes in productivity are accompanying <strong>the</strong>se changes.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> temporal variability in <strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>es of productivity<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se areas was <strong>to</strong>o gre<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong> allow for any<br />
trends <strong>to</strong> be determined, so <strong>at</strong> this time, it is impossible <strong>to</strong><br />
determine if changes in higher trophic levels are occurring<br />
because of food web effects (via energetics) or by habit<strong>at</strong><br />
modifi c<strong>at</strong>ion (e.g., loss of reproductive sites and decreases<br />
in reproductive success).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Tremendous advances have been made in our understanding<br />
of primary productivity in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean in<br />
<strong>the</strong> past 50 years. We have moved from an era of observ<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
science in<strong>to</strong> one th<strong>at</strong> combines observ<strong>at</strong>ions and experiments<br />
with large-scale assessments using d<strong>at</strong>a derived<br />
from multiple s<strong>at</strong>ellites and modeling using <strong>the</strong> same d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
We recognize th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> earlier assessments of productivity<br />
were biased by sampling and <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of Antarctic productivity,<br />
and using unbiased techniques such as s<strong>at</strong>ellite<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a combined with robust models provides a means by<br />
which <strong>the</strong> temporal and sp<strong>at</strong>ial trends in phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
production can be assessed. These methods have clearly<br />
demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean as a whole is an<br />
oligotrophic area, with enhanced productivity on <strong>the</strong><br />
continental shelves. Yet <strong>the</strong> shelf productivity is far from<br />
evenly distributed, and it is likely th<strong>at</strong> oceanographic infl<br />
uences may play a large role in setting <strong>the</strong> maximum limits<br />
<strong>to</strong> production in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
It is suggested th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> productivity of <strong>the</strong> entire Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Ocean has increased signifi cantly in <strong>the</strong> past decade,<br />
although <strong>the</strong> causes for such an increase remain obscure.<br />
Such changes have been predicted by numerical models,<br />
but it is far from certain th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> observed changes are in<br />
fact rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e change in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. The shortterm<br />
record also makes it diffi cult <strong>to</strong> interpret wh<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
trend really means, especially in light of <strong>the</strong> possible effect<br />
of some clim<strong>at</strong>e modes like <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere<br />
Annular Mode (Kwok and Comiso, 2002; Gordon et al.,<br />
2007). Only through extended analyses can such trends be<br />
confi rmed and <strong>the</strong> causes for <strong>the</strong>se changes ascertained.<br />
While increases in productivity of <strong>the</strong> magnitude shown<br />
may not induce major shifts in <strong>the</strong> ecology and biogeochemistry<br />
of <strong>the</strong> region, such changes, if <strong>the</strong>y continue,<br />
may result in subtle and unpredicted impacts on <strong>the</strong> foods<br />
webs of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic ecosystem as well as changes in elemental<br />
dynamics. Knowledge of <strong>the</strong> environmental regul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se changes in productivity is critical <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
understanding of <strong>the</strong> ecology of <strong>the</strong> entire Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean
and will provide insights in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential changes th<strong>at</strong><br />
will undoubtedly occur in <strong>the</strong> coming years.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
The expert computer skills of Larry S<strong>to</strong>ck of STX are<br />
gr<strong>at</strong>efully acknowledged. This work was funded partially<br />
by N<strong>at</strong>ional Sciences Found<strong>at</strong>ion grants OPP-0087401<br />
and OPP-0337247 (<strong>to</strong> WOS) and by <strong>the</strong> NASA Cryospheric<br />
Science Program (<strong>to</strong> JCC). This is VIMS contribution<br />
number 2955.<br />
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Chromophoric Dissolved Organic M<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
Cycling during a Ross Sea Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica Bloom<br />
David J. Kieber, Dierdre A. Toole,<br />
and Ronald P. Kiene<br />
David J. Kieber, Department of Chemistry, St<strong>at</strong>e<br />
University of New York College of Environmental<br />
Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.<br />
Dierdre A. Toole, Department of Marine Chemistry<br />
and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic<br />
Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543,<br />
USA. Ronald P. Kiene, Department of Marine Sciences,<br />
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL<br />
36688, USA. Corresponding author: D. Kieber<br />
(djkieber@esf.edu). Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter (CDOM) is ubiqui<strong>to</strong>us in <strong>the</strong><br />
oceans, where it is an important elemental reservoir, a key pho<strong>to</strong>reactant, and a sunscreen<br />
for ultraviolet (UV) radi<strong>at</strong>ion. Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter is generally<br />
<strong>the</strong> main <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>or of UV radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column, and it affects <strong>the</strong> remote sensing<br />
of chlorophyll a (chl a) such th<strong>at</strong> corrections for CDOM need <strong>to</strong> be incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed in<strong>to</strong><br />
remote sensing algorithms. Despite its signifi cance, rel<strong>at</strong>ively few CDOM measurements<br />
have been made in <strong>the</strong> open ocean, especially in polar regions. In this paper, we show<br />
th<strong>at</strong> CDOM spectral absorption coeffi cients (aλ) are rel<strong>at</strong>ively low in highly productive<br />
Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, ranging from approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 0.18 <strong>to</strong> 0.30 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 300 nm and 0.014<br />
<strong>to</strong> 0.054 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 443 nm. These values are low compared <strong>to</strong> coastal w<strong>at</strong>ers, but <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
higher (by approxim<strong>at</strong>ely a fac<strong>to</strong>r of two <strong>to</strong> three) than aλ in oligotrophic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>at</strong> low<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes, supporting <strong>the</strong> supposition of a poleward increase in aCDOM in <strong>the</strong> open ocean.<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter aλ and spectral slopes did not increase during<br />
<strong>the</strong> early development of a bloom of <strong>the</strong> colonial hap<strong>to</strong>phyte Phaeocystis antarctica in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, Antarctica, even though chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ions increased more than onehundred-fold.<br />
Our results suggest th<strong>at</strong> Antarctic CDOM in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is not coupled<br />
directly <strong>to</strong> algal production of organic m<strong>at</strong>ter in <strong>the</strong> photic zone during <strong>the</strong> early bloom<br />
but is r<strong>at</strong>her produced in <strong>the</strong> photic zone <strong>at</strong> a l<strong>at</strong>er time or elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column,<br />
possibly from organic-rich sea ice or <strong>the</strong> microbial degrad<strong>at</strong>ion of algal-derived dissolved<br />
organic m<strong>at</strong>ter exported out of <strong>the</strong> photic zone. Spectral aλ <strong>at</strong> 325 nm for surface w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean and Ross Sea were remarkably similar <strong>to</strong> values reported for deep<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er from <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic by Nelson et al. in 2007. This similarity may not be a coincidence<br />
and may indic<strong>at</strong>e long-range transport <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic of CDOM produced<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic via Antarctic Intermedi<strong>at</strong>e and Bot<strong>to</strong>m W<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Quantifying temporal and sp<strong>at</strong>ial vari<strong>at</strong>ions in chromophoric dissolved organic<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ter (CDOM) absorption is important <strong>to</strong> understanding <strong>the</strong> biogeochemistry<br />
of n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers because CDOM plays a signifi cant role in determining<br />
<strong>the</strong> underw<strong>at</strong>er light fi eld. Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter is<br />
<strong>the</strong> fraction of dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter (DOM) th<strong>at</strong> absorbs solar radi<strong>at</strong>ion in<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers, including radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> UVB (280 <strong>to</strong> 320 nm), <strong>the</strong> UVA (320<br />
<strong>to</strong> 400 nm), and <strong>the</strong> visible portion (400 <strong>to</strong> 700 nm) of <strong>the</strong> solar spectrum. For<br />
most n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers, CDOM is <strong>the</strong> primary constituent th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>es actinic
320 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
UVB and UVA radi<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column. Consequently,<br />
CDOM acts as a “sunscreen,” providing protection<br />
from short wavelengths of solar radi<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> can<br />
be damaging <strong>to</strong> aqu<strong>at</strong>ic organisms (Hebling and Zagarese,<br />
2003). Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter absorption<br />
is often also quite high in <strong>the</strong> blue spectral region,<br />
particularly in <strong>the</strong> subtropics and poles, accounting for<br />
a quantit<strong>at</strong>ively signifi cant percentage of <strong>to</strong>tal nonw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
absorption (Siegel et al., 2002), complic<strong>at</strong>ing remote sensing<br />
of phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions and primary<br />
productivity (Carder et al., 1989; Nelson et al., 1998).<br />
In lakes and coastal areas with high riverine discharge,<br />
CDOM absorption in <strong>the</strong> blue region can be so large as <strong>to</strong><br />
restrict phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n absorption of light, <strong>the</strong>reby placing<br />
limits on primary productivity (e.g., Vodacek et al., 1997;<br />
Del Vecchio and Blough, 2004). Since CDOM absorption<br />
affects <strong>the</strong> s<strong>at</strong>ellite-retrieved phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n absorption<br />
signal in most oceanic w<strong>at</strong>ers, especially coastal w<strong>at</strong>ers,<br />
CDOM absorption must be accounted for when using remotely<br />
sensed d<strong>at</strong>a (Blough and Del Vecchio, 2002). This<br />
necessit<strong>at</strong>es a thorough understanding of <strong>the</strong> characteristics<br />
of CDOM and fac<strong>to</strong>rs controlling its distribution in<br />
different areas of <strong>the</strong> ocean.<br />
Sources of CDOM in <strong>the</strong> oceans are varied and, in many<br />
cases, poorly described. Potential sources include terrestrial<br />
input of decaying plant organic m<strong>at</strong>ter, au<strong>to</strong>chthonous production<br />
by algae, pho<strong>to</strong>chemical or bacterial processing of<br />
DOM, and release from sediments (e.g., Blough et al., 1993;<br />
Opsahl and Benner, 1997; Nelson et al., 1998; Nelson and<br />
Siegel, 2002; Rochelle-Newall and Fisher, 2002a, 2002b;<br />
Chen et al., 2004; Nelson et al., 2004). The removal of<br />
CDOM in <strong>the</strong> oceans is domin<strong>at</strong>ed by its pho<strong>to</strong>chemical<br />
bleaching, but microbial processing is also important although<br />
poorly unders<strong>to</strong>od (Blough et al., 1993; Vodacek et<br />
al., 1997; Del Vecchio and Blough, 2002; Chen et al., 2004;<br />
Nelson et al., 2004; Vähätalo and Wetzel, 2004).<br />
Absorption of sunlight by CDOM can affect an aqu<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
ecosystem both directly and indirectly (Schindler and Curtis,<br />
1997). The bleaching of CDOM absorption and fl uorescence<br />
properties as a result of sunlight absorption lessens<br />
<strong>the</strong> biological shielding effect of CDOM in surface w<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching<br />
may also produce a variety of reactive oxygen species<br />
(ROS), such as <strong>the</strong> hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide,<br />
and superoxide (for review, see Kieber et al., 2003). Gener<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se compounds provides a positive feedback <strong>to</strong><br />
CDOM removal by causing fur<strong>the</strong>r destruction of CDOM<br />
via reaction with <strong>the</strong>se ROS.<br />
Although CDOM has been intensively studied <strong>to</strong><br />
understand its chemical and physical properties, previ-<br />
ous research has primarily focused on CDOM cycling in<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e and subtropical w<strong>at</strong>ers. Very little is known regarding<br />
temporal and sp<strong>at</strong>ial distributions of CDOM in<br />
high-l<strong>at</strong>itude marine w<strong>at</strong>ers. Studies in <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait–<br />
Chukchi Sea region and <strong>the</strong> Greenland Sea showed th<strong>at</strong><br />
absorption coeffi cients (aλ) and spectral slopes (S) derived<br />
from CDOM absorption spectra <strong>at</strong> coastal st<strong>at</strong>ions were<br />
infl uenced by terrestrial inputs and comparable <strong>to</strong> aλ and<br />
S values in temper<strong>at</strong>e and tropical coastal sites (Stedmon<br />
and Markager, 2001; Ferenac, 2006). As <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> coastline in <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait and Chukchi Sea<br />
proper increased, <strong>the</strong>re was a large decrease in aλ from<br />
1.5 <strong>to</strong> 0.2 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 350 nm. These aλ were mostly higher<br />
than a350 observed in <strong>the</strong> open ocean <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
(Ferenac, 2006). However, corresponding spectral slopes<br />
were signifi cantly lower (�0.014 nm �1 ) than open oceanic<br />
values in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea and elsewhere (�0.02 nm �1 ;<br />
Blough and Del Vecchio, 2002), suggesting th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> types<br />
of CDOM present in <strong>the</strong>se contrasting environments were<br />
different, possibly owing <strong>to</strong> a residual terrestrial signal and<br />
lower degree of pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching in <strong>the</strong> Arctic samples.<br />
As with Arctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, <strong>the</strong>re is very little known regarding<br />
CDOM in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers. To our knowledge, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are only three published reports investig<strong>at</strong>ing CDOM distributions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea and along <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula<br />
(Sarpal et al., 1995; P<strong>at</strong>terson, 2000; Kieber et al., 2007). A<br />
key fi nding of <strong>the</strong> Sarpal et al. study was th<strong>at</strong> Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
were quite transparent in <strong>the</strong> UV (aλ � 0.4 m �1 <strong>at</strong> λ �<br />
290 nm), even <strong>at</strong> coastal st<strong>at</strong>ions during a bloom of Cryp<strong>to</strong>monas<br />
sp. P<strong>at</strong>terson (2000) examined CDOM in several<br />
transects perpendicular <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula coastline<br />
and found th<strong>at</strong> CDOM absorption coeffi cients were low in<br />
<strong>the</strong> austral summer, with a305 (�SD) � 0.28 (�0.09) m �1<br />
and a340 � 0.13 (�0.06) m �1 . Similarly low aλ were observed<br />
by Kieber et al. (2007) in <strong>the</strong> upper w<strong>at</strong>er column of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (a300 � 0.32 m �1 and a350 � 0.15 m �1 ) during<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of a Phaeocystis antarctica bloom when di<strong>at</strong>oms<br />
were also blooming (chl a � 3.8 �g L �1 ).<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> regions are unique in many ways th<strong>at</strong> may infl uence<br />
CDOM optical properties. Sea ice may provide a rich<br />
source of ice-derived CDOM <strong>to</strong> melt w<strong>at</strong>er (Scully and<br />
Miller, 2000; Xie and Gosselin, 2005). Additionally, polar<br />
blooms can decay without signifi cant losses <strong>to</strong> zooplank<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
especially in <strong>the</strong> spring when zooplank<strong>to</strong>n grazing can<br />
be minimal (Caron et al., 2000; Overland and Stabeno,<br />
2004; Rose and Caron, 2007).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, soon after <strong>the</strong> opening of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
polynya in <strong>the</strong> austral spring, a Phaeocystis antarctica–<br />
domin<strong>at</strong>ed bloom regularly occurs (Smith et al., 2000),<br />
especially in w<strong>at</strong>ers away from <strong>the</strong> ice edge where iron
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions are lower and <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column is more<br />
deeply mixed. As is typical of polar regions, <strong>the</strong> massive<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n production th<strong>at</strong> is observed during <strong>the</strong> early<br />
stages of this bloom (in <strong>the</strong> early <strong>to</strong> mid austral spring) is<br />
not accompanied by signifi cant micro- or macrozooplank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
grazing (Caron et al., 2000). The spring bloom also<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be a period of low bacterial abundance and activity<br />
(Ducklow et al., 2001), although bacteria do bloom<br />
during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>er stages of <strong>the</strong> algal bloom, in early <strong>to</strong> mid<br />
summer, coinciding with an increase in dissolved and particul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
organic carbon (Carlson et al., 2000).<br />
Depending on physiological and hydrodynamic fac<strong>to</strong>rs,<br />
this ecological decoupling between primary productivity<br />
and both microbial productivity and grazing may<br />
cause <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n <strong>to</strong> sink out of <strong>the</strong> photic zone<br />
(DiTullio et al., 2000; Becquevort and Smith, 2001; Overland<br />
and Stabeno, 2004). This may lead <strong>to</strong> a signifi cant<br />
fl ux of organic m<strong>at</strong>ter <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ocean fl oor and <strong>to</strong> deepw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
CDOM production. Export of <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n out of<br />
<strong>the</strong> photic zone may also lead <strong>to</strong> a decoupling of bloom<br />
dynamics and CDOM cycling.<br />
Here we report on sp<strong>at</strong>ial and temporal p<strong>at</strong>terns in<br />
CDOM spectra observed during <strong>the</strong> early stages of <strong>the</strong> 2005<br />
austral spring Phaeocystis antarctica bloom in <strong>the</strong> seasonal<br />
Ross Sea polynya. Our results show th<strong>at</strong> CDOM changed<br />
very little during a period when chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ions increased<br />
more than one-hundred-fold. Implic<strong>at</strong>ions of this<br />
fi nding for CDOM cycling in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea are discussed.<br />
METHODS<br />
ROSS SEA SITE DESCRIPTION AND SAMPLING<br />
A fi eld campaign was conducted aboard <strong>the</strong> R/V<br />
N<strong>at</strong>haniel B. Palmer in <strong>the</strong> seasonal ice-free polynya in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea, Antarctica, from 8 November <strong>to</strong> 30 November<br />
2005 (Figure 1). During this time, <strong>the</strong> surface seaw<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
was approxim<strong>at</strong>ely – 1.8°C and <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
assemblage was domin<strong>at</strong>ed by colonial Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica. Three main hydrographic st<strong>at</strong>ions were occupied<br />
within <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea polynya for approxim<strong>at</strong>ely seven<br />
days each (i.e., R10, R13, R14). Seaw<strong>at</strong>er samples were<br />
collected from early morning hydrocasts (0400-0700 local<br />
time) directly from Niskin bottles <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> a conductivity,<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ure, and depth (CTD) rosette. Vertical profi les<br />
of a suite of routine measurements were obtained <strong>at</strong> each<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion including downwelling irradiance (and coupled incident<br />
surface irradiance), chl a, and CDOM absorption<br />
spectra. Additionally, a profi le of dissolved organic carbon<br />
(DOC) was collected <strong>at</strong> one st<strong>at</strong>ion (14F).<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 321<br />
FIGURE 1. Loc<strong>at</strong>ions of transect sampling st<strong>at</strong>ions south of New<br />
Zealand <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (open circles) and <strong>the</strong> main hydrographic<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions th<strong>at</strong> were occupied in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (solid black circles) during<br />
<strong>the</strong> NBP05-08 cruise. L<strong>at</strong>itude and longitude inform<strong>at</strong>ion for<br />
specifi c hydrographic st<strong>at</strong>ions (e.g., R10A and R10D) are given in<br />
fi gure captions 4, 5, 8 and 9.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> studying CDOM cycling in <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea, we also collected and analyzed surface w<strong>at</strong>er CDOM<br />
samples during our North-South transit from New Zealand<br />
through <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (28 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber– 7<br />
November, 2005). Transect sampling for CDOM was conducted<br />
from �49 <strong>to</strong> �75°S. Details of <strong>the</strong> cruise track, sampling<br />
pro<strong>to</strong>cols, analyses conducted and meteoro logical and<br />
sea ice conditions for <strong>the</strong> southbound transect are presented<br />
in Kiene et al. (2007). The transect encompassed open<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn sea-ice melt<br />
zone, and ice-covered areas near <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Ross Sea.<br />
Chlorophyll a was determined fl uorometrically by employing<br />
<strong>the</strong> acidifi c<strong>at</strong>ion method described by Strickland<br />
and Parsons (1968). Briefl y, 50– 250 mL of seaw<strong>at</strong>er was fi ltered<br />
on<strong>to</strong> a 25-mm GF/C glass fi ber fi lter (Wh<strong>at</strong>man Inc.,<br />
Floram Park, New Jersey) with low vacuum. Filters were<br />
placed in 5 mL of 90% HPLC-grade ace<strong>to</strong>ne and extracted<br />
for 24 h <strong>at</strong> – 20°C. Chlorophyll fl uorescence in <strong>the</strong> ace<strong>to</strong>ne<br />
extracts was quantifi ed with a Turner Designs 10-AU fl uorometer<br />
(Sunnyvale, Calafornia) before and after 80-�L addition<br />
of 10% HCl. Dissolved organic carbon samples were
322 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
collected and concentr<strong>at</strong>ions were determined by employing<br />
<strong>the</strong> techniques outlined in Qian and Mopper (1996).<br />
For nutrient and CDOM samples, seaw<strong>at</strong>er was collected<br />
directly from Niskin bottles by gravity fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
through a 20-�m Nitex mesh (held in a 47-mm-diameter<br />
polycarbon<strong>at</strong>e (PC) fi lter holder) followed by a precleaned<br />
0.2-�m AS 75 Polycap fi lter capsule (nylon membrane with<br />
a glass microfi ber prefi lter enclosed in a polypropylene<br />
housing). Silicone tubing was used <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tach <strong>the</strong> PC fi lter<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Niskin bottle spigot and <strong>the</strong> Polycap <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> PC fi lter<br />
outlet. Nutrient samples were collected in<strong>to</strong> 50-mL polypropylene<br />
centrifuge tubes, while samples for CDOM were<br />
fi ltered in<strong>to</strong> precleaned 80-mL Qorpak bottles sealed with<br />
Tefl on-lined caps (see Toole et al., 2003, for details regarding<br />
sample fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion and glassware prepar<strong>at</strong>ion). Nutrient<br />
samples were s<strong>to</strong>red frozen <strong>at</strong> �80°C until shipboard analysis<br />
by standard fl ow-injection techniques.<br />
CDOM ABSORPTION SPECTRA<br />
Absorbance spectra were determined with 0.2-�m fi ltered<br />
seaw<strong>at</strong>er samples th<strong>at</strong> were warmed <strong>to</strong> room temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
in <strong>the</strong> dark immedi<strong>at</strong>ely after <strong>the</strong>y were collected<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n analyzed soon <strong>the</strong>reafter (generally within 24 h).<br />
Absorbance spectra were determined in a 100-cm p<strong>at</strong>h<br />
length, Type II liquid capillary waveguide (World Precision<br />
Instruments) <strong>at</strong>tached <strong>to</strong> an Ocean Optics model<br />
SD2000 dual-channel fi ber-optic spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter and<br />
a Micropack DH 2000 UV-visible light source. Prior <strong>to</strong><br />
analysis, a sample or blank was fi rst deaer<strong>at</strong>ed with ultrahigh<br />
purity He in an 80-mL Qorpak bottle and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
pulled through <strong>the</strong> capillary cell slowly with a Rainin Rabbit<br />
peristaltic pump. Deaer<strong>at</strong>ion with He elimin<strong>at</strong>ed bubble<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> sample cell, while increasing <strong>the</strong> pH<br />
slightly from 8.0 <strong>to</strong> 8.3. This pH change is not expected <strong>to</strong><br />
affect absorption spectra, although this was not explicitly<br />
tested. The reference solution consisted of 0.2-�m-fi ltered<br />
0.7-M NaCl prepared from precombusted (600°C, 24 h)<br />
high-purity sodium chloride (99.8%, Baker Analyzed) and<br />
dissolved in high-purity (18.2 M� cm) labor<strong>at</strong>ory w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
obtained from a Millipore Milli-Q ultrapure w<strong>at</strong>er system<br />
(Millipore Corp., Billerica, Massachusetts). The sodium<br />
chloride solution was used <strong>to</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely m<strong>at</strong>ch <strong>the</strong><br />
ionic strength of <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea seaw<strong>at</strong>er samples and minimize<br />
spectral offsets due <strong>to</strong> refractive index effects. Even<br />
though a sodium chloride solution was used as a reference,<br />
sample absorbance spectra still exhibited small, variable<br />
baseline offsets (�0.005 AU). This was corrected for by<br />
adjusting <strong>the</strong> absorbance (Aλ) <strong>to</strong> zero between 650 and<br />
675 nm where <strong>the</strong> sample absorbance was assumed <strong>to</strong> be<br />
zero. The capillary cell was fl ushed after every fourth or<br />
fi fth seaw<strong>at</strong>er sample with deaer<strong>at</strong>ed Milli-Q w<strong>at</strong>er and<br />
high-purity, distilled-in-glass-grade methanol (Burdick and<br />
Jackson, Muskegon, Michigan). Corrected absorbance<br />
values were used <strong>to</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>e absorption coeffi cients:<br />
aλ � 2.303Aλ / l, (1)<br />
where l is <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>h length of <strong>the</strong> capillary cell. Each sample<br />
was analyzed in triplic<strong>at</strong>e, resulting in �2% rel<strong>at</strong>ive standard<br />
devi<strong>at</strong>ion (RSD) in spectral absorbance values �400<br />
nm. On <strong>the</strong> basis of three times <strong>the</strong> standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> sodium chloride reference, <strong>the</strong> limit of detection for<br />
measured absorption coeffi cients was approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 0.002<br />
m �1 . To characterize sample absorption, spectra were fi t<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> following exponential form (e.g., Twardowski et al.,<br />
2004):<br />
aλ � aλ o e �S(λ– λo) , (2)<br />
where aλ o is <strong>the</strong> absorption coeffi cient <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference<br />
wavelength, λo, and S is <strong>the</strong> spectral slope (nm �1 ). D<strong>at</strong>a<br />
were fi t <strong>to</strong> a single exponential equ<strong>at</strong>ion using SigmaPlot<br />
(SPSS Inc.). Slope coeffi cients were evalu<strong>at</strong>ed from 275 <strong>to</strong><br />
295 nm (S275–295; λo � 285 nm) and from 350 <strong>to</strong> 400 nm<br />
(S350–400; λo � 375 nm). These wavelength ranges were selected<br />
for study of spectral slopes instead of using broader<br />
wavelength ranges (e.g., 290– 700 nm) because <strong>the</strong> former<br />
can be measured with high precision and better refl ects<br />
biogeochemical changes in CDOM in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column<br />
(Helms et al., 2008).<br />
OPTICAL PROFILES<br />
Vertical profi les of spectral downwelling irradiance<br />
(Ed(z,λ)) and upwelling radiance (Lu(z,λ)), as well as <strong>the</strong><br />
time course of surface irradiance (Ed(0 � ,λ, t)), were determined<br />
separ<strong>at</strong>ely for ultraviolet and visible wavebands.<br />
Ultraviolet wavelengths were sampled using a Biospherical<br />
Instruments, Inc. (BSI, San Diego, California) PUV-2500<br />
Profi ling Ultraviolet Radiometer coupled with a continuously<br />
sampling, deck-mounted, cosine-corrected GUV-<br />
2511 Ground-based Ultraviolet Radiometer. Both sensors<br />
had a sampling r<strong>at</strong>e of approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 6 Hz and moni<strong>to</strong>red<br />
seven channels centered <strong>at</strong> 305, 313, 320, 340, 380, and<br />
395 nm, as well as integr<strong>at</strong>ed pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active<br />
radi<strong>at</strong>ion (PAR). Each channel had an approxim<strong>at</strong>e bandwidth<br />
of 10 nm, except for <strong>the</strong> 305-nm channel, whose<br />
bandwidth was determined by <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mospheric ozone cu<strong>to</strong>ff<br />
and <strong>the</strong> PAR channel, which moni<strong>to</strong>red <strong>the</strong> irradiance
from 400 <strong>to</strong> 700 nm. The irradiance <strong>at</strong> several visible<br />
wavelength channels, centered <strong>at</strong> 412, 443, 490, 510, 555,<br />
and 665 nm, as well as PAR, were determined with a BSI<br />
PRR-600 Profi ling Refl ectance Radiometer coupled <strong>to</strong> a<br />
radiometrically m<strong>at</strong>ched surface reference sensor (PRR-<br />
610). Similarly, both PRR sensors had a sampling r<strong>at</strong>e of<br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 6 Hz and an approxim<strong>at</strong>e bandwidth of<br />
10 nm. The PUV-2500 was deployed multiple times a day<br />
(generally, three <strong>to</strong> fi ve profi les per day) in free-fall mode,<br />
allowing it <strong>to</strong> sample <strong>at</strong> a distance of over 10 m from <strong>the</strong><br />
ship, minimizing effects from ship shadow and instrument<br />
tilt (W<strong>at</strong>ers et al., 1990). The PRR-600 was deployed several<br />
times per st<strong>at</strong>ion in a metal lowering frame via <strong>the</strong><br />
starboard side winch. Prior <strong>to</strong> each cast, <strong>the</strong> ship was oriented<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun <strong>to</strong> minimize ship shadow. The<br />
GUV-2511 and PRR-610 were mounted <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> deck, and<br />
care was taken <strong>to</strong> avoid shadows or refl ected light associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> ship’s superstructure. To reduce instrument<br />
variability due <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>mospheric temper<strong>at</strong>ure fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
<strong>the</strong> GUV-2511 was equipped with active internal he<strong>at</strong>ing.<br />
All calibr<strong>at</strong>ions utilized coeffi cients provided by BSI, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a were processed using standard procedures.<br />
Spectral downwelling <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients (Kd(λ),<br />
m �1 ) were derived from each PUV-2500 and PRR-600<br />
profi le as <strong>the</strong> slope of log-transformed Ed(z, λ) versus<br />
depth. On <strong>the</strong> basis of w<strong>at</strong>er clarity, <strong>the</strong> depth interval<br />
for this calcul<strong>at</strong>ion varied from � 10 m for shorter UV<br />
wavelengths up <strong>to</strong> 20-30 m for blue wavelengths of solar<br />
radi<strong>at</strong>ion. Daily mean Kd(λ) were derived as <strong>the</strong> average<br />
of individual Kd(λ) coeffi cients determined from each PUV<br />
and PRR profi le, and st<strong>at</strong>ion means were determined by<br />
averaging <strong>the</strong> daily Kd(λ) coeffi cients.<br />
RESULTS<br />
SAMPLE STORAGE AND SPECTRAL COMPARISON<br />
A s<strong>to</strong>rage test was conducted with seaw<strong>at</strong>er collected<br />
on 29 Oc<strong>to</strong>ber 2005 (52°59.90�S, 175°7.76�E) during <strong>the</strong><br />
transect from New Zealand <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. The sample<br />
was obtained from <strong>the</strong> ship’s underway pump system th<strong>at</strong><br />
had an intake depth <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 4 m. Seaw<strong>at</strong>er was<br />
fi ltered directly from <strong>the</strong> pump line through a 0.2-µm AS<br />
75 Polycap fi lter capsule in<strong>to</strong> an 80-mL Qorpak bottle<br />
and s<strong>to</strong>red in <strong>the</strong> dark <strong>at</strong> room temper<strong>at</strong>ure. When this<br />
sample was analyzed multiple times over a period of two<br />
weeks (n � 8), no change was observed in its absorption<br />
spectrum with respect <strong>to</strong> spectral absorption coeffi<br />
cients or spectral slopes. For example, a300 varied over a<br />
very narrow range from 0.196 <strong>to</strong> 0.202 m �1 with a mean<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 323<br />
value of 0.197 m �1 and 3.1% RSD. This RSD is only<br />
slightly larger than <strong>the</strong> RSD for replic<strong>at</strong>e analysis of <strong>the</strong><br />
same sample when done sequentially (�2%). Likewise,<br />
<strong>the</strong> spectral slope from 275 <strong>to</strong> 295 nm (S275-295) showed<br />
very little vari<strong>at</strong>ion over time, ranging from 0.0337 <strong>to</strong><br />
0.0377 nm �1 (0.0358 nm �1 mean and 3.4% RSD). The<br />
S350-400 varied somewh<strong>at</strong> more (11.8% RSD) due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lower aλ values, ranging from 0.0075 <strong>to</strong> 0.0111 nm �1 ,<br />
with a mean value of 0.009 nm �1 . A s<strong>to</strong>rage study with<br />
two o<strong>the</strong>r samples th<strong>at</strong> were collected along <strong>the</strong> transect<br />
showed similar results, with very little variability observed<br />
in ei<strong>the</strong>r aλ or S beyond <strong>the</strong> precision of sequential<br />
spectral measurements.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>rage study, absorption spectra<br />
obtained with <strong>the</strong> capillary waveguide system were compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> those obtained with <strong>the</strong> commonly used Perkin<br />
Elmer Lamda 18 dual-beam, gr<strong>at</strong>ing monochrom<strong>at</strong>or<br />
spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter. There was no st<strong>at</strong>istical difference in<br />
<strong>the</strong> spectral absorption coeffi cients obtained by <strong>the</strong>se two<br />
spectropho<strong>to</strong>meters, except for considerably more noise<br />
in aλ obtained with <strong>the</strong> Perkin Elmer spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter<br />
(Figure 2). The increased spectral noise seen with <strong>the</strong><br />
Beckman spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter was expected due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
short p<strong>at</strong>h length (0.10 m) and <strong>the</strong> extremely low<br />
absorbance values in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea seaw<strong>at</strong>er samples (e.g.,<br />
�0.009 AU <strong>at</strong> 400 nm), which were close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> detection<br />
limit of this instrument. In contrast, aλ spectra obtained<br />
FIGURE 2. Comparison of spectral absorption coeffi cients determined<br />
with a Perkin-Elmer Lambda 18 dual-beam spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter<br />
(circles) and a capillary waveguide spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter (solid<br />
line). A 10-cm cylindrical quartz cell was used <strong>to</strong> obtain spectral<br />
absorption coeffi cients with <strong>the</strong> Perkin-Elmer spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter.<br />
Absorbance spectra were referenced against a 0.7 M NaCl solution.
324 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
FIGURE 3. Sea surface a300 plotted as a function of degrees l<strong>at</strong>itude<br />
south for <strong>the</strong> Oct–Nov 2005 transect from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean south<br />
of New Zealand <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. All d<strong>at</strong>a were obtained from w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
collected from <strong>the</strong> ship’s underway seaw<strong>at</strong>er pump system (intake <strong>at</strong><br />
approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 4-m depth) th<strong>at</strong> was fi ltered inline through a 0.2-�m<br />
AS 75 Polycap fi lter. The dashed line represents <strong>the</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn extent of seasonal sea ice in our transect. For<br />
details regarding <strong>the</strong> transect, see Kiene et al. (2007).<br />
with <strong>the</strong> capillary waveguide were much smoo<strong>the</strong>r owing<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> much higher absorbance values due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> much<br />
longer p<strong>at</strong>h length (1 m) and <strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> spectrally average<br />
over several scans.<br />
TRANSECT AND ROSS SEA CDOM ABSORPTION SPECTRA<br />
Absorption coeffi cients obtained during our transect<br />
from New Zealand <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea were generally low,<br />
as exemplifi ed by a300 (Figure 3). Values for a300 ranged<br />
from 0.178 <strong>to</strong> 0.264 m �1 , with an average value of 0.209<br />
m �1 . Interestingly, absorption coeffi cients <strong>at</strong> 300 nm were<br />
consistently higher in samples collected with signifi cant ice<br />
cover (avg � SD: 0.231 � 0.014 m �1 ) compared <strong>to</strong> a300<br />
values collected in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean north of <strong>the</strong> sea ice<br />
(avg � SD: 0.195 � 0.017 m �1 ) (Figure 3), possibly due <strong>to</strong><br />
lower r<strong>at</strong>es of pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching or release of CDOM from<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea ice in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> underlying seaw<strong>at</strong>er (Scully and Miller,<br />
2000; Xie and Gosselin, 2005). However, we cannot exclude<br />
<strong>the</strong> possibility th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> ship caused some release of<br />
CDOM from <strong>the</strong> ice during our passage through it.<br />
Absorption coeffi cients were also low within <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea during <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica<br />
bloom, even when surface w<strong>at</strong>ers were visibly green (chl<br />
a � 4– 8 µg L �1 ). For example, <strong>the</strong> absorption coeffi cient<br />
spectrum <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion R14F was remarkably similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong><br />
obtained in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea during July 2004 (Figure 4),<br />
even though <strong>the</strong> chl a content of <strong>the</strong>se two w<strong>at</strong>er samples<br />
differed by two orders of magnitude (7.0 versus 0.08 �g<br />
L �1 , respectively). The main differences observed between<br />
<strong>the</strong> two spectra were seen <strong>at</strong> wavelengths less than approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
350 nm, with <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea sample exhibiting a<br />
much higher spectral slope (e.g., S275–295 of 0.0466 versus<br />
0.0273 nm �1 ) and <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea sample having a higher aλ<br />
between �300 and 350 nm. These differences are likely<br />
due <strong>to</strong> different au<strong>to</strong>chthonous sources of CDOM as well<br />
as <strong>the</strong> presence of micromolar levels of nitr<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
sample (and perhaps dissolved mycosporine amino<br />
acids (MAA) as well; see “Ross Sea Temporal Trends in<br />
CDOM” section) compared <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> low nanomolar levels<br />
of nitr<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> surface Sargasso Sea sample.<br />
FIGURE 4. Comparison of spectral absorption coeffi cients determined<br />
with seaw<strong>at</strong>er collected from 50 m in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea<br />
(30°55.5�N, 65°17.8�W) on 21 July 2004 (dotted line) and from<br />
40 m in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (77°31.2�S, 179°79.8�W) on 26 November<br />
2005 (st<strong>at</strong>ion R14B, solid line). Both samples were 0.2-�m gravity<br />
fi ltered prior <strong>to</strong> analysis. The chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ion was 0.08 and<br />
7.0 �g L �1 in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea and Ross Sea, respectively. Absorption<br />
spectra in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea were determined with a Hewlett<br />
Packard (HP) 8453 UV-Vis pho<strong>to</strong>diode array spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter<br />
equipped with a 5-cm p<strong>at</strong>h length rectangular microliter quartz fl ow<br />
cell; <strong>the</strong> Sargasso spectrum was referenced against Milli-Q w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
(for details, see Helms et al., 2008). The small discontinuity <strong>at</strong> 365<br />
nm is an artifact associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> HP spectropho<strong>to</strong>meter (Blough<br />
et al., 1993).
DOWNWELLING ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS<br />
The optical clarity of <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column was reduced<br />
considerably from before <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica<br />
bloom <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion R10 <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> cruise <strong>at</strong><br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion R14. Before <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica<br />
bloom (st<strong>at</strong>ions R10 and R13A– R13D), <strong>the</strong> photic<br />
zone exhibited a high degree of optical clarity, characteristic<br />
of type 1 open oceanic w<strong>at</strong>er (Mobley, 1994), with<br />
Kd(λ) decreasing exponentially in <strong>the</strong> UV with increasing<br />
wavelength and domin<strong>at</strong>ed by absorption by CDOM (Figure<br />
5). Prebloom Kd(λ) shown in Figure 5 for st<strong>at</strong>ion R10<br />
were nearly <strong>the</strong> same as observed <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ions R13A– R13D<br />
(d<strong>at</strong>a not shown). For st<strong>at</strong>ion R10, Kd(λ) ranged from 0.30<br />
<strong>to</strong> 0.38 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 305 nm, 0.18– 0.31 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 320 nm, and<br />
0.05– 0.15 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 395 nm. Because of low biomass (chl a<br />
� 0.6 �g L �1 ), <strong>the</strong> lowest values of Kd(λ), and <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
highest degree of optical clarity, were observed in <strong>the</strong> visible<br />
between approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 450 and 500 nm with Kd(λ)<br />
ranging from 0.05 <strong>to</strong> 0.11 m �1 . When <strong>the</strong> bloom started<br />
<strong>to</strong> develop, <strong>the</strong> optical characteristics of <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, includ-<br />
FIGURE 5. Spectral downwelling <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion coeffi cients derived<br />
from PUV-2500 and PRR-600 profi les both before <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica bloom (st<strong>at</strong>ion R10D, circles) and during <strong>the</strong> development<br />
of <strong>the</strong> bloom (st<strong>at</strong>ion R13E, triangles; st<strong>at</strong>ion R14D, squares). Lines<br />
connecting <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a do not represent a m<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ical fi t of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a.<br />
W<strong>at</strong>er column profi le cast loc<strong>at</strong>ions are as follows: R10D, 13 November<br />
2005 New Zealand (NZ) time <strong>at</strong> 76°5.74�S, 170°15.70�W;<br />
R13E, 22 November 2005 NZ time <strong>at</strong> 77°5.20�S, 177°24.49�W;<br />
and R14D, 28 November 2005 NZ time <strong>at</strong> 77°3.61�S, 178°49.06�E.<br />
All optical profi les were conducted <strong>at</strong> approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 1200 local<br />
noon NZ time.<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 325<br />
ing <strong>the</strong> spectral structure of Kd(λ), changed dram<strong>at</strong>ically.<br />
Over an approxim<strong>at</strong>ely three-week period, values of Kd(λ)<br />
increased by a fac<strong>to</strong>r of six or more <strong>at</strong> some wavelengths,<br />
with peaks observed <strong>at</strong> two optical channels, 340 � 10<br />
and 443 � 10 nm. At st<strong>at</strong>ions R13E and R14 (st<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
A through F) <strong>the</strong> bloom progressed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> point th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
w<strong>at</strong>er column was more transparent <strong>to</strong> some wavelengths<br />
in <strong>the</strong> UV (e.g., 380 nm) rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> wavelengths in <strong>the</strong> blue<br />
portion of <strong>the</strong> solar spectrum (Figure 5).<br />
ROSS SEA TEMPORAL TRENDS IN CDOM<br />
Although UV and visible downwelling <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
coeffi cients increased substantially when <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica bloom was well developed in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
(Figure 5), CDOM absorption coeffi cient spectra changed<br />
very little. To illustr<strong>at</strong>e this point, an absorption coeffi cient<br />
spectrum of a 10-m sample taken before <strong>the</strong> onset of <strong>the</strong><br />
bloom <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion R10 was compared <strong>to</strong> a spectrum determined<br />
for a 10-m sample <strong>at</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ion R14 when <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
was visibly green (Figure 6). As can be seen from comparison<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se two spectra, as well as from many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
spectra not shown here, <strong>the</strong>re was essentially no change in<br />
FIGURE 6. Spectral absorption coeffi cients plotted for 10-m samples<br />
from st<strong>at</strong>ions R10A (lower spectrum) and R14F (upper spectrum);<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itude-longitude d<strong>at</strong>a for <strong>the</strong>se st<strong>at</strong>ions are given in <strong>the</strong> Figure 8<br />
caption. Thick lines represent <strong>the</strong> best fi t of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a from 275 <strong>to</strong><br />
295 nm and 350 <strong>to</strong> 400 nm, employing nonlinear regression analysis<br />
(equ<strong>at</strong>ion 2). For st<strong>at</strong>ion R10A, S275–295 � 0.0280 � 0.0003 nm �1<br />
(r 2 � 0.997) and S350–400 � 0.0115 � 0.0003 nm �1 (r 2 � 0.904). For<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion R14F, S275–295 � 0.0237 � 0.0004 nm �1 (r 2 � 0.986) and<br />
S350–400 � 0.0117 � 0.0005 nm �1 (r 2 � 0.916).
326 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
absorption coeffi cients or spectral slopes (S350–400) <strong>at</strong> wavelengths<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er than approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 350 nm. At shorter<br />
wavelengths, absorption coeffi cients and spectral slopes<br />
(S275–295) varied by 15%– 30%, but with no consistent p<strong>at</strong>tern<br />
among <strong>the</strong> many samples analyzed during a period<br />
when Kd(340 and 443) and chl a changed by more than a<br />
fac<strong>to</strong>r of 6 and 100, respectively.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>re were generally only small changes in<br />
aλ spectra and S, <strong>the</strong>re was an indic<strong>at</strong>ion of a discernable<br />
increase in absorption coeffi cients in <strong>the</strong> vicinity of 330–<br />
350 nm seen in a few sample spectra (st<strong>at</strong>ion R14), with<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence of a small peak (or shoulder) noted in some<br />
cases. Previous results in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure suggest th<strong>at</strong> this<br />
peak may be due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence of MAA in <strong>the</strong> dissolved<br />
phase, possibly stemming from release by Phaeocystis antarctica,<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r through grazing, viral lysis, or direct release.<br />
The MAA are one of <strong>the</strong> primary UV-absorbing compounds<br />
detected in Phaeocystis antarctica (e.g., Riegger<br />
and Robinson, 1997; Moisan and Mitchell, 2001), and<br />
it would not be unreasonable for <strong>the</strong>re <strong>to</strong> be some algal<br />
release of MAA in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> dissolved phase. However, it is<br />
also possible th<strong>at</strong> this UV absorption peak was an artifact<br />
of sample fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion (cf. Laurion et al., 2003). While artifacts<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with sample fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion were not rigorously<br />
tested in this study, <strong>the</strong>y are probably minimal because<br />
we prescreened w<strong>at</strong>er by gravity through 20-�m Nitex<br />
mesh <strong>to</strong> remove large aggreg<strong>at</strong>es and Phaeocystis colonies<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n used gravity (hydrost<strong>at</strong>ic) pressure for fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
through a 0.2-�m AS 75 POLYCAP fi lter. When gentle<br />
vacuum fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion was tested on samples collected during<br />
<strong>the</strong> bloom, we often observed a 330- <strong>to</strong> 350-nm peak th<strong>at</strong><br />
was not seen in CDOM spectra of <strong>the</strong> same samples th<strong>at</strong><br />
were prescreened and gravity fi ltered. Vacuum fi ltr<strong>at</strong>ion is<br />
not recommended and may explain <strong>the</strong> presence of a peak<br />
in spectra for some samples th<strong>at</strong> were analyzed during a<br />
bloom in Marguerite Bay along <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula<br />
(P<strong>at</strong>terson, 2000).<br />
The striking lack of change in CDOM spectra and<br />
spectral slopes during <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica bloom was also seen in temporal trends<br />
in surface aλ. Using 340 nm as an example, surface values<br />
of a340 in <strong>the</strong> upper 10 m did not appreciably change<br />
from 8 November (0.0782 m �1 ) <strong>to</strong> 29 November (0.0837<br />
m �1 ), while over <strong>the</strong> same time frame, chl a changed by<br />
more than a fac<strong>to</strong>r of 100 from 0.084 <strong>to</strong> 8.45 �g L �1<br />
(Figure 7A). As with 340 nm, no signifi cant changes in<br />
aλ were observed <strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r wavelengths during <strong>the</strong> development<br />
of <strong>the</strong> bloom. Even though CDOM absorption<br />
coeffi cients did not change over time, downwelling <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
coeffi cients increased dram<strong>at</strong>ically (Figure 7B),<br />
FIGURE 7. Temporal trends in (A) surface chl a and a340 and (B)<br />
Kd(340) and a340 from 8 November <strong>to</strong> 29 November 2005 (NZ<br />
time) in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea, Antarctica. (C) Chlorophyll a plotted against<br />
Kd(340). In Figure 7C, <strong>the</strong> line denotes <strong>the</strong> best fi t obtained from linear<br />
correl<strong>at</strong>ion analysis: r 2 � 0.900, Kd(340) � 0.053chl a � 0.128<br />
paralleling increases in chl a (Figure 7C), especially in<br />
<strong>the</strong> vicinity of 340 and 443 nm (Figure 5), corresponding<br />
<strong>to</strong> particul<strong>at</strong>e MAA and chl a absorption, respectively.<br />
The strong correl<strong>at</strong>ion between Kd(340) and chl a shown<br />
in Figure 7C was also seen when Kd(443) was plotted<br />
against chl a (r 2 � 0.937, d<strong>at</strong>a not shown). The nonzero
y-intercept in Figure 7C denotes <strong>the</strong> background Kd(340)<br />
signal <strong>at</strong> very low chl a due <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er, CDOM, and particles<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea.<br />
The lack of a clear temporal trend noted in aλ surface<br />
values during <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica bloom in<br />
November 2005 was also evident in aλ and spectral slope<br />
depth profi les (Figures 8 and 9, respectively). Although we<br />
obtained multiple profi les <strong>at</strong> each st<strong>at</strong>ion, results for only<br />
four CTD casts are shown in Figures 8 and 9 for clarity,<br />
with <strong>at</strong> least one CTD profi le depicted for each main<br />
hydrost<strong>at</strong>ion (R10, R13, and R14). The absorption coeffi<br />
cient <strong>at</strong> 300 nm varied from approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 0.18 <strong>to</strong> 0.30<br />
m �1 in <strong>the</strong> upper 100 m, with no temporal trend observed;<br />
some of <strong>the</strong> lowest and highest values were observed early<br />
and l<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> cruise (Figure 8A). In <strong>the</strong> upper 50 m, l<strong>at</strong>er<br />
in <strong>the</strong> cruise, a340 showed somewh<strong>at</strong> higher values <strong>at</strong> sta-<br />
FIGURE 8. Depth profi les of (A) absorption coeffi cient <strong>at</strong> 300 nm,<br />
(B) absorption coeffi cient <strong>at</strong> 340 nm, and (C) chl a. (D) Plot of<br />
a340 versus chl a; linear correl<strong>at</strong>ion result is a340 � 0.0046chl a �<br />
0.091 with r 2 � 0.384. Symbols are: diamonds, st<strong>at</strong>ion R10A (CTD<br />
cast <strong>at</strong> 0754 local NZ time on 10 November 2005; 76°13.85�S,<br />
170°18.12�W); squares, st<strong>at</strong>ion R13A (CTD cast <strong>at</strong> 0817 local NZ<br />
time on 18 November 2005; 77°35.16�S, 178°34.57�W); triangles,<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion R13E (CTD cast <strong>at</strong> 0823 local NZ time on 22 November<br />
2005; 77°12.61�S, 177°23.73�W); and circles, st<strong>at</strong>ion R14F (CTD<br />
cast <strong>at</strong> 0734 local NZ time on 30 November 2005; 77°15.35�S,<br />
179°15.35�E).<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 327<br />
tions R13E and R14F compared <strong>to</strong> st<strong>at</strong>ions R10 and R13A<br />
(Figure 8B), as did chl a (Figure 8C). However, while a340<br />
increased by 40%– 60%, chl a increased by more than two<br />
orders of magnitude. It was <strong>the</strong>refore not surprising th<strong>at</strong><br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ions in a340 did not correl<strong>at</strong>e well with changes in chl<br />
a (r 2 � 0.384), as shown in Figure 8D.<br />
Spectral slopes also did not vary with any consistent<br />
trend. S275-295 showed less than 25% vari<strong>at</strong>ion over depth<br />
and time, ranging from �0.023 <strong>to</strong> 0.031 nm �1 (average<br />
0.027 nm �1 , n � 58, 7% RSD) during <strong>the</strong> cruise. Trends<br />
in S350–400 were more variable (range 0.009– 0.017 nm �1 ,<br />
average 0.012 nm �1 , n � 58, 15% RSD) but still showed<br />
no consistent trend with depth or time (Figure 9A and<br />
9B). This variability was also seen in <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>io of <strong>the</strong> spectral<br />
slopes (Figure 9C), which showed no correl<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong><br />
chl a (r 2 � 0.143; Figure 9D).<br />
FIGURE 9. Depth profi les of (A) CDOM spectral slope from 275 <strong>to</strong><br />
295 nm, (B) CDOM spectral slope from 350 <strong>to</strong> 400 nm, and (C) <strong>the</strong><br />
spectral slope r<strong>at</strong>io (S275– 295:S350– 400). Horizontal error bars denote<br />
<strong>the</strong> standard devi<strong>at</strong>ion. (D) Spectral slope r<strong>at</strong>io (SR) plotted against<br />
chl a; linear correl<strong>at</strong>ion results were SR � �0.0447chl a � 2.37,<br />
with r 2 � 0.143 (line not shown). For all four panels, symbols are:<br />
diamonds (st<strong>at</strong>ion R10A), squares (st<strong>at</strong>ion R13A), triangles (st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
R13E), and circles (st<strong>at</strong>ion R14F). Cast times and st<strong>at</strong>ion loc<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are given in Figure 8 caption.
