Geological Survey of Finland Current Research 2003-2004

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38 

Geological Survey of Finland 

Espoo 2005 


Current Research 2003-2004 

Edited by Sini Autio



Current Research 2003-2004 

edited by Sini Autio 


Espoo 2005

Autio, Sini 2005. Geological Survey of Finland, Current Research 2003–2004. 

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 100 pages, 72 figures and 6 

tables. 

The publication contains 9 articles outlining the current research at the Geological 

Survey of Finland (GTK). The articles are divided into four categories. 

Petrological investigations, economicgeology and mineral exploration, Environmental 

studies, Geophysical applications andAnalytical methods. At the end 

of the publication there is a list of publications by GTK staff in 2003 and 2004. 

From now on the current research of the GTK will be published in electronic 

form at the GTK’s internet pages, so this issue will be the last printed version 

on this subject so far. 

An article in alvikite vein-dykes presents a new carbonatite in southwestern 

Finland. The vein-dykes intrude Palaeoproterozoic (1.88. Ga) pyroxene tona- tona- 

lite. The Svecofennian orogeny in Finland produced a aseries series of 1.9 Ga nickel 

bearing mafic and ultramafic intrusions mainly found within migmatitic mica 

gneisses.Anintrusionmodelispresentedfortheseindifferenttectonicconditions 

produced intrusions with pronounced variation in size, shape and lithology. An 

article on gold prospectivity of highly metamorphosed gneisses and migmatites 

in southwestern Finland is presented. The mineralization is characterized by 

rusty, strongly foliated sillimanite-cordierite gneisses and mica schists. Ore 

prospecting in the ribbed moraine area of Misi, northern Finland has carried out 

as a part of the detailed investigation of the iron oxide-copper-gold deposits. 

Observations made have shown the area to be potential for ore prospecting. In 

the search for abundant and high quality kaolin resources more than 20 kaolin 

deposits has been investigated in northern Finland. This research has focussed 

on Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks using a variety of airborne and 

ground geophysical techniques supplemented by drilling. 

In the Ostrobothnian region of western Finland extensive parts are covered by 

sulphide rich clay and silt sediments which alter to harmful sulphate soils when 

exposed to the air. Ageophysical characterizing of the fine-grained sediments 

has been made and the results gathered are not directly applicable to another area 

without new referencedrilling, sampling and chemicalanalysis. The preliminary 

results of a project to test and develop geophysical techniques for mapping 

sulphide tailings impundments. The study site Hammaslahti Cu-Zn mine has 

a tailings area of 30 hectares with average height of 9 metres. Four different 

field-based portable fluorescence (OXRF) instruments for the determination of 

heavy-metal contents in contaminated soils were evaluated. The results were 

compared with results obtained by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission 

spectrometry (ICP-AES) and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): Geological Survey of Finland, current 

research, programs, bibliography, Finland 

Sini Autio 


P.O. Box 96 

FI-02151 ESPOO, FINLAND 

ISBN 951-690-916-7 

ISSN 0782-8535 

Vammalan Kirjapaino Oy 2005

Geological Survey of Finland, Current Research 2003–2004 

Edited by Sini Autio 

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 3, 2005 

CONTENTS 

Petrological investigations, economic geology and mineral exploration 

The Naantali alvikite vein-dykes: a new carbonatite in southwestern Finland, 

Jeremy Woodard and Pentti Hölttä ............................................................................ 5 

Intrusion model for Svecofennian (1.9 Ga) mafic-ultramafic intrusions in Finland, 

Hannu V. Makkonen .................................................................................................. 11 

The Halikko Kultanummi prospect - a new type of gold mineralization in the 

high-grade gneiss terrainofsouthwesternFinland, SariGrönholm,NiiloKärkkäinen 

and Jonas Wiik ........................................................................................................... 15 

Ore prospecting in the ribbed moraine area of Misi, northern Finland, Pertti Sarala 

and Jari Nenonen ........................................................................................................ 25 

Exploration results and mineralogical studies on the Lumikangas apatite-ilmenite 

gabbro,Kauhajoki,westernFinland, Olli Sarapää,NiiloKärkkäinen,Tegist Chernet, 

Jaana Lohva and Timo Ahtola .................................................................................... 31 

Vittajänkä kaolin deposit, Salla, Finnish Lapland, Panu Lintinen and Thair Al-Ani 40 

Environmental studies 

Geophysical characterizing of tailings impoundment – a case from the closed 

Hammaslahti Cu-Zn mine, eastern Finland, Heikki Vanhala, Marja Liisa Räisänen, 

Ilkka Suppala, Tarja Huotari, Tuire Valjus and Jukka Lehtimäki .............................. 49 

Geophysical applications 

Geophysicalcharacterising of sulphide rich fine-grained sedimentsinSeinäjoki area, 

western Finland, Ilkka Suppala, Petri Lintinen and Heikki Vanhala ......................... 61 

Analytical methods 

Evaluation of portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) sample preparation methods, 

Jussi V-P. Laihoand Laiho and Paavo Perämäki ........................................................................ 73 

Publications 

Papers published by Geological Survey staff in 2003–2004 ..................................... 83

Geological Survey of Finland, Current Research 2003–2004, 

Edited by Sini Autio. 

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 5– 10 , 2005. 

ThE NAANTAli AlvikiTEvEiN-dykES: ANEwCARbONATiTE iNSOuThw ESTERN 

FiNlANd 

introduction 

Asmall swarm of carbonate vein-dykes has been 

identified in the town of Naantali in southwest 

Finland. The vein-dykes range in width from 1-60 

centimetres, with the majority between 3-20 cm. The 

vein-dykes intrude Svecofennian pyroxene tonalite. 

The vein-dykes are surrounded by a narrow band of 

feniticalterationcharacterisedchemically by removal 

of silicon and addition of potassium. In a wide area 

around the vein-dykes, the host rocks show signs of 

hydrothermal alteration, including widespread randomly 

oriented calcite + epidote + prehnite veinlets as 

well as pervasive staining from iron oxides. Chemical 

and textural evidence suggest that the carbonate veindykes 

are of magmatic origin. 

Geological setting 

The study area is extending for approximately two 

kilometres in length and one kilometre in width in 

the town centre area of Naantali. The majority of the 

vein-dykes follow the same general NW-SE trend 

and dip to the northeast at an average angle of 45º. 

The vein-dykes cut the existing schistosity of the 

surrounding rocks, the difference in strike being 60- 

90º and in dip 45–50º. Figure 1 is a map of the study 

area, showing the zones of alteration. Good quality 

outcrops are found along the steep western slopes of 

the Kuparivuori hill and along shorelines. Elsewhere, 

by 

Jeremy Woodard 1) and Pentti Hölttä 2) 

1) Department of Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland 

2) Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland 

jdwood@utu.fi, pentti.holtta@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): carbonatites, alvikite, dikes, geochemistry, host rocks, alteration, fenite, Naantali, Finland 

outcrops are limited to occasional roadcuts. Extreme 

sensitivity to weathering, soil or water cover, and the 

presence of man-made structures inhibits the search 

for additional vein-dykes. 

Carbonate rocks are light grey to pink in colour, 

and often show a banded or layered texture. The veindykesarecomposedofmediumtofinegrainedcalcite, 

with repetitions of grain size variation parallel to the 

margins. Accordingly, the rock type could be called 

alvikite. Iron oxides are common as an interstitial 

dusting in streaks also parallel to the strike. Similar 

texture from the Wasaki complex of Kenya is taken 

as evidence by Le Bas (1977) of flow parallel to the 

margins and crystallisation from molten magma. 

Figure 2 shows the appearance of the vein-dykes in 

outcrop.Inadditiontotheironoxides,darkred-brown 

apatite is also easily visible in hand specimen. Other 

accessorymineralsoccasionallyvisibleincludequartz, 

allanite, and chlorite. Andersen (1984) describes a 

similar paragenesis from the Rødberg portion of the 

Fen complex. In one outcrop, fragments of the wall 

rock appear within the vein-dyke and appear to have 

been plucked from the sides. Given the low viscosity 

ofcarbonatemelts(e.g.Dobsonetal.1996),thiswould 

require a forceful intrusion and rapid cooling. 

The vein-dykes intrude dark grey Palaeoproterozoic 

(1.88 Ga, Väisänen et al. 2002) Svecofennian 

pyroxene tonalite. A petrography of these rocks is 

given by Helenius (2003). Alteration surrounding 

the vein-dykes can be divided into three zones. Zone 

5


Jeremy Woodard and Pentti Hölttä 

6 

Fig. 1. Map of the study area showing zones of alteration. 

Fig. 2. Field photograph of a vein-dyke and contact fenite. Diameter of 

coin 2,5 cm. 

I is in immediate contact with the vein-dykes and 

rarely exceeds 30 cm in width. It is a potassic contact 

fenite, dark red in colour, with a normative syenite 

composition. 

Zones II and III are aureole fenites showing a gradationinalterationintensity.Ran 

domlyorientedcalcite+ 

epidote+prehniteveinletsareabundantinbothzones. 

Zone II is approximately 200–300 metres in width, 

pink to red in colour, and has a normative granodiorite 

composition. Zone III extends an additional 200–300 

metres from the vein-dykes, and is a pyroxene bearing 

grey granodiorite, with narrow bands (≤1cm) of Zone 

II type alterations around the veinlets. The border 

between Zones II and III is arbitrarily placed at the 

limit of grey rocks. The original foliation of the rocks 

is preserved in Zone III, but is no longer evident in 

Zone II. Grain size is noticeably increased to 3–5 mm 

in the Zone I contact fenites, compared to 0.5–1.5 mm 

in the aureole fenites, Zones II and III. 

Petrography 

Thin section study reveals that the texture of the 

carbonate rock (alvikite) is hypidiomorphic. Calcite 

is subhedral and comprises approximately 90% of the 

rock.Quartzoccursasfine-grainedaggregatesandappears 

limited to areas near the contact. Fine grains of 

apatite, allanite, chlorite, fluorite, and titanite occur as

accessory minerals. In some samples calcite has been 

altered to prehnite at the contact. Opaque minerals 

occur generally in bands, and some mineral grains, 

particularly apatite, are stained with iron oxides. SEM 

examination has revealed monazite and members of 

the bastnäsite series as inclusions in apatite. 

Allanite is non-metamict, strongly pleochroic, and 

commonly forms haloes around aggregates of apatite 

and quartz. Woolley Woolleyetal.(1991)describethistexture 

et al. (1991) (1991)describethistexture 

describe this texture 

from extrusive carbonatites in the Uyaynah area of 

the United Arab Emirates. Allanite is not a common 

mineral in carbonatites, but it has been reported from 

variouslocationsincludingBayanObo,China(Yang& 

LeBas2004),MountainPass,CaliforniaandUyaynah, 

UAE (Woolley et al. 1991). 

Zone I altered rocks one I contain K-feldspar, 

plagioclase, chlorite, and actinolite. Some samples 

have a thin (>5mm) band of actinolite + diopside at 

the contact. Silica in the form of free quartz has been 

almost completely removed from the rock. Feldspars 

are heavily altered and pervasively stained with iron 

oxides.Chessboardalbite,asdescribedbyKrestenand 

Morogan (1986) from the Fen complex also occurs. 

Calcite, apatite, clinopyroxene, epidote and opaque 

minerals occur as accessory phases. 

Zone II rocks are similar, however, plagioclase is 

more abundant than K-feldspar. Zone II rocks also 

contain more quartz and less actinolite than Zone I. 

Alteration is less pronounced in feldspars, but iron 

oxide staining is still present throughout. Epidote, 

clinopyroxene and opaque minerals also occur as 

accessories. Apatite is no longer an important phase, 

and calcite only occurs in the calcite + epidote + 

prehnite veinlets. 

In Zone III, alteration of the same type as in Zone II 

occurs only in bands (≤1cm) around veinlets. Biotite 

can be seen reacting to chlorite in the outer areas of 

these bands. Outside of these bands, the rock contains 

plagioclase, quartz, K-feldspar, biotite, and orthopyroxene. 

It should be noted that although the grey rocks 

of this zone appear unaltered, K-feldspar is present, 

while it is not present in the unaltered rocks examined 

byHelenius(2003).Microscopic-scalequartzveinlets 

also occur in this zone. 

Geochemistry 

Whole-rockgeochemicalanalysiswasconductedat 

the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK). Major and 

trace elements were determined using X-ray Fluorescence 

(XRF) and rare earth elements were determined 

using ICP-MS. Table 1 shows the analytical results as 

average concentrations of selected elements for the 

vein-dykes and each of the alteration zones. Average 


The Naantali alvikite vein-dykes: a new carbonatite in southwestern Finland 

continental alvikite values are from Le Bas (1999). 

Pyroxene tonalite analyses represent unaltered host 

rocks and are taken from Helenius (2003). 

Samples from Naantali plot on the CaO-MgO-FeO 

diagram of Le Maitre et al. (1989) in the calciocarbonatite 

field (Fig. 3). Both sövite and alvikite are 

calciocarbonatites, sövite being coarse grained and 

alvikite medium to fine grained. The Naantali carbonatites 

fall into the latter category. Le Bas (1999) 

proposed a chemical distinction between sövite and 

alvikitebasedontraceelementchemistry.Onaverage, 

alvikites are less enriched in Sr and more enriched in 

REE than sövites. The Naantali alvikite is enriched 

in Sr, REE and Y. Trace element concentrations from 

Naantali are very close to the average for alvikite. 

The carbonatitemagma was enriched in K, Sr, Ba, P, 

REE, and to some extent Na and Y. Rollinson (1993) 

describes elements including K, Sr, Rb, and Ba as 

mobile, while P, REE, V, Y, Ti and Zr are immobile 

during hydrothermal alteration. Mobile element enrichment, 

particularly Sr, is disseminated throughout 

all the alteration zones. Immobile elements from the 

carbonatite magma, such as Y and REE, were only 

able to enter the Zone I fenites. Immobile elements not 

present in the magma, but present in the host rocks, 

including V, Ti, and Zr, remain at constant levels in all 

the alteration zones. This shows that Zone I fenites are 

the product of contact metasomatism while the Zone 

II and III aureole fenitization was caused by a hydrous 

fluid. Whether the fluid source was degassing of the 

carbonatite or a later event is not known. 

Figure 4 shows chondrite normalized REE abundances 

for the Naantali rocks. LREE is heavily enriched 

relative to HREE, a pattern common to partial 

Fig. 3. Naantali alvikites plotted on the CaO-MgO-FeO diagram of Le 

Maitre et al. (1989). 

7



Table 1. Whole rock chemical analyses of selected samples in the study area. XRF detection limits (ppm) for trace elements: S and Cl = 60; V, Cr, 

and Pb = 30; Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, and Ba = 20; Rb, Sr, Zr and Nb = 10. ICP-MS detection limits (ppm): Sc and Th = 0.5; Sm, Nd and U = 0.2; Gd and Er 

= 0.15; Ce, Eu, La, Lu, Pr, Tb, Dy, Ho, Tm and Y=0.1. x = below detection; - = no data. Average continental alvikite from Le Bas (1999). Pyroxene 

tonalite is from Helenius (2003). 

8 

Average 

continental 

alvikite 

JW0407 

alvikite 

JW0427 

alvikite 

JW0432 

alvikite 

JW0406 

Zone I 

JW0436 

Zone I 

JW0401 

Zone II 

JW0422 

Zone II 

JW0402 

Zone III 

Naantali 

pyroxene 

tonalite 

SiO 2 1.5 4.35 7.06 15.1 56.8 60.5 67.7 67.4 66.2 63.36 

TiO 2 0.07

Fig. 4. Chondrite normalized REE abundances for the Naantali rocks. 

Symbols are as follows: filled squares = Alvikite vein-dykes; filled circles 

= Zone I; open circles = Zone II; open squares = Zone III; crosses 

= Pyroxene tonalite. 

melting in mantle sources (e.g. Rollinson 1993). A 

high LREE/HREE ratio is typical to carbonatites (e.g. 

Woolley et al. 1991), while Ekambaram et al. (1986) 

have shown that hydrothermal carbonates will have 

low LREE concentrations and relative enrichment in 

MREE and HREE. 

Three samples were analysed for stable carbon and 

oxygen isotopes. Sample JW0404 is alvikite and was 

analysed at the University of Helsinki; samples PSH- 

04–01.1 (alvikite) and PSH-04–01.2 (Zone II calcite 

+ epidote + prehnite veinlet) were analysed at the 

Geological Survey of Finland. Results are given in 

Table 2. δ 18 O values from alvikite samples fall within 

thenormalrangeforcarbonatites,whilethevaluefrom 

the veinlet is only slightly heavier. Combined with 

the δ 13 C values, the alvikite samples fall just below 

(lighter C) the field for carbonatites given by Deines 

and Gold (1973) whereas values from the veinlets fall 

to the right (heavier O). 

discussion 

Carbonatitesareigneousrockscomprisedofgreater 

than 50% carbonate minerals (e.g. Le Bas 1977). 

Many different criteria have been proposed for the 

identification of carbonatites, unfortunately no single 

piece of evidence is truly diagnostic. Evidence from 

multiple sources including textures, mineral assemblages, 

geochemistry, alteration, and stable isotopes 

must be considered. 

Carbonatites are characterised by high levels of 

Sr, Ba, REE and Y(e.g. Puustinen & Karhu 1999). 

The vein-dykes in Naantali are enriched in Sr, Y, and 

REE, particularly LREE. Ba, though virtually absent 

in the vein-dykes, is highly enriched in altered rocks, 


The Naantali alvikite vein-dykes: a new carbonatite in southwestern Finland 

Table 2. Carbon and Oxygen isotope ratios. Samples are 

described in text. 

JW0404 PSH-04-01.1 PSH-04-01.2 

δ 13 CPDB -11,48 -11,29 -5,99 

δ 18 OSMOW 9,96 11,76 17,11 

particularly in Zone I. Although carbonatite melts are 

typically high in K and Na, this is not universally true. 

For example, Barker and Nixon (1989) report K- and 

Na-poor carbonatite magma at Fort Portal, Uganda. 

The Naantali vein-dykes lack alkalis, but the enrichment 

patternin the fenites suggests that the carbonatite 

magma was rich in K but relatively poor in Na. 

Fenitization is a metasomatic process occurring 

aroundcarbonatiteandalkalineigneousintrusionstypically 

involving the removal of silica and the addition 

of alkali elements (e.g. Le Bas 1977). Fenites show a 

great deal of variation in chemical composition, based 

on variations in the compositions of the fenitizing 

fluid, degree of fenitization, and original composition 

of the rock.Vartiainen andWoolley (1976) distinguish 

between sodic and potassic fenitization, while Kresten 

(1988) makes divisions of contact, aureole, and veintype 

fenites. In Naantali, addition of K and removal of 

Sicorrespondstopotassicfenitization.ZoneIalteration 

in Naantali represents contact fenitization; Zones II 

and III are aureole fenites of decreasing intensity. 

Aδ 13 C–δ 18 O isotope comparison is often used to 

trace the origins of limestones. Isotope values are 

within the range of -2 to –12 δ 13 C PDB and +10 to +26 

δ 18 O SMOW given by Barker and Nixon (1989) for 

the Fort Portal carbonatite in Uganda. Values are also 

close to those given by Puustinen and Karhu (1999) 

for the Halpanen carbonatite in southeastern Finland. 

The δ 13 C values also differ markedly from the range 

of -3 to 3 δ 13 C given by Karhu (1993) for sedimentary 

carbonates in the Svecofennian domain. 

Carbonate vein-dykes in Naantali show magmatic 

textures including flow banding and incorporation of 

wall-rock fragments on an outcrop scale. Chemical 

evidence is consistent with established normal values 

for carbonatite. Isotopic evidence is also consistent 

with other carbonatites. Chemical and isotopic data 

alsodifferfromnormalsedimentaryandhydrothermal 

carbonates. The combined body of evidence shows 

that the carbonate vein-dykes in Naantali formed by 

the intrusion of carbonatite magma. 

9



10 

REFERENCES 

Andersen, T. 1984. Secondary processes in carbonatites: petrology 

of “rødberg” (hematite-calcite-dolomite carbonatite) in 

the Fen central complex, Telemark (South Norway). Lithos 

17, 227–245. 

barker,d.S.&Nixon,P.h.1989. High-Ca,lowalka licarbonatite 

volcanism at Fort Portal, Uganda. Contributions to Mineralogy 

and Petrology 103, 166–177. 

deines, P. & Gold, d.P. 1973. The isotopic composition of 

carbonatite and kimberlite carbonates and their bearing on the 

isotopic composition of deep-seated carbon. Geochimica et 

Cosmochemica Acta 37, 1709–1733. 

dobson, d.P., Jones, A.P., Rabe, R., Sekine, T., kurita, k., 

Taniguchi, T., kondo, T., kato, T., Shimomura, O. & Sa- 

toru urakawa, S. 1996. In-situmeasurementofviscosityand 

In-situ measurement of viscosity and 

density of carbonate melts at high pressure. Earth and Planetary 

Science Letters 143, 207–215. 

Ekambaram,v.,brookins,d.G.,Rosenberg,P.E.,&Emanuel, 

k.M. 1986. Rare-earth element geochemistry of fluorite-carbonatedepositsinwesternMontana,U.S.A.ChemicalGeology 

54, 319–331. 

helenius, E.M. 2003. Turun alueen charnockiittien petrogenesis. 

Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Turku. (In 

Finnish) 72 p. 

karhu, J.A. 1993. Paleoproterozoic evolution of the carbon 

isotope ratios of sedimentary carbonates in the Fennoscandian 

Shield. Geological Survey of Finland, Bulletin 371. 87 87p. p. 

kresten, P. 1988. The chemistry of fenitization: Examples from 

Fen, Norway. Chemical Geology 68, 329–349. 

kresten,P.&Morogan,v.1986.FenitizationattheFencomplex, 

southern Norway. Lithos 19, 27–42. 

le bas, M.J. 1977. Carbonatite-Nephelinite Volcanism . Bristol: 

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 347 p. 

le bas, M.J. 1999. Sövite and alvikite: two chemically distinct 

calciocarbonatites C1 and C2. South African Journal of Geology 

102, 109–121. 

le Maitre, R.w., bateman, P., dudek, A., keller, J., lameyre, 

J., le bas, M.J., Sabine, P.A., Schmid, R., Sorensen, 

h., Streckeisen, A., woolley, A.R. & Zanettin, b. 1989. 

AClassification of the Igneous Rocks and Glossary of Terms: 

Recommendations of the International Union of Geological 

Sciences Subcomission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. 

Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. 193 p. 

Puustinen, k. & karhu, J. 1999. Halpanen calcite carbonatite 

dike, Southeastern Finland. Geological Survey of Finland, 

Special Paper 27, 39-41. 

Rollinson, h. 1993. Using Geochemical Data: evaluation, presentation, 

interpretation. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 

352 p. 

väisänen, M., Mänttäri, i. & hölttä, P. 2002. Svecofennian 

magmatic and metamorphic evolution in southwestern Finland 

as revealed by U-Pb zircon SIMS geochronology. Precambrian 

Research 116, 111–127. 

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woolley, A.R., barr, M.w.C., din, v.k., Jones, G.C., wall, 

F., & williams, C.T. 1991. Extrusive Carbonatites from the 

Uyaynah Area, United Arab Emirates. Journal of Petrology 

32, 1143–1167. 

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carbonate minerals from Bayan Obo, Inner Mongolia, China: 

implications for petrogenesis. Lithos 72 , 97–116.




iNTRuSiON MOdEl FOR SvECOFENNiAN (1.9 GA) MAFiC-ulTRAMAFiC iNTRuSiONS 

iN FiNlANd 

introduction 

by 

Hannu V. Makkonen 

Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 1237, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland 

E-mail: hannu.makkonen@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): intrusions, models, magmatism, shear zones, Paleoproterozoic, Svecofennian, Finland 

The Svecofennian orogeny in Finland produced a 

series of 1.9 Ga mafic-ultramafic intrusions in which, 

according to Nironen (1997) and Peltonen (2005), 

the mafic magma intruded in tensional structures 

above the subduction zone. Most of the nickel bearing 

intrusions occur within the Kotalahti and Vammala 

Nickel Belts around the Central Finland Granitoid 

Complex (Fig. 1). The country rocks surrounding 

the intrusions were in most cases extensively metamorphosed 

and deformed during the early stage of 

the Svecofennian orogeny (Gaál 1980, Kilpeläinen 

1998, Koistinen 1981, Mäkinen & Makkonen 2004). 

Metamorphic conditions reached upper amphibolite 

facies, and overthrusting and faulting resulted in 

fragmentation of both the intrusions and the country 

rocks. Different tectonic conditions produced intrusions 

with pronounced variations in size, shape and 

lithology (cf. Papunen & Gorbunov 1985). Owing to 

the synorogenic timing of the magmatism the related 

intrusions have very complicated tectonomagmatic 

history. This makes the Svecofennian intrusions quite 

differentwhencomparedtoanorogenicnickelsulphide 

bearing intrusions like Sudbury, Voisey’s Bay and 

Norilsk (Mäkinen & Makkonen 2004). 

The Svecofennian nickel bearing mafic and ultramafic 

intrusions are mainly found within migmatitic 

mica gneisses, although in the Kotalahti Nickel Belt 

Fig. 1. Location of the Kotalahti and Vammala Nickel Belts (modified 

after Mäkinen and Makkonen 2004). Bedrock geology simplified after 

Korsman et al. (1997). 

11



some occur within or at the contact of the Archaean 

gneisses. In the surface section they often form oval 

shaped bodies of varying dimensions, the largest ones 

upto10km.Theintrusionbodiesincludegabbro-only, 

peridotite-only and gabbro-peridotite types. According 

to Mäkinen (1987), two types can be separated 

mineralogically: 1) Vammala type w ith abundant 

clinopyroxene and 2) Kotalahti type with abundant 

orthopyroxene, the former occurring mainly in the 

Vammala Nickel Belt and the latter in the Kotalahti 

Nickel Belt. The mineralogical differences are largely 

due to differences in country rock contamination 

(Makkonen 1996). 

In Finnish nickel mining history the Svecofennian 

deposits have played a major role. Altogether nine 

depositshavebeenminedbeginningin1941atMakola 

(Puustinenetal. 1995)andmining stillatHitura, which 

has become the largest nickel mine in Finland (12.4 

Mt at 0.60 % Ni and 0.22 % Cu, Isomäki 2004). The 

total production of the Svecofennian nickel mines is 

at present about 41 Mt at 0.6 % Ni. 

intrusion Model 

The 1.9 Ga tholeiitic magma has been described 

forming both extrusions and intrusions in Finland. 

In the Juva area extrusions are represented by the 

mafic and ultramafic volcanics (Makkonen 1996) and 

in the Tampere-Vammala area by the Takamaa-type 

mafic volcanics (Kilpeläinen 1998). In both areas it 

is proposed that intrusion bodies were formed at different 

levels during magma ascent, as also suggested 

by Peltonen (1995) in the Vammala area. 

Some important facts for an intrusion model are 

available: 1) intrusion took place near the maximum 

intensity of D 2 and peak of the metamorphism (Kilpeläinen 

1998, Koistinen et al. 1996, Mäkinen & 

Makkonen 2004, Marshall et al. 1995, Peltonen 1995, 

2005), 2) most of the intrusions occur within a highly 

deformed/high metamorphic zone but there are intrusions 

also at higher levels within lower metamorphic 

grade rocks, and 3) comagmatic volcanics usually 

occur within lower metamorphic grade areas relative 

to the intrusions, but in some places they are in contact 

with an intrusion. 

D 2 deformationphaseischaracterisedbyrecumbent 

foldsandoverthrustingduetocompressionfromsouth 

to north (Koistinen 1981, Koistinen et al. 1996). This 

isindicatedbytheProterozoicsequencesoverthrusted 

onto the Archaean craton. Overthrusting also caused 

fragmentation of the Archaean/Proterozoic boundary 

andthusblocksofArchaeangneissareenclosedwithin 

Proterozoic supracrustals. D 2 tectonic activity generated 

variable migmatite structures in supracrustals 

12 

including stromatic, schollen, schlieren and nebulitic 

structures. The neosome composition is tonalitic and a 

widerangeofmafic-ultramaficrockfragmentsisfound 

within migmatites (Mäkinen & Makkonen 2004). The 

occurrence of these migmatite zones together with the 

intrusion bodies and fragments has been described 

by many researchers (e.g. Gaál & Rauhamäki 1971, 

Gaál 1972, Gaál 1985, Grundström 1980, Häkli et al. 

1979, Mäkinen 1987, Papunen 1980), but the genetic 

link between the migmatite zones and the intrusions 

has remained in many cases indistinct. Korsman Korsmanetal. et al. 

(1999),however, proposedthatthe low-P/high-Tmeta - 

morphism and the generation of tonalite-trondhjemite 

migmatites in the Svecofennian crust were caused by 

extensive magma under/intraplating during and soon 

after subduction and crustal thickening (1885 Ma). 

Mafic magmatic underplating after tectonic thickening 

of the Svecofennian crust has also been proposed 

by Korja et al. (1993), (1993),Lahtinen(1994)andLahtinen 

Lahtinen (1994) and Lahtinen 

and Huhma (1997). 

Figure 2 shows a model, in which magma is intruding 

during D 2 within the Svecofennian collisionzone. 

The basic idea in the model is the generation of a 

high temperature shear zone (HTSZ) between a large 

midcrustalmantlemagmareservoirandanimbrication 

zone of thrust folds, probably above the subduction 

(after rifting in a collision zone). The shear zone developed 

at the level of 15 – 20 km as indicated by the 

PT–calculationsfromspinel-bear ingsymplectitesand 

reaction rims formed between cumulus olivine and 

intercumulus plagioclase during cooling of the intrusion 

(Tuisku & Makkonen 1999). Similar shear zones 

have been described, e.g., in the southernAlps (Ivrea- 

Verbano zone, Snoke et al. 1999). HTSZ corresponds 

to the Svecofennian nickel belt migmatites described 

earlier (especially to the schollen migmatites). When 

the mafic magma intruded the mobile shear zone, it 

formed bodies of various shape and size. The bodies 

were not deformed strongly and only in rare cases S 2 

schistosity was formed within. Because many intrusion 

bodies are found in F 2 folds, magma possibly 

favoured such an extensional place in the shorter limb 

of a sheared F 2 fold (Mäkinen & Makkonen 2004). 

After crystallisation, the competent intrusion bodies 

also controlled fold formation (1 in Fig. 2a). Some of 

the bodies were overturned after crystallisation due to 

continuous thrusting and many of them fragmented. 

In larger intrusion bodies thrusting is represented by 

faults separating the intrusion body into blocks (3 in 

Fig. 2a). More sill-like bodies were folded. 

Most of the magma intruded into the HTSZ, but 

because of local extension caused by the uplift of 

imbrication blocks, as described similarly e.g. in the 

eastern Alps by Ratschbacher (1989), some intrusion

odies (2 in Fig. 2a) were formed above the HTSZ 

withinthelowermetamorphicgraderocks(e.g.metaturbidites 

showing primary structures). 

The heat of the mafic magma, together with the 

latent heat produced by the crystallisation of the 

magma, enabled migmatite neosome formation. In 

extensional places neosome formation was promoted 

by pressure release and the melt concentrated as tonalitic 

bodies. 

The true thickness of the HTSZ is difficult to esti - 

mate. Probably it varied along the zone being largest 

in places where magmatic activity was strong. In the 

Kotalahti Nickel Belt schollen migmatite zones are up 

to 2 km wide (Gaál 1985), although the total width of 

the migmatite zone is wider. The Ivrea-Verbano zone 

with stromatic migmatites in the southern Alps is 1 

to 1.5 km thick (Snoke et al. 1999). From above, it 

can be assumed that the thickness of the HTSZ was 

less than 5 km. 

The mafic magma probably reached the surface 

slightly before the main intrusion event. This volcanic 

event thus took place during the rifting stage in the 

collisionzone.Thevolcanicrocksarenowrepresented 


Intrusion model for svecofennian (1.9 ga) mafic-ultramafic intrusions in Finland 

Fig. 2. Intrusion of Svecofennian 1.9 Ga 

mafic magma and related structural history. 

A) Intrusion took place during the maximum 

intensity of D 2 when the high temperature 

shear zone (HTSZ, marked by broken line) 

was active. Above the HTSZ continuous 

thrusting formed an imbrication zone in 

whichtheprimarystratigraphywasobscured. 

B) During D 3 sub horizontal rock units were 

folded vertical to sub-vertical. For more 

explanation see text. 

within the Finnish Svecofennian by the 1.9 Ga amphibolites 

and picrites (cf. Gaál & Rauhamäki 1971, 

Häkli et al. 1979, Kousa 1985, Lahtinen 1996 and 

references therein, Makkonen 1996, Peltonen 1990, 

Schreursetal.1986).Becauseofthesubsequentthrust 

folding the volcanic rocks were buried down to the 

same levels where comagmatic intrusion took place. 

This, together with the possibility that the intrusion 

bodies are lifted up during thrusting (3 in Fig. 2a), may 

explain the close spatial association of the volcanic 

and comagmatic intrusive rocks seen in places within 

the Svecofennian. In addition, later, during the D 3 

phase (Fig. 2b) the earlier sub-horizontal rock units 

were folded in many places sub-vertical to vertical, 

which brought rock units to the present erosion level 

from various levels (Gaál 1980, Koistinen et al. 1996, 

Kilpeläinen 1998, Makkonen 2002, Mäkinen & Makkonen 

2004). It is important to note that, according 

to the model the volcanics do not necessarily occur 

just above their plutonic counterparts. Rather, it is 

more probable that there is always a degree of lateral 

movement between them. This makes the correlation 

difficult at a local scale. 

13



14 

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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 15– 23 

, 2005. 

ThE hAlikkO kulTANuMMi PROSPECT – ANEwTyPE OFGOld MiNERAliZATiON iN 

ThE hiGh-GRAdE GNEiSS TERRAiNOFSOuThwESTERN FiNlANd 

by 

Sari Grönholm 1) , Niilo Kärkkäinen 1) and Jonas Wiik 2) 


2) Boliden Mineral AB, S-93681 Boliden, Sverige 

E-mail: sari.gronholm@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): mineral exploration, gold ores, gneisses, sulfides, hydrothermal alteration, Proterozoic, Kulta - 

nummi, Halikko, Finland 

introduction 

In this article we consider the gold prospectivity of 

the highly metamorphosed gneisses and migmatites 

of southwestern Finland, using the Kultanummi occurrence 

at Halikko as a potentially representative 

example of the type of mineralization to expect in this 

terrain. In recent years a number of gold occurrences 

have been found in the region between Paimio and 

Halikko in southwestern Finland, largely due to the 

efforts of amateur prospectors, who have submitted 

both outcrop samples and mineralized glacial boulders 

to the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) for 

further evaluation. The first discovery was the Korvenala-Kaleva 

occurrence near Paimio but further 

incentive was given in 2001 when Veli-Matti Koivula 

recovered gold while panning oxidized regolith 

material at Kultanummi, near Halikko. Three short 

holes were drilled at this site, with the best intercept 

yielding gold grades of 0.5–6 ppm over intervals of 

1–6 m. Follow-up exploration during the next field 

season delineated a gold-critical sulfide-bearing zone 

over a distance of 600 m, and with a maximum width 

of 150 m, to the south of Isorahkaneva mineralized 

zone (Figs. 1 and 2). The anomalous area was then 

sampled for heavy mineral fractions, and systematically 

covered by ground magnetic and IPsurveys, and 

finally drilled; the results of these investigations are 

reported below. 


ThebedrockatKultanummiconsistsofupperamphibolitefaciesmicagneissesandm 

etavolcanics,intruded 

by granitic veins. The Korveanala-Kaleva prospect, 

which was studied earlier by GTK, is situated some 

10 km west of Kultanummi (Fig. 1). Interpretations 

based on both bedrock maps and airborne magnetic 

data indicate that both prospects lie within a discrete 

structural domain bounded by shear zones and granitoids 

(Fig. 3). Regional structural trends tend to be 

nearly E-W, with tight folding. Kultanummi is located 

within a magnetic anomaly zone that is stronger in 

the southern part. The area immediately to the north 

of Kultanummi is reminiscent of the structural block 

defined at Paimio. The Korvenala-Kaleva prospect at 

Paimio was located by heavy mineral studies following 

discovery of a mineralized boulder, and it is also 

well expressed in till geochemistry and has a distinct 

IP response (Rosenberg 2000). Drill cores analyzed 

from the from Korvenala-Kaleva show anomalous 

gold values over a relatively wide area, with a mean 

of 310 ppb for 252 samples. However, in the most 

anomalous intervals, grades are usually 0.1–1 ppm, 

15


Sari Grönholm, Niilo Kärkkäinen and Jonas Wiik 

with only a few exceptional intersections of 5.4 ppm 

over 1 meter and 1 ppm over 5.45 m (Rosenberg 

2000). Arsenopyrite is also present, but there is the 

degree of correlation between Au and As is not high 

(Rosenberg 2000). 

Geological setting at kultanummi 

Mica schists and gneisses intruded by granitic and 

pegmatitic veins predominate at Kultanummi, with 

minor intercalations of amphibolites and plagioclase 

porphyry. However, the most prospective lithology 

appears to be a relatively quartz-rich gneiss, occurring 

as discrete units 10–30 m thick within the more 

typical mica gneisses. They typically contain disseminated 

sulfides and are characterized by aggregates of 

sillimanite and sporadic cordierite, alternating with 

bands of calc-silicate rock. 

Mica schists locally display distinct banding, as a 

result of systematic variations in mica abundance as 

well as concentrations of presumably metamorphic, 

idioblastic magnetite grains (Figs. 4 and 5). Principal 

minerals are quartz, plagioclase, potassium feldspar 

and biotite, with smaller amounts of red garnet, apatite, 

zircon, carbonate and tourmaline. Mica schists 

occasionally grade into coarser-grained gneisses 

and may even display a more granitic appearance 

or show extensive epidote alteration. Occasional 

16 

Fig. 1. Locations of the Korvenala-Kaleva and Kultanummi gold occurrences on the bedrock geological map sheets 2021 (Lehijärvi, 

1955) and 2022 (Huhma, 1957). 

quartzo-feldspathic intercalations also occur, with 

distinctly less biotite, forming discrete aggregates, 

and correspondingly more potassium feldspar than 

in the mica schists. 

Quartz-rich sillimanite gneisses and sillimanitecordieritegneissestendtopalegreenishgrayonweathered 

surfaces and are somewhat rusty, with complex, 

tightly folded quartz veins (Fig. 6). These rocks are 

also readily distinguishable in drill core because of 

theirpalecolourandtexturalheterogeneity.Sillimanite 

is fibrous, indeed fibrolitic (Fig. 7), while cordierite 

occurs as pale blebs 1–5 mm in size; microscopic 

inspection shows that they are extensively pinitized. 

In addition to sillimanite and cordierite, the gneisses 

consist principally of quartz, plagioclase, potassium 

feldspar and biotite. Compositional variation between 

layers is defined by variations in the proportions of 

sillimaniteand cordierite. Accessory minerals include 

muscovite, garnet, tourmaline and a range of sulfides, 

notably chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite; arsenopyrite 

is also present, and galena has been found in fracture 

fillings. 

During drilling, a dark green plagioclase porphyry 

unit about 10 m thick was intersected. The rock is 

foliated, with some silicification and alteration of 

hornblende to biotite and also contains angular fragments 

of mafic composition several cm in diameter. 

Reddish or grey pegmatite dykes, usually less than 5 m


The Halikko Kultanummi prospect – a new type of gold mineralization in the high-grade gneiss terrain of southwestern Finland 

Fig. 2. Detailed map of the Kultanummi prospect (Wiik, 2004), showing drill hole locations. Area of map is approximately 8 km 2 . 

Gold-critical rusty outcrops are indicated with pale brown colour. 

Fig. 3. Korvenala-Kaleva (Paimio) and Kultanummi (Halikko) occurrences shown on airborne magnetic image. Tapio Ruotoistenmäki 

(2004) has indicated inferred tight fold hinges with E-W trending axial surfaces by yellow crosses. Yellow lines indicate trends of 

proposed Au-critical zones, subparallel to fold limbs. 

17



thick, are common and contain, in addition to quartz, 

feldspar and mica, black tourmaline, magnetite and 

occasionally sillimanite. Medium-grained reddish 

granitic dykes are also present, sometimes containing 

garnet and magnetite. 

18 

Fig. 4. Banding in mica schists defined by magnetite. Photo: Sari Grönholm 

Fig. 5. Photomicrograph of magnetite-bearing mica schist. Mgt = magnetite, Bt = biotite, Qz = quartz, Pl = plagioclase. 

Photo: Photo:JariVäätäinen 

Jari Väätäinen 

Gold mineralization 

Pyrite is the most typical sulfide phase at Kultanum - 

mi, impartinga rusty aspect tooutcrops, and occurring 

as disseminations, as solitary grains and aggregates



Fig. 6. Rusty sillimanite-cordiertie gneiss; light-coloured, elongate knobbly aggregates of both sillimanite and 

cordierite stand out in relief on weathered surfaces. Note also intense folding of reddish feldspathic quartz vein. 

Photo: Sari Grönholm 

Fig. 7. Photomicrograph of sillimanite gneiss. Si =sillimanite, = sillimanite, Qz =quartz. = quartz. Photo: Jari Väätäinen 

and along joint planes. Disseminated chalcopyrite 

and pyrrhotite also occur, and isolated arsenopyrite 

grainsorgrainaggregatesarepresent,particularlynear 

quartz vein margins. Galena has also been found in a 

few narrow veins. Tourmaline is also a characteristic 

phase in mineralized rock. Chemical data reveal a 

reasonable correlation between Au and S, but only a 

weak relation between Au and As (Fig. 8). 

Gold at Kultanummi appears to be closely associated 

with the relatively silicic, or silicified sillimanite 

19



gneisses, the highest abundances of 6490 ppb and 

2100 ppb having been recorded from sillimanite mica 

gneiss and sillimanite-cordierite gneiss respectively. 

However, this correlation is not so obvious from the 

geochemical data, in that results appear to indicate 

that other lithologies can be anomalous with respect 

to Au. It is likely however, that the gold in the more 

typical mica gneisses is associated principally with 

quartzofeldspathic veins. Altered lithologies (Groups 

2 and 3 in Fig. 9) also contain relatively high S, compared 

of the generally low background values in other 

rock types at Kultanummi. 

