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EUROPEAN JOURNAL <strong>OF</strong> SOCIAL SCIENCES<br />
Editor-In-Chief<br />
Adrian M. Steinberg, Wissenschaftlicher Forscher<br />
ISSN: 1450-2267<br />
Volume 2, Number 1<br />
January, 2006<br />
Editorial Advisory Board<br />
Leo V. Ryan, DePaul University<br />
Richard J. Hunter, Seton Hall University<br />
Said Elnashaie, Auburn University<br />
Subrata Chowdhury, University of Rhode Island<br />
Teresa Smith, University of South Carolina<br />
Neil Reid, University of Toledo<br />
Mete Feridun, Cyprus International University<br />
Jwyang Jiawen Yang, The George Washington University<br />
Bansi Sawhney, University of Baltimore<br />
Hector Lozada, Seton Hall University<br />
Jean-Luc Grosso, University of South Carolina<br />
Ali Argun Karacabey, Ankara University<br />
Felix Ayadi, Texas Southern University<br />
Bansi Sawhney, University of Baltimore<br />
David Wang, Hsuan Chuang University<br />
Cornelis A. Los, Kazakh-British Technical University<br />
Jatin Pancholi, Middlesex University<br />
Teresa Smith, University of South Carolina<br />
Ranjit Biswas, Philadelphia University<br />
Chiaku Chukwuogor-Ndu, Eastern Connecticut State University<br />
John Mylonakis, Hellenic Open University (Tutor)<br />
M. Femi Ayadi, University of Houston-Clear Lake<br />
Wassim Shahin, Lebanese American University<br />
Katerina Lyroudi, University of Macedonia<br />
Emmanuel Anoruo, Coppin State University<br />
H. Young Baek, Nova Southeastern University<br />
Jean-Luc Grosso, University of South Carolina<br />
Yen Mei Lee, Chinese Culture University<br />
Richard Omotoye, Virginia State University<br />
Mahdi Hadi, Kuwait University<br />
Maria Elena Garcia-Ruiz, University of Cantabria<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences<br />
Volume 2, Number 1<br />
January, 2006<br />
Contents<br />
Motivation and labour turnover among university Teachers in southwestern nigeri ………………. 1-13<br />
Ologunde, Adedoyin Olusola, Asaolu, T.O., Elumilade, David Oladapo<br />
International Co-operation As A Necessary Condition Of Successful Counter-Terrorism ……….. 14-21<br />
Christos Floros, John Mylonakis<br />
Development Inequalities in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria ………………………………….. 22-37<br />
O. A. Ajala and A. S. Aguda<br />
An overview of selected theories of adult learning: implications for teacher education<br />
in the 21 st century nigeria. ……………………………………………………………………….. 38-44<br />
J. A. Aderinto<br />
Local government and fiscal stress in contemporary nigeria: an examination ……………………. 45-66<br />
Ayo A. Adesopo<br />
Some reflections on the reception of party autonomy and the freedom to contract in<br />
south african law ………………………………………………………………………………….. 67-73<br />
Riana Van Der Bank<br />
Concerns of nigerian preservice teachers and their implications for teacher education …………... 74-84<br />
Michael U.C. Ejie, Sunday A. Makinde, Michael U.C. ejieh<br />
High school learners’ attitudes, level of knowledge and level of discrimination<br />
towards individuals living with hiv/aids ………………………………………………………… 85-96<br />
C. Strydom, P. Podile<br />
The Child Naming Game amongst the Xhosas …………………………………………………... 97-101<br />
Nombulelo I. Monoana<br />
Making peace through the integrated science curruculum: a case study of the<br />
nigerian junior secondary school ……………………………………………………………….. 102-110<br />
Aladejana Anthony Aladejana, Francisca Aladejana<br />
A study of the prevalence of female genital mutilation and parents’ attitude<br />
among the yorubas of western Nigeria …………………………………………………………. 111-120<br />
B.I. Popoola<br />
Governance, Taxation and Fiscal Policy in Nigeria …………………………………………….. 121-135<br />
Olu Okotoni
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Impact of government-based strategy On employment generation and poverty<br />
Alleviation in Nigeria …………………………………………………………………………… 136-148<br />
Benjamin Ayodele Folorunso, Janet O. Olusi, Folorunso B. A.<br />
Making education services work for rural population ………………………………………….. 149-162<br />
M. A. Adelabu<br />
A Review of the Enrolment and Performance of Male and Female Students in<br />
Education / Economics Programme of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria …….. 163-168<br />
Bamidele A. Faleye, Odusola O. Dibu-Ojerinde<br />
Pre-College Economic Education: Aim, Usefulness and Content……..………………………...172-176<br />
Despina Makridou-Boussiou<br />
An Assessment of the Contact between Agricultural Extension Agents and Farmers………….178-192<br />
in Delta State of Nigeria<br />
Ofuoku, A. U. and Uzokwe, U.
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Motivation and Labour Turnover Among University Teachers<br />
in Southwestern Nigeria<br />
Ologunde, Adedoyin Olusola<br />
Department of Management and Accounting,<br />
Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile – Ife, Nigeria.<br />
Asaolu, T.O.<br />
Department of Management and Accounting<br />
Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.<br />
Elumilade, David Oladapo<br />
Department of Management and Accounting<br />
Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.<br />
Abstract<br />
The study examined the effect of motivation on labour turnover among university<br />
teachers in southwestern Nigeria. Subject for the study were four hundred and forty-two<br />
teachers drawn from two federal and two state universities in the southwestern zone of<br />
Nigeria. The stratified random sampling technique was used in the selection of subjects.<br />
Questionnaire method was used to collect relevant data for the study. The data collected<br />
from the survey ere analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics such as<br />
percentages, t- test and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Each of the two<br />
hypotheses postulated was tested at 0.05 level of significance and the results showed that<br />
motivation actually affect the labour turnover of the university teachers in southwestern<br />
Nigeria the findings also showed that the motivation strategies available for university<br />
teachers in Nigeria are inadequate for their continued stay in the university system and that<br />
techniques were relatively more motivated by non-economics factors. Economic<br />
incentives were found to be grossly inadequate for the retention of lecturers in the<br />
university system. It was therefore recommended that both economic and non-economic<br />
forms of motivation be employed to keep the university teachers on their job. Also, for<br />
continued stay, and reasonable level of effectiveness, the environment of the universities<br />
should be made more conductive for teaching.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Introduction<br />
The high rate at which university teachers quit their job in Nigeria is one of the problems facing<br />
university management in Nigeria. Lecturers quit their job usually as a result of unsatisfactory<br />
situations such as low motivation and poor conditions of service. Oladapo (1987), Ajayi and Ogunjobi<br />
(2001) and Longe Commission(1991), identified poor facilities, increased enrolment, under funding<br />
and poor staffing as problems of Nigerian universities. Such problems facing university management<br />
in Nigeria according to Ibukun (1997) and Ajayi and Ayodele (2002) include: brain drain syndrome;<br />
graduate unemployment; volatile and militant student unionism; poor student welfare service; rising<br />
private cost of university education; finance; the unmanageable social demand for education; the<br />
dichotomy between state and federal universities; drug addiction and secret cult; autonomy; conflict<br />
and so on. These problems have resulted in making the university environments not conducive for<br />
effective teaching – learning process; hence, some lecturers prefer to look out for another job where the<br />
environment is relatively more conducive. To ensure lecturers’ steadfastness and continued stay,<br />
university management should have willingness on the part of lecturers in addition to the right attitude,<br />
morale and commitment to make the required contributions in order to achieve a high level of<br />
production and performance. In general, it may be said that the degree to which this is achieved will<br />
largely depend on the motivational policy set up by the university management.<br />
Literature review<br />
Influence of motivation on workers’ behaviour<br />
Studies on the influence of motivation on workers behaviour and productivity dates back to 1911 when<br />
Fredrick W. Taylor the father of scientific management theory presented his ideas on “Pierce-rate<br />
system”; (Taylor, 1911). Since then, a large number of experiments including the famous Hawthorne<br />
studies have been done in Industrial Psychology to determine those factors that influence workers’<br />
behaviour. Several other motivation theories have since been postulated in an attempt to predict<br />
workers’ behaviour in organizations. These include Abraham Maslow’s theory; on the hierarchy of<br />
needs which stated that an unsatisfied need is a motivating force. They suggested that motivation to<br />
produce stemmed from a present or anticipated state of discontent and a perception of direct connection<br />
between individual’s production and a state of satisfaction.<br />
Other theories that contributed in this direction include: Skinner’s(1953) Reinforcement theory,<br />
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory; which tried to relate motivation and need satisfaction to employee<br />
performance and productivity, and concluded that positive job attitudes are favourable to increased<br />
productivity; McGregor’s(1960) Theory X and Theory Y, McClelland’s(1961) Learned needs theory,<br />
Vroom’s(1964) Expectancy theory, Porter and Lawler’s(1968) Integrative motivational model, and<br />
Alderfer’s(1972) ERG theory of work motivation. Some theories attempted to predict performance<br />
behaviour. Locke’s (1968, 1978) Goal-Setting theory and Adam’s (1963) Equity theory emphasized<br />
the role of social comparisons as an important motivator of behaviour. Likert (1969) was of the opinion<br />
that the quality of supervision could have a direct correlation with work satisfaction and productivity.<br />
Mullins, (1999), and, Nwachukwu, (1994) says that the present day managers are of the opinion<br />
that reward is a very strong motivating factor for workers and they make use of both intrinsic and<br />
extrinsic factors. Oloko (1977) discovered that Nigerian workers were more committed and motivated<br />
to work in organizations managed by fellow Nigerians in which they foresee opportunity for<br />
advancement as limitless, than in organizations managed by foreigners where management and<br />
supervisors’ positions were regarded as belonging to a special class. However, performance and<br />
productivity was still low in these Nigerian organizations. According to Oloko in his 1991 study, the<br />
low level was due to some other factors such as reluctance of supervisors to delegate responsibilities to<br />
subordinates, reluctance of subordinates to accept responsibilities, which is rational reaction to the<br />
fixed sum view of power held by their superior, absence of cooperative relationship between and<br />
2
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
within grades of employees, and treatment of members and time with careless abandon by<br />
management.<br />
Akerele, cited in Aluko(1998) stressed that in Nigeria managers fail to effectively manage their<br />
human resources. He gave the following as reasons for the ineffectiveness:<br />
1) Failure of management to provide good quality of work life and failure to carry employees along<br />
with them, and this result in absenteeism, punctuality problem, accidents, low morale, high-labour<br />
turnover and other forms of man-day losses.<br />
2) Management’s inability to provide fair working conditions, which often lead to industrial unrest,<br />
strikes, protracted negotiations all with serious effects on productivity and labour turnover.<br />
3) Poor remuneration in relation to profits made by organizations, unjustifiable wage differential<br />
between high and low income earners in different sectors in the economy also contribute to low<br />
morale, lack of commitment, low productivity and high labour turnover.<br />
It is obvious therefore that management’s long standing concern with motivation stems from<br />
the fact that low worker motivation are thought to be reflected in such circumstance as low<br />
productivity, strikes, personal conflicts between supervisors and their subordinates, absenteeism and<br />
high labour turnover (Ajila, 1996).<br />
Jobs, according to Argyris (1970) have a stable set of identifiable characteristics that are<br />
relevant to individual needs, wants and aspirations. Where the job characteristics are compatible with a<br />