328 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
CDOM absorption coeffi cients in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean<br />
and Ross Sea were consistently low throughout <strong>the</strong> cruise<br />
and along <strong>the</strong> transect south from New Zealand, with values<br />
signifi cantly less than unity <strong>at</strong> wavelengths �300 nm<br />
(e.g., 0.15– 0.32 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 300 nm). The aλ values determined<br />
in this study are slightly lower than values reported in <strong>the</strong><br />
Weddell– Scotia Sea confl uence (Yocis et al., 2000) and<br />
along <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula (Sarpal et al., 1995; Yocis<br />
et al., 2000) (a300, range 0.19– 0.58 m �1 ) and are similar<br />
<strong>to</strong> values obtained on a 2004– 2005 Ross Sea cruise (a300,<br />
range �0.29– 0.32 m �1 ) during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter stages of <strong>the</strong><br />
Phaeocystis antarctica bloom and transition <strong>to</strong> a di<strong>at</strong>omdomin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
bloom (Kieber et al., 2007). These published<br />
fi ndings, along with results from our transect study and<br />
Ross Sea sampling, suggest th<strong>at</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively low values of aλ<br />
are a general fe<strong>at</strong>ure of Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers. By comparison,<br />
a300 values in <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait– Chukchi Sea are higher,<br />
ranging from 0.3 <strong>to</strong> 2.1 m �1 , with an average of 1.1 m �1<br />
(n � 62) (Ferenac, 2006). Similarly high a300 values in <strong>the</strong><br />
Greenland Sea (Stedmon and Markager, 2001) suggest<br />
th<strong>at</strong> aλ values in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic are generally lower than<br />
those in Arctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, perhaps due <strong>to</strong> terrestrial inputs of<br />
DOM in <strong>the</strong> Arctic (Opsahl et al., 1999) th<strong>at</strong> are lacking<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic.<br />
Although Ross Sea absorption coeffi cients were similar<br />
<strong>to</strong> those in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea <strong>at</strong> longer wavelengths �350<br />
nm, absorption coeffi cient spectra were different in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea <strong>at</strong> shorter wavelengths (Figure 4), with higher aλ<br />
seen between approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 290 and 350 nm. To illustr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
this point fur<strong>the</strong>r, we computed a325 on all casts and depths<br />
(in <strong>the</strong> upper 140 m) during our cruise (n � 68) in order <strong>to</strong><br />
directly compare <strong>the</strong>m <strong>to</strong> results obtained by Nelson et al.<br />
(2007) in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea. The a325 values obtained during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica bloom were, on average (� SD)<br />
0.142 (�0.017) and 0.153 (�0.023) m �1 (with an RSD of<br />
12% and 15%) before and during <strong>the</strong> bloom, respectively,<br />
with no temporal trends noted. If we consider a325 before<br />
<strong>the</strong> bloom (0.142 m �1 ) and subtract <strong>the</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>ed contribution<br />
due <strong>to</strong> nitr<strong>at</strong>e (present <strong>at</strong> 30 �M in <strong>the</strong> photic zone),<br />
<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> average a325 value due <strong>to</strong> CDOM is 0.120 m �1 .<br />
This is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely a fac<strong>to</strong>r of 2.5 higher than a325 values<br />
reported by Nelson et al. (2007) in <strong>the</strong> surface Sargasso Sea<br />
(�0.05 m �1 <strong>at</strong> 325 nm) and reported by Morel et al. (2007)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> South Pacifi c gyre.<br />
While our a325 values are higher than those Nelson<br />
et al. (2007) found in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea, <strong>the</strong>y are comparable<br />
<strong>to</strong> those Nelson et al. (2007) reported in <strong>the</strong> Subpo-<br />
lar Gyre (�0.14– 0.26 m �1 ), consistent with a slight poleward<br />
trend of increasing a325 in open ocean w<strong>at</strong>ers due <strong>to</strong><br />
a poleward decrease in CDOM pho<strong>to</strong>lysis r<strong>at</strong>es and an<br />
increase in mixed layer depth (Nelson and Siegel, 2002).<br />
However, since not all wavelengths showed <strong>the</strong> same difference<br />
between samples (see Figure 4; e.g., aλ �290 nm<br />
were smaller in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea compared <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sargasso<br />
Sea), care should be taken in extrapol<strong>at</strong>ing trends for all<br />
wavelengths given th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are likely regional differences<br />
in spectral shapes due <strong>to</strong> differences in CDOM source and<br />
removal p<strong>at</strong>hways.<br />
The supposition th<strong>at</strong> CDOM pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
are slow in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers is supported by fi eld evidence.<br />
When 0.2-�m-fi ltered Ross Sea seaw<strong>at</strong>er samples in<br />
quartz tubes were exposed <strong>to</strong> sunlight for approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
eight hours, no measurable CDOM pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching was<br />
observed. This contrasts results from <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea or<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r tropical and temper<strong>at</strong>e w<strong>at</strong>ers, where �10% loss in<br />
CDOM absorption coeffi cients is observed after six <strong>to</strong> eight<br />
hours of exposure <strong>to</strong> sunlight (D. J. Kieber, unpublished<br />
results). This difference is likely driven by lower actinic<br />
fl uxes <strong>at</strong> polar l<strong>at</strong>itudes. However, differences in DOM<br />
reactivity cannot be ruled out. In addition <strong>to</strong> direct pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching<br />
experiments, no evidence for pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching<br />
was observed in aCDOM depth profi les. At 300 nm, for example,<br />
absorption coeffi cients were uniform in <strong>the</strong> upper<br />
100 m or showed a slight increase near <strong>the</strong> surface (Figure<br />
8), a trend th<strong>at</strong> is opposite of wh<strong>at</strong> would be expected if<br />
CDOM pho<strong>to</strong>lysis (bleaching) controlled near-surface aλ.<br />
It is also possible th<strong>at</strong> mixing masked pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching, but<br />
this was not evalu<strong>at</strong>ed.<br />
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT AT 443 nm<br />
Understanding wh<strong>at</strong> controls sp<strong>at</strong>ial and temporal<br />
trends in near-surface light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion is critical <strong>to</strong> accur<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
interpret remotely sensed ocean color d<strong>at</strong>a from <strong>the</strong><br />
Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) or future<br />
missions (see Smith and Comiso, 2009, this volume). One<br />
of <strong>the</strong> primary limit<strong>at</strong>ions in using s<strong>at</strong>ellite ocean color d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
<strong>to</strong> model CDOM distributions is <strong>the</strong> lack of directly measured<br />
CDOM spectra in <strong>the</strong> oceans for model calibr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and valid<strong>at</strong>ion, particularly in open oceanic environments<br />
and polar w<strong>at</strong>ers (Siegel et al., 2002). The 443 waveband<br />
corresponds <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> chl a absorption peak and is often used<br />
in bio-optical algorithms for pigment concentr<strong>at</strong>ions, although<br />
model estim<strong>at</strong>es suggest th<strong>at</strong> CDOM and detrital<br />
absorption account globally for �50% of <strong>to</strong>tal nonw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
absorption <strong>at</strong> this wavelength (Siegel et al., 2002). During
our cruise, chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ions varied one-hundred-fold,<br />
while a443 varied approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 35% and showed no correl<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> chl a. In <strong>the</strong> upper w<strong>at</strong>er column, a443 was,<br />
on average (� SD) 0.032 (�0.011) m �1 , with no difference<br />
observed in prebloom values (0.031 � 0.011 m �1 )<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> values obtained during <strong>the</strong> bloom (0.033 �<br />
0.012 m �1 ). These observ<strong>at</strong>ions fall within <strong>the</strong> range of<br />
wintertime zonally predicted values for sou<strong>the</strong>rn l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
between approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 60° and 75°S (�0.009– 0.05 m �1 )<br />
(Siegel et al., 2002) and suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
bloom is not directly responsible for <strong>the</strong> observed CDOM<br />
absorption.<br />
While we do not have direct observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> calcul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> contribution of CDOM absorption <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal absorption,<br />
Kd(λ) values allow us <strong>to</strong> assess <strong>the</strong> contribution of<br />
CDOM <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal light <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion. Kd(λ) calcul<strong>at</strong>ed from<br />
upper ocean optical profi les is <strong>the</strong> sum of component Kd(λ)<br />
from pure w<strong>at</strong>er, CDOM, and particul<strong>at</strong>e m<strong>at</strong>erial (phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
and detritus). The contribution from particul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial can be determined using Kd(λ) from pure w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
(Morel and Mari<strong>to</strong>rena, 2001) in conjunction with measured<br />
CDOM absorption coeffi cients. To a fi rst approxim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> particul<strong>at</strong>e m<strong>at</strong>ter is expected <strong>to</strong> be<br />
living phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n, as <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is sp<strong>at</strong>ially removed<br />
from sources of terrigenous m<strong>at</strong>erial. At <strong>the</strong> prebloom st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
R10A, <strong>the</strong> chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> upper 30 m was,<br />
on average (�SD), 0.51 (�0.04) �g L �1 and Kd(443) was<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively low (0.0684 m �1 ). Pure w<strong>at</strong>er contributed 14.5%<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> 443 nm while CDOM accounted<br />
for 42.8% (�4.7%) (avg � RSD) of <strong>the</strong> non w<strong>at</strong>er absorption,<br />
with 57.2% (�4.7%) accounted for by particles. At<br />
<strong>the</strong> bloom st<strong>at</strong>ion R14D, <strong>the</strong> average chl a concentr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
was an order of magnitude gre<strong>at</strong>er (6.87 � 1.4 �g L �1 ),<br />
and pure w<strong>at</strong>er contributed 2.1% of <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong><br />
443 nm. Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter accounted<br />
for only 3.5% (�0.9%) of <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal nonw<strong>at</strong>er <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
with particles contributing <strong>the</strong> remaining 96.5% (�0.9%).<br />
Not surprisingly, this confi rms th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>tenu<strong>at</strong>ion of blue<br />
and green wavelengths was domin<strong>at</strong>ed by particles and not<br />
by dissolved constituents during <strong>the</strong> bloom.<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> current suite of s<strong>at</strong>ellite algorithms (e.g.,<br />
OC4v4, O’Reilly et al., 2000) have been shown <strong>to</strong> poorly<br />
predict chl a in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, potentially because of<br />
<strong>the</strong> unique optical properties of large Phaeocystis antarctica<br />
colonies or <strong>the</strong> assumption th<strong>at</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column optical<br />
properties covary with chl a (e.g., Siegel et al., 2005). Our<br />
results confi rm th<strong>at</strong> semianalytical approaches, which individually<br />
solve for optical components, are necessary <strong>to</strong><br />
describe <strong>the</strong> decoupling of CDOM and particul<strong>at</strong>e m<strong>at</strong>e-<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 329<br />
rial during Phaeocystis antarctica blooms in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
and ultim<strong>at</strong>ely allow accur<strong>at</strong>e chl a retrievals.<br />
SPECTRAL SLOPE<br />
The spectral slope (S) varies substantially in n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers,<br />
and it has been used <strong>to</strong> provide inform<strong>at</strong>ion about <strong>the</strong><br />
source, structure, and his<strong>to</strong>ry of CDOM (Blough and Del<br />
Vecchio, 2002). However, while spectral slopes have been<br />
reported in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure for a range of n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are nearly impossible <strong>to</strong> compare because of differences in<br />
how S values have been determined and because different<br />
wavelength ranges have been considered (Twardowski et<br />
al., 2004). Indeed, when we employed a nonlinear fi tting<br />
routine <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> spectral slope over several broad<br />
wavelength ranges, a range of S values was obtained for<br />
<strong>the</strong> same w<strong>at</strong>er sample [e.g., 0.0159 nm �1 (290– 500 nm),<br />
0.0124 nm �1 (320– 500 nm), 0.0118 nm �1 (340– 500 nm),<br />
0.0133 nm �1 (360– 500 nm), 0.0159 nm �1 (380– 500 nm),<br />
0.0164 nm �1 (400– 500 nm)]. These vari<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> slope<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> Antaractic aλ spectra do not fi t a simple exponential<br />
function, as also observed by Sarpal et al. (1995) for<br />
samples along <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula. Therefore, instead<br />
of computing S over rel<strong>at</strong>ively broad wavelength ranges,<br />
we chose instead <strong>to</strong> compute S over two rel<strong>at</strong>ively narrow<br />
wavelength ranges proposed by Helms et al. (2008), 275–<br />
295 nm and 350– 400 nm. These wavelength ranges were<br />
chosen because <strong>the</strong>y can be determined with high precision<br />
and <strong>the</strong>y are less prone <strong>to</strong> errors in how <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a are m<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ically<br />
fi t rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> broad wavelength ranges (e.g., 290–<br />
700 nm; Helms et al., 2008). Additionally, <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>io, SR,<br />
for <strong>the</strong>se two wavelength ranges should facilit<strong>at</strong>e comparison<br />
of different n<strong>at</strong>ural w<strong>at</strong>ers. In our study, <strong>the</strong> spectral<br />
slope between 275 and 295 nm was in all cases signifi cantly<br />
higher than <strong>at</strong> 350– 400 nm (�0.028 nm �1 versus �0.013<br />
nm �1 , respectively), and SR was low, ranging between 1 and<br />
3, with an average value of 2.32 (e.g., Figure 9C).<br />
Our SR are similar <strong>to</strong> coastal values observed in <strong>the</strong><br />
Georgia Bight (avg � SD: 1.75 � 0.15) and elsewhere even<br />
though aλ in coastal areas are much higher than we observed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (e.g., �1 m �1 versus �0.3 m �1 <strong>at</strong><br />
300 nm, respectively). Likewise, <strong>the</strong> SR values we found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ross Sea are much lower than those observed in open<br />
oceanic sites, where values as high as 9 or more have been<br />
observed (Helms et al., 2008). Helms et al. (2008) found<br />
a strong positive correl<strong>at</strong>ion between SR and <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
proportion of low molecular weight DOM versus high molecular<br />
weight (HMW) DOM in <strong>the</strong> sample. If <strong>the</strong> results of<br />
Helms et al. can be extrapol<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, <strong>the</strong>n
330 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / KIEBER, TOOLE, AND KIENE<br />
our low SR results would suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea samples<br />
contained a rel<strong>at</strong>ively high proportion of HMW DOM<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> is observed in oligotrophic w<strong>at</strong>ers. The<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively higher molecular weight DOM and low SR in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea may be rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching r<strong>at</strong>es<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are observed in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, since pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching<br />
is <strong>the</strong> main mechanism <strong>to</strong> increase SR and remove HMW<br />
DOM (Helms et al., 2008).<br />
CDOM SOURCE<br />
The CDOM present in coastal areas near rivers and in<br />
estuaries in subtropical-temper<strong>at</strong>e and nor<strong>the</strong>rn boreal l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
is predominantly of terrestrial origin (e.g., Blough et<br />
al., 1993; Blough and Del Vecchio, 2002; Rochelle-Newall<br />
and Fisher, 2002a), but in <strong>the</strong> open ocean, as in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic,<br />
terrigenous CDOM is only a minor component of<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal DOM pool (Opsahl and Benner, 1997; Nelson<br />
and Siegel, 2002).<br />
Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n are expected <strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> main source of<br />
CDOM in <strong>the</strong> open ocean, although <strong>the</strong>y are not thought<br />
<strong>to</strong> be directly responsible for CDOM production (Bricaud<br />
et al., 1981; Carder et al., 1989; Del Castillo et al.,<br />
2000; Nelson et al., 1998, 2004; Rochelle-Newall and<br />
Fisher 2002b; Ferenac, 2006). Our results are consistent<br />
with this fi nding (Figure 7). With no substantial grazing<br />
pressure (Rose and Caron, 2007, and as noted by our<br />
colleagues D. Caron and R. Gast during our cruise <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Ross Sea in early November 2005) and very low bacterial<br />
activity (Ducklow et al., 2001; Del Valle et al., in press),<br />
it is not surprising th<strong>at</strong> CDOM a300 and a340 changed<br />
very little during <strong>the</strong> bloom. In fact, a300 did not apparently<br />
increase even during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter stages of <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea Phaeocystis antarctica bloom when <strong>the</strong> microbial activity<br />
was higher (Kieber et al., 2007: fi g. 5). This fi nding<br />
is r<strong>at</strong>her remarkable since DOC is known <strong>to</strong> increase<br />
by �50% during <strong>the</strong> Phaeocystis antarctica bloom from<br />
�42 <strong>to</strong> �60 �M in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea (Carlson et al., 1998).<br />
We also observed a DOC increase during our cruise from<br />
background levels (�43 �M <strong>at</strong> 130 m) <strong>to</strong> 53-�M DOC<br />
near <strong>the</strong> surface (based on one DOC profi le obtained <strong>at</strong><br />
our last st<strong>at</strong>ion, R14F, on 30 November 2005). This difference<br />
suggests th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> DOC increase was due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
release of nonchromophoric m<strong>at</strong>erial by Phaeocystis antarctica.<br />
Field results support this supposition, showing<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> main DOC produced by Phaeocystis antarctica<br />
is carbohydr<strong>at</strong>es (M<strong>at</strong>hot et al., 2000).<br />
The temporal and sp<strong>at</strong>ial decoupling between DOC<br />
and CDOM cycles in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea photic zone indic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
th<strong>at</strong> CDOM was produced l<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> season or elsewhere<br />
in <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er column. Since evidence from Kieber et al.<br />
(2007) suggests th<strong>at</strong> additional CDOM did not accumul<strong>at</strong>e<br />
l<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong> season, it was likely produced elsewhere.<br />
Previous studies have shown th<strong>at</strong> sea ice is a rich source of<br />
CDOM (Scully and Miller, 2000; Xie and Gosselin, 2005).<br />
It is <strong>the</strong>refore possible th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> pack ice along <strong>the</strong> edges<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Polynya was an important source of CDOM in <strong>the</strong><br />
photic zone, especially <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> ice, which was<br />
visibly light brown with ice algae. It is also possible th<strong>at</strong><br />
CDOM was produced below <strong>the</strong> photic zone and reached<br />
<strong>the</strong> photic layer via vertical mixing. Several lines of evidence<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> Ross Sea Phaeocystis antarctica may<br />
be exported out of <strong>the</strong> photic zone (DiTullio et al., 2000;<br />
Rellinger et al., in press) and perhaps reach <strong>the</strong> ocean fl oor<br />
(�900 m) (DiTullio et al., 2000), as seen in <strong>the</strong> Arctic.<br />
Arctic algal blooms often occur in <strong>the</strong> early spring when<br />
<strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er is still <strong>to</strong>o cold for signifi cant zooplank<strong>to</strong>n grazing<br />
and bacterial growth (Overland and Stabeno, 2004).<br />
As a consequence, <strong>the</strong> algae sink out of <strong>the</strong> photic zone<br />
and settle <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ocean fl oor r<strong>at</strong>her than being consumed,<br />
<strong>the</strong>reby providing a DOM source for long-term CDOM<br />
production in dark bot<strong>to</strong>m w<strong>at</strong>ers. A similar phenomenon<br />
may occur in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea. The possibility th<strong>at</strong> CDOM<br />
may be gener<strong>at</strong>ed in deep w<strong>at</strong>ers, with no pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching,<br />
might explain <strong>the</strong> high pho<strong>to</strong>sensitizing capacity of<br />
this CDOM for important reactions like DMS pho<strong>to</strong>lysis<br />
(Toole et al., 2004).<br />
Deepw<strong>at</strong>er production of CDOM in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea<br />
would explain why our a325 values are comparable <strong>to</strong><br />
those observed by Nelson et al. (2007: fi gs. 8– 9) in deep<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er (�0.1– 0.2 m �1 ) and nearly <strong>the</strong> same as would be<br />
predicted on <strong>the</strong> basis of values in Antarctic Bot<strong>to</strong>m W<strong>at</strong>er<br />
and Antarctic Intermedi<strong>at</strong>e W<strong>at</strong>er (average of �0.13– 0.14<br />
m �1 ). Although specul<strong>at</strong>ive, it is possible th<strong>at</strong> CDOM<br />
is exported from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> deep w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>at</strong><br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e- subtropical l<strong>at</strong>itudes, which would be consistent<br />
with CDOM as a tracer of oceanic circul<strong>at</strong>ion ( Nelson<br />
et al., 2007).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> necessity of understanding <strong>the</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial<br />
and temporal distributions of CDOM for remote sensing,<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>chemical, and biogeochemical applic<strong>at</strong>ions, few<br />
measurements have been made in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean.<br />
Our results indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> Antarctic CDOM shows spectral<br />
properties th<strong>at</strong> are intermedi<strong>at</strong>e between wh<strong>at</strong> is observed
in coastal environments and properties observed in <strong>the</strong><br />
main oceanic gyres. We suggest this trend is largely due <strong>to</strong><br />
slow pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching r<strong>at</strong>es and shading from Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica and o<strong>the</strong>r bloom-forming species th<strong>at</strong> contain<br />
substantial MAA.<br />
While CDOM spectral absorption coeffi cients are<br />
low in Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers, <strong>the</strong>y are generally higher than<br />
surface w<strong>at</strong>er aλ in low-l<strong>at</strong>itude, open-ocean w<strong>at</strong>ers, such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea, supporting <strong>the</strong> supposition of a poleward<br />
increase in aCDOM in <strong>the</strong> open ocean. Our results<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> CDOM in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea is not coupled directly<br />
<strong>to</strong> algal production of organic m<strong>at</strong>ter in <strong>the</strong> photic<br />
zone. This indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> case I bio-optical algorithms,<br />
in which all in-w<strong>at</strong>er constituents and <strong>the</strong> underw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
light fi eld are modeled <strong>to</strong> covary with chl a (e.g., Morel<br />
and Mari<strong>to</strong>rena, 2001), are inappropri<strong>at</strong>e. The decoupling<br />
of <strong>the</strong> phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n bloom and CDOM dynamics<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>es th<strong>at</strong> CDOM is produced from sea ice or <strong>the</strong><br />
microbial degrad<strong>at</strong>ion of algal-derived dissolved organic<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ter th<strong>at</strong> was exported out of <strong>the</strong> photic zone. Ross<br />
Sea CDOM absorption coeffi cients are similar in magnitude<br />
<strong>to</strong> values in Antarctic-infl uenced deep w<strong>at</strong>ers of<br />
<strong>the</strong> North Atlantic (Nelson et al., 2007), suggesting longrange<br />
transport of CDOM produced in <strong>the</strong> Ross Sea via<br />
Antarctic Intermedi<strong>at</strong>e and Bot<strong>to</strong>m W<strong>at</strong>er.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This work was supported by <strong>the</strong> NSF (grant OPP-<br />
0230499, DJK; grant OPP-0230497, RPK). Any opinions,<br />
fi ndings, and conclusions or recommend<strong>at</strong>ions expressed<br />
in this paper are those of <strong>the</strong> authors and do not necessarily<br />
refl ect <strong>the</strong> views of <strong>the</strong> NSF. The authors gr<strong>at</strong>efully acknowledge<br />
<strong>the</strong> chief scientists for <strong>the</strong> Oc<strong>to</strong>ber– December<br />
2005 Ross Sea cruise, Wade Jeffery (University of West<br />
Florida) and P<strong>at</strong>rick Neale (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental<br />
Research Center). Thanks are also extended <strong>to</strong> P<strong>at</strong>rick<br />
Neale, Wade Jeffery, and <strong>the</strong>ir research groups for collection<br />
of <strong>the</strong> optics profi les, and <strong>the</strong> captain and crew<br />
of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>hanial B. Palmer for technical assistance. We<br />
also thank Joaquim Goes (Bigelow Labor<strong>at</strong>ory for Ocean<br />
Sciences), Helga do S. Gomes (Bigelow Labor<strong>at</strong>ory for<br />
Ocean Sciences), Cristina Sobrino (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental<br />
Research Center), George Westby (St<strong>at</strong>e University<br />
of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry:<br />
SUNY-ESF), John Bisgrove (SUNY-ESF), Hyakubun<br />
Harada (Dauphin Island Sea Lab, University of South<br />
Alabama), Jennifer Meeks (Dauphin Island Sea Lab, University<br />
of South Alabama), Jordan Brinkley (SUNY-ESF),<br />
CHROMOPHORIC DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER CYCLING 331<br />
and Daniela del Valle (Dauphin Island Sea Lab, University<br />
of South Alabama) for <strong>the</strong>ir technical help with sampling<br />
during this study.<br />
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Canada, 167: 1– 311.<br />
Toole, D. A., D. J. Kieber, R. P. Kiene, D. A. Siegel, and N. B. Nelson.<br />
2003. Pho<strong>to</strong>lysis and <strong>the</strong> Dimethyl Sulfi de (DMS) Summer Paradox<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Sargasso Sea. Limnology and Oceanography, 48: 1088– 1100.<br />
Toole, D. A., D. J. Kieber, R. P. Kiene, E. M. White, J. Bisgrove, D. A. del<br />
Valle, and D. Slezak. 2004. High Dimethylsulfi de Pho<strong>to</strong>lysis R<strong>at</strong>es<br />
in Nitr<strong>at</strong>e-Rich Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers. Geophysical Research Letters,<br />
31: L11307, doi: 10.1029/2004GL019863.<br />
Twardowski, M. S., E. Boss, J. M. Sullivan, and P. L. Donaghay. 2004.<br />
Modeling <strong>the</strong> Spectral Shape of Absorption by Chromophoric Dissolved<br />
Organic M<strong>at</strong>ter. Marine Chemistry, 89: 69– 88.<br />
Vähätalo, A. V., and R. G. Wetzel. 2004. Pho<strong>to</strong>chemical and Microbial<br />
Decomposition of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic M<strong>at</strong>ter during<br />
Long (Months-Years) Exposures. Marine Chemistry, 89: 313– 326.<br />
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Vodacek, A., N. V. Blough, M. D. DeGrandpre, E. T. Peltzer, and R. K.<br />
Nelson. 1997. Seasonal Vari<strong>at</strong>ion of CDOM and DOC in <strong>the</strong> Middle<br />
Atlantic Bight: Terrestrial Inputs and Pho<strong>to</strong>oxid<strong>at</strong>ion. Limnology<br />
and Oceanography, 42: 674– 686.<br />
W<strong>at</strong>ers, K. J., R. C. Smith, and M. R. Lewis. 1990. Avoiding Ship-<br />
Induced Light-Field Perturb<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Determin<strong>at</strong>ion of Oceanic<br />
Optical Properties. Oceanography, 3: 18– 21.<br />
Xie, H., and M. Gosselin. 2005. Pho<strong>to</strong>production of Carbon Monoxide<br />
in First-Year Sea Ice in Franklin Bay, Sou<strong>the</strong>astern Beaufort<br />
Sea. Geophysical Research Letters, 32: L12606. doi: 10.1029/<br />
2005GL022803.<br />
Yocis, B. H., D. J. Kieber, and K. Mopper. 2000. Pho<strong>to</strong>chemical Production<br />
of Hydrogen Peroxide in Antarctic W<strong>at</strong>ers. Deep-Sea Research,<br />
Part I 47: 1077– 1099.
Capital Expenditure and Income (Foraging)<br />
during Pinniped Lact<strong>at</strong>ion: The Example of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Weddell Seal (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddellii)<br />
Regina Eisert and Olav T. Oftedal<br />
Regina Eisert Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion Ecology Center,<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Zoological Park, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution,<br />
P.O. Box 37012, MRC 5507, Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
DC 20013-7012, USA. Olav T. Oftedal, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Environmental Research Center, 647 Contees<br />
Wharf Road, Edgew<strong>at</strong>er, MD 21037, USA.<br />
Corresponding author: R. Eisert (eisertr@si.edu).<br />
Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Weddell seals, like many true seals (Phocidae), s<strong>to</strong>re nutrients in body tissues<br />
prior <strong>to</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong>n expend <strong>the</strong>se “capital reserves” in pup rearing. During<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion, 40% or more of <strong>the</strong> initial mass of a lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seal may be expended <strong>to</strong><br />
cover <strong>the</strong> combined costs of m<strong>at</strong>ernal metabolism and milk production. However, most<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals also begin active diving <strong>to</strong> depths of 300 m or more by three <strong>to</strong><br />
four weeks postpartum, and dietary biomarker d<strong>at</strong>a indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> <strong>at</strong> least 70% of Weddell<br />
seals forage in l<strong>at</strong>e lact<strong>at</strong>ion. Thus, Weddell seals may employ a combined capital and<br />
income (foraging) str<strong>at</strong>egy. Determining <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance of capital expenditures<br />
and food consumption <strong>to</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ernal reproduction will require accur<strong>at</strong>e measurement of<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ernal energy expenditure, <strong>the</strong> magnitude of milk production, changes of m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
nutrient s<strong>to</strong>res over lact<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> success of foraging efforts. Altern<strong>at</strong>ive scenarios<br />
include <strong>the</strong> following: (1) prey consumption is opportunistic r<strong>at</strong>her than essential because<br />
body reserves of Weddell seals are suffi cient for reproduction, (2) foraging is necessary<br />
only in those females (such as small or young seals) th<strong>at</strong> have limited body s<strong>to</strong>res rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>to</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion costs, and (3) successful foraging is critical <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion str<strong>at</strong>egy of this<br />
species. If altern<strong>at</strong>ive 2 or 3 is correct, <strong>the</strong> drops in pup production observed in Erebus<br />
Bay (McMurdo Sound, Ross Sea) during years of unusually heavy ice accumul<strong>at</strong>ion may<br />
refl ect changes in foraging opportunities due <strong>to</strong> adverse impacts of heavy ice on primary<br />
production and on prey popul<strong>at</strong>ions. Fur<strong>the</strong>r study is needed on <strong>the</strong> effects of annual,<br />
cyclic, or long-term changes in prey abundance on Weddell seal reproduction.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Mammalian reproduction is characterized by a period of lact<strong>at</strong>ion in which<br />
large quantities of nutrients are transferred from mo<strong>the</strong>r <strong>to</strong> young (Oftedal,<br />
1984b). This process puts a gre<strong>at</strong> physiologic demand on <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r, who must<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r acquire <strong>the</strong> additional nutrients needed for milk secretion by increased<br />
food consumption, mobilize nutrients from s<strong>to</strong>red reserves in <strong>the</strong> body, or employ<br />
some combin<strong>at</strong>ion of both (Oftedal, 2000). Along <strong>the</strong> continuum from intensive<br />
foraging <strong>to</strong> sole dependence on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves, mammals th<strong>at</strong> rely mostly<br />
on feeding can be characterized as “income breeders,” whereas those th<strong>at</strong> rely<br />
on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves are “capital breeders” (Jönsson, 1997). Income breeders are<br />
highly infl uenced by local clim<strong>at</strong>ic conditions th<strong>at</strong> impact immedi<strong>at</strong>e food supply,<br />
whereas capital breeders should be rel<strong>at</strong>ively independent of food resources
336 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / EISERT AND OFTEDAL<br />
during lact<strong>at</strong>ion by virtue of <strong>the</strong>ir previously s<strong>to</strong>red body<br />
reserves.<br />
Among Antarctic mammals, two groups rely heavily<br />
on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves during lact<strong>at</strong>ion: baleen whales (suborder<br />
Mysticeti) and true seals (family Phocidae). Baleen<br />
whales, such as <strong>the</strong> blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), fi n<br />
whale (Balaenoptera physalus), humpback whale (Megaptera<br />
novaeangliae), and minke whale (Balaenoptera acu<strong>to</strong>rostr<strong>at</strong>a),<br />
migr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers <strong>to</strong> forage on seasonal<br />
abundances of prey, such as krill, squid, and fi sh, and<br />
deposit large amounts of f<strong>at</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r body constituents<br />
<strong>at</strong> this time (Lockyer, 1981, 1984; Oftedal, 1997). However,<br />
<strong>the</strong>se baleen whales migr<strong>at</strong>e back <strong>to</strong> subtropical or<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e regions <strong>to</strong> give birth and lact<strong>at</strong>e. S<strong>to</strong>red energy<br />
and nutrients fuel most or all of lact<strong>at</strong>ion as <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
feed little if <strong>at</strong> all <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> calving grounds (Oftedal, 1997).<br />
Thus, baleen whales export substantial quantities of nutrients<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean <strong>to</strong> more temper<strong>at</strong>e regions.<br />
By contrast, phocid seals, such as sou<strong>the</strong>rn elephant seal<br />
(Mirounga leonina), crabe<strong>at</strong>er seal (Lobodon carcinophagus),<br />
Ross seal (Omm<strong>at</strong>ophoca rossii), leopard seal (Hydrurga<br />
lep<strong>to</strong>nyx), and Weddell seal (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddellii),<br />
both feed and lact<strong>at</strong>e in Antarctic areas. Elephant<br />
seals typically remain on land and fast throughout a three<br />
<strong>to</strong> four week lact<strong>at</strong>ion (Arnbom et al., 1997) and are thus<br />
true capital breeders. On <strong>the</strong> basis of d<strong>at</strong>a from s<strong>at</strong>ellitelinked<br />
dive recorders, Ross seals are also capital breeders,<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y haul out on pack ice for only about 13 days in<br />
mid-November <strong>to</strong> give birth and lact<strong>at</strong>e (Blix and Nordøy,<br />
2007). Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely, little is known about reproduction<br />
in crabe<strong>at</strong>er or leopard seals, but Weddell seals appear <strong>to</strong><br />
employ a hybrid breeding approach: partly capital use and<br />
partly food consumption.<br />
The ability <strong>to</strong> rely solely on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves <strong>to</strong> support<br />
<strong>the</strong> energy and substr<strong>at</strong>e demands of lact<strong>at</strong>ion is limited by<br />
body size (Oftedal, 2000). Nutrient reserves increase in direct<br />
proportion <strong>to</strong> body mass (BM 1.0 ), but r<strong>at</strong>es of energy<br />
expenditure (including lact<strong>at</strong>ion) increase in proportion <strong>to</strong><br />
body mass raised <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> power of 3/4 (BM 0.75 ). Thus, <strong>the</strong><br />
capacity <strong>to</strong> support metabolism and lact<strong>at</strong>ion from body<br />
s<strong>to</strong>res alone increases with body size, and larger species can<br />
support metabolism and lact<strong>at</strong>ion from s<strong>to</strong>red reserves for<br />
longer periods of time. The benefi t of being able <strong>to</strong> s<strong>to</strong>re<br />
large quantities of nutrients for subsequent use was likely<br />
an important fac<strong>to</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> evolution of large body size in<br />
both seals and whales.<br />
At 400– 500 kg, <strong>the</strong> female Weddell seal is one of <strong>the</strong><br />
largest of <strong>the</strong> phocid seals and has long been assumed <strong>to</strong><br />
rely on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves for lact<strong>at</strong>ion (Tedman and Green,<br />
1987). If so, lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals should be rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
immune <strong>to</strong> environmental variables th<strong>at</strong> affect local food<br />
supply in <strong>the</strong> areas where <strong>the</strong>y give birth and lact<strong>at</strong>e.<br />
However, popul<strong>at</strong>ion censuses have indic<strong>at</strong>ed tremendous<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ion (�50%) in annual pup production associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with changes in ice conditions in Erebus Bay in <strong>the</strong> Ross<br />
Sea (R. Garrott, Montana St<strong>at</strong>e University, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
2007). It is not known whe<strong>the</strong>r this vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
is rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> ice-rel<strong>at</strong>ed changes in prey abundance and<br />
diversity or <strong>to</strong> some o<strong>the</strong>r consequence of sea ice accumul<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
such as navig<strong>at</strong>ional diffi culties for seals traveling<br />
under <strong>the</strong> ice. A step in addressing this issue is <strong>to</strong> evalu<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> importance of s<strong>to</strong>red reserves versus acquisition of<br />
food <strong>to</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion performance of <strong>the</strong> Weddell seal.<br />
In this paper we briefl y discuss breeding str<strong>at</strong>egy, mass<br />
change, lact<strong>at</strong>ion performance, and foraging by Weddell<br />
seals, with comparisons <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r phocid species. This paper<br />
is a preliminary contribution based on a project in<br />
2006– 2007 examining energy expenditure, milk production,<br />
and changes in body reserves in lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell<br />
seals in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.<br />
EVOLUTION OF CAPITAL BREEDING<br />
AMONG PHOCID SEALS<br />
Animals th<strong>at</strong> employ capital breeding incur energetic<br />
costs associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> deposition, transport, and mobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of s<strong>to</strong>res (Jönsson, 1997). The resulting energetic<br />
ineffi ciency is thought <strong>to</strong> favor “income breeding” except<br />
in specifi c circumstances such as uncertainty or inadequacy<br />
of food <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> time of reproduction (Jönsson, 1997).<br />
However, among some capital breeders, such as phocid<br />
seals th<strong>at</strong> fast during lact<strong>at</strong>ion, a major benefi t appears<br />
<strong>to</strong> be abbrevi<strong>at</strong>ion of lact<strong>at</strong>ion, with consequent reduction<br />
of m<strong>at</strong>ernal metabolic overhead and <strong>the</strong> time devoted<br />
<strong>to</strong> pup rearing. Milk production from s<strong>to</strong>red reserves is<br />
also much more effi cient than production based on food<br />
consumption (Agricultural Research Council, 1980), especially<br />
if foraging requires signifi cant effort. This permits<br />
an increase in <strong>the</strong> proportion of energy available for transfer<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> offspring (Fedak and Anderson, 1982; Costa et<br />
al., 1986). At <strong>the</strong> extreme, lact<strong>at</strong>ion is reduced <strong>to</strong> as little<br />
as four days in <strong>the</strong> hooded seal, with up <strong>to</strong> 88% of <strong>the</strong><br />
energy transferred <strong>to</strong> pups incorpor<strong>at</strong>ed in<strong>to</strong> tissue growth<br />
(Bowen et al., 1985; Oftedal et al., 1993). Thus, it is not<br />
clear th<strong>at</strong> capital breeding is always more energetically<br />
costly than income breeding. A variety of o<strong>the</strong>r parameters,<br />
including animal size, food availability, transport<br />
costs, neon<strong>at</strong>al developmental st<strong>at</strong>e, and type of m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
care, are thought <strong>to</strong> be important <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> evolution of capi-
tal breeding systems (Boyd, 1998; Trillmich and Weissing,<br />
2006; Hous<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2006).<br />
There is also uncertainty whe<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>at</strong>ernal capital<br />
expenditure is limited primarily by energy or by nutrient<br />
s<strong>to</strong>res, such as protein. In <strong>the</strong> fasting st<strong>at</strong>e, c<strong>at</strong>abolized protein<br />
is lost continually from <strong>the</strong> body (Nordøy et al., 1990;<br />
Owen et al., 1998), and lact<strong>at</strong>ing mammals must export<br />
milk protein <strong>to</strong> support offspring growth. Yet excessive<br />
loss of body protein leads <strong>to</strong> progressive and eventually<br />
lethal loss of function (Oftedal, 1993; Liu and Barrett,<br />
2002). Animals th<strong>at</strong> fast during lact<strong>at</strong>ion typically produce<br />
milks th<strong>at</strong> are low in both protein and carbohydr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
(Oftedal, 1993). As both protein and carbohydr<strong>at</strong>e in milk<br />
potentially derive from amino acids (ei<strong>the</strong>r directly or via<br />
gluconeogenesis), this suggests th<strong>at</strong> high protein demands<br />
may be selected against during <strong>the</strong> evolution of capital<br />
breeding (Oftedal, 1993). In <strong>the</strong> grey seal (Halichoerus<br />
grypus), daily milk production and fi nal offspring mass<br />
were signifi cantly correl<strong>at</strong>ed with initial m<strong>at</strong>ernal protein<br />
but not initial f<strong>at</strong> s<strong>to</strong>res (Mellish et al., 1999a), despite <strong>the</strong><br />
fact th<strong>at</strong> most of m<strong>at</strong>ernal body energy reserves are s<strong>to</strong>red<br />
as f<strong>at</strong>. Although phocid seals are often thought <strong>to</strong> be unusually<br />
effi cient <strong>at</strong> conserving protein during fasting, this<br />
assumption may have <strong>to</strong> be reconsidered (Eisert, 2003).<br />
Thus, capital breeding may be limited by <strong>the</strong> size of protein<br />
s<strong>to</strong>res as well as by <strong>the</strong> magnitude of energy s<strong>to</strong>res.<br />
Seals are <strong>the</strong> best-studied group of mammalian capital<br />
breeders (Oftedal et al., 1987a; Costa, 1991; Boness and<br />
Bowen, 1996; Boyd, 1998; Mellish et al., 2000; Oftedal,<br />
2000; Schulz and Bowen, 2004). Otariid seals remain<br />
ashore for approxim<strong>at</strong>ely one week after giving birth and<br />
transfer approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 4% of body protein and 12% of<br />
body energy <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir pups, after which <strong>the</strong>y undertake regular<br />
foraging trips <strong>to</strong> sea (Oftedal et al., 1987a; Costa, 1991;<br />
Oftedal, 2000). This str<strong>at</strong>egy of an initial fasting period<br />
followed by foraging cycles occurs in <strong>at</strong> least one phocid,<br />
<strong>the</strong> harbor seal Phoca vitulina (Boness et al., 1994), and<br />
perhaps in o<strong>the</strong>r species th<strong>at</strong> feed during lact<strong>at</strong>ion [e.g.,<br />
bearded seal Erign<strong>at</strong>hus barb<strong>at</strong>us, harp seal P. groenlandica,<br />
and ringed seal P. hispida (Lydersen and Kovacs, 1996,<br />
1999)]. However, many large phocids fast throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion period [e.g., land-breeding grey seal H. grypus,<br />
hooded seal Cys<strong>to</strong>phora crist<strong>at</strong>a and elephant seals Mirounga<br />
angustirostris and M. leonina (Fedak and Anderson,<br />
1982; Costa et al., 1986; Oftedal et al., 1993; Arnbom et al.,<br />
1997)]. As <strong>the</strong> true seals (family Phocidae) encompass a<br />
wide spectrum from mixed capital-income <strong>to</strong> extreme capital<br />
breeding, this family is an excellent model system for<br />
testing hypo<strong>the</strong>ses about <strong>the</strong> evolution of capital breeding<br />
str<strong>at</strong>egies. Fac<strong>to</strong>rs thought <strong>to</strong> have favored <strong>the</strong> evolution of<br />
WEDDELL SEAL CAPITAL BALANCE DURING LACTATION 337<br />
extreme capital breeding in phocids include large body size<br />
(Boness and Bowen, 1996; Oftedal, 2000), limited availability<br />
of food (Boyd, 1998), <strong>the</strong> impact of unstable nursing<br />
substr<strong>at</strong>es (Oftedal et al., 1987a; Lydersen and Kovacs,<br />
1999), and reduction of m<strong>at</strong>ernal metabolic overhead costs<br />
(Fedak and Anderson, 1982; Costa, 1991).<br />
WEDDELL SEAL: EXAMPLE OF AN<br />
INTERMEDIATE STRATEGY?<br />
The Weddell seal represents an interesting, if not fully<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od, example of a species where a continuum of<br />
capital <strong>to</strong> mixed capital-income breeding str<strong>at</strong>egies may<br />
occur within <strong>the</strong> same popul<strong>at</strong>ion. Lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell females<br />
fast and remain with <strong>the</strong>ir offspring for <strong>at</strong> least <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst week postpartum, but on <strong>the</strong> basis of a new biomarker<br />
method of detecting feeding (Eisert et al., 2005), <strong>at</strong> least<br />
70% of females feed <strong>to</strong> some extent during <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter half<br />
of a lact<strong>at</strong>ion period th<strong>at</strong> lasts six <strong>to</strong> eight weeks (Bertram,<br />
1940; Kaufmann et al., 1975; Thomas and DeMaster,<br />
1983). During l<strong>at</strong>e lact<strong>at</strong>ion, an increase in diving activity<br />
(Hindell et al., 1999; S<strong>at</strong>o et al., 2002) and a decrease in<br />
r<strong>at</strong>es of m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss rel<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> pup mass gain have<br />
also been observed (Hill, 1987; Testa et al., 1989). However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> importance of food intake <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> energy and nutrient<br />
budgets or <strong>to</strong> reproductive success of lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell<br />
seals is not known, nor has <strong>the</strong> magnitude of capital<br />
expenditure (depletion of m<strong>at</strong>ernal body s<strong>to</strong>res) been studied.<br />
Three scenarios appear possible: (1) Females are able<br />
<strong>to</strong> complete lact<strong>at</strong>ion without food intake but take prey<br />
opportunistically (until recently, <strong>the</strong> prevailing belief). (2)<br />
Because of individual differences in nutrient s<strong>to</strong>res and reproductive<br />
demand, some females (such as small or young<br />
females) have an oblig<strong>at</strong>ory need for food intake, while<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs do not. (3) Food intake is an essential part of <strong>the</strong><br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion str<strong>at</strong>egy of this species because m<strong>at</strong>ernal body<br />
s<strong>to</strong>res are inadequ<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> face of such an extended lact<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
period (<strong>the</strong> longest of any phocid).<br />
Uncertainty regarding <strong>the</strong> dependency of lact<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
Weddell seals on local food resources complic<strong>at</strong>es efforts<br />
<strong>to</strong> interpret <strong>the</strong> infl uence of environmental fac<strong>to</strong>rs on m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
condition (Hill, 1987; Hastings and Testa, 1998),<br />
pup growth and survival (Bryden et al., 1984; Tedman,<br />
1985; Tedman and Green, 1987; Testa et al., 1989; Burns<br />
and Testa, 1997), and popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics (Stirling, 1967;<br />
Siniff et al., 1977; Testa, 1987; Hastings and Testa, 1998).<br />
A strong dependency, in some or all females, on local<br />
food resources for successful lact<strong>at</strong>ion might limit breeding<br />
colonies <strong>to</strong> areas of local prey abundance or result in
338 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / EISERT AND OFTEDAL<br />
<strong>the</strong> vulnerability of popul<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> annual or long-term<br />
changes in prey availability, as might occur due <strong>to</strong> changes<br />
in sea ice or shifts in w<strong>at</strong>er currents.<br />
MASS CHANGES DURING<br />
WEDDELL SEAL LACTATION<br />
Prior work on Weddell seals has focused primarily<br />
on mass changes of mo<strong>the</strong>rs and <strong>the</strong>ir pups, under <strong>the</strong> assumption<br />
th<strong>at</strong> if mo<strong>the</strong>rs are fasting, <strong>the</strong>re should be correspondence<br />
between m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss, m<strong>at</strong>ernal milk<br />
output, and pup mass gain, as is <strong>the</strong> case in o<strong>the</strong>r true seals<br />
th<strong>at</strong> fast throughout lact<strong>at</strong>ion. In <strong>the</strong>se species, m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
body mass and age are strong determinants of <strong>to</strong>tal milk<br />
energy output and, consequently, of pup growth and weaning<br />
mass (Iverson et al., 1993; Fedak et al., 1996; Arnbom<br />
et al., 1997; Mellish et al., 1999b). By contrast, females<br />
feed during a variable proportion of lact<strong>at</strong>ion in almost<br />
half of extant phocid species (Bonner, 1984; Oftedal et al.,<br />
1987a; Boness et al., 1994; Boness and Bowen, 1996;<br />
Lydersen and Kovacs, 1999; Eisert, 2003). Bowen et al.<br />
(2001a) found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> positive correl<strong>at</strong>ion of m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
body mass with pup weaning mass was much weaker in<br />
harbor seals than in species th<strong>at</strong> fast during lact<strong>at</strong>ion, presumably<br />
because supplementary feeding results in a partial<br />
decoupling of m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss and milk transfer <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> pup. Similar p<strong>at</strong>terns have been found in ice-breeding<br />
FIGURE 1. Change in body mass of lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals from<br />
early (2– 3 days postpartum) <strong>to</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e (35– 45 days postpartum) lact<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> Hut<strong>to</strong>n Cliffs, Erebus Bay, McMurdo Sound. D<strong>at</strong>a were<br />
obtained from 24 females in 2006 and 2007. Average r<strong>at</strong>e of mass<br />
loss was 1.0% of initial mass per day.<br />
grey seals H. grypus and harp seals P. groenlandica (Baker<br />
et al., 1995; Lydersen and Kovacs, 1996, 1999).<br />
Extant d<strong>at</strong>a for Weddell seals are more complex. Weddell<br />
seal females certainly lose a large amount of body mass:<br />
for example, females th<strong>at</strong> we studied in 2006 and 2007 lost<br />
40% of <strong>the</strong>ir two-day postpartum mass during about 40<br />
days lact<strong>at</strong>ion (Figure 1). The daily mass loss of 1.0% of<br />
initial mass is lower than values of 1.5%– 3.4% for fasting<br />
and lact<strong>at</strong>ing females of <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn elephant seal, sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
elephant seal, land-breeding gray seal, and hooded<br />
seal (Costa et al., 1986; Carlini et al., 1997; Mellish et al.,<br />
1999a, 1999b), but Weddell seal lact<strong>at</strong>ion is so prolonged<br />
th<strong>at</strong> overall mass loss (42%) is equal <strong>to</strong> or gre<strong>at</strong>er than th<strong>at</strong><br />
in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species (14%– 39%). If mass loss is standardized<br />
<strong>to</strong> a lact<strong>at</strong>ion length of 42 days, initial mass predicts<br />
66% of <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion in mass loss, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> large females<br />
lose more mass than small females (Figure 2). Is this<br />
because large females expend more energy (on metabolism<br />
and milk production) or because <strong>the</strong>y feed less? Females<br />
th<strong>at</strong> lose more mass also support more mass gain by <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
pups: pup mass gain was positively correl<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
mass loss (Figure 3). Tedman and Green (1987) found a<br />
similar strong positive correl<strong>at</strong>ion (r � 0.85, P � 0.001)<br />
between m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss and pup mass gain, whereas<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a from studies by Hill (1987) and Testa et al. (1989)<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>e a much weaker correl<strong>at</strong>ion between m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass<br />
loss and pup mass gain (r � 0.16, P � 0.005, n � 35).<br />
FIGURE 2. Rel<strong>at</strong>ionship of m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss <strong>to</strong> initial m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
mass of lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals. Initial mass was measured <strong>at</strong> two<br />
<strong>to</strong> three days postpartum. Mass loss was normalized <strong>to</strong> 42 days and<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> initial mass by Deming linear regression. D<strong>at</strong>a are from<br />
<strong>the</strong> same 24 females <strong>at</strong> Hut<strong>to</strong>n Cliffs, Erebus Bay, McMurdo Sound,<br />
as in Figure 1.