20 

Fig. 8. Correlation diagrams for Au and S and Au and As; data from the first three holes drilled at Kultanummi (R379-R381) 

are not included. 

Fig. 9. Variation in Au (left) and S (right) for different rock types at Kultanummi: 1 = mica schist and gneiss, 2 = sillimanitequartz 

rock, 3 = sillimanite-cordierite gneiss, 4 = pegmatite, 5 = plagioclase porphyry, 6 = amphibolite, 7 = quartzofeldspathic 

schist. Lithologies determined from drill core logging. 

Alteration 

Hydrothermalalterationinthegold-anomalouszone 

at Kultanummi is typically evident from increased 

sulfide abundances (pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite 

and more rarely arsenopyrite), presence of sillimanite-cordierite 

rocks, silicification and locally from 

abundantmagnetiteinadjacentmicaschists.Silicified 

rock almost invariably contains black, fine-grained 

tourmaline, accompanied by sillimanite, cordierite, 

sulfidesandgold.Carbonatemineralsareoccasionally 

present in Au-enriched rocks. Intensely foliated lay-



Fig. 10. Selected major element abundances for various rock types at Kultanummi: 1= mica schist and gneiss, 2= sillimanite-quartz 

rock and sillimanite-cordierite gneiss, 3= plagioclase porphyry, 4= amphibolite 5= quartzofedspathic schist 6= 

pegmatite. Rock types defined from drill core logging. 

ers also display late metamorphic retrograde mineral 

assemblages, notably biotite replacement of other 

minerals,inparticularhornblende,biotitereplacement 

bychloriteandsericitizationofplagioclase.Withinthe 

zone of hydrothermal alteration, even the plagioclase 

porphyry contains more elevated gold concentrations 

(106 ppb over 1 m) compared to values of below 5 ppb 

when it is associated with unaltered amphibolites. 

Major element abundances in altered rocks broadly 

mirror those of mica schists and mica gneisses; magnesium, 

aluminium, potassium and iron contents in 

particular suggest that the sillimanite and cordierite 

gneisses were originally typical pelitic gneisses in 

composition (Fig. 10). 

Magnetite is a characteristic accessory mineral 

throughout the study area. Nevertheless, the Au-mineralized 

sillimanite-cordierite gneisses are generally 

only weakly magnetic. Susceptibilities are higher in 

associated mica schist intercalations. Magnetite also 

occurs as large discrete crystals at the margins of the 

sillimanite-cordierite gneiss layers, and within crosscutting 

granitic and pegmatitic dykes, particularly 

withinthehydrothermallyalteredzone.Magnetitecan 

also be found in the mica schists as isolated idioblastic 

grains, or forming narrow bands. 

Susceptibilitymeasurementsindicatesomesystematicrelationshipsbetweenmagnetite,sulfidesandgold, 

and these correlation may be related to mineralization 

process. For example, in drill core from R391 and 

R394, Au and S abundances correlate well (Fig. 11). 

21



22 

Fig. 11. Variations in gold concentration (red), susceptibility (black) ja sulfur (blue) for selected drill core intervals from Kultanummi. 

Note the strong positive correlation between Au and S and high susceptibility values, due to the presence of magnetite, at the margins of 

the mineralized zone.



Whilst in general Au and S abundances fall markedly 

as magnetite content – and hence susceptibility – increase, 

in some cases (R388), a positive association 

between S abundance and susceptibility is observed, 

related to the presence of pyrrhotite. 

discussion 

GTK has been studying the Paimio Korvenala- 

Kaleva and Halikko Kultanummi gold occurrences 

sporadically since 1995. The geological environment 

of these prospects differs from that of the Tampere 

and Häme schist belts, which are at lower metamorphic 

grade and have been the main focus of GTK 

activity for many years (Kärkkäinen et al. 2003). The 

Korvenala-Kaleva and Halikko prospects both occur 

within similar rock types, within a distinct structural 

zone bounded by shear zones and relatively late orogenic 

granitoids. The mineralization at the Halikko 

Kultanummi occurrence is characterized by rusty, 

strongly foliated sillimanite-cordierite gneisses and 

mica schists. 

This Au-critical association of s illimanite- and 

cordierite-bearing gneisses is considered to represent 

hydrothermal alteration accompanying the gold 

mineralization, and the sillimanite and cordierite is 

attributed to a younger prograde metamorphic event 

superimposed on pre-existing sericitic and chlorite 

schists. On the basis of currently available data it is 

however, difficult to determine whether or not the 

sericitic/chloritic alteration would have been formed 

within a shear zone developed during early stages of 

the regional metamorphic event, rather than predating 

the metamorphism. Geochemical data suggest that the 

protoliths to the altered rocks were mica schists and 

the unaltered mica gneisses adjacent to the mineralized 

zone also appear to represent the more strongly 

recrystallized derivatives of mica schists. 

The Kultanummi gold mineralization is characterized 

by strong geochemical correlation between gold 

andsulfur,therelativelylowAsandaprominentenrichment 

of magnetite in wall rocks. Sulfidation reactions 

are suggested as a mechanism for gold precipitation, 

because the highly sulfidized zone and elevated Au 

abundances occur within a restricted part of the hydrothermalalterationzone,whilethecordierite-sillimanite 

rocks in the western part of the Kultanummi zone are 

less mineralized when compared to the main zone. 

The altered rocks and accompanying quartz veins are 

also tightly folded, indicated that gold mineralization 

predates at least some of the deformation. 

According to Rosenberg (2000), the predominant 

rock type at the Korvenala-Kaleva prospect is 

plagioclase porphyry, which has somewhat higher 

As abundances than at Halikko. At both prospects 

however, free gold must be present, as deduced from 

gold grains in heavy mineral separates recoveredfrom 

till and weathered bedrock. Athird Au occurrence in 

relatively high grade terrain is at Stenmo, near Kemiö, 

where gold is present in sillimanite gneisses within a 

metavolcanic sequence (Nordbäck 2003). 

Summary 

Recent studies in the relatively high grade metamorphic 

terrain of southwestern Finland have delineated 

several gold occurrences, including the Halikko 

Kultanummi prospect. Mineralization at Halikko is 

associatedwiths ilicicalterationinsillimanite-co rdier - 

ite gneisses and a strong association between silicification, 

sulfidation and gold has been recognized. In 

addition,rockssurroundingthemineralizedzoneshow 

a prominent enrichment in magnetite. The alteration 

zone and associated quartz veins carrying anomalous 

gold values (>10 ppb) are also strongly folded. The 

distribution of gold is relatively well constrained by 

drilling within the alteration zone and correlates well 

with sulfide abundance. 

Both the Halikko Kultanummi prospect and the 

Paimio Korvenala-Kaleva occurrence previously discovered 

by GTK attest to the mineralization potential 

of this previously neglected metamorphic terrain in 

southwestern Finland. 

REFERENCES 

huhma, A. 1957. Marttila. Geological Map of Finland 1 1: : 

100 000, Pre-Quaternary Rocks, Sheet 2022. Geological Survey 

of Finland. 

kärkkäinen, N. , lehto, T., Tiainen, M., Jokinen T., Nironen 

M., Peltonen, P. & valli, T. 2003. Etelä- ja Länsi-Suomen 

kaarikompleksi, kullan ja nikkelin etsintä vuosina 1998 

– 2002. Geological Survey of Finland, unpublished report 

M19/21,12/2003/1/10. 118 p. + 4 app. 

lehijärvi, M. 1955. Salo. GeologicalMapofFinland1:100 Geological Map of Finland 1 : 100 000, 

Pre-Quaternary Rocks, Sheet 2021. Geological Survey of 

Finland. 

Nordbäck, N. 2003. Malmgeologiska studier över en guldmineralisering 

i Stenmo, Kimito, SV-Finland. Unpublished master´s 

thesis, Åbo Akademi. 62 p. 

Rosenberg, P. 2000. Paimion Korvenalan alueella vuosina 1996 

– 1998 suoritetut kultatutkimukset. Geological GeologicalSurveyofFin- 

Survey of Fin- 

land, unpublished report M19/2021/2000/1/10. 9 p. + 18 app. 

Ruotoistenmäki, T. 2004. Kultanummi ja Korvenala-Kalevaalueen 

geofysiikan kartoista, rakennetulkintaa ja niiden asso- 

sioitumisesta kultakriittisiin kohteisiin. Geological Survey of 

Finland, unpublished report. 4 p. 

wiik, J. 2004. Beskrivning av en guldmineralisering i Kultanummi,HalikkoSV-Finland.Unpublishedmaster´sthesis,Åbo 

Akademi. 50 p. + 21 app. 

23



24




ORE PROSPECTiNG iNThE RibbEd MORAiNEAREAOF MiSi, NORThERN FiNlANd 

introduction 

1) Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland 

2) Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 1237, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland 

E-mail: pertti.sarala@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): mineral exploration, moraines, ribbed moraines, till, boulders, glacial transport, Misi, Kemijärvi, 

Finland 

Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) has carried 

out intensive ore prospecting in the area of Misi since 

the 1990s. The studies have been a part of the detailed 

investigationoftheironoxide-copper-golddepositsin 

northern Finland. At the same time, bedrock mapping 

has been undertaken in the area and the map sheet 

of Vikajärvi (map sheet 3614) at a scale 1:100 000 

was published at the end of 2002 (Hanski 2002). The 

area is known for its iron formations, of which the 

occurrences of Kärväsvaara, Raajärviand Leveäselkä 

were mined during 1959-1975. The total volume of 

the quarried ore is over 8 million tons, of which 3.5 

million tons is Fe concentrate. Observations made 

by local people and geologists during mapping have 

shown the Misi area to be once again potential for 

ore prospecting. 

The village of Misi is situated about 50 km NE of 

the city of Rovaniemi, in the direction of Kemijärvi 

(Fig. 1). The area lies in the middle of the ribbed 

moraine area of Peräpohjola, northern Finland. Ore 

boulder observations made of the different landform 

types have focused on the areas of Köyry, Tuorevaara 

and Venejärvi (Fig. 2). The boulders are mainly composed 

of hydrothermally altered amphibolites with 

anomalous contents of Zn (ca. 5% in Köyry and ca. 

3% in other areas), Cu and Au. In the present study, 

by 

Pertti Sarala 1) and Jari Nenonen 2) 

carried out in 2004, the transport distances and the 

most potential source areas of the boulders have been 

estimated. The methods we have used have been field 

studies and tractor excavations together with interpretation 

of glacial morphology. Glacial flow directions, 

tillstructuresandstratigraphy,pebblelithology,heavy 

mineral composition and geochemical features have 

been studied in the 23 test pits, of which the mean 

depth was about 3.5 m. Till samples have been left 

at the GTK’s laboratory in Rovaniemi for chemical 

analysis (ICP-AES method). 


Bedrockofthestudyareaiscomposedoftherocksof 

the Peräpohja Schist Belt (2.0-2.3 Ga) and the Central 

Lapland Granites (1.8 Ga) (Fig. 2). The southern part 

of the area consists of mica gneiss while the central 

area consists of the large NW-SE-oriented zone of 

arkosic gneiss. Anarrow zone of mafic tuffites and 

mica schists cuts the whole area in the same direction 

as the arkosic gneiss. By contrast, the assemblage 

of mafic metalavas and basalt magmas (gabbros) is 

dominant on the eastern side of the village of Misi. 

The schist belt is bordered by granites in the north. 

The massive Fe-ore occurrences are closely related to 

thedolomite-skarnrock-serpentiniteassemblageinthe 

east. The schists with hydrothermal alteration in the 

25


Pertti Sarala and Jari Nenonen 

26 

Fig. 1. Alocation of the study area in the village of Misi, NE of the city of Rovaniemi. 

The area is located in the middle of the ribbed moraine area in Peräpohjola, southern 

Lapland. 

Fig. 2. Generalized bedrock map of the study area and the location of the most potential ore boulders 

in the case study areas.

volcanic environment seem to be the most critical for 

a new type of ore occurrences in the central area. 

Theproportionofbedrockoutcropsisestimatedtobe 

only 1 % of the land area. The outcrops occur mainly 

as groups near the high hill areas. The surface of the 

bedrockismostly coveredbythegl aciogenicdeposit s, 

which include different types of active-ice formations 

and one esker-system (Fig. 3). In topographic expression 

and lowland areas, ribbed moraines are the most 

commonformationtype.Theribbedmoraineisagroup 

of moraine formations that have the same kind of morphologyandsimilarsubglacialorigin(cf.Hätterstrand 

1997). They are formed of ridges perpendicular to the 

most recent glacial flow direction, which is, according 

to striae and fabric analyses from the direction about 

270°-290° in the Misi area. The transition to the longitudinal 

formations is seen as a streamline element 

related to the unique ribbed moraine ridges and as a 

transitional series from ribbed moraines to drumlins 

and flutings (cf. Aario 1990). For that reason, these 

moraine ridges can also be called Rogen moraines, 

according to Lundqvist (1969). 

The ridges are composed of two till units representing 

different glacial phases (Fig. 4). The lower unit is 

compact and homogenous in its structure and sandy in 


Ore prospecting in the ribbed moraine area of Misi, northern Finland 

itsmatrix.Itfo rmedsubglacially duringtheadvanc ing 

stageoftheglacierunderlodgementprocesses.Glacial 

flow direction was from NW to SE. By contrast, the 

upper till unit consists partly of re-deposited material 

due to the quarrying activity during the formation 

of the ridges and also melt-out till deposited at the 

latest stage of deglaciation, while the edge of the 

glacier melted away after the movement stopped. The 

structures are sandy lenses and layers together with 

fine-grain laminae in the former case and homogeneity 

and occasional flow or consolidation structures in 

the latter case. The uppermost part of the ridges was 

washed during the later stages of the Ancylus Lake, 

after which the water level decreased due to isostatic 

uplift of the ground. 

The ribbed moraine ridges in the Misi area are characteristically 

strewn with boulders. The abundance of 

bouldersatthesurfaceismainlyduetothedepositional 

processesoccurringduringtheformationofridges,but 

partlyinconsequenceofthepost-glacialwashing.The 

rock types of the boulders correlate well with the rock 

types found in the underlying bedrock, and this is a 

typical feature for the ribbed moraines in other parts of 

thePeräpohjolaarea,too(cf.Aa rio&Peuraniemi1992, 

Sarala & Rossi 1998, 2000). The transport distances 

Fig. 3. A relief map based on the elevation model and glacial morphology of the study area. 

27


Pertti Sarala and Jari Nenonen 

are estimated to be only from some tens of metres to 

a few hundreds of metres for local rock material but 

several kilometres for granites. The same feature is 

also reflected in the geochemistry of the upper till 

(cf. Sarala & Rossi 1998). Field observations have 

proven this phenomenon is of use in prospecting. In 

the case of drumlins and flutings, transport distances 

are many times greater and the direct control between 

till material or surficial boulders and bedrock is hard 

to determine. 

Conclusion 

The ore potentiality of the Misi area, northern Finland 

seems to be high, because of the great number of 

ore boulders found at the surface of different moraine 

formations in the area. The transitional series of active-ice 

moraine formations from transversal ribbed 

moraines to longitudinal drumlins and flutings have 

been observed. Ribbed moraine ridges are composed 

of Rogen moraine and hummocky ribbed moraine 

types in the area. Formation of the ridges seems to be 

a result of a two-step process (Fig. 5), where frozen 

subglacial sediments were fragmented and moved 

under compressive glacial flow in the first stage. 

Secondly, the dominant freezing conditions caused 

the freeze-thaw process to prevail under the moving 

ice leading to the quarrying activity that reached the 

bedrocksurfacebetweenthenewlybornridges.These 

28 

Fig. 4. Generalized stratigraphy of ribbed moraines and drumlins in the Misi area. 

kinds of conditions seem to have existed under the ice 

sheetinthetransitionzonebetw eenfrozenandthawed 

beds during deglaciation (cf. Hättesstrand 1997). 

Ribbed moraines are ideal for prospecting work, 

because of the short transport distance of rock material 

in the uppermost till. Particularly, boulders within 

the till and at the surface reflect the variation of local 

bedrock composition. This phenomenon is common 

for all ribbed moraine types if the pre-existing 

sediments have been thin enough for the quarrying 

to have reached the bedrock surface. Due to formation 

processes, prospecting work differs quite a lot 

in the areas of ribbed moraines compared to areas of 

drumlins and flutings. For example, the boulders in 

the uppermost parts of ridges must be taken account 

when choosing the equipment for geochemical sampling. 

The observations and the results presented here 

will be clarified in the near future when the chemical 

analyses of till samples and some planned deep drillings 

have been done. 

Acknowledgements 

We thank Jorma Isomaa for discussions and Antti 

Pakonen and Jorma Valkama for assistance during the 

field works. Dr Keijo Nenonen of GTK gave valuable 

comments and Mr Christopher Cunliffe checked the 

English of the manuscript.

REFERENCES 

Aario, R. (ed.) 1990. Glacial heritage of northern Finland; an 

excursion guide. Nordia tiedonantoja, Sarja A: 1.96p. 1. 96 p. 

Aario, R. & Peuraniemi, v. 1992. Glacial dispersal of till con- constituents 

in morainic landforms of different types. In: In:Aario,R. Aario, R. 

& Heikkinen, O. (eds.) Proceedings of the third international 

drumlin symposium. Geomorphology 6 (1), 9-25. 

hanski, E. 2002. Vikajärvi. Geological Map of Finland 1:100 

000, Pre-Quaternary Rocks, Sheet 3614. Geological Survey 

of Finland. 

hättestrand, C. 1997 . Ribbed moraines in Sweden – distribution 

pattern and paleoglaciological implications. In: Piotrowski, J. 

A. (ed.) Subglacial environments. Sedimentary geology 111, 

41-56. 


Ore prospecting in the ribbed moraine area of Misi, northern Finland 

Fig. 5. Difference between the transportation of till material and till geochemistry in ribbed moraine 

ridges and drumlins. Aformation of ribbed moraines is two-step process, where fragmented subglacial 

sediments are moved under compressive glacial flow in the first stage and the following freeze-thaw 

conditions lead up to the quarrying of bedrock surface between the ridges during the second stage. 

lundqvist, J. 1969. Problems of the so-called Rogen moraine. 

Sveriges riges Geologiska Undersökning C648, C 648, 1-32. 

Sarala, P. & Rossi, S. 1998. Kupari- ja kultapitoisen hiertovyöhykkeen 

paikantaminen moreenigeokemiallisin tutkimuksin 

Peräpohjan liuskealueelta Pohjois-Suomessa. Summary: 

Discovery of a copper- and gold-bearing shear zone as a result 

of research into the geochemistry of Peräpohja Schist Belt, 

northern Finland. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of 

Investigations 119. 44 p. 

Sarala, P. & Rossi, S. 2000. The Theapplication application of oftill till geochemistry 

inexplorationintheRogenmoraineareaatPetäjävaara,northern 

Finland. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 68, 87-104. 

29


Matti Tyni, Kauko Puustinen, Juha Karhu and Matti Vaasjoki 

30




EXPlORATiON RESulTS ANd MiNERAlOGiCAlSTudiESON ThE luMikANGASAPA- 

TiTE-ilMENiTE GAbbRO, kAuhAJOki, wESTERN FiNlANd 

introduction 

by 

Olli Sarapää , Niilo Kärkkäinen, Tegist Chernet, Jaana Lohva and Timo Ahtola 

Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland 

E-mail: olli.sarapaa@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): mineral exploration, titanium ores, ilmenite, magnetite, apatite, gabbros, geochemistry, Proterozoic, 

Lumikangas, Finland 

Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) has explored 

the Lumikangas gabbro since 2002 as a potential 

source for titanium and phosphorous. Lumikangas 

is situated 15km south of the town of Kauhajoki in 

South Pohjanmaa (Fig. 1). The landscape is a flat divide 

area, 170m above sea level, consisting of eskers 

bordered by marshes. According to previous seismic 

measurements,theoverburdenis30-70mthick.Recent 

drillings intersected a 35-50 m soil cover composed 

of sand-silt-gravel layers with a till interbed. 

The Lumikangas area was selected as a target for 

exploration on the basis of an outstanding regional 

geophysical anomaly (Fig. 2). There are magnetic and 

gravity highs on the low-altitude aeromagnetic and on 

the regionalgravitymaps, respectively. Theeconomic 

interest of Lumikangas is in titanium and phosphorous 

because this geophysical anomaly belongs to 

the Kauhajoki gabbro province, which is generally 

characterised by high content of ilmenite, magnetite 

and apatite (Kärkkäinen et al. 1997). 

The first exploration stage, carried out in 2002, was 

relatedtoGTK’s bedrockmappingandoreexploration 

at Pohjanmaa. The first drill hole (R396) was focused 

on the magnetic and gravity maxima, where the overburdenisthelowest,accordingtoseismicprofileacross 

the Lumikangas regional anomaly (Lehtimäki 1984). 

This drill hole penetrated a layered gabbro containing 

15-20 wt% of magnetite, apatite and ilmenite in total. 

The Lumikangas gabbro was found to be a potential 

exploration target on the basis of chemical analyses 

and mineralogical studies. 

In the second stage, carried out in 2004, systematic 

groundmagneticandgravitymeasu rementsweremade 

for the area of 5 km 2 . After geophysical interpretation 

five drill holes in two profiles were drilled, totalling 

1308 m (R396-401), and geophysically logged. Mate - 

rial for this study includes 446 XRF-analyses, mass 

susceptibility measurements (magnetite wt %) along 

the drill core samples, microprobe analyses from 

polished thin sections and ICP-MS analysis from 

apatite concentrate. This paper presents the results of 

preliminary exploration and mineralogical studies on 

the Lumikangas apatite-ilmenite gabbro. 