person’s needs, the individual will be satisfied. Where the opposite is the case, dissatisfaction sets in<br />
and this will be manifested in terms of leaving the organization.<br />
Labour turnover<br />
Labour turnover is the flow of manpower into and out of an organization (Fapohunda, 1980). The<br />
inflow of manpower is referred to as accession and the outflow as separation (leaving). Separation may<br />
be in the form of quits, discharges, lay-offs, retirement, leaves of absence and even death. Accession on<br />
the other hand has to do with replacements and new hires. Labour turnover is one of the unorganized<br />
forms of industrial conflict. It is a retreat by employees usually from unsatisfactory situations.<br />
Satisfaction is however only a part of the answer to the problem of labour turnover. Other factors<br />
abound in literature but satisfaction cuts across many of these factors. These other factors include: the<br />
conditions of the labour market (Behrend, 1953), age of the worker, chances of obtaining another job<br />
and financial responsibilities of workers, among other things. The incidence of labour turnover can at<br />
times be seen as a reflection of the quality of management skill in securing contentment among the<br />
people employed.<br />
A certain amount of labour turnover is inevitable. Illness, accidents, aging, death and a variety<br />
of personal reasons bring about separation. Too much of labour turnover however can severely reduce<br />
productivity, as workers are perpetual learners, new to the organization all the time; demoralize<br />
incumbents and damage an organization’s public image thereby adversely affecting her corporate<br />
existence. It implies therefore that management should be concerned about the level of labour turnover<br />
in their organization, determine the degree of it that is healthy or unhealthy for the organization.<br />
High labour turnover is dangerous as it affects the growth and productivity of an establishment.<br />
Scholars believe that a core of experienced workers is necessary for the success of an organization. For<br />
experience on the job and in the organization, workers must be stable (Hackett, 1979). Organizations<br />
are highly concerned about employee’s leaving because it is generally very costly to select and train<br />
new employees to replace those who left. There is a general situation of discontent pervading the entire<br />
labour scene in Nigeria. The Nigerian university teachers are not unaffected by this general state of<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
anomaly and frustration. The lecturers are not happy with their jobs. Labour turnover rates are high,<br />
while strike actions are common occurrences. The Guardian Editorial Comment of December, 2003<br />
noted that in the last 20 years, a sizable number of Nigerian academics have migrated abroad in search<br />
of greener pastures. Many of them have been absorbed into universities and Centers of Research in<br />
Europe, America and the Middle East. Nigerian universities have witnessed a series of industrial<br />
conflicts over the failure of the employers to review their conditions of service and the progressive<br />
encroachment upon the power and authority of the Governing Council as well as internal day-to-day<br />
administration of universities through Government directives (Tamuno, 1990).<br />
On the dilemma of the teaching staff, Sanda (1991) observed that lecturers are living under the<br />
fear of rationalization, retrenchment or retirement; and they often choose to find their exit before the<br />
powers give the marching orders. The reasons advanced for the teachers’ leaving include their<br />
increasing pauperization, diminished power and prestige, salaries and conditions of service, which are<br />
no more commensurate with their services or contributions. Added to this is the fact that the attributes,<br />
which normally keep the academic mind in the universities – rich collection of up to date books and<br />
journals in libraries, functional laboratories, bustling seminars, research grants, have all become rare<br />
commodities. This brain drain has also been seen as a direct consequence of the failure of Government<br />
to provide an enabling environment for scholarship as well as what appears to be an established culture<br />
of anti-intellectualism at the highest level. (The Guardian, December 1, 2003).<br />
Given this poor state of the Nigerian universities, low morale, poor attitude to work, brain<br />
drain, dampened linkage, coupled with the implications of good university education for the country’s<br />
future growth and development, there is the need for a study which will examine how university<br />
teachers can be motivated in order to prevent high labour turnover in the universities, since high labour<br />
turnover is a dangerous instability that threatens the realization of the objectives of research and<br />
development, innovation for efficiency, survival, high performance, good will and credibility of an<br />
organization, universities inclusive. In the 1960s and 70s, there was no stress, lecturers studied abroad<br />
and rushed back home after their studies to take appointments. In recent times however, the opposite is<br />
the case. The deteriorating environment, inflation that render salaries useless, the globalization process<br />
that has removed geographical barriers among other factors have rendered current motivational factors<br />
inadequate in keeping lecturers on their jobs. There is therefore the need to come up with appropriate<br />
policies to reduce labour turnover among Nigerian university teachers by studying and understanding<br />
how this group of workers can be motivated.<br />
Statement of the problem<br />
In every organization, there is the need to influence the amount of effort that workers will put into their<br />
job for better performance. The problem of how best to motivate individuals to stay-on in the<br />
organization to achieve desired objectives of the organization have since attracted the attention of<br />
social scientists, and philosophers in different parts of the world.<br />
In the past, most managers believed in McGregor’s theory X which says that human beings are<br />
inherently lazy, have dislike for work and try to avoid it, avoid responsibilities and only seek security<br />
and so they have to be coerced and controlled to get them to put forth adequate efforts towards the<br />
achievement of the organization’s objectives. Today, experience has shown that attempts to treat<br />
employees like machines will result in voluntary quits and low productivity. In recent years, emphasis<br />
have been placed on the important role motivation plays in getting employees to put in their best<br />
efforts and various findings have shown that people only put in their best if their needs are met (Aluko,<br />
1998 and 2001, Mullins, 1999 and Lussier, 2000). Management must be aware that employees have<br />
their values, attitudes and sentiments that affect their performance to a large extent, and that these<br />
values, attitudes and sentiments differ from one employee to another. To understand what motivate the<br />
individual worker, management must know their wants, needs and values and so, the factor that will<br />
induce people to contribute as efficiently and effectively as possible are those that satisfy their needs.<br />
High labour turnover is dangerous as it affects the growth and productivity of an establishment.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Scholars believe that a core of experienced workers is necessary for the success of an organization. For<br />
experience on the job and in the organization, workers must be stable (Hackett, 1979).<br />
If motivation is lacking in any organization, universities inclusive, there will be<br />
problems such as: (1) Lack of satisfaction for workers to perform to their full capacity and the<br />
organization’s human resources will not be optimally utilized. (2) Lukewarm ness to assigned duties.<br />
(3) Organization’s objectives will not be fully realized since there will be poor quality of work. (4)<br />
Staff attrition and high rate of labour turnover.<br />
Objectives of the study<br />
The general objective of the study was to examine critically the effects of motivation on labour<br />
turnover among university teachers in Southwestern Nigerian .The specific objectives of the study<br />
were:<br />
1) to ascertain the level of voluntary quits in the universities under review.<br />
2) to identify the various motivations strategies available for academic staff in these universities,<br />
3) to examine the adequacy or otherwise of these motivational variables, with a view to minimizing<br />
labour turnover in Nigerian universities.<br />
Research hypotheses<br />
1. The motivations available for teachers in the Nigerian universities are inadequate for their continued<br />
stay in the system<br />
2. There is no significant difference between economic rewards and non-economic rewards as<br />
motivational strategies in the Nigerian university system.<br />
Methodology<br />
The research design<br />
The research design for this study is the Ex-post facto design in which the researcher examined<br />
the effects of a naturalistically occurring treatment after the treatment has occurred rather than creating<br />
the treatment (Ajila, 1996). The study was a systematic empirical enquiry in which the researcher does<br />
not have direct control over motivation, since the manifestations have already occurred and thus cannot<br />
be manipulated.<br />
Sources of data<br />
Both primary and secondary data were employed for the study.<br />
The primary data were obtained through a structured and pretested questionnaire administered on<br />
respondents between January 2003 and October 2003. Secondary information was obtained from books<br />
and journals, annual reports and bulletins on university management, newspaper extracts, governments<br />
publications, previous related research works and university records.<br />
Population and Sample<br />
The study focused on four of the ten existing public universities in the southwestern zone of Nigeria.<br />
Public universities were used because private universities were just springing up in the country as at<br />
the time of study. Of the ten public universities, five were federal and five were state universities. Two<br />
federal universities and two state universities were therefore selected for the study, using a sampling<br />
fraction of 40%. The two federal universities are: Federal University of Technology Akure (FUTA)<br />
5
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
and Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU). The two state universities are: Olabisi Onabanjo University<br />
(OOU) and Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH). The study population consisted<br />
of lecturers in the ten universities. They constituted the universe to be sampled. The four universities<br />
were selected using stratified and random sampling techniques. The ten universities were first stratified<br />
into federal and state universities before two each were randomly selected from each stratum.<br />
Selection of Respondents<br />
The method used to draw out sampled respondents was the stratified and random sampling techniques.<br />
The total number of lecturers in each University was divided into the existing seven strata: Professors<br />
(Prof), Associate Professors (Ass. P), Senior Lecturers (S.L.), Lecturer I (L1), Lecturer II (L11),<br />
Assistant Lecturers (A.L.), and Graduate Assistant (G.A.). A simple random sampling technique was<br />
used to select respondents from each stratum. To get a proportional sample fraction from each stratum<br />
in each university, at least ten percent of the lecturers in each stratum were randomly selected. In this<br />
way, each group in the population was represented. The combination of these sub-samples from all the<br />
strata in all the universities constitutes the sample size.<br />
The Sample Size<br />
Table 1: Distribution of respondents (Res.) by Universities<br />
Rank No in<br />
O.O.U O.O. U F.U.T.A. F.U.T.A. LAUTECH LAUTECH O.A.U. . OA.U Total Total<br />
Group<br />
No of<br />
Res.<br />
No in<br />
Group<br />
No of Res No in Group No of Res. No in<br />
6<br />
Group<br />
No of<br />
Res.<br />
No in<br />
Group<br />
Prof 45 5 32 3 22 9 187 39 286 56<br />
Ass. P 26 4 8 1 5 1 78 16 117 22<br />
S.L 70 8 62 6 24 10 196 40 352 64<br />
Ll 110 11 54 6 48 20 215 45 427 82<br />
Lll 106 11 61 7 57 23 112 24 336 65<br />
A.L 128 13 70 8 82 27 145 30 425 78<br />
G.A 68 9 37 4 136 44 84 18 325 75<br />
Total 553 61 324 35 374 134 1017 212 2268 442<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003.<br />
Table 1 shows that there were 2268 lecturers in the four universities. Copies of the questionnaire were<br />
distributed to 600 respondents but 442 were completed and returned, as shown in Table 2 below.<br />
No of<br />
Res.