FIGURE 3. Pup mass gain in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss of lact<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
Weddell seals. Mo<strong>the</strong>r and pup d<strong>at</strong>a are paired (n � 24) and<br />
refl ect <strong>the</strong> same time periods (from 2– 3 days <strong>to</strong> 35– 45 days postpartum)<br />
for both. Pup gain and m<strong>at</strong>ernal loss were compared by<br />
Deming linear regression.<br />
This difference could stem from differences in <strong>the</strong> masses<br />
of animals studied: in our study and in th<strong>at</strong> of Tedman<br />
and Green (1987) mean female mass was about 450 kg <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> beginning of lact<strong>at</strong>ion, whereas <strong>the</strong> average in Hill’s<br />
study was 406 kg. This suggests th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> strength of <strong>the</strong><br />
correl<strong>at</strong>ion of m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss and pup mass gain may<br />
increase with m<strong>at</strong>ernal size. Assuming th<strong>at</strong> decoupling of<br />
m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss and pup growth in <strong>the</strong> Weddell seal<br />
can be <strong>at</strong>tributed <strong>to</strong> foraging, feeding may be oblig<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
for small females but optional or opportunistic for large<br />
females (Testa et al., 1989).<br />
ISOTOPIC MEASUREMENTS<br />
OF EXPENDITURES<br />
Change in body mass alone is, <strong>at</strong> best, an imprecise<br />
measure of energy expenditure (Blaxter, 1989) and is invalid<br />
if animals are obtaining signifi cant energy from food.<br />
The very high costs of lact<strong>at</strong>ion entail both metabolic costs<br />
(such as <strong>the</strong> energy expenditure associ<strong>at</strong>ed with m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
<strong>at</strong>tendance of pups and <strong>the</strong> energetic cost of milk syn<strong>the</strong>sis)<br />
and substr<strong>at</strong>e costs (<strong>the</strong> energy transferred in<strong>to</strong> milk as f<strong>at</strong>,<br />
protein, carbohydr<strong>at</strong>e, and minor constituents). Currently,<br />
<strong>the</strong> only method of accur<strong>at</strong>ely assessing metabolic energy expenditure<br />
in wild animals is <strong>the</strong> doubly labeled w<strong>at</strong>er (DLW)<br />
technique in which differences in <strong>the</strong> kinetics of hydrogen<br />
and oxygen iso<strong>to</strong>pes provide an estim<strong>at</strong>e of carbon diox-<br />
WEDDELL SEAL CAPITAL BALANCE DURING LACTATION 339<br />
ide production (see reviews by Nagy, 1980, and Speakman,<br />
1997). Because of <strong>the</strong> high economic cost of 18 O-labeled<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er, this procedure has usually been applied <strong>to</strong> mammals<br />
of small body size (Speakman, 1997); among phocids it has<br />
been applied <strong>to</strong> pups (e.g., Kretzmann et al., 1993; Lydersen<br />
and Kovacs, 1996). However, <strong>the</strong> DLW method may provide<br />
valuable insight in<strong>to</strong> m<strong>at</strong>ernal metabolic expenditures<br />
during lact<strong>at</strong>ion, as reported for sea lions and fur seals (e.g.,<br />
Arnould et al., 1996; Costa and Gales, 2000, 2003). In<br />
Weddell seals it would be particularly interesting <strong>to</strong> know<br />
if metabolic energy expenditures vary in accord with diving<br />
activity, stage of lact<strong>at</strong>ion, and food consumption. In animals<br />
th<strong>at</strong> fast, one would expect metabolic r<strong>at</strong>es <strong>to</strong> decline<br />
over <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong> fast, whereas energy expenditures<br />
should increase with increases in activity and in associ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with digestion and metabolism of food constituents (e.g.,<br />
Blaxter, 1989; Speakman, 1997). However, <strong>the</strong>re remain a<br />
number of technical issues <strong>to</strong> overcome, including selection<br />
of an appropri<strong>at</strong>e model of iso<strong>to</strong>pe behavior and estim<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of average respir<strong>at</strong>ory quotient (RQ, r<strong>at</strong>io of carbon<br />
dioxide production <strong>to</strong> oxygen consumption), which differs<br />
between fasting and feeding animals. Model and RQ errors<br />
can directly impact energetic estim<strong>at</strong>es and thus need <strong>to</strong> be<br />
assessed ( Speakman, 1997). There are also logistic problems<br />
in accur<strong>at</strong>ely administering w<strong>at</strong>er iso<strong>to</strong>pes <strong>to</strong> large,<br />
unsed<strong>at</strong>ed animals living in very cold and windy environments,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>se are not prohibitive: in 2006 and 2007,<br />
we successfully dosed about 20 lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals in<br />
Erebus Bay, McMurdo Sound, with doubly labeled w<strong>at</strong>er;<br />
sample analyses are still in progress.<br />
The DLW method does not, however, measure export<br />
of substr<strong>at</strong>es via milk. It is <strong>the</strong>refore also necessary <strong>to</strong><br />
measure milk yield and milk composition <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e reproductive<br />
costs associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> output of milk constituents<br />
(Oftedal, 1984b). The most widely used method<br />
for estim<strong>at</strong>ing milk production in seals relies on <strong>the</strong> dilution<br />
of hydrogen iso<strong>to</strong>pe– labeled w<strong>at</strong>er in nursing young<br />
(e.g., Costa et al., 1986; Oftedal and Iverson, 1987;<br />
Oftedal et al., 1987b; Tedman and Green, 1987; Lydersen<br />
et al., 1992; Iverson et al., 1993; Lydersen and Hammill,<br />
1993; Oftedal et al., 1993; Lydersen and Kovacs,<br />
1996; Oftedal et al., 1996; Lydersen et al., 1997; Mellish<br />
et al., 1999a; Arnould and Hindell, 2002). If milk is <strong>the</strong><br />
exclusive source of w<strong>at</strong>er (both free and metabolic) for<br />
<strong>the</strong> offspring, <strong>the</strong>n milk consumption can be estim<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
from w<strong>at</strong>er turnover and milk composition (Oftedal and<br />
Iverson, 1987). The accuracy of this method depends on<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability <strong>to</strong> correct estim<strong>at</strong>es of milk intake for iso<strong>to</strong>pe<br />
recycling (Bavers<strong>to</strong>ck and Green, 1975; Oftedal, 1984a),<br />
for changes in pool size (Dove and Freer, 1979; Oftedal,
340 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / EISERT AND OFTEDAL<br />
1984a), and for any w<strong>at</strong>er obtained by offspring from<br />
sources o<strong>the</strong>r than milk (Holleman et al., 1975; Dove,<br />
1988), such as consumption of prey, snow, or seaw<strong>at</strong>er<br />
and metabolic w<strong>at</strong>er production. Iso<strong>to</strong>pe studies have<br />
demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> milk energy output in seals is inversely<br />
proportional <strong>to</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion length: seals with very short<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ions, such as species th<strong>at</strong> breed on unstable pack<br />
ice, have much higher daily energy outputs than species<br />
th<strong>at</strong> breed on stable substr<strong>at</strong>es, such as land and fast ice<br />
(Oftedal et al., 1987a).<br />
The sole published <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>at</strong> measuring milk production<br />
in Weddell seals employed two iso<strong>to</strong>pes ( 2 H and<br />
22 Na) <strong>to</strong> determine if pups were ingesting w<strong>at</strong>er from<br />
sources o<strong>the</strong>r than milk (Tedman and Green, 1987).<br />
Tedman and Green argued th<strong>at</strong> if pups were obtaining<br />
all or most of <strong>the</strong>ir w<strong>at</strong>er from milk, <strong>the</strong> sodium intake<br />
predicted from milk consumption (calcul<strong>at</strong>ed milk intake<br />
from 2 H turnover multiplied by milk sodium content)<br />
would be similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>ed from turnover<br />
of 22 Na. As <strong>the</strong> observed discrepancy was not large, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
concluded th<strong>at</strong> intake of seaw<strong>at</strong>er or sodium-containing<br />
prey must have been minor (Tedman and Green, 1987).<br />
However, large (20%) underestim<strong>at</strong>ion of sodium intake<br />
occurs in 22 Na turnover measurements on suckling young<br />
(Green and Newgrain, 1979), and Tedman and Green<br />
(1987) do not st<strong>at</strong>e whe<strong>the</strong>r this error was corrected<br />
for in <strong>the</strong>ir study. The potential importance of nonmilk<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er as a confounding effect in iso<strong>to</strong>pe studies warrants<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r study, especially as Weddell pups have been observed<br />
<strong>to</strong> grab snow in <strong>the</strong>ir mouths and may consume<br />
it. At present, <strong>the</strong> Tedman and Green (1987) d<strong>at</strong>a are<br />
<strong>the</strong> only published d<strong>at</strong>a on Weddell seal lact<strong>at</strong>ion, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>ed milk yield of about 3.5 kg/d or 160 kg<br />
milk over <strong>the</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion period has been cited repe<strong>at</strong>edly<br />
in compar<strong>at</strong>ive studies (e.g., Oftedal et al., 1987a, 1996;<br />
Costa, 1991; Boness and Bowen, 1996; Oftedal, 2000)<br />
but is in need of reevalu<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> avoid possible errors caused by consumption<br />
of food or w<strong>at</strong>er by nursing Weddell seal pups, we<br />
recommend use of a two-hydrogen iso<strong>to</strong>pe method originally<br />
developed for terrestrial herbivores in which <strong>the</strong><br />
suckling young begin <strong>to</strong> feed on solid foods during lact<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(e.g., Holleman et al., 1975, 1988; Wright and Wolff,<br />
1976; Oftedal, 1981; Dove, 1988; Carl and Robbins,<br />
1988; Reese and Robbins, 1994). W<strong>at</strong>er containing tritium<br />
( 3 HHO) is given <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r and w<strong>at</strong>er containing<br />
deuterium ( 2 H2O) is given <strong>to</strong> offspring so th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir body<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er pools are separ<strong>at</strong>ely labeled. Thus, w<strong>at</strong>er turnover<br />
in mo<strong>the</strong>r and offspring can be measured independently.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> pup, tritium concentr<strong>at</strong>ions rise so long as tritium<br />
intake (via milk w<strong>at</strong>er) exceeds tritium loss (via excretion),<br />
reaching a pl<strong>at</strong>eau when intake and loss are equal.<br />
In a Weddell seal pup this occurs after about two weeks<br />
(Figure 4). As tritium loss can be estim<strong>at</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>e<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er turnover of <strong>the</strong> pup (measured from deuterium<br />
kinetics) and tritium intake equals milk tritium concentr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
multiplied by milk w<strong>at</strong>er intake, modeling of iso<strong>to</strong>pe<br />
fl uxes allows calcul<strong>at</strong>ion of mean w<strong>at</strong>er intake from milk.<br />
Unlike single iso<strong>to</strong>pe methods, this procedure allows milk<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er intake by <strong>the</strong> pup <strong>to</strong> be distinguished from infl ux of<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er from all o<strong>the</strong>r sources, such as drinking, feeding,<br />
and metabolic w<strong>at</strong>er production. Once milk w<strong>at</strong>er intake<br />
is known, milk production can be calcul<strong>at</strong>ed from milk<br />
composition. We applied this dual-iso<strong>to</strong>pe method on<br />
about 20 Weddell pups in Erebus Bay, McMurdo Sound,<br />
in 2006 and 2007.<br />
FIGURE 4. Illustr<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> dual-iso<strong>to</strong>pe procedure for a Weddell<br />
seal mo<strong>the</strong>r and her pup. The mo<strong>the</strong>r was administered tritiumlabeled<br />
( 3 HHO) w<strong>at</strong>er and <strong>the</strong> pup was given deuterium-labeled<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er ( 2 H20) by intravenous infusion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> times indic<strong>at</strong>ed by vertical<br />
arrows. While deuterium levels ( 2 H20) declined following administr<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
tritium levels ( 3 HHO) in <strong>the</strong> pup rose <strong>to</strong>wards a pl<strong>at</strong>eau<br />
level, indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> tritium intake via milk w<strong>at</strong>er exceeded tritium<br />
losses of <strong>the</strong> pup over this time period. Deuterium was measured<br />
by iso<strong>to</strong>pe r<strong>at</strong>io mass spectrometry, and tritium was measured by<br />
scintill<strong>at</strong>ion counting. M<strong>at</strong>hem<strong>at</strong>ical modeling of iso<strong>to</strong>pe behavior<br />
indic<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> milk intake was about 2.5 kg over this period.
MONITORING FOOD CONSUMPTION<br />
DURING THE LACTATION PERIOD<br />
If Weddell seals did not enter <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er during lact<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
it would be obvious th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y must be fasting, but<br />
this is not <strong>the</strong> case. Weddell seal mo<strong>the</strong>rs usually remain<br />
on <strong>the</strong> ice with <strong>the</strong>ir pups for <strong>the</strong> fi rst one <strong>to</strong> two weeks<br />
of lact<strong>at</strong>ion, but <strong>the</strong>n most mo<strong>the</strong>rs begin diving bouts<br />
th<strong>at</strong> typically increase in frequency and length as lact<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
proceeds. The diving behavior of Weddell seals, including<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ing females as well as nursing, weaned, and yearling<br />
animals, has been extensively investig<strong>at</strong>ed with time-depth<br />
recorders, or TDRs, including s<strong>at</strong>ellite-uplinked instruments<br />
(e.g., Kooyman, 1967; Testa et al., 1989; Burns et al.,<br />
1997, 1999; Castellini et al., 1992; S<strong>at</strong>o et al., 2002, 2003;<br />
Williams et al., 2004; Fuiman et al., 2007). The recent<br />
development of instrument<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> records directional<br />
inform<strong>at</strong>ion ( Harcourt et al., 2000; Davis et al., 2001;<br />
Hindell et al., 2002; Mitani et al., 2003) allows examin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of dive behavior in three-dimensional space. Although<br />
food intake requires diving, even deep diving need not entail<br />
food consumption. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, one cannot equ<strong>at</strong>e<br />
dive records <strong>to</strong> actual food intake unless food intake can be<br />
independently confi rmed (Testa et al., 1989).<br />
This has led <strong>to</strong> development of a number of different<br />
methods <strong>to</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>r food intake. Classically, <strong>the</strong> diet of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Weddell seal has been examined by s<strong>to</strong>mach content<br />
analysis (Bertram, 1940; Dearborn, 1965; Plötz, 1986;<br />
Plötz et al., 1991), but lethal methods are no longer employed,<br />
and gastric lavage of adults requires extensive<br />
restraint or chemical immobiliz<strong>at</strong>ion. Sc<strong>at</strong> analysis can<br />
provide inform<strong>at</strong>ion on those prey th<strong>at</strong> have identifi able<br />
indigestible parts (Burns et al., 1998; Lake et al., 2003)<br />
or even residual prey DNA (Casper et al., 2007) in <strong>the</strong><br />
sc<strong>at</strong>s. However, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive proportions of prey are diffi -<br />
cult <strong>to</strong> quantify without extensive feeding trials <strong>to</strong> develop<br />
correction fac<strong>to</strong>rs for <strong>the</strong> differential r<strong>at</strong>es of digestion of<br />
prey. This is not feasible in free-ranging Weddell seals. In<br />
addition, <strong>the</strong> identity of <strong>the</strong> animal producing <strong>the</strong> sc<strong>at</strong> and<br />
<strong>the</strong> time it was produced are often unknown. Occasionally,<br />
Weddell seals are observed <strong>to</strong> bring large prey, such<br />
as Antarctic <strong>to</strong>othfi sh (Dissostichus mawsoni) <strong>to</strong> holes in<br />
<strong>the</strong> ice (e.g., Caelhaem and Chris<strong>to</strong>ffel, 1969). Such observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
can be extended by deploying animal-borne<br />
underw<strong>at</strong>er cameras (Marshall, 1998; Davis et al., 1999;<br />
Bowen et al., 2002; Fuiman et al., 2002; S<strong>at</strong>o et al., 2002,<br />
2003; Fuiman et al., 2007). Although dives in which potential<br />
prey are visible have been termed “foraging dives”<br />
( Fuiman et al. 2007), it is diffi cult <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> success<br />
WEDDELL SEAL CAPITAL BALANCE DURING LACTATION 341<br />
of prey capture <strong>at</strong>tempts from <strong>the</strong> images obtained. Of<br />
course, <strong>the</strong> images provide valuable inform<strong>at</strong>ion on hunting<br />
methods of seals <strong>at</strong> depth.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r approach is <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tach instruments in <strong>the</strong><br />
mouth or digestive tract of seals <strong>to</strong> record feeding events.<br />
Sensors have been glued <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> jaw of <strong>the</strong> seal th<strong>at</strong> detect<br />
opening of <strong>the</strong> mouth (Bornemann et al., 1992; Plötz et<br />
al., 2001), but prey capture may be diffi cult <strong>to</strong> distinguish<br />
from o<strong>the</strong>r jaw movements during social behavior (e.g.,<br />
thre<strong>at</strong>s and bites). Temper<strong>at</strong>ure-transmitting <strong>the</strong>rmis<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
have been introduced in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>mach <strong>to</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>r changes<br />
in <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>ure of s<strong>to</strong>mach contents associ<strong>at</strong>ed with ingestion<br />
of cold items, such as ec<strong>to</strong><strong>the</strong>rmic fi sh ( Bornemann,<br />
1994; Hedd et al., 1996; Austin et al., 2006a, 2006b; Kuhn<br />
and Costa, 2006). However, s<strong>to</strong>mach temper<strong>at</strong>ure is also<br />
affected by o<strong>the</strong>r fac<strong>to</strong>rs such as w<strong>at</strong>er ingestion, gastric<br />
blood fl ow, <strong>the</strong>rmal mass of gastric contents and <strong>the</strong>rmis<strong>to</strong>r<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ion, so th<strong>at</strong> valid<strong>at</strong>ion studies are essential <strong>to</strong><br />
interpret<strong>at</strong>ion (Ponganis, 2007). Instruments may also require<br />
considerable intervention <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tach (e.g., prolonged<br />
anes<strong>the</strong>sia), may alter animal behavior, or may require recaptures<br />
for d<strong>at</strong>a acquisition. Thus, <strong>the</strong>re is still a need<br />
for a simple method of determining when food is actually<br />
consumed by free-living seals.<br />
As an altern<strong>at</strong>ive approach, food energy intake of seals<br />
has been estim<strong>at</strong>ed from changes in whole-body w<strong>at</strong>er fl ux<br />
using iso<strong>to</strong>pe-labeled w<strong>at</strong>er (Costa, 1987; Bowen et al.,<br />
2001b). This method relies on <strong>the</strong> assumption th<strong>at</strong> uptake<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er from sources o<strong>the</strong>r than food (e.g., drinking)<br />
is minimal (Costa, 1987; Bowen et al., 2001b), yet seals<br />
are known <strong>to</strong> voluntarily consume both freshw<strong>at</strong>er and<br />
seaw<strong>at</strong>er (Skalstad and Nordøy, 2000; Lea et al., 2002).<br />
Lact<strong>at</strong>ing Weddell seals have been observed <strong>to</strong> e<strong>at</strong> snow<br />
(Eisert and Oftedal, unpublished observ<strong>at</strong>ions). This may<br />
lead <strong>to</strong> errors of unknown magnitude in both <strong>the</strong> detection<br />
and quantit<strong>at</strong>ion of food intake.<br />
As a result of <strong>the</strong> diffi culties in detecting and quantifying<br />
food intake, <strong>the</strong> energetics of lact<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> Weddell<br />
seal and in o<strong>the</strong>r species th<strong>at</strong> feed during lact<strong>at</strong>ion are not<br />
well described (Schulz and Bowen, 2004). However, this<br />
may be improved by combining iso<strong>to</strong>pe methodology with<br />
new techniques for detecting feeding using biomarkers<br />
(Eisert et al., 2005). This approach allows food intake <strong>to</strong><br />
be confi rmed <strong>at</strong> a specifi c point in time from <strong>the</strong> presence in<br />
body fl uids of dietary biomarkers, i.e., specifi c compounds<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are absorbed intact from prey but are not gener<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by normal metabolic processes in <strong>the</strong> pred<strong>at</strong>or. On <strong>the</strong> basis<br />
of studies in Weddell seals, we have identifi ed two suitable<br />
compounds, arsenobetaine (AsB) and trimethylamine
342 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / EISERT AND OFTEDAL<br />
N-oxide (TMAO) (Eisert, 2003; Eisert et al., 2005). Both<br />
are specifi c <strong>to</strong>, and apparently ubiqui<strong>to</strong>us in, marine prey<br />
yet are nei<strong>the</strong>r s<strong>to</strong>red nor syn<strong>the</strong>sized by higher vertebr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
and in mammals are elimin<strong>at</strong>ed rapidly from <strong>the</strong> circul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
following ingestion (Edmonds and Francesconi, 1977,<br />
1987, 1988; Yancey et al., 1982; Vahter et al., 1983; Al-Waiz<br />
et al., 1987, 1992; Van Waarde, 1988; Cullen and Reimer,<br />
1989; Brown et al., 1990; Shib<strong>at</strong>a et al., 1992; Smith et al.,<br />
1994; Svensson et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 1999; Lehmann<br />
et al., 2001). The biomarker method provides inform<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
on recent food intake within a timescale of hours <strong>to</strong> days,<br />
in contrast <strong>to</strong> f<strong>at</strong>ty acid sign<strong>at</strong>ures or stable iso<strong>to</strong>pes in<br />
fl uids or tissue samples, which integr<strong>at</strong>e food intake over<br />
a period of months (Iverson et al., 1997a, 1997b; Brown<br />
et al., 1999).<br />
Investig<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> incidence of foraging in lact<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
Weddell seals using <strong>the</strong> biomarker method (Eisert et al.,<br />
2005) revealed th<strong>at</strong> (1) ~70% of females studied in l<strong>at</strong>e<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion (�27 days postpartum) had concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
AsB and TMAO indic<strong>at</strong>ive of recent food intake, (2) most<br />
females appear <strong>to</strong> fast for <strong>the</strong> fi rst three <strong>to</strong> four weeks of<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion, in agreement with observed dive activity ( Hindell<br />
et al., 2002), and (3) feeding may commence as early as<br />
eight <strong>to</strong> nine days postpartum in some females. These results<br />
suggest th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> onset of feeding may vary substantially<br />
among lact<strong>at</strong>ing seals, and <strong>the</strong> possibility remains th<strong>at</strong><br />
some females fast throughout lact<strong>at</strong>ion. To clarify <strong>the</strong> doseresponse<br />
and kinetic characteristics of AsB and TMAO<br />
in seals, we conducted valid<strong>at</strong>ion trials in which varying<br />
doses of biomarkers were fed <strong>to</strong> juvenile hooded seals (Cys<strong>to</strong>phora<br />
crist<strong>at</strong>a) in captivity <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> University of Tromsø<br />
in collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with E. S. Nordøy and A. S. Blix. Plasma<br />
TMAO peaked in about six <strong>to</strong> eight hours after intake and<br />
returned <strong>to</strong> low levels within 30 hours. Thus, biomarker<br />
methods may clarify whe<strong>the</strong>r a dive bout within a 24-hour<br />
period is associ<strong>at</strong>ed with food capture, a considerable improvement<br />
over arbitrary assignment of dive shapes <strong>to</strong> foraging<br />
or nonforaging c<strong>at</strong>egories based on untested assumptions<br />
about prey hunting behavior.<br />
ONTOGENY OF FORAGING<br />
IN WEDDELL SEAL PUPS<br />
A disconnect between m<strong>at</strong>ernal mass loss and pup<br />
mass gain could also arise because (1) pups begin <strong>to</strong> forage<br />
independently during <strong>the</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion period, leading <strong>to</strong> mass<br />
gain without corresponding m<strong>at</strong>ernal loss, or (2) vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern of energy deposition (e.g., f<strong>at</strong> versus protein)<br />
alters <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>tern of pup mass gain independent of m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
expenditures.<br />
A prolonged period of dependence is characteristic<br />
of mammals in which development of social rel<strong>at</strong>ionships<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be important, such as in elephants, many prim<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
and some odon<strong>to</strong>cete whales (West et al., 2007).<br />
However, phocid seals typically wean <strong>the</strong>ir pups abruptly,<br />
with departure of <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> breeding colony.<br />
Foraging by suckling pups has so far been described for<br />
only two phocid species, <strong>the</strong> ringed seal Phoca hispida<br />
and <strong>the</strong> bearded seal Erign<strong>at</strong>hus barb<strong>at</strong>us (Lydersen and<br />
Kovacs, 1999). Nursing Weddell seal pups commence diving<br />
<strong>at</strong> about two weeks of age and, on average, perform<br />
in excess of 20 dives per day (Burns and Testa, 1997). Although<br />
mo<strong>the</strong>rs and pups may <strong>at</strong> times dive <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r (S<strong>at</strong>o<br />
et al., 2002, 2003), it is unclear whe<strong>the</strong>r this entails any<br />
“teaching” of <strong>the</strong> pup with regards <strong>to</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ion, type, or<br />
capture of prey. There is a single published observ<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> presence of milk and crustacean prey in <strong>the</strong> s<strong>to</strong>mach<br />
of a Weddell seal pup (Lindsey, 1937), and pups have<br />
occasionally been observed bringing captured fi sh <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
surface (K. Whe<strong>at</strong>ley, University of Tasmania, personal<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ion, May 2004). It is possible th<strong>at</strong> feeding by<br />
nursing pups could refl ect an inadequ<strong>at</strong>e r<strong>at</strong>e of m<strong>at</strong>ernal<br />
energy transfer during lact<strong>at</strong>ion (e.g., Hayssen, 1993), but<br />
it is not known if feeding by pups is common or exceptional<br />
in this species.<br />
UNCERTAINTIES ABOUT THE<br />
WEDDELL SEAL STRATEGY<br />
Much remains <strong>to</strong> be learned about <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance<br />
of foraging (income) versus s<strong>to</strong>red reserves (capital)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> lact<strong>at</strong>ion str<strong>at</strong>egies of Weddell seals <strong>at</strong> both individual<br />
and popul<strong>at</strong>ion levels. Weddell seals clearly rely extensively<br />
on s<strong>to</strong>red reserves, but whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se are suffi cient<br />
<strong>to</strong> support <strong>the</strong> demands of lact<strong>at</strong>ion in some or all females<br />
is uncertain. Foraging is much more prevalent during <strong>the</strong><br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion period than previously thought, but <strong>the</strong> magnitudes<br />
of energy and nutrient intakes are not known.<br />
It seems likely th<strong>at</strong> access <strong>to</strong> food resources is important<br />
<strong>to</strong> reproductive success <strong>at</strong> least during <strong>the</strong> second half of<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion, when most females forage. In years when heavy<br />
multiyear ice has failed <strong>to</strong> break out of McMurdo Sound<br />
due <strong>to</strong> giant icebergs th<strong>at</strong> have blocked egress <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> north,<br />
<strong>the</strong> numbers of Weddell pups born has been reduced by up<br />
<strong>to</strong> 50%– 65% (R. Garrott, personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion, 2007).<br />
By blocking light penetr<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>the</strong> ice undoubtedly reduced
primary productivity in McMurdo Sound, and this could<br />
result in a reduction in prey resources for Weddell seals.<br />
This may have led mo<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>to</strong> seek out altern<strong>at</strong>ive breeding<br />
sites in closer proximity <strong>to</strong> food resources, although <strong>the</strong><br />
mechanism by which such choice is made is not known.<br />
It would be especially valuable <strong>to</strong> examine <strong>the</strong> vari<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in foraging success and reproductive performance in<br />
different areas in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic where availability of food<br />
resources varies in time and space. How fl exible are <strong>the</strong><br />
reproductive str<strong>at</strong>egies of Weddell seals? Does <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
importance of income versus capital breeding vary among<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions or among years? How could <strong>the</strong> reproductive<br />
success of <strong>the</strong> Weddell seal be impacted by changes in ice<br />
or currents associ<strong>at</strong>ed with global warming? In a world<br />
of change, we need suffi cient background inform<strong>at</strong>ion on<br />
<strong>the</strong> resource needs of species <strong>to</strong> be able <strong>to</strong> predict future<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion trends.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Weddell seal research <strong>at</strong> Hut<strong>to</strong>n Cliffs, Erebus Bay,<br />
McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, in 1999 was supported by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Lottery Science Board New Zealand and <strong>the</strong> New Zealand<br />
Antarctic Program. Research <strong>at</strong> this site in 2006 and<br />
2007 was supported by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs (NSF-OPP award ANT-0538592)<br />
and authorized by permits issued by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Marine<br />
Fisheries Service Offi ce of Protected Resources (permit<br />
763-1485-00) and NSF-OPP (Antarctic Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion Act<br />
permit 2007-001). We thank our fi eld teams for <strong>the</strong>ir hard<br />
work and dedic<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
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L<strong>at</strong>itudinal P<strong>at</strong>terns of Biological Invasions<br />
in Marine Ecosystems: A <strong>Polar</strong> Perspective<br />
Gregory M. Ruiz and Chad L. Hewitt<br />
Gregory M. Ruiz, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environmental<br />
Research Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgew<strong>at</strong>er,<br />
MD 21037, USA. Chad L. Hewitt, Australian<br />
Maritime College, University of Tasmania,<br />
Bag 1370, Launces<strong>to</strong>n, Tasmania 7250, Australia.<br />
Corresponding author: G. Ruiz (ruizg@si.edu).<br />
Accepted 28 May 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Biological invasions in coastal ecosystems have occurred throughout<br />
Earth’s his<strong>to</strong>ry, but <strong>the</strong> scale and tempo have increased gre<strong>at</strong>ly in recent time due <strong>to</strong> human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
dispersal. Available d<strong>at</strong>a suggest th<strong>at</strong> a strong l<strong>at</strong>itudinal p<strong>at</strong>tern exists<br />
for such human introductions in coastal systems. The documented number of introduced<br />
species (with established, self-sustaining popul<strong>at</strong>ions) is gre<strong>at</strong>est in temper<strong>at</strong>e regions<br />
and declines sharply <strong>at</strong> higher l<strong>at</strong>itudes. This observed invasion p<strong>at</strong>tern across l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
may result from differences in (1) his<strong>to</strong>rical baseline knowledge, (2) propagule supply,<br />
(3) resistance <strong>to</strong> invasion, and (4) disturbance regime. To d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se mechanisms across geographic regions has not been evalu<strong>at</strong>ed, and each may be<br />
expected <strong>to</strong> change over time. Of particular interest and concern are <strong>the</strong> interactive effects<br />
of clim<strong>at</strong>e change and human activities on marine invasions <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes. Shifts<br />
in invasion dynamics may be especially pronounced in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, where<br />
current models predict not only an increase in sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ures but also a rapid<br />
reduction in sea ice in <strong>the</strong> Arctic. These environmental changes may gre<strong>at</strong>ly increase<br />
invasion opportunity <strong>at</strong> high nor<strong>the</strong>rn l<strong>at</strong>itudes due <strong>to</strong> shipping, mineral explor<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
shoreline development, and o<strong>the</strong>r human responses.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The extent and signifi cance of biological invasions in coastal marine ecosystems<br />
has become increasingly evident in recent years. On multiple continents,<br />
studies have described invasions by nonn<strong>at</strong>ive marine species, occurring primarily<br />
in shallow w<strong>at</strong>ers of bays and estuaries (e.g., Cohen and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 1995;<br />
Cranfi eld et al., 1998; Orensanz et al., 2002; Hewitt et al., 2004; Kerckhof et al.,<br />
2007; Fofonoff et al., in press). Although <strong>the</strong> ecological effects of most invasions<br />
have not been explored, it is evident th<strong>at</strong> some nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species exert strong<br />
effects on <strong>the</strong> structure and function of invaded coastal ecosystems (Ruiz et al.,<br />
1999; Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2001; Grosholz, 2002).<br />
Marine invasions have occurred throughout Earth’s his<strong>to</strong>ry, occurring sometimes<br />
as punctu<strong>at</strong>ed events in geologic time th<strong>at</strong> correspond <strong>to</strong> changes in clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and dispersal barriers (e.g., Vermeij, 1991a, 1991b). However, invasions in<br />
modern time differ from those of <strong>the</strong> past, especially with respect <strong>to</strong> sp<strong>at</strong>ial and<br />
temporal scale. Most invasions are now driven primarily by <strong>the</strong> human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
transfer of organisms, instead of n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal processes. As one consequence,
348 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential range of dispersal is arguably less constrained<br />
than in <strong>the</strong> past, without <strong>the</strong> need for geographic adjacency.<br />
Marine organisms are now often moved quickly by humans<br />
across gre<strong>at</strong> distances and dispersal barriers (e.g., ocean<br />
basins, hemispheres, and continents), which were previously<br />
insurmountable in ecological timescales for most<br />
coastal species.<br />
Human transport of organisms also has increased <strong>the</strong><br />
r<strong>at</strong>e of invasions in recent time. It is clear th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> documented<br />
r<strong>at</strong>e of marine invasions from human causes has<br />
increased dram<strong>at</strong>ically, especially in <strong>the</strong> past 100– 200<br />
years, in many global regions (e.g., Cohen and Carl<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1998; Hewitt et al., 1999, 2004; Wonham and Carl<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
2005). The current tempo of invasions may, in fact, be<br />
unprecedented, resulting from <strong>the</strong> massive and growing<br />
scope of global trade, but it remains challenging <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
actual r<strong>at</strong>es of invasion th<strong>at</strong> adequ<strong>at</strong>ely control for<br />
potential biases (Ruiz et al., 2000). None<strong>the</strong>less, a broad<br />
consensus exists th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> pace of invasions has increased<br />
sharply in many well-studied regions.<br />
Despite considerable liter<strong>at</strong>ure on p<strong>at</strong>terns and processes<br />
of marine invasion, <strong>the</strong>re is surprisingly little analysis<br />
of l<strong>at</strong>itudinal p<strong>at</strong>terns of invasion. In this paper, we review<br />
<strong>the</strong> current st<strong>at</strong>e of knowledge about human- medi<strong>at</strong>ed invasions<br />
(hereafter invasions or introductions) along a gradient<br />
from temper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> polar marine ecosystems, and we<br />
consider possible effects of clim<strong>at</strong>e change on invasions <strong>at</strong><br />
high-l<strong>at</strong>itudes. An extension of this comparison <strong>to</strong> tropical<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes is <strong>the</strong> focus of future analyses.<br />
TEMPERATE-POLAR PATTERN OF INVASIONS<br />
For marine systems, most introductions (established,<br />
self-sustaining popul<strong>at</strong>ions of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species) are<br />
documented from temper<strong>at</strong>e l<strong>at</strong>itudes, including North<br />
America, Australia, Europe, New Zealand, and South<br />
America (see Cranfi eld et al., 1998; Hewitt et al., 1999,<br />
2004; Reise et al., 1999; Ruiz et al., 2000; Hewitt, 2002;<br />
Orensanz et al., 2002; Castilla et al., 2005; Kerckhof et al.,<br />
2007; CIESM, 2007). While scores <strong>to</strong> hundreds of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species are known from single bays and estuaries in<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e regions, few invasions are known from similar<br />
high-l<strong>at</strong>itude sites, especially in polar regions.<br />
This p<strong>at</strong>tern is illustr<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> sharp decline in documented<br />
introductions with increasing l<strong>at</strong>itude along western<br />
North America (Figure 1). In an analysis of available<br />
liter<strong>at</strong>ure and collection records, Ruiz et al. (2006a) examined<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e species<br />
reported from 12 large bays and estuaries (each including<br />
FIGURE 1. Total number of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive marine invertebr<strong>at</strong>e species<br />
with established popul<strong>at</strong>ions in bays along western North America.<br />
D<strong>at</strong>a are summarized from species reported in <strong>the</strong> liter<strong>at</strong>ure and collections<br />
in each of 12 sites from California <strong>to</strong> Alaska (from Ruiz<br />
et al., 2006a).<br />
commercial ports) between 32° and 61°N l<strong>at</strong>itude. For <strong>the</strong><br />
six sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost sites, from California <strong>to</strong> Washing<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of documented introductions ranged from 50<br />
<strong>to</strong> 170 species, with <strong>the</strong> largest number reported for San<br />
Francisco Bay (often <strong>the</strong> initial site for reported introductions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> spread <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r bays; see Cohen and Carl<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1995, for fur<strong>the</strong>r discussion). In contrast, <strong>the</strong> six nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
sites in Alaska were <strong>at</strong> least one order of magnitude lower<br />
in <strong>the</strong> number of known introductions, ranging from 0 <strong>to</strong><br />
5 species.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> entire Arctic (�66°N), we are aware of only<br />
one nonn<strong>at</strong>ive marine species th<strong>at</strong> is known <strong>to</strong> have an<br />
established popul<strong>at</strong>ion. The Alaskan king crab, Paralithodes<br />
camtsch<strong>at</strong>icus, was intentionally introduced <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> White Sea in <strong>the</strong> 1960s <strong>to</strong> establish a fi shery and now<br />
occurs abundantly from Russia <strong>to</strong> Norway (Jorgensen,<br />
2005). While o<strong>the</strong>r nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species have been reported<br />
for Arctic bioregions (e.g., Streftaris et al., 2005), it appears<br />
th<strong>at</strong> such occurrences ei<strong>the</strong>r have not been documented<br />
above 66°N or are not known <strong>to</strong> exist as established<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Antarctic (�60°S), two nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species have<br />
been reported recently, both on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Peninsula,<br />
but nei<strong>the</strong>r are known <strong>to</strong> have established popul<strong>at</strong>ions.<br />
Two specimens of <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic spider crab Hyas<br />
araneus were found in collections from 1986, including<br />
one male and one female (Tavares and De Melo, 2004).<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> European green alga Ulva intestinalis was<br />
also reported (Clay<strong>to</strong>n, 1997); however, <strong>the</strong> morphological<br />
identifi c<strong>at</strong>ion may be suspect. While <strong>the</strong>se two species,
and perhaps o<strong>the</strong>rs, may have invaded <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, this<br />
has not been confi rmed <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e (Lewis et al., 2003, 2004;<br />
Clarke et al., 2005).<br />
To some extent, <strong>the</strong> observed differences in nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species richness across l<strong>at</strong>itudes may refl ect bias in search<br />
effort and taxonomic knowledge, which undoubtedly declines<br />
from temper<strong>at</strong>e regions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> poles. It is virtually<br />
certain th<strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species are present <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
and have not been recognized because of ei<strong>the</strong>r lack<br />
of sampling or insuffi cient taxonomic and biogeographic<br />
resolution. However, such differences in his<strong>to</strong>rical baseline<br />
are unlikely <strong>to</strong> account for <strong>the</strong> overall l<strong>at</strong>itudinal p<strong>at</strong>tern,<br />
especially when considering <strong>the</strong> larger, conspicuous organisms<br />
(e.g., decapods, shelled molluscs, and ascidians). This<br />
is fur<strong>the</strong>r supported by recent surveys in Alaskan w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
th<strong>at</strong> found a paucity of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive sessile invertebr<strong>at</strong>es rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r sites in <strong>the</strong> continental United St<strong>at</strong>es (Ruiz<br />
et al., 2006a, unpublished d<strong>at</strong>a).<br />
The poleward decline in invasions apparently results<br />
from l<strong>at</strong>itudinal differences in propagule supply of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species, resistance (or susceptibility) <strong>to</strong> invasion,<br />
or disturbance regimes. These may oper<strong>at</strong>e alone or in<br />
combin<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> produce <strong>the</strong> observed p<strong>at</strong>tern of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species richness. There exists <strong>the</strong>oretical and empirical<br />
support for <strong>the</strong> role of each fac<strong>to</strong>r in invasion dynamics<br />
(see Ruiz et al., 2000, and references <strong>the</strong>rein), although<br />
<strong>the</strong>se have not been evalu<strong>at</strong>ed for l<strong>at</strong>itudinal p<strong>at</strong>terns of<br />
marine invasions. Below, we consider each of <strong>the</strong>se potential<br />
mechanisms and how <strong>the</strong>y may contribute <strong>to</strong> observed<br />
p<strong>at</strong>terns in fur<strong>the</strong>r detail, focusing particular <strong>at</strong>tention on<br />
western North America.<br />
DIFFERENCES IN INVASION<br />
MECHANISMS ACROSS LATITUDES<br />
PROPAGULE SUPPLY<br />
The delivery p<strong>at</strong>tern of organisms (propagules) gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
affects <strong>the</strong> likelihood of established popul<strong>at</strong>ions. Propagule<br />
supply can be fur<strong>the</strong>r divided in<strong>to</strong> multiple components,<br />
including <strong>to</strong>tal number of propagules and <strong>the</strong> frequency<br />
(r<strong>at</strong>e) and magnitude of inocula. Assuming suitable environmental<br />
conditions exist for a species <strong>to</strong> persist (including<br />
survival, growth, and successful reproduction), <strong>the</strong> likelihood<br />
of establishment is generally expected <strong>to</strong> increase with<br />
an increase in each component (Ruiz and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2003;<br />
Lockwood et al., 2005; Johns<strong>to</strong>n et al., in press).<br />
Most marine introductions are thought <strong>to</strong> result<br />
from species transfers by vessels and live trade. For North<br />
America, <strong>at</strong> least 50% of introduced marine species have<br />
LATITUDINAL PATTERNS OF MARINE INVASIONS 349<br />
been <strong>at</strong>tributed <strong>to</strong> commercial ships, which move species<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong>ir underw<strong>at</strong>er surfaces and also in ballasted<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erials (Ruiz et al., 2000; Fofonoff et al., 2003;<br />
see Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 1985, for description of <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry and use of<br />
solid ballast and ballast w<strong>at</strong>er). After shipping, live trade is<br />
<strong>the</strong> second largest mechanism (vec<strong>to</strong>r) of marine introductions<br />
<strong>to</strong> North America, resulting from species transfers for<br />
aquaculture, fi sheries, bait, and aquaria (e.g., Cohen and<br />
Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 1995; Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2001; Fofonoff et al., in press); invasions<br />
from live trade include both <strong>the</strong> target species of<br />
interest as well as many associ<strong>at</strong>ed species, such as epibiota,<br />
parasites, and p<strong>at</strong>hogens. These two vec<strong>to</strong>rs are active<br />
and often dominant throughout <strong>the</strong> world, although <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ive importance certainly varies in space and time (e.g.,<br />
Cranfi eld et al., 1998; Hewitt et al., 1999; 2004; Orensanz<br />
et al., 2002; Wasson et al., 2001; Castilla et al., 2005; see<br />
also Ribera and Boudouresque, 1995; Ribera Siguan, 2003;<br />
Hewitt et al., 2007).<br />
Once established, nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species often spread<br />
along <strong>the</strong> coast from <strong>the</strong> initial site of introduction. Some<br />
introduced marine species can expand <strong>the</strong>ir range in a<br />
new terri<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong> encompass hundreds of kilometers (e.g.,<br />
Grosholz, 1996; Thresher et al., 2005). This spread may<br />
occur by a combin<strong>at</strong>ion of n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal and anthropogenic<br />
means, depending upon <strong>the</strong> circumstances. Thus,<br />
invasion <strong>to</strong> a particular loc<strong>at</strong>ion can result by an initial<br />
introduction from distant sources or spread from an adjacent<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion. In general, proximity <strong>to</strong> potential source<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ions may often increase <strong>the</strong> chances of coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
especially for <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter.<br />
The current level of human activity, and especially<br />
shipping and live trade, is rel<strong>at</strong>ively low in polar regions,<br />
limiting opportunity for human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed transfers (e.g.,<br />
Lewis et al., 2003, 2004). Moreover, <strong>the</strong> arrival of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
organisms from adjacent regions by n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal<br />
is also likely <strong>to</strong> be low, resulting from a combin<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
low prevalence of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species in adjacent regions<br />
and also <strong>the</strong> considerable distances or barriers th<strong>at</strong> exist<br />
between potential sources for invasion of polar habit<strong>at</strong>s.<br />
It is inform<strong>at</strong>ive <strong>to</strong> compare <strong>the</strong> magnitude of commercial<br />
shipping <strong>to</strong> various regions of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es (Figure<br />
2). For 2004– 2005, far fewer ship arrivals occurred in<br />
Alaska compared <strong>to</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r regions <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes. Unlike<br />
<strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter regions, most ship arrivals <strong>to</strong> Alaska were from<br />
domestic sources, origin<strong>at</strong>ing from o<strong>the</strong>r U.S. ports (particularly<br />
those on <strong>the</strong> west coast) instead of foreign ports.<br />
Importantly, even <strong>the</strong> current level of shipping <strong>to</strong> Alaska<br />
is only a very recent development, increasing substantially<br />
over just <strong>the</strong> past few decades. Although <strong>the</strong>se temporal<br />
changes in shipping have not been fully quantifi ed, an
350 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT<br />
FIGURE 2. Estim<strong>at</strong>ed number of commercial ship arrivals per year<br />
(2004– 2005) <strong>to</strong> regions of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es. (D<strong>at</strong>a are from Miller<br />
et al., 2007.)<br />
obvious increase has occurred. This is best exemplifi ed for<br />
oil tankers. Recent studies show a large number of marine<br />
organisms are delivered <strong>to</strong> Alaska in <strong>the</strong> ballast w<strong>at</strong>er of<br />
oil tankers. In 1998, it was estim<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> oil tankers discharged<br />
a mean volume of 32,715 m 3 of ballast w<strong>at</strong>er per<br />
arrival <strong>to</strong> Port Valdez (61°N), containing an average density<br />
of 12,637 plank<strong>to</strong>n per m 3 (as sampled by 80-�m mesh net,<br />
n � 169 vessels, chain-forming di<strong>at</strong>oms excluded; Hines<br />
and Ruiz, 2000). Most of <strong>the</strong>se ships came from ports in<br />
California and Washing<strong>to</strong>n th<strong>at</strong> are a potential source for<br />
many nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species (Figure 1). Over 17,000 oil tankers<br />
have arrived <strong>to</strong> Port Valdez since 1977, when <strong>the</strong> Alyeska<br />
pipeline was completed (Alyeska Pipeline Service Company,<br />
2008). Prior <strong>to</strong> this d<strong>at</strong>e, tanker trade <strong>to</strong> Port Valdez simply<br />
did not exist.<br />
While we can consider <strong>the</strong> number of arrivals <strong>to</strong> be a<br />
coarse proxy for ship-medi<strong>at</strong>ed propagule supply <strong>to</strong> a region,<br />
especially for a specifi c trade route and ship type (as<br />
above), this approach has clear limit<strong>at</strong>ions. Considerable<br />
vari<strong>at</strong>ion exists among ships, voyage routes, and seasons<br />
in both <strong>the</strong> density and diversity of associ<strong>at</strong>ed organisms<br />
(Smith et al., 1999; Coutts, 1999; Verling et al., 2005).<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> changing p<strong>at</strong>terns of ship movements and<br />
trade present radically different invasion opportunities<br />
th<strong>at</strong> are not captured in assessing <strong>the</strong> number of arrivals<br />
<strong>at</strong> one point in time (Hewitt et al., 1999, 2004; Minchin,<br />
2006). As a result, <strong>the</strong> extent of species transfers by ships<br />
<strong>to</strong> loc<strong>at</strong>ions is poorly resolved for any time period. Similar<br />
limit<strong>at</strong>ions exist for most o<strong>the</strong>r transfer mechanisms in<br />
coastal ecosystems, making it challenging <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
actual propagule supply of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species and provide<br />
direct comparisons across l<strong>at</strong>itudes.<br />
Despite existing inform<strong>at</strong>ion gaps, <strong>the</strong> magnitude of<br />
nonn<strong>at</strong>ive propagule supply (both his<strong>to</strong>rically and presently)<br />
has undoubtedly been low in polar regions. His<strong>to</strong>rically,<br />
whaling and sealing activities, particularly in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean (Murphy, 1995), provided some opportunity<br />
for ship-medi<strong>at</strong>ed species transfer. Today, modern<br />
shipping continues <strong>to</strong> provide a transfer mechanism<br />
<strong>to</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes in both hemispheres (Hines and Ruiz,<br />
2000; Lewis, 2003, 2004). However, compared <strong>to</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes, <strong>the</strong> number of ship arrivals and <strong>the</strong> diversity<br />
of routes (source ports) for <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean and<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean have been extremely limited. Rafting of<br />
marine species <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> poles also appears <strong>to</strong> be low rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>to</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes (Barnes, 2002). Finally, n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal<br />
of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species is likely <strong>to</strong> be uncommon <strong>to</strong><br />
both poles, perhaps especially in <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere<br />
where distance and <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Circumpolar Circul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
appear <strong>to</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>e a signifi cant dispersal barrier (see reviews<br />
by Clarke et al., 2005, and Barnes et al., 2006).<br />
RESISTANCE TO INVASIONS<br />
Independent of propagule supply, high l<strong>at</strong>itudes may<br />