Regional geology 

The Kauhajoki gabbro province is situated in the 

western part of Central Finland Granitoid Complex 

(1870-1890 Ma), between the synorogenic granitoids 

andthelateorogenicLauhanvuorigranite(Fig.1).The 

mafic-ultramafic intrusions at Honkajoki (Pääkkönen 

1962, Pakarinen 1984, Rämö 1986), Kauhajärvi 

(Kärkkäinen&Appelqvist1999),Hyyppä(Huuskonen 

& Kärkkäinen 1994) and Lumikangas are layered, 

mainly gabbroic in composition, and are variably 

differentiated from peridotite to anorthosite. They all 

31



Fig. 1. Location of Lumikangas at Kauhajoki on a road map and a generalised geological map. 

Fig. 2. Aeromagnetic and residual gravity high (curves) indicating potential ilmenite targets. 

32

Fig. 3. Ground magnetic map of the southern part of the Lumikangas intrusion. 

contain considerable amounts of ilmenite, apatite and 

magnetite, averaging 18–22 wt% together. 

Exploration geophysics 

All known ilmenite gabbros of the Kauhajoki 

province are visible as magnetic and gravity highs 

on the predicted map compiled from aeromagnetic 

and residual gravity data (4-6 points /km 2 , Fig. 2.) 

The Lumikangas gabbro is situated in an areal gravity 

gradient, where the regional level increases 3 mGal 

over a distance of 1.5 km. The maximum gravity 

anomaly caused by the Lumikangas intrusion is 3.5 

mGal as measured from the estimated base level of 

the regional gravity field. 

The area of 5 km 2 was studied by using magnetic, 

gravity and horizontal loop EM measurements over 

the Lumikangas gabbro. According to the seismic 


Exploraton results and mineralogical studies on the lumikangas apatite-ilmenite gabbro ... 

profile, the overburden is 30-70m thick over the intru - 

sion. The magnetic anomaly, at its highest 4 000 nT, 

is caused by magnetite and remanent magnetism (Fig. 

3). Magnetic and gravity interpretations indicate that 

the deposit extends to a depth of 300–500 m. 

lumikangas apatite-ilmenite gabbro 

General description, stratigraphy and resources 

This study focuses on the southern part of the Lumikangas 

positive magnetic anomaly, where, according 

to the ground geophysics, the gabbro body is 1.5 km 

long and a half kilometre wide, while the total length 

of the magnetic anomaly is five kilometres (Figs. 2 

and 3). Drilling results show that the apatite-ilmenite 

gabbro dips to the east at an angle of 30 degrees (Fig. 

4). Based on the drilling, the thickness of this oxide 

33



Fig. 4. A drilling section of the Lumikangas gabbro. 

gabbro, with a total amount of ilmenite and magnetite 

over10 %, is at least 200 m and, according to the 

geophysics, reaches 500 m. The gabbro is dissected 

into two blocks by reverse faulting, so that the western 

block (hanging wall) (R396 and R401) has been 

upliftedandtheeasternblock(f ootwall)(R400,R399) 

has descended (Fig. 4). As a result of this movement, 

the oxide content decreases downwards in the western 

block and increases in the eastern block. 

The structure of the intrusion is clearly layered and 

the compositional variation ranges from Fe-Ti-rich 

dark gabbros to apatite-rich leucogabbros. The intrusion 

can be divided into two main sections. The basal 

part is composed of dark medium-grained gabbro or 

gabbronorite, hornblende gabbro and olivine gabbro, 

and the upper part is medium to coarse-grained leucogabbro 

or monzogabbro within a few metres thick 

layers of gabbro-pegmatoid and metadiabase dikes. 

The inferred and possible resources based on geophysics 

and two drilling sections include 230 million 

tons of oxide gabbro, which are 1200 m long, 300 

m wide and 200 m thick. Almost the whole drilling 

section is composed of oxide gabbro, which contains 

34 

an average of 19 % ore minerals: 8.7 % (max. 21 %) 

ilmenite, 4.8 % (max. 17 %) magnetite and 5.4 % 

(max. 17 %) apatite (Table 1). 

Petrography 

The alternate layering of the various rock types 

in drill hole R400 is as follows: subhedral mediumgrained 

monzogabbro, olivine monzogabbro, gabbronorite, 

hornblende gabbro, olivine gabbronorite 

and gabbro. The primary texture of the rock generally 

is subophitic, which is still preserved. The rock-forming 

minerals are pyroxenes, uralite and hornblende, 

cummingtonite, albite and K-feldspar, plagioclase, 

biotite, Fe-Ti oxides, apatite, olivine, chlorite, quartz 

and rarely sphene. Silicate minerals constitute 75–95 

vol% of the rock. 

Igneous clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and olivine 

are partially metamorphosed and replaced mainly by 

uralites and biotite (Fig. 5a). Prismatic to granular 

plagioclase and alkali feldspar are the major rockforming 

minerals (Fig. 5b, 6f) up to 2 mm in length 

and commonly affected by sericitization. Plagioclase

composition is mainly labradorite (Table 2) and occasionally 

ranges from oligoclase to labradorite. In 

places, plagioclase is partially transformed into albite 

(analysis no.7, Table 2). Alkali feldspar is represented 

bythetypicaltextureofmicrope rthiteexsolutioninter - 

growth of sodium-rich and potassium rich feldspar, 

andantiperthiteintergrowthofpotassium-richfeldspar 



Table 1. Chemical compositions of Lumikangas gabbro ; 1. Average oxide-gabbro (ilmenite+magnetite 

>10 %), 2. Oxide-monzogabbro (R400, 50–120 m), 3. Oxide-gabbronorite (R400, 132–178), 4. Oxide-monzogabbro 

(R400, 63.3-65.3), 5. Ilmenite-apatitegabbro (R400, 138–140), 6. Ilmenite-magnetitegabbro (R400, 

148–150), 7. Gabbro (R400 190–192). 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

SiO 2 40.34 42.45 38.64 40.40 36.90 38.70 45.60 

TiO 2 4.36 4.25 4.61 4.70 5.18 5.56 2.63 

Al 2 O 3 12.39 12.27 12.6 11.60 10.20 11.40 16.20 

Fe 2 O 3 21.96 19.77 22.92 21.46 21.75 26.73 15.16 

MnO 0.28 0.29 0.27 0.31 0.28 0.29 0.20 

MgO 5.40 4.60 5.82 4.85 6.37 5.08 4.29 

CaO 9.32 9.39 9.6 9.94 11.75 7.415 9.57 

Na 2 O 2.38 2.52 2.28 2.34 2.00 2.31 3.16 

K 2 O 0.76 1.27 0.54 0.98 0.71 0.50 0.75 

P 2 O 5 2.12 2.53 2.11 2.87 4.26 1.42 1.06 

S 0.232 0.219 0.29 0.233 0.423 0.277 0.229 

V 0.041 0.028 0.052 0.029 0.038 0.069 0.034 

Cr 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.011 0.006 

Ni 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.003 

Cu 0.006 0.006 0.009 0.0068 0.011 0.007 0.008 

magnetite% 4.86 3.36 5.35 3.83 3.39 8.65 1.59 

Valid N 313 34 23 1 1 1 1 

in sodium-rich (albite) matrix. Equal proportions of 

albite and K-feldspar intergrowth (mesoperthite) and 

microcline feldspar with crossed hatched twinning 

structure are also observed. Biotite (both primary and 

secondary) is another common silicate mineral that 

together with uralite often rim ilmenite and magnetite 

(Fig. 5a). 

Table 2. Selected electron microprobe (Cameca Camebax SX100) analyses of ilmenite, magnetite, apatite and some silicate minerals 

(operating conditions: 15-20KeV, 10-15nA, 1-10μm beam diameter; analysed by Bo Johanson and Lassi Pakkanen) 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

SiO 2 0.01 0.02 0.17 0.09 0.14 0.14 67.65 64.48 59.64 62.67 54.92 50.92 53.43 

TiO 2 50.05 50.77 0.06 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.65 0.06 

Al 2 O 3 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.59 0.01 0.01 19.93 18.41 19.45 22.48 27.92 1.94 0.72 

Cr 2 O 3 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.15 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 

V 2 O 3 0.03 0.01 1.25 1.09 

FeO 47.10 46.64 90.93 90.79 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.09 0.16 14.42 24.06 

MnO 1.02 1.06 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.34 0.89 

MgO 0.04 0.24 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 11.77 17.38 

CaO 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 54.66 54.03 0.74 0.02 0.03 3.81 10.06 18.30 0.57 

Na 2 O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.28 0.75 1.03 8.63 5.28 0.22 0.05 

K 2 O 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.21 15.24 12.77 0.12 0.08 0.01 0.06 

P 2 O 5 40.46 41.88 

BaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.32 5.74 0.04 0.15 0.05 0.03 

SrO 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.09 0.30 0.18 0.05 0.05 

NiO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 

ZnO 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 

F 3.60 2.61 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 

SO 2 0.01 0.01 

Total 98.31 98.80 93.11 94.12 99.14 99.00 99.06 99.39 98.85 98.21 98.87 98.71 97.37 

Note: Ilmenite (1,2), magnetite (3,4), apatite (5,6), albite (7), k-feldspar (8), Ba-feldspar (9), plagioclase (10,11), augite (12), cummingtonite (13) 

35



Geochemistry 

The mafic rocks of the Lumikangas intrusion are 

characterisedbyuniformlyhighP 2 O 5 andTiO 2 contents, 

rather high K 2 O, variable but usually high Fe 2 O 3 and 

rather low Cr content (Table 1). There is very small 

36 

Fig 5a. Pyroxene, uralite and mica; Ilmenite rimmed by biotite and 

uralite (R398/57,5m) 

Fig 5 c. Free ilmenite grain; large pyrrhotite grain associated with 

ilmenite and magnetite (R400/149,2m). 

Fig 5e. Ilmenite lamellae in magnetite, up to 40microns thick and 300 

microns long; note spinel granules along the border of the lamellae 

(R400/149,2m) 

Fig 5b. Alkali-feldspar and plagioclase as major rock forming minerals 

(R400/81m). 

Fig 5d. Ilmenite commonly occurs as a separate anhedral to subherdal 

grains (R400/192m) 

Fig 5f. Magnified exsolved structure of fine ilmenite and spinel in 

magnetite (R398/57,5m) 

variation in the Fe/Mg ratio as shown in the AFM 

diagram (Fig. 7), and the distribution falls within the 

tholeitic field. Because of high Fe-Ti oxide and apatite 

contents the Lumikangas gabbroic rocks are not classified 

in the subalkaline field. In fact, many samples 

from Lumikangas show increased alumina saturation

Fig 6a. Myrmekitic intergrowth of ilmenite and magnetite with py - 

roxene, uralite and biotite (R400/149,2m) 

Fig 6c. Coarse grained apatite associated uralites and pyroxene; note 

apatite is euhedral, up to 3mm long (R400/63,9m). 

Fig 6e.Apatite up to 5mm in length, and clusters of subrounded grains 

of apatite (R400/138,7m) ^PLev. 7,7 cm 

and the whole rock was metaluminous (Al 2 O 3 > Na 2 O 

+ K 2 O < CaO + Na 2 O + K 2 O) (Table 1). This is partly 

related to the high K 2 O (> 1 %) content of the gabbro. 

Based on chemical analyses the normative orthoclase 

content is 5 – 10 %, and may be up to 25% in gabbropegmatoids. 

In the Streckeisen-type triangular 



Fig 6b. Apatite inclusions in the ore minerals. 

Fig 6d. Coarse grained apatite associated with iron ore, uralites and 

biotite note apatite is subhedral (R400/149,2m). 

Fig 6f. Apatite as major mineral and reaches up to 4mm in size; finegrained 

and needle like apatite mainly embedded in alkali feldspar 

(R400/141,6m) 

classification diagram most samples group within the 

monzogabbro field, which means that they contain at 

least 10 % alkali feldspar component (Fig. 8). 

The special feature of the Lumikangas gabbro is 

that Ti, Pand Mg correlate very closely as shown in 

drill hole R400 (Fig. 9). This could be explained by 

37



Fig 7. Distribution ofLumikangasgabbro of Lumikangas gabbro inAFM-diagram. 

in AFM-diagram. 

a simultaneous crystallisation of iron-oxide, apatite 

and Mg-rich silicates (see Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). 

Ore mineralogy 

Ilmenite and magnetite 

Based on microscope observation the rocks contain 

about 3–20 vol% ilmenite and magnetite. They occur 

38 

Fig. 8. Lumikangas samples in normative (quartz-orthoclase-plagioclase) 

triangular diagram. Most samples contain more than 10 % normative 

orthoclase and have the composition of monzogabbro. 

asseparatecrystals,anhedraltosubhedralgranularaggregatesandrangeinsizefrom0 

.1to1.5mm.Ilmenite 

occursaswell-developedsinglecrystals(Figs.5c,5d), 

and as latticed oxyexsolution textures in and along 

the boundaries of magnetite grains (Fig. 5e), where 

the boundaries are often delinated by spinel granules. 

The ilmenite grains are commonly monomineralic, 

except for occasional magnetite lamellae, rare rutile 

inclusions and spinel needles. 

Fig. 9. Variation of magnesium, titanium and phosphorous in two drill holes R400 and R399 from Lumikangas.

Magnetite contains both ilmenite and spinel as exsolved 

inclusions (Figs. 5e, 5f), where the magnetite 

herecanberefer redtoasilmenomagnetite.Theilm en - 

ite exsolution might represent two generations, with 

oriented long lamellae and fine needle like structures 

rangingfromsubmicroscopicto100μmacross,andup 

to 1.2mm in length. The fine oriented ilmenite needles 

aredistributede venlythroughout themagnetitegra ins 

along with very fine spinel microcrystals (Fig. 5f). 

Ilmenite and magnetite show myrmekitic intergrowth 

with silicate minerals, mainly pyroxene, uralite and 

apatite (Fig. 6a), which indicate simultaneous crys - 

tallisation of the ore and the silicate minerals. Pyrite 

and pyrrhotite are the common sulphides observed, 

occurringmainlyasseparategrainsassociatedwiththe 

ore and gangue minerals. Fine grains of chalcopyrite 

occur often associated with pyrrhotite and pyrite as 

inclusions. Inclusions of pentlandite in pyrrhotite and 

secondary hematite with pyrrhotite were observed. 

Magnetite is less common within the sections where 

pyrrhotite is abundant. 

Apatite 

The Lumikangas gabbroic rock consists of about 

1–6 vol% of apatite (Figs. 6b–6f). Locally elevated 

amounts of apatite covering nearly 25 vol% the rock 

are observed in R400/141.6m, which corresponds 

to the highest phosphorous content (5.5% P 2 O 5 , 

R400/140–142m). The apatite crystals occur either 

as single crystals or in small clusters associated with 

feldspars, pyroxene and Fe-Ti oxides (Figs. 6e, 6f). 

Inclusions of apatite in the ore minerals (Fig. 6b) and 

in silicates (Figs. 6e, 6f) are the most typical textures. 

Apatite occurs in various forms: euhedral (Fig. 6c), 

subhedral(Fig.6d)andrangesinsizefromabout50μm 

to 4–5mm long. Apatite chadacrysts (inclusions in 

oikocrysts)occurringasfinesubroundedandelongated 

structure are enclosed by feldspar oikocrysts, which 

Fig. 10. Apatite REE arrays of Lumikangas and Kauhajärvi. ^P 



is typical of poikilophitic texture (Fig. 6f). 

Pure apatite concentrate was made using heavy 

liquid separations. The concentrate was analysed by 

ICP-MS for rare elements. The chondrite normalised 

REE-array of apatite is rather plain and only gently 

decreasing (Fig. 10). Aspecial feature of the Lumikangas 

apatite is that there is no Eu minimum as 

compared to neighbouring elements, which is typical 

forapatiteintheKauhajärvigabbro.Thisindicatesthat 

plagioclase has not been extracted during magmatic 

differentiation.ThesimilarshapeoftheREE-arraysof 

bothLumikangasa ndKauhajärviapa titemayindicate 

the same magmatic source for both gabbros. 

Electron microprobe analyses 

The TiO 2 content of ilmenite (49.3–51.2) is 

very close to the theoretical ilmenite composition 

(TiO 2 =52.65 %) indicating no significant alteration 

(Table 2). The MgO and Cr 2 O 3 contents of ilmenite 

are low as is V 2 O 3 that hardly exceeds 0.15 % in 

Lumikangas ilmenite. The MnO cont ent of both 

ilmenite grains and lamellae in magnetite is constant 

but relatively high (0.8–1.3 %). 

TheTiO 2 contentinthemagnetitelatticeisconsiderably 

low (0.0–1.8 wt%) having been taken up by the 

two generations of exsolved ilmenite lamellae. The 

magnetite lamellae in ilmenite, however, contains 

up to 3.2 wt% TiO 2 . Interestingly, the Cr 2 O 3 content 

of magnetite is insignificant, ranging from 0.03 to 

0.22wt%.Vanadiuminmagnetite,ontheotherhand,is 

relativelyhigh(V 2 O 3 =0.5–2.35wt%),andvariesfrom 

sample to sample, 0.95–1.4 % V 2 O 3 in R398/57.5m 

and2.1–2.35wt%V 2 O 3 inR400/63.9m.Thevanadium 

content in the Lumikangas magnetite (0.34–1.6 wt% 

V) is within the range of Koivusaarenneva (0.7 wt% 

V; Kärkkäinen et al. 2003), Mustavaara (0.83 wt% V; 

Juopperi1977)andOtanmäki(0.64wt%V;Kerkkonen 

1979) but relatively higher than that of Kauhajärvi 

(0.1–0.4 wt% V; Kärkkäinen & Appelqvist 1999). 

Inspiteofgrainmorphologyandsizedifferences,the 

apatite composition is relatively uniform but contains 

small amounts of SiO 2 , MnO, FeO and SrO, as these 

minerals are known to substitute Ca in apatite (Table 

2). The fluorine content of apatite (2.0–4.3 wt%) is 

indicative of fluor-apatite composition. 

Potassium feldspar is occasionally found to contain 

extremely high barium content giving a composition 

of Ba-feldspar (Table 2). The clinopyroxene has a 

ferro-augite composition, characterised by low Al 2 O 3 

and TiO 2 contents. The clinopyroxene is associated 

with primary plagioclase, and according to chemical 

analyses and microscope observation, plagioclase is 

in part transformed into albite . 

39



discussion 

In almost all igneous rocks, apatite is known as an 

accessory mineral. However, apatite enrichment with 

ilmenite and magnetite are recorded in a number of 

deposits, for example in mafic intrusions as in Bushveld 

(Von Gruenewaldt 1993), in Sept-Iles (Nabil 

et al. 2003), Kauhajärvi (Kärkkäinen 1999), and 

in anorthosite complexes as in Bjerkreim-Sokndal 

(Duchesne 1972, Kornelliussen et al. 2000) and Lac 

Mirepoix (Morisset 2003). 

Apatite-bearing ilmenite-magnetite deposits and 

prospects generally contain ilmenite with low MgO 

and Cr 2 O 3 and ilmenite poor in hematite (Schiellerup 

et al. 2003). One interesting feature at Lumikangas is 

the early crystallisation of apatite and coeval crystallisation 

of apatite, Fe-Ti oxides and mafic silicates 

(Fig. 9). In practice this means that the parent mafic 

magma was abnormally rich in Pand also Fe and 

Ti. This kind of Ti-P enriched mafic rocks in crustal 

environments are often called jotunites (Norway), 

oxide apatite gabbronorites (Canada) or ferrogabbros 

(USA) and they are more or less closely related to the 

anorthosite massifs or rapakivi granite-anorthosite 

suite. These kinds of rocks have lately been studied as 

a possible source of Ti and P, for instance in Norway 

(Kornelliussen et al. 2000). 

Conclusion 

Lumikangas area was selected as a target for Ti- 

P-exploration on the basis of a high magnetic and 

gravity anomaly and its location in the Kauhajoki 

apatite-ilmenite gabbro province. The Lumikangas 

apatite ilmenite monzogabbro may be a potential ore 

resource in the future, containing an average of 19 % 

ore minerals: 8.7 % (max. 21 %) ilmenite, 4.8 % (max. 

17%)magnetiteand5.4%(max.1 7%)apatite.Apatite, 

ilmenite and magnetite were crystallised at the same 

time at a very early stage of magmatic differentiation, 

becausetheyhaveagoodcorrelationwithmagnesium. 

The drilling profiles did not intersect pyroxenites, in 

which the highest ore contents could be hiding. 

40 

REFERENCES 

duchesne, J. C. 1972. Fe-Ti oxide minerals in Bjerkreim-Sokndal 

massifs, southwestern Norway. Journal of Petrology 13, 

57–81. 

huuskonen, M. & kärkkäinen, N. 1994. TiP-gabrojen etsintäohjelmaLauhavuorengraniitinympäristössä:korkealentomagneettiset 

häiriöt ja Kauhajoen Hyypän intruusion tutkimukset. 

Geologian tutkimuskeskus, arkistoraportti M 19/1234/94/1/10. 

13 p. + 9 apps. 