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 2: The sample size<br />
Universities Number Sample fraction<br />
FUTA 35 11%<br />
OAU 212 21%<br />
OOU 61 11%<br />
LAUTECH 134 36%<br />
Total 442 20%<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003.<br />
Research Instrument<br />
A two part, twenty-one item, self - administered questionnaire was the main instrument used.<br />
As the questionnaire had never been used previously, its face and content validities were ensured by<br />
experts in the field of organization behaviour and thereafter pretested, yielding a reliability coefficient<br />
of 0.91. Part A of the instrument provided demographic information of respondents. Six classification<br />
data variables were tested using a nominal scale of measurement. Part B contained a number of<br />
statements on job motivation (the explanatory or independent variable) and the extent to which these<br />
motivational factors motivate lecturers’ continued stay on the job. The type of ordinal scale used is a<br />
five point Likert-type rating scale. The dependent variable-voluntary labour turnover between 1993 and<br />
2002 was measured using the U.S labor department formula:<br />
Number of employees that left during the year x 100<br />
Total number of employees at mid. year<br />
Results and discussion of results<br />
Descriptive statistics<br />
Table 3 (on page 17) provides descriptive statistics of part A of the questionnaire (classification<br />
data). From the table, it is evident that the majority of respondents (79%) fall in the 30-49 age<br />
categories. The majority of the respondents (83%) were male, which is representative of the<br />
demographics of the male/female ratio of university lecturers in Nigeria. In all, there were 2268<br />
lecturers in the four sampled universities, 1902 (84%) were male while 366 (16%) were female<br />
(Ologunde 2003). The majority of respondents were married (85%), while only 15% were not married.<br />
It was also discovered that majority of the respondents (78%) were recently employed showing that<br />
most of the old hands have left probably because of poor motivation. This also corroborates the fact<br />
that 59% of the lecturers were in the junior cadre (L II and below) being recently recruited.<br />
Table 4 (on page 18) provides descriptive statistics of part B of the questionnaire. The measure<br />
of central tendency used was the analysis of the mean values of the motivational factors. The lowest<br />
mean scores were (1.85), indicated by welfare and 1.89 by work environment, while the highest mean<br />
score was (2.61) by challenging job. The measure of dispersion used was the standard deviation (SD).<br />
The lowest SD (0.915) for work environment, 0.929 for welfare and 0.940 for salary indicated that<br />
respondents did not vary too much in their responses regarding these factors. The highest SD (1.28) for<br />
domestic reasons indicated that respondents varied in their responses towards this factor. All the<br />
motivational factors examined scored below 70%. Their adequacy in keeping lecturers on their job was<br />
therefore generally low and hence hypothesis 1 was accepted.<br />
Table 5 (on page 18) shows the calculated voluntary quits level in the sampled universities. It is<br />
observed that the turnover rate was relatively higher between 1993 and 1999 in all the sampled<br />
universities. The reason for this cannot be far fetched from the increase in salary in 1999 that saw<br />
7
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
academic staff earning more than thrice their former salaries. This supports the assertion in literature<br />
that economic rewards like increased salary is one of the factors in the employment situation that<br />
motivate people to stay on in their jobs and that manipulations of rewards have been found to affect the<br />
level of labor turnover (Ronen, 1978 and Fapounda, 1980). From 2002, labor turnover has started to<br />
increase again because after some time, salary will no longer motivate as needs and expectations will<br />
keep on increasing and also the situation of galloping inflation in Nigeria continue to neutralize the<br />
effects of increased salaries. The fluctuating nature of the voluntary quit rate could also be adduced to<br />
the unstable nature of the Nigerian economy. Furthermore, Nigerian lecturers are still not satisfied with<br />
their salaries, feeling that their salaries are not fair reward for their inputs (efforts, experience,<br />
intelligence etc) especially when compared with others in the private sectors, politicians and their<br />
colleagues outside the country. This feeling is supported by the equity theory of motivation usually<br />
associated with the works of Adams, (1963), Steers and Porter (1991) and Lussier (2000).<br />
The turnover level in the state universities were however higher than what was obtained in the federal<br />
universities, for example, in 2002, the rate was 0.8% at OAU but 4% at LAUTECH, In 2001, it was<br />
0.6% at OAU but 1.7% at LAUTECH etc. This shows that in spite of the fact that the same salary<br />
structure obtains, lecturers in the state universities were generally more dissatisfied with their work and<br />
tend to look out for better jobs. This shows further that there are more to job satisfaction than monetary<br />
rewards or other incentive systems. One major factor that comes out vividly from an interview with a<br />
lecturer at OOU is the physical working environment factor. The lecturer in question did not like the<br />
environment but stays on because he couldn’t get any better offer. He, like many others, goes to work<br />
three times a week and lives in Ibadan, a city quite far from the town the University is situated. This<br />
can also be attributed to the fact that houses were not provided for lecturers on campus. Previous<br />
studies (Dalton and Tudor, 1993; Randall, 1990; Somers, 1995; Lee et al, 1992; Greenberg and Baron,<br />
1997; Lussier, 2000; and Behrend, 1953) support this view. These studies found factors outside the<br />
employment situation that affect labour turnover to include distance of places of origin from places of<br />
employment, conditions of journey to work, rural urban origin, general economic condition of the area,<br />
reputation of the employing organization in the wider society, commitment and job satisfaction. This<br />
further corroborates the fact that experience has shown that people who work in the rural areas and<br />
have to travel long distances on bad and dangerous roads tend to seek alternative appointment and quit<br />
as soon as possible.<br />
Hypotheses testing<br />
The T-test for the effect of motivational factors on lecturers continued stay in the university system is<br />
shown on table 6 below. The motivational factors were grouped into two, economic (1) and noneconomic<br />
(2) variables.<br />
Table 6: T-test for the effect of motivational factors on lecturer’s continued stay in the universities<br />
Group statistics<br />
Non-economic<br />
Economic<br />
variable<br />
Variable<br />
N Mean SD Std error<br />
1 6 918.5000 99.1902 40.4942<br />
8<br />
mean<br />
2 9 981.667 96.677 32.2258
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Independent samples test<br />
Levene’s test for<br />
Econo<br />
mic<br />
variable<br />
Equal variance<br />
assumed<br />
Equal variance not<br />
assumed<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003<br />
equality of variance<br />
F<br />
.075<br />
Sig.<br />
.788<br />
T<br />
-1.227<br />
t-test for equality of<br />
Nigeria’s developmental pace seems rather slow and the universities which should be the place<br />
to prepare the nation for the expected leap forward is ill prepared. This is due partly to the low morale<br />
of the teachers, which in turn has increased the rate of labour turnover in the system. Lecturers’ will<br />
put in their best when the work environment is conducive; there are good welfare packages like good<br />
houses, true free medical facilities, training and development opportunities and other fringe benefits.<br />
The absence of these will lead to frustration and eventual leaving. Based on the findings of the study,<br />
the following recommendations were made to increase lecturers’ motivation and reduce their turnover<br />
rate for the Universities to attain a reasonable level of effectiveness and efficiency.<br />
9<br />
Df<br />
13<br />
means<br />
Sig 2-<br />
tailed<br />
Mean<br />
diff<br />
St Error<br />
95% CI of the diff<br />
.241 -63.17 51.47<br />
-1.221 10.66 .249 -63.17 51.75 -177.51 51.177<br />
diff<br />
Lower<br />
-174.35<br />
The mean difference is -63.1667, which is very low, showing that there is little difference between the<br />
two groups of factors. The t calculated is less than the t tabulated -1.227
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
• Improved conditions of service will immensely motivate lecturers towards better<br />
performance. Salaries and fringe benefits should be enhanced and made relevant to<br />
prevailing economic circumstances by reviewing them periodically.<br />
• Efforts should be made at improving the welfare of Nigeria university teachers. Good<br />