be more resistant (less susceptible) <strong>to</strong> invasions. This can<br />
result from environmental resistance, whereby physical or<br />
chemical conditions in <strong>the</strong> recipient environment are not<br />
conducive <strong>to</strong> survivorship, reproduction, and popul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
growth. Altern<strong>at</strong>ively, biotic resistance can result from<br />
pred<strong>at</strong>ors, competi<strong>to</strong>rs, food resources or o<strong>the</strong>r biological<br />
interactions th<strong>at</strong> limit coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion success.<br />
There is support for environmental resistance <strong>to</strong> polar<br />
invasions due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> current temper<strong>at</strong>ure regime. In <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic, low temper<strong>at</strong>ure is considered <strong>to</strong> be responsible<br />
through geologic time for <strong>the</strong> low diversity of decapod<br />
crustaceans, sharks, and o<strong>the</strong>r taxonomic groups and is<br />
also thought <strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong>day as a potential barrier <strong>to</strong><br />
coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005a, 2005b; Barnes et al.,<br />
2006; but see Lewis et al., 2003). This is, perhaps, best<br />
illustr<strong>at</strong>ed by research on lithodid crabs, which are physiologically<br />
unable <strong>to</strong> perform <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> current polar temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
(Aronson et al., 2007).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, using environmental<br />
niche models, deRivera et al. (2007) found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
ranges of some introduced species (<strong>the</strong> crab Carcinus<br />
maenas, <strong>the</strong> periwinkle Lit<strong>to</strong>rina sax<strong>at</strong>ilis, <strong>the</strong> ascidian<br />
Styela clava, and <strong>the</strong> barnacle Amphibalanus improvisus)<br />
along western North America are not limited by temper<strong>at</strong>ure.<br />
While none of <strong>the</strong>se species appeared capable of
colonizing <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean under current clim<strong>at</strong>ic conditions,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir estim<strong>at</strong>ed ranges all included Alaskan w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
(where <strong>the</strong>y do not presently occur). Thus, available<br />
analyses indic<strong>at</strong>e both Antarctic and Arctic w<strong>at</strong>ers are<br />
currently beyond <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal <strong>to</strong>lerance for some species,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>to</strong> which invasions can occur in <strong>the</strong>se polar<br />
regions is not known.<br />
Temper<strong>at</strong>ure may often serve as a barrier <strong>to</strong> polar invasions<br />
by directly limiting larval development r<strong>at</strong>e, which<br />
is highly temper<strong>at</strong>ure dependent (Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2003,<br />
2005a, 2005b; deRivera et al., 2007). Many species are<br />
able <strong>to</strong> persist and grow <strong>at</strong> cold temper<strong>at</strong>ures as juveniles<br />
or adults, compared <strong>to</strong> larvae th<strong>at</strong> require warmer w<strong>at</strong>er<br />
for successful development <strong>to</strong> metamorphosis. High l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
can also have short seasons when suffi cient food<br />
exists <strong>to</strong> sustain larval development. These direct and indirect<br />
effects of temper<strong>at</strong>ure are thought <strong>to</strong> have gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
favored nonplank<strong>to</strong>trophic larvae <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes (see<br />
Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005a, and references <strong>the</strong>rein).<br />
Aside from food limit<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> potential importance of<br />
biotic resistance for high-l<strong>at</strong>itude marine invasions is largely<br />
unexplored. Specifi cally, it is not clear whe<strong>the</strong>r competition<br />
or pred<strong>at</strong>ion would gre<strong>at</strong>ly affect invasion establishment <strong>at</strong><br />
high l<strong>at</strong>itudes, especially in comparison <strong>to</strong> more temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
regions. As discussed by deRivera et al. (2007), it is conceivable<br />
th<strong>at</strong> biotic interactions oper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> reduce <strong>the</strong> likelihood<br />
of invasions <strong>to</strong> Alaska, despite suitable environmental conditions,<br />
but this hypo<strong>the</strong>sis has not been tested empirically.<br />
More broadly, understanding biotic resistance <strong>to</strong> invasion is<br />
a critical gap in marine systems.<br />
DISTURBANCE REGIME<br />
Disturbance can play an important role in invasion<br />
dynamics through a variety of mechanisms. In general,<br />
<strong>the</strong> role of disturbance in invasion ecology has focused on<br />
changes in biotic interactions, <strong>the</strong>reby reducing biotic resistance<br />
<strong>to</strong> invasion. This can result from changes in competition<br />
th<strong>at</strong> affect availability of resources, such as open<br />
space for coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion, food, or nutrients. Altern<strong>at</strong>ively,<br />
changes in pred<strong>at</strong>ion pressure can increase invasion opportunities.<br />
While disturbance agents may oper<strong>at</strong>e directly<br />
<strong>to</strong> affect competition or pred<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong>y can also have an<br />
indirect effect of <strong>the</strong>se interactions. For example, changes<br />
in sediment or nutrient loading may cause a change in resident<br />
community structure (including species composition<br />
or abundance) th<strong>at</strong> affects <strong>the</strong> strength of biotic interactions<br />
for newly arriving species.<br />
In marine systems, liter<strong>at</strong>ure on <strong>the</strong> role of disturbance<br />
in invasions has focused primarily on anthropo-<br />
LATITUDINAL PATTERNS OF MARINE INVASIONS 351<br />
genic sources of disturbance (e.g., Ruiz et al., 1999; Piola<br />
and Johns<strong>to</strong>n, 2006). Past studies have especially considered<br />
effects of fi sheries exploit<strong>at</strong>ion, changes <strong>to</strong> habit<strong>at</strong><br />
structure (whe<strong>the</strong>r physical or biological in n<strong>at</strong>ure), and<br />
chemical pollution. Invasions <strong>the</strong>mselves have also been<br />
considered an important source of disturbance in cases<br />
where invasions ei<strong>the</strong>r have (1) neg<strong>at</strong>ive effects on resident<br />
biota by reducing biotic resistance (Grosholz, 2005)<br />
or (2) positive effects on newly arriving species by providing<br />
habit<strong>at</strong>, hosts, or food resources th<strong>at</strong> were previously<br />
limiting (Simberloff and Von Holle, 1999).<br />
Anthropogenic disturbance can clearly play an important<br />
role in invasion dynamics, in terms of both establishment<br />
and abundance of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species, for which <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is strong <strong>the</strong>oretical and empirical underpinning. While<br />
considered likely <strong>to</strong> be a key fac<strong>to</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> high diversity of<br />
nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species in some estuaries, such as San Francisco<br />
Bay (Cohen and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 1998), <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive contribution<br />
of disturbance <strong>to</strong> observed invasion his<strong>to</strong>ries is not well<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od, as <strong>the</strong>re are many confounding variables th<strong>at</strong><br />
vary among sites (Ruiz et al., 1999).<br />
The magnitude of local and regional sources of anthropogenic<br />
disturbance has been low in high-l<strong>at</strong>itude and<br />
polar marine systems <strong>to</strong> d<strong>at</strong>e, compared <strong>to</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes,<br />
refl ecting <strong>the</strong> low level of human activities. In contrast,<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change represents a global-scale and human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
disturbance, with pronounced effects expected for<br />
high l<strong>at</strong>itudes (Arctic Clim<strong>at</strong>e Impact Assessment, 2005;<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on Clim<strong>at</strong>e Change (IPCC),<br />
2007). While several researchers have begun <strong>to</strong> explore<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential effects of clim<strong>at</strong>e change <strong>to</strong> marine invasions<br />
(Stachowicz et al., 2002; Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007), <strong>the</strong>y<br />
have focused primarily on effects of temper<strong>at</strong>ure <strong>at</strong> midl<strong>at</strong>itudes.<br />
Below, we expand this scope <strong>to</strong> examine potential<br />
direct and indirect effects of projected temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
changes <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes, considering especially <strong>the</strong> response<br />
of human activities and implic<strong>at</strong>ions for changes in<br />
propagule supply, invasion resistance, and local/ regional<br />
disturbance.<br />
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE<br />
CHANGE ON INVASIONS<br />
Clim<strong>at</strong>e change is expected <strong>to</strong> affect many dimensions<br />
of coastal ecosystems, including temper<strong>at</strong>ure regimes, sea<br />
level, upwelling, ocean currents, s<strong>to</strong>rm frequency and magnitude,<br />
and precipit<strong>at</strong>ion p<strong>at</strong>terns, which will infl uence<br />
land-sourced runoff, leading <strong>to</strong> changes in nutrients and turbidity<br />
(IPCC, 2007). Shifts in <strong>the</strong>se key physical processes
352 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT<br />
are expected <strong>to</strong> cause myriad and complex changes <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
structure, dynamics, and function of biological communities.<br />
The magnitude and r<strong>at</strong>e of clim<strong>at</strong>e change are <strong>the</strong><br />
focus of ongoing research, as are <strong>the</strong> expected changes <strong>to</strong><br />
coastal ecosystems.<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> clear effects of clim<strong>at</strong>e change is elev<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
sea surface temper<strong>at</strong>ure, which is expected <strong>to</strong> be gre<strong>at</strong>est <strong>at</strong><br />
high l<strong>at</strong>itudes and includes <strong>the</strong> complete loss of Arctic sea<br />
ice in <strong>the</strong> summer (IPCC, 2007). While models estim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> seasonal disappearance of Arctic sea ice in <strong>the</strong> next<br />
50– 100 years, empirical measures suggest ice loss is occurring<br />
<strong>at</strong> a more rapid r<strong>at</strong>e (Serreze et al., 2007; Stroeve et<br />
al., 2007, 2008). In contrast, no trend in sea ice change has<br />
been detected in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic (Cavalieri et al., 2003; but<br />
see Levebvre and Goosse, 2008). In Table 1, we consider<br />
some consequences of clim<strong>at</strong>e change in polar ecosystems<br />
for invasions, comparing potential responses in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
and Antarctic. Our goal is <strong>to</strong> explore how <strong>the</strong> direct effects<br />
of clim<strong>at</strong>e and indirect effects on human activities (in<br />
response <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>ic shifts and associ<strong>at</strong>ed opportunities)<br />
may affect invasion dynamics <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes.<br />
Temper<strong>at</strong>ure is expected <strong>to</strong> have a direct effect on environmental<br />
resistance <strong>to</strong> invasion. It is clear th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal<br />
regime sets range limits of many species, and <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
are expected <strong>to</strong> shift in response <strong>to</strong> changing temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
(Stachowicz et al., 2002; Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007). The<br />
projected changes for <strong>the</strong> Arctic and Antarctic w<strong>at</strong>ers<br />
should allow species invasions (both n<strong>at</strong>ural and humanmedi<strong>at</strong>ed)<br />
<strong>to</strong> occur th<strong>at</strong> are not possible now due <strong>to</strong> constraints<br />
in <strong>the</strong>rmal <strong>to</strong>lerance and possibly food availability<br />
(e.g., Th<strong>at</strong>je et al., 2005a; deRivera et al., 2007; Aronson<br />
et al., 2007). Thus, we hypo<strong>the</strong>size increased invasions<br />
<strong>at</strong> both poles (Table 1), caused by n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal and<br />
human-aided transport. However, <strong>the</strong> r<strong>at</strong>e of new invasions<br />
may differ gre<strong>at</strong>ly between Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems,<br />
depending upon <strong>the</strong> interaction of temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
propagule supply, and invasion resistance.<br />
Currents are expected <strong>to</strong> shift as a component of clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change and will no doubt affect propagule supply.<br />
While considerable uncertainty exists about changes in<br />
ocean currents, we hypo<strong>the</strong>size (Table 1) th<strong>at</strong> especially<br />
strong effects of currents on propagule supply may occur<br />
across <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean due <strong>to</strong> (1) loss of sea ice, potentially<br />
allowing gre<strong>at</strong>er w<strong>at</strong>er movement, and (2) <strong>the</strong> continuous<br />
n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> shoreline, providing adjacent source<br />
communities for transport. It appears likely th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se adjacent<br />
communities will increase in species richness with<br />
rising temper<strong>at</strong>ure as many n<strong>at</strong>ive and nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species<br />
expand <strong>the</strong>ir nor<strong>the</strong>rn range limits in response. We posit<br />
th<strong>at</strong> currents would <strong>the</strong>refore oper<strong>at</strong>e with temper<strong>at</strong>ure <strong>to</strong><br />
facilit<strong>at</strong>e species transport and coastwise spread across <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic. While currents can also supply larvae <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
(Barnes et al., 2006), we do not expect an analogous<br />
and increasing role with temper<strong>at</strong>ure rise <strong>the</strong>re (Table 1),<br />
TABLE 1. Hypo<strong>the</strong>sized effects of clim<strong>at</strong>e change on invasion dynamics in Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems. A plus (�) indic<strong>at</strong>es<br />
projected increase in invasion resulting from specifi ed independent variables and response variables (mechanisms th<strong>at</strong> affect invasion<br />
dynamics); a dash (— ) indic<strong>at</strong>es no expected effect or ambiguous outcome.<br />
Projected changes for invasions<br />
Agent Independent variable(s) Response variable(s) Arctic Antarctic<br />
Clim<strong>at</strong>e Temper<strong>at</strong>ure Environmental resistance � �<br />
Currents Dispersal � —<br />
Commercial shipping Number of ship transits Dispersal, disturbance � —<br />
Shift in trade routes Dispersal � —<br />
Shoreline development Port development Dispersal, disturbance, new habit<strong>at</strong> � —<br />
Shoreline development Disturbance, new habit<strong>at</strong> � —<br />
Mineral extraction Dispersal, disturbance, new habit<strong>at</strong> � —<br />
Fisheries N<strong>at</strong>ural s<strong>to</strong>cks Dispersal, disturbance � —<br />
Aquaculture Dispersal, disturbance, new habit<strong>at</strong> � —<br />
Tourism Number of visits Dispersal, disturbance � �<br />
Debris Quantity of debris Dispersal, disturbance � —
due in part <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong> distances from o<strong>the</strong>r coastal habit<strong>at</strong>s<br />
and adjacent popul<strong>at</strong>ions as well as <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong><br />
continuous Antarctic Circumpolar Circul<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>es<br />
a signifi cant dispersal barrier.<br />
There is considerable his<strong>to</strong>rical precedent for trans-<br />
Arctic exchange of biota between <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c and <strong>the</strong> Atlantic.<br />
Vermeij (1991a) documented 295 species of molluscs<br />
th<strong>at</strong> crossed <strong>the</strong> Arctic Ocean from <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Atlantic<br />
(261 species) or in <strong>the</strong> reverse direction (34 species)<br />
after <strong>the</strong> opening of <strong>the</strong> Bering Strait in <strong>the</strong> early Pliocene.<br />
This analysis included both species th<strong>at</strong> <strong>to</strong>ok part in <strong>the</strong><br />
interchange and species th<strong>at</strong> were descended from those<br />
th<strong>at</strong> did. While <strong>the</strong> faunal exchange occurred in geologic<br />
time, it may have been punctu<strong>at</strong>ed and also underscores<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential for such current-medi<strong>at</strong>ed transport in <strong>the</strong><br />
future. We are now exploring fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> environmental<br />
conditions under which this interchange occurred <strong>to</strong> better<br />
understand its implic<strong>at</strong>ion for expected clim<strong>at</strong>e change<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic. It is also noteworthy th<strong>at</strong> a di<strong>at</strong>om species<br />
of Pacifi c origin, Neodenticula seminae, was recently discovered<br />
in <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic, where it now appears <strong>to</strong> be<br />
well established (Reid et al., 2007). The species, detected<br />
from collections in 1998, is thought <strong>to</strong> be a recent trans-<br />
Arctic exchange, although <strong>the</strong> possibility of ship-medi<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
introduction via ballast w<strong>at</strong>er cannot be excluded.<br />
In response <strong>to</strong> projected temper<strong>at</strong>ure changes in polar<br />
regions, we expect major shifts in <strong>the</strong> level of many human<br />
activities th<strong>at</strong> will affect marine invasion dynamics<br />
<strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes and elsewhere. Moreover, we hypo<strong>the</strong>size<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> human responses and effects on invasions will be<br />
asymmetrical, with <strong>the</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>est changes in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Hemisphere (Table 1). The gre<strong>at</strong>est effects (and gre<strong>at</strong>est<br />
asymmetries) are likely <strong>to</strong> result from increases in commercial<br />
shipping and shoreline development, followed by<br />
fi sheries and <strong>to</strong>urism.<br />
As sea ice disappears in <strong>the</strong> Arctic, <strong>the</strong> opportunities<br />
for shipping and mineral (especially oil) exploit<strong>at</strong>ion increase<br />
dram<strong>at</strong>ically. If <strong>the</strong> Arctic becomes safe for navig<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
its use for commercial shipping would have strong<br />
economic incentive, reducing transit times and fuel costs.<br />
For example, <strong>the</strong> Northwest Passage between Europe and<br />
Asia is estim<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> be approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 9,000 km shorter<br />
than transiting <strong>the</strong> Panama Canal (Wilson et al., 2004).<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong>re is added expense (use fees) and often<br />
delays associ<strong>at</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> Panama Canal. Currently,<br />
13,000– 14,000 vessels transit <strong>the</strong> Panama Canal per year<br />
(Ruiz et al., 2006b), and approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 75% of <strong>the</strong>se vessels<br />
are on routes in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere. Thus, a<br />
large number of vessels could benefi t from using an Arctic<br />
trade route, especially when considering additional ships<br />
LATITUDINAL PATTERNS OF MARINE INVASIONS 353<br />
now transiting <strong>the</strong> Suez Canal th<strong>at</strong> may also save time and<br />
expense on this new route.<br />
A defl ection of shipping routes in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic has<br />
several likely consequences from an invasion perspective.<br />
First, this would gre<strong>at</strong>ly increase <strong>the</strong> number of ships transiting<br />
<strong>the</strong> polar w<strong>at</strong>ers and <strong>the</strong>reby increase <strong>the</strong> delivery<br />
of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive propagules associ<strong>at</strong>ed with hulls and ballast<br />
tanks <strong>to</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes. The per-ship magnitude of this<br />
supply is not immedi<strong>at</strong>ely clear as it depends upon source.<br />
Second, <strong>the</strong> source ports for transiting vessels would increase<br />
<strong>the</strong> diversity of organisms being delivered. Because<br />
few ships now visit Arctic w<strong>at</strong>er, <strong>the</strong>y certainly do not<br />
include <strong>the</strong> full selection of geographic source ports (and<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed biotic assemblages) of ships now transiting <strong>the</strong><br />
Panama and Suez canals. Third, ships also have chemical<br />
discharges, whe<strong>the</strong>r intended or accidental (such as<br />
oil spills and leaching of active antifouling compounds),<br />
which represent a form of disturbance th<strong>at</strong> may affect invasion<br />
resistance.<br />
On a broader geographic scale, we expect <strong>the</strong> decrease<br />
in transit time may gre<strong>at</strong>ly improve survivorship<br />
of organisms associ<strong>at</strong>ed with ballast w<strong>at</strong>er because survivorship<br />
in transit is time-dependent (Verling et al., 2005).<br />
The same is likely <strong>to</strong> be true for organisms on ships’<br />
hulls. Improved survivorship for ei<strong>the</strong>r or both would<br />
result in increased propagule supply <strong>to</strong> subsequent ports<br />
of call, including major ports in Asia, Europe, and North<br />
America. While survivorship of shipborne organisms is<br />
time-dependent, <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ive effects of transiting warm<br />
(Panama Canal) versus cold (Arctic) w<strong>at</strong>er will also affect<br />
<strong>the</strong> magnitude of change in mass fl ux of organisms<br />
among existing temper<strong>at</strong>e ports. A cold temper<strong>at</strong>ure may<br />
serve <strong>to</strong> lower metabolic requirements, extending competency<br />
and survivorship of associ<strong>at</strong>ed organisms. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> overall effects of ambient temper<strong>at</strong>ure are likely<br />
<strong>to</strong> be complex, varying with species and source regions,<br />
and remain <strong>to</strong> be explored.<br />
With warming temper<strong>at</strong>ures and retre<strong>at</strong>ing sea ice, we<br />
expect a potentially large increase in shore-based activities<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic, especially due <strong>to</strong> increase in mineral extraction<br />
and export. We consider three different but rel<strong>at</strong>ed activities<br />
th<strong>at</strong> can result in increased invasion opportunity.<br />
1. Commercial port development will occur on some<br />
scale <strong>to</strong> support oil extraction offshore, where large reserves<br />
exist. This will result in some increase in (1) propagule<br />
supply by ships, (2) local disturbance from chemical<br />
discharges from ship and port oper<strong>at</strong>ions, and (3) local<br />
disturbance in <strong>the</strong> cre<strong>at</strong>ion of novel habit<strong>at</strong> (rip rap, piers,<br />
etc.) associ<strong>at</strong>ed with shoreline modifi c<strong>at</strong>ions. The l<strong>at</strong>ter is<br />
especially relevant given th<strong>at</strong> many nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species are
354 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT<br />
found on such artifi cial substr<strong>at</strong>es (Cohen and Carl<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1995; Hewitt et al., 2004; Glasby et al., 2007), which<br />
may be especially important focal areas for coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
If local export of oil occurs by shipping, this could gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
increase <strong>the</strong> scale of port development as well as propagule<br />
supply, as exemplifi ed by oil export from Port Valdez<br />
(see above).<br />
2. The scope of shoreline development, and especially<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ed habit<strong>at</strong> alter<strong>at</strong>ion and disturbance (as outlined<br />
above), is likely <strong>to</strong> exceed th<strong>at</strong> for commercial shipping<br />
alone. Specifi cally, we expect some level of development <strong>to</strong><br />
support oversight of terri<strong>to</strong>rial jurisdiction among Arctic<br />
countries, shore-based mineral extraction, <strong>to</strong>urism, and<br />
fi sheries. It is diffi cult <strong>to</strong> gauge <strong>the</strong> potential scale of such<br />
development, although it is noteworthy th<strong>at</strong> several countries<br />
have recently increased <strong>the</strong>ir presence in <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
(including military and surveying activities) in support<br />
of claims <strong>to</strong> Arctic terri<strong>to</strong>ry and underlying mineral resources.<br />
3. Offshore mineral extraction itself will also cre<strong>at</strong>e<br />
opportunities for increased dispersal of propagules as well<br />
as some disturbance. It is not uncommon <strong>to</strong> use mobile<br />
drilling pl<strong>at</strong>forms for oil explor<strong>at</strong>ion, where <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>forms<br />
are <strong>to</strong>wed among sites <strong>at</strong> slow speeds. Although little<br />
studied, this movement can occur over gre<strong>at</strong> distances<br />
(i.e., across ocean basins) and may result in <strong>the</strong> transport<br />
organisms <strong>at</strong> much gre<strong>at</strong>er densities than found on oper<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
ships because (1) <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>forms sometimes reside<br />
<strong>at</strong> previous sites for long periods, accumul<strong>at</strong>ing dense assemblages<br />
of organisms, and (2) <strong>the</strong> speed of transport is<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively slow, increasing <strong>the</strong> chance th<strong>at</strong> organisms will<br />
remain associ<strong>at</strong>ed. To our knowledge, str<strong>at</strong>egies <strong>to</strong> assess<br />
or <strong>to</strong> reduce <strong>the</strong> associ<strong>at</strong>ed risk of species transfers have<br />
not been explored for mobile drilling pl<strong>at</strong>forms. As with<br />
port development, offshore oil pl<strong>at</strong>forms, when fi xed, cre<strong>at</strong>e<br />
artifi cial (novel) habit<strong>at</strong>s and have some risk of chemical<br />
discharge, and both types of disturbance may affect<br />
susceptibility <strong>to</strong> invasion.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Antarctic, we do not expect commercial shipping<br />
or shoreline development <strong>to</strong> occur <strong>to</strong> any gre<strong>at</strong> extent,<br />
simply because <strong>the</strong> same economic drivers do not exist<br />
<strong>the</strong>re <strong>at</strong> this point in time. There are not major shipping<br />
routes th<strong>at</strong> would benefi t from transiting near Antarctica,<br />
and access <strong>to</strong> mineral and o<strong>the</strong>r resources is restricted under<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y System.<br />
The potential exists for fi sheries <strong>to</strong> expand much more<br />
rapidly in <strong>the</strong> Arctic than in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. This difference<br />
results in large part from access. The Arctic is in rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
close proximity <strong>to</strong> current centers of popul<strong>at</strong>ion and human<br />
activity, and a considerable his<strong>to</strong>ry of fi sheries <strong>at</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
high l<strong>at</strong>itudes already exists in <strong>the</strong> Arctic. In contrast, access<br />
<strong>to</strong> fi sheries resources in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean w<strong>at</strong>ers �60°S<br />
is managed under <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y System, specifi cally<br />
<strong>the</strong> Convention on <strong>the</strong> Conserv<strong>at</strong>ion of Antarctic Marine<br />
Living Resources. It is diffi cult <strong>to</strong> say whe<strong>the</strong>r aquaculture<br />
would occur <strong>to</strong> any extent in high-l<strong>at</strong>itude systems; however,<br />
current aquaculture trends indic<strong>at</strong>e th<strong>at</strong> it is highly<br />
likely. As discussed for commercial shipping, fi sheries activities<br />
can increase <strong>the</strong> levels of propagule supply and disturbance,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>ter resulting from oper<strong>at</strong>ion of ships<br />
(and discharges), removing pred<strong>at</strong>ors and competi<strong>to</strong>rs, and<br />
cre<strong>at</strong>ing physical disturbance with fi shing gear (especially<br />
bot<strong>to</strong>m trawls; Thrush et al., 1995).<br />
Tourism is already a growing industry <strong>to</strong> both <strong>the</strong> Arctic<br />
and Antarctic, and we expect this trend <strong>to</strong> continue. As<br />
with fi shing, <strong>the</strong> scope for growth appears gre<strong>at</strong>er in <strong>the</strong><br />
Arctic, simply because of distance and access (including<br />
cost). As most <strong>to</strong>urism occurs by ships, <strong>the</strong> potential consequences<br />
for invasions are as outlined previously.<br />
Finally, we predict an increase in <strong>the</strong> quantity of human-derived<br />
fl o<strong>at</strong>ing debris <strong>to</strong> occur in <strong>the</strong> Arctic and<br />
surrounding high l<strong>at</strong>itudes in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere,<br />
coincident with increased levels of shipping, shoreline development,<br />
fi sheries, and <strong>to</strong>urism, as <strong>the</strong>se are all potential<br />
sources for fl o<strong>at</strong>ing debris. While Barnes (2002) reported<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ively few organisms colonizing fl o<strong>at</strong>ing debris <strong>at</strong> high<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itudes, <strong>the</strong> number may also increase under warmer<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ures. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, in <strong>the</strong> absence of sea ice in <strong>the</strong> summer,<br />
<strong>the</strong> potential for longer-distance transport of fl o<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial across <strong>the</strong> Arctic exists. Thus, we surmise th<strong>at</strong><br />
fl o<strong>at</strong>ing debris may play an important future role in <strong>the</strong><br />
inocul<strong>at</strong>ion and, especially, regional spread of species in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Arctic, in contrast <strong>to</strong> much smaller changes expected<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
At <strong>the</strong> present time, very few introduced species are<br />
known from marine ecosystems <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes in ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
hemisphere, especially for polar regions. This low number<br />
most likely results from a combin<strong>at</strong>ion of low propagule<br />
supply of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species and environmental resistance<br />
<strong>to</strong> invasion due <strong>to</strong> cold w<strong>at</strong>er temper<strong>at</strong>ures and seasonal<br />
fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions in resources. The rel<strong>at</strong>ive lack of anthropogenic<br />
disturbance may also serve <strong>to</strong> limit invasion opportunity.<br />
With projected increases in temper<strong>at</strong>ure and <strong>the</strong> disappearance<br />
of Arctic sea ice in summer, we should expect<br />
invasions <strong>to</strong> increase as (1) temper<strong>at</strong>ures fall within <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>rmal <strong>to</strong>lerance limits of organisms th<strong>at</strong> are arriving
and (2) human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed responses <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e change increase<br />
<strong>the</strong> propagule supply and decrease <strong>the</strong> resistance<br />
<strong>to</strong> invasion (<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> extent it exists) through disturbance.<br />
The change in invasion risk <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes is expected<br />
<strong>to</strong> increase most in <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Hemisphere, driven by<br />
potentially large scale increases in <strong>the</strong> level of commercial<br />
shipping and shoreline development (especially associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with extraction of mineral resources). Fisheries, <strong>to</strong>urism,<br />
and fl o<strong>at</strong>ing debris also are likely <strong>to</strong> increase <strong>the</strong> opportunity<br />
for invasions, but <strong>to</strong> a much smaller degree.<br />
The consequences of clim<strong>at</strong>e change for invasions <strong>at</strong><br />
high l<strong>at</strong>itudes deserve serious <strong>at</strong>tention from a conserv<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and management perspective. While global shifts in<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e (especially temper<strong>at</strong>ure) are underway and serve<br />
<strong>to</strong> increase chances of polar invasions, it appears th<strong>at</strong><br />
human responses <strong>to</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e change will largely determine<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of invasions th<strong>at</strong> occur. Although nonn<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
species can arrive <strong>to</strong> polar ecosystems by n<strong>at</strong>ural dispersal<br />
(Barnes et al., 2006), <strong>the</strong>se regions are rel<strong>at</strong>ively isol<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
geographically, and <strong>the</strong> scope for human transport is far<br />
gre<strong>at</strong>er. Signifi cant efforts should now focus on understanding<br />
and reducing <strong>the</strong> transfer of nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> poles, aiming <strong>to</strong> avoid <strong>the</strong> high number and signifi<br />
cant impacts of introductions experienced in temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
w<strong>at</strong>ers.<br />
Efforts <strong>to</strong> minimize invasion risk <strong>at</strong> lower l<strong>at</strong>itudes<br />
have employed several approaches th<strong>at</strong> are applicable and<br />
should be adopted in polar regions. These are conceptually<br />
simple, focusing especially on (1) prevention or reduction<br />
of species transport by human activities and (2) detection<br />
of invasions by nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species. In many n<strong>at</strong>ions, regul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
exist <strong>to</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>ly reduce <strong>the</strong> delivery of organisms<br />
th<strong>at</strong> pose some risk of invasions (Ruiz and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2003).<br />
While <strong>the</strong>se sometimes focus on specifi c species th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
known <strong>to</strong> survive or cause signifi cant impacts in a region,<br />
many str<strong>at</strong>egies are now aimed <strong>at</strong> reducing transfers of all<br />
organisms associ<strong>at</strong>ed with a known vec<strong>to</strong>r, especially because<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of potential species is vast and <strong>the</strong> risks<br />
of coloniz<strong>at</strong>ion and impacts are simply not known (i.e.,<br />
have not been examined) for most species. As an example,<br />
this approach of vec<strong>to</strong>r management is now being applied<br />
<strong>to</strong> commercial ships in many countries, where ships are<br />
required <strong>to</strong> tre<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir ballast w<strong>at</strong>er before discharging in<br />
coastal areas, reducing <strong>the</strong> concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of all coastal<br />
organisms (e.g., Min<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2005).<br />
A comprehensive effort <strong>to</strong> reduce species transfers<br />
should include an assessment of potential human- medi<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
vec<strong>to</strong>rs as <strong>the</strong> basis for developing and implementing vec<strong>to</strong>r<br />
management (Ruiz and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2003). For polar systems,<br />
policies could be adopted immedi<strong>at</strong>ely <strong>to</strong> reduce<br />
LATITUDINAL PATTERNS OF MARINE INVASIONS 355<br />
transfers by commercial ships, extending efforts developed<br />
in temper<strong>at</strong>e l<strong>at</strong>itudes, since ships’ ballast w<strong>at</strong>er and hulls<br />
are known <strong>to</strong> carry a risk of invasions (Ruiz et al., 2000;<br />
Fofonoff et al., 2003; Hewitt et al., 2004). Analyses of<br />
additional present and future vec<strong>to</strong>rs, such as oil drilling<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>forms and fi sheries activities, would be obvious next<br />
steps <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> potential magnitude of species transfers<br />
and <strong>to</strong> consider options for vec<strong>to</strong>r management.<br />
In addition <strong>to</strong> vec<strong>to</strong>r management, efforts <strong>to</strong> detect<br />
invasions and <strong>to</strong> measure temporal changes in invasions<br />
should be established in polar regions. Ideally, this would<br />
include an initial baseline survey and repe<strong>at</strong>ed surveys<br />
through time designed explicitly <strong>to</strong> test hypo<strong>the</strong>ses about<br />
invasions (e.g., Ruiz and Hewitt, 2002) and address several<br />
management needs. First, <strong>the</strong>se d<strong>at</strong>a would provide<br />
a measure of whe<strong>the</strong>r invasions are occurring and help<br />
identify specifi c vec<strong>to</strong>r(s) for management, providing feedback<br />
on how well management str<strong>at</strong>egies are working <strong>to</strong><br />
limit invasions (Ruiz and Carl<strong>to</strong>n, 2003). Second, resulting<br />
detections of new invasions would also enable efforts<br />
<strong>to</strong> eradic<strong>at</strong>e or control invasions, as deemed desirable.<br />
These str<strong>at</strong>egies for prevention and detection are easily<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od, but implement<strong>at</strong>ion is not so easy <strong>to</strong> achieve.<br />
Often, <strong>the</strong>re are issues rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> resources (time and funding),<br />
limiting <strong>the</strong> desired scope of effort. In addition, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
can be issues rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> jurisdiction th<strong>at</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r complic<strong>at</strong>e<br />
implement<strong>at</strong>ion, resulting from political (geographic)<br />
boundaries and institutional (legal) authorities. Unfortun<strong>at</strong>ely,<br />
in temper<strong>at</strong>e marine systems, <strong>the</strong>se impediments <strong>to</strong><br />
effective management str<strong>at</strong>egies are often not overcome<br />
until a threshold of signifi cant ecological or economic impacts<br />
is reached.<br />
Since few invasions are known for polar systems <strong>to</strong><br />
d<strong>at</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> opportunity now exists <strong>to</strong> implement management<br />
and policy th<strong>at</strong> would gre<strong>at</strong>ly limit invasions and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir unwanted impacts in <strong>the</strong>se unique communities.<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> transboundary aspects of polar systems, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
a clear need for intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion and agreements<br />
in this area. We hope this article stimul<strong>at</strong>es actions <strong>to</strong> evalu<strong>at</strong>e<br />
and reduce invasion risks <strong>at</strong> high l<strong>at</strong>itudes, applying<br />
<strong>the</strong> principals, methods, and experiences from temper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
marine systems around <strong>the</strong> globe.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
We wish <strong>to</strong> thank Michael Lang <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Offi ce of <strong>the</strong> Under Secretary for Science for <strong>the</strong><br />
opportunity <strong>to</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>e in <strong>the</strong> IPY Symposium. The content<br />
of this manuscript benefi ted from discussions with Gail<br />
Ash<strong>to</strong>n, Paul Fofonoff, Amy Frees<strong>to</strong>ne, Tuck Hines, Mark
356 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / RUIZ AND HEWITT<br />
Min<strong>to</strong>n, Whitman Miller, and Brian Steves, all of <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Environmental Research Center; C<strong>at</strong>herine deRivera,<br />
University of Portland; and Gretchen Lambert. Research<br />
in Alaska was supported by N<strong>at</strong>ional Sea Grant Program,<br />
Prince William Sound Citizens’ Advisory Council, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Institution, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.<br />
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Cosmology from Antarctica<br />
Robert W. Wilson<br />
and An<strong>to</strong>ny A. Stark<br />
Robert W. Wilson and An<strong>to</strong>ny A. Stark, <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory, 60 Garden Street,<br />
Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Corresponding<br />
author: R. W. Wilson (rwilson@cfa.harvard.edu).<br />
Accepted 25 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Four hundred thousand years after <strong>the</strong> Big Bang, electrons and nuclei combined<br />
<strong>to</strong> form <strong>at</strong>oms for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time, allowing a sea of pho<strong>to</strong>ns <strong>to</strong> stream freely through<br />
a newly transparent universe. After billions of years, those pho<strong>to</strong>ns, highly redshifted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> universal cosmic expansion, have become <strong>the</strong> cosmic microwave background (CMB)<br />
radi<strong>at</strong>ion we see coming from all directions <strong>to</strong>day. Observ<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> CMB is central <strong>to</strong><br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ional cosmology, and <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau is an exceptionally good site for this<br />
work. The fi rst <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>at</strong> CMB observ<strong>at</strong>ions from <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>eau was an expedition <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
South Pole in December 1986 by <strong>the</strong> Radio Physics Research group <strong>at</strong> Bell Labor<strong>at</strong>ories.<br />
No CMB anisotropies were observed, but sky noise and opacity were measured. The results<br />
were suffi ciently encouraging th<strong>at</strong> in <strong>the</strong> austral summer of 1988– 1989, three CMB<br />
groups particip<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> “Cucumber” campaign, where a temporary site dedic<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong><br />
CMB anisotropy measurements was set up 2 km from South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion. These were<br />
summer-only campaigns. Wintertime observ<strong>at</strong>ions became possible in 1990 with <strong>the</strong> establishment<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA), a N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion Science and Technology Center. The CARA developed year-round<br />
observing facilities in <strong>the</strong> “Dark Sec<strong>to</strong>r,” a section of Amundsen– Scott South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions. The CARA scientists fi elded several astronomical<br />
instruments: Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO),<br />
South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX), White Dish, Python, Viper, Arcminute Cosmology<br />
Bolometer Array Receiver (ACBAR), and Degree-Angular Scale Interferometer<br />
(DASI). By 2001, d<strong>at</strong>a from CARA, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r with th<strong>at</strong> from Balloon Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
Millimetric Extragalactic Radi<strong>at</strong>ion and Geophysics (BOOMERANG— a CMB experiment<br />
on a long-dur<strong>at</strong>ion balloon launched from McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion on <strong>the</strong> coast of Antarctica)<br />
showed clear evidence th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> overall geometry of <strong>the</strong> universe is fl <strong>at</strong>, as opposed<br />
<strong>to</strong> being positively or neg<strong>at</strong>ively curved. In 2002, <strong>the</strong> DASI group reported <strong>the</strong> detection<br />
of polariz<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> CMB. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions strongly support a “concordance model”<br />
of cosmology, where <strong>the</strong> dynamics of a fl <strong>at</strong> universe are domin<strong>at</strong>ed by forces exerted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> mysterious dark energy and dark m<strong>at</strong>ter. The CMB observ<strong>at</strong>ions continue on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>eau. The South Pole Telescope (SPT) is a newly oper<strong>at</strong>ional 10-m-diameter offset<br />
telescope designed <strong>to</strong> rapidly measure anisotropies on scales much smaller than 1°.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Cosmology has made tremendous strides in <strong>the</strong> past decade; this is generally<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od within <strong>the</strong> scientifi c community, but it is not generally appreci<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong><br />
some of <strong>the</strong> most important results have come from Antarctica. Observ<strong>at</strong>ional
360 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WILSON AND STARK<br />
cosmology has become a quantit<strong>at</strong>ive science. Cosmologists<br />
describe <strong>the</strong> universe by a model with roughly a<br />
dozen parameters, for example, <strong>the</strong> Hubble constant, H0,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> density parameter, �. A decade ago, typical errors<br />
on <strong>the</strong>se parameters were 30% or gre<strong>at</strong>er; now, most are<br />
known within 10%. We can honestly discrimin<strong>at</strong>e for and<br />
against cosmological hypo<strong>the</strong>ses on <strong>the</strong> basis of quantit<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a. The current concordance model, Lambda– Cold<br />
Dark M<strong>at</strong>ter (Ostriker and Steinhardt, 1995), is both<br />
highly detailed and consistent with observ<strong>at</strong>ions. This<br />
paper will review <strong>the</strong> contribution of Antarctic observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>to</strong> this gre<strong>at</strong> work.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> fi rst detection of <strong>the</strong> cosmic microwave background<br />
(CMB) radi<strong>at</strong>ion (Penzias and Wilson, 1965), it<br />
was unders<strong>to</strong>od th<strong>at</strong> devi<strong>at</strong>ions from perfect anisotropy<br />
would advance our understanding of cosmology (Peebles<br />
and Yu, 1970; Harrison, 1970): <strong>the</strong> small devi<strong>at</strong>ions from<br />
smoothness in <strong>the</strong> early universe are <strong>the</strong> seeds from which<br />
subsequent structure grows, and <strong>the</strong>se small irregularities<br />
appear as differences in <strong>the</strong> brightness of <strong>the</strong> CMB in<br />
various directions on <strong>the</strong> sky. When <strong>the</strong> universe was only<br />
350,000 years old, <strong>the</strong> CMB radi<strong>at</strong>ion was released by electrons<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y combined with nuclei in<strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>oms for <strong>the</strong> fi rst<br />
time. Anisotropies in <strong>the</strong> CMB radi<strong>at</strong>ion indic<strong>at</strong>e slight differences<br />
in density and temper<strong>at</strong>ure th<strong>at</strong> eventually evolve<br />
in<strong>to</strong> stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. Observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>at</strong> progressively higher sensitivity by many groups of scientists<br />
from <strong>the</strong> 1970s through <strong>the</strong> 1990s failed <strong>to</strong> detect<br />
<strong>the</strong> anisotropy (cf. <strong>the</strong> review by Lasenby et al., 1998). In<br />
<strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong>se experiments, observing techniques were<br />
developed, detec<strong>to</strong>r sensitivities were improved by orders<br />
of magnitude, and <strong>the</strong> effects of <strong>at</strong>mospheric noise became<br />
better unders<strong>to</strong>od. The techniques and detec<strong>to</strong>rs were so<br />
improved th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> sensitivity of experiments came <strong>to</strong> be<br />
domin<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>at</strong>mospheric noise <strong>at</strong> most observ<strong>at</strong>ory sites.<br />
Researchers moved <strong>the</strong>ir instruments <strong>to</strong> orbit, <strong>to</strong> balloons,<br />
and <strong>to</strong> high, dry observ<strong>at</strong>ory sites in <strong>the</strong> Andes and in Antarctica.<br />
Eventually, CMB anisotropies were detected by <strong>the</strong><br />
Cosmic Background Explorer s<strong>at</strong>ellite (COBE; Fixsen et al.,<br />
1996). The ground-based experiments <strong>at</strong> remote sites also<br />
met with success. The spectrum of brightness in CMB vari<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
as a function of sp<strong>at</strong>ial frequency was measured by<br />
a series of ground-based and balloon-borne experiments,<br />
many of <strong>the</strong>m loc<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic. The d<strong>at</strong>a were <strong>the</strong>n<br />
vastly improved upon by <strong>the</strong> Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy<br />
Probe (WMAP; Spergel et al., 2003). The future<br />
Planck s<strong>at</strong>ellite mission (Tauber, 2005), expected <strong>to</strong> launch<br />
in 2008, will provide high signal-<strong>to</strong>-noise d<strong>at</strong>a on CMB<br />
anisotropy and polariz<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> will reduce <strong>the</strong> error on<br />
some cosmological parameters <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of 1%.<br />
Even in <strong>the</strong> era of CMB s<strong>at</strong>ellites, ground-based CMB<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions are still essential for reasons of fundamental<br />
physics. Cosmic microwave background radi<strong>at</strong>ion occurs<br />
only <strong>at</strong> wavelengths longer than 1 mm. The resolution of a<br />
telescope (in radians) is equal <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> observed wavelength<br />
divided by <strong>the</strong> telescope diameter. To work properly, <strong>the</strong><br />
overall accuracy of <strong>the</strong> telescope optics must be a small<br />
fraction of a wavelength. Observing <strong>the</strong> CMB <strong>at</strong> resolutions<br />
of a minute of arc or smaller <strong>the</strong>refore requires a<br />
telescope th<strong>at</strong> is 10 m in diameter or larger, with an overall<br />
accuracy of 0.1 mm or better. There are no prospects for<br />
an orbital or airborne telescope of this size and accuracy<br />
in <strong>the</strong> foreseeable future. There is, however, important science<br />
<strong>to</strong> be done <strong>at</strong> high resolution, work th<strong>at</strong> can only be<br />
done with a large ground-based telescope <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> best possible<br />
ground-based site— <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau.<br />
DEVELOPMENT OF ASTRONOMY IN THE<br />
ANTARCTIC<br />
W<strong>at</strong>er vapor is <strong>the</strong> principal source of <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
noise in radio observ<strong>at</strong>ions. Because it is exceptionally<br />
cold, <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole implies exceptionally<br />
dry observing conditions. As air becomes colder, <strong>the</strong><br />
amount of w<strong>at</strong>er vapor it can hold is dram<strong>at</strong>ically reduced.<br />
At 0°C, <strong>the</strong> freezing point of w<strong>at</strong>er, air can hold 83 times<br />
more w<strong>at</strong>er vapor than s<strong>at</strong>ur<strong>at</strong>ed air <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole’s<br />
average annual temper<strong>at</strong>ure of �49°C (Goff and Gr<strong>at</strong>ch,<br />
1946). Toge<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively high altitude of <strong>the</strong><br />
South Pole (2850 m), this means <strong>the</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er vapor content<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere above <strong>the</strong> South Pole is two or three<br />
orders of magnitude smaller than it is <strong>at</strong> most places on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Earth’s surface. This has long been known (Smy<strong>the</strong><br />
and Jackson, 1977), but many years of hard work were<br />
needed <strong>to</strong> realize <strong>the</strong> potential in <strong>the</strong> form of new astronomical<br />
knowledge (cf. <strong>the</strong> recent review by Indermuehle<br />
et al., 2006).<br />
A French experiment, Emission Millimetrique (EMI-<br />
LIE) (Pajot et al., 1989), made <strong>the</strong> fi rst astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of submillimeter waves from <strong>the</strong> South Pole during<br />
<strong>the</strong> austral summer of 1984– 1985. Emission Millimetrique<br />
was a ground-based, single-pixel bolometer dewar oper<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
<strong>at</strong> λ900�m and fed by a 45-cm off-axis mirror. It had<br />
successfully measured <strong>the</strong> diffuse galactic emission while<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ing on Mauna Kea in Hawaii in 1982, but <strong>the</strong> accuracy<br />
of <strong>the</strong> result had been limited by sky noise (Pajot et<br />
al., 1986). Martin A. Pomerantz, a cosmic ray researcher <strong>at</strong><br />
Bar<strong>to</strong>l Research Institute, encouraged <strong>the</strong> EMILIE group <strong>to</strong><br />
reloc<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong>ir experiment <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole (Lynch, 1998).