Juopperi, A. 1977. The magnetite gabbro and related Mustavaara 

vanadium ore deposit in Porttivaara layered intrusion 

northeastern Finland. Geological Survey of Finland, Bulletin 

288. 68 p. + 2 apps. 

kärkkäinen, N., Sarapää, O., huuskonen, M., koistinen, E. & 

lehtimäki, J. 1997. Ilmenite exploration in western Finland, 

andthemineralresourcesoftheKälviädeposit.In:Autio,S.(ed.) 

Geological Survey of Finland, Current Research 1995–1996. 

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 23, 15–24. 

kärkkäinen, k. & Appelqvist, h. 1999. Genesisofalow-grade 

Genesis of a low-grade 

apatite-ilmenite-magnetite deposit in the Kauhajärvi gabbro, 

western Finland. Mineralium Deposita 34, 754–769. 

kärkkäinen, k. & bornhorst, T.J. 2003. the Svecofennian 

gabbro-hosted Koivusaarenneva magmatic ilmenite deposit. 

Kälviä, Finland. Mineralium Deposita 38, 169–184. 

kerkkonen, O. 1979. The magnetite-ilmenite of the Otanmäki 

titanium iron ore, interpretation of the source and development 

(in Finnish). PhLic thesis, University of Oulu, Finland. 

korneliussen, A., McEnroe, S., Nilsson, l.P., Schiellerup, 

h., Gautneb, h., Meyer, G.b. & Storseth, l.R. 2000. An 

overview of titanium deposits in Norway. Norges geologiske 

undersokelse, Bulletin 436, 27–38. 

lehtimäki, J. 1984. Honkajoen ja Kauhajoen alueiden seismiset 

luotaukset 1982 ja 1983. Geologian tutkimuskeskus, arkistora- 

portti, Q19/1234/84/1/23. 8 8p. p. +17 + 17 apps. 

Morisset, C-E. 2003. A study of mineral compositions of Lac 

Mirepoix layered complex, Lac St-Jean anorthosite complex, 

Quebec, Canada. In: Ilmenite deposits and their geological 

environment, NGU, Special Pubication 9, 84–85. 

Nabil, h., barnes, S. & higgins, M. 2003. Genesis of phosphorous 

and titanium deposits in Sept-Iles mafic intrusion. Mining 

industry conference and exhibition, Abstract, Montreal May 

4–7, 2003. 

Pääkkönen , v. 1962. Tutkimukset Kauhajoella 1961. Geologian 

tutkimuskeskus, arkistoraportti, M17/Khj-61/1. 2 s. + 1 app. 

Pakarinen,J.1984. RaporttiHonkajoella,KauhajoellajaKarvialla 

15.4.1983-29.2.1984suoritetuis tafosfori-titaani-rauta-malmitutkimuksista 

(Kemira Oy:n ja Geologian tutkimuskeskuksen 

yhteistyöprojekti). Geologian tutkimuskeskus, arkistoraportti 

M19/1234/84/1/10. 49 p. + 103 apps. 

Rämö, T. 1986. Honkajoen Perämaan emäksinen intruusio - erityisesti 

sen gabro-osien petrografia, mineralogia ja petrologia, 

104 p. 

Schiellerup, h., korneliussen, A., heldal, T., Marker, M., 

bjerkgård, T. & Nilsson, l. P. 2003. Mineral resources in 

RogalandAnorthositeProvince,SouthNorway:Origins,history 

andrecentdevelopments.In:Ilmenitedepositsandtheirgeological 

environment. NGU, Special Publication 9, 116–133. 

vonGruenewalt,G.1993. Ilmenite-apatiteenrichmentintheUpperZoneofBushveldComplex:amajortitaniumrockphosphate 

resource. International Geological Review 35, 987–1000.




ThE viTTAJÄNkÄ kAOliN dEPOSiT, SAllA, FiNNiSh lAPlANd 

by 

Panu Lintinen 1) and Thair Al-Ani 2) 

1) P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland 

2) Kallentie 36 B4, FI-45130 Kouvola, Finland 

E-m ail: panu.lintinen@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): kaolin deposits, mineral exploration, geophysical methods, weathering, mineral composition, 

chemical composition, beneficiation, Vittajänkä, Salla, Finland 

introduction 

In the search for abundant and high quality kaolin 

resources to satisfy the growing demands of the Finnish 

paper industry, the Geological Survey of Finland 

(GTK) has, over the period 1998–2004, investigated 

morethan20kaolindepositsinthepre-glacialregolith 

of northern Finland. Research has focussed on PaleoproterozoicmetasedimentaryrocksincentralLapland, 

particularly in areas of relatively low metamorphic 

grade,usingavarietyofairborneandgroundgeophysical 

techniques, supplemented by drilling. Airborne 

geophysical data are particularly useful in identifying 

weatheredbedrock,whiledrillingorexcavationduring 

earlier bedrock exploration activities has commonly 

provided direct confirmation of the presence of kaolin 

and deeply weathered regolith beneath Quaternary 

till. In contrast, there is a paucity of prior indications 

of kaolin from terrain dominated by granitoids and 

gneisses of higher metamorphic grade. 

During the course of investigations, research has 

gradually focussed on two specific regiona, namely 

the eastern parts of the Sodankylä municipality and 

the areas to the east and northeast of the tonwhsip of 

Salla. The presence of kaolin in the Sodankylä district, 

at Siurunmaa, has been known since 1976 

(Rask & Lintinen 2001, Pekkala & Sarapää 1989), 

while the Suolakaarko deposit was discovered more 

recently, in 1998 (Lintinen 2000). The first investigations 

in the Salla region were undertaken in 1999, as a 

result of which white kaolin was found at Vittajänkä. 

By the end of 2004 three separate drilling programs 

had been carried out at Vittajänkä, with a total length 

of 2000 m. At the same time, exploratory drilling has 

been undertaken in surrounding terrain, in the search 

for analogous occurrences. 

Assessmentofthequalityofkaol inatVittajänkähas 

also been carried out concurrently with delineation of 

reserves, with particular emphasis on its suitability as 

a paper pigment. Preliminary enrichment tests simulating 

industrial processing have been conducted at 

GTK and also at the former VTT mineral processing 

laboratories (now GTK Mineral Processing Laboratories) 

and results of studies completed prior to 2004 

have been reported by Al-Ani et al. (2004). 


The Vittajänkä kaolin deposit is located within the 

southeasternextensionofthePaleoproterozoicCentral 

Lapland greenstone belt (Fig. 1). In this area however, 

quartz-rich metasediments dominate, bounded to 

the east by the extensive metavolcanics of the Salla 

greenstone area, which continues across the national 

41


Panu Lintinen and Thair Al-Ani 

border into adjacent Russia. The central Lapland 

granitic complex occurs to the south and southwest of 

Vittajänkä,whereasArcheangrani ticandsupracrustal 

terrain lies to the north. 

Regionalgeologicalinvestigationshavebeencarried 

out during the Lapland Volcanite Project (LVP), by 

Manninen (1991), on the basis of which the metasedimentary 

Matovaara Formation is considered to be the 

protolithfromwhichtheVittajänkäkaolinwasderived. 

Although the area is covered by extensive wetlands, 

with very few bedrock exposures, the metasediments 

appear to have been calcareous siltstones, with calcsilicate 

and laminated orthoquartzite intercalations. 

Geophysical investigations 

TheVittajänkäkaolindepositcanbedistinguishedin 

regional airborne geophysical data as an electromagnetic 

anomaly with an intense imaginary component 

and a considerably reduced real component. The 

Matovaara Formation metasedimentary host rocks 

are non-magnetic, although they are surrounded by 

a narrow, conspicuously magnetic zone of tholeiitic 

volcanics belonging to the Tahkoselkä Formation. 

42 

Fig. 1. Geological map showing the location of the Vittajänkä deposit. 

The area delineated by the airborne EM anomaly 

was surveyed on the ground as well, firstly along 

widely spaced profiles and then on a systematic grid 

covering 3.6 km 2 . Both EM VLF-R measurements 

and gravity surveys were made. In addition, a regional 

scale gravimetric survey was carried out over 300 

km 2 in the Salla district during 2000–2001, with a site 

density of 8 measurements per km 2 . On the basis of 

these gravity surveys, the Vittajänkä kaolin deposit 

appears to coincide with a northerly trending elongate 

2 mGal gravity minimum, approximately 1.75 km 2 

(2.5x0.8km)inextent(Fig.2).Theshapeofthegravity 

anomaly is controlled by both degree of weathering 

and the structurally defined bedrock geology, with 

mafic volcanics surrounding the metasediments. 

Sampling strategy 

The Vittajänkä deposit was drilled in three stages 

in 1999, 2001 and 2003, using different equipment 

and core recovery techniques. Drilling has been both 

technicallychallenging and required carefulsampling 

in order to maximize the research value of recovered 

material.


The Vittajänkä kaolin deposit, Salla, Finnish Lapland 

Fig. 2. Bouguer anomlay map of the Vittajänkä kaolin deposit, showing locations of drilling profiles and the distribu - 

tion of white and coloured kaolin. 

The gravity anomaly has been drilled along two 

E-W profiles 700 m apart (Figs. 2 and 3). The more 

northerly profile intersected white or yellowish kaolin 

over a distance of 300 m, while the total width of the 

weathered zone was about 400 m. In the southern 

profile the weathered zone was about 150 m across, 

with 75mof light-coloured kaolin. Whitetoye llowish 

kaolintendtooccurinthecentralpartsoftheweathered 

zone, while marginal parts were considerably darker. 

Fig. 3. Simplified cross sections of drilling profiles A and B. For locations, see Figure 2. 

Overburden thickness varied from 10–25 m, with a 

mean depth of 15 m. The thickest kaolin intersections 

were nearly 30 m although the average was around 

20 m. Sporadic quartz-rich horizons, or weathered 

accumulations of quartz sand were sporadically found 

within the kaolin. 

Some diamond drill core was recovered from the 

quartz-rich intercalations, and from the bedrock beneath 

the kaolin deposit, despite their being intensely 

43



weathered. Thus, significantly weathered regolith 

occurs at depths considerably greater than the main 

kaolin deposit. 

laboratory analyses and enrichment trials 

Methods 

Atotal of 96 samples of kaolin, both white and 

coloured, were taken for systematic analysis at GTK, 

with an average sample length of 3.8 m. Samples were 

classified according to grain size distributions using a 

combinationofsievingandsedigraphanalysis.Sample 

fractions

Fig. 4. SEM-image of refined Vittajänkä kaolin. Kaolinite occurs as euhedral flaky particles. 

low samples had brightness values between 70–78 % 

and corresponding yellowness values of 15–10 %. 

Magnetically and chemically refined processed 

kaolin in the



Chemical composition 

White Vittajänkä kaolin tends to have relatively 

high SiO 2 - and K 2 O- abundances and low Al 2 O 3 irrespective 

of grain size. After refining, the

analyzed to date have on average 60 % white kaolin, 

of which the average proportion of kaolinite is about 

30 %. Accordingly, the deposit would contain about 

13 Mt of white kaolin, which could yield about 4 Mt of 

kaolinconcentrate.Itshouldalsobenotedthatalthough 

the mean depth of the kaolin regolith is only 20 m, 

kaolinization is extensive to much greater depths. 

After refinement, the Vittajänkä kaolin product still 

contained considerable amounts of quartz and muscovite, 

which is reflected in the higher SiO 2 - and lower 

Al 2 O 3 - abundances than in commercially available 

kaolin products. Despite all of the refining processes 

used, the brightness remained below the acceptable 

levels for kaolin pigment. One of the main reasons for 

this is the fine grain size of the protoliths, particularly 

quartz and muscovite, as a result of which mechanical 

purification is difficult. Further processing using 

flotation is planned, which will hopefully be effective 

in removing not only quartz, but also at least some 

of the mica, resulting in a product with improved 

brightness values. 


The Vittajänkä kaolin deposit, Salla, Finnish Lapland 

REFERENCES 

Al-Ani, T., lintinen, P. & karhunen, J. 2004. Mineralogical 

Description and Preliminary Processing of the Vittajänkä 

Kaolin Deposit, Salla, Northeastern Finland. Geological Survey 

of Finland, unpublished report M19/4621/2004/1/82, 33 

p. + 36 app. 

Aparicio, P. & Galan, E. 1999. Mineralogical interference on 

kaolinite crystallinity index measurements. Clays and Clay 

Minerals 47 (1), 12–27. 

hinckley, d.N. 1963. Variability in “crystallinity” values among 

the kaolin deposits of the coastal plain of Georgia and South 

Carolina. Clays and Clay Minerals 11, 229–235. 

lintinen, P. 2000. Kaoliinitutkimukset Sodankylän Suolakaarkossa 

1998–1999. GeologicalSurveyofFinland, Geological Survey of Finland, unpublished 

report M19/3732/2000/1/82, 9 p. + 7 app. 

Manninen, T. 1991. Sallan alueen vulkaniitit : Lapin vulka- 

niittiprojektin raportti. Summary: Volcanic rocks in the Salla 

area, northeastern Finland: Areport of the Lapland Volcanite 

Project. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation 

104. 97 p. + 5 app. 

Pekkala, y.& Sarapää, O. 1989. Kaolinexploration Kaolin exploration inFinland. in Finland. 

In: Autio, S. (ed.) Geological Survey of Finland, Current 

Research 1988. Geological Survey of Finland. Special Paper 

10, 113–118. 

Rask, M. & lintinen, P. 2001. Kaoliinitutkimukset Sodankylän 

Siurunmaallavuosina1978–1988.GeologicalSurveyofFinland, 

GeologicalSurveyofFinland, 

unpublished report M19/3713/2001/1/82, 12 p. + 6 app. 

Sarapää, O. 1996. Proterozoic primary kaolin deposits at Virtasalmi, 

southeastern Finland. Espoo: Geological Survey of 

Finland. 152 p. + 6 app. 

47



48



Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 49– 60, 

2005. 

GEOPhySiCAl ChARACTERiZiNG OFTAiliNGS iMPOuNdMENT – A CASE FROM ThE 

ClOSEdhAMMASlAhTi Cu-ZN MiNE, EASTERN FiNlANd 

by 

Heikki Vanhala 1) , Marja Liisa Räisänen 2) , Ilkka Suppala 1) , Taija Huotari 1) , Tuire Valjus 1) and 

Jukka Lehtimäki 1) 


2) Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 1237, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland 

E-mail: heikki.vanhala@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): geophysical methods, environmental geology, abandoned mines, tailings ponds, tailings, sediments, 

chemical composition, Hammaslahti, Finland 

introduction 

We present here preliminary results of a project in 

which we test and develop geophysical techniques 

for mapping sulphide tailings impoundments. Our 

study site, the small Hammaslahti Cu-Zn mine, 

workedin1973–1986.Thetailingsimpoundmenthav - 

ing an area of 30 hectares and an average height of 

9 metres, has been established on a bog. The interest 

in developing geophysical techniques for studying 

tailings impoundments arises from the need of highresolution 

3D structural, chemical and hydrological 

data for modelling and understanding the tailings 

impoundment systems. 

Rehabilitation of tailings impoundment for final 

closure, as well as assessing the risk of old impoundments 

require relevant data about the structure and 

composition of the tailings material and the water 

table and its temporal and spatial variation inside the 

impoundment. In Finland, tailings impoundments of 

several metal sulphide mines have been engineered 

in bog basins or the depressions of small lakes. In 

both cases, the substrata are organic rich sediments 

underlying glaciolacustrine silt sediments, which are 

compressing under load (Sipilä & Salminen 1995, 

Räisänen 2003). In general, the stratigraphy and 

characteristics of the impoundment are investigated 

by drilling, including the profile sampling throughout 

the tailings and underlying parent sediments. The fact 

that dense drilling, needed for detailed characterising 

and 3D modelling of an impoundment, is expensive, 

led us to start a project to test and develop geophysical 

techniques for mapping tailings impoundments. Our 

test site is the closed Hammaslahti mine (Fig. 1). 

The mine tailings typically exhibit a low electrical 

resistivity (i.e., high electrical conductivity). Therefore, 

electrical and electromagnetic (EM) methods 

are the most commonly used in mine tailings studies 

(Campbell et al. 1999, Campbell & Fitterman 2000, 

Watson et al. 2001). At the Geological Survey of 

Finland, airborne geophysics has been for few years 

successfully applied to mapping both regional and 

site-scale environmental impacts of mining in different 

kind of geological environments. Beamish and 

Kurimo (2000) used airborne electrical conductivity 

data to detect acid leaks from active and closed 

coal mines in the United Kingdom, while Lahti et al. 

(2000) used airborne radiometric, magnetic and EM 

(electromagnetic) and ground geophysical data for 

mapping environmental issues related to uranium 

mining activities in eastern Germany. Vanhala et al. 

(2002) studied the environmental, hydrogeological 

and geological issues around an oil shale mining area 

in northeast Estonia. Electrical resistivity sounding 

49


Heikki Vanhala, Marja Liisa Räisänen, Ilkka Suppala et al. 

results from the Hitura Ni mine tailings have been 

presented by Heikkinen et al. (2002). 

ThefirstgeophysicaltestsattheclosedHammaslahti 

Cu-Zn mine were made in 2000 when a few electrical 

resistivity soundings (ERT), aimed at locating subsurface 

leakage pathways through the impoundment 

dam, were measured (Vanhala & Lahti 2001). More 

ERT data were collected in 2001 – 2004, but most of 

the geophysical measurements (refraction seismic, 

gravity, EM and ERT) are from 2003. Drillings and 

sampling for chemical analysis were made in 2000, 

2003 and 2004. Petrophysical results are from 2004 

(Table 1). 

The general objective of the ongoing study is to developgroundgeophysicalmethods, 

gravity,refraction 

seismic, EM and ERT, for mapping and monitoring 

tailings impoundment and dam constructions and 

bedrock and sediment structures under and around 

theimpoundment.Petrophysicalproperties(electrical 

conductivity and induced polarization (IP), seismic 

velocity and density) of the tailing material have 

been only poorly known and one of the key tasks is 

to define them. Especially the relationship between 

the electrical conductivity and IP and the properties 

of the tailings material is of great importance. The 

structural features presumed to be suitable for geophysical 

mapping are the follows 

(a)water table and the oxidised zone, 

(b)variation of grain size, mineralogy and chemistry 

50 

Fig. 1. Location and geology of the study area (Loukola-Ruskeeniemi et al. 1992). 

inside the impoundment 

(c)thickness of the tailings bed and the underlying 

sediments, 

(d)bedrock relief and fracture zones 

(e)internal structures (dams, cavities) 

In this paper we present the preliminary results of 

the geophysical studies. Furthermore, we discuss on 

the relationship between the geochemistry and the 

geophysical data of tailings and underlying sediments 

at some reference sites. 

description of the study site 

TheHammaslahtiCudepositisloc atedattheeastern 

margin of the Early Proterozoic Svecofennian Orogen 

(2.0–1.75 Ga), 12 km west of the exposed Archaean- 

Proterozoic boundary (Fig. 1). The country rocks are 

composed of low-grade metamorphosed epiclastic 

sediments dominated by graded-bedded feldspathic 

graywackes intercalated with black schist layers and 

phyllites. Three orebodies (S, N and Z) are located 

in hydrothermally altered rocks. Major sulphides are 

pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite in the S and N 

orebodies, and sphalerite in the zinc ore body. 

The Hammaslahti Cu-Zn Mine operated in 1973– 

1986.OutokumpuOymined7milliontonsoforegrading 

1.16 % Cu and minor amounts of Zn and Au. 

The tailings impoundment is situated north of the 

flotation plant. Its surface area is about 30 hectares.


Geophysical characterizing of tailings impoundment ... 

Fig. 2. Topographic map of Hammaslahti before mining (upper left); aerial photograph of the tailings impoundment from 1974 (upper right); map of 

Quaternary deposits (brown=peat, yellow=sand and fine sand, red=bedrock, grey=till, magenta=tailings, (lower left); airborne electrical conductivity 

map (AEM), out-of-phase, 3.1 kHz, 1991 (lower right). Map area is 1.4 x 1.4 km 2 (Pohjakartta © Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 13/MYY105). 

The tailings impoundment is dammed on the bog (Fig 

2). The tailings embankment consists of local glacial 

till strengthened by country rock stones from the open 

pits (Pelkonen et al. 1973). The average height of the 

heap is 9 metres above the surface of the bog. The 

impoundment is recovered by a thin basal meltout till 

layer (10–60 cm). At present, plants typical for wild 

meadows (mainly wild grass), and young birches and 

planted pines grow more or less successfully (Fig. 3, 

Räisänen et al. 2003). 

investigation methods of the tailings 

impoundment 

Profile drilling and sampling 

The basement and layer structure of the facility, and 

its hydrological conditions were studied by drilling 

with a non-rotated percussion drill equipped with a 

soil core sampler at 22 sites (Fig. 4). Drilling work 

was done firstly in November 2000, then in May 2003 

51



and May 2004. In 2000, profile samples from tailings 

materials and underlying Quaternary sediments were 

continuously collected into non-contaminated plastic 

(high dense polyethene, HDPE) tubes with a piston 

and in 2003 with a special soil core sampler during 

the drilling. The sampling technique is developed by 

the GTK. In 2004, the tube sampling was used, since 

it allows the making of petrophysical core sample 

measurements. The sampling was done in a set of 1 

m sample per tube. After the measurements, sample 

tubeswerehalfopened,andsamplelayersforchemical 

analysis were separated on the basis of the oxidation 

degree of the tailings and physical characteristics 

of the underlying sediments. In all cases, samples 

for chemical analysis were frozen in the field or immediately 

after transporting to the Geolaboratory of 

the GTK. 