accommodation, staff schools, good medical and other facilities should be adequately<br />
provided on campuses.<br />
• Academic staff developments should be accorded priority since possible growth and<br />
advancement on the job is a vital motivational factor. Well-designed training programs<br />
should be emphasized in order to meet the professional needs of university teachers and<br />
enhance the quality of teaching and be able to retain competent hands and dedicated<br />
teachers. Well-trained teachers tend to be less likely to leave (Mathis and Jackson,<br />
2000).<br />
• Prominence should be given to the provision of research grants. Attendants and<br />
participation in seminars and conferences should be encouraged to enrich the knowledge<br />
and skills of teachers.<br />
• A fair and equitable pay-system will help prevent high turnover. Inadequate rewards<br />
leads to voluntary turnover.<br />
• Universities should device means of giving recognition to deserving lecturers. All forms<br />
of god-fatherism should be discouraged, academic brilliance, innovation, and hard-work<br />
should be rewarded while indolence and mediocrity punished<br />
• The issue of deteriorating working environments and dearth of facilities should be<br />
addressed promptly.<br />
• Improved quality of supervision will reduce the turnover rate when lecturers believe<br />
their supervisors are competent, treat them with respect and have their best interest in<br />
minds<br />
• The job should be enriched and made more challenging by allowing lecturers to have a<br />
good chance to take control over the way they do their job and recognize important<br />
contributions.<br />
• The promotion prospects should be enhanced so that the lecturers’ sense of achievement<br />
and advancement will increase.<br />
10
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 3: Frequency distribution results<br />
Characteristics Category Number. %<br />
Gender<br />
Male 367 83<br />
Female 75 17<br />
Age<br />
20-29 26 5.9<br />
30-39 215 48.6<br />
40-49 123 27.8<br />
50-59 52 12.8<br />
60+ 11 2.5<br />
No response 15 3.4<br />
Marital status Married 373 84.4<br />
Single 64 14.5<br />
Divorced 1 0.23<br />
No response 4 0.9<br />
Faculties/ schools Agric. 57 13<br />
Science 121 27.4<br />
Education 18 4<br />
Admin. 17 3.8<br />
Law 10 2.3<br />
Sc. Science 37 8.4<br />
Arts 34 7.7<br />
Environmental 49 11<br />
Technology 71 16<br />
H. Science 20 4.5<br />
Pharmacy 7 1.6<br />
Date of Appt. 1970-79 23 5.2<br />
1980-89 70 15.8<br />
1990-99 221 50<br />
2000-2002 112 25<br />
No response 16 4<br />
Ranks<br />
Prof & Ass. P. 48 11<br />
SL & L1 134 30<br />
L11, AL &GA 259 59<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003.<br />
11
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 4: Ranking Of Motivational Factors Using Total Scores and Mean Scores of Respondents.<br />
Variables<br />
Achievement<br />
Advancement<br />
Enriched job<br />
Responsibility<br />
Recognition<br />
Training &<br />
Devt.<br />
Challenging<br />
job<br />
Promotion<br />
Supervision<br />
quality<br />
Welfare<br />
Salary<br />
Work<br />
Environment<br />
Security of<br />
tenure<br />
Compatible<br />
work group<br />
Domestic<br />
N<br />
Statistic<br />
425<br />
435<br />
430<br />
431<br />
429<br />
439<br />
432<br />
436<br />
422<br />
438<br />
436<br />
432<br />
434<br />
432<br />
422<br />
Total<br />
Score<br />
1040<br />
1018<br />
843<br />
1035<br />
982<br />
1041<br />
1129<br />
958<br />
872<br />
809<br />
874<br />
818<br />
1011<br />
1039<br />
877<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003.<br />
Mean<br />
Score<br />
2.45<br />
2.34<br />
1.96<br />
2.40<br />
2.29<br />
2.37<br />
2.61<br />
2.20<br />
2.07<br />
1.85<br />
2.00<br />
1.89<br />
2.33<br />
2.41<br />
2.08<br />
Actual<br />
Score<br />
1700<br />
1740<br />
1720<br />
1724<br />
1716<br />
1756<br />
1728<br />
1744<br />
1688<br />
1752<br />
1744<br />
1728<br />
1736<br />
1728<br />
1688<br />
Percentage Ranking<br />
61.2<br />
61.3<br />
49<br />
63<br />
57<br />
62.1<br />
65.3<br />
12<br />
55<br />
52<br />
46.2<br />
50<br />
47.3<br />
58.2<br />
63.5<br />
51.95<br />
Table 5: Voluntary quit level of the sampled Universities<br />
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
OAU (Federal) 1.4% 2.4% 1.7% 1.1% 1.6% 2.1% 1.5% 0.7% 0.6% 0.8%<br />
FUTA (Federal) 2.8% 7.1% 3.7% 1.5% 5.1% 4.3% 3.1% 1.3% 0.9% 6.1%<br />
LAUTECH (State) 0% 0% 0% 0% 6.7% 0.6% 1.5% 4.4% 1.7% 4.0%<br />
OOU (State) N O R E C O R D S<br />
Source: Field Survey 2003.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adams, J.S. (1963). “Towards an Understanding of Inequality”. Journal of Abnormal and<br />
Social Psychology; Vol. 67, pp. 422-36.<br />
[2] Ajayi, I.A. and Ayodele, J.B. (2002). Fundamentals of Educational Management. Ado-Ekiti.<br />
Green Line Publishers.<br />
[3] Ajayi, I.A. and Ogunjobi, J.O(2001). Job satisfaction and Job Commitment among University<br />
lecturers. Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation, Volume 4, No. 2.<br />
[4] Ajila, O.C. (1996). Job Motivation and Attitude to Work as Correlates of Productivity among<br />
Workers in Manufacturing Companies in Lagos State, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,<br />
Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.<br />
[5] Alderfer, C.P (1972). Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. New York, Free Press.<br />
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[6] Aluko, M. A. O (2001) “The impact of Culture on Organizational Performance in Selected<br />
Textile Firms in Nigeria”. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Sociology and<br />
Anthropology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.<br />
[7] Aluko, M. A. O. (1998) “Factors that Motivate the Nigerian Workers” Ife Social Sciences<br />
Review, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Vol.15, No. 1 Pp 190-199.<br />
[8] Argyris, Chris. (1970). Personality and Organization, New York: Harper and Row.<br />
[9] Behrend, J. (1953). “Absence and Labour Turnover in a Changing Economic Climate”.<br />
Occupational Psychology, Vol. 27.<br />
[10] Darlton, D.R. and Tudor, W.D. (1993). The Theory and Practice of Personnel Manageent 7<br />
13<br />
th<br />
ed.., Butterworth – Heinemann.<br />
[11] Fapohunda, A.M. (1980). ‘What is behind labour Turnover?’ Journal of Personnel Management<br />
Vol. 7, No. 2, April-June, P. 11.<br />
[12] Greenberg, J. and Baron, R.A. (1997). Behavior in Organisations 6 th ed. New Jersey,<br />
a. Prentice – Hall Inc.<br />
[13] Hackett, P. (1979). “Success in Management Personnel.” 2 nd Ed. John Murray Publishers Ltd.<br />
[14] Herzberg, F, Manner, B, and Snyderman, B (1959). The Motivation to work. New York; John<br />
wiley and cons<br />
[15] Herzberg, F. (1966). Work and the nature of man Cleveland; world.<br />
[16] Herzberg, F. (1968). “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employee?” Harvard Business<br />
Review. January/February pp. 53-62.<br />
[17] Herzberg, F. (1981). Motivating People in Management Handbook; Operating Guidelines,<br />
Techniques and Practices. Edited by Paul Mali, Ronal Press Publications, New York, John<br />
Wiley and Sons. Pp. 1059-60.<br />
[18] Ibukun, W.O (1997). Educational Management: Theory and Practice. Ado-Ekiti. Bamigboye &<br />
Co. Press (Nig.) Ltd.<br />
[19] Lee, T. W., Ashford, S.J., Walsh, J.P.& Mowday, R.T. (1992). Commitment propensity,<br />
organizational commitment, and voluntary turnover. A longitudinal study of organizational<br />
entry process. Journal of management, vol. 18 pp 15-32.<br />
[20] Likert, R. (1969) “Motivation, the Core of Management.” In Wadia, M. (ed.) Management and<br />
Behavioural Sciences. Boston. Allyn and Bacon.<br />
[21] Locke, E.A (1978). ‘Personal Attitudes and Motivation’, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.<br />
26, Pp. 457-80.<br />
[22] Locke, E.A. (1968). ‘Towards a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives’; Organizational<br />
Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 7, No. 1, January. P. 14-24.<br />
[23] Longe Commission (1991). Higher education in the 90’s and Beyond. Report of the<br />
Commission on the review of Higher Education in Nigeria: Summary of Recommendations.<br />
Lagos. Federal Government Printer.<br />
[24] Lussier, R.N. (2000). Management Fundamentals: Concepts, Applications, Skill Development.<br />
New York. South Western College Publishing.<br />
[25] Mashoro, A.H (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, (July):379-<br />
396<br />
[26] Mathis, L.R. and Jackson, H.J. (2000). Human Resource Management 9 th Ed.New York. South-<br />
Western College Publishing.<br />
[27] McClelland, D.C. (1961). The achieving society. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold<br />
[28] McGregor, D. (1960). “The Human Side of Enterprise”. New York: McGraw Hill.<br />
[29] Mullins, L.J. (1999); Management and Organizational Behavior. 5 th Ed. London, Financial<br />
Times, Pitman Publishing. Pp. 405-448.<br />
[30] Nwachukwu, C.C. (1994) “Effective Leadership and Productivity: Evidence from a National<br />
Survey of Industrial Organization.” African Journal for the Psychological Study of Social<br />
Issues, 1, 38-46.