There <strong>the</strong>y found better observing conditions and were able<br />
<strong>to</strong> make improved measurements of galactic emission.<br />
Pomerantz also enabled Mark Dragovan, <strong>the</strong>n a researcher<br />
<strong>at</strong> Bell Labor<strong>at</strong>ories, <strong>to</strong> <strong>at</strong>tempt CMB anisotropy<br />
measurements from <strong>the</strong> pole. Dragovan et al. (1990) built<br />
a lightweight 1.2-m-offset telescope and were able <strong>to</strong> get<br />
it working <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> pole with a single-pixel helium-4 bolometer<br />
during several weeks in January 1987 (see Figure 1).<br />
The results were suffi ciently encouraging th<strong>at</strong> several CMB<br />
groups (Dragovan et al., 1989; Gaier et al., 1989; Meinhold<br />
et al., 1989; Peterson et al., 1989) particip<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> “Cucumber”<br />
campaign in <strong>the</strong> austral summer of 1988– 1989,<br />
where three Jamesway tents and a gener<strong>at</strong>or were set up <strong>at</strong><br />
a temporary site dedic<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> CMB anisotropy 2 km from<br />
South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> direction of <strong>the</strong> intern<strong>at</strong>ional d<strong>at</strong>e<br />
line. These were summer-only campaigns, where instruments<br />
were shipped in, assembled, tested, used, disassembled,<br />
and shipped out in a single three-month-long summer<br />
season. Considerable time and effort were expended<br />
in establishing and <strong>the</strong>n demolishing observ<strong>at</strong>ory facilities,<br />
with little return in observing time. Wh<strong>at</strong> little observing<br />
time was available occurred during <strong>the</strong> warmest and wettest<br />
days of midsummer.<br />
Permanent, year-round facilities were needed. The Antarctic<br />
Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
(AST/RO; Stark et al., 1997, 2001) was a 1.7-m- diameter<br />
offset Gregorian telescope mounted on a dedic<strong>at</strong>ed permanent<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ory building. It was <strong>the</strong> fi rst radio telescope<br />
<strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e year-round <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole. The AST/RO was<br />
started in 1989 as an independent project, but in 1991 it be-<br />
FIGURE 1. Mark Dragovan, Robert Pernic, Martin Pomerantz,<br />
Robert Pfeiffer, and Tony Stark with <strong>the</strong> AT&T Bell Labor<strong>at</strong>ories<br />
1.2-m horn antenna <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole in January 1987. This was <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst <strong>at</strong>tempt <strong>at</strong> a CMB measurement from <strong>the</strong> South Pole.<br />
COSMOLOGY FROM ANTARCTICA 361<br />
came part of a newly founded N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Science and Technology Center, <strong>the</strong> Center for Astrophysical<br />
Research in Antarctica (CARA, http:// astro .uchicago<br />
.edu/ cara; cf. Landsberg, 1998). The CARA fi elded several<br />
telescopes: White Dish (Tucker et al., 1993), Python<br />
( Dragovan et al., 1994; Alvarez, 1995; Ruhl et al., 1995;<br />
Pl<strong>at</strong>t et al., 1997; Coble et al., 1999), Viper (Peterson et<br />
al., 2000), <strong>the</strong> Degree-Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI;<br />
Leitch et al., 2002a), and <strong>the</strong> South Pole Infrared Explorer<br />
(SPIREX; Nguyen et al., 1996), a 60-cm telescope oper<strong>at</strong>ing<br />
primarily in <strong>the</strong> near-infrared K band. These facilities were<br />
housed in <strong>the</strong> “Dark Sec<strong>to</strong>r,” a grouping of buildings th<strong>at</strong><br />
includes <strong>the</strong> AST/RO building, <strong>the</strong> Martin A. Pomerantz<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory building (MAPO), and a new “Dark Sec<strong>to</strong>r<br />
Labor<strong>at</strong>ory” (DSL), all loc<strong>at</strong>ed 1 km away from <strong>the</strong> main<br />
base across <strong>the</strong> aircraft runway in a radio quiet zone.<br />
The combin<strong>at</strong>ion of White Dish, Python, and University<br />
of California <strong>at</strong> Santa Barbara 1994 (Ganga et<br />
al., 1997) d<strong>at</strong>a gave <strong>the</strong> fi rst indic<strong>at</strong>ion, by 1997, th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
spectrum of sp<strong>at</strong>ial anisotropy in <strong>the</strong> CMB was consistent<br />
with a fl <strong>at</strong> cosmology. Figure 2 shows <strong>the</strong> st<strong>at</strong>e of CMB<br />
anisotropy measurements as of May 1999. The early South<br />
Pole experiments, shown in green, clearly deline<strong>at</strong>e a peak<br />
in CMB anisotropy <strong>at</strong> a scale � � 200, or 1°, consistent<br />
with a fl <strong>at</strong> �0 � 1 universe. Shortly <strong>the</strong>reafter, <strong>the</strong> Balloon<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of Millimetric Extragalactic Radi<strong>at</strong>ion and<br />
Geophysics (BOOMERANG)-98 long-dur<strong>at</strong>ion balloon<br />
experiment (de Bernardis et al., 2000; Masi et al., 2006,<br />
2007; Piacentini et al., 2007) and <strong>the</strong> fi rst year of DASI<br />
(Leitch et al., 2002b) provided signifi cantly higher signal<strong>to</strong>-noise<br />
d<strong>at</strong>a, yielding �0 � 1 with errors less than 5%.<br />
This was a stunning achievement, defi nitive observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of a fl <strong>at</strong> universe balanced between open and closed Friedmann<br />
solutions. In its second year, a modifi ed DASI made<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst measurement of polariz<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> CMB (Kovac et<br />
al., 2002; Leitch et al., 2002c). The observed rel<strong>at</strong>ionship<br />
between polariz<strong>at</strong>ion and anisotropy amplitude provided a<br />
detailed confi rm<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> acoustic oscill<strong>at</strong>ion model of<br />
CMB anisotropy (Hu and White, 1997) and strong support<br />
for <strong>the</strong> standard model. The demonstr<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> geometry<br />
of <strong>the</strong> universe is fl <strong>at</strong> is an Antarctic result.<br />
SITE TESTING<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> primary tasks for <strong>the</strong> CARA collabor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
was <strong>the</strong> characteriz<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> South Pole as an observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
site (Lane, 1998). It proved unique among observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
sites for unusually low wind speeds, <strong>the</strong> complete absence<br />
of rain, and <strong>the</strong> consistent clarity of <strong>the</strong> submillimeter sky.
362 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WILSON AND STARK<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
10 1<br />
10 2<br />
Planck<br />
� 0�1.0<br />
Schwerdtfeger (1984) and Warren (1996) have comprehensively<br />
reviewed <strong>the</strong> clim<strong>at</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau<br />
and <strong>the</strong> records of <strong>the</strong> South Pole meteorology offi ce.<br />
Chamberlin (2002) analyzed we<strong>at</strong>her d<strong>at</strong>a <strong>to</strong> determine<br />
<strong>the</strong> precipitable w<strong>at</strong>er vapor (PWV), a measure of <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
w<strong>at</strong>er vapor content in a vertical column through <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere.<br />
He found median wintertime PWV values of<br />
0.3 mm over a 37-year period, with little annual vari<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The PWV values <strong>at</strong> South Pole are small, stable, and wellunders<strong>to</strong>od.<br />
Submillimeter-wave <strong>at</strong>mospheric opacity <strong>at</strong> South Pole<br />
has been measured using sky dip techniques. Chamberlin<br />
et al. (1997) made over 1,100 sky dip observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>at</strong> 492<br />
GHz (λ609�m) with AST/RO during <strong>the</strong> 1995 observing<br />
season. Even though this frequency is near a strong oxy-<br />
10 3<br />
0.1<br />
?<br />
SP 10m<br />
10 4<br />
UCSB SP 94<br />
Python SP 91– 95<br />
Python V SP 96<br />
Viper SP 98<br />
Sask<strong>at</strong>oon<br />
Tenerife<br />
BAM<br />
COBE<br />
MSAM<br />
MAX<br />
CAT<br />
OVRO<br />
WD, ACTA, VLA<br />
May 1999<br />
FIGURE 2. Microwave background anisotropy measurements as<br />
of May 1999, prior <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> launch of BOOMERANG, <strong>the</strong> deployment<br />
of DASI , and <strong>the</strong> launch of WMAP. South Pole experimental<br />
results are shown in green. Note th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> peak <strong>at</strong> � � 200 is<br />
clearly defi ned, indic<strong>at</strong>ing a fl <strong>at</strong> universe (�0 � 1). Abbrevi<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
are as follows: UCSB SP 94 � a campaign <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole in 1994<br />
by <strong>the</strong> University of California <strong>at</strong> Santa Barbara sponsored by NSF;<br />
BAM � Balloon-borne Anisotropy Measurement; COBE � Cosmic<br />
Background Explorer; MSAM � Medium Scale Anisotropy Measurement<br />
experiment; MAX � Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment;<br />
CAT � Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope; OVRO � Owens Valley Radio<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory; WD � White Dish; ACTA � Australia Telescope<br />
Compact Array; VLA � Very Large Array.<br />
gen line, <strong>the</strong> opacity was below 0.70 half of <strong>the</strong> time during<br />
<strong>the</strong> austral winter and reached values as low as 0.34,<br />
better than ever measured <strong>at</strong> any o<strong>the</strong>r ground-based site.<br />
From early 1998, <strong>the</strong> λ350�m band has been continuously<br />
moni<strong>to</strong>red <strong>at</strong> Mauna Kea, Chajnan<strong>to</strong>r, and <strong>the</strong> South Pole<br />
by identical tipper instruments developed by S. Radford of<br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Radio Astronomy Observ<strong>at</strong>ory and J. Peterson<br />
of Carnegie Mellon University and CARA. The 350-<br />
�m opacity <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole is consistently better than <strong>at</strong><br />
Mauna Kea or Chajnan<strong>to</strong>r.<br />
Sky noise is caused by fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>to</strong>tal power or<br />
phase of a detec<strong>to</strong>r caused by vari<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
emissivity and p<strong>at</strong>h length on timescales of order one<br />
second. Sky noise causes system<strong>at</strong>ic errors in <strong>the</strong> measurement<br />
of astronomical sources. This is especially important<br />
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> millimeter wavelengths for observ<strong>at</strong>ions of<br />
<strong>the</strong> CMB: <strong>at</strong> millimeter wavelengths, <strong>the</strong> opacity of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong>mosphere is <strong>at</strong> most a few percent, and <strong>the</strong> contribution<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> receiver noise is <strong>at</strong> most a few tens of degrees, but<br />
sky noise may still set limits on observ<strong>at</strong>ional sensitivity.<br />
Lay and Halverson (2000) show analytically how sky<br />
noise causes observ<strong>at</strong>ional techniques <strong>to</strong> fail: fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
in a component of <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a due <strong>to</strong> sky noise integr<strong>at</strong>e<br />
down more slowly than t �1/2 and will come <strong>to</strong> domin<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> error during long observ<strong>at</strong>ions. Sky noise <strong>at</strong> South<br />
Pole is considerably smaller than <strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r sites, even comparing<br />
conditions of <strong>the</strong> same opacity. The PWV <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
South Pole is often so low th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> opacity is domin<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> dry-air component (Chamberlin and Bally, 1995;<br />
Chamberlin, 2002); <strong>the</strong> dry-air emissivity and phase<br />
error do not vary as strongly or rapidly as <strong>the</strong> emissivity<br />
and phase error due <strong>to</strong> w<strong>at</strong>er vapor. Lay and Halverson<br />
(2000) compared <strong>the</strong> Python experiment <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole<br />
( Dragovan et al., 1994; Alvarez, 1995; Ruhl et al., 1995;<br />
Pl<strong>at</strong>t et al., 1997; Coble et al., 1999) with <strong>the</strong> Site Test<br />
Interferometer <strong>at</strong> Chajnan<strong>to</strong>r (Holdaway et al., 1995;<br />
Radford et al., 1996) and found th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> amplitude of <strong>the</strong><br />
sky noise <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole is 10 <strong>to</strong> 50 times less than th<strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>at</strong> Chajnan<strong>to</strong>r (Bussmann et al., 2004).<br />
The best observing conditions occur only <strong>at</strong> high elev<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
angles, and <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole this means th<strong>at</strong> only<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost 3 steradians of <strong>the</strong> celestial sphere are<br />
accessible with <strong>the</strong> South Pole’s uniquely low sky noise,<br />
but this portion of sky includes millions of galaxies and<br />
cosmological sources, <strong>the</strong> Magellanic clouds, and most<br />
of <strong>the</strong> fourth quadrant of <strong>the</strong> galaxy. The strength of <strong>the</strong><br />
South Pole as a millimeter and submillimeter site lies in<br />
<strong>the</strong> low sky noise levels routinely obtainable for sources<br />
around <strong>the</strong> south celestial pole.
TELESCOPES AND INSTRUMENTS<br />
AT THE SOUTH POLE<br />
Viper was a 2.1-m off-axis telescope designed <strong>to</strong> allow<br />
measurements of low-contrast millimeter-wave sources. It<br />
was mounted on a <strong>to</strong>wer <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> opposite end of MAPO<br />
from DASI. Viper was used with a variety of instruments:<br />
Dos Equis, a CMB polariz<strong>at</strong>ion receiver oper<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>at</strong> 7<br />
mm; <strong>the</strong> Submillimeter <strong>Polar</strong>imeter for Antarctic Remote<br />
Observing (SPARO), a bolometric array polarimeter<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>at</strong> λ450�m; and <strong>the</strong> Arcminute Cosmology<br />
Bolometer Array Receiver (ACBAR), a multiwavelength<br />
bolometer array used <strong>to</strong> map <strong>the</strong> CMB. The ACBAR is a<br />
16-element bolometer array oper<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>at</strong> 300 mK. It was<br />
specifi cally designed for observ<strong>at</strong>ions of CMB anisotropy<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Sunyaev– Zel’dovich effect (SZE). It was installed<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Viper telescope early in 2001 and was successfully<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ed until 2005. The ACBAR has made high-quality<br />
maps of SZE in several nearby clusters of galaxies and has<br />
made signifi cant measurements of anisotropy on <strong>the</strong> scale<br />
of degrees <strong>to</strong> arcminutes (Runyan et al., 2003; Reichardt<br />
et al., 2008).<br />
The Submillimeter <strong>Polar</strong>imeter for Antarctic Remote<br />
Observing (SPARO) was a nine-pixel polarimetric imager<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>at</strong> λ450�m. It was oper<strong>at</strong>ional on <strong>the</strong> Viper telescope<br />
during <strong>the</strong> early austral winter of 2000. Novak et<br />
al. (2000) mapped <strong>the</strong> polariz<strong>at</strong>ion of a region of <strong>the</strong> sky<br />
(�0.25 square degrees) centered approxim<strong>at</strong>ely on <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center. Their results imply th<strong>at</strong> within <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center molecular gas complex, <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>roidal component of<br />
<strong>the</strong> magnetic fi eld is dominant. The d<strong>at</strong>a show th<strong>at</strong> all of <strong>the</strong><br />
existing observ<strong>at</strong>ions of large-scale magnetic fi elds in <strong>the</strong><br />
Galactic Center are basically consistent with <strong>the</strong> “magnetic<br />
outfl ow” model of Uchida et al. (1985). This magne<strong>to</strong>dynamic<br />
model was developed in order <strong>to</strong> explain <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center radio lobe, a limb-brightened radio structure th<strong>at</strong><br />
extends up <strong>to</strong> one degree above <strong>the</strong> plane and may represent<br />
a gas outfl ow from <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center.<br />
The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI;<br />
Leitch et al., 2002a) was a compact centimeter-wave interferometer<br />
designed <strong>to</strong> image <strong>the</strong> CMB primary anisotropy<br />
and measure its angular power spectrum and polariz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> angular scales ranging from two degrees <strong>to</strong> several<br />
arcminutes. As an interferometer, DASI measured CMB<br />
power by simultaneous differencing on several scales,<br />
measuring <strong>the</strong> CMB power spectrum directly. The DASI<br />
was installed on a <strong>to</strong>wer adjacent <strong>to</strong> MAPO during <strong>the</strong><br />
1999– 2000 austral summer and had four successful winter<br />
seasons. In its fi rst season, DASI made measurements<br />
COSMOLOGY FROM ANTARCTICA 363<br />
of CMB anisotropy th<strong>at</strong> confi rmed with high accuracy<br />
<strong>the</strong> “concordance” cosmological model, which has a fl <strong>at</strong><br />
geometry, and made signifi cant contributions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
stress energy from dark m<strong>at</strong>ter and dark energy (Halverson<br />
et al., 2002; Pryke et al., 2002). In its second year, DASI<br />
made <strong>the</strong> fi rst measurements of “E-mode” polariz<strong>at</strong>ion of<br />
<strong>the</strong> CMB (Leitch et al., 2002c; Kovac et al., 2002).<br />
The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO) was a general-purpose 1.7-mdiameter<br />
telescope (Stark et al., 1997, 2001) for astronomy<br />
and aeronomy studies <strong>at</strong> wavelengths between 200<br />
and 2,000 �m. It was oper<strong>at</strong>ional from 1995 through<br />
2005 and was loc<strong>at</strong>ed in <strong>the</strong> Dark Sec<strong>to</strong>r on its own<br />
building. It was used primarily for spectroscopic studies<br />
of neutral <strong>at</strong>omic carbon and carbon monoxide in <strong>the</strong> interstellar<br />
medium of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way and <strong>the</strong> Magellanic<br />
Clouds. Six heterodyne receivers and a bolometer array<br />
were used on AST/RO: (1) a 230-GHz superconduc<strong>to</strong>r-<br />
insul<strong>at</strong>or-superconduc<strong>to</strong>r (SIS) receiver (Kooi et al.,<br />
1992), (2) a 450- <strong>to</strong> 495-GHz SIS quasi-optical receiver<br />
(Zmuidzinas and LeDuc, 1992; Engargiola et al., 1994),<br />
(3) a 450- <strong>to</strong> 495-GHz SIS waveguide receiver (Walker et<br />
al., 1992; Kooi et al., 1995), which could be used simultaneously<br />
with (4) a 800- <strong>to</strong> 820-GHz fi xed-tuned SIS waveguide<br />
mixer receiver (Honingh et al., 1997), (5) <strong>the</strong> Pole<br />
Star array, which deployed four 800- <strong>to</strong> 820-GHz fi xedtuned<br />
SIS waveguide mixer receivers (see http:// soral .as<br />
.arizona .edu/ pole-star; Groppi et al., 2000; Walker et al.,<br />
2001), (6) <strong>the</strong> Terahertz Receiver with NbN HEB Device<br />
(TREND), a 1.5-THz heterodyne receiver ( Gerecht et al.,<br />
1999; Yngvesson et al., 2001), and (7) <strong>the</strong> South Pole<br />
Imaging Fabry-Perot Interferometer (SPIFI; Swain et al.,<br />
1998). Spectral lines observed with AST/RO included CO<br />
J � 7 j 6, CO J � 4 j 3, CO J � 2 j 1, HDO J � 10,1<br />
j 00,0 , [C I] 3 P1 j 3 P0 , [C I] 3 P2 j 3 P1, and [ 13 C I] 3 P2 j<br />
3 P1. There were four acous<strong>to</strong>- optical spectro meters (AOS;<br />
Schieder et al., 1989): two low- resolution spectrometers<br />
with a bandwidth of 1 GHz, an array AOS with four lowresolution<br />
spectrometer channels with a bandwidth of<br />
1 GHz for <strong>the</strong> PoleSTAR array, and one high-resolution<br />
AOS with 60-MHz bandwidth. The Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory produced d<strong>at</strong>a<br />
for over a hundred scientifi c papers rel<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>to</strong> star form<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Milky Way and <strong>the</strong> Magellanic Clouds. Among<br />
<strong>the</strong> more signifi cant contributions is a submillimeter-wave<br />
spectral line survey of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center region (Martin<br />
et al., 2004) th<strong>at</strong> showed <strong>the</strong> episodic n<strong>at</strong>ure of starburst<br />
and black hole activity in <strong>the</strong> center of our galaxy (Stark<br />
et al., 2004).
364 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WILSON AND STARK<br />
The Q and U Extra-Galactic Sub-mm Telescope<br />
(QUEST) <strong>at</strong> DASI (QUaD; Church et al., 2003) is a CMB<br />
polariz<strong>at</strong>ion experiment th<strong>at</strong> placed a highly symmetric<br />
antenna feeding a bolometer array on <strong>the</strong> former DASI<br />
mount <strong>at</strong> MAPO, becoming oper<strong>at</strong>ional in 2005. It is<br />
capable of measuring amplitude and polariz<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong><br />
CMB on angular scales as small as 0.07°. The QUaD has<br />
suffi cient sensitivity <strong>to</strong> detect <strong>the</strong> conversion of E-mode<br />
CMB polariz<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> B-mode polariz<strong>at</strong>ion caused by gravit<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
lensing in concentr<strong>at</strong>ions of dark m<strong>at</strong>ter.<br />
Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic <strong>Polar</strong>iz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(BICEP) (Ke<strong>at</strong>ing et al., 2003; Yoon et al., 2006) is<br />
a millimeter-wave receiver designed <strong>to</strong> measure polariz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and amplitude of <strong>the</strong> CMB over a 20° fi eld of view<br />
with 1° resolution. It is mounted on <strong>the</strong> roof of <strong>the</strong> Dark<br />
Sec<strong>to</strong>r Labor<strong>at</strong>ory and has been oper<strong>at</strong>ional since early<br />
2006. The design of BICEP is optimized <strong>to</strong> elimin<strong>at</strong>e system<strong>at</strong>ic<br />
background effects and <strong>the</strong>reby achieve suffi cient<br />
polariz<strong>at</strong>ion sensitivity <strong>to</strong> detect <strong>the</strong> component of CMB<br />
polariz<strong>at</strong>ion caused by primordial gravit<strong>at</strong>ional waves.<br />
These measurements test <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>sis of infl <strong>at</strong>ion during<br />
<strong>the</strong> fi rst fraction of a second after <strong>the</strong> Big Bang.<br />
The South Pole Telescope is a 10-m-diameter off-axis<br />
telescope th<strong>at</strong> was installed during <strong>the</strong> 2006– 2007 season<br />
(Ruhl et al., 2004). It is equipped with a large fi eld of view<br />
(Stark, 2000) th<strong>at</strong> feeds a st<strong>at</strong>e-of-<strong>the</strong>-art 936-element bolometer<br />
array receiver. The initial science goal is a large<br />
SZE survey covering 4,000 square degrees <strong>at</strong> 1.3� resolution<br />
with 10 �K sensitivity <strong>at</strong> a wavelength of 2 mm. This<br />
survey will fi nd all galaxy clusters above a mass limit of<br />
3.5 � 10 14 M�, regardless of redshift. It is expected th<strong>at</strong><br />
an unbiased sample of approxim<strong>at</strong>ely 8,000 clusters will<br />
be found, with over 300 <strong>at</strong> redshifts gre<strong>at</strong>er than one. The<br />
sample will provide suffi cient st<strong>at</strong>istics <strong>to</strong> use <strong>the</strong> density<br />
of clusters <strong>to</strong> determine <strong>the</strong> equ<strong>at</strong>ion of st<strong>at</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> dark<br />
energy component of <strong>the</strong> universe as a function of time.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic have brought remarkable<br />
advances in cosmology. Antarctic observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
have defi nitively demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> geometry of <strong>the</strong><br />
universe is fl <strong>at</strong>. These observ<strong>at</strong>ions were made possible<br />
by excellent logistical support offered for <strong>the</strong> pursuit of<br />
science <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic bases. The cold clim<strong>at</strong>e and lack<br />
of w<strong>at</strong>er vapor provide <strong>at</strong>mospheric conditions th<strong>at</strong>, for<br />
some purposes, are nearly as good as space but <strong>at</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>ly<br />
reduced cost. Antarctica provides a pl<strong>at</strong>form for innov<strong>at</strong>ive,<br />
small instruments oper<strong>at</strong>ed by small groups of sci-<br />
entists as well as telescopes th<strong>at</strong> are <strong>to</strong>o large <strong>to</strong> be lifted<br />
in<strong>to</strong> orbit. In <strong>the</strong> future, Antarctica will continue <strong>to</strong> be an<br />
important site for observ<strong>at</strong>ional cosmology.<br />
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Feeding <strong>the</strong> Black Hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Center<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way: AST/RO Observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher L. Martin<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher L. Martin, Oberlin College, Department<br />
of Physics and Astronomy, 110 North Professor<br />
Street, Oberlin, OH 44074, USA (chris.<br />
martin@oberlin.edu). Accepted 25 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Feeling a bit hungry? Imagine th<strong>at</strong> you only received one meal every few<br />
million years and th<strong>at</strong> when you <strong>at</strong>e it, it was a gigantic Thanksgiving feast. Th<strong>at</strong> sort of<br />
gorging might give you quite a s<strong>to</strong>mach ache! The black hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of our galaxy<br />
seems <strong>to</strong> go through just this cycle of feast and famine, but as <strong>the</strong> turkey dinner arrives,<br />
it bursts in<strong>to</strong> a tremendous display of fi reworks. Instead of turkey, a black hole e<strong>at</strong>s a<br />
vast pl<strong>at</strong>ter of dust and gas th<strong>at</strong> is compressed and stressed as it reaches <strong>the</strong> inner part of<br />
<strong>the</strong> galaxy. This compression causes <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of a plethora of large short-lived stars<br />
th<strong>at</strong> go supernova shortly after <strong>the</strong>ir birth. These supernova fi reworks would <strong>the</strong>n be suffi<br />
ciently intense <strong>to</strong> make <strong>the</strong> center of <strong>the</strong> galaxy one of <strong>the</strong> brightest objects in our night<br />
sky while <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> same time sterilizing any life th<strong>at</strong> might be nearby. How does this m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
get <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of <strong>the</strong> galaxy and when can we expect <strong>the</strong> next burst of fi reworks? At<br />
this very moment <strong>the</strong> dinner pl<strong>at</strong>e for <strong>the</strong> black hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way is<br />
being assembled, and a group of astronomers from <strong>the</strong> South Pole is looking <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> menu.<br />
Dinner will be served in about 10 million years.<br />
ANTARCTIC SUBMILLIMETER TELESCOPE<br />
AND REMOTE OBSERVATORY<br />
Observing <strong>the</strong> gas in <strong>the</strong> center of our galaxy requires an instrument th<strong>at</strong> is<br />
sensitive <strong>to</strong> its emissions. While <strong>the</strong> bulk of <strong>the</strong> baryonic m<strong>at</strong>ter in our universe<br />
is simply hydrogen, it is surprisingly diffi cult <strong>to</strong> observe. R<strong>at</strong>her than detecting<br />
<strong>the</strong> hydrogen directly, tracers such as carbon monoxide (CO) are used instead <strong>to</strong><br />
determine <strong>the</strong> density, temper<strong>at</strong>ure, and dynamics of <strong>the</strong> hydrogen with which<br />
it is well mixed. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
(AST/RO, Figure 1), loc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> 2847 m altitude <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Amundsen-Scott<br />
South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion, was built in 1995 <strong>to</strong> study <strong>the</strong> emissions of <strong>the</strong>se tracers.<br />
One might reasonably ask, why would one put a telescope like this <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> bot<strong>to</strong>m<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Earth? The South Pole has very low w<strong>at</strong>er vapor, high <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
stability, and a thin troposphere, making it exceptionally good for submillimeter<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions (Chamberlin et al., 1997; Lane, 1998). Technically, AST/RO is a<br />
1.7-m-diameter, offset Gregorian telescope capable of observing <strong>at</strong> wavelengths<br />
between 200 �m and 1.3 mm (Stark et al., 2001). The observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> center<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way described here were taken during <strong>the</strong> austral winter seasons of<br />
2001– 2004 by <strong>the</strong> telescope’s dedic<strong>at</strong>ed winter-over staff.
370 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARTIN<br />
FIGURE 1. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO) as it appeared shortly after its construction in 1995 with<br />
<strong>the</strong> main Amundsen-Scott South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> background.<br />
WHAT DOES THE GALACTIC CENTER LOOK<br />
LIKE WHEN SEEN BY AST/RO?<br />
Figure 2 presents sp<strong>at</strong>ial– sp<strong>at</strong>ial (l, b) maps integr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
over velocity for <strong>the</strong> three transitions AST/RO has observed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center. The fi rst thing you might<br />
notice when looking <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> maps is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be made up of clouds r<strong>at</strong>her than stars. This<br />
is because <strong>the</strong> frequencies of light observed by AST/RO<br />
are sensitive <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> dust and gas between <strong>the</strong> stars r<strong>at</strong>her<br />
than <strong>the</strong> stars <strong>the</strong>mselves. Looking beyond this, <strong>the</strong> next<br />
most striking result is th<strong>at</strong> CO J � 4 j 3 emission in <strong>the</strong><br />
Galactic Center region is essentially coextensive with <strong>the</strong><br />
emission from <strong>the</strong> lower J transitions of CO. This contrasts<br />
sharply with <strong>the</strong> outer galaxy where CO J � 4 j 3<br />
emission is r<strong>at</strong>her less extensive than CO J � 1j 0. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, CO J � 7 j 6 emission is very compact<br />
and constrained <strong>to</strong> just a few key regions, indic<strong>at</strong>ing high<br />
densities and temper<strong>at</strong>ures in those regions. Four major<br />
cloud complexes are seen in <strong>the</strong> maps, from left <strong>to</strong> right:<br />
<strong>the</strong> complex <strong>at</strong> l � 1.3°, <strong>the</strong> Sgr B complex near l � 0.7°,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sgr A cloud near l � 0.0°, and <strong>the</strong> Sgr C cloud near<br />
(l � �0.45°, b � �0.2°). As noted by Kim et al. (2002),<br />
<strong>the</strong> CO J � 7 j 6 emission is much more sp<strong>at</strong>ially confi<br />
ned than <strong>the</strong> lower-J CO transitions. In contrast, <strong>the</strong> [CI]<br />
(<strong>at</strong>omic carbon) emission is comparable in sp<strong>at</strong>ial extent<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> low-J CO emission, but its distribution appears<br />
somewh<strong>at</strong> more diffuse (less peaked). The Sgr C cloud is<br />
much less prominent in <strong>the</strong> [CI] map than in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
fi ve transitions (Ojha et al., 2001). In order <strong>to</strong> understand<br />
wh<strong>at</strong> this gas is doing, we need <strong>to</strong> combine <strong>the</strong> d<strong>at</strong>a taken<br />
with AST/RO with d<strong>at</strong>a from o<strong>the</strong>r sources, and we need<br />
a broader understanding of <strong>the</strong> dynamics of <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center.
WHAT IS THIS GAS DOING?<br />
Much has been learned about dense gas in <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center region through radio spectroscopy. Early observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of F(2 j 2) OH absorption (Robinson et al., 1964;<br />
Goldstein et al., 1964) suggested <strong>the</strong> existence of copious<br />
molecular m<strong>at</strong>erial within 500 pc of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center.<br />
This was confi rmed by detection of extensive J � 1 j<br />
0 12 CO emission (Bania, 1977; Liszt and Bur<strong>to</strong>n, 1978).<br />
Subsequent CO surveys (Bitran, 1987; Stark et al., 1988;<br />
Bitran et al., 1997; Oka et al., 1998) have measured this<br />
emission with improving coverage and resolution. These<br />
surveys show a complex distribution of emission, which is<br />
chaotic, asymmetric, and nonplanar; <strong>the</strong>re are hundreds of<br />
clouds, shells, arcs, rings, and fi laments. On scales of 100<br />
pc <strong>to</strong> 4 kpc, however, <strong>the</strong> gas is loosely organized around<br />
closed orbits in <strong>the</strong> rot<strong>at</strong>ing potential of <strong>the</strong> underlying<br />
stellar bar (Binney et al., 1991). Some CO-emitting gas<br />
is bound in<strong>to</strong> clouds and cloud complexes, and some is<br />
sheared by tidal forces in<strong>to</strong> a molecular intercloud medium<br />
of a kind not seen elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> galaxy (Stark et al.,<br />
1989). The large cloud complexes, Sgr A, Sgr B, and Sgr<br />
C, are <strong>the</strong> among <strong>the</strong> largest molecular cloud complexes in<br />
<strong>the</strong> galaxy (M � 10 6.5 Msun). Such massive clouds must be<br />
sinking <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> center of <strong>the</strong> galactic gravit<strong>at</strong>ional well<br />
as a result of dynamical friction and hydrodynamic effects<br />
(Stark et al., 1991). The deposition of <strong>the</strong>se massive lumps<br />
of gas upon <strong>the</strong> center could fuel a starburst or an eruption<br />
AST/RO BLACK HOLE OBSERVATIONS 371<br />
FIGURE 2. Sp<strong>at</strong>ial– sp<strong>at</strong>ial (l, b) integr<strong>at</strong>ed intensity maps for <strong>the</strong> three transitions observed with AST/RO. Transitions are identifi ed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> left<br />
on each panel. The emission is integr<strong>at</strong>ed over all velocities where d<strong>at</strong>a are available. All three maps have been smoo<strong>the</strong>d <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> same 2� resolution.<br />
Electronic versions of results from this region as published in Martin et al. (2004) may be requested from <strong>the</strong> author via e-mail.<br />
of <strong>the</strong> central black hole (Genzel and Townes, 1987; Stark<br />
et al., 2004).<br />
To better understand <strong>the</strong> molecular gas of <strong>the</strong> Galactic<br />
Center, we need <strong>to</strong> determine its physical st<strong>at</strong>e— its temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
and density. This involves understanding radi<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
transfer in CO, <strong>the</strong> primary tracer of molecular gas.<br />
Also useful would be an understanding of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>omic carbon<br />
lines, [CI], since those lines trace <strong>the</strong> more diffuse molecular<br />
regions, where CO is destroyed by UV radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
but H2 is still present.<br />
Hence, a key project of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory reported by Martin<br />
et al. (2004) has been <strong>the</strong> mapping of CO 4– 3 and CO<br />
7– 6 emission from <strong>the</strong> inner Milky Way, allowing determin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of gas density and temper<strong>at</strong>ure. Galactic Center<br />
gas th<strong>at</strong> Binney et al. (1991) identify as being on x2 orbits<br />
has a density near 10 3.5 cm 3 , which renders it only marginally<br />
stable against gravit<strong>at</strong>ional coagul<strong>at</strong>ion in<strong>to</strong> a few<br />
giant molecular clouds. This suggests a relax<strong>at</strong>ion oscill<strong>at</strong>or<br />
mechanism for starbursts in <strong>the</strong> Milky Way, whereby<br />
infl owing gas accumul<strong>at</strong>es in a ring <strong>at</strong> 150-pc radius until<br />
<strong>the</strong> critical density is reached and <strong>the</strong> resulting instability<br />
leads <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> sudden form<strong>at</strong>ion of giant clouds and <strong>the</strong> deposition<br />
of 4 � 10 7 Msun, of gas on<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center.<br />
Depending on <strong>the</strong> accretion r<strong>at</strong>e near <strong>the</strong> inner Lindblad<br />
resonance, this cycle will repe<strong>at</strong> with a timescale on <strong>the</strong><br />
order of 20 Myr, leading <strong>to</strong> starbursts on <strong>the</strong> same timescale.<br />
When we analyze our d<strong>at</strong>a (Stark et al., 2004), we
372 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MARTIN<br />
observe gas approaching this density and thus beginning<br />
<strong>the</strong> next stage of its long descent in <strong>the</strong> black hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
heart of our galaxy. In <strong>the</strong> Thanksgiving feast analogy, <strong>the</strong><br />
gas th<strong>at</strong> we can see coagul<strong>at</strong>ing on <strong>the</strong>se outer orbits and<br />
beginning its slow trip inward is <strong>the</strong> future dinner for <strong>the</strong><br />
black hole <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> center of our galaxy. When it arrives <strong>at</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> center of <strong>the</strong> galaxy, it will provide <strong>the</strong> fuel for a burst<br />
of star form<strong>at</strong>ion activity (a starburst) <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> very heart of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Milky Way and, hence, for <strong>the</strong> fi reworks th<strong>at</strong> will light<br />
up our night skies in <strong>the</strong> millennia <strong>to</strong> come.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This research was supported in part by <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion under NSF grant number ANT-<br />
0126090 and was conducted with <strong>the</strong> assistance of <strong>the</strong><br />
many collabor<strong>at</strong>ors of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope<br />
Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO).<br />
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Martin, C. L., W. M. Walsh, K. Xiao, A. P. Lane, C. K. Walker, and A. A.<br />
Stark. 2004. The AST/RO Survey of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center Region<br />
I. The Inner 3 Degrees. Astrophysical Journal, Supplement Series,<br />
150: 239– 262.<br />
Ojha, R., A. A. Stark, H. H. Hsieh, A. P. Lane, R. A. Chamberlin, T. M.<br />
Bania, A. D. Bol<strong>at</strong><strong>to</strong>, J. M. Jackson, and G. A. Wright. 2001. AST/<br />
RO Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of A<strong>to</strong>mic Carbon near <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center.<br />
Astrophysical Journal, 548: 253– 257.<br />
Oka, T., T. Hasegawa, F. S<strong>at</strong>o, M. Tsuboi, and A. Miyazaki. 1998. A<br />
Large-Scale CO Survey of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center. Astrophysical Journal,<br />
Supplement Series, 118: 455– 515.<br />
Robinson, B. J., F. F. Gardner, K. J. van Damme, and J. G. Bol<strong>to</strong>n. 1964.<br />
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Labor<strong>at</strong>ories CO Survey.” In Molecular Clouds in <strong>the</strong> Milky Way<br />
and External Galaxies, ed. R. L. Dickman, R. L. Snell, and J. S.<br />
Young, p. 303. New York: Springer-Verlag.<br />
Stark, A. A., J. Bally, R. W. Wilson, and M. W. Pound. 1989. “Molecular<br />
Line Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Center Region.” In The Center<br />
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Astronomical Union, ed. M. Morris, p. 129. Dordrecht:<br />
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Stark, A. A., J. Bally, O. E. Gerhard, and J. Binney. 1991. On <strong>the</strong> F<strong>at</strong>e of<br />
Galactic Centre Molecular Clouds. Monthly Notices of <strong>the</strong> Royal<br />
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Stark, A. A., J. Bally, S. P. Balm, T. M. Bania, A. D. Bol<strong>at</strong><strong>to</strong>, R. A. Chamberlin,<br />
G. Engargiola, M. Huang, J. G. Ingalls, K. Jacobs, J. M.<br />
Jackson, J. W. Kooi, A. P. Lane, K.-Y. Lo, R. D. Marks, C. L. Martin,<br />
D. Mumma, R. Ojha, R. Schieder, J. Staguhn, J. Stutzki, C. K.<br />
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and R. Zimmermann. 2001. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope<br />
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Stark, A. A., C. L. Martin, W. M. Walsh, K. Xiao, A. P. Lane, and C. K.<br />
Walker. 2004. Gas Density, Stability, and Starbursts near <strong>the</strong> Inner<br />
Lindblad Resonance of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way. Astrophysical Journal Letters,<br />
614: L41– L44.
HEAT: The High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic<br />
Terahertz Telescope<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher K. Walker and Craig A. Kulesa<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>pher Walker and Craig Kulesa, University<br />
of Arizona, 933 North Cherry Avenue,<br />
Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. Corresponding author:<br />
C. Walker (cwalker@as.arizona.edu). Accepted<br />
25 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope (HEAT) is a proposed<br />
0.5-m THz observ<strong>at</strong>ory for au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ed, remote oper<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> summit of Dome A,<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest point on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau. The altitude of Dome A combined with <strong>the</strong><br />
extreme cold and dry conditions prevalent <strong>the</strong>re make it <strong>the</strong> best loc<strong>at</strong>ion on Earth for<br />
conducting many types of astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions. The HEAT will oper<strong>at</strong>e <strong>at</strong> wavelengths<br />
from 150 <strong>to</strong> 400 micrometers and will observe <strong>the</strong> brightest and most diagnostic<br />
spectral lines from <strong>the</strong> galaxy. It will follow PreHEAT, an NSF-funded 450-micrometer<br />
tipper and spectrometer th<strong>at</strong> was deployed <strong>to</strong> Dome A in January 2008 by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Research Institute of China. PreHEAT is one of several instruments designed <strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
with <strong>the</strong> University of New South Wales’ Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (PLATO). A 1.5-THz<br />
(200-micrometer) receiver channel will be installed on<strong>to</strong> PreHEAT in Austral summer<br />
2008– 2009. PreHEAT/HEAT and PLATO oper<strong>at</strong>e au<strong>to</strong>nomously from Dome A for up<br />
<strong>to</strong> a year <strong>at</strong> a time, with commands and d<strong>at</strong>a being transferred <strong>to</strong> and from <strong>the</strong> experiment<br />
via s<strong>at</strong>ellite daily. The Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Observ<strong>at</strong>ory is <strong>the</strong> Dome A component of <strong>the</strong> multin<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Astronomy <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> (Astro<strong>Poles</strong>) program, which has been endorsed by <strong>the</strong><br />
Joint Committee for <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year (IPY).<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
From <strong>the</strong> Milky Way <strong>to</strong> high-redshift pro<strong>to</strong>galaxies, <strong>the</strong> internal evolution<br />
of galaxies is determined <strong>to</strong> a large extent by <strong>the</strong> life cycles of interstellar<br />
clouds, as shown in Figure 1. These clouds are largely comprised of <strong>at</strong>omic<br />
and molecular hydrogen and <strong>at</strong>omic helium, which are no<strong>to</strong>riously diffi cult <strong>to</strong><br />
detect under normal interstellar conditions. A<strong>to</strong>mic hydrogen is detectable via<br />
<strong>the</strong> 21-cm spin-fl ip transition and provides <strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ional basis for current<br />
models of a multiphase galactic interstellar medium (ISM). Its emission is insensitive<br />
<strong>to</strong> gas density and does not always discrimin<strong>at</strong>e between cold (T �70<br />
K) <strong>at</strong>omic clouds and <strong>the</strong> warm (T �8000 K), neutral medium th<strong>at</strong> is thought<br />
<strong>to</strong> pervade <strong>the</strong> galaxy. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>at</strong>omic helium nor molecular hydrogen<br />
(H2) have accessible emission line spectra in <strong>the</strong> prevailing physical<br />
conditions in cold interstellar clouds. Thus, it is important <strong>to</strong> probe <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
of <strong>the</strong> ISM via rarer trace elements. Carbon, for example, is found in ionized<br />
form (C � ) in neutral clouds, eventually becoming <strong>at</strong>omic (C), <strong>the</strong>n molecular<br />
as carbon monoxide (CO) in dark molecular clouds.