For chemical analysis tailings and underlying peat 

and silt sediment samples were freeze-dried and then 

sieved to

seismic survey. It can only be seen in the middle of 

upper seismic line (Fig. 4). The second problem in 

refraction interpretation is called the “reversal velocity 

case” – the velocity in a layer is lower than in the 

overlying layer. The low velocity cannot be detected 

by refraction survey. If there is no information of 

the low velocity layer the calculated total thickness 

of overburden is overestimated. A typical reversal 

velocity case is a sand layer under gravel. 

Six gravity profiles were measured across the 

impoundment. Seismic results and the water table 

interpreted from the seismic data were used as reference 

data in gravity interpretation. The interpretation 

of the gravity data was made using a three-layer model 

– bedrock, saturated sediment layer and dry sediment 

layer. For the sediment material, densities of 1500 

kg/m 3 (dry) and 1950 kg/m 3 (saturated) were used. 

Possible sources of error were the density variation 

of bedrock and the water table. 

Ground slingram measurements were carried out 

using a multi-frequency horizontal loop EM method 

(HLEM), (APEX MaxMin I+8S system). Eight frequencies 

(440, 880, 1760, 3520, 7040, 14080, 28160 

and 56320 Hz) were measured. 

1Dinversionwasusedtointerpre ttheEMdata.First 

the quality of the HLEM data was assessed with 1D 

multi-layer inversion using a few layers with varying 

thickness and conductivity, in order to examine 

the effects caused by 3D conductivity structures and 

Table 1. Hammaslahti geophysical data. 

METhOd Time Specifications 



misalignment of the loops. Then the layered-earth 

interpretationwa smadewithmodel norm-basedinver - 

sion. In the 1D model, the earth is composed of a stack 

of layers, each having a uniform conductivity. The 1D 

conductivity structure, i.e., the conductivities of each 

layer,issoughtbytheregularisedinversion.Thegoalis 

tofindforeverymeasuringpointaminimum-structure 

model,whichcanfitthemeasurementdatasufficientl y 

well. The minimisation of the objective function (data 

misfit + β x model norm ) has been carried out with a 

damped Gauss-Newton algorithm. 

In HLEM measurements 20 metre and 40 metre 

coil spacing were used. The wider c oil spacing 

means deeper effective depth of investigation. The 

EM system with the shorter coil spacing has a higher 

spatial resolution. Because here the conductivity of 

the tailings bed is high enough the multi-frequency 

slingram system has frequency-dependent sensitivity 

to the conductivity variations in that layer. Inversion 

results of HLEM data measured with coil separation 

of 20 m and 40 m delineate similar conductivity structures. 

However in the results measured with wider coil 

separation more 3D effects could be seen, probably 

caused by the bedrock conductors. 

Inaccuracy in loop spacing and alignment of the 

loops are likely to be the largest sources of error in 

the horizontal loop EM measurements. A reference 

cable connects the transmitter and receiver loops 

and with the help of the cable the keeping of the coil 

Airborne data 1991 radiometric, magnetic & EM (3.1 kHz), 200 m line spacing, 30 m 

Gravity 2003, June 6 lines 

nominal flight altitude 

Refraction seismic 2003, June 2 lines (& one short line across PP72) 

HLEM 2003, June slingram (horizontal loop EM) (8 frequencies, 440, 880, 1760, 3520, 7040, 

14080 and 28160, 56320 Hz), 10m/reading: 4 lines, coil spacing 20 m 

2 lines, coil spacing 20 m & 40 m 

TEM 2003, July single loop (50x50 m 2 ), 7 soundings 

ERT 2000 – 2004 wenner & dipole-dipole, ipole, a=1,2,3 or 5m,automatic 5 m, automatic multielectrode system, 

28,42 or 56 electrode groundings, most of the drilling sites. 

IP 2001 1D wenner, a=2 m, 6 soundings 

Laboratory resistivity and IP 2004, May Drilling sites N17, N18, N19, N20, N21, N22 (240 samples) 

53



separation is attempted at the constant value (in this 

study 20 or 40 m). The error in coil separation is most 

evidently seen in the in-phase component caused by 

theincompletelycompensatedprimarymagneticfield 

(e.g. Frischnecht et al. 1991). We have also considered 

the true coil spacing as an unknown parameter and 

estimated it carefully from the field data. At least in 

the case of 1D conductivity structure the used model 

for the layered ground and for measuring system 

works better than the inversion assuming constant 

coil spacing. 

The first resistivity soundings (ERT, electrical 

resistivity tomography) at Hammaslahti were made 

in 2000 (Vanhala & Lahti 2000) and continued annually 

until 2004. All the soundings have been made 

using AGI/Sting multielectrode system, Wenner or 

dipole-dipole configuration and electrode spacings 

of 1, 2, 3 or 5 metres. 2D inversion of the 2D field 

data has been made using RES2DINVsoftware (Loke 

& Parker 1996). Presumably because of the dry and 

high-resistivity top-layer and a low-resistivity deeper 

sub-surface, the resistivity data were partly too noisy 

for reliable interpretation. 

240 samples for laboratory resistivity and IPmeasurements 

were collectedin May 2004from sixdrilling 

sites(N17,N18,N19,N20,N21,N22).Thelaboratory 

measurements were made within a few hours after the 

drilling, directly from the original (nearly undisturbed 

54 

Fig. 4.Geophysical sounding lines and drilling sites (Pohjakartta © Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 13/MYY105). 

samples) in one-metre long plastic sample tubes by a 

spectral IPsystem described by Vanhala and Soininen 

(1995). Small holes were drilled for platinum stick 

electrodes at both ends and in the middle of the tube 

so that (for each sample) three resistivity-IP spectra 

could be measured. 

Chemical analysis 

For chemical analysis tailings and underlying peat 

and silt sediment samples were freeze-dried and then 

sieved to

Results and discussion 

The structure of the tailings impoundment 

Originally,the tailings impoundment was divided 

into two ponds by adam, which cannot be visually 

distinguished from the surface topography (Fig. 2, 

aerial photo onthe right). The shallow depression is 

mainlylocated inthecentralpart oftheeasternpond. 

Theretheelevation ofthesurface increasesabout2m 

towardsthedikeinthenorthandnortheast,whereasit 

doesnotchangemuchtowardthesouth. Bycontrast, 

thesurfaceelevation ofthewesternpondvariesalot. 

Thedifference inthesurfacetopographybetweenthe 

southernandcentralparts isabout4.5mandbetween 

the central and northern parts about 1.5 m. Similarly, 

the base of the eastern pond is more or less flat,whereas 

in the western pond itdescends about 6mfrom south 

tonorth(Räisänenetal.2003). 

Accordingtothedrillingdata,tailingsinbothponds 

canbedivided intodryoxidised andweaklyoxidised 

layers,andunderlyingwater-saturatedandnon-oxidised 

layer. Intheeasternpond,thewatertable(water-saturation 

zone)hasstayed quiteclosetothesurface, varying 

atthedepthof0.1–3metresfrom thesurface (lowest at 

theedges). Inspringandrainya utumns,thedepression 

of the eastern pond is water covered. In the western 

pond, the base gradient slants toward the north, and 

therefore the water table is more changeable than in 

the eastern pond.The water table dropped in the mid 

1990swhenthenortherndikewasfractured.In2000, 

thewater-saturation zonewasatadepthof5mbelow 

thesurfaceandinMay2004,ata bout3mfrom surface. 

Similarlytotheeasternpond, thethickness ofoxidised 

layeristhin,beingabout0.7 cmthick.Fortunately,the 

accident had only minor consequen ces. Only asmall 

amountof tailings flowed out tothe bog. Presumably, 

thewaterleakagewasmoderate, s ince no deterioration 

wasdetected downstreamintheIiksejoki River. 

Fig. 5. Seismic interpretation, line L_1. 



Thevariation inthebasegradientbetweenthewestern 

and eastern ponds results from the compression 

capacityofbottom sediments andunderlyingbedrock 

topography.The b asement close to the southern dike 

ofthewesternpo ndliespartially on outcrops ofcr ys - 

tallineArcheanbedrockandpartiallyon thesandytill 

overlainbyathi npeatlayer. The centralandnorth ern 

parts ofthewesternpondlieon thickpeatsediments, 

which are underlain by silt and clayey silt sediments. 

The eastern pond lies entirely on peat and silt sedi - 

ments. According to drilling data, the peat layer an d 

partially the underlying silt have been compressed. 

The groundwater table in the bottom sediments lies 

variably 0.5–1.5 mbelow the tailings. This indicates 

thatthebasement ofthetailingsi swatertight. 

Geophysical results 

The airborne data is from 1991. The tailings impoundment 

can be seenas alow-resistivityanomalyin 

the quadrature (out-of-phase) component map. Today 

the GTK’s airborne system has a dual-frequency (3.1 

kHz and 14.4 kHz) EM-data acquisition and a high 

accuracy GPS positioning, giving rise to inversion of 

subsurface conductivity distribution (see for example 

Suppala et al. 2003, Lintinen et al. 2003). The 1991 

EM, radiometric and magnetic data can be used for 

regional scale mapping of rock units, major fracture 

zones, overburden thickness and quality estimates, 

but not for detailed mapping of targets like the Hammaslahti 

tailings impoundment. 

Refraction seismic interpretation from line 1 is 

illustrated in Figure 5 (see also Fig. 4). Dry and saturated 

overburden as well as the bedrock with fracture 

zones can be detected from the model. The measured 

seismic velocity for the dry tailings in the profile was 

300–480 m/s (Fig. 5). For natural sand and gravel 

formations the seismic velocity is typically 400 – 800 

m/sdependingonthegrainsize.Themeasuredseismic 

55



56 

Fig. 6. 3D bedrock relief model under the tailings inpoundmennt. The model is based on gravity nad seismic 

data. 

velocity of water-saturated tailings was 800 – 1100 

m/s. It is clearly lower than the seismic velocity of 

natural sediments of 1400 – 1700 m/s. The measured 

seismic velocities of the bedrock under the tailing 

bed showed that the rock is commonly more or less 

fractured (< 4500 m/s). The seismic velocity for fresh 

rock is typically > 5000 m/s. 

The interpretation results of the six gravity lines 

together with the seismic results were integrated to a 

3D bedrock relief model shown in Figure 6. Together 

with the seismic results, which indicate the fracture 

zones, the 3D bedrock relief model (or the depth-tobedrock 

map) is of great importance in modelling the 

hydrogeology of the area. 

Figure 7, which present EM interpretation from line 

5, shows that the inverted results are in agreement 

with the drill core resistivity data. Constraining with 

the minimum structure model, i.e., minimal spatial 

derivatives with respect to conductivity, can make 

the inverted conductivity sections also too smooth. 

Results from multi-layer inversion using 4 or 5 layers 

are for the most part equally useful. The smooth 

inversion is just more robust if we do not know the 

number of layers. 

Figure 9 shows two examples of resistivity sections 

(ERT) and their relationship to the drilling results. The 

upper section also includes a comparison between 

laboratory and ground resistivity (2004). The electrical 

layering seen in the sections reflect the structure 

and composition of the tailings material and the water 

table. 

Figure 10 shows the relationships between the electrical 

conductivity and chemistry of tailings profiles 

at drilling site N6 (eastern pond). The chemical data 

is from samples taken in November 2000 and the 

electrical resistivity measurement from field data in 

Fig. 7. Line 5, drill core resistivity data (N19 and N20) embedded to electrical resistivity section based on HLEM, i.e., multi-frequency slingram 

data (1D inversion, 20m coil spacing). Here slingram measurements with the wider coil spacing bring more frequency-dependent information from 

the conductivity of the formation. Possibly due the bedrock conductors, the 1D model explains slightly better the results with coil spacing of 20 m 

than with the coil spacing of 40 m. Since the inversion results with both coil separations seem to be consistent with each other, the resolution of the 

inverted results could be improved using join inversion of both measurements.



Fig. 8. Line 5, electrical resistivity (HLEM, 1D inversion, 20m coil spacing), embedded to gravity, seismic and drilling results. 

The tailings bed can be seen as a low-resistivity layer. The higher-resistivity top-layer refers to dry tailings. Note that the elevation 

is exaggerated. 

July 2001. The whole resistivity section (July 2001) is 

presented in Figure 9. The distributions show similarities, 

especially above the water tables. Obviously, the 

actualwatertablewasdeeperdur ingthemeasurements 

in July 2001 than during drilling in November 2000. 

Figure 11 reveals a significant relationship between 

the electrical conductivity and distribution of Cu and 

Zn concentrations at drilling sites N19 (western pond) 

and N20 (eastern pond). Asimilar trend can also be 

seen for sulphur. The IPdata do not show as detectable 

a relationship as the conductivity. 

The electrical resistivity values measured for the 

tailings in the laboratory and inverted from the field 

data, 5–20 Ohmm (200–50 mS/m), are lower than the 

resistivity values of the natural soils and sediments 

in Finland. In earlier papers (Campbell et al. 1998, 

Campbell & Fitterman 2000, Campbell & Beanland 

2001, Campbell 2001, Anderson et al. 2001) IP has 

been found tobe a promising method of characterising 

the tailings. The first results in this study (Fig. 11) are 

not, however, promising. The IPvalues are low and no 

evident relationship to the chemistry is visible. 

Fig. 9. Electrical resistivity (ERT) sections from drilling sites N6 and N20. Note the different distance and depth scales. In both 

sections resistivity reflects the structure of tailings. In the upper section core resistivity data (N20) is also presented. It is very 

similar to the ERT result. 

57



discussion and conclusions 

58 

Fig. 10. (upper) Comparison between electrical resistivity soundings (ERT, red line) and 

the distribution of Zn, S and Fe in the tailings and underlying peat and silt sediments at 

drilling site N6 (Vanhala et al. 2004). 

Up to present the geophysical results have seemed 

promising. Although the tailings impoundment is a 

very complicated target consisting of material not 

having a natural origin, the conventional techniques, 

gravity and seismic, provided accurate results of the 

bedrock relief and fracture zones. Seismic velocities 

differ from those of natural sediments and more work 

has to done to connect the data to the properties of 

the tailings material. 

Electricalconductivityseemsto provideinformation 

not only on the thickness of the tailings bed and the 

moisture content and water table in the impoundment, 

but also on the chemical composition (metal sulphide 

content) of the tailings as seen in Figure 11. The fact 

that the field conductivity data (both the ERTand EM 

results) are very similar to that of the core sample 

conductivities, suggests that geophysics will be an 

effective tool for versatile characterising of tailings 

impoundments. 

In general, the geophysical methods provided relevant 

information on the main structural elements of 

the tailings impoundment – relief and structure zones 

of the underlying bedrock, thickness of the tailings 

bed, internal embankments and water table. Electrical 

conductivity and refraction seismic data refer to 

lateral and vertical variation in the properties and/or 

composition of the tailings. Comparison between the 

chemical and electrical data suggests that at least part 

of the electrical conductivity variations can be related 

to the chemical composition of the tailings, especially 

to variation of metal sulphide content. 

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kaivosympäristötutkimuksissa – tuloksia Hiturasta, Hammaslahdesta 

ja Otravaarasta. In: Carlson, L., Kuula-Väisänen, P. 

& Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, K. (eds.) Ympäristö, terveys ja turvallisuuskaivannaisteollisuudessa:seminaari31.10–1.11.2000 

Haikon kartanossa: esitysten lyhennelmät. Vuorimiesyhdistys. 

Sarja B 76, 86–88. 

vanhala, h. & Soininen, h. 1995. Laboratory technique for 

measurement of spectral induced polarization response of soil 

samples. Geophysical Prospecting 43 (5), 655–676. 

watson, M. i., locke, C. A. & Cassidy, J. 2001. Imaging of 

mine tailings leachate using ground penetrating radar and 

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Geoscientists & Engineers. 4 p.



Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 61– 71, 2005. 

GEOPhySiCAlChARACTERiSiNG OFSulPhidE RiCh FiNE-GRAiNEd SEdiMENTS iN 

SEiNÄJOki AREA, wESTERN FiNlANd 

by 

Ilkka Suppala, Petri Lintinen and Heikki Vanhala 

Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland 

E-mail: ilkka.suppala@gtk.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): sediments, acid sulphate soils, geophysical methods, airborne methods, ground methods, electromagnetic 

methods, resistivity, electrical conductivity, Seinäjoki, Finland 

introduction 

In the Ostrobothnian region of western Finland 

extensive parts are covered by sulphide rich clay and 

silt sediments, which were deposited during a more 

extensive phase of the Baltic Sea, mainly during the 

Litorina Sea period 7500–1500 years BC. During 

the deposition of organic rich Litorina sediments in 

shallow sea anoxic conditions prevailed resulting in 

sulphate reduction to sulphide. The sulphide-bearing 

sedimentsaltertoharmfulsulphatesoilswhenexposed 

to the air. In central Ostrobothnia the present rate of 

land uplift is 8–9 mm / year (Donner 1995) leading 

to continuous exposure of new dry land. In addition 

to natural processes, human activities related to cultivation 

increase the natural oxidation process. Soils 

developed on sulphide rich sediments are characterised 

by pH values as low as 3–4 and they are often 

called acid sulphate soils (ASS). Steady oxidation of 

sulphides annually releases significant amounts of Al 

and other harmful elements, such as Ni and Cd, into 

river water (Palko & Weppling 1994). 

Palko (1994) has estimated that in coastal areas of 

Finland the total extent of ASS is some 3300 km 2 . In 

Sweden the total extent ofASS is approximately 1400 

km 2 (Öborn 1994). Previous studies related to ASS 

soils have mainly focused on the surficial soil layers 

to some 3 m in depth, where oxidising and leaching 

process operates. 

The sulphide clays are characterised by an exceptionally 

high electric conductivity (100–500 mS/m 

(10–2 Ωm)) compared to other glacial sediments, 

whichmakesthemespeciallysuitableforEMmethods. 

Peltoniemi (1982) made the first tests of using AEM 

measurementsforthemappingofconductiveoverburden 

in the Kyrönjoki river valley. He used apparent 

resistivities and depths and conductive horizontal 

thin-layer(1D)modelscalculatedfromone-frequency 

(3 kHz) AEM data. These results were compared with 

ground geophysics and ground truth. Åström (1996) 

used AEM maps (the amplitude of response and the 

ratioofin-phasetoquadraturecomponent)todelineate 

the fine-grained sulphidic sediments in the Petalax å 

catchment area. 

Puranen et al. (1999a, b) demonstrated how one- one- 

frequency airborne EM data can be used for mapping 

the thickness and lateral distribution of the western 

Finland sulphide clays. These papers also presented 

new in-situ conductivityprobingmeasurements,which 

were made in different fine-grained sediment areas 

61



in Finland. Puranen Puranenetal.(1999a,b)alsopointed et al. (1999a, (1999a,b)alsopointed b) also pointed out 

that AEM data should be combined with ground-truth 

data to get a reliable tool for overburden mapping. 

In interpretation they used AEM maps of apparent 

resistivities and the in-phase/quadrature values. PuPuranen et al. (1999a, 1999b) emphasised the role of 

soluble chloride as an important component causing 

the high electrical conductivity of sulphide-bearing 

fine-grained sediments. 

InAustraliaBell(20 03) testedgroundEM to pre dict 

acidification risk, but found only poor correlation between 

the sulphide content and the inverted electrical 

conductivity. In that test area saline porewaters are 

probably the main factor controlling the electrical 

conductivity. His conclusion was that EM is not an 

effectivetoolfordirectlymappingtheacidsulphatesoil 

hazard of saline (and conducting) Australian soils. 

Thepresentstudystartedin2002andthemainobjective 

was to develop airborne EM method for mapping 

and delineating the sulphide clay – sulphate soil areas 

(Lintinen et al. 2003, Suppala et al. 2003, Vanhala et 

al. 2004). As reference data and for detailed studies 

anddevelopmentofintegratedint erpretation,airborne 

magnetic and radiometric, ground EM and resistivity, 

gravityandrefractionseismicmeasurementswerealso 

made. Results are compared to chemical and physical 

properties analysed from reference profile drilled 

through clay and silt sediments. 

Geology of the study area 

Thestudyareaissituatedinthe Kyrönjoki-Seinäjoki 

rivervalleyplaininthemunicipalitiesofSeinäjokiand 

62 

Ilmajoki (Fig.1). The landscape is typical of southern 

Ostrobothnian with low-lying river valleys filled with 

clay and silt sediments often reaching thickness of 20 

m. Bedrock outcrops, partly covered by till, delineate 

the river valleys. Fine-grained sediments in the river 

valleys are manly cultivated and they are situated at 

an altitude of 40 m a.s.l, whereas the adjacent gently 

undulating hills often reach an altitude of 60–90 m 

a.s.l. The surface relief of Kyrönjoki river valley is 

relatively flat with minor topographical differences 

mainly caused by recent human activities related to 

ditching and the prevention of spring flooding. The 

bedrock in the study area is mostly composed of mica 

schists (Mäkitie & Lahti 1991, Mäkitie et al. 1991). 