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[31] Oladapo, I. O. (1987). Financial and Administrative Management of State Universities.<br />
NUC/CVC seminar on Resource Management in the University system.<br />
[32] Ologunde, A.O. (2005). Motivation and Labour Turnover among University Teachers in<br />
Southwest Nigeria. Unpublished M. Phil Thesis, Department of Management and Accounting,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.<br />
[33] Oloko, O. (1977) “Incentive and Reward for Efforts.” Nigerian Institute of Management<br />
Journal, 13, (5): 18-33<br />
[34] Oloko, O. (1991). Productivity for excellence. Nigerian Journal of Industrial Relations, 5 (Dec.)<br />
11-20.<br />
[35] Porter, L.W. & Lawler, E.E, (1968). Management Attitudes and Performance. Home Wood III,<br />
Richard Dirwin, pp 164-5.<br />
[36] Randall, D.M.(1990). The consequences of organizational commitment. A methodological<br />
investigation. Journal of organizational behaviour, vol. 11, pp 361 – 73.<br />
[37] Ronen, S. (1978). Job Satisfaction and the Neglected Variable of Seniority. Human Relations.<br />
Vol. 33, No. 5.<br />
[38] Sanda, A.O. (ed.) (1991): Understanding Higher Education Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan,<br />
Facts Finders International.<br />
[39] Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behaviour . New York, Macmillan.<br />
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of direct and interaction effects. Journal of organizational behaviour, vol. 16, pp. 49-58.<br />
[41] Steers, R.M. and Porter, L.W. (1991). Motivation and Work Behaviour 5 th Ed. New York:<br />
McGraw-Hill p.35<br />
[42] Tamuno, T.N. (1990) Nigerian Universities: Their Students and Their Society, Federal<br />
Government Printers, Lagos.<br />
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[45] Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 6-8.<br />
14
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
International Co-Operation As A Necessary Condition of<br />
Successful Counter-Terrorism<br />
Christos Floros<br />
5 Androu str., Polydroso,<br />
152 33, Halanri, Athens, Greece<br />
E-mail: christosfloros@hotmail.com<br />
John Mylonakis<br />
10 Nikiforou str., Glyfada<br />
166 75, Athens, Greece<br />
E-mail: imylonakis@panafonet.gr<br />
Abstract<br />
By evaluating counter-terrorist approaches a framework in which counter-terrorism has to<br />
work in order to be successful is formulated and conclusions regarding international<br />
counter-terrorism methods are offered. In that way, and by applying these findings to<br />
global patterns of counter-terrorism, further conclusions and ways of action regarding<br />
successful international counter-terrorist co-operation are identified. Defining terrorism is<br />
important because offers the framework in which counter-terrorism has to work effectively.<br />
The analysis of the different theoretical approaches on counter-terrorism patterns has a dual<br />
purpose: one the one hand, it will be important in our understanding of combating<br />
terrorism. On the other hand, it will apply theory to practice in the sense that it will allow<br />
us to evaluate modern counter-terrorism operations. Consequently, conclusions regarding<br />
international counter-terrorism methods will be offered.<br />
Key words: Terrorism, International Cooperation, Counter-terrorist agencies<br />
1. Political terrorism and counter-terrorism<br />
A definition of terrorism in academic terms has not proved to be an easy task. One reason for that is<br />
that terrorism often creates controversy by its very nature: is it a political act? Is it a social<br />
phenomenon? Is it a strategy or an ideology? What acts can be defined as terrorist? Questions as such<br />
often lead to answers in the form of definitions that neglect certain aspects of terrorism; that is the<br />
reason why a universally accepted definition of terrorism has yet to be produced. The difficulty<br />
academics face in defining terrorism is the result of the vast range of violent acts that can be labelled<br />
‘terrorist’. In addition, even amongst academia there are conflicting views on the characteristic<br />
elements of terrorism. For example, William McGurn’s definition of terrorism excludes the threat of<br />
use of force as a necessary element of terrorist activity, a view different from Hoffman’s (McGurn,<br />
1987, p. 7-14). Peter Sproat, on the other hand, suggests that the state can act as terrorist, in the event<br />
when a political regime takes action against its citizens, and that he argues, must be also defined as<br />
terrorism (Sproat, 1991, pp. 19-30). An objective definition of terrorism has yet to be produced. Some<br />
definitions tend to be extremely inclusive, while other may be extremely exclusive. Adaptation of a<br />
definition is, therefore, related to the specific angles (academic, political or counter-terrorism) from<br />
which terrorism is often examined.<br />
15
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Alex Schmid’s attempt to define terrorism in his work Political terrorism: A Research Guide, is<br />
a notable example of the complexity of the subject: he examined 109 different definitions of<br />
‘terrorism’, but a concise definition could not be constructed (Schmid, 1984, p. x., and Schmid et al.,<br />
1988, p. 5-6). In the revised 1998 edition of Political Terrorism Schmid admits that the “search for an<br />
adequate definition is still on” (ibid., p.1). On the same matter of defining terrorism, Walter Laqueur<br />
has argued that it is neither possible nor worthwhile to make the attempt (Laqueur, 1977, p. 7, and<br />
Laqueur, 1987, pp. 11 & 142-56). Bruce Hoffman, on the other hand, tried to identify the distinct<br />
characteristics of terrorism from other forms of violence and based on that distinction he defined<br />
terrorism as “the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of use of<br />
violence in the pursuit of political change” (Hoffman, 1998, p. 43).<br />
For the purposes of this article however, we will examine terrorism by adopting Hoffman’s<br />
definition. The reason for that lies on the fact that this definition provides us with three important<br />
elements of terrorism: the use (or the threat of use) of violence, the political motivations behind it and<br />
the psychological element of fear. Additionally, this definition corresponds to the terrorist activity that<br />
was characterised by the political motivation of the terrorists. After all, terrorism was historically<br />
related to political motivations. From the period of the French Revolution to the late days of the<br />
nineteenth century and the emergence of the Russian Narodnaya Volya, politics did matter. Narodnaya<br />
Volya (or People’s Will) was a group of Russian constitutionalists that was aiming at challenging<br />
tsarist rule from 1878-1883. The legacy of the Narodnaya Volya was the creation of the ‘Anarchist<br />
International’ that called for the need of assassination as a means to achieve revolutionary change.<br />
Consequently, the Anarchist International influenced other revolutionary groups, such as the Serbian<br />
Narodna Obrana that was active at the early days of the twentieth century. The pursue of political aims<br />
was often related to violence, although at those ‘early days’ of terrorism violence was seen as the<br />
selective targeting of specific individuals that were closely associated with the political motivations of<br />
terrorists.<br />
2. Counter-terrorism and asymmetry<br />
Questions of deterrence of terrorism are bound to accompany the phenomenon of terrorism itself.<br />
Counter-terrorism, or the set of measures that a polity or a group of polities use, in order to cope with<br />
terrorist activity, tries to address those questions and to offer an adequate answer.<br />
If we accept that terrorism is an expression of political strategy (Reich, 1990, p. 7), then we also have<br />
to accept that, as an expression of strategy, terrorism is-by nature-asymmetric (Gray, 2002, pp. 5-14).<br />
By being asymmetric, it is a form of conflict that “our political, strategic and military cultures regard as<br />
unusual” (Ibid, p.5). The strategic and asymmetric nature of terrorism can be regarded as a motivator<br />
for terrorist attacks. If ends and means are considered in the terrorist’s mind to be useful for the<br />
accomplishment of his purposes, that will offer a form of strategic advantage to his cause concerning<br />
the state’s reply. Asymmetry implies that the advantage lies with the penetrator as it is difficult to reply<br />
in kind, and therefore, terrorism can be seen as a form of effective strategy that is worth undertaking.<br />
The asymmetric nature of terrorism implies that, as a course of action, terrorism can have<br />
strategic advantages of substantive importance. Those advantages can be operational, if we accept that<br />
attack is superior to defence, (Betts, 2002, pp. 19-36), and tactical, if we accept that this asymmetric<br />
nature exists. That renders it difficult for counter-terrorism to respond to terrorism (Gray, 2002, pp. 5-<br />
14). If that is indeed the case, then it can be argued that an imbalance of power between terrorism and<br />
counter-terrorism occurs and that imbalance works in favour of terrorism rather than counter-terrorism.<br />
If terrorism were inferior to counter-terrorism in the sense that no strategic advantage could be gained<br />
by exercising it, then it would be easier to deter it.<br />
Consequently, counter-terrorist agencies as well as counter-terrorist techniques and initiatives<br />
have tried to accommodate these asymmetric elements of terrorism in their attempt to effectively<br />
combat it. In doing so, three pillars have been established for effective counter-terrorism in the<br />
twentieth-first century: intelligence gathering, legal framework and decisive action especially in the<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
form of military intervention (Berkowitz, 2002, pp. 289-300. Although these pillars usually refer to<br />
international terrorism, they nevertheless provide a guideline for combating domestic terrorism too.<br />
For, if we accept that international terrorism can be best combated if intelligence, law and intervention<br />
are used wisely, domestic terrorism can also be combated if the same course of action is followed. This<br />
of course implies that in the process of countering domestic terrorist organisations, these pillars have to<br />
be altered in such a way that they will take into consideration the special parameters of the country and<br />
the terrorist group.<br />
3. Domestic responses to terrorism<br />
Domestic terrorist activity has characterised, amongst other places, Western Europe for at least the last<br />
three decades of the twentieth century. As Pluchinsky puts it, Western European countries “have been<br />
threatened by a strain or species of terrorist group known as ‘fighting-communist organizations’<br />
(FCO). Found predominantly in Western Europe, an FCO is generally a small, lethal, urban terrorist<br />
group which is guided by Marxist-Leninist ideology” (Alexander & Pluchinsky, 1992, p. 16). In a<br />
number of cases concerning countering certain such terrorist communist organisations, such as the Red<br />
Brigates or the Baaden-Meinhof Group, the matter was left with the domestic police forces of each<br />
country and the political will of the government. Usually, the countering of any such terrorist group<br />
was the result of a well-coordinated political will and high-quality police effort, especially in the area<br />
of intelligence gathering and intelligence evaluation.<br />
One observation that can be made regarding those European counter-terrorism attempts is that<br />
international co-operation was minimal and in no case a necessary condition for successful counterterrorism.<br />
In trying to explain why that was indeed the case in European counter-terrorism attempts for<br />
the last three decades, the answer is probably lying on the collation of two factors: one the one hand,<br />
the special characteristic of the FCO in the face of targeting domestic targets called for a domestic<br />
reply. On the other hand, the Cold-War period and the suspicions that were inevitably raised among<br />
different counter-terrorism branches and agencies not only on a national but also on an international<br />