374 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALKER AND KULESA<br />
FIGURE 1. The High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope<br />
(HEAT) will observe <strong>the</strong> fi ne-structure lines of N � , C � , C, and CO<br />
th<strong>at</strong> probe <strong>the</strong> entire life cycle of interstellar clouds. In particular,<br />
HEAT will witness <strong>the</strong> transform<strong>at</strong>ion of neutral <strong>at</strong>omic clouds in<strong>to</strong><br />
star-forming clouds, <strong>the</strong> interaction of <strong>the</strong> interstellar medium (ISM)<br />
with <strong>the</strong> young stars th<strong>at</strong> are born from it, and <strong>the</strong> return of enriched<br />
stellar m<strong>at</strong>erial <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> ISM by stellar de<strong>at</strong>h.<br />
Although we are now beginning <strong>to</strong> understand star<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion, evolution, and destruction of<br />
molecular clouds remains shrouded in uncertainty. The<br />
need <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>the</strong> evolution of interstellar clouds in<br />
<strong>the</strong> context of star form<strong>at</strong>ion has become a central <strong>the</strong>me<br />
of contemporary astrophysics. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Research<br />
Council’s most recent decadal survey has identifi ed<br />
<strong>the</strong> study of star form<strong>at</strong>ion as one of <strong>the</strong> key recommend<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for new initi<strong>at</strong>ives in this decade.<br />
HEAT SCIENCE GOALS<br />
Via resolved C � , C, CO, and N � THz line emission,<br />
<strong>the</strong> High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope (HEAT)<br />
uniquely probes <strong>the</strong> pivotal form<strong>at</strong>ive and disruptive stages<br />
in <strong>the</strong> life cycles of interstellar clouds and sheds crucial<br />
light on <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of stars by providing new insight<br />
in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ionship between interstellar clouds and <strong>the</strong><br />
stars th<strong>at</strong> form in <strong>the</strong>m, a central component of galactic<br />
evolution. A detailed study of <strong>the</strong> ISM of <strong>the</strong> Milky Way is<br />
used <strong>to</strong> construct a templ<strong>at</strong>e <strong>to</strong> interpret global star form<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r spiral galaxies.<br />
The minimum science mission of HEAT is <strong>to</strong> make signifi<br />
cant contributions <strong>to</strong> achieving <strong>the</strong> three major science<br />
goals described below. Using <strong>the</strong> proposed instrument and<br />
observing methodology, <strong>the</strong> minimum mission is expected<br />
<strong>to</strong> be achievable in a single season of survey oper<strong>at</strong>ion from<br />
Dome A.<br />
GOAL 1: OBSERVING THE LIFE<br />
CYCLE OF INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS<br />
The form<strong>at</strong>ion of interstellar clouds is a prerequisite for<br />
star form<strong>at</strong>ion, yet <strong>the</strong> process has not yet been observed!<br />
The HEAT is designed with <strong>the</strong> unique combin<strong>at</strong>ion of sensitivity<br />
and resolution needed <strong>to</strong> observe <strong>at</strong>omic clouds in<br />
<strong>the</strong> process of becoming giant molecular clouds (GMCs)<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir subsequent dissolution in<strong>to</strong> diffuse gas via stellar<br />
feedback.<br />
GOAL 2: MEASURING THE GALACTIC STAR FORMATION RATE<br />
The HEAT will probe <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ion between <strong>the</strong> gas<br />
surface density on kiloparsec scales and <strong>the</strong> N � �derived<br />
FIGURE 2. The loc<strong>at</strong>ion of GMCs in <strong>the</strong> nearby spiral galaxy M33<br />
are overlaid upon an integr<strong>at</strong>ed intensity map of <strong>the</strong> HI 21-cm line<br />
(Engargiola et al., 2003). These observ<strong>at</strong>ions show th<strong>at</strong> GMCs<br />
are formed from large structure of <strong>at</strong>omic gas, foreshadowing <strong>the</strong><br />
detailed study of GMC form<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> HEAT will provide in <strong>the</strong><br />
Milky Way.
star form<strong>at</strong>ion r<strong>at</strong>e, so th<strong>at</strong> we might be able <strong>to</strong> better<br />
understand <strong>the</strong> empirical Schmidt law used <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
<strong>the</strong> star-forming properties of external galaxies (Schmidt,<br />
1959; Kennicutt et al., 1998).<br />
GOAL 3: CONSTRUCTING A MILKY WAY TEMPLATE<br />
C � and N � will be <strong>the</strong> premier diagnostic <strong>to</strong>ols for<br />
terahertz studies of external galaxies with large redshifts<br />
(e.g., with Atacama Large Millimeter Array, or ALMA).<br />
In such sp<strong>at</strong>ially unresolved galaxies, however, only global<br />
properties can be measured. The HEAT observ<strong>at</strong>ions will<br />
yield detailed interstellar studies of <strong>the</strong> widely varying<br />
conditions in our own Milky Way galaxy and serve as a<br />
crucial diagnostic templ<strong>at</strong>e or “Rosetta S<strong>to</strong>ne” th<strong>at</strong> can<br />
be used <strong>to</strong> transl<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> global properties of more distant<br />
galaxies.<br />
PROPERTIES OF THE PROPOSED SURVEY<br />
The HEAT’s science drivers represent a defi nitive survey<br />
th<strong>at</strong> would not only provide <strong>the</strong> clearest view of interstellar<br />
clouds and <strong>the</strong>ir evolution in <strong>the</strong> galaxy but would<br />
also serve as <strong>the</strong> reference map for contemporary focused<br />
studies with space, suborbital, and ground observ<strong>at</strong>ories.<br />
The following properties defi ne <strong>the</strong> science requirements<br />
for <strong>the</strong> HEAT survey.<br />
HIGH-RESOLUTION SPECTROSCOPIC IMAGING<br />
Techniques commonly used <strong>to</strong> diagnose <strong>the</strong> molecular<br />
ISM include submillimeter continuum mapping of dust<br />
emission (Hildebrand et al., 1983) and dust extinction<br />
mapping <strong>at</strong> optical and near-infrared wavelengths (Lada<br />
et al., 1994). Large-form<strong>at</strong> detec<strong>to</strong>r arrays in <strong>the</strong> infrared<br />
are now commonplace, and with <strong>the</strong> advent of bolometer<br />
arrays, both techniques have performed degree-scale maps<br />
of molecular m<strong>at</strong>erial. However, <strong>the</strong>se techniques have<br />
limited applicability <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> study of <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong><br />
galactic ISM due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> complete lack of kinem<strong>at</strong>ic inform<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
The confl uence of many clouds along most galactic<br />
lines of sight can only be disentangled with spectral line<br />
techniques. Fitting <strong>to</strong> a model of galactic rot<strong>at</strong>ion is often<br />
<strong>the</strong> only way <strong>to</strong> determine each cloud’s distance and loc<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
within <strong>the</strong> galaxy. With resolution fi ner than 1 km/s, a<br />
cloud’s kinem<strong>at</strong>ic loc<strong>at</strong>ion can even be distinguished from<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r phenomena th<strong>at</strong> alter <strong>the</strong> line shape, such as tur-<br />
THE HEAT TELESCOPE 375<br />
bulence, rot<strong>at</strong>ion, and local effects, such as pro<strong>to</strong>stellar<br />
outfl ows. These kinem<strong>at</strong>ic components play a vital role in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sculpting of interstellar clouds, and a survey th<strong>at</strong> has<br />
<strong>the</strong> goal of understanding <strong>the</strong>ir evolution must be able <strong>to</strong><br />
measure <strong>the</strong>m. The HEAT will easily resolve <strong>the</strong> intrinsic<br />
profi les of galactic interstellar lines, with a resolution of<br />
�0.4 km/s up <strong>to</strong> 370 km/s of spectrometer bandwidth,<br />
comparable <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> galactic rot<strong>at</strong>ional velocity.<br />
A TERAHERTZ GALACTIC PLANE SURVEY<br />
Molecular line surveys have been performed over<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire sky in <strong>the</strong> light of <strong>the</strong> 2.6 mm J � 1– 0 line of<br />
12 CO, and <strong>the</strong>y have been used <strong>to</strong> syn<strong>the</strong>size our best understanding<br />
of <strong>the</strong> molecular content of <strong>the</strong> galaxy. Still,<br />
our understanding of <strong>the</strong> evolution of galactic molecular<br />
clouds is woefully incomplete. As already described in <strong>the</strong><br />
HEAT Science Goals section, <strong>the</strong> dominant spectral lines<br />
of <strong>the</strong> galaxy are <strong>the</strong> fi ne-structure far-infrared and submillimeter<br />
lines of C, CO, C � , and N � . They probe and<br />
regul<strong>at</strong>e all aspects of <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion and destruction of<br />
star-forming clouds. They will provide <strong>the</strong> fi rst barometric<br />
maps of <strong>the</strong> galaxy and illumin<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> properties of clouds<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir life cycles in rel<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir loc<strong>at</strong>ion in <strong>the</strong> galaxy.<br />
They will highlight <strong>the</strong> delic<strong>at</strong>e interplay between<br />
(massive) stars and <strong>the</strong> clouds which form <strong>the</strong>m, a critical<br />
component of galactic evolution. A terahertz survey<br />
will dram<strong>at</strong>ically enhance <strong>the</strong> value of existing millimeterwave<br />
CO observ<strong>at</strong>ions by providing critical excit<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
constraints.<br />
ARCMINUTE ANGULAR RESOLUTION<br />
AND FULLY SAMPLED MAPS<br />
Good angular resolution is a critical aspect of improvement<br />
for a new galactic survey. Previous surveys of<br />
[N II] and [C II] were limited <strong>to</strong> very small regions (KAO<br />
and ISO) or had low angular resolution (COBE and BICE)<br />
(Bennett et al., 1994; Nakagawa et al., 1998). The HEAT<br />
will fully sample both species over large regions of sky<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir diffraction-limited resolution of 1.7� and 1.3�, respectively.<br />
Arcminute resolution with proper sampling is<br />
crucial <strong>to</strong> disentangling different clouds and cloud components<br />
over large distances in <strong>the</strong> galaxy. For example,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Jeans length for star form<strong>at</strong>ion in a GMC is approxim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
0.5 pc. This length scale is resolved by HEAT <strong>to</strong><br />
a distance of 500 pc <strong>at</strong> CO J � 7– 6 and [C I] and 1200<br />
pc <strong>at</strong> [C II]. Warm and cold HI clouds and GMCs can be<br />
resolved well past 10 kpc.
376 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALKER AND KULESA<br />
HIGH SENSITIVITY<br />
The HEAT’s high sensitivity is due mostly <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> superl<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric conditions expected above Dome A,<br />
Antarctica. The extreme cold and exceptional dryness allow<br />
ground-based observ<strong>at</strong>ions in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise forbidden<br />
terahertz windows. A plot of <strong>the</strong> expected <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
transmission for excellent winter observing conditions <strong>at</strong><br />
Dome A versus <strong>the</strong> comparable opacity <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> South Pole<br />
is plotted in Figure 3. The high elev<strong>at</strong>ion, cold <strong>at</strong>mosphere,<br />
and benign wind conditions <strong>at</strong> Dome A defi nitively open <strong>the</strong><br />
terahertz windows <strong>to</strong> ground-based observ<strong>at</strong>ories and cannot<br />
be m<strong>at</strong>ched anywhere else on Earth. The implic<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
for <strong>the</strong> sensitivity <strong>to</strong> each spectral line is discussed below.<br />
CO J � 7– 6 and [C I] J � 2– 1<br />
We aim <strong>to</strong> detect all CO and C 0 <strong>to</strong> AV � 1– 2, where<br />
most hydrogen has formed H2 and CO is just forming.<br />
This extinction limit corresponds <strong>to</strong> N(CO) �5 � 10 15<br />
cm �2 and N(C) � 1.6 � 10 16 cm �2 for integr<strong>at</strong>ed intensities<br />
of 3 K k/ms in CO J � 7– 6 and 1.8 K km/s in [C I].<br />
These sensitivity limits are achievable (three sigma) within<br />
1.6 and 5 minutes, respectively, of integr<strong>at</strong>ion time <strong>at</strong> 810<br />
GHz in median winter <strong>at</strong>mospheric conditions on Dome<br />
FIGURE 3. Each of HEAT’s heterodyne beams is overlaid upon a<br />
2MASS infrared image of NGC 6334. The beams will measure highresolution<br />
spectra in <strong>the</strong> 0.81-, 1.46-, and 1.90-THz bands, respectively;<br />
a small portion (25%) of each is shown as syn<strong>the</strong>tic spectra<br />
of NGC 6334.<br />
A with an uncooled Schottky receiver. Limits on line emission<br />
in th<strong>at</strong> time would constrain <strong>the</strong> gas density, based<br />
upon <strong>the</strong> line brightness of millimeter wave transitions.<br />
N � and C �<br />
The fi ne-structure lines of ionized carbon and nitrogen<br />
represent <strong>the</strong> dominant coolants of <strong>the</strong> interstellar medium<br />
of <strong>the</strong> galaxy and star-forming galaxies. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> integr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
intensity of <strong>the</strong> 158-micrometer C � line alone represents<br />
�1% of <strong>the</strong> bolometric luminosity of <strong>the</strong> galaxy!<br />
As such, <strong>the</strong>se lines are rel<strong>at</strong>ively easy <strong>to</strong> detect in <strong>the</strong> ISM.<br />
Our most demanding requirements for detection of C � and<br />
N � lie in <strong>the</strong> search for <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of giant molecular<br />
clouds (via C � ) and <strong>the</strong> measurement of <strong>the</strong> diffuse warm<br />
ionized medium in <strong>the</strong> galaxy (via N � ). A fl ux limit of 2 K<br />
km/s will detect N � in warm HI as far away as <strong>the</strong> molecular<br />
ring, achievable in good winter we<strong>at</strong>her in three minutes<br />
with velocity smoothing <strong>to</strong> 3 km/s, appropri<strong>at</strong>e for hot ionized<br />
gas. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>ion of GMCs from many<br />
cold neutral clouds of <strong>at</strong>omic hydrogen occurs <strong>at</strong> low rel<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
column densities of �5 � 10 20 cm �2 . Since essentially<br />
all carbon in such clouds is ionized, N(C � ) �10 17 cm �2 .<br />
At <strong>the</strong> T � 70 K common in cold <strong>at</strong>omic clouds and nH �<br />
10 3 cm �3 , <strong>the</strong> expected C � line emission would be 2.5 K<br />
km/s, detectable with a Schottky receiver in 10 minutes in<br />
excellent winter we<strong>at</strong>her on Dome A. The three sigma limit<br />
achievable with deep integr<strong>at</strong>ions (two hours) with HEAT<br />
would reach nH � 10 2 cm �3 . This pressure limit would<br />
readily determine whe<strong>the</strong>r interstellar m<strong>at</strong>erial causing signifi<br />
cant infrared extinction but without CO is gravit<strong>at</strong>ionally<br />
bound and likely <strong>to</strong> be a forming molecular cloud or<br />
is simply a line of sight with numerous overlapping diffuse<br />
HI clouds.<br />
LARGE-AREA MAPPING COVERAGE OF THE GALACTIC PLANE<br />
From previous CO surveys it is known th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> scale<br />
height of CO emission <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> inner galaxy is less than<br />
one degree (Dame et al., 1987, 2001). The BICE balloon<br />
experiment demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> C � distribution is more<br />
extended but is still confi ned <strong>to</strong> ƒbƒ � 1. Interstellar pressure,<br />
abundances, and physical conditions vary strongly<br />
as a function of galac<strong>to</strong>centric radius, so it is necessary <strong>to</strong><br />
probe <strong>the</strong> inner galaxy, <strong>the</strong> outer galaxy and both spiral<br />
arms and interarm regions <strong>to</strong> obtain a st<strong>at</strong>istically meaningful<br />
survey th<strong>at</strong> encompasses <strong>the</strong> broad dynamic range<br />
of physical conditions in <strong>the</strong> galaxy. We propose <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
<strong>to</strong> probe <strong>the</strong> entire galactic plane as seen from Dome A (0 o<br />
� l � �120 o ). An unbiased survey will be undertaken, ul-
tim<strong>at</strong>ely covering up <strong>to</strong> 240 square degrees (�1 o � b � 1 o );<br />
however, 80 square degrees in two years will be targeted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Schottky receiver system described here. Figure 4 demonstr<strong>at</strong>es<br />
<strong>the</strong> sky coverage of HEAT’s survey of <strong>the</strong> inner<br />
galaxy, with <strong>the</strong> fi rst season coverage highlighted in yellow.<br />
It will probe three crucial components of <strong>the</strong> galaxy:<br />
<strong>the</strong> molecular ring, <strong>the</strong> Crux spiral arm, and <strong>the</strong> interarm<br />
region. The remaining sky coverage will be provided by a<br />
future upgraded instrument package from <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands<br />
Institute for Space Research (SRON), fe<strong>at</strong>uring a cryocooled<br />
4 K superconduc<strong>to</strong>r insul<strong>at</strong>or superconduc<strong>to</strong>r and<br />
hot-electron bolometer system. The “inner” galaxy survey<br />
will coincide with Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey<br />
Extraordinaire (GLIMPSE), a Spitzer Space Telescope<br />
(SST) Legacy Program (Benjamin et al., 2003). Above l �<br />
90 o , most of <strong>the</strong> CO emission is loc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> higher galactic<br />
l<strong>at</strong>itude, so l and b “strip mapping” will loc<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> target<br />
regions, generally following <strong>the</strong> outskirts of CO J � 1– 0<br />
distribution (Dame et al., 1987, 2001), and <strong>the</strong> best-characterized<br />
star-forming regions in <strong>the</strong> galaxy. The observing<br />
program will be designed <strong>to</strong> maximize synergies with <strong>the</strong><br />
“Cores <strong>to</strong> Disks” SST Legacy program (Evans et al., 2003)<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r SST GTO programs.<br />
HEAT INSTRUMENTATION OVERVIEW<br />
The HEAT will be a fully au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ed, st<strong>at</strong>e-of-<strong>the</strong>-art<br />
terahertz observ<strong>at</strong>ory designed <strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e au<strong>to</strong>nomously<br />
from Dome A in Antarctica. The combin<strong>at</strong>ion of high altitude<br />
(4,100 m), low precipit<strong>at</strong>ion, and extreme cold make<br />
<strong>the</strong> far-infrared <strong>at</strong>mospheric transmission exceptionally<br />
good from this site. In Figure 5 we present a plot of <strong>the</strong> expected<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric transmission above Dome A as a function<br />
of wavelength (Lawrence, 2004), indic<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> winter<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her <strong>at</strong> Dome A approaches (<strong>to</strong> order of magnitude)<br />
<strong>the</strong> quality of th<strong>at</strong> achieved by <strong>the</strong> Str<strong>at</strong>ospheric Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). The wavelengths of<br />
several important astrophysical lines are indic<strong>at</strong>ed with<br />
THE HEAT TELESCOPE 377<br />
FIGURE 4. An 8.3-micrometer map of <strong>the</strong> galactic plane from <strong>the</strong> molecular ring through <strong>the</strong> Scutum-Crux spiral arm (-20 o � l � -55 o ). The<br />
yellow rectangle highlights <strong>the</strong> region <strong>to</strong> be explored by HEAT in its fi rst season <strong>at</strong> Dome A. A defi nitive chemical and kinem<strong>at</strong>ic survey of starforming<br />
clouds in [C I] J � 2– 1 and 12 CO J � 7– 6 of 40 square degrees (�10 square degrees in [C II] and [N II] emission) can be performed in<br />
a single season using Schottky receivers. No o<strong>the</strong>r site on Earth allows routine access <strong>to</strong> both far-infrared lines.<br />
arrows. The HEAT is designed <strong>to</strong> take advantage of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
unique <strong>at</strong>mospheric conditions and observe simultaneously<br />
in [C II] (158 micrometer), [N II] (205 micro meter),<br />
and CO J � 7– 6 and [C I] (370 micrometer).<br />
A conceptual drawing of HEAT is shown in Figure 6.<br />
For robustness and effi ciency, <strong>the</strong> telescope and instrument<br />
are integr<strong>at</strong>ed in<strong>to</strong> a common optical support structure.<br />
The HEAT will be mounted on <strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> University of<br />
New South Wales’ Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (PLATO), which<br />
was deployed <strong>to</strong> Dome A in January 2008. The Pl<strong>at</strong>eau<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory is <strong>the</strong> successor <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ed Astrophysical<br />
Site-Testing Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AASTINO)<br />
deployed <strong>to</strong> Dome C in 2003, and it provides power and<br />
FIGURE 5. Terahertz <strong>at</strong>mospheric transmission for good (twentyfi<br />
fth percentile) winter conditions for <strong>the</strong> South Pole (bot<strong>to</strong>m line)<br />
and Dome A (<strong>to</strong>p line), derived from PWV measurements <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
South Pole, <strong>at</strong>mospheric models from Lawrence (2004), and actual<br />
au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ic we<strong>at</strong>her st<strong>at</strong>ion d<strong>at</strong>a collected during 2005 from Dome<br />
A. The PWV content for each model <strong>at</strong>mosphere is 210 and 50 micrometers,<br />
respectively. Arrows indic<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> wavelengths of <strong>the</strong> [N<br />
II], [C II], and CO/[C I] lines.
378 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / WALKER AND KULESA<br />
FIGURE 6. The HEAT telescope has an effective collecting area of 0.5 m. Elev<strong>at</strong>ion tracking is accomplished by rot<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> 45° fl <strong>at</strong> refl ec<strong>to</strong>r.<br />
The entire telescope structure is warmed by waste he<strong>at</strong> from <strong>the</strong> PLATO instrument module below. The Schottky mixers used in <strong>the</strong> instrument<br />
package are effi ciently cooled <strong>to</strong> 70 K using a reliable off-<strong>the</strong>-shelf closed-cycle cryocooler.<br />
communic<strong>at</strong>ions for <strong>the</strong> HEAT telescope and instrument.<br />
The <strong>to</strong>tal power budget for HEAT, including cryogenics,<br />
telescope drive system, and instrument control system, is<br />
maximally 600 W, which is readily provided by effi cient,<br />
high-reliability gener<strong>at</strong>ors within PLATO. D<strong>at</strong>a transfer<br />
and control of HEAT will be done via Iridium s<strong>at</strong>ellite<br />
through <strong>the</strong> PLATO facilities. The combined HEAT and<br />
PLATO facility is functionally equivalent <strong>to</strong> a space-based<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ory.<br />
The HEAT will be able <strong>to</strong> calibr<strong>at</strong>e observ<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
through several means. (1) A vane with an ambient temper<strong>at</strong>ure<br />
absorbing load will be loc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> cryost<strong>at</strong> entrance<br />
window, allowing standard chopper wheel calibr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>to</strong> be performed. (2) HEAT will routinely perform sky<br />
dips <strong>to</strong> compute <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mospheric optical depth in each of<br />
its three wavelength bands. (3) HEAT will regularly observe<br />
a standard list of calibr<strong>at</strong>ion sources. (4) The PLATO<br />
currently hosts PreHEAT, a 450-micrometer tipper and<br />
spectrometer th<strong>at</strong> measures <strong>at</strong>mospheric transmission. Its<br />
measurements will be coordin<strong>at</strong>ed with HEAT spectral<br />
line observ<strong>at</strong>ions <strong>to</strong> provide cross calibr<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
LOGISTICS: DEPLOYMENT TO DOME A<br />
Antarctic science has reached a level of m<strong>at</strong>urity where<br />
several options exist for fi elding instruments on remote<br />
sites. For Dome A, <strong>the</strong>se options include <strong>the</strong> following:<br />
1. (Chinese) Traverse from Zhongshan St<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> Dome<br />
A: PLATO and its complement of instruments (includ-<br />
ing PreHEAT) were deployed <strong>to</strong> Dome A by a 1300-km<br />
Chinese traverse from <strong>the</strong> coastal Zhongshan st<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in January 2008. The expedition was a collabor<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
effort with <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Research Institute of China, <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Astronomical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory of China, and <strong>the</strong><br />
Nanjing Institute of Astronomical Optics Technology.<br />
Upgrades <strong>to</strong> PreHEAT and <strong>the</strong> install<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> full<br />
HEAT experiment could potentially be deployed in a<br />
similar manner.<br />
2. (American) Twin Otter air support: If a Chinese traverse<br />
brings PLATO (in 2007– 2008) and HEAT <strong>to</strong><br />
Dome A (in 2009– 2010), U.S. Antarctic Program Twin<br />
Otter air support would allow personnel <strong>to</strong> be fl own<br />
in from <strong>the</strong> South Pole or <strong>the</strong> forthcoming AGAP fi eld<br />
camps (such as AGO3) <strong>to</strong> facilit<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> HEAT install<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> HEAT experiment is small<br />
enough <strong>to</strong> be deployed by Twin Otter.<br />
3. (Australian) An Australian Antarctic Division CASA<br />
212 cargo fl ight directly from Mawson/Davis <strong>to</strong> Dome<br />
A may be possible for transport of <strong>the</strong> HEAT experiment,<br />
with subsequent fl ights <strong>to</strong> support fuel and/or<br />
personnel for <strong>the</strong> HEAT install<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
SUMMARY<br />
At this writing, <strong>the</strong> p<strong>at</strong>hfi nder for HEAT, PreHEAT, is<br />
oper<strong>at</strong>ing au<strong>to</strong>nomously from a PLATO module recently<br />
deployed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> summit of Dome A by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Research<br />
Institute of China. Because of <strong>the</strong> altitude and extreme<br />
cold/dry conditions known <strong>to</strong> exist <strong>at</strong> Dome A, <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mo-
spheric opacity above <strong>the</strong> site is expected <strong>to</strong> be <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
on Earth, making it ideal for far-infrared/terahertz observ<strong>at</strong>ories.<br />
Our hope is th<strong>at</strong> HEAT will follow quickly on<br />
<strong>the</strong> heels of PreHEAT and provide a powerful new window<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> universe.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Bennett, C. L., D. J. Fixsen, G. Hinshaw, J. C. M<strong>at</strong>her, S. H. Moseley, E. L.<br />
Wright, R. E. Eplee Jr., J. Gales, T. Hewagama, R. B. Isaacman, R. A.<br />
Shafer, and K. Turpie. 1994. Morphology of <strong>the</strong> Interstellar Cooling<br />
Lines Detected by COBE. Astrophysical Journal, 434: 587– 598.<br />
Benjamin, R. A., E. Churchwell, B. L. Babler, T. M. Bania, D. P.<br />
Clemens, M. Cohen, J. M. Dickey, R. Indebe<strong>to</strong>uw, J. M. Jackson,<br />
H. A. Kobulnicky, A. Lazarian, A. P. Marsten, J. S. M<strong>at</strong>his, M. R.<br />
Meade, S. Seager, S. R. S<strong>to</strong>lovy, C. W<strong>at</strong>son, B. A. Whitney, M. J.<br />
Wolff, and M. G. Wolfi re. 2003. GLIMPSE: I. An SIRTF Legacy<br />
Project <strong>to</strong> Map <strong>the</strong> Inner Galaxy. Public<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Astronomical<br />
Society of <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c, 115: 953– 964.<br />
Dame, T. M., H. Ungerechts, R. S. Cohen, E. J. Geus, de, I. A. Grenier, J.<br />
May, D. C. Murphy, L.-Å Nyman, and P. Thaddeus. 1987. A Composite<br />
CO Survey of <strong>the</strong> Entire Milky Way. Astrophysical Journal,<br />
322: 706.<br />
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Dame, T. M., D. Hartmann, and P. Thaddeus. 2001. The Milky Way<br />
in Molecular Clouds: A New Complete CO Survey. Astrophysical<br />
Journal, 547: 792.<br />
Engargiola, G., R. L. Plambeck, E. Rosolowsky, and L. Blitz. 2003. Giant<br />
Molecular Clouds in M33. I. BIMA All-Disk Survey. Astrophysical<br />
Journal, Supplement Series, 149: 343– 363.<br />
Evans, N. J., II, and <strong>the</strong> Cores <strong>to</strong> Disks (c2d) Team. 2003. From Molecular<br />
Cores <strong>to</strong> Planet-forming Disks: A SIRTF Legacy Program. Public<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Astronomical Society of <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c, 115: 965– 980.<br />
Hildebrand, R. H. 1983. The Determin<strong>at</strong>ion of Cloud Masses and Dust<br />
Characteristics from Submillimetre Thermal Emission. Quarterly<br />
Journal of <strong>the</strong> Royal Astronomical Society, 24: 267.<br />
Kennicutt, R. C. 1998. The Global Schmidt Law in Star-Forming Galaxies.<br />
Astrophysical Journal, 498: 541.<br />
Lada, C. J., E. A. Lada, D. P. Clemens, and J. Bally. 1994. Dust Extinction<br />
and Molecular Gas in <strong>the</strong> Dark Cloud IC 5146. Astrophysical<br />
Journal, 429: 694.<br />
Lawrence, J. S. 2004. Infrared and Submillimetre Atmospheric Characteristics<br />
of High Antarctic Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Sites. Public<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Astronomical<br />
Society of <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c, 116: 482.<br />
Nakagawa, T., Y. Y. Yui, Y. Doi, H. Okuda, H. Shibai, K. Mochizuki,<br />
T. Nishimura, and F. J. Low. 1998. Far-Infrared [Cii] Line Survey<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Galactic Plane. Astrophysical Journal, Supplement<br />
Series, 115: 259– 269.<br />
Schmidt, M. 1959. The R<strong>at</strong>e of Star Form<strong>at</strong>ion. Astrophysical Journal,<br />
129: 243.
W<strong>at</strong>ching Star Birth from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antarctic Pl<strong>at</strong>eau<br />
N. F. H. Tothill, M. J. McCaughrean,<br />
C. K. Walker, C. Kulesa, A. Loehr,<br />
and S. Parshley<br />
N. F. H. Tothill, School of Physics, University<br />
of Exeter, S<strong>to</strong>cker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK;<br />
also <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory, 60<br />
Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. M.<br />
J. McCaughrean, School of Physics, University of<br />
Exeter, S<strong>to</strong>cker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK. C. K.<br />
Walker and C. Kulesa, Steward Observ<strong>at</strong>ory, University<br />
of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. A.<br />
Loehr, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory,<br />
60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.<br />
S. Parshley, Department of Astronomy, Cornell<br />
University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA. Corresponding<br />
author: N. F. H. Tothill (nfht@astro.ex.ac.uk).<br />
Accepted 25 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. Astronomical instruments on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau are very well suited<br />
<strong>to</strong> observing <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion of stars and <strong>the</strong>ir associ<strong>at</strong>ed planetary systems since young<br />
stars emit <strong>the</strong>ir light <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> wavelengths <strong>at</strong> which Antarctica offers <strong>the</strong> most striking advantages.<br />
Antarctic telescopes have already brought new insights in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> physics of star<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion and <strong>the</strong> molecular clouds where it occurs. During <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
(IPY), new sites will be opened up <strong>to</strong> astronomical exploit<strong>at</strong>ion, with <strong>the</strong> prospect of new<br />
capabilities in <strong>the</strong> drive <strong>to</strong> understand how stars and planets form.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Stars are one of <strong>the</strong> main engines of evolution in <strong>the</strong> universe. They convert<br />
mass <strong>to</strong> light and hydrogen and helium in<strong>to</strong> heavier elements; massive stars<br />
compress and disrupt nearby gas clouds by <strong>the</strong> action of <strong>the</strong>ir ionizing radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir stellar winds. However, <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ion and early evolution of stars are<br />
not well unders<strong>to</strong>od: <strong>the</strong>y form inside clouds of molecular gas and dust, which<br />
are opaque <strong>to</strong> visible light but transparent <strong>to</strong> infrared light and submillimeterwave<br />
radi<strong>at</strong>ion. These wavebands are thus crucial <strong>to</strong> our understanding of <strong>the</strong><br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion of stars: <strong>the</strong> young stars <strong>the</strong>mselves radi<strong>at</strong>e infrared light, which can<br />
penetr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> dark clouds, while submillimeter-wave observ<strong>at</strong>ions can trace <strong>the</strong><br />
gas and dust th<strong>at</strong> make up <strong>the</strong> clouds.<br />
ANTARCTIC SUBMILLIMETER TELESCOPE AND REMOTE<br />
OBSERVATORY OBSERVATIONS OF MOLECULAR CLOUDS<br />
The main constituents of molecular clouds, hydrogen and helium gases, are<br />
effectively invisible <strong>to</strong> us: both molecular hydrogen and <strong>at</strong>omic helium have<br />
very few low-energy transitions th<strong>at</strong> could be excited <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ures<br />
prevailing in interstellar space. We <strong>the</strong>refore rely on tracers— gas and dust th<strong>at</strong><br />
are readily excited <strong>at</strong> low temper<strong>at</strong>ures and readily emit <strong>at</strong> long wavelengths.<br />
The most basic of <strong>the</strong>se tracers is carbon monoxide (CO), which is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
abundant molecule in <strong>the</strong>se gas clouds after hydrogen (H2) and helium (He).
382 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / TOTHILL ET AL.<br />
The lower-energy (low-J) transitions of CO emit radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
<strong>at</strong> wavelengths of 0.8– 3mm, and are easily detected from<br />
high, dry, mountain<strong>to</strong>p sites in <strong>the</strong> temper<strong>at</strong>e zones. At<br />
shorter wavelengths, <strong>the</strong> higher energy mid-J transitions<br />
can be detected only through a very dry <strong>at</strong>mosphere. The<br />
Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau provides <strong>the</strong> largest fraction of such dry<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her of any observing site in <strong>the</strong> world, and, sited <strong>at</strong><br />
Amundsen-Scott South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO;<br />
Stark et al., 2001) is designed <strong>to</strong> take full advantage of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se conditions.<br />
The mid-J transitions (from CO 4– 3 up <strong>to</strong> CO 7– 6) are<br />
particularly interesting for <strong>the</strong>ir ability <strong>to</strong> probe <strong>the</strong> physical<br />
conditions of <strong>the</strong> molecular gas from which <strong>the</strong>y arise:<br />
in particular, <strong>the</strong>y can only be excited in gas with density<br />
comparable <strong>to</strong> a critical density (about 10 4 molecules cm �3<br />
for CO 4– 3); emission in <strong>the</strong>se transitions implies <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
of dense gas. By also observing <strong>the</strong> molecular clouds<br />
in lower-J transitions, AST/RO is able <strong>to</strong> trace <strong>the</strong> velocity<br />
structure of <strong>the</strong> gas clouds and <strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> gas temper<strong>at</strong>ure,<br />
thus providing a suite of measurements of <strong>the</strong><br />
physical conditions of <strong>the</strong> gas clouds where stars form.<br />
NEARBY LOW-MASS STAR-FORMING REGIONS<br />
All <strong>the</strong> nearest star-forming molecular clouds (within<br />
a few hundred parsecs; a parsec (pc) is a standard astronomical<br />
distance unit: 1 pc � 3.09 � 10 16 m � 3.26<br />
light-years) form low-mass stars. Because of <strong>the</strong>ir proximity,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y subtend large areas on <strong>the</strong> sky (of <strong>the</strong> order of<br />
square degrees), requiring large amounts of time <strong>to</strong> map<br />
<strong>the</strong>m properly. The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and<br />
Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory is very well suited <strong>to</strong> this task: its<br />
small mirror gives it a compar<strong>at</strong>ively large beam, which,<br />
in turn, allows large areas <strong>to</strong> be mapped quickly. The<br />
highly transparent Antarctic <strong>at</strong>mosphere provides long<br />
stretches of very clear air in winter, which allows large<br />
blocks of time <strong>to</strong> be alloc<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> mapping <strong>the</strong>se clouds<br />
<strong>at</strong> compar<strong>at</strong>ively high frequencies. The clouds <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />
are less dense and cooler than <strong>the</strong> giant molecular clouds<br />
th<strong>at</strong> form <strong>the</strong> majority of stars, and many of <strong>the</strong> stars form<br />
in isol<strong>at</strong>ion, r<strong>at</strong>her than in clusters. It is <strong>the</strong>refore often<br />
assumed th<strong>at</strong> mid-J transitions of CO are not excited in<br />
<strong>the</strong>se regions and are so diffi cult <strong>to</strong> detect th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y no longer<br />
make good tracers. The AST/RO mapped large areas<br />
of two nearby cloud complexes, Lupus and Chamaeleon<br />
(named after <strong>the</strong> constell<strong>at</strong>ions in which <strong>the</strong>y are found),<br />
in <strong>the</strong> CO 4– 3 transition, fi nding signifi cant emission.<br />
With a brightness temper<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong> order of 1K, this CO<br />
4– 3 emission must come from molecular gas th<strong>at</strong> is dense<br />
enough <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmalize <strong>the</strong> transition and warm enough <strong>to</strong><br />
have a Rayleigh-Jeans temper<strong>at</strong>ure of a few Kelvin.<br />
The Lupus star-forming region consists of a complex<br />
of molecular clouds lying about 150 pc from Earth, associ<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
with a large number of young stars. The clouds are<br />
readily visible in optical pho<strong>to</strong>graphs of <strong>the</strong> sky as clumpy,<br />
fi lamentary dark p<strong>at</strong>ches (Figure 1)— indeed, this is how<br />
<strong>the</strong>se clouds were fi rst discovered (Barnard, 1927). The<br />
Lupus complex lies <strong>to</strong> one side of <strong>the</strong> Scorpius– Centaurus<br />
OB Associ<strong>at</strong>ion (Sco-Cen), a huge collection of very massive<br />
young stars lying in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn sky. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
side of Sco-Cen, <strong>the</strong> rho Ophiuchi star-forming region<br />
displays clusters of massive young stars whose interaction<br />
with <strong>the</strong>ir n<strong>at</strong>al molecular gas produces highly visible<br />
nebulae. By comparison <strong>to</strong> rho Ophiuchi, Lupus is<br />
quiescent— it is r<strong>at</strong>her lacking in massive stars and has no<br />
large cluster, <strong>the</strong> young stars being much more spread out.<br />
One might <strong>the</strong>refore assume th<strong>at</strong> Lupus would also lack<br />
<strong>the</strong> dense, warm molecular gas found in abundance in rho<br />
Ophiuchi.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> AST/RO d<strong>at</strong>a show detectable CO 4– 3<br />
emission throughout <strong>the</strong> Lupus clouds, with very strong<br />
emission in a few hot spots. By comparing this emission <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> more easily excited 13 CO 2– 1 (Figure 2), it is possible <strong>to</strong><br />
estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> physical conditions of <strong>the</strong> gas (Figure 3). The<br />
gas making up <strong>the</strong> bulk of <strong>the</strong> clouds is quite warm (probably<br />
�10K) and close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> critical density. The clumps<br />
within <strong>the</strong> cloud seem <strong>to</strong> be denser but not much cooler,<br />
and some are warm (around 20K). The d<strong>at</strong>a suggest th<strong>at</strong><br />
one of <strong>the</strong> hot spots in Lupus III is very warm (perhaps as<br />
much as 50K) but not dense enough <strong>to</strong> fully excite <strong>the</strong> 4– 3<br />
transition. The hot spot <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> northwestern end of <strong>the</strong> Lupus<br />
I fi lament also appears <strong>to</strong> be warm and not very dense<br />
but has broader lines, implying more turbulent motion in<br />
<strong>the</strong> gas. While <strong>the</strong> elev<strong>at</strong>ed temper<strong>at</strong>ure in Lupus III can<br />
be explained by <strong>the</strong> proximity of <strong>the</strong> fairly massive young<br />
stars HR 5999 and 6000 (visible in Figure 1, lying in <strong>the</strong><br />
dark cloud), <strong>the</strong>re are no comparable stars near <strong>the</strong> end of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Lupus I fi lament. Clearly, <strong>the</strong> Lupus clouds show signifi<br />
cant diversity in <strong>the</strong>ir physical conditions and, hence,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> environments in which stars are formed.<br />
Being more easily excited, emission in <strong>the</strong> iso<strong>to</strong>pically<br />
substituted 13 CO 2– 1 line is distributed throughout <strong>the</strong> molecular<br />
gas and is less discrimin<strong>at</strong>ing as a probe of <strong>the</strong> physical<br />
conditions of <strong>the</strong> gas. But because it is so widely distributed,<br />
it is an excellent tracer of <strong>the</strong> velocity fi eld of <strong>the</strong> gas.<br />
The ability of AST/RO <strong>to</strong> map large areas allows us <strong>to</strong> fully<br />
sample <strong>the</strong> gas velocity fi eld over degree-scale fi elds. Maps<br />
of <strong>the</strong> centroid velocity of <strong>the</strong> 13 CO 2– 1 line show strong velocity<br />
gradients in several loc<strong>at</strong>ions in <strong>the</strong> complex, usually
STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU 383<br />
FIGURE 1. Two of <strong>the</strong> molecular clouds th<strong>at</strong> make up <strong>the</strong> Lupus complex, visible as dark p<strong>at</strong>ches against <strong>the</strong> stars: (left) Lupus I and (right)<br />
Lupus III. The ridge in Lupus I is about 5 pc long. Images taken from <strong>the</strong> Digital Sky Survey (Lasker et al., 1990).<br />
FIGURE 2. The same clouds as in Figure 1, mapped in <strong>the</strong> millimeter-wave emission of 13 CO 2– 1. The iso<strong>to</strong>pically substituted CO traces <strong>the</strong><br />
dark cloud structure very well (N. F. H. Tothill, A. Loehr, S. C. Parshley, A. A. Stark, A. P. Lane, J. I. Harnett, G. Wright, C. K. Walker, T. L.<br />
Bourke, and P. C. Myers, unpublished manuscript).