Previousdrillingresultsshowthattheglacioaquatic 

and postglacial organic rich clay and silt sediments in 

the Kyrönjoki river valley are typically about 20 m 

in total thickness (Kukkonen 1990a,b) and they were 

deposited during the earlier, more extensive stages of 

the Baltic Sea. According to Kukkonen (1983), the 

lowermost 1–2 m of fine-grained sediment was deposited 

during the Yoldia Sea period, the middle part 

during the Ancylus Lake period and the upper part 

during the Litorina Sea period. The highest shoreline 

of the Litorina Sea lies at 60 m a.s.l. The uppermost 

sedimentary unit, usually less than 1 m in thickness, 

is only found near the Kyrönjoki river, where annual 

spring flooding has maintained wetland areas. 

Based on 30 studied soil profiles Österholm (1998) 

estimated that two-thirds of the soils in the Rintala 

reclamation area, situated within the survey area of 

this study, are very acid, having a minimum pH value 

in the oxidised layer of around 3.5. In soils with very 

Fig. 1. Location map of the survey area in the Seinäjoki region of Ostrobothnia, western Finland. The highest shoreline, 

which delineates subaquatic and supraquatic land (3), the isobases (4) of the highest shoreline, and the shoreline of 

Litorina Sea (2) and the present coast line (1) is marked (after Alalammi 1992).


Geophysical characterising of sulphide rich fine-grained sediments... 

Fig. 2. Map of Quaternary deposits in Senäjoki-Ilmajoki region. The ground geophysical lines and sampling/drilling sites are marked. Soil sampling 

locations of Österholm (1998) are marked with stars (pH ≤ 4) and triangles (pH > 4) indicating minimum pH value for individual soil profiles of about 

3 m deep (Pohjakartta © Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 13/MYY105). 

low pH values the sulphur concentration was typically 

0.25–0.8 % in the reduced layer and the carbon 

content 1–3% in the oxidised layer. Whereas in the 

rest of the soil profiles the minimum pH was seldom 

less than 5, the sulphur content in the reduced layer 

was typically 4 %. 

Sampling and laboratory analyses 

Drilling was conducted by GM 100 drilling rig 

applying a piston sampler with a sampling tube 2 m 

in length and a 45 mm inner diameter. The drilling 

locations are shown in Figure 4. Standard sedimentological 

procedures were applied for the logging of 

drilled samples. Continuous piston core samples of 

soft sediments, i.e., clay, silt or fine sand were opened 

in the laboratory. Coarse-grained sediments difficult 

to penetrate with the piston corer were sampled by 

flow-through-bit and only studied in 1 m intervals or 

in intervals related to the changes of the penetration 

rate indicating consistency differences of the sediment. 

Flow-through-bit samples were studied in the 

field and they reveal only scattered information on 

major sediment units. 

Resistivity and pH values of core samples were 

immediately performed after piston cores have been 

opened in the laboratory. The measurements were 

performed through the surface as quickly as possible 

in order to obtain measurement from unoxidised sediment. 

The laboratory system consists of HP 35665A 

Signal Analyser and a Wenner-type electrode array 

with 1 cm long steel electrodes and 1 cm electrode 

spacing. Measurements were conducted at an interval 

of 10 cm in drilled cores. The pH of the samples was 

determined by a portable analyser. 

After logging, resistivity and pH measurements 

piston cores were sampled at approximately 0.5–1 m 

intervals. Samples consisted of about 0.1 m sequence 

of piston core. In all, 75 soil samples were chemically 

analysed at the Geolaboratory of GTK. Prior chemical 

analyses the soil samples were lyophilised. Fluoride, 

chloride, bromide,nitrateandsulphateconcentrations 

were determined from the water leached samples by 

ion chromatography (Dionex DX120). Total sulphur 

concentration was analysed with LECO equipment. 

Geophysical data and interpretation 

The airborne data was acquired using the GTK’s 

(Geological Survey of Finland) Twin Otter aircraft 

equipped with magnetic (horizontal gradiometer 

63



– two magnetometers at the wingtips), radiometric 

(earth’s gamma radiation – total count, Th, K, U 

channels), and dual-frequency EM system (3125 Hz 

and 14368 Hz). The vertical coplanar coils, mounted 

on the wingtips, have a separation of 21.36 metres. 

Adetailed description of the EM system is given by 

Poikonen etal. (1998).The nominal flight altitude was 

30 m and the line spacing 100 m. Altogether, 89 lines 

were measured. 

Ground EM measurements were carried out using 

the multi-frequency horizontal loop slingram method 

(APEX MaxMin I+8S system). Six frequencies (880, 

Fig. 3. Airborne geophysical maps of the Seinäjoki study area – magnetic map (upper left), Total radiation (upper right), Electromagnetic in-phase 

component, 3.1 kHz (lower left) and the apparent depth, 14.4 kHz (lower right). 

64 

1760, 3520, 7040, 14080 and 28160 Hz) were measured. 

Nominal coil spacing of 40 m was used in all 

ground EM profiles. Also measurements with terrain 

conductivity metres (EM-31 & GEM-300) have been 

made along the slingram profiles. 

Airbornemagneticsismostusefulformappingbedrockgeology(Fig.3,upperleft).Anomaliesarecaused 

by magnetic remanence and magnetic susceptibility. 

Magnetic susceptibility affects the EM responses, but 

in this study are there are no signs of that. Conductive 

overburden dampens the possible contribution of 

anomalous susceptibility of bedrock.

The Earth’s measured gamma radiation, through 

airborne radiometrics, is highlighted in the uppermost 

surface material. Values of K, U and Th channels and 

their ratios have also been used to assist mapping soil 

deposits in Finland (Hyvönen et al. 2003). Radiometrics 

gives a measure of the radioactive mineral content 

of the surface, but the intensity of radiation is also affected 

by the moisture/water content of the uppermost 

part of the surface. Figure 3 (upper right) shows the 

map of the total count channel. The strongest signal 

reflects the exposed bedrock. The lowest values show 

the wetlands and mires. Variation in water or moisture 

content of surface soils is also observable in areas of 

fine-grained sediments. 

AEM and EM expose the sub-surface conductivity 

structure. Here we are interested in conductive 

overburden and that conductivity which is related 

to sulphide-bearing fine-grained sediments. Some 

of the magnetic anomaly zones are also conductive 

(Fig. 3 left, magnetic and EM in-phase at 3125 Hz). 

In AEM interpretation the contribution these zones 

make could only be seen in areas without conductive 

overburden. Variation in moisture and water content 

of surface soils has an effect on the conductivity of 

the uppermost part of the sediments. This could be 

seen in ground EM measurement, e.g. in the results 

of the terrain conductivity metres. 

The maps of apparent resistivity and depth are 

useful for first-pass interpretation. These maps are 

provided together with the measuring quantities. 

Apparent resistivity and apparent distance mean that 

the resistivity of a homogeneous half-space and that 

distance of that half-space from the sensor system, 

which explain measured in-phase a nd quadrature 

responses (Fraser 1978; Peltoniemi 1982). Apparent 

depth is then apparent distance minus measured 

flight altitude. This transformation is the simplest 1D 

interpretation method. 

Resistivity mapping is a proper display method for 

AEM data, at least in these low resistive clay areas. 

Here the conducting homogeneous half-space can be 

quite a valid model toexplain the measured responses. 

The skin depth is one measure of electrical attenuation 

(e.g. Peltoniemi 1982). Assuming a resistivity 

of 7 Ω m, the skin depths are 23.8 and 11.1 m for the 

low and high frequency, respectively. In the deeper 

parts of this clay area the apparent resistivities (at 

high frequency at least) are near the spatial average 

resistivity of these fine-grained sediments. 

In this study, 1D layered-earth interpretation of the 

EM data was made with model norm -based inversion. 

In the 1D model, the earth is composed of a stack of 

layers, each having a uniform conductivity. The 1D 

conductivity structure, i.e., the conductivities of each 



layer,issoughtbytheregularizedinversion.Thegoalis 

tofindforevery measuringpointa minimum-structure 

model,whichcanfitthemeasurementdatasufficiently 

well. The 1D responses and sensitivity matrices have 

beencalculatedbytheAirbeoprogram(Chen&Raiche 

1998). The minimization of objective function (data 

misfit + β x model norm ) has been carried out with 

Haber’s (1997) damped Gauss-Newton algorithm. 

The EM system of Twin Otter (at 3125 and 14368 

Hz) is most sensitive to the conductivity of a halfspace 

in conductivity aperture of ~ 0.02 – 1 S/m (50 

– 1 Ω m). Achange in conductivity will cause clearly 

noticeable changes in at least 3 measured responses 

(in both in-phase components and at least in one quadrature 

component). So with two-frequency AEMdata 

wecanalsogetreasonable results, and the interpreted 

variationsinconductivityandthickness oftheoverlyingconductingsedimentsdepictthetrueconductivity 

structureofthesediments. 

Thevolumeof theearth contributing to theresponse 

of an AEM system is said to be the illumination footprint 

of the system. There are different definitions 

of the footprint; originally Liu and Becker (1990) 

defined it as a side length of a square surface, centred 

directly below the transmitter coil that contains the 

induced currents which accounts for 90% of the observed 

secondary field. Beamish (2003) has defined 

a transmitter footprint using only induced current. 

We have visualized the illumination footprints of 

used EM systems by using 3D sensitivity functions 

(distributions) of these coil systems (Suppala et al. 

2003). Considering the footprint of the ground EM 

systems the electromagnetic coupling between the 

induced current system and the receiver should be 

takenintoaccount,asintheLiu-Beckerfootprint(Reid 

& Vrbancich 2004) or in the 3D sensitivity functions 

approach. The footprint of the EM system is only 

one qualitative measure of its lateral resolution, and 

usually these estimates have been calculated using a 

homogeneous half-space. 

For the AEM system ofthe Twin Otter the most 

sensitiveregion isbelowthecoil systemandelongated 

perpendiculartotheflightdirection.Verticalcoilswhose 

axes are oriented parallel tothe flightline means agood 

spatial resolution along the flightline and an adequate 

lateral coverage perpendicular to the flight line. For 

the ground horizontal loop system, the most sensitive 

region is elongated along the profile between the coils. 

FortheAEMsystemthefootprintislargerthanforthe 

APEX MaxMin ground EM system withthe coil spacingof40m.Thefootprintofthe 

terrain conductivity 

metres EM-31 with the coil separations of 3.66 mis 

less than10m. 

65



Fig. 4. Airborne electrical conductivity map (apparent resistivity, 14.4 kHz), the ground geophysical lines and drilling sites (D-1, D-2). The lines L2 

and L5 and AEM lines 42, 43 and 44 are discussed in Figures 5, 6 and 8. 

Results 

Figure 3 (lower right) shows the map of apparent 

depth and Figure 4 shows the map of apparent resistivity,transformedfromtheAEMmeasurementsat14368 

kHz. With the apparent depths the validity of the 1D 

homogeneous half-space model can be assessed. In 

areas where the apparent depth is negative, the cause 

of the AEM response is most probably a thin low resistive 

overburden and the apparent resistivity value 

overestimatestheaverageresistivityoftheoverburden. 

In Figure 3 these negative apparent depths are shown 

the bluish colours. 

The apparent resistivity and depth maps show that 

the main part of the low resistive clay and silt sediment 

area seems to be thick enough for this kind of 

interpretationwhen theAEM data at 14368 Hz is used. 

There the apparent resistivities are spatial averages 

of true resistivity of these sediments. Small positive 

apparent depths indicate that the uppermost part of 

the sediment is more resistive than the deeper part. 

66 

The apparent depth map delineates the Kyrönjoki 

riverbank (see the topography in Figure 5), so that 

there the uppermost more resistive layer seems to be 

thicker than elsewhere in the cultivated area. 

One 4 km long gravity profile (L-5) and three short 

refraction seismic lines (on L-5) were measured in 

order to get reference data (i.e., the thickness of the 

Quaternary sediments) for EM interpretation (Fig. 5). 

Seismics provides information also on the water table 

as well as the quality of the sediments. 

Figure 6 shows the inversion result from the profile 

L-2 (shown in Fig. 4). The slingram profile runs over 

the low-resistivity sediments and the buried ice-marginal 

deposits (at D-2) (Lintinen et al. 2003). D-1 and 

D-2 are drilling sites. In Figure 6 resistivity data from 

the drilling site D-1 is presented in the separate box. 

Also shown is the measured and modeled slingram 

data. Excluding the 3D effect caused by the buried 

ice-marginal deposits, the 1D model explains the 

measurements well. In the 1D interpretation also the 

true coil spacing has been considered as an unknown



Fig. 5. 2D bedrock relief model based on gravity and refraction seismic data, line L-5. Groundwater table is interpreted 

from the refraction seismic data. 

parameter. It has been estimated carefully from the 

field data. The inverted and measured resistivities are 

consistent with each other. 

Figure 7 shows the electrical conductivity of drillcore 

samples from the drilling site D-1 (the same data 

asintheboxinFigure6)andtheinversionresultsfrom 

theAEM data and from electrical resistivity tomography 

(ERT). The ERT data is 80 m to SE of the drilling 

site (along the line L-2). The inversion results are in 

good agreement with the drill-core samples, as well 

as the results in Figure 6. According to the inverted 

ERT results, the resistivity of the uppermost surface 

is lower when moving to SE along the line L-2. This 

resistivity decrease in the uppermost layer could be 

seen approximately in Figure 6 and from the inverted 

AEM results. 

Figure 8 shows a comparison between airborne and 

ground EM inversion results. The ground geophysical 

Fig. 6. An example of 1D inversion of ground EM data, resistivity model (lower) and measured and fitted data. Drillcore 

resistivity data from drilling site D-1 is presented in the separate box. 

67



measurements along the line L-5 were carried out in 

2003 and the flight in 2002. TheAEM lines 42, 43 and 

44 (Fig. 4) cross the ground EM line L-5. The slingram 

inversion results are fairly consistent with the gravity 

andseismicinterpretationbutalsoshow“higher-resistivity” 

layers between the low-resistivity fine-grained 

sediments and the high-resistivity bedrock. TheAEM 

system cannot detect the contact between the possible 

coarse (high-resistivity) sediments and the bedrock, 

but resolves only the biggest resistivity contrast (i.e., 

between the low-resistivity fine-grained sediments 

and the material below it). 

The inversion results of theAEM and slingram data 

(e.g. from Figs. 6,8,10) show that here the slingram 

system operating at 6frequencies has abetter depth 

resolution withaslightlydeeperexploration depththan 

theAEMdual-frequencysystem. 

Drilling at D-1 terminated at a depth of 20.1 m. Neither 

bedrock nor till was detected. The whole drilled 

sequence consists of soft clay, silt and sand-sized sediments, 

which are divided into three lithostratigraphical 

units. The lowermost unit from a depth of 20.1 m 

to 17 m is composed of laminated clay and silt/fine 

sand. In each rhythmite coarser layers are from 2 to 

10 cm in thickness and finer layers are from 0.3 to 

1.0 cm in thickness. Dropstone structures with pebble-size 

clasts were observed in this unit. This unit is 

also characterised by low sulphate, total sulphur and 

68 

Fig.7.Comparisonbetweentheelectricalconductivityofdrill-coresamples 

and the inversion results of the AEM data and ground resistivity data. The 

ground resistivity data is 80 m to SE from the drilling site. 

chloride concentration (Fig. 9). The lamina thickness 

gradually decreases and dark sulphide rich laminated 

clay and silt with 1–3 mm lamina thickness overlies 

the lowermost unit. In this unit chloride concentration 

is distinctively elevated compared to the unit below. 

At a depth of 12–11 m the laminated sediment unit 

Fig. 8. Comparison between AEM and ground EM inversion results (see Figure 4). Note that AEM lines 42, 43 and 44 crosses line L-5 and the gravity 

and seismic data (the inverted bedrock surface) is from line 5.

gradually changes to the upper weakly laminated or 

massive sulphide clay and silt unit. This unit is characterised 

by total sulphur concentrations of 0.3–1.0 

%. The Cl 2 concentrations do not correlate with the 

totalSconcentrations.Theresultwasexpectedbecause 

both results indicate different geochemical regime in 

a water body. The overall decrease of chloride from 

deeper layers to the surficial layers possibly indicates 

the natural decrease of salinity during the Litorina Sea 

period. Subaerial leaching can not totallybe excluded, 

but its effect may be minimal. This view is supported 

by the fact that the Rintala area was artificially drained 

for agricultural purposes by ditching and pumping 

only few decades ago. Also the low permeability of 

fine-grainedsediment,andthegroundwatertableatthe 

depth of about 2 m support the view that the leaching 

effect has had a minimal effect on the chloride content 

of the profile studied. 

discussion and concluding remarks 

Peltoniemi(1982)validatedone-frequencylowaltitudeAEM 

data, which was measured by DC-3 aircraft 

with a vertical coaxial coils system and showed the 

usefulness of the simple 1D models in area of lowresistivity 

fine-grained sediments. He made his test 

at a distance of less than 10 km from the Rintala area 

along the lower course of the Kyrönjoki river. The 

typical layer-structure of the overburden is, according 

to the results of Peltoniemi (1982): organic soil 

in the surface (45–120 Ω m), sulphide clay and gyttja 

(7–21 Ω m), and till (> 340 Ω m). Asimilar resistivity 



Fig. 9. Chemical data from drilling site D-1 (a), Comparison between the electrical conductivity of drill-core samples and chemistry. 

Note the similarity of the conductivity-depth curve and the sum of the water-soluble chloride and sulphate. 

structure is obtained in the Rintala area, where the 

resistivity of the fine-grained sediment can be still 

less than 5 Ω m. 

Puranenetal. (1999a,b)and (1999a,b)andÅström(1996)showed 

Åström(1996)showed 

that by using one-frequency airborne EM data, the occurrenceoflow-resistivitysulphide-bearingsediments 

can be delineated. With two-frequency AEMdatawe 

canalso interpretvariationsinthe resistivityandthick - 

ness oftheoverlyinglowresistivesediments. 

Theslingram system operating at6frequencies has 

abetterdepthresolution withslightlydeeperexploration 

depth than theAEM dual-frequency system. The 

groundEMhasabetterspatialre solutiontoo.Toincrease 

the depth resolution of theAEM system it should be 

upgraded to operate at more than two frequencies. A 

frequencyhigher than 14368Hzwould help toresolve 

subtle resistivity variations near the surface, while 

afrequency lower than 3125 Hz wo uld increase the 

exploration depth.Togainthebest possibleresolution 

fromanEMsystemthecalibrationandlevellingshould 

be done properly. 

The thicknesses of the fine-grained deposit, inverted 

from the AEM data, were in good agreement 

with other available data. Furthermore, the resistivity 

distributions based on AEM data were very similar to 

the drill-core, resistivity soundings and ground EM 

results.Thehighelectricalconductivityofthesulphide 

clay arises from the salinity and sulphate of the pore 

water. However, the salinity originates from the same 

depositional environment as the sulphides, and the 

results strongly suggest that the AEM data can be an 

economic tool for regional scale sulphide clay maps 

69



and acidification predictions. The other geophysical 

data played invaluable role not only as reference and 

calibration data for AEM interpretation, but also in 

characterisation of soil types. 

The need to resolve conductivity variation near the 

surface and at depth over a large area suggested an 

airborne EM system as most appropriate. Here we 

have usedAEM data tocomplement other information 

(with higher resolution), ground EM measurements 

and in-situ conductivities,todelineatethe conductivity 

structure in the area (Fig. 10). We have not constrained 

one inversion using in-situ or inverted conductivities 

from other data sets. By comparing the different results 

we can validate e.g. the calibration of the AEM 

measurement. 

Duetotopographycontrolleddepositionanderosion 

processes, as well as differences in redox conditions 

prevailing in the water body and sediment, the results 

gathered from one area are not directly applicable to 

another research area without new reference drilling, 

sampling and chemical analyses. However, when 

the basin-related relationship between chemistry 

and EM-results are carefully worked out the applied 

integrated methodology shows great potential characterising 

potentially problematic sulphur-rich clay 

and silt deposits. 

70 

Fig. 10. 3D Model of the electrical resistivity based on 1D inversion of AEM and ground EM data. 

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71



72



Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 38, 73– 82, 2005. 

EvAluATiON OF PORTAblE X-RAy FluORESCENCE (PXRF) SAMPlE PREPARATiON 

METhOdS 

Jussi V-P. Laiho 

by 

Laiho 1) and Paavo Perämäki 2) 

1) Geological Survey of Finland (GTK), Geolaboratory, PO Box 96 FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland 

Present address: AEL, Kaarnatie 4, FI-00410 Helsinki, Finland 

2) University of Oulu, Department of Chemistry, PO Box 3000 FIN-90014 Oulu, Finland 

E-mail: jussi.laiho@ael.fi 

Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): environmental geology, soils, pollution, heavy metals, X-ray fluorescence, in situ, measurement, 

sample preparation 

introduction 

The performance of four different field-based port - 

able X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) instruments for the 

determinationofheavy-metalcontentsincontaminated 

soils were evaluated. Instead of inter-comparison of 

the instruments, this investigation focused on testing 

of several different sample preparation methods for 

the assessment of contaminated soil. The results obtained 

by PXRF methods were compared with results 

obtained by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission 

spectrometry (ICP-AES) and X-ray fluorescence 

spectrometry (XRF). 

In this study, the soil moisture and the particle size 

of the samples were the two factors, which mostly 

affected the trueness of the results. These effects were 

observed with all of the tested PXRF instruments. 