scale, made the exchange of information and intelligence difficult and the actual intra-state cooperation<br />
on a more practical level, impossible. In addition to those factors, one cannot neglect the fact<br />
that European states, by being sovereign, wished for a domestic reply to terrorist activity within their<br />
borders in the whole process, from intelligence gathering to the trial and the actual imprisonment of<br />
terrorists.<br />
This peculiarity of European counter-terrorism approach was seen as a natural response,<br />
directly related to the nature of European terrorism. The reason for that is the fact that European as<br />
opposed to International terrorism from 1970 onwards, was different in methods and in motives. For<br />
example, by placing ideology in the core of their mindset, and by trying to overthrow the democratic<br />
governments of their countries of origin in favour of a ‘socialist’ or a ‘communist’ revolutionary<br />
government, FCO’s actions-in reality-called for a response from the democratic government. On the<br />
other hand, the fact that the majority of the FCO’s attacks were designed to inflict fear and danger to<br />
certain people or symbols of the particular ‘capitalist’ society in which they operated as opposed to<br />
indiscriminate attacks that could endanger the general populace did not provide any real basis for a coordinated<br />
international co-operation in countering them.<br />
4. Academic approaches<br />
In European academic terms, the notion of a domestic response to European terrorism called primarily<br />
for the ‘protection and maintenance of liberal democracy and the rule of law’ (Wilkinson, 1986, p.125).<br />
In that way, even intelligence gathering and intelligence or counter-terrorism agencies have to be seen<br />
operating within the law, without abusing their powers. Another important element of the European<br />
tradition in countering domestic terrorism is the role of Police forces in the process (Ibid. p. 139<br />
onwards). The reason for favouring the Police over the Army as the most appropriate body for<br />
intelligence gathering and counter-terrorism co-ordination has its root in the liberal European tradition<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
that regards the employment of the Army as a course of last resort. Additionally, the advantages of the<br />
Police over the Army in counter-terrorism attempts can be considerable. Whereas a high military<br />
profile in terms of intelligence gathering may escalate the level of hostility of certain sections of the<br />
society towards the army, the police can use its local community roots and character in order to gather<br />
useful intelligence.<br />
In evaluating the European preference of the Police over the Army in countering domestic<br />
terrorism in the past three decades, one has to keep in mind another parameter, the conscripted nature<br />
of most European Armies in that period. In theory, and indeed in practice, conscript armies can be<br />
easily infiltrated by extremist elements of left or right, and consequently the military discipline can be<br />
undermined. In that way, the delicate issue of countering terrorism can suffer considerable setbacks if<br />
left in the responsibility of conscript armies. Especially in the case of Greece, where conscription is<br />
used even today, one can easily detect signs of disaffection and political subversion within the armed<br />
forces. In that context, the degree that a conscript Army can offer high-quality counter-terrorist<br />
intelligence it is at least debatable.<br />
Another area of importance in responding to domestic terrorist activity is the nature of counterterrorism<br />
itself: by definition, a government or a counter-terrorist agency cannot defend everything of<br />
value at all times (Gray, 2002, p. 11). The hallow concept of terrorist attack and the many ways it can<br />
use even on a domestic level, in order to generate violence and fear, make the response to it reactive<br />
rather than proactive. From that point of view, one can argue that a government faces a considerable, if<br />
not impossible, task regarding counter-terrorism techniques. The argument can go even further by<br />
suggesting that terrorism in that context holds a clear advantage over governmental responses. This is<br />
only part of the equation. For, despite the enormous difficulties a government can face in fighting<br />
terrorism, previous examples of successful counter-terrorist attempts such as the British response to the<br />
IRA (Soule, 1989, pp. 31-46) show that there is actually an effective way of combating terrorist<br />
activity.<br />
In order to overcome that deficiency in combating terrorism, intelligence can provide an<br />
adequate answer. In that area, the theory suggests that terrorist groups tend to be very secretive<br />
formations in order to gain full advantages of the element of surprise. In that way, they will be in a<br />
position to use the asymmetric nature of terrorism to the maximum extent, thus minimising the ability<br />
of the state to respond effectively. Interception is therefore of paramount importance from a counterterrorist<br />
point of view in order to cope with surprise and as Wardlaw put it “intelligence is the first line<br />
of defence against political terrorism” (Wardlaw, 1989, p. 136). If we accept that proposition, then we<br />
understand the important role of intelligence in attempts of deterring terrorism: an intelligence service<br />
of the highest quality can be more than effective in helping counter-terrorist attempts to cope with<br />
terrorist organisations and their surprise attacks, while at the same time it can be the most important<br />
prerequisite for any effective counter-insurgency campaign. On those grounds, effective intelligence,<br />
capable of delivering the desirable results, would be one that would incorporate human intelligence<br />
(humint) and technical intelligence (techint) (Wolf, 1989, p. 59).<br />
If intelligence is effective, then the actions of terrorist groups will be anticipated and in many<br />
cases prevented. But for intelligence to do so, questions about its character must be answered first. For<br />
those questions to be answered adequately and for the intelligence-gathering background to be properly<br />
established, the political will has to be ever-present. In order for that to happen and for intelligence to<br />
provide an effective solution to countering terrorist activity, cultural elements have to be taken into<br />
consideration as well.<br />
In the attempt of countering domestic political terrorism, culture refers to two different issues:<br />
one the one hand lies the cultural and procedural priorities within the government and the intelligence<br />
community, in the form of evaluating the different courses of action and accepting the most desirable<br />
one in terms of both viability and success. On the other hand, culture refers to the information and the<br />
reaction of the public to terrorist attacks and counter-terrorist attempts. It has been argued that in the<br />
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quest for an effective counter-terrorist strategy, the role and the reaction of the public is extremely<br />
important (Crenshaw, 2001, pp.334-5, Veness, 2001, pp. 407-416).<br />
The public can be proved a valuable asset in fighting terrorism, because by being educated on<br />
terrorism and on the terrorist tools, it can speed up the police work on counter-terrorism issues. By the<br />
same token, and if the public and the security forces co-operate in the fight against terrorism, it<br />
becomes much more difficult for the terrorists to gain the amount of widespread support necessary for<br />
their ‘messages’ to gain recognition. In that way, the terrorist groups are left in the dark, in the sense<br />
that the public disregards their actions.<br />
If we accept the conclusion that analysts of terrorist activity have reached during the latter part<br />
of the twentieth century, that successful terrorists want “to impress, to play to and for an audience” and<br />
to “attract the attention of the electronic media and the international press” (Hoffman, 1998, p. 131),<br />
then we would also agree with the consensus among counter-terrorism experts and academics that<br />
terrorists wanted more people watching than dead. In other words, the publicity of terrorist actions was<br />
by itself able to generate enormous amount of fear in a domestic or even in an international audience,<br />
something that enabled terrorist groups to maximise their political gains and to be successful in<br />
generating great psychological pressure to that particular audience. In addition, such terrorist actions<br />
would also contribute to the erosion of the public’s confidence in the state’s ability to protect them<br />
from acts of terror. In order to reverse that situation in favour of the state, counter-terrorism attempts<br />
had to re-evaluate the role of the public opinion. As such, public co-operation with the security services<br />
in preventing terrorist actions can actually be an important counter-terrorist tool.<br />
As a concluding remark, it can be argued that the European counter-terrorist tradition on<br />
domestic terrorism is characterised by upholding of the rule of law and by the presence of police as the<br />
main counter-terrorism agency. Cultural elements in the European political and social tradition favour<br />
the procedural priorities within the government and the intelligence community, in the form of<br />
evaluating the different courses of action and accepting the most desirable one in terms of both<br />
viability and success. In reality, counter-terrorism attempts in Europe are the direct result of political<br />
will, and as such, politics can influence the character and the nature of the extent in which terrorism<br />
can be countered.<br />
The question that is now raised is related to the role, the extent and the form in which<br />
international co-operation can provide an adequate and successful help in countering incidents of<br />
domestic terrorism. The next chapter will be an attempt to provide an answer to that question.<br />
5. International cooperation in countering domestic terrorism<br />
In the course of domestic Western European terrorist activity from 1970’s onwards, the examples of<br />
international co-operation in counter-terrorism attempts have been insignificant. The reason for that, as<br />
outlined in chapter two, was the peculiar nature of indigenous terrorist groups and the suspicion<br />
between security agencies that act as restrains in any such attempt. When it came to coping with<br />
terrorism, West European countries preferred to work on a single national basis. In that sense, political<br />
constrains such as national and economic considerations or even nationalist reservations called for a<br />
single-handed national rather than international approach to the matter.<br />
In that area, the example of France is a notable one: the country has a long record of unwilling<br />
co-operation with its neighbours in extraditing wanted terrorists and more importantly, in exchanging<br />
intelligence information with the security agencies of other countries. Perhaps the best example of the<br />
French approach on international co-operation on countering terrorism, is the case of Odrief Hepp, a<br />
German national that was arrested in Paris in 1987 on suspicion of operating on behalf of a Palestinian<br />
terrorist group: German counter-terrorists officers remained in the dark for several months, as their<br />
French counterparts wanted to conclude their own investigation before presenting Hepp or any of the<br />
material found in his hideout to them. Germany, on the other hand, even when it experienced<br />
difficulties in coping with national or international terrorist groups operating in its soil (such as RAF or<br />
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PLO in the 1970’s), never asked for foreign help or co-operation. The same was indeed the case for the<br />
British regarding the IRA, the Spanish regarding ETA and Italy regarding the BR.<br />
These European approaches on make explicitly clear what counter-terrorism was perceived to<br />
be back in those days: a internal affair, in which international intervention even in the form of cooperation<br />
had no useful place in it. Despite that fact, the need for successful international co-operation<br />