384 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / TOTHILL ET AL.<br />
FIGURE 3. Comparison of CO 4– 3 and 13 CO 2– 1 emission from Lupus I and III clouds. The different physical conditions of <strong>the</strong> hot spots in<br />
<strong>the</strong> two clouds show up in <strong>the</strong> different distributions, but <strong>the</strong> bulk of each cloud is quite similar <strong>to</strong> th<strong>at</strong> of <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r (N. F. H. Tothill, A. Loehr,<br />
S. C. Parshley, A. A. Stark, A. P. Lane, J. I. Harnett, G. Wright, C. K. Walker, T. L. Bourke, and P. C. Myers, unpublished manuscript).<br />
over quite small distances (about 0.5 pc), but in Lupus I, a<br />
different p<strong>at</strong>tern emerges, of a shallow and r<strong>at</strong>her uneven<br />
velocity gradient along <strong>the</strong> fi lament, coupled with a strong<br />
gradient across <strong>the</strong> fi lament. This gradient across <strong>the</strong> fi lament<br />
is coherent over <strong>at</strong> least 2 pc of <strong>the</strong> fi lament’s length.<br />
The presence of such a large coherent structure in a region<br />
whose activity appears quite s<strong>to</strong>chastic is remarkable; it<br />
may have arisen from external infl uences, presumably from<br />
Sco-Cen. The massive stars in Sco-Cen are quite capable<br />
of affecting nearby clouds; <strong>the</strong> rho Ophiuchi region on <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r side of Sco-Cen is clearly infl uenced by <strong>the</strong> nearby OB<br />
associ<strong>at</strong>ion. There are some signs of a supernova remnant<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> northwest of <strong>the</strong> Lupus I fi lament, which could have<br />
a strong dynamical effect on <strong>the</strong> gas.<br />
NEW OBSERVING SITES IN<br />
THE ANTARCTIC AND ARCTIC<br />
The fac<strong>to</strong>rs th<strong>at</strong> make <strong>the</strong> South Pole such a good site<br />
<strong>to</strong> detect <strong>the</strong> submillimeter-wave radi<strong>at</strong>ion from <strong>the</strong> clouds<br />
around young stars are likely <strong>to</strong> be found in many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ions on <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau and even <strong>at</strong> some sites<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Arctic. With <strong>the</strong> astronomical potential of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>eau established, it is possible <strong>to</strong> evalu<strong>at</strong>e o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
sites in <strong>the</strong> polar regions as potential observ<strong>at</strong>ories.<br />
Projects <strong>to</strong> evalu<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> potential of several polar sites<br />
are taking place during <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year: Astronomy<br />
from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong> (Astro<strong>Poles</strong>) is a general program<br />
<strong>to</strong> study all <strong>the</strong> sites listed below, while STELLA ANT-<br />
ARCTICA concentr<strong>at</strong>es on a more detailed study of <strong>the</strong><br />
characteristics of <strong>the</strong> Franco-Italian Concordia st<strong>at</strong>ion on<br />
Dome C.<br />
The meteorology of Antarctica is domin<strong>at</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />
k<strong>at</strong>ab<strong>at</strong>ic fl ow, as <strong>the</strong> air loses he<strong>at</strong> by contact with <strong>the</strong><br />
radi<strong>at</strong>ively cooled snow surface, loses buoyancy, and sinks<br />
down <strong>the</strong> slope of <strong>the</strong> ice sheet, leading <strong>to</strong> a downwardfl<br />
owing wind. Most of <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mospheric turbulence is concentr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
in a boundary layer between this fl ow and <strong>the</strong><br />
ice, a layer which gets deeper far<strong>the</strong>r downslope.<br />
ANTARCTICA: DOME A<br />
Dome A is <strong>the</strong> highest point on <strong>the</strong> pl<strong>at</strong>eau and has<br />
less <strong>at</strong>mosphere <strong>to</strong> get in <strong>the</strong> way than any o<strong>the</strong>r site. However,<br />
it also lacks infrastructure: in <strong>the</strong> absence of a yearround<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ion, all instruments must be fully au<strong>to</strong>nomous.<br />
Traverses <strong>to</strong> Dome A and astronomical site testing are being<br />
undertaken by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Research Institute of China,<br />
in collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with an intern<strong>at</strong>ional consortium. This<br />
consortium, including Chinese institutions, <strong>the</strong> Universities<br />
of New South Wales, Arizona, and Exeter, and Caltech,
is constructing and deploying <strong>the</strong> Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
(PLATO), an au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ed unmanned site-testing observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
(Lawrence et al., 2006). One of <strong>the</strong> instruments on PLATO,<br />
PreHEAT, is designed <strong>to</strong> characterize <strong>the</strong> site quality <strong>at</strong> submillimeter<br />
wavelengths and <strong>to</strong> map <strong>the</strong> J � 6– 5 emission<br />
of iso<strong>to</strong>pically substituted 13 CO from massive star-forming<br />
regions and giant molecular clouds. It will be succeeded by<br />
<strong>the</strong> High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope (HEAT),<br />
a 0.5-m-aperture telescope designed <strong>to</strong> function around<br />
0.2 mm wavelength. The HEAT will map <strong>the</strong> fi ne-structure<br />
emission from <strong>at</strong>omic and ionized carbon and nitrogen, <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
with CO 7– 6, <strong>to</strong> trace <strong>the</strong> evolution and recycling<br />
of <strong>the</strong> interstellar medium in our galaxy. The prospects for<br />
PreHEAT and HEAT <strong>at</strong> Dome A are discussed in more detail<br />
in Walker and Kulesa (2009, this volume).<br />
At <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>p of <strong>the</strong> continent, <strong>the</strong> boundary layer <strong>at</strong><br />
Dome A may be only 3 <strong>to</strong> 4 m thick, which would make it<br />
much easier <strong>to</strong> place a telescope above <strong>the</strong> boundary layer,<br />
in<strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> is likely <strong>to</strong> be very stable air with very good seeing.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r experiments on PLATO will test <strong>the</strong>se predictions<br />
about <strong>the</strong> boundary layer <strong>at</strong> Dome A and sketch out<br />
its potential as a future observ<strong>at</strong>ory site.<br />
ANTARCTICA: DOME C<br />
Dome C is signifi cantly higher than <strong>the</strong> South Pole<br />
(around 3200 m elev<strong>at</strong>ion) and lies on a local maximum<br />
of <strong>the</strong> ice sheet along <strong>the</strong> ridge running through East Antarctica.<br />
It is likely <strong>to</strong> enjoy better conditions than <strong>the</strong> South<br />
Pole but not such good conditions as Dome A. Recent<br />
measurements (Lawrence et al., 2004) show <strong>the</strong> boundary<br />
layer <strong>to</strong> be about 30 m deep, with clear-air seeing above <strong>the</strong><br />
layer estim<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> be better than 0.3 arcseconds. Although<br />
Dome C probably enjoys better submillimeter <strong>at</strong>mospheric<br />
transparency than <strong>the</strong> South Pole, infrared astronomy<br />
seems more likely <strong>to</strong> be its gre<strong>at</strong>est strength: <strong>the</strong> combin<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of excellent seeing, very little cloud cover, low <strong>the</strong>rmal<br />
background (due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> cold air), and <strong>the</strong> presence of<br />
a year-round crewed st<strong>at</strong>ion with strong logistical support<br />
makes it possible <strong>to</strong> build an infrared facility telescope with<br />
a primary mirror diameter of 2 m or more, which would<br />
be competitive with <strong>the</strong> largest telescopes elsewhere in <strong>the</strong><br />
world (Bur<strong>to</strong>n et al., 2005). Detailed site testing <strong>at</strong> Concordia<br />
is being carried out by <strong>the</strong> IPY program STELLA<br />
ANTARCTICA and by members of <strong>the</strong> European Commission–<br />
funded network “Antarctic Research—A European<br />
Network for Astronomy” (ARENA). In <strong>the</strong> near future, this<br />
should lead <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> construction and valid<strong>at</strong>ion of a model of<br />
<strong>the</strong> boundary layer th<strong>at</strong> allows telescopes <strong>to</strong> be designed <strong>to</strong><br />
take advantage of <strong>the</strong> unusual conditions <strong>at</strong> this site. Two<br />
STAR BIRTH FROM THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU 385<br />
small telescopes are in <strong>the</strong> process of being designed and<br />
deployed <strong>to</strong> Concordia: Antarctica Search for Transiting<br />
Extrasolar Planets (ASTEP) is an optical time series experiment,<br />
designed <strong>to</strong> moni<strong>to</strong>r <strong>the</strong> brightness of nearby stars<br />
and w<strong>at</strong>ch for <strong>the</strong> fl uctu<strong>at</strong>ions as <strong>the</strong>ir planets transit. The<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope (IRAIT)<br />
is a 0.8-m-aperture infrared telescope <strong>to</strong> carry out widefi<br />
eld infrared surveys and <strong>to</strong> test <strong>the</strong> site characteristics for<br />
a larger infrared telescope.<br />
GREENLAND: SUMMIT<br />
The <strong>at</strong>mosphere above <strong>the</strong> Greenland ice cap in winter<br />
is also domin<strong>at</strong>ed by k<strong>at</strong>ab<strong>at</strong>ic fl ow. The peak of <strong>the</strong> ice cap<br />
(Summit st<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>at</strong> l<strong>at</strong>itude 72°N) is <strong>the</strong>refore analogous<br />
<strong>to</strong> Dome A in Antarctica, albeit less extreme: lower (3200<br />
m), warmer (about �42°C in good observing conditions),<br />
etc. None<strong>the</strong>less, it should share many characteristics of<br />
Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau sites, such as cold, dry, stable air. It has<br />
its own advantages: it is crewed year-round and access is<br />
easy in summer, possible in winter; it also has access <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn sky, which is invisible from Antarctica. All<br />
<strong>the</strong>se fac<strong>to</strong>rs combine <strong>to</strong> give Summit excellent potential<br />
as an observ<strong>at</strong>ory site. There is also room for synergy with<br />
Antarctic observ<strong>at</strong>ories in order <strong>to</strong> cover more of <strong>the</strong> sky<br />
and <strong>to</strong> pro<strong>to</strong>type and test equipment <strong>at</strong> a more easily accessible<br />
loc<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
ELLESMERE ISLAND<br />
The nor<strong>the</strong>rn tip of Ellesmere Island in Canada lies<br />
very close <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Pole and thus offers <strong>at</strong> least one<br />
of <strong>the</strong> advantages of very high l<strong>at</strong>itude sites, namely, <strong>the</strong><br />
ready availability of 24-hour darkness with small changes<br />
in source elev<strong>at</strong>ion. Since this part of Ellesmere Island is<br />
rocky, with mountain peaks rising above <strong>the</strong> permanent<br />
sea ice, it is likely <strong>to</strong> have r<strong>at</strong>her different meteorology <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> smooth ice caps in Greenland and Antarctica. Au<strong>to</strong>m<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her st<strong>at</strong>ions have been placed on several candid<strong>at</strong>e<br />
rocky peaks on <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn coast, and <strong>the</strong> fi rst results<br />
of this basic site testing are expected shortly.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Understanding <strong>the</strong> process of star form<strong>at</strong>ion requires<br />
<strong>the</strong> observ<strong>at</strong>ion of infrared light (<strong>to</strong> see <strong>the</strong> young star<br />
through <strong>the</strong> gas and dust around it) and submillimeter<br />
waves (<strong>to</strong> estim<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> physical conditions of <strong>the</strong> molecular<br />
gas itself). Observ<strong>at</strong>ions from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau
386 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / TOTHILL ET AL.<br />
offer large advantages in both of <strong>the</strong>se regimes, demonstr<strong>at</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> AST/RO observ<strong>at</strong>ions of nearby molecular<br />
clouds, which yield a picture of quite different molecular<br />
clouds: Lupus I has strong coherent velocity gradients and<br />
may have been externally infl uenced, while Lupus III has<br />
been he<strong>at</strong>ed by associ<strong>at</strong>ed young stars.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, efforts <strong>to</strong> test<br />
<strong>the</strong> suitability of o<strong>the</strong>r sites for astronomy are under way:<br />
Concordia St<strong>at</strong>ion on Dome C is likely <strong>to</strong> be an excellent<br />
infrared site and is <strong>the</strong> best known. O<strong>the</strong>r sites (Dome A,<br />
Summit, and Ellesmere Island) are <strong>at</strong> much earlier stages<br />
of characteriz<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
Arctic astronomical projects are being coordin<strong>at</strong>ed, for<br />
Ellesmere Island by Ray Carlberg (University of Toron<strong>to</strong>)<br />
and Eric Steinbring (Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics),<br />
and for Greenland by Michael Andersen (Niels Bohr Institute).<br />
The Astro<strong>Poles</strong> and STELLA ANTARCTICA programs<br />
are led by Michael Bur<strong>to</strong>n (University of New South<br />
Wales) and Eric Foss<strong>at</strong> (University of Nice), respectively.<br />
The ARENA network is coordin<strong>at</strong>ed by Nicolas<br />
Epchtein (University of Nice) and funded by <strong>the</strong> European<br />
Commission under <strong>the</strong> 6th Framework Programme. Oper<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
<strong>at</strong> Dome A are carried out by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Polar</strong> Research<br />
Institute of China. The AST/RO was supported by <strong>the</strong><br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion’s Offi ce of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs<br />
under ANT-0441756. We also acknowledge fi nancial support<br />
from <strong>the</strong> University of Exeter.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Barnard, E. E. 1927. C<strong>at</strong>alog of 327 Dark Objects in <strong>the</strong> Sky. Chicago:<br />
University of Chicago Press.<br />
Bur<strong>to</strong>n, M. G., J. S. Lawrence, M. C. B. Ashley, J. A. Bailey, C. Blake,<br />
T. R. Bedding, J. Bland-Hawthorn, I. A. Bond, K. Glazebrook,<br />
M. G. Hidas, G. Lewis, S. N. Longmore, S. T. Maddison, S. M<strong>at</strong>tila,<br />
V. Minier, S. D. Ryder, R. Sharp, C. H. Smith, J. W. V. S<strong>to</strong>rey, C. G.<br />
Tinney, P. Tuthill, A. J. Walsh, W. Walsh, M. Whiting, T. Wong,<br />
D. Woods, and P. C. M. Yock. 2005. Science Programs for a 2-m<br />
Class Telescope <strong>at</strong> Dome C, Antarctica: PILOT, <strong>the</strong> P<strong>at</strong>hfi nder for<br />
an Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Large Optical Telescope. Public<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong> Astronomical<br />
Society of Australia, 22: 199– 235.<br />
Lasker, B. M., C. R. Sturch, B. J. McLean, J. L. Russell, H. Jenker,<br />
and M. M. Shara. 1990. The Guide Star C<strong>at</strong>alog. I— Astronomical<br />
Found<strong>at</strong>ions and Image Processing. Astronomical Journal, 99:<br />
2019– 2058, 2173– 2178.<br />
Lawrence, J. S., M. C. B. Ashley, A. Tokovinin, and T. Travouillon. 2004.<br />
Exceptional Astronomical Seeing Conditions above Dome C in<br />
Antarctica. N<strong>at</strong>ure, 431: 278– 281.<br />
Lawrence, J. S., M. C. B. Ashley, M. G. Bur<strong>to</strong>n, X. Cui, J. R. Everett, B.<br />
T. Indermuehle, S. L. Kenyon, D. Luong-Van, A. M. Moore, J. W.<br />
V. S<strong>to</strong>rey, A. Tokovinin, T. Travouillon, C. Pennypacker, L. Wang,<br />
and D. York. 2006. Site Testing Dome A, Antarctica. Proceedings<br />
of SPIE, 6267: 51– 59.<br />
Stark, A. A., J. Bally, S. P. Balm, T. M. Bania, A. D. Bol<strong>at</strong><strong>to</strong>, R. A.<br />
Chamberlin, G. Engargiola, M. Huang, J. G. Ingalls, K. Jacobs,<br />
J. M. Jackson, J. W. Kooi, A. P. Lane, K.-Y. Lo, R. D. Marks, C. L.<br />
Martin, D. Mumma, R. Ojha, R. Schieder, J. Staguhn, J. Stutzki,<br />
C. K. Walker, R. W. Wilson, G. A. Wright, X. Zhang, P. Zimmermann,<br />
and R. Zimmermann. 2001. The Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (AST/RO). Public<strong>at</strong>ions of <strong>the</strong><br />
Astronomical Society of <strong>the</strong> Pacifi c, 113: 567– 585.<br />
Walker, C. K., and C. A. Kulesa. 2009. “HEAT: The High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic<br />
Terahertz Telescope.” In <strong>Smithsonian</strong> <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong>: <strong>Contributions</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong> Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year Science, ed. I. Krupnik, M. A. Lang,<br />
and S. E. Miller, pp. 373–380. Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C.: <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution<br />
Scholarly Press.
Antarctic Meteorites: Exploring<br />
<strong>the</strong> Solar System from <strong>the</strong> Ice<br />
Timothy J. McCoy, Linda C. Welzenbach,<br />
and C<strong>at</strong>herine M. Corrigan<br />
Timothy J. McCoy, Linda C. Welzenbach, and<br />
C<strong>at</strong>herine M. Corrigan, Department of Mineral<br />
Sciences, N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution, Washing<strong>to</strong>n, DC 20560-<br />
0119, USA. Corresponding author: T. J. McCoy<br />
(mccoyt@si.edu). Accepted 25 June 2008.<br />
ABSTRACT. The collection of meteorites from <strong>the</strong> Antarctic pl<strong>at</strong>eau has changed from<br />
a scientifi c curiosity <strong>to</strong> a major source of extr<strong>at</strong>errestrial m<strong>at</strong>erial. Following initial meteorite<br />
recoveries in 1976, <strong>the</strong> U.S. N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics<br />
and Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NASA), and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution formed <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Antarctic Meteorite program for <strong>the</strong> collection, cur<strong>at</strong>ion, classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, and distribution<br />
of Antarctic meteorites, which was formalized in 1981. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> provides classifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion and serves as <strong>the</strong> long-term cur<strong>at</strong>orial reposi<strong>to</strong>ry, resulting in explosive growth<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> meteorite collection. After 30 fi eld seasons, more than 80% of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> collection now origin<strong>at</strong>es from Antarctica. In addition <strong>to</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>ion and classifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> staff provide administr<strong>at</strong>ive leadership <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> program, serve on<br />
fi eld expeditions, and provide specimens for outreach and display. Given <strong>the</strong> rel<strong>at</strong>ively<br />
pristine st<strong>at</strong>e and ancient terrestrial ages of <strong>the</strong>se meteorites, <strong>the</strong>y provide perhaps our<br />
best sampling of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>at</strong>erial in our solar system. Meteorites from <strong>the</strong> Moon were fi rst<br />
recognized among <strong>the</strong> Antarctic meteorites in 1981, as was <strong>the</strong> fi rst martian meteorite <strong>the</strong><br />
next year. In 1996, deb<strong>at</strong>e erupted about evidence for past microbial life in an Antarctic<br />
martian meteorite, and th<strong>at</strong> deb<strong>at</strong>e spurred <strong>the</strong> launch of two rovers <strong>to</strong> explore Mars.<br />
Among meteorites thought <strong>to</strong> have origin<strong>at</strong>ed on asteroids, ingredients for ancient life<br />
may have survived much higher temper<strong>at</strong>ures than previously envisioned during early<br />
planetary melting and differenti<strong>at</strong>ion. The ongoing collection of Antarctic meteorites will<br />
enrich <strong>the</strong> scientifi c community and <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution in specimens and knowledge<br />
about our solar system.<br />
METEORITES FROM ANTARCTICA<br />
Serendipi<strong>to</strong>us fi nds of meteorites from Antarctica were documented as early<br />
as 1912 (Adelie Land), and several such fi nds occurred in <strong>the</strong> early 1960s as scientifi<br />
c investig<strong>at</strong>ions in Antarctica increased (Lazarev, 1961; Thiel Mountains,<br />
1962; Neptune Mountains, 1964). In 1969, with <strong>the</strong> recovery of nine meteorites<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Yam<strong>at</strong>o Mountains by Japanese glaciologists, meteorites went from being<br />
mere curiosities <strong>to</strong> becoming a focus of explor<strong>at</strong>ion. While most accumul<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
of multiple meteorites represent a single fall th<strong>at</strong> broke up in <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere and<br />
showered an area with s<strong>to</strong>nes, this discovery suggested a unique concentr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
mechanism. These nine meteorites represented six different types, including two<br />
rare chondrites (primitive meteorites formed in <strong>the</strong> solar nebula) and a diogenite
388 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MCCOY, WELZENBACH, AND CORRIGAN<br />
(a rock formed by melting on <strong>the</strong> surface of an asteroid)<br />
(Shima and Shima, 1973).<br />
The concentr<strong>at</strong>ion mechanism (Figure 1) is tied <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
12 million km 2 of Antarctic ice sheet, which acts as an ideal<br />
c<strong>at</strong>chment area for fallen meteorites (Harvey, 2003). As <strong>the</strong><br />
East Antarctic ice sheet fl ows <strong>to</strong>ward <strong>the</strong> margins of <strong>the</strong><br />
continent, its progress is occasionally blocked by mountains<br />
or obstructions below <strong>the</strong> ice. In <strong>the</strong>se areas, old, deep, blue<br />
ice is pushed <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface, carrying <strong>the</strong> meteorites along<br />
with it. Strong k<strong>at</strong>ab<strong>at</strong>ic winds cause massive defl <strong>at</strong>ion, removing<br />
large volumes of ice and preventing <strong>the</strong> accumul<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of snow on <strong>the</strong> stranded deposits of meteorites. The<br />
end result is a represent<strong>at</strong>ive sampling of meteorite falls.<br />
Of additional signifi cance is <strong>the</strong> terrestrial residence<br />
time of <strong>the</strong>se rocks. Antarctic meteorites record terrestrial<br />
ages ranging from tens of thousands <strong>to</strong> two million<br />
years (Welten et al., 1997) and yet are less we<strong>at</strong>hered than<br />
meteorites found in temper<strong>at</strong>e clim<strong>at</strong>es. The newly fallen<br />
meteorites are quickly frozen and preserved in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> thickening<br />
ice sheet, reducing <strong>the</strong> amount of we<strong>at</strong>hering and<br />
contamin<strong>at</strong>ion. The rel<strong>at</strong>ively pristine st<strong>at</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> samples<br />
allows studies th<strong>at</strong> were previously diffi cult or impossible.<br />
The lack of we<strong>at</strong>hering also means th<strong>at</strong> much smaller me-<br />
teorites survive and thus provide a broader sample of <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>at</strong>erial in our solar system.<br />
ANTARCTIC METEORITE PROGRAM<br />
The Japanese began regular collecting expeditions<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antarctic in 1973, collecting a modest 12 meteorites.<br />
In 1974, <strong>the</strong>y returned hundreds of meteorites.<br />
During this same period, University of Pittsburgh meteorite<br />
scientist Bill Cassidy submitted three proposals <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF) <strong>to</strong> fund a U.S.<br />
expedition <strong>to</strong> fi nd o<strong>the</strong>r suitable areas of meteorite accumul<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
When word of <strong>the</strong> Japanese success fi nally<br />
reached <strong>the</strong> NSF, after it had rejected <strong>the</strong> three previously<br />
submitted proposals, support was granted for a 1976–<br />
1977 expedition. Cassidy was joined by Ed Olsen (Field<br />
Museum, Chicago) and Keizo Yanai (N<strong>at</strong>ional Institute<br />
for <strong>Polar</strong> Research, Tokyo) <strong>to</strong> search in areas accessible<br />
by helicopter from McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> Allan Hills. Nine<br />
specimens were found th<strong>at</strong> season. These early days of<br />
Antarctic meteorite collection are wonderfully recounted<br />
in Cassidy (2003). The meteorites were cur<strong>at</strong>ed by Olsen<br />
FIGURE 1. Diagram illustr<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> mechanism by which Antarctic meteorites are concentr<strong>at</strong>ed in specifi c loc<strong>at</strong>ions . See text for description<br />
of this process.
<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Field Museum, and pieces were distributed in an ad<br />
hoc fashion <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> research community.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> modest numbers for this joint U.S.–<br />
Japanese team, it was clear th<strong>at</strong> this was merely <strong>the</strong> tip of<br />
<strong>the</strong> iceberg and th<strong>at</strong> large numbers of meteorites from <strong>the</strong><br />
cleanest environment on Earth were soon <strong>to</strong> be recovered in<br />
Antarctica. An ad hoc committee was convened on 11 November<br />
1977 in Washing<strong>to</strong>n, D.C. The meeting included<br />
represent<strong>at</strong>ives of NSF (Mort Turner), <strong>the</strong> fi eld party (William<br />
Cassidy), <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution (SI, Brian Mason<br />
of <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry Museum and Ursula Marvin<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory), N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics<br />
and Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NASA, Don Bogard of Johnson<br />
Space Center and Bevan French of NASA headquarters),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> scientifi c community (including Jim Papike)<br />
(Antarctic Meteorite Working Group, 1978). This meeting<br />
produced “a plan for <strong>the</strong> collection, processing, and distribution<br />
of <strong>the</strong> U.S. portion of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic meteorites<br />
collected during 1977-78” (Antarctic Meteorite Working<br />
Group, 1978:13). However, much of <strong>the</strong> groundwork for<br />
this system of interagency cooper<strong>at</strong>ion (which ultim<strong>at</strong>ely<br />
was formalized as <strong>the</strong> three-agency agreement between<br />
NASA, NSF, and SI) and distribution of samples was laid<br />
before <strong>the</strong> meeting. Brian Mason (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution,<br />
personal communic<strong>at</strong>ion, 2004) recounted a convers<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
with Mort Turner where <strong>the</strong> opinion expressed was th<strong>at</strong><br />
meteorites collected by U.S. fi eld expeditions should properly<br />
become U.S. government property. It was agreed th<strong>at</strong><br />
NASA would provide short-term cur<strong>at</strong>ion modeled on,<br />
but less rigorous than, standards for lunar rock cur<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
while <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> would assume responsibility for<br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion and long-term cur<strong>at</strong>ion and s<strong>to</strong>rage.<br />
The collection effort evolved in<strong>to</strong> wh<strong>at</strong> is now known<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET). Thirty<br />
full seasons have now been completed with <strong>the</strong> recovery<br />
of more than 16,000 meteorites— more than were collected<br />
over <strong>the</strong> entire Earth in <strong>the</strong> previous 500 years. The<br />
fi eld party grew from three members initially, with six <strong>to</strong><br />
eight members during much of its his<strong>to</strong>ry, and peaked<br />
<strong>at</strong> 12 members split between two fi eld parties, with one<br />
supported by NASA with <strong>the</strong> specifi c objective of increasing<br />
<strong>the</strong> collection of martian meteorites. The NSF Division<br />
of <strong>Polar</strong> Programs, with decades of experience in<br />
exploring <strong>the</strong> harsh Antarctic environment, provides support<br />
for <strong>the</strong> ANSMET. Currently, <strong>the</strong> ANSMET program<br />
is run by Ralph Harvey, an associ<strong>at</strong>e professor <strong>at</strong> Case<br />
Western Reserve University. Each year, teams of four <strong>to</strong><br />
eight scientists work <strong>to</strong>ge<strong>the</strong>r collecting meteorites in remote<br />
fi eld loc<strong>at</strong>ions for about six weeks during <strong>the</strong> austral<br />
summer (November– January). Their primary goal is<br />
U.S. ANTARCTIC METEORITE PROGRAM 389<br />
<strong>to</strong> recover a complete and uncontamin<strong>at</strong>ed sampling of<br />
meteorites. System<strong>at</strong>ic searches are conducted as a series<br />
of 30-m-wide parallel transects by snowmobile on areas of<br />
snow-free blue ice. If <strong>the</strong> concentr<strong>at</strong>ion is high, transects<br />
by snowmobile are replaced by searching on foot, ensuring<br />
<strong>the</strong> recovery of meteorites as small as 1 cm in diameter.<br />
Many stranding surfaces are large enough <strong>to</strong> require several<br />
seasons in <strong>the</strong> same area.<br />
It is interesting <strong>to</strong> note th<strong>at</strong> as <strong>the</strong> program evolved,<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of meteorites recovered changed dram<strong>at</strong>ically.<br />
Starting with 11 meteorites in 1976, ANSMET averaged<br />
�200 meteorites per year from 1976 <strong>to</strong> 1984, before<br />
ramping up <strong>to</strong> an average of nearly 600 meteorites from<br />
1985 <strong>to</strong> 2001. This average is remarkable given <strong>the</strong> cancell<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of <strong>the</strong> 1989 fi eld season due <strong>to</strong> logistical problems<br />
and <strong>the</strong> intentional explor<strong>at</strong>ion of areas with gre<strong>at</strong>er and<br />
lesser numbers of meteorites <strong>to</strong> average out <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>orial<br />
workload from year <strong>to</strong> year. During 2002– 2006, an average<br />
of more than 900 meteorites was recovered each year,<br />
including two seasons of 1200� meteorites.<br />
The as<strong>to</strong>unding success of <strong>the</strong> Antarctic meteorite programs<br />
of <strong>the</strong> United St<strong>at</strong>es and Japan have spurred a number<br />
of o<strong>the</strong>r efforts, including those from Europe (EUROMET)<br />
(Folco et al., 2002) and China (Lin et al., 2002). Indeed, a<br />
few priv<strong>at</strong>ely funded expeditions have actually recovered<br />
meteorites in Antarctica. These events caused <strong>the</strong> Antarctic<br />
Tre<strong>at</strong>y Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion <strong>to</strong> encourage member countries <strong>to</strong> take<br />
measures <strong>to</strong> protect this valuable scientifi c resource. The U.S.<br />
government, through <strong>the</strong> NSF, responded by implementing<br />
a federal regul<strong>at</strong>ion (45 CFR 674; N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
2003) th<strong>at</strong> codifi ed, for <strong>the</strong> fi rst time, collection and<br />
cur<strong>at</strong>orial standards used by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Meteorite<br />
Program. It is important <strong>to</strong> note th<strong>at</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>at</strong>ional governments<br />
and government consortia (e.g., EUROMET) adhere<br />
<strong>to</strong> similar standards, although each has standards adapted<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir unique situ<strong>at</strong>ion.<br />
SMITHSONIAN’S ROLE IN THE U.S.<br />
ANTARCTIC METEORITE PROGRAM<br />
While <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s role has primarily been in<br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion and cur<strong>at</strong>ion, it has been gre<strong>at</strong>ly streng<strong>the</strong>ned<br />
by <strong>the</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>ion of several SI staff in <strong>the</strong> fi eld efforts<br />
over <strong>the</strong> years (Figure 2). Ursula Marvin of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory, who played a pivotal<br />
role in both <strong>the</strong> initial form<strong>at</strong>ion and long-term management<br />
of <strong>the</strong> program over <strong>the</strong> next three decades, was <strong>the</strong><br />
fi rst <strong>Smithsonian</strong> participant in 1978– 1979 and returned<br />
in 1981– 1982, joined by Bob Fudali of <strong>the</strong> Division of
390 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MCCOY, WELZENBACH, AND CORRIGAN<br />
FIGURE 2. Linda Welzenbach collects an achondrite meteorite <strong>at</strong><br />
Larkman Nun<strong>at</strong>ak during <strong>the</strong> 2006– 2007 ANSMET fi eld season.<br />
Meteorites, a long-time associ<strong>at</strong>e of Cassidy. Subsequently,<br />
Fudali (1983– 1984, 1987– 1988), meteorite collection<br />
managers Twyla Thomas (1985– 1986) and Linda Welzenbach<br />
(2002– 2003, 2006– 2007), and postdoc<strong>to</strong>ral fellows<br />
Sara Russell (1996– 1997) and Cari Corrigan (2004– 2005)<br />
served on <strong>the</strong> ANSMET fi eld parties.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> collection effort was shared by many, <strong>the</strong><br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of Antarctic meteorites has been largely <strong>the</strong><br />
responsibility of two individuals, Brian Mason and Tim<br />
McCoy. Mason volunteered his services during <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ive<br />
stages of <strong>the</strong> program, and it would be hard <strong>to</strong> have<br />
found a more perfect individual <strong>to</strong> undertake <strong>the</strong> challenge<br />
of classifying thousands of individual meteorites. During<br />
his tenure <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> American Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry in<br />
New York and subsequently <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution,<br />
Mason had examined virtually every type of mete-<br />
orite known, pioneered <strong>the</strong> use of mineralogical d<strong>at</strong>a in<br />
<strong>the</strong> classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of meteorites in his seminal 1963 paper<br />
(Mason, 1963), and, when faced with an unusual Antarctic<br />
meteorite, could quickly recall o<strong>the</strong>r similar meteorites<br />
he had examined during his long career. During his long<br />
tenure with <strong>the</strong> ANSMET program, Mason would go on<br />
<strong>to</strong> classify more than 10,000 individual meteorites, including<br />
a considerable number of Japanese meteorites during<br />
a visit <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional Institute of <strong>Polar</strong> Research in 1982.<br />
McCoy was hired in large part because of his experience<br />
and interest in classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of and research on Antarctic<br />
meteorites and has overseen classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, with <strong>the</strong> help<br />
of Welzenbach and a cadre of students and postdoc<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
fellows, of more than 5,000 meteorites.<br />
After macroscopic descriptions are completed <strong>at</strong><br />
NASA’s Johnson Space Center, a small chip is sent <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> for classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion. In <strong>the</strong> earliest days of <strong>the</strong><br />
program, a thin section was prepared for every meteorite,<br />
and mineral compositions were measured using <strong>the</strong> electron<br />
microprobe. As <strong>the</strong> numbers of meteorites ramped<br />
up between 1984 and 1988, it became clear th<strong>at</strong> this laborious,<br />
time-consuming technique was producing an<br />
unacceptably large backlog of meteorites awaiting classifi<br />
c<strong>at</strong>ion. Mason saw a need for a quicker technique <strong>to</strong><br />
separ<strong>at</strong>e and classify <strong>the</strong> myriad of equilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary<br />
chondrites. In 1987, he returned <strong>to</strong> a technique he had<br />
successfully applied in <strong>the</strong> 1950s and early 1960s— oil immersion.<br />
The rapid determin<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> composition of a<br />
few olivine grains from each meteorite <strong>the</strong>n became and<br />
remains <strong>the</strong> method by which 80%– 90% of all U.S. Antarctic<br />
meteorites are classifi ed.<br />
Unequilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary, carbonaceous, and enst<strong>at</strong>ite<br />
chondrites and achondrites are sent for thin section<br />
prepar<strong>at</strong>ion, along with some meteorites th<strong>at</strong> cannot be<br />
confi dently classifi ed due <strong>to</strong> brecci<strong>at</strong>ion, shock, or severe<br />
we<strong>at</strong>hering. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s Antarctic thin-section library<br />
now contains over 5,000 thin sections, and �200<br />
new sections are prepared each year. Mineral compositions<br />
(olivine and orthopyroxene for most chondrites;<br />
olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase for achondrites) are<br />
determined using <strong>the</strong> JEOL JXA-8900R electron microprobe.<br />
The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> prepares brief descriptions,<br />
tables of d<strong>at</strong>a, and digital petrographic images th<strong>at</strong> are<br />
published in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter (S<strong>at</strong>terwhite<br />
and Righter, 2006), which is also posted on <strong>the</strong><br />
Web. Antarctic iron meteorites, which are found <strong>at</strong> very<br />
modest r<strong>at</strong>es, are permanently transferred. The <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
has unique capabilities for processing iron meteorites<br />
and handles all processing, cur<strong>at</strong>orial, and classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of irons. For more than 30 years, <strong>the</strong> responsibility for
<strong>the</strong> description and cur<strong>at</strong>ion of Antarctic meteorites fell<br />
<strong>to</strong> Roy S. Clarke Jr., whose specialty in <strong>the</strong> metallography<br />
of iron meteorites and oversight of <strong>the</strong> non-Antarctic<br />
collection made him an ideal choice. While all meteorites<br />
are classifi ed, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s major task is identifying<br />
those specimens th<strong>at</strong> are of particular interest <strong>to</strong> scientists<br />
and th<strong>at</strong> would be worthy of fur<strong>the</strong>r study. Figure 3<br />
illustr<strong>at</strong>es <strong>the</strong> results of <strong>the</strong>se efforts, indic<strong>at</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> number<br />
of samples recovered, <strong>the</strong> <strong>to</strong>tal number of meteorites,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> subset of meteorites th<strong>at</strong> are not equilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary<br />
chondrites. The number of meteorites recovered<br />
increased steadily from an average of �300 (1977– 1984)<br />
<strong>to</strong> gre<strong>at</strong>er than 1,000 per year (2002– 2006) as collecting<br />
techniques improved and fi eld parties grew in size and<br />
number. The number of samples was sometimes gre<strong>at</strong>er<br />
than <strong>the</strong> number of meteorites due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> collection of<br />
a small number of terrestrial rocks mistaken for meteorites.<br />
The number of <strong>the</strong> most scientifi cally interesting<br />
specimens, those o<strong>the</strong>r than equilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary chondrites<br />
(e.g., unequilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary chondrites, carbona-<br />
U.S. ANTARCTIC METEORITE PROGRAM 391<br />
ceous and enst<strong>at</strong>ite chondrites, achondrites, and irons),<br />
remained constant <strong>at</strong> �50/year. (The sharp dip in 1989<br />
was due <strong>to</strong> a cancelled fi eld season.) The apparent disconnect<br />
between <strong>the</strong> number collected and those of gre<strong>at</strong>est<br />
scientifi c interest is due <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> occurrence of meteorites<br />
th<strong>at</strong> break up in <strong>the</strong> <strong>at</strong>mosphere and possibly shower local<br />
areas with thousands of individual fragments. While<br />
most scientifi c studies focus on <strong>the</strong> small subset of <strong>the</strong><br />
most interesting specimens, <strong>the</strong> collection as a whole still<br />
offers clues <strong>to</strong> ice movements rel<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> concentr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
mechanism and <strong>the</strong> infl ux of meteoritic m<strong>at</strong>erial <strong>to</strong> Earth<br />
over time (Harvey, 2003). Only through system<strong>at</strong>ic collection<br />
and classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion of all <strong>the</strong> meteorites can <strong>the</strong>se<br />
l<strong>at</strong>ter studies be undertaken.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r major oblig<strong>at</strong>ion of <strong>the</strong> SI in <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic<br />
Meteorite Program was serving as <strong>the</strong> long-term cur<strong>at</strong>orial<br />
facility for specimens (Figure 4). In 1983, <strong>the</strong> SI<br />
opened its Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland.<br />
This st<strong>at</strong>e-of-<strong>the</strong>-art collections facility is centered on four<br />
pods (football-fi eld-sized buildings �50 feet (�15 m) high)<br />
FIGURE 3. The number of samples and recovered meteorites and those meteorites th<strong>at</strong> are not equilibr<strong>at</strong>ed ordinary chondrites (EOCs) from<br />
1977 <strong>to</strong> 2007.
392 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MCCOY, WELZENBACH, AND CORRIGAN<br />
FIGURE 4. Meteorite s<strong>to</strong>rage labor<strong>at</strong>ories <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland, modeled on <strong>the</strong> facility used for<br />
lunar rocks <strong>at</strong> NASA’s Johnson Space Center. The w<strong>at</strong>er- and oxygen-free nitrogen gas in <strong>the</strong> cabinets keeps meteorites from oxidizing and free<br />
from contamin<strong>at</strong>ion by environmental pollutants such as organic compounds, heavy metals, and salts, which could reduce <strong>the</strong> scientifi c value of<br />
<strong>the</strong> specimens. Pho<strong>to</strong> by Chip Clarke, SI.<br />
connected by a corridor of offi ces and labor<strong>at</strong>ories. Shortly<br />
after this facility opened, planning began for building wh<strong>at</strong><br />
became essentially a duplic<strong>at</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> dry nitrogen s<strong>to</strong>rage<br />
facility for Antarctic meteorites <strong>at</strong> Johnson Space Center in<br />
Hous<strong>to</strong>n, and <strong>the</strong> new museum s<strong>to</strong>rage facility opened in<br />
<strong>the</strong> fall of 1986. The fi rst signifi cant transfer (126 specimens)<br />
of Antarctic meteorites <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> occurred<br />
in 1987. Regular annual transfers from Johnson Space Center<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> museum began in 1992, and <strong>the</strong> fl ow of meteorites<br />
increased tremendously in 1998. At th<strong>at</strong> point, <strong>the</strong> Meteorite<br />
Processing Labor<strong>at</strong>ory <strong>at</strong> Johnson Space Center was<br />
essentially full, and <strong>the</strong> subsequent infl ux of newly recovered<br />
meteorites necessit<strong>at</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> transfer of large numbers of<br />
specimens <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> SI. By <strong>the</strong> end of 2004, more than 11,300<br />
individual specimens had been transferred <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> museum.<br />
When coupled with <strong>the</strong> chips and thin sections used for <strong>the</strong><br />
initial classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, Antarctic meteorites now represent<br />
more than 80% of named meteorites in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
collection and more than 70% of all specimens. These percentages<br />
alone demonstr<strong>at</strong>e <strong>the</strong> spectacular impact of <strong>the</strong><br />
Antarctic Meteorite Program on <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>’s meteorite<br />
collection.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> 30 years of <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Meteorite<br />
Program, <strong>Smithsonian</strong> personnel have fulfi lled a number<br />
of o<strong>the</strong>r roles. The program is managed by a threemember<br />
Meteorite Steering Group with represent<strong>at</strong>ives<br />
from NASA, NSF, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>. Recommend<strong>at</strong>ions<br />
on sample alloc<strong>at</strong>ions are made by <strong>the</strong> Meteorite Working<br />
Group, a 10-member panel th<strong>at</strong> also includes members of<br />
<strong>the</strong> academic and research communities. <strong>Smithsonian</strong> personnel<br />
from both <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry Museum and <strong>the</strong><br />
Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory have actively particip<strong>at</strong>ed or
led <strong>the</strong>se committees throughout <strong>the</strong> his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>the</strong> program.<br />
Additionally, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> provides selected<br />
samples of Antarctic meteorites for exhibits throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> world, including meteorites on display <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> Crary<br />
Science and Engineering Center in McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion, perhaps<br />
<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost display of <strong>Smithsonian</strong> objects.<br />
SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF<br />
ANTARCTIC METEORITES<br />
While <strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program has had<br />
a dram<strong>at</strong>ic infl uence on <strong>the</strong> size of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> meteorite<br />
collection, it is <strong>the</strong> inform<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>se priceless<br />
samples hold th<strong>at</strong> is of gre<strong>at</strong>est benefi t. While listing <strong>the</strong><br />
full range of scientifi c discoveries is beyond <strong>the</strong> scope of<br />
this paper, we list a few examples.<br />
Brian Mason and <strong>Smithsonian</strong> volcanologist Bill<br />
Melson published <strong>the</strong> fi rst book-length tre<strong>at</strong>ise on Apollo<br />
11 samples in 1970 (Mason and Melson, 1970), and<br />
Mason remained involved in <strong>the</strong> study of lunar samples<br />
through <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> Apollo Program. In 1982, Mason<br />
described <strong>the</strong> Antarctic meteorite ALH A81005 as containing<br />
clasts th<strong>at</strong> “resemble <strong>the</strong> anorthositic clasts described<br />
from lunar rocks” (Mason, 1983). From his earlier<br />
work, Mason knew this was <strong>the</strong> fi rst lunar meteorite but<br />
presented his fi ndings in a typically underst<strong>at</strong>ed manner so<br />
as not <strong>to</strong> undercut <strong>the</strong> considerable research th<strong>at</strong> would be<br />
forthcoming. Today, we recognize more than three dozen<br />
distinct lunar meteorites. A remarkable fe<strong>at</strong>ure of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
meteorites is th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y commonly exhibit very low abundances<br />
of <strong>the</strong> radioactive element thorium. In contrast,<br />
<strong>the</strong> area sampled by <strong>the</strong> Apollo missions on <strong>the</strong> equ<strong>at</strong>orial<br />
near side of <strong>the</strong> Moon typically has elev<strong>at</strong>ed thorium<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ions indic<strong>at</strong>ive of <strong>the</strong> thin crust and extensive<br />
volcanism th<strong>at</strong> occurred in th<strong>at</strong> region. For this reason,<br />
lunar meteorites are thought <strong>to</strong> represent a much broader<br />
represent<strong>at</strong>ive sampling of <strong>the</strong> lunar surface and are <strong>the</strong><br />
subject of intense scrutiny as <strong>the</strong> U.S. plans for a return <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Moon (Korotev et al., 2003).<br />
The realiz<strong>at</strong>ion th<strong>at</strong> lunar meteorites had been launched<br />
by impacts from <strong>the</strong> surface of <strong>the</strong> Moon and escaped <strong>the</strong><br />
he<strong>at</strong>ing th<strong>at</strong> many predicted would melt <strong>the</strong>m completely<br />
reinvigor<strong>at</strong>ed deb<strong>at</strong>e about whe<strong>the</strong>r certain meteorites actually<br />
origin<strong>at</strong>ed on Mars. This deb<strong>at</strong>e was largely settled<br />
in 1981, when Don Bogard and colleagues <strong>at</strong> Johnson<br />
Space Center showed th<strong>at</strong> gases trapped inside impact melt<br />
pockets in <strong>the</strong> Antarctic meteorite EET A79001 m<strong>at</strong>ched<br />
those measured in <strong>the</strong> martian <strong>at</strong>mosphere by <strong>the</strong> Viking<br />
lander. These samples, now numbering several dozen, pro-<br />
U.S. ANTARCTIC METEORITE PROGRAM 393<br />
vide <strong>the</strong> only m<strong>at</strong>erials from Mars th<strong>at</strong> we have in our labor<strong>at</strong>ories.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>y lack geologic context, study of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se rocks has posed many of <strong>the</strong> questions driving Mars<br />
explor<strong>at</strong>ion. This was never more true than when McKay<br />
et al. (1996) argued th<strong>at</strong> ALH 84001 contained evidence<br />
of past microbial life in <strong>the</strong> form of distinctive chemical,<br />
mineralogical, and morphological fe<strong>at</strong>ures. Although <strong>the</strong><br />
result has been vigorously deb<strong>at</strong>ed for over a decade, it<br />
is clear th<strong>at</strong> this single paper reinvigor<strong>at</strong>ed NASA’s Mars<br />
Explor<strong>at</strong>ion Program. The founding of <strong>the</strong> NASA Astrobiology<br />
Institute and <strong>the</strong> launch of <strong>the</strong> Mars Explor<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Rovers Spirit and Opportunity, which continue <strong>to</strong> oper<strong>at</strong>e<br />
after three years on <strong>the</strong> surface of Mars and on which<br />
<strong>the</strong> senior author is a team member, were spurred in part<br />
by <strong>the</strong> idea th<strong>at</strong> ancient life may have existed on Mars. It<br />
is truly remarkable th<strong>at</strong> a modest program of collecting<br />
meteorites— <strong>the</strong> poor man’s space probe— prompted <strong>the</strong><br />
initi<strong>at</strong>ion of major research and spacecraft efforts!<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> signifi cant advances in meteoritics within<br />
<strong>the</strong> last decade, one of <strong>the</strong> most noteworthy is <strong>the</strong> recognition<br />
of meteorites th<strong>at</strong> are intermedi<strong>at</strong>e between <strong>the</strong><br />
primitive chondrites formed as sediments from <strong>the</strong> solar<br />
nebula and achondrites th<strong>at</strong> sample differenti<strong>at</strong>ed bodies<br />
with cores, mantles, and crusts, like Earth. These meteorites,<br />
termed primitive achondrites, experienced only partial<br />
melting and differenti<strong>at</strong>ion, after which <strong>the</strong> process<br />
was halted. These meteorites may offer our best clues <strong>to</strong><br />
how our own planet differenti<strong>at</strong>ed. While such meteorites<br />
have been known for more than a century, <strong>the</strong>y were few<br />
in number and largely viewed as curiosities. The vast numbers<br />
of meteorites recovered from Antarctica have pushed<br />
<strong>the</strong>se meteorites in<strong>to</strong> prominence, as major groupings have<br />
emerged. Among <strong>the</strong>se meteorites, one is truly remarkable.<br />
Graves Nun<strong>at</strong>ak (GRA) 95209 contains metal veins<br />
th<strong>at</strong> sample <strong>the</strong> earliest melting of an asteroid as it began<br />
<strong>to</strong> he<strong>at</strong> up more than 4.5 billion years ago ( McCoy et al.,<br />
2006). These veins record a complex his<strong>to</strong>ry of melting,<br />
melt migr<strong>at</strong>ion, oxid<strong>at</strong>ion-reduction reactions, intrusion<br />
in<strong>to</strong> cooler regions, cooling, and crystalliz<strong>at</strong>ion. The single<br />
most remarkable fe<strong>at</strong>ure of this meteorite is <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
of millimeter-size metal grains th<strong>at</strong> contain up <strong>to</strong> a dozen<br />
graphite rosettes tens of micrometers in diameter. Within a<br />
single metal vein, carbon iso<strong>to</strong>pic compositions (� 13 C) can<br />
range from �50 <strong>to</strong> �80‰. These graphite grains formed<br />
not in <strong>the</strong> parent asteroid during melting but during nebular<br />
reactions. This iso<strong>to</strong>pic heterogeneity is even more remarkable<br />
when we consider th<strong>at</strong> a single millimeter-sized<br />
metal grain within this meteorite has a gre<strong>at</strong>er carbon iso<strong>to</strong>pic<br />
heterogeneity than all <strong>the</strong> n<strong>at</strong>ural m<strong>at</strong>erials on Earth.<br />
Despite extensive he<strong>at</strong>ing, this asteroid did not achieve a
394 SMITHSONIAN AT THE POLES / MCCOY, WELZENBACH, AND CORRIGAN<br />
homogeneous carbon iso<strong>to</strong>pic composition. In a very real<br />
way, this sample gives us a glimpse in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> processes th<strong>at</strong><br />
occurred in <strong>the</strong> solar nebula during <strong>the</strong> birth of our solar<br />
system as well during <strong>the</strong> he<strong>at</strong>ing, melting, and differenti<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of our Earth.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
The meteorite collection and <strong>the</strong> insights provided by<br />
<strong>the</strong> infl ux of a tremendous number of Antarctic meteorites<br />
continue <strong>to</strong> enrich <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> collections and offer<br />
opportunities for research among its staff. Much of <strong>the</strong><br />
current emphasis is in <strong>the</strong> burgeoning fi eld of astrobiology.<br />
Understanding <strong>the</strong> f<strong>at</strong>e of carbon during <strong>the</strong> differenti<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
of planets forms ano<strong>the</strong>r link in understanding this fundamental<br />
element from its birth in o<strong>the</strong>r stars <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> role it<br />
plays <strong>to</strong>day in biologic evolution. Scientists <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong><br />
use <strong>the</strong>se meteorites <strong>to</strong> ask fundamental questions<br />
th<strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong>y <strong>the</strong>n set about answering through particip<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
in spacecraft missions <strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> Moon, Mars, asteroids, and<br />
comets. R<strong>at</strong>her than supplanting meteorites as a major<br />
source of inform<strong>at</strong>ion, samples returned from <strong>the</strong>se bodies<br />
will make Antarctic meteorites more scientifi cally valuable<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y continue <strong>to</strong> provide <strong>the</strong> framework as we continue<br />
<strong>to</strong> ask and answer <strong>the</strong> questions of our solar system’s birth,<br />
evolution, and destiny.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
This paper reports <strong>the</strong> results of an effort shared by<br />
hundreds of individuals over three decades. These include<br />
<strong>the</strong> members of <strong>the</strong> meteorite search teams, <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>orial<br />
teams <strong>at</strong> Johnson Space Center and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution,<br />
<strong>the</strong> administr<strong>at</strong>ive support <strong>at</strong> NASA, <strong>the</strong> N<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, and <strong>the</strong> efforts<br />
of thousands of scientists who have studied Antarctic meteorites.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>se, Don Bogard (NASA Johnson Space<br />
Center), Ursula Marvin (<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory),<br />
and Bill Cassidy (University of Pittsburgh) have<br />
given us insights over <strong>the</strong> years in<strong>to</strong> <strong>the</strong> form<strong>at</strong>ive stages of<br />
<strong>the</strong> U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program. Our current partners<br />
in <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>at</strong>orial and collection efforts Ralph Harvey (Case<br />
Western Reserve University), John Schutt (ANSMET),<br />
Kevin Righter (NASA Johnson Space Center), and Cecilia<br />
S<strong>at</strong>terwhite (Jacobs) have been particularly helpful, as have<br />
our colleagues <strong>at</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, Brian Mason, Roy S.<br />
Clarke Jr., and <strong>the</strong> l<strong>at</strong>e Gene Jarosewich, who preceded us<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se efforts and have been unfailingly supportive. We<br />
dedic<strong>at</strong>e this paper <strong>to</strong> our colleague Gene Jarosewich, who<br />
never wavered in his enthusiasm for meteorites.<br />
LITERATURE CITED<br />
Antarctic Meteorite Working Group. 1978. Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter,<br />
No. 1(1). http:// www-cur<strong>at</strong>or .jsc .nasa .gov/ antmet/ amn/<br />
previous_ newsletters/ ANTARTIC_ METERORITE_NEWSLETTER_<br />
VOL_ 1_ NUMBER_ 1 .pdf (accessed 15 August 2008).<br />
Cassidy, W. A. 2003. Meteorites, Ice, and Antarctica: A Personal Account.<br />
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
Folco, L., A. Capra, M. Chiappini, M. Frezzotti, M. Mellini, and I. E.<br />
Tabacco. 2002. The Frontier Mountain Meteorite Trap. Meteoritics<br />
and Planetary Science, 37: 209– 228.<br />
Harvey, R. 2003. The Origin and Signifi cance of Antarctic Meteorites.<br />
Chemie der Erde, 63: 93– 147.<br />
Korotev, R. L., B. L. Jolliff, R. A. Zeigler, J. J. Gillis, and L. A. Haskin.<br />
2003. Feldsp<strong>at</strong>hic Lunar Meteorites and Their Implic<strong>at</strong>ions for<br />
Compositional Remote Sensing of <strong>the</strong> Lunar Surface and <strong>the</strong> Composition<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Lunar Crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,<br />
67: 4895– 4923.<br />
Lin, C.-Y., F. S. Zhang, H.-N. Wang, R.-C. Wang, and W.-L. Zhang.<br />
2002. “Antarctic GRV9927: A New Member of SNC Meteorites.”<br />
Thirty-third Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference,<br />
March 11– 15, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Hous<strong>to</strong>n, Tex.<br />
Mason, B. H. 1963. Olivine Composition in Chondrites. Geochimica et<br />
Cosmochimica Acta, 27: 1011– 1023<br />
——— . 1983. Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter, No. 6 (1). http:// cur<strong>at</strong>or<br />
.jsc .nasa .gov/ antmet/ amn/ previous_ newsletters/ ANTARTIC_<br />
METERORITE_ NEWSLETTER_ VOL_ 6_ NUMBER_ 1 .pdf<br />
(accessed 15 August 2008).<br />
Mason, B. H., and W. G. Melson. 1970. The Lunar Rocks. New York:<br />
Wiley-Interscience.<br />
McCoy, T. J., W. D. Carlson, L. R. Nittler, R. M. Stroud, D. D. Bogard,<br />
and D. H. Garrison. 2006. Graves Nun<strong>at</strong>aks 95209: A Snapshot of<br />
Metal Segreg<strong>at</strong>ion and Core Form<strong>at</strong>ion. Geochimica et Cosmochimica<br />
Acta, 70: 516– 531.<br />
McKay, D. S., E. K. Gibson, K. L. Thomas-Keprta, H. Vali, C. S. Romanek,<br />
S. J. Clemett, X. D. F. Chiller, C. R. Maechling, and R. N. Zare.<br />
1996. Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity<br />
in Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Science, 273: 924– 930.<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion. 2003. U.S. Regul<strong>at</strong>ions Governing Antarctic<br />
Meteorites. 45 CFR Part 674. http:// www .nsf .gov/ od/ opp/<br />
antarct/ meteorite_ regs .jsp (accessed 15 August 2008).<br />
S<strong>at</strong>terwhite, C., and K. Righter, eds. 2006. Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter.<br />
http:// cur<strong>at</strong>or .jsc .nasa .gov/ antmet/ amn/ amn .cfm (accessed 15<br />
August 2008).<br />
Shima, M., and M. Shima. 1973. Mineralogical and Chemical Composition<br />
of New Antarctica Meteorites. Meteoritics, 8: 439– 440.<br />
Welten, K. C., C. Alderliesten, K. Van der Borg, L. Lindner, T. Loeken,<br />
and L. Schultz. 1997. Lewis Cliff 86360: An Antarctic L-chondrite<br />
with a terrestrial age of 2.35 million years. Meteoritics and Planetary<br />
Science, 32: 775– 780.