The work highlighted the importance of sample 

preparation when analysing soil samples at contaminated 

sites by PXRF instruments. As a conclusion of 

the study, a list of recommendations was produced 

for sampling and measurement of contaminated soil 

samples by PXRF. 

It is desirable for the PXRF measuring method to 

be simple, inexpensive and fast, but at the same time 

capable of producing analytical data of low detection 

limits and high reliability. This puts several demands 

on quality control and sample preparation procedures. 

On the other hand, the greater the requirement for accuracy 

and precision required, the more difficult the 

procedure will be to run. 

Field-based portable X-ray fluorescence analysers 

operate on the principle of energy dispersive X-ray 

fluorescencespectrometry,wherebythec haracteristic 

X-ray excited spectra are analysed directly taking into 

account their energy proportional response in an Xray 

detector. Traditionally PXRF analysers have used 

sealed radioisotope sources to excite samples with 

gamma rays and X-rays of the appropriate energy. 

During the last two years, however, a few manufacturers 

have introduced analysers that utilise a rugged 

X-ray tube instead of radioactive isotopes. 

In situations where the precision, accuracy, and 

detection limits of the XRF technology are consistent 

withthedataqualityobjectivesofasitecharacterisation 

project, PXRF provides a fast, powerful, non-destruc - 

tive, and cost effective technology for multielemental 

analysis.Inrecentyears,thePXRFanalysershavebeen 

appliedincreasinglytoenvironmentalcharacterisation 

and remediation measurements, particularly in the 

analysis of heavy metal contaminants in soils. 

In 1995, the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency 

(EPA) supported a study of innovative PXRF technology 

at two Superfund sites to characterise the 

73


Jussi V-P. Laiho and Paavo Perämäki 

performance of the latest models of commercially 

available PXRF analysers. This study found that the 

PXRF analysers were effective tools for field-based 

analysis of soil samples for metal contamination. The 

data from these trials provided background material 

for the creation of a draft method (EPA1998). This 

method provides guidance to users of PXRF for environmental 

characterisation. 

It is well known that accuracy of the XRF technique 

is dependant on the homogeneity of the samples. 

PXRF should, therefore, be defined as a screening 

method used together with confirmatory analysis of 

laboratory methods. Furthermore, the quality and 

precision of PXRF results are strongly dependent on 

sample collection and sample preparation methods 

(including sieving and drying) and calibration of 

instruments. XRF emission of a particular element is 

usually stronglydependent on the nature of the sample 

matrix and interfering elements that might be present. 

Site-specificreferencesamplesthathavesimilarmatrix 

characteristics to the samples to be analysed, are used 

in some procedures to optimise calibrations 

Several approaches can be used for calibrating XRF 

analysers(KalnickyandSinghvi2 001).Onemethodis 

based on the fundamental parameter method, another 

method is to perform an empirical calibration based 

on site-specific calibration standards analysed by an 

appropriate reference method. 

Measuring soil samples by XRF-based techniques 

usually requires multi-step sample preparation procedures 

in order to obtain accurate and precise results. 

Elementsingeologicalsamplesareusuallydetermined 

by XRF using loose powder samples that have been 

fused as a glass disk or pressed as powder pellets 

(Potts 1987). 

Currently PXRF instruments are used to an increasing 

extent to provide immediate results at lower costs, 

than conventional laboratory techniques, in particular 

in connection with the investigation and remediation 

ofcontaminatedsoilandgroundwater. On-siteanalysis 

is thus performed by the field staff using simple equip - 

mentandnon-standardisedmethodsandwithoutcostly 

andtime-consumingqualityassurance(QA)schemes. 

The major disadvantage of any scheme that does not 

incorporate an appropriate QAprocedure is that the 

analytical quality of the data is not then known, i.e.: 

it is not possible to know the precision and the bias 

associated with the data, or even if the equipment is 

functioning properly. 

The primary aim of this study is to recognise and 

minimise systematic errors related to in homogeneity 

and matrix effects of the sample, which may be 

associated with measurements when analysing soil 

samplescontaminatedwithheavymetalsbyPXRFand 

74 

to improve the reliability of results, without creating 

procedures that are too complicated for routine use. 

Site descriptions 

The sites selected for field study represent typical 

sites contaminated with heavy metals in southern 

Finland (Table 1). 

SiteA:Thefirstsitewasafallowfieldattheoutskirts 

of the city of Lohja about 50 km northwest of Helsinki. 

Awood impregnation plant had operated at this site, 

causing slightly raised As, Cu, and Cr concentrations 

(typically 50-1000 mg kg -1 ). Investigations of this site 

were focused on an area of 200 m 2 in order to find the 

“hot spots” of the site. 

Site B:An industrial area of about 40 000 m 2 located 

in the city of Vantaa near Helsinki. Here, the heavy 

metal pollution derives from Pb smelting in the 20 th 

century. Recent I CP-AES analyses (Laiho 2003) 

revealed Pb concentrations between 100 and 80000 

mg kg -1 in the top 0 – 400 mm soil layer. 

Site C:Ashooting range in central Finland. Several 

sand samples were found to be contaminated with Pb. 

Samples from this area was primarily used for intercomparison 

of the four PXRF instruments. 

Experimental 

Sampling 

Several persons from different organisations collected 

soil samples, using different techniques. The 

uncertainty due to variation in sampling practices is 

not taken into consideration, and therefore the term 

sample is used here to note for an untreated fresh 

sample. 

Materials 

Samples were collected by traditional methods 

usinghandauger(drill)andshovel,afterremoving 

the surface vegetation from the sampling point. 

Washing all the equipments by water between the 

samples eliminated gross contamination. Table 1 

describes the sample material used for these investigations. 

Sampleswerehomogenised manually 

and stored in thin polypropylene bags (Minigrip, 

PE-LD04). Non contaminated plasticNylon sieves 

(

Sample(s) Sampling 

site 

Blank Unknown 

Reference sample, 

GTKREF1 

Reference sample, 

GTKREF2 

Unknown 

Soil type Used for following 

investigations 

Sand Control of PXRF 

instruments 

Sand Control of PXRF 

instruments 

Site B Sand Control of PXRF 

instruments 

Sample A Site A Clay Limit of detection, 

sample preparation 

tests 

Sample B Site B Sand Precision of PXRF 

on high level concentration 

of Pb 

Eleven C samples 

(Fig. 5) 

Sample preparation methods 

Table 1. Sample materials used for the investigations. 

NIST CRM 2710 Montana 

soil 

NIST CRM 2711 Montana 

Soil 

The typical size of samples was 500-1000 g. The 

samples were split into sub-samples of about 100 g. 

These were used for testing varying parameters, such 

as grain size (0.5 mm and 2.0 mm), humidity, count 

time of the measurement (from 30 s to 240 s), and 

temperature (between –5 ° C and +25 ° C). 

In the study mentioned above, the simplest fieldbased 

sample preparation method consisted of removing 

vegetation and other organic material, as well as 

particles larger than 10 mm. The sample (samples 

Aand B) was homogenised manually in a plastic 

bag. Samples were neither dried nor sieved, and the 

measurement was taken directly through the bag on a 

small wooden table without replicate measurements, 

using a 30 s count time. 

Themostcomplicatedofthetestedfield-basedsample 

preparation procedures was similar to the sample 

preparation preceding ICP-AES determination in the 

laboratory(InternationalOrganizationofStandardization 

1994). In this method, the soil samples (sub-samples 

from sites Aand B) were dried at a temperature 

< 70 ° C for 24 hours and sieved to < 2.0 mm or


Jussi V-P. Laiho and Paavo Perämäki Perämäki 

• Use 120 seconds count time 

• Perform a minimum of three replicate measurements 

• Report all three results, calculate the average 

• Record observations and decisions 

• Confirm at least 5 % of the results by alternative, 

preferably accredited, analytical methods 

• Measure control samples, a blank sample and a 

reference sample, before and after every sample 

set (also after every ten samples or after service 

of instrument) 

• Clean and/or service the instrument if control 

sample measurement fall outside approval range 

• Service the instrument if drift control measurement 

fall outside approval range (if provided by 

manufacturer) 

To obtain more reliable PXRF measurements, following 

should also be considered: 

• Compare in situ results to confirmatory laboratory 

results to obtain a correlation curve and/or prepare 

severalcalibrationsamplestodeterminecorrelation 

curve 

• Extend the count time to up to 300 seconds 

• Use up to 10 replicate measurements instead of 

three 

• Prepare duplicate samples 

• Carry out measurements on samples prepared as 

pressed powder pellets 

instrumental analysis 

XRF 

All the laboratory XRF analyses and measurements 

were carried out at the Geolaboratory of Geological 

Survey of Finland in Espoo. The in-house reference 

material was analysed by Philips PW 1480 XRF spectrometerinthelaboratoryusingpressedpowderpellets. 

Pellets were prepared by weighting dried and sieved 

soil samples from site B (Table 1) in to a pulverising 

swing-mill (Herzog HSM 100P) and pulverised in a 

carbonsteelbowl.Forpreparationofthepressedpellet, 

7.0 g of pulverised (< 75 µm) sample was mixed with 

0.4 g of organic binder and pulverised in a tungsten 

carbide bowl to obtain a grain size of 95 % < 10 µm. 

The pulverised pulp was pressed into a pellet at 20 

tons, using a steel piston press. Pellets were stored in 

76 

a closed polypropylene bag at room temperature, in 

order to avoid contamination. 

ICP-AES 

All the laboratory ICP-AES analyses and measurementswerecarrie 

doutattheGeol aboratoryofGeol ogi - 

cal Survey of Finland in Espoo. An ICP-AES Thermo 

Jarrel Ash IRIS Advantage instrument was used for 

obtaining reference data to compare with the PXRF 

results. Sieved soil samples (from sites A, B and C) 

were analysed by ICP-AES using an internationally 

accepted method for soil analysis, the ISO standard 

method 11464. The acid leach was performed as follows: 

2.00 (±0.10) g of soil sample were digested with 

12 ml of aqua regia (9.0 ml HCl + 3.0 ml HNO3) at 90 

ºC for 8 hours. After addition of 50 ml H2O, samples 

were centrifuged for 20 minutes at 3000 rpm (Jouan C 

412).Theclearsolutionwasusedfor(further)analysis. 

An in-house reference material of pulverised soil was 

used as a control sample. 

PXRF 

Four PXRF analysers were used for the sample 

preparation study for inter-comparison of Pb-contaminated 

sand samples (Table 2). 

The preliminary analyses of the study samples were 

carriedoutbothinthelaboratoryandunderfieldconditions 

for comparing the PXRF instruments. Samples 

fortheinter-comparisonstudywerecollectedfromsite 

C. The minimum amount of sample for measurement 

was about 10 g, which formed a layer of about 10 mm 

in the plastic bag used in the procedure. Further field 

measurementsandtestsonsamplepreparationmethods 

were undertaken with the INNOV-X analyser. 

Calibration and quality control (QC) and quality 

assurance (QA) of PXRF´s 

PXRFinstrumentscanbeusedforseveralpurposes, 

each requiring different QC and QA procedures. 

Typically, PXRF instruments have been used for 

locating contaminated areas, in particular hotspots, 

when absolute values are not as important as finding 

a variation of high and low values. 

In this study internal calibration, using fundamental 

parameters software chosen by individual, was used. 

PXRF instruments also require user to make drift 

correction, for example with a stainless steel plate, 

before starting the measurements. 

Asacompromisebetweenideaqualityassuranceand 

ease of operation, two control samples, one reference 

sample and one blank sample of uncontaminated sand

Table 2. Technical specifications of the PXRF-analysers used for the investigations. 


Evaluation of portable x-ray fluorescence... 

MODEL: INNOV-X X-MET 2000 NITON XLi 700 NITON XLt 700 

Manufacturer Innov-X-Sys - 

tems, USA 

Operation 

principle 

X-ray source X-ray tube, silver 

anode 

Detector High resolution 

Si-PIN 

Cooling system Thermo electrical 

Main 

components 

Metorex Inc., 

Finland 

Niton Corp., USA Niton Corp., USA 

EDXRF EDXRF EDXRF EDXRF 

Single unit with 

integrated PC 

55 Fe, 109 Cd, 

241 Am-isotopes 

High resolution 

Si-PIN 

Thermo electrical 

SIPS-probe and 

PC-unit 

Weight 1.8 kg 1.6 kg 

(5.8 kg with PC) 

55 Fe, 109 Cd, 

241 Am-isotopes 

High performance 

Si-PIN 

X-ray tube, silver 

anode 

High Performance 

Si-PIN 

Thermo electrical Thermo electrical 


VGA touch screen 

0.72 kg 1.4 kg 


VGA touch screen 

Table 3. Results of the reference samples analysed by INNOV-X PXRF instrument and reference 

values by well-established laboratory methods using the XRF and ICP-AES techniques (mg kg -1 ). 

Sample name: Elements PXRF 

(ppm ±SD) 

GTKREF 1 Mn 500±93 * 400 92 

GTKREF 1 Cu 550±41 * 170 150 

GTKREF 1 Zn 570±67 41 30 

GTKREF 1 As 54±16 * 46 46 

GTKREF 1 Pb



(Table 1), were measured after each ten samples, as 

well as at the beginning and in the end of each sample 

set. The reference materials used in this study were 

also analysed in the laboratory by XRF using pressed 

powder pellets and by ICP-AES after acid extraction 

(Table 3.). 

An average of 25 replicate measurements by PXRF 

were used on field to control the sampling and measuring 

conditions, precision and the bias associated 

with the data. Only elements described above were 

determined from the samples (site Aand site B). The 

reference sample and blank sample were chosen to 

represent the soil type and elements at the site, even 

if some of the measurements were close to detection 

limits. 

Therecanbeseveralreasonsforlowdetectionlimits; 

probablyasilveranodetubedoes noteffectivelyexcite 

Mn, Cu and Zn. Also the standard deviation (SD) was 

varying between the different soil types. The low Mn 

result analysed by ICP-AES is thought to be due to 

some minerals not completely soluble to acid. 

Preliminary tests on different (site-characteristic) 

empirical calibration procedures were run with NIST 

standard reference materials (Table 3), but those were 

found to be too complicated for routine use under field 

conditions.However,sitecharacteristiccalibrationcan 

be recommended for minimising the systematic error 

observed between different analytical methods. 

Results and discussion 

Preliminarytestswerecarriedoutunderfieldconditions 

(sites A, B and C) in order to test the simplest 

samplepreparationmethoddescribedabove.Untreated 

samples (size 500 - 1000 g) were put in plastic bags 

78 

Fig. 1. The effect of sieving on final results (average of ten measurements) of the PXRF measurement. 

Other elements were not detected in the sample (High concentrations of Ti and Fe result divided by 100 an 

Mn by 10). 

and measured by one PXRF analyser from different 

side of the sample. Relative difference between the 

highest and the lowest result rose up to 1000% with 

inhomogeneous samples containing particles of various 

sizes. Similar results were observed for all PXRF 

analysers when the test was repeated with the same 

sample. The relative difference was found the most 

significant when analysing wet samples, or inhomogeneous 

samples such as waste material. 

Another preliminary test, an inter-comparison test 

between different PXRF analysers, was run on site 

C. Eleven air dried sand samples were homogenised 

manually in plastic bags and analysed by four different 

PXRF analysers (Fig. 5). The yield of the PXRF 

analysers (ICP-AES = 100%) was measured to be 

between 65 % and 160 %. Accordingly it was judged 

that this test showed that PXRF analysers are suitable 

for analysing Pb from sand samples, as in this case the 

differences between results from different analysers 

was not significant. 

Thesepreliminarytestsshowedclearlythatsoiltype 

canstronglyeffecttherepeatabilityofPXRFmeasurements 

as well as the comparability of PXRF results 

to the laboratory analyses. Hence, it was essential to 

start developing PXRF measurements by evaluation 

of sample preparation methods. 

The first investigation, dealing with soil sample 

preparation procedures, was to evaluate the effect of 

sieving on the subsequently analysed elemental concentration, 

since particle size is known to affect the 

results of XRF analyses (Clark et al.1999). It is clear 

that the type of sample and the concentration levels 

also affect the results. The sample chosen for the first 

sievinginvestigationswasasandyclaysample(sample 

Afrom site A, Table 1), containing a concentration

Table 4. Comparison of Zn concentrations (mg kg -1 )in Finnish 

soil by particle size fraction as determined by PXRF during the 

sieving tests (n=10). 

Particle size Mean Lowest Highest Highest / 

lowest, % 

Total 81 48 115 240 

>2.0 mm 81 39 135 346 



ered when analysing soil samples by PXRF analysers 

from relatively unpolluted sites. 

In Figure 4 the detection limits of 9 environmentally 

important elements are compared with Finnish 

guideline values for contaminant concentrations in 

soil (Puolanne et al. 1994). It was observed that PXRF 

instruments could easily be applied for determination 

of low concentration levels of Pb and Zn, whereas 

there were some problems to detect even relatively 

high concentrations of Cr or Cd. Similar results were 

observed with all of the PXRF instruments tested. 

The effect of moisture content on the accuracy of 

PXRF measurement was investigated by adding 5 % 

- 40 % of distilled water to the dried and sieved sample. 

Water content of the soil sample was determined 

gravimetrically.Theresultsshowedclearlythatoverall 

error was minor when moisture content was small 

(5 %–15 %), and sample moisture contents above 

20 % was leading to significant errors in PXRF measurements 

of the tested types of materials. Moisture 

alters the matrix and therefore the penetration depth 

of the radiation. For example, the concentration of Pb 

and Zn in a dry sample was about 2.0 times higher 

than the concentration obtained for samples with 

moisture contents of 30 %. These results were similar 

to results of previous investigations (Kalnicky et al. 

1992, Laine-Ylijoki et al. 2002). 

Conclusions 

In this study it was observed that both different 

techniques and sample preparation affected the final 

results. According the results, it can be presumed that 

sample preparation can lead to more significant errors 

than the differences between PXRF instruments. Fur - 

80 

Fig. 3. Detection limits of some environmentally harmful elements determined by different PXRF methods, present study 

compared to EPA 6200. EPA = Environmental Protection Agency. GTK = Geological Survey of Finland. 

thermore, errors due to sample preparation can easily 

beminimisedbypropersamplepre parationtechniques. 

Thesestudiespointedoutthatso ilmoistureandparticle 

size of the samples were the two factors, which mostly 

affected the trueness of the results. As a conclusion 

of the study, a list of recommendations was produced 

for sampling and measurement of contaminated soil 

samples by PXRF. 

However, not all the errors can be avoided by more 

accurate sample preparation, and differences between 

thePXRFinstrumentsincreaseddramaticallywhensoil 

samples of high concentration levels (>1000 mg kg -1 ) 

were analysed without soil-characteristic calibration. 

This is suspected to be due to different fundamental 

calibration given by the instrument manufacturers. 

Therefore, it is always recommended to compare in 

situ results to confirmatory laboratoryresults to obtain 

a correlation curve and/or prepare several calibration 

samples to determine correlation curve before starting 

any big projects. 

During the study it was also observed that further 

work is needed for the improvement and harmonisation 

of the PXRF methods as well as quality control 

of in situ analyses. Various field methods are being 

developed, to an increasing extent, in order to optimise 

investigation and remediation of soil and ground 

water pollution. There is an urgent need to establish 

a common methodology for assessing the analytical 

quality of the data obtained, i.e. a set of practical QA 

schemes. The QAschemes should be a compromise 

betweenthelaboratoryQA(ENISO/IEC17025:2000) 

and the current very limited QAused for most field 

methods. A guide for environmental administrators 

should be provided to enable them to evaluate data 

obtained by these field methods properly. Harmonisa-


Evaluation of portable x-ray fluorescence... 

Fig. 4. Detection limits of some environmentally harmful elements measured in the field and compared with Finnish guideline 

values for contaminant concentrations in soil (Puolanne et al.1994). 

Fig. 5. An example of Inter comparison of four PXRF instrument: Pb concentration in sand from shooting range. Laboratory = ICP- 

AES. 

tion of methodologies would provide not only more 

reliable results of field measurements, but also more 

comparable results between all users. 

Good planning of the survey is needed before using 

PXRF for in situ field-based analysis, in order to gain 

as much information as possible on estimates of both 

concentration values and uncertainties, and to permit 

a realistic interpretation of the extent of contamination 

at the site. 

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Use of aField Portable X-rayFluorescence analyser todetermine 

theconcentration ofleadandothermetalsinsoil samples,Ann. 

Agric. Environ. Med. 1999, 6,27–32. 

ENiSO/iEC170252000. GeneralRequirementsfortheCompetence 

ofTestingandCalibration Laboratories,CENMarch2000. 

EPA1998. Method 6200:Field Portable X-rayFluorescence spectrometryforthedetermination 

ofelementalconcentrationsinsoil 

andsediment.EnvironmentalProtection Agency,USA. 

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Standard ISO 11464. 

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laine-ylijoki,J.,Rustad, i.,Syrjä,J-J.&wahlström,M.2002. 

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Papers published by Geological survey of Finland staff in 2003–2004 

PAPERS PubliShEd byGEOlOGiCAlSuRvEy OF FiNlANd STAFF iN 2003–2004 

The following list includes references from the database FIN- 

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Paleoproterozoic marbles in the Svecofennian Domain, Finland. 

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abstracts. Week B. Sapporo: IUGG, 262. 

Airo, M.-L.; Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, K. 2004. Characterization 

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Geological Survey of Finland Current Research 2003-2004

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