has been outlined, in academic terms at least, ever in those days counter-terrorism co-operation has<br />
been shaped, in the aftermath of the Achille Lauro incident (see Hoffman, 1998, pp.144-5).<br />
What the Achille Lauro incident made clear, was the changing needs of counter-terrorism. For,<br />
it was the first time that an incident which involved, although indirectly, a European country (Italy)<br />
was approached by a supranational counter-terrorism response (with the intervention of US Marines).<br />
What the Europeans did not understood at that point was the fact that the logical continuation for their<br />
indigenous terrorist groups were an attempt of internationalisation in their character in order to be kept<br />
active. By 1987, when the French succeeded in arresting four AD members and by linking AD with<br />
RAF and ETA, that has became more obvious. In the light of that development, national law<br />
enforcement agencies were bound to reach their limits in countering terrorism single-handed.<br />
6. The end of cold war and the changing nature of terrorism<br />
While European states and counter-terrorist agencies begun to understand the need for an effective cooperation,<br />
at least at the intelligence section, the end of the Cold War and the years that followed it,<br />
altered completely the face of terrorism in Europe. By the mid-1990’s, most of Europe’s FCO had<br />
seized operation, either as a result of the counter-terrorism attempts by domestic law enforcement<br />
agencies or by self-destructing as their ideology had collapsed together with the collapse of<br />
communism. By the end of that decade, ETA was the only nationalist-separatist terrorist group that<br />
remained operational (although considerably less active than previous decades) in Spain, and 17N was<br />
the only operational FCO in Greece. The rest of the European countries, by eliminating or by escaping<br />
the threat of domestic terrorism seemed less occupied with the terrorist threat than ever before.<br />
In relation to that, the issue of international co-operation in countering terrorism, in Europe at<br />
least, suffered a considerable setback. For, even though the need for such co-operation has been<br />
highlighted and the political reservations by the European governments seemed to have been put aside,<br />
the absence of a foe made any such attempt extremely difficult. In the case of Spain, ETA remained an<br />
internal problem and rightly so. The fact that ETA’s actions were driven from a nationalist point of<br />
view stresses the deep division both cultural and political between Basques and Spanish people. In that<br />
context, one can argue that international co-operation would probably create more problems that the<br />
ones it would solve. An outsider, person or indeed agency, finds difficult to understand the reason that<br />
lays on the mentality and the divisions between the two elements of the Spanish society.<br />
Terrorism on the other hand, was also changing. For, the East-West ideological clash that<br />
explained part of local, national and international patterns of terrorism during the period of the Cold<br />
War has been replaced by a clash of different civilisations that has brought religion to the foreground.<br />
As Hoffman suggests, “the religious imperative for terrorism is the most important defining<br />
characteristic of terrorist activity today”. In that new era, political terrorism could not generate the<br />
same amount of popular support that was required in order to continue evolving (Hoffman, 1998, Ch.,<br />
3,4 and 7). On the other hand, extreme technological advancements during the same period of time<br />
have also influenced the character of terrorism.<br />
Terrorist organisations are now formed on the basis of networked groups rather than following<br />
the hierarchical structure of the earlier organisations. The implication of that fact lies on the ability of<br />
terrorists to use information technology and communications in order to control the conduct and the<br />
outcome of their violent acts. The amorphous and often transnational character of the new form of<br />
terrorist activity makes networks able to be both adaptable and flexible as well as diverse; it is<br />
therefore easier for terrorist attacks to have an international dimension and networks to be more<br />
resilient in counter-terrorism attempts.<br />
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7. The aftermath of 9/11 and international cooperation<br />
Europe was fortunate enough to escape with minor injuries the changing face of terrorism, but US was<br />
not. On September 11, 2001 the ‘new terrorism’ claimed a tremendously lethal attack on New York<br />
City. The actual attack and its aftermath have sparkled a discussion on the need for international cooperation<br />
in the attempt of successful counter-terrorism. The theory that has been put forward calls for<br />
greater co-operation in the area of intelligence gathering and evaluation, and for the need of a strategic<br />
national approach comprehending both preventive and response measures (Gray, 2002, pp. 5-14,<br />
Heymann, 1998, Ch.2 & 8 and Wolf, 1989, pp.55-70).<br />
In that sense, the first phase of a successful counter-terrorist activity is the need to recognise<br />
that the terrorist threat exists and not to ignore it. As Gray puts it, “underreaction, let alone no reaction,<br />
most likely would be interpreted as weakness, perhaps as evidence of successful intimidation” (Ibid, p.<br />
7). In doing so, the necessity to isolate the adversary and deny him popular support will be of<br />
paramount importance, because it will attempt to undermine the legitimacy of terrorist attacks. In that<br />
way, the governmental response will try to force terrorists in making mistakes that will eventually<br />
make terrorism defeat itself. In theory this proposition is what counter-terrorism is all about: a plan that<br />
will force the terrorist threat to be defeated by itself.<br />
8. Conclusions<br />
The driving force behind successful international co-operation is the building of trust between different<br />
cultures, different experiences and different techniques in relation to the process of countering<br />
terrorism. The building of trust is bound to lead to considerable exchange of intelligence and<br />
information. By relating exchange of information to the different cultures and techniques of each<br />
counter-terrorism agency, what is created is an actual determination that each such agency will cover<br />
the omissions of the other and vice versa. In that way, the room for error from the terrorist point of<br />
view will be halved, as terrorism and counter-terrorism are inter-related processes. What this<br />
proposition suggests is that counter-terrorism will come one step closer to terrorism. In doing so, the<br />
asymmetry between terrorism and counter-terrorism will not be so asymmetric as it is now. And<br />
despite the fact that the tactical advantage of asymmetry favours the terrorist, counter-terrorist planners<br />
can attempt minimising the level of damage that will result from the element of any surprise terrorist<br />
attack thus having greater possibility of success in applying the necessary amount of pressure to<br />
terrorist groups that will eventually result to their demise.<br />
This theory can be of subsequent importance if international co-operation could be spread in a<br />
great number of state parties. In that way, mutual assistance especially in intelligence sharing, could<br />
help in shaping a web of networks in which terrorist groups would not be able to operate as freely as<br />
they currently do. The problem, however, lies on the fact that any such co-operation has yet to be<br />
successfully implemented.<br />
If the answer to that consideration is affirmative or at least not completely negative, then one<br />
can really examine the possibility of succeeding in counter-terrorism attempts through, and based on,<br />
international co-operation.<br />
References<br />
[1] Alexander, Y., Pluchinsky, D. D., [eds.], 1992, Europe’s Red Terrorists: The Fighting<br />
Communist Organisations, (London, Frank Cass).<br />
[2] Berkowitz, B., “Intelligence and the War on Terrorism”, Orbis, vol. 46, no. 2, (Spring 2002),<br />
pp. 289-300.<br />
[3] Betts, R. K., “The Soft Underbelly of American Primacy: Tactical Advantages of Terror”,<br />
Political Science Quarterly, vol. 117, no. 1, (Spring 2002).<br />
[4] Crenshaw, M., “Counterterrorism Policy and the Political Process”, Studies in Conflict and<br />
Terrorism, vol. 24, (2001), pp.329-337.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
[5] Gray, C. S., “Thinking Asymmetrically in Times of Terror”, Parameters, vol. 32, no. 1, (Spring<br />
2002).<br />
[6] Heymann, P. B, 1998, Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy For a Democratic<br />
Society, (Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press).<br />
[7] Hoffman, B., 1998, Inside Terrorism, (London, Victor Gollancz).<br />
[8] Laqueur, W., 1977, Terrorism, (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson).<br />
[9] Laqueur, W., 1987, The Age of Terrorism, (Boston, MA., Little, Brown & Co.).<br />
[10] McGurn, 1987, Terrorist or Freedom Fighter? The cost of Confusion, (Institute for European<br />
and Defence Studies).<br />
[11] Reich, W., [ed.], 1990, Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of<br />
Mind, (Cambridge, CUP).<br />
[12] Schmid, A. P., 1984, Political Terrorism: A Research Guide, (New Brunswick, NJ., Transaction<br />
Books).<br />
[13] Schmid, A. P., Jongman, A. J., et al., 1988, Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors,<br />
Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories and Literature, (New Brunswick, NJ., Transaction<br />
Books).<br />
[14] Soule, J. W., “Problems in Applying Counterterrorism to Prevent Terrorism: Two Decades of<br />
Violence in Northern Ireland Reconsidered”, Terrorism, vol. 12, (1989), pp. 31-46.<br />
[15] Sproat, P., “Can the state be Terrorist?” Terrorism, vol. 14 (1991), no. 1, pp. 19-30.<br />
[16] Veness, D., “Terrorism and Counterterrorism: an International Perspective”, Studies in Conflict<br />
and Terrorism, vol. 24, (2001), pp. 407-416.<br />
[17] Wardlaw, G., 1989, Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics, and Counter-measures, 2 nd ed.,<br />
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).<br />
[18] Wilkinson, P., 1986, Terrorism and the Liberal State, 2 nd ed., (London, Macmillan).<br />
[19] Wolf, J. B., 1989, Antiterrorist Initiatives, (New York, Plenum).<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Development Inequalities in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria<br />
O. A. Ajala and A. S. Aguda<br />
Dept. of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile –Ife, Nigeria.<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper examined the spatial inequality of development among thirty Local Government<br />
Areas of Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria. Based on the results of Principal Component<br />
Analysis and Logistic Regression applied to 45 indices of development in all the LGAs for<br />
year 2001, the paper identified four major components and six predictor variables as<br />
determinants of development inequalities among the LGAs in the State. It revealed regional<br />
inequalities of development in the state. Many development indicators are concentrated in a<br />
few Local Government Areas that are urban based. Majority of the LGAs are lagging<br />
behind on the components of development. This portends serious implications for<br />
development planning in the state. It can be concluded that the economy of the entire state<br />
is largely underdeveloped.<br />
Key words : Development, Regional Inequalities<br />
Introduction<br />
Despite impressive progress made in economic development, inequality still characterize the pattern of<br />
economic development in most parts of the World. A substantial proportion of the World’s population<br />
remains in poverty and the gap between the richest and the poorest group continues to widen (Mbaku,<br />
1997).<br />
UNDP (1990) sees the poor as deprived of the basic opportunities to lead long, healthy, and<br />
creative life due to the mal- distribution of income, assets and human capacities. One of the<br />
distinguishing characteristics of nearly all who live in poverty is marginality. Marginalization can be<br />