Index<br />
AAUS. See American Academy of Underw<strong>at</strong>er Sciences<br />
Adams, David Hempelman, 53–54<br />
Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS, 311<br />
Advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR), 310<br />
Ahlmann, Hans W., 26<br />
Ahmaogak, George, Sr., 104<br />
Ahwinona, Jacob, 100, 105<br />
Aiken, Martha, 100<br />
Airy, George B., 17<br />
Alaska. See also Barrow, Alaska; Biological invasion; Exhibits; N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples;<br />
Whaling<br />
art, public discovery, 67–70<br />
ethnological collecting, 62–65, 89–96, 99–100, 118–121, 131–132<br />
ethnological exhibits, 65–66<br />
Gambell, and SIKU, 134–138<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> connection, revitalizing, 70–72<br />
southwest (Yup’ik homeland), 80, 81<br />
St. Lawrence Island, and SIKU, 134–138<br />
Aleut people. See N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
Alutiiq people. See N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
American Academy of Underw<strong>at</strong>er Sciences (AAUS), 242<br />
Amundsen-Scott South Pole St<strong>at</strong>ion, 382<br />
Anchorage Museum of His<strong>to</strong>ry and Art, xiv, 71, 80, 85<br />
Andersson, Berit, 51<br />
Andrée, Solomon August, 50–51, 53<br />
ballooning, 50–51<br />
cause of de<strong>at</strong>h, 52, 53<br />
expedition camp, 51–52<br />
archaeologic study, 50–54, 59<br />
soil studies, 52–54<br />
Andrew, Frank, 82–84, 85, 86<br />
Andrew, Nick, 87<br />
Annals of <strong>the</strong> IGY (1959), 31<br />
Annual Reports of <strong>the</strong> Bureau of Ethnography, xiii
396 INDEX<br />
Antarctic Circumpolar Current<br />
copepod distribution, 153<br />
nonpelagic development, 185–187, 192<br />
productivity, 312<br />
Antarctic Continental Shelf, isol<strong>at</strong>ion and speci<strong>at</strong>ion, 185–187<br />
Antarctic Convergence, 145, 147<br />
Antarctic deep-sea benthic biodiversity (ANDEEP), 191<br />
Antarctic Marine Ecosystem Ice Edge Zone (AMERIEZ), 290<br />
Antarctic Marine Living Resources (AMLR), 289<br />
Antarctic Meteorite Working Group, 389, 392–393<br />
“Antarctic Research—A European Network for Astronomy”<br />
(ARENA), 385<br />
Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET), 389, 390<br />
Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
(AST/RO), x, xiv, 361, 362, 363, 369–372, 381–384<br />
Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y, 23<br />
Antarctic Tre<strong>at</strong>y Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion, 389<br />
Antarctica. See also Biological invasion; Cosmology, Antarctica<br />
East Base (S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island), 50, 54–55, 56, 59<br />
Marble Point, 50, 56–59<br />
West Base, 54<br />
Anthropology, 115–126<br />
circumpolar, 70<br />
cultural, 64<br />
found<strong>at</strong>ions, 116–121<br />
IPY goal, 121<br />
museum, 62<br />
physical, 66–67<br />
salvage, 118<br />
<strong>the</strong>ory of, 65–66<br />
Apangalook, Leonard, Sr., 134–138<br />
Aporta, Claudio, 134<br />
Appleg<strong>at</strong>e, S., 65<br />
Archaeology. 115–126. See also Andrée, Solomon August;<br />
Antarctica<br />
circumpolar, 70<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ric, 49–60<br />
impact on <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, 66–67<br />
<strong>to</strong>urism, 60<br />
Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver (ACBAR), 363<br />
Arctic<br />
as cultural construct, 115<br />
differing meanings, 115–117<br />
as homeland, 116<br />
as “last imaginary place,” 115<br />
Arctic studies, 61–74, 131–132. See also Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 65, 71, 72–74<br />
hardships, 18–19<br />
public interest, 49<br />
Arctic Studies Center (ASC), x, xiv, 70, 133–134<br />
Army Signal Corps, xiii, 5, 16, 19, 63<br />
Arutiunov, Sergei, 70<br />
Assault on <strong>the</strong> Unknown (Sullivan), 31<br />
AST/RO. See Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote<br />
Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
Aurora(s), 3, 7<br />
Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic <strong>Polar</strong>iz<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
(BICEP), 364<br />
Bacterioplank<strong>to</strong>n, productivity, 299–306<br />
Baffi n Island, Boas visit, 117–118, 131<br />
Baird, Spencer F.<br />
anthropology, 118, 119<br />
arctic studies, 62–64, 65, 131<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, 17<br />
IPY-1, xiii, 94<br />
<strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition (1871), 18–19<br />
Ballooning expeditions. See Adams, David Hempelman;<br />
Andrée, Solomon August<br />
Balloon Observ<strong>at</strong>ions of Millimetric Extragalactic Radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
and Geophysics (BOOMERANG), 361<br />
Barrow, Alaska, 89–96<br />
as archaeological site, 60<br />
early expeditions, 90–92<br />
ethnological collecting, 64–65, 89–96, 131<br />
geography and clim<strong>at</strong>e, 89<br />
as IPY-1 st<strong>at</strong>ion, xiii, 5, 6, 19, 64–65, 89, 92–95, 119<br />
map, 91<br />
post-IPY research, 95–96<br />
whaling, 99–111<br />
Bartlett Inlet, 267<br />
Bearded seals. See Seals<br />
Beckman, Arnold, 28<br />
Beechey, Frederick W., 90<br />
Beluga whales. See Whales<br />
Bennett, Jim, 36<br />
Benthic communities, link with pelagic, 218–219<br />
Berkner, Lloyd, 9, 24–28, 29, 31, 35<br />
Bertrand, Kenneth, 18<br />
Bessels, Emil, 19<br />
Biological invasion, 347–355<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 351–354, 355<br />
commercial shipping, 349–350, 352, 353–354<br />
crabs, 348–349, 350–351<br />
currents, 351, 352–353<br />
detection and measurement, 355<br />
fi sheries, 354<br />
human-medi<strong>at</strong>ed, 347–348, 349–350<br />
live trade, 349<br />
oil and gas industry, 349–350, 353–354<br />
prevention, 355<br />
propagule supply, 349–350<br />
resistance, 350–351<br />
shoreline development, 353–354<br />
species, Alaska, 348<br />
species, Antarctic, 348–349<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>e-polar p<strong>at</strong>tern, 348–349
temper<strong>at</strong>ure, 350–355<br />
<strong>to</strong>urism, 354<br />
Black holes, observ<strong>at</strong>ions. See Antarctic Submillimeter<br />
Telescope and Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory<br />
Black, Richard, 54<br />
Blee, C<strong>at</strong>herine, 55<br />
Boas, Franz, 64–65, 70, 117–118, 131<br />
Bocks<strong>to</strong>ce, John, 91–92<br />
Bodenhorn, Barbara, 96<br />
Bogard, Don, 389, 393<br />
Bowhead whales. See Whales<br />
Bowman, Isaiah, 6, 8<br />
Brine channels, 244<br />
Britannic Challenger (balloon), 53–54<br />
British Associ<strong>at</strong>ion for <strong>the</strong> Advancement of Science,<br />
14–15, 16<br />
Brooding species. See Bryozoan, Antarctica; Invertebr<strong>at</strong>es,<br />
marine<br />
Brouger-Lambert Law, 273<br />
Brower, Jane, 100, 110<br />
Brower, Ronald, Sr., 100, 102, 104–108, 110<br />
Bruce, Miner, 100<br />
Bryozoans, Antarctic, 205–219<br />
Budd, William, 19<br />
Bulletin of Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Simultaneous Observ<strong>at</strong>ions,<br />
4–5, 16<br />
Buoyancy compens<strong>at</strong>or (BC), 246–247<br />
Bureau of American Ethnology, 65, 94, 118<br />
Bush, Vannevar, 25–26<br />
Byrd, Richard E., 54<br />
Calista Elders Council (CEC), 80, 82, 85<br />
Canineq collection, 82<br />
Carbon monoxide, as interstellar tracer, 369–372, 373,<br />
381–384<br />
Caribou hunting, 95, 101, 121<br />
Cassidy, William, 388–390<br />
Cawood, John, 15, 19–20<br />
CDOM. See Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
The Central Eskimo (Boas), 64–65<br />
Chapman, Sydney, 1, 9, 24–28, 31, 35<br />
Chaussonnet, Valérie, 70<br />
Chlorophyll<br />
CDOM cycling, 321–322, 326–329<br />
kelp productivity, 272, 273, 276, 277<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and bacteria, 302<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, productivity, 310–311<br />
Christie, Samuel Hunt, 15<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter (CDOM), 319–331.<br />
See also Chlorophyll; Pack ice<br />
absorption spectra, 322–331<br />
ecosystem effects, 320<br />
pho<strong>to</strong>bleaching, 320<br />
sources, 320, 330<br />
INDEX 397<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rage test, 323–324<br />
study site, 321–322<br />
transect studies, 324<br />
Clarke, Roy S., Jr., 390–391<br />
Clim<strong>at</strong>e change. See also Biological invasion; Clim<strong>at</strong>e studies<br />
arctic sites, loss of, 59<br />
arctic s<strong>to</strong>rms, 136–137<br />
arctic studies, 26, 72–73<br />
birds, 138<br />
bryozoans, 218<br />
indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 129–139<br />
krill, 286, 287, 294–295<br />
marine mammals, habit<strong>at</strong> and behavior, 137–138<br />
sea ice, 134–138<br />
S<strong>to</strong>ning<strong>to</strong>n Island, 56, 59<br />
Clim<strong>at</strong>e studies, 1–11. See also Arctic studies; Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion,<br />
scientifi c<br />
Clouds, interstellar<br />
AST/RO observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 363, 369–372, 381–384<br />
HEAT observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 373–379<br />
life cycle, 373–374<br />
Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), 310<br />
Cold adapt<strong>at</strong>ion, 253–262<br />
Collabor<strong>at</strong>ion. See Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, scientifi c<br />
Collins, Henry B., 67, 69, 132<br />
Comité Spécial de l’Année Géophysique Intern<strong>at</strong>ionale<br />
(CSAGI), 9, 27, 32–33<br />
Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, scientifi c, 13–20. See also Intern<strong>at</strong>ional<br />
Geophysical Year<br />
astronomy, 16–17<br />
Brussels meeting (1853), 19<br />
Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP), 9–10<br />
Global We<strong>at</strong>her Experiment (GWE), 9–10<br />
IPY-1, 13–20, 118<br />
Magnetic Crusade, 14–15, 19<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e studies, 15–16<br />
Venus, transits of, 14, 17–18, 19<br />
Copepods, pelagic calanoid. See Pelagic calanoid copepods<br />
Corrigan, Cari, 390<br />
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 360<br />
Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radi<strong>at</strong>ion, 360–364<br />
Cosmology, Antarctica, 359–364<br />
<strong>at</strong>mospheric conditions, 360–362<br />
development, 360–361<br />
as quantit<strong>at</strong>ive science, 359–360<br />
site testing, 361–362<br />
telescopes and instruments, 363–364<br />
Crustaceans. See Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean; Biological invasion<br />
Crary Science and Engineering Center, 393<br />
Crowell, Aron, 70, 71, 72–74, 82<br />
CSAGI. See Comité Spécial de l’Année Géophysique<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ionale<br />
Currents. See Antarctic Circumpolar Current; Biological<br />
invasion
398 INDEX<br />
Dall, William Healy, 18, 63, 64<br />
“Dark Sec<strong>to</strong>r,” 361. See also Cosmology, Antarctica<br />
Darling<strong>to</strong>n, Jennie, 54<br />
Davis, J. E., 17<br />
Davis Strait, 6<br />
“Deal 1” payload, 41–42<br />
Defense Meteorological S<strong>at</strong>ellite Program, 311<br />
Dirksen, Everett, 28–29<br />
Dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter (DOM), 319, 330. See also<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
Diving, x, xiv, 241–251<br />
access through sea ice, 244–245, 267<br />
animal and bird physiology, 265–270<br />
animals as hazard, 248–249<br />
decompression, 251<br />
“diver down” fl ag, 248<br />
emergencies, 249–250<br />
environment, 243–244<br />
environmental protection, 250<br />
equipment, 245–247<br />
fast ice, 243, 244, 265–266<br />
ice-edge, 248<br />
ice form<strong>at</strong>ion, 243–244<br />
krill studies, 290–295<br />
McMurdo Sound, 265–267, 270<br />
minimum qualifi c<strong>at</strong>ion criteria, 242<br />
pack ice, 244, 248, 290–292<br />
physiological consider<strong>at</strong>ions, 250–251<br />
polar oper<strong>at</strong>ions, 244–247<br />
science, necessity, 253–254, 261–262<br />
“suit squeeze,” 247<br />
underw<strong>at</strong>er visibility, 244, 248<br />
weight and trim systems, 246–247<br />
Dome A, astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions from, 377–378, 384–385.<br />
See also High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz<br />
Telescope<br />
Dome C, astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions from, 385, 386<br />
Doubly labeled w<strong>at</strong>er (DLW) technique, 339<br />
Dowdeswell, Julian, 18<br />
Dragovan, Mark, 361<br />
Drake Passage, 186–187, 192<br />
Dufek, George J., 56–57<br />
Eagle (balloon), 50–51. See also Andrée, Solomon August<br />
Eicken, Hajo, 134<br />
Ekholm, Nils, 51<br />
Elephant Island. See Oc<strong>to</strong>pods, abundance<br />
Ellesmere Island, astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions from, 385<br />
Elliott, Henry W., 63<br />
Elson, Thomas, 90<br />
Emission Millimetrique (EMILIE), 360–361<br />
Emmons, George T., 100, 106<br />
Emperor penguins, 265–270<br />
Environmental change. See Clim<strong>at</strong>e change<br />
Environmental cleanup, <strong>at</strong> Antarctic bases, 50, 54–55<br />
Eskimos. See N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples; Yupik Eskimos; Yup’ik Eskimos<br />
The Eskimos About Bering Strait (Nelson), 65<br />
Espy, James P., 3<br />
Ethnological Results of <strong>the</strong> Point Barrow Expedition<br />
(Murdoch), 64–65, 110–111<br />
Ethnology. See also Alaska; Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year; Murdoch,<br />
John; N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples; <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution; Turner,<br />
Lucien<br />
early <strong>Smithsonian</strong> efforts, 62–65, 89–96, 99–100, 116–<br />
121, 131–132<br />
early <strong>Smithsonian</strong> exhibits, 65–66<br />
public discovery of Eskimo art, 67–70<br />
sale or barter of items, 94, 101<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong>–Alaska connection, revitalizing, 70–72<br />
Euphausia superba. See Krill, Antarctic<br />
Evolutionary temper<strong>at</strong>ure adapt<strong>at</strong>ion, 183<br />
Ewing, He<strong>at</strong>her, 62<br />
Exhibits<br />
Agayuliyararput/Our Way of Making Prayer, 79–80,<br />
81–82<br />
Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely, x, xii, 73, 130<br />
Crossroads Alaska, 70–71<br />
Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska,<br />
69–70, 122<br />
Crossroads Siberia, 70<br />
The Far North: 2000 Years of American Indian and<br />
Eskimo Art, 67–68, 122<br />
Inua: Spirit World of <strong>the</strong> Bering Sea Eskimo, 68–69, 70,<br />
79–80, 122<br />
Looking Both Ways: Heritage and Identity of <strong>the</strong> Alutiiq<br />
People, 71<br />
Our Universes, 82<br />
The People of Whaling, 100<br />
Sharing Knowledge: The <strong>Smithsonian</strong> Alaska Collections,<br />
72, 82, 100<br />
Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, 70<br />
Expeditions. See also specifi c vessels; Barrow, Alaska; Henry,<br />
Joseph<br />
Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition (1872), 5<br />
Belgica expedition, collections, 144, 206<br />
Challenger expedition (1873–1876), 144, 181, 187, 189<br />
Eclipse Expedition, 119<br />
German Antarctic Expedition, 54<br />
Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition<br />
(1949–1952), 26<br />
<strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition (1871), 18–19<br />
Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (RARE), 55<br />
Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition (1933–1935), 8<br />
Field, Cyrus, 17<br />
Fisher, William J., 65
Fishing. See also Biological invasion<br />
bryozoan abundance, 218<br />
oc<strong>to</strong>pod abundance, 197–202<br />
Fitzhugh, William, x, xi, 68–70, 73–74, 79<br />
Fort Conger, Lady Franklin Bay st<strong>at</strong>ion, xiii, 5, 60, 65, 131<br />
Fraenkel, Knut, 51, 53<br />
Franklin, Sir John, 91<br />
search expeditions, 91–92, 116<br />
Fraser, Ronald, 28<br />
French, Bevan, 389<br />
Friedman, Herbert, 45–46<br />
Fudali, Bob, 389–390<br />
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 14<br />
Georgi, Johannes, 7<br />
German <strong>Polar</strong> Commission, 117<br />
Giant molecular clouds (GMCs), 374, 375<br />
Golovnev, Andrei, 70<br />
Göttingen Magnetic Union/Verein, 2, 14–15<br />
Gray whales. See Whales<br />
Greely, Adolphus W., 5–6, 19, 65, 132<br />
Greenland, astronomical observ<strong>at</strong>ions from, 385<br />
Hagen, John P., 39<br />
Hall, Charles Francis, 18–19, 116–117<br />
Hamil<strong>to</strong>n, Joan, 84, 87<br />
Harvey, Ralph, 389<br />
Hayes, I. I., 18<br />
HEAT. See High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz Telescope<br />
Heinzel, Karl, 41<br />
Henry, Alfred J., 6<br />
Henry, Joseph<br />
arctic studies, 62–64, 74<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, 14, 15, 17<br />
Meteorological Project, 3, 15–16<br />
<strong>Polar</strong>is Expedition (1871), 18–19<br />
Herendeen, Edward Perry, 92–93<br />
Her Many Horses, Emil, 82<br />
Herschel, John, 2, 15<br />
High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic Terahertz (HEAT) Telescope, 373–<br />
379, 385. See also PreHEAT<br />
High-resolution spectroscopic imaging, 375<br />
Hillary, Edmund, 59<br />
H.M.S. Plover, 91–92<br />
Holm, Bill, 70<br />
Holmes, William Henry, 65<br />
Hrdlička, Aleš, 66–67, 69<br />
Hudson’s Bay Company, 15, 62, 90, 119<br />
Hudson’s Bay Terri<strong>to</strong>ry, 62, 119<br />
Humboldt, Alexander von, 5, 14<br />
Hunting. See also Caribou hunting; Whaling<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 135–138<br />
endangered perspective on past, 122–123<br />
INDEX 399<br />
Ice. See also Diving; Pack ice; Sea ice<br />
camps, 291–293<br />
congel<strong>at</strong>ion, 243<br />
fall form<strong>at</strong>ion, new p<strong>at</strong>terns, 135<br />
indigenous observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 133–138<br />
krill habit<strong>at</strong>, 286–295<br />
pancake, 243<br />
pl<strong>at</strong>elet, 243–244, 249<br />
stalactites, 244<br />
winter we<strong>at</strong>her changes, 135–137<br />
IGY. See Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Astronomy Union (IAU), 26, 29<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion. See Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, scientifi c<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical Year (1957–1958), xiii–xix, 1–2,<br />
8–10, 23–31, 35–36<br />
accomplishments, 9, 23<br />
agenda-setting for, 24, 25–28, 31, 35<br />
Berlin Congress (1878), 24<br />
bryozoan collecting, 206<br />
glaciology, 23, 26, 31<br />
logo, 9<br />
NASM collection, 37–45<br />
organizing committee, 9, 27, 32–33<br />
policy process, 23–33<br />
political context, 24–25, 35, 59<br />
public<strong>at</strong>ions, 31<br />
purpose, 9<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellites, 9, 23, 24, 36<br />
Soviet particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 29–31, 36<br />
World D<strong>at</strong>a Centers, 9, 23, 29–31<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, fi rst (1882–1883), xiii, 1,<br />
5–6, 11<br />
accomplishments, 6<br />
ethnological collecting, 64–65, 89–96, 99–100, 118–121,<br />
131<br />
Humboldtean science, 5<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, 13–20, 118<br />
as landmark event, 13<br />
limit<strong>at</strong>ions, 6<br />
political context, 24<br />
reanalysis and reevalu<strong>at</strong>ion, 6<br />
scientifi c vs. n<strong>at</strong>ural his<strong>to</strong>ry agenda, 118<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 61–62, 64–65, 89–96<br />
social sciences, 131<br />
st<strong>at</strong>ions, xiii, 5–6<br />
U.S. particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 19<br />
Weyprecht’s principles, 5<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, second (1932–1933), xiii–xiv, 1,<br />
6–8<br />
accomplishments, 8<br />
political context, 24<br />
radio technology, 7–8<br />
social sciences, 131
400 INDEX<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, third. See Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Geophysical<br />
Year<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year, fourth (2007–2008), x, xi, xiv–xv,<br />
10–11<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 72–74<br />
technological support, 10–11<br />
<strong>the</strong>mes, 10<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year: Astronomy from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Poles</strong><br />
(Astro<strong>Poles</strong>), 384<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), 70<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-3), 37<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Pure and Applied Physics<br />
(IUPAP), 26<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Union of Radio Science (URSI), 26<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Whaling Commission (IWC), 102<br />
Interstellar clouds. See Clouds, interstellar<br />
Interstellar medium (ISM), 373, 375<br />
Inuit people. See N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
Inuit Sea Ice Use and Occupancy Project (ISIUOP), 134<br />
Iñupi<strong>at</strong> Eskimos. See N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
Iñupi<strong>at</strong> Heritage Center, 100, 102–103<br />
Invertebr<strong>at</strong>es, marine. See also Cold adapt<strong>at</strong>ion; Nonpelagic<br />
development<br />
benthic, 181–192, 205–219<br />
brooding species, 181–192<br />
IPY. See Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong> Year<br />
Isol<strong>at</strong>ed hole pro<strong>to</strong>col (IHP), 267<br />
“Jesup II,” 70<br />
John, Ag<strong>at</strong>ha, 87<br />
John, Mark, 85<br />
John, Paul, 82, 84, 85<br />
John, Peter, 87<br />
Johnson Space Center, xiv, 390, 392, 393<br />
Joinville Island. See Oc<strong>to</strong>pods, abundance<br />
Juniper-C missile, 43<br />
Kamkoff, Willie, 82<br />
Kane, Elisha Kent, 18, 62<br />
Kaplan, Susan, 68–69, 79<br />
Kashevarov, Aleksandr, 90–91<br />
Kayaks, 83–84, 85, 122<br />
Kelp, arctic (Laminaria solidungula), 271–283. See also<br />
Chlorophyll<br />
ammonium, 272, 273, 276, 277, 280<br />
biomass, 272, 274–275<br />
Brouger-Lambert Law, 273<br />
elong<strong>at</strong>ion (growth), 274, 278, 281–282<br />
light availability, 271–283<br />
oil and gas industry, 349–350, 353–354<br />
pH, 272, 274, 278, 281<br />
s<strong>to</strong>rms (wind speed), 281–282<br />
<strong>to</strong>tal suspended solids (TSS), 271–283<br />
Kennicott, Robert, 18, 61, 62, 64, 74<br />
Khlobystin, Leonid, 70<br />
Kjellström, Rolf, 51<br />
Kramer, S. Paul, 28<br />
Krill, Antarctic (Euphausia superba), 285–295. See also Clim<strong>at</strong>e<br />
change; Diving<br />
biomass, 286<br />
distribution, 286<br />
ecosystem role, 286–287<br />
as found<strong>at</strong>ion species, 285–287<br />
growth r<strong>at</strong>es, 292–295<br />
as keys<strong>to</strong>ne species, 285<br />
life his<strong>to</strong>ry, 287–289<br />
popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics, 293–295<br />
process cruise studies, 291–292<br />
sea ice dynamics, 285–295<br />
Krupnik, Igor, x, xi, 70, 73–74, 94, 133–134<br />
Lact<strong>at</strong>ion. See Seals; Whales<br />
Lady Franklin Bay st<strong>at</strong>ion, xiii, 5, 60, 65, 131<br />
Laidler, Gita, 134<br />
Lambda-Cold Dark M<strong>at</strong>ter, 360<br />
Laminaria solidungula. See Kelp, arctic<br />
Lang, Michael A., x, xi, 242<br />
Larsen A ice shelf, collapse, 185<br />
Larsen B ice shelf, collapse, 11, 185<br />
Lecithotrophy, 183, 184–185, 186, 188, 189, 190, 192<br />
Lenz, Mary Jane, 81, 82<br />
Lewis, C. D., 68<br />
Light availability. See Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Lipps, J. H., 55<br />
Lloyd, Humphrey, 15<br />
Loki-Dart, 38, 43–44, 45<br />
Loomis, Elias, 3, 15<br />
Loring, Stephen, 74<br />
The Lost World of James Smithson (Ewing), 62<br />
Ludwig, George H., 40–42<br />
Lundström, Sven, 51<br />
MacKay, Charles, 65<br />
Magnetic Crusade, 14, 19<br />
Magnuson, Warren, 29<br />
Maguire, Rochefort, 91–92<br />
Marble Point, Antarctica. See Antarctica<br />
Mars Explor<strong>at</strong>ion Program, 393<br />
Marsh, H. Richmond, 100, 108<br />
Marvin, Ursula, 389–390<br />
Mason, Brian, 389, 390, 393<br />
Mason, Otis, 66<br />
M<strong>at</strong>her, Elsie, 85, 86, 87<br />
Maury, M<strong>at</strong><strong>the</strong>w Fontaine, 16<br />
McCoy, Timothy, ix, 390<br />
McGhee, Robert, 115<br />
McMurdo Sound, as diving study area,<br />
265–270
McMurdo St<strong>at</strong>ion, xiv, 265–267, 393<br />
runways, 59<br />
Meade, Marie, 81, 83<br />
Melson, Bill, 393<br />
Merriam, C. Hart, 66<br />
Meteorites, Antarctic, ix, xiv, 387–394<br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, 390–391<br />
concentr<strong>at</strong>ion, 388<br />
Graves Nun<strong>at</strong>ak (GRA) 95209, 393–394<br />
iron, 390–391<br />
lunar, 393<br />
Mars, 393<br />
NASA program, ix, xiv, 389, 390, 393<br />
NSF program, 388–389<br />
terrestrial ages, 388<br />
types, 387–388<br />
Meteorological Project, 3, 15–16<br />
Meteorology, 1–11<br />
Bergen school, 7<br />
disciplinary period, 6<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical precedents, 2–5<br />
IGY and, 1–2<br />
intern<strong>at</strong>ional cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, 15–16<br />
IPY and, 1, 2, 5–8, 10–11<br />
nuclear testing and, 9<br />
Milky Way<br />
Antarctic observ<strong>at</strong>ions of center, 363, 369–372<br />
constructing templ<strong>at</strong>e, 375<br />
star form<strong>at</strong>ion in. See Star birth (form<strong>at</strong>ion)<br />
Moore, Riley, 132<br />
Morgan, Lewis Henry, 62<br />
Moses, Phillip, 84–85<br />
Moubray Bay, Antarctica, 266–267<br />
Minimal Orbital Unmanned S<strong>at</strong>ellite, Earth (MOUSE), 38<br />
Muir, John, 64<br />
Murdoch, John<br />
acquisition of objects, 99–100<br />
and Baird, 131<br />
on contact with Eskimos, 92<br />
ethnological studies, 64–65, 69, 70, 71, 93–96, 110<br />
Museum preserv<strong>at</strong>ion, 36–37. See also specifi c museums<br />
Museum Support Center (MSC), 82–83, 391–392<br />
MV <strong>Polar</strong> Duke, 290<br />
Myer, Albert J., 16<br />
Narwhal, dentition, 223–240<br />
NASA. See N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space<br />
Administr<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
NASA/NASM Transfer Agreement, 37<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Academy of Sciences, 23, 27<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space Act (1958), 37<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Aeronautics and Space Administr<strong>at</strong>ion (NASA).<br />
See also Meteorites, Antarctic<br />
oceanographic studies, 311<br />
INDEX 401<br />
rel<strong>at</strong>ionship with NASM, 37<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> collabor<strong>at</strong>ion, xi<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Air and Space Museum (NASM), xiii–xiv,<br />
35–47<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Anthropological Archives, 132<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Gallery of Art, 67–68, 122<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Geographic Society, 55<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian (NMAI), 71<br />
whaling collection, 100<br />
Yup’ik visits, 79, 81<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian Act (1996), 121<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry (NMNH), ix, x, xiv.<br />
See also Arctic Studies Center; Exhibits<br />
anthropology, 118<br />
ethnological collection, 132<br />
Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion Offi ce, 71<br />
whaling collection, 100<br />
Yup’ik visits, 79<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion (NSF), ix–x, xi, xiv. See also<br />
Meteorites, Antarctic<br />
Center for Astrophysical Research, x, 361<br />
U.S. Antarctic Diving Program, 241–251<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ive American Graves Protection and Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion Act<br />
(1990), 121<br />
N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples. See also Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion; Whaling; Yupik Eskimos;<br />
Yup’ik Eskimos<br />
Ainu people, 70<br />
Aleut people, 64–65<br />
Alutiiq people, 64–65, 71<br />
art, public discovery, 67–70<br />
colonial concepts, 116<br />
community anthropology, 123–125<br />
elders, museum collabor<strong>at</strong>ion, 80–84, 99–111<br />
endangered perspective on past, 122–123<br />
ethnological collections, 65–66, 89–96, 99–100<br />
Innu people, 64–65, 119–121, 123–125, 131<br />
Inuit people, 122–123, 64–65, 116–117, 122, 223–239,<br />
123–125, 65, 119–121, 131<br />
Iñupiaq people, 99–111<br />
Iñupi<strong>at</strong> people, 67–70, 90–92, 65–66, 89–96, 95, 92–95,<br />
92, 94, 99–100, 101, 91–92, 99–111, 102–104,<br />
101–102, 104, 100–102, 99, 103–104<br />
museum collabor<strong>at</strong>ion, 80–84<br />
Naskapi people, 64–65<br />
Nenet people, 70<br />
observ<strong>at</strong>ions of clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 129–139<br />
rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion efforts for, 71, 80, 84–86, 121,<br />
123–125<br />
research contributions, 79–88<br />
selling or bartering, 94, 99–100, 101<br />
Needell, Allan, 26<br />
Nelson, Edward W., 64–65, 68–71, 80, 100<br />
Neumayer, Georg von, 5<br />
Newcomb, Simon, 17–18
402 INDEX<br />
NMAI. See N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of <strong>the</strong> American Indian<br />
NMNH. See N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Nobel, Albert, 51<br />
Nonn<strong>at</strong>ive species. See Biological invasion<br />
Nonpelagic development, 181–192<br />
ACC hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, 185–187, 192<br />
adapt<strong>at</strong>ion, 182–183, 192<br />
enhanced speci<strong>at</strong>ion, 185–187, 192<br />
extinction, selective, 184–185, 191<br />
Thorson’s rule, 181–182, 187<br />
Northwest Passage, 353<br />
NSF. See N<strong>at</strong>ional Science Found<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Oc<strong>to</strong>pods, abundance, 197–202<br />
depth range, 198–200<br />
two-sample t-tests of, 200<br />
Odishaw, Hugh, 28, 31<br />
Oldmixon, George Scott, 93<br />
Olofsson, Johan, 53<br />
Olsen, Ed, 388–389<br />
Once Round <strong>the</strong> Sun (Fraser), 28<br />
Oozeva, Conrad, 137<br />
Oper<strong>at</strong>ion Highjump, 59, 241<br />
Or<strong>to</strong>n, William, 17<br />
Pack ice, 135–136, 137, 138, 267. See also Krill, Antarctic<br />
CDOM source, 330<br />
diving, 243, 244, 245, 248–249, 290–292<br />
emperor penguins, 268<br />
seals, 336, 340<br />
Palmer Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER), ix, xiv, 289,<br />
291–295<br />
Papike, Jim, 389<br />
PAR. See Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
Pelagic calanoid copepods, 143–169<br />
abundance, 146, 148<br />
b<strong>at</strong>hypelagic, 156, 168–169<br />
bipolar distribution, 159–160<br />
bipolar species pairs, 166–169<br />
classifi c<strong>at</strong>ion, 146<br />
common, 160–162<br />
deepw<strong>at</strong>er, 146, 147, 148, 151–153, 153–159<br />
endemicity, 146, 162–164<br />
epipelagic, 146, 148, 150–151<br />
evolution, 164–169<br />
exoskele<strong>to</strong>n, 147–148, 169<br />
expeditions <strong>to</strong> collect, 144<br />
geographic distribution, 147<br />
inshore, 146, 148, 149–150<br />
mesopelagic, 146, 168–169<br />
methods of collecting and studying, 145–148, 169<br />
morphology, 147–148, 164–166, 169<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 144, 148–149<br />
sibling species pairs, 164–165, 167–168<br />
taxonomy, 144–145, 173–179<br />
Pelagic communities, link with benthic, 218–219<br />
Pelagic development<br />
nonpelagic vs., 181–192<br />
selective extinction, 184–185, 191<br />
Personne, Mark, 52<br />
Peters, C. H. F., 16–17<br />
Phaeocystis antarctica, 300, 303–304, 306, 319–331. See also<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter<br />
Phillip, John, Sr., 82<br />
Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion (PAR). See also Kelp, arctic<br />
CDOM, 319–320, 322–323<br />
krill popul<strong>at</strong>ion dynamics, 293–295<br />
permanent-site studies, 274–275, 278–280<br />
phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n and bacteria, 299–306<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 310<br />
Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n. See also Pho<strong>to</strong>syn<strong>the</strong>tically active radi<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
CDOM source, 330<br />
Ross Sea, 299–306<br />
Pitul’ko, Vladimir, 70<br />
Planet Earth (fi lm), 29<br />
Pl<strong>at</strong>eau Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (PLATO), 377–378, 384–385<br />
Point Barrow, Alaska. See Barrow, Alaska<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> front <strong>the</strong>ory, 7–8<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> Record (journal), 8<br />
<strong>Polar</strong> research. See also Arctic studies; Clim<strong>at</strong>e studies;<br />
Cooper<strong>at</strong>ion, scientifi c; Diving; Intern<strong>at</strong>ional <strong>Polar</strong><br />
Year; Meteorites, Antarctica<br />
Polynyas. See Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter;<br />
Ross Sea<br />
Pomerantz, Martin A., 360–361<br />
Powell, John Wesley, 65–66, 118<br />
Powell, Joseph S., 93<br />
PreHEAT, 378–379, 385<br />
Prydz Bay/East Antarctic shelf, 312<br />
Radford, S., 362<br />
Rainey, Froelich, 104<br />
Ray, P<strong>at</strong>rick Henry, 19, 92, 93, 94, 96, 99–100<br />
Rearden, Alice, 84, 86<br />
Rearden, Noah, 86<br />
Rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion. See also N<strong>at</strong>ional Museum of N<strong>at</strong>ural<br />
His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
human remains, 71, 121<br />
knowledge, 71, 123–125<br />
visual, 80, 84–86<br />
Richter, Henry L., 45<br />
Rideout, E. B., 7<br />
Ripley, S. Dillon, 68<br />
Rivers, Neva, 84<br />
Robbins, Rob, 242<br />
Rockets, 8–9, 25, 37–46
Rogick, Mary, 206<br />
Ronne, Finn, 55<br />
Ronne, Jackie, 55<br />
Roosevelt, Franklin, 54<br />
Rose, Donna, 83<br />
Ross, James Clark, 15<br />
Rossby, Carl Gustav, 26<br />
Rosse, Irving, 64<br />
Ross Ice Shelf, 8, 151<br />
Ross Sea, 206, 207, 211, 218, 299–306, 319–331, 336. See also<br />
Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter; Phaeocystis<br />
antarctica; Phy<strong>to</strong>plank<strong>to</strong>n<br />
seals, 266–267<br />
emperor penguins, 268<br />
productivity, 312–316<br />
Russell, Sara, 390<br />
Russia, 70. See also Soviet Union<br />
Russian Academy of Sciences, 63<br />
Russian Institute of Cultural and N<strong>at</strong>ural Heritage,<br />
133–134<br />
R/V Challenger (1873–1876), 144, 181, 187, 189<br />
R/V Hero (1968–1982), 206<br />
R/V N<strong>at</strong>haniel B. Palmer, 302, 321<br />
R/V <strong>Polar</strong>stern, 197–202, 290<br />
R/V Proteus, 272<br />
Sabine, Edward, 15, 16, 17<br />
Saclamana, Marie, 100<br />
Salinity<br />
kelp productivity, 272, 274, 278, 281, 282<br />
nonpelagic development, 184<br />
S<strong>at</strong>ellites<br />
cosmic microwave background (CMB), 360<br />
IGY, 9, 23, 24, 36, 37<br />
NASM collection, 38–42<br />
Nimbus 7, 310<br />
oceanographic studies, 309–310, 320<br />
ORBView-2, 310<br />
TV-3, 39, 40<br />
Schoolcraft, Henry, 62<br />
Science–The Endless Frontier (Bush), 25–26<br />
Sco-Cen star-forming region, 384<br />
Scotia Arc region, 186–187, 192, 206<br />
Scott, Robert Falcon, 51<br />
Scott <strong>Polar</strong> Research Institute, 18<br />
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 241–242<br />
Scuba diving. See Diving<br />
Sea Ice Knowledge and Use: Assessing Arctic Environmental<br />
and Social Change (SIKU), 133–138<br />
Sea-ice microbial communities (SIMCOs), 288–289, 290–291,<br />
292, 293, 294, 295<br />
Sea ice. See also Clim<strong>at</strong>e change; Emperor penguins; Weddell<br />
seals; Yupik Eskimos<br />
INDEX 403<br />
form<strong>at</strong>ion, 66–67<br />
Savoonga, Alaska, observ<strong>at</strong>ions from, 134–135, 138<br />
Sea level, rise of, 11<br />
Seals. See also Weddell seals<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 138<br />
diving behavior, 267–268<br />
diving hazard, 249<br />
diving physiology, 268–269<br />
krill in diet, 286<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion, 336–337<br />
Yup’ik language, 86<br />
Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS), 310–311,<br />
328<br />
Senungetuk, Ronald, 69<br />
Serov, Sergei, 70<br />
Shumaker, Brian, 59<br />
SIKU. See Sea Ice Knowledge and Use: Assessing Arctic<br />
Environmental and Social Change<br />
Silook, Paul, 132, 134<br />
Simmonds, Doreen, 100<br />
Simpson, John, 91–92, 94, 108<br />
Simpson, Thomas, 90<br />
Singer, S. Fred, 38<br />
Siple, Paul, 24, 54<br />
Sky noise, 362<br />
Smith, Middle<strong>to</strong>n, 92, 93<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Institution. See also Arctic Studies Center;<br />
Exhibits; Expeditions<br />
arctic studies, 61–74<br />
Alaska connection of, revitalizing, 70–72<br />
Eskimo art, public discovery, 67–70<br />
ethnological collecting, 62–65, 89–96<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical contributions, 61–62<br />
IPY-1 particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 61–62, 64–65, 89–96<br />
IPY-4 particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 72–74<br />
meteorite program particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 389–393<br />
professional staff, development of, 65–66<br />
purchasing or bartering by, 94, 99–100, 101<br />
Scientifi c Diving Program, xiv, 242<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Astrophysical Observ<strong>at</strong>ory (SAO), xiv<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Environment Research Center (SERC), xiv<br />
<strong>Smithsonian</strong> Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC), xiv,<br />
144, 206<br />
whaling collections, 99–111<br />
Yup’ik contributions <strong>to</strong> research, 79–88<br />
Solar radi<strong>at</strong>ion. See Chromophoric dissolved organic m<strong>at</strong>ter;<br />
Ross Sea<br />
Sonnenfi eld, Joseph, 95–96<br />
Sörlin, Sverker, 51<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean. 143–169, 181–192, 309–317. See also Pelagic<br />
calanoid copepods; Ross Sea<br />
British Discovery Committee, 144<br />
brooding species, 181–192
404 INDEX<br />
crustaceans, 191–192<br />
iron concentr<strong>at</strong>ion, 314–315<br />
krill as found<strong>at</strong>ion species, 285–287<br />
productivity, 309–317<br />
s<strong>at</strong>ellite studies, 309–310<br />
temper<strong>at</strong>ure, 310–311, 313–314, 315–317<br />
South Pole, as observ<strong>at</strong>ory site, 361–364<br />
South Shetland Islands<br />
bryozoan study, 207–219<br />
oc<strong>to</strong>pod abundance, 197–202<br />
Soviet Union<br />
cultural exchange, 69–70<br />
IGY particip<strong>at</strong>ion, 29–31, 36<br />
Soviet Antarctic expeditions (1955–1958), 144<br />
Space age origins, and IGY, 35–47<br />
Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I), 311<br />
Spectroscopic imaging, high-resolution, 375<br />
Spencer, Robert F., 95<br />
Spletts<strong>to</strong>esser, John, 59<br />
Spude, C<strong>at</strong>herine, 55<br />
Spude, Robert, 55<br />
Sputnik 1, 37, 38–39<br />
SS Vikingen expedition (1929–1930), 144<br />
Standards of <strong>the</strong> Conduct of Scientifi c Diving, 242<br />
Star birth (form<strong>at</strong>ion), 381–386<br />
Chamaeleon region, 382<br />
HEAT observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 374–375<br />
Lupus region, 382–384<br />
observing, from Antarctic Pl<strong>at</strong>eau, 381–386<br />
rho Ophiuchi region, 382, 384<br />
Star form<strong>at</strong>ion. See Star birth<br />
Stefansson Sound Boulder P<strong>at</strong>ch, kelp productivity, 271–283<br />
STELLA ANTARCTICA, 384, 385<br />
Stevens, Ann, 69<br />
Stevens, Ted, 69<br />
Stewart, James R., 241–242<br />
Stewart, T. Dale, 67, 69<br />
Strindberg, Nils, 51, 53<br />
Sturtevant, William C., 68<br />
Submillimeter <strong>Polar</strong>imeter for Antarctic Remote Observing<br />
(SPARO), 363<br />
Subtropical Convergence, 145, 147<br />
Sullivan, Walter, 31, 35<br />
Sunyaev–Zel’dovich effect (SZE), 363<br />
“Superstitions of <strong>the</strong> Eskimo” (Smith), 93<br />
Swan, James G., 64<br />
Tasmanian G<strong>at</strong>eway, 186–187<br />
Taylor, C. J., 14, 15<br />
Telegraph<br />
astronomy, 16–17<br />
Meteorological Project, 3, 15–16<br />
polar research, 18, 63<br />
Telescopes. See also Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and<br />
Remote Observ<strong>at</strong>ory; High Elev<strong>at</strong>ion Antarctic<br />
Terahertz Telescope<br />
Antarctic Searching for Transiting Extrasolar Planets<br />
(ASTEP), 385<br />
Center for Astrophysical Research, x, 361<br />
Degree-Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), 361, 363<br />
Intern<strong>at</strong>ional Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope<br />
(IRAIT), 385<br />
Project Moonw<strong>at</strong>ch, 38<br />
Python, 361, 362<br />
QUEST (Q and U Extra-Galactic Sub-mm Telescope), 364<br />
South Pole, x, xiv, 364<br />
South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX), 361<br />
Viper, 361, 363<br />
White Dish, 361<br />
Temper<strong>at</strong>ure. See also Cold adapt<strong>at</strong>ion<br />
biological invasion, 350–355<br />
cosmological observ<strong>at</strong>ions, 360<br />
diving, 250<br />
kelp productivity, 272, 274, 278, 280–281, 282<br />
nonpelagic development, 183<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ocean, 310–311, 314<br />
Terra Nova Bay, 266–267<br />
Terra Nova collections, 144<br />
Thomas, Twyla, 390<br />
Thompson, Tommy, 241<br />
Thorson’s rule, 181–182, 187<br />
Toovak, Kenneth, 100, 106–107, 108, 110<br />
Total suspended solids (TSS). See Kelp, arctic<br />
Tousey, Richard, 45–46<br />
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), 133<br />
Tupek, Karen, 55<br />
Turner, J. Henry, 100<br />
Turner, Lucien<br />
collections, 80<br />
ethnological studies, 64, 65, 71, 117–121, 131–132<br />
Fort Chimo (Kuujjuaq), 119–120<br />
and Innu/Inuit peoples, 65, 119–121<br />
Turner, Mort, 389<br />
“Tusking,” 238<br />
Udvar Hazy Center, 46<br />
Ultraviolet light<br />
CDOM screening, 319–320<br />
productivity, 299–306<br />
UNESCO, 28, 31<br />
Ungava Bay, 64, 117–118<br />
U.S. Antarctic Diving Program, x, 241–251<br />
U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program, ix, xiv, 388–394<br />
U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP)<br />
bryozoans, 206–208, 218<br />
pelagic calanoid copepods, 144–145, 146, 169
U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica, 241<br />
U.S. Research and Development Board, 25–26, 29<br />
USNS Eltanin collections, 144–145, 148, 206<br />
Van Allen, James, 24, 35, 44–45<br />
VanS<strong>to</strong>ne, James, 70<br />
Venus, transits of, 14, 17–18, 19<br />
American Transit of Venus Commission, 17–18<br />
we<strong>at</strong>her, 17–18<br />
Voznesenskii, Ilya G., 63<br />
Warming. See Clim<strong>at</strong>e change<br />
W<strong>at</strong>erman, Alan, 28<br />
Waugh, Leuman M., 83<br />
We<strong>at</strong>her studies. See Clim<strong>at</strong>e studies<br />
Weaver, Robert, 55<br />
Weber, Wilhelm, 14<br />
Weddell seals (Lep<strong>to</strong>nychotes weddellii), x, xiv, 265–270,<br />
335–343<br />
Welzenbach, Linda, 390<br />
Western Union Telegraph Company, 17, 18, 63<br />
Weyprecht, Karl, 5, 11, 13<br />
Whales. See also Narwhals; Whaling<br />
beluga whales, 102, 138<br />
bowhead whales, 99, 100, 102, 138<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 135–138<br />
diving hazard, 249<br />
gray whales, 138<br />
krill in diet, 286<br />
lact<strong>at</strong>ion, 336–337<br />
Whaling<br />
annual cycle, 102–104<br />
ceremonies and celebr<strong>at</strong>ions, 101–102, 104<br />
clim<strong>at</strong>e change, 135–138<br />
contact and change, 100–102<br />
INDEX 405<br />
contemporary, 99<br />
elders’ interpret<strong>at</strong>ion of collection, 99–100, 104–110<br />
fi rearms use, 95, 101<br />
Iñupiaq society, 99–111<br />
Iñupiaq villages, 99<br />
IWC quota, 102<br />
kayak use, 83–84<br />
modern methods, 103–104<br />
prepar<strong>at</strong>ions, 102–103<br />
specifi c object discussions, 104–110<br />
and women, 102–103, 108–109<br />
Whymper, Frederick, 63<br />
Wild, Heinrich, 5, 11<br />
Williams, George, 122<br />
Wilson, A. C., 256<br />
World Clim<strong>at</strong>e Research Programme (WCRP), 10<br />
World Meteorological Organiz<strong>at</strong>ion (WMO), 26–27, 29<br />
World War I, 6–8<br />
World War II, 8–9, 54<br />
Yanai, Keizo, 388<br />
Yupik Eskimos, 129–139<br />
Yup’ik Eskimos. See also N<strong>at</strong>ive peoples<br />
art, public discovery of, 67–70<br />
elders, museum collabor<strong>at</strong>ion with, 80–84<br />
ethnological collecting, 65–66<br />
homeland, 80, 81<br />
language, 85, 86–87, 135<br />
objects in collections, 79–80, 83–85, 86<br />
pride and self-respect, 82<br />
research contributions, 79–88<br />
<strong>to</strong>ols and technology, 85–87<br />
visual rep<strong>at</strong>ri<strong>at</strong>ion, 80, 84–86<br />
Zeitlin, Sam, 44