described in terms of inaccessibility to the means of procuring, transforming and delivering available<br />
resources more productively and a situation where deliberate pattern of government investment have<br />
placed some people at a disadvantage. Thus, Aboyade (1975) described being poor as resulting from<br />
the inequality in the distribution of economic goods, thereby not able to attain normal standard of<br />
living. Marginalization has been a factor for the increasing level of inequality of development among<br />
regional units.<br />
Inequalities perceived in terms of deprivation and marginalization have been significantly<br />
responsible for the agitations for creation of States and Local Government Areas in Nigeria (Abumere,<br />
1998a; Ikporukpo,1986). Creation of new States and Local Government areas has been adopted by<br />
successive National Governments as a policy of reducing the level of inequalities among the area units<br />
(Abumere,1998b). Osun State of Nigeria is one of the State created through such exercise in 1991.<br />
Purpose of study<br />
A fundamental objective of social and economic development of the new democratic dispensation in<br />
Nigeria is to improving the welfare and living standard of the people (Obasanjo, 1999). Thus an<br />
understanding of the present levels of development in its spatial form is therefore required as a basis<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
for formulating development policies that will bring about sustainable growth among regional units.<br />
Development inequality is at varying degrees within and between Local Government Areas in Osun<br />
State. This paper seeks among other things, to identify the nature of development inequalities among<br />
the thirty (30) the Local Government Areas of Osun State. It is also to determine the development<br />
surface of the State as a basis for understanding the regional inequalities in the State, as well as for<br />
formulating appropriate development policies.<br />
Theoretical framework<br />
Different scholars have given many interpretations to the meaning of development. Some<br />
scholars tended to equate development with economic growth (Todaro, 1977; Mier, 1964); others have<br />
argued that development is a multi-dimensional process which involves the reorganization and<br />
reorientation of the economic and social system. It focused not only on income and output but includes<br />
radical changes in institutional social and administrative structures as well as in people’s attitudes,<br />
customs and beliefs, which will lead to a visible improvement in the quality of life of the people.<br />
Myrdal (1957) saw development as an upward movement of the entire social system. Mabogunje<br />
(1980) conceptualizes development as involving economic growth, modernization, distributive justice<br />
and socio-economic transformation. According to Hooder and Lee (1974), development involves not<br />
only economic growth but also conditions in which people in a society have adequate food and jobs,<br />
when income inequality among them is greatly reduced and the people are self-reliant. That is,<br />
development involves a cumulative rise in the standard and quality of life for an increasing proportion<br />
of the population. It is a process of widening opportunities for individual, social groups and territorially<br />
organized communities at both small and intermediate scales. It is also the mobilization of the full<br />
range of the capabilities and resources for the common benefit in social, economic and political terms<br />
(Stohr and Taylor,1981).<br />
From various definitions given by scholars, development seems to be man-centred, which leads<br />
to the structural transformation of the economy, society and culture of the people, and permits selfactualization<br />
of human potentials. In line with Uphoff (2001) view, development connotes the<br />
enhancement of quality of life and increasing people’s life chances, their opportunities to get educated,<br />
to have food, shelter and clothing and to have access to health and water, etc. It is also to move not just<br />
a little way up the ladder of income distribution but to be able to make some significant jumps and<br />
most importantly to give their children greater opportunities.<br />
Development does not appear everywhere and all at once but it takes place over time and space.<br />
Therefore, it is usually analyzed within a spatio-temporal framework (Friedmann, 1959). Regional<br />
development, therefore gives spatial as well as territorial dimension to the meaning of development. It<br />
is thus concerned with the improvement of the living standard of the people in an area and is expected<br />
to come about through transforming the socio-spatial structures of their productive activities<br />
(Mabogunje, 1980). Regional development is also concerned with the spatial diffusion of new<br />
techniques and the establishment of new forms of production all of which involve changes in human<br />
distributions and movements and in patterns of human activities (Hoyle 1974). It is also a process<br />
concerned with the locational aspects of development. It incorporates the recognition of spatial<br />
inequalities in socio-economic welfare and the process at work and the strategies involved in<br />
modifying changes and bringing more equitable spread of welfare to the majority of the inhabitants of<br />
the region (Hermansen, 1972).<br />
One of the basic theories of regional inequality is the “growth pole theory” which was first<br />
developed by French economist Francis Perroux in 1950. It was later modified as “growth centre<br />
models” by the works of Myrdal (1957), Hirschman (1958), Ullman (1958) and others such as Hicks<br />
and Streeten (1980) and Boudeville (1966), which led to a transformation of the growth centre theory<br />
to a model of regional development. A prominent feature that characterized regional development<br />
model is the concern about the disparity in level of economic development between and within regions.<br />
Regional inequality refers to the disparity in level of development within and between various regions.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Myrdal (1957) used the term “circular and cumulative causation” to refer to the phenomenon whereby<br />
the initial gaps in levels of development between the relatively more developed regions and the poor<br />
regions tend to widen over a period of time. According to Myrdal, inequalities may begin rather<br />
gradually in a region as certain areas take the lead ahead of others due to their particular endowments<br />
in relation to natural man-power or other economic advantages. The operations of the market<br />
mechanism may therefore produce the initial inequalities. Sometimes however, deliberate public<br />
policies may start the process through the channeling of resources to particular regions to satisfy<br />
certain planning objectives. Whatever the initial causes or processes generating the inequalities,<br />
Myrdal contends that once the spatial pattern emerges, it sets in motion a series of interrelated<br />
processes which attract population and their supporting activity systems to particular regions. This in<br />
turn tends to influence and reinforce the processes operating in the region to react upon the emerging<br />
and growing inequalities in levels of development (Myrdal, 1957). Given this condition, a vicious<br />
circle is thereby created with positive feedback processes operating to produce “a virtuous upward<br />
spiral growth in the core regions and a vicious downward growth in the periphery” (Myrdal, 1957). As<br />
the gaps in levels of development continue to widen the vital capital and human resources of the poor<br />
regions tend to migrate to the regions, thus leading to further stagnation at the periphery (Mabogunje,<br />
1968).<br />
In a related study similar to Myrdal, Hicks and Streeten (1980) asserts that initial advantages<br />
will determine the location of growth regions. Growth is accentuated by cumulative and derived<br />
advantages. He also emphasizes flows of capital, labour and commodities between growth and lagging<br />
regions. The essential point of difference is that he maintains that those flows operate to benefit the<br />
lagging areas. Ullman’s model buttresses the point that regions within a nation will grow at different<br />
rates. Growth regions will always maintain their lead position through “self generating momentum”,<br />
which is due to their enjoyment of both internal and external economies of scale (Ullman, 1958).<br />
The Growth Pole concept is well manifested in the pattern of settlements in Osun State with<br />
some having initial advantage of concentration of investments, thus becoming growth centres within<br />
the State. Since the time of colonial administration in Nigeria, Ibadan the regional capital of former<br />
Western Region and later Oyo State, had been the major growth centre attracting people and material<br />
resources for further growth while other areas lagged behind. Perhaps, it was the manifested<br />
disadvantages of the lagging areas that started the agitation for the creation of more states from the then<br />
Western Region. This brought about a spread of Government investment into such other states as<br />
Ondo, Ogun and Oyo States, which were carved out of the former Western Region. Within Oyo State,<br />
Ibadan still maintained its position as the primate city that attracts all economic activities. However,<br />
with the creation of Osun State in 1991, there had been a change in the pattern of movement of the<br />
people and material resources. People from various LGAs now tend toward the state capital, Osogbo,<br />
for all civil matters, thus attracting other economic opportunities. This initial advantage propelled<br />
Osogbo ahead of other major towns in the State, thus creating the initial inequality, as government<br />
investments are always concentrated at the State capital. Likewise, the idea of Local Government<br />
creation was to further spread government investments to the grass-roots level, by locating the Local<br />
Government Headquarters in towns considered to be lagging in development.<br />
The works Akpan (1992, 2000) in South-Eastern Nigeria served as a reference point to this<br />
study. He used factor analysis, multiple regression and cluster analysis to determine pattern of<br />
development in the area. He found out that there are six factors accounting for 73% of total variance<br />
from 26 variables measured in 71 LGAs in the region. These factors were postal communications,<br />
secondary school education, cooperatives, population-size, cash crop and community development.<br />
The analysis confirmed the existence of inequality among the 71 LGAs. From the analysis three<br />
independent variables explained about 70% of total variance. These were population of LGA’s<br />
headquarters, population of the LGA and Accessibility index of LGA headquarters. Accessibility index<br />
is measured as the shortest path links between the local government headquarters and other settlements<br />
within the LGA. In another smaller study, Akpan (2000) examined the pattern and variation in levels of<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
development among the 24 former Local Administrative Units of Akwa Ibom State. Using factor<br />
analysis for the data on 26 indicators of development, it was found that the development surface in the<br />
state could be described in terms of 7 factors. These were, Urbanization, Communication, Revenue,<br />
Education, Cooperatives, Industry and Agriculture. He established that significant differences existed<br />
in levels of development among the administrative units and that these units could be categorized into<br />
three classes as, the developed, fairly developed and the disadvantaged.<br />
The Study Area<br />
Osun State is located within latitudes 6 0 55 1 and 8 0 10 1 North and longitudes 3 0 55 1 and 5 0 05 1<br />
East of South Western Nigeria. It covers a total landmass of about 7997.5484 square kilometers with<br />
an estimated population of 2,854,832 in 2001 (NPC, 1997). The breakdown of the population figures<br />
among the 30 LGAs in the state reveals that 15 LGAs have population above 100,000 and 14 others<br />
have between 50,000 and 100,000 people, while only one has population below 50,000 (Table 1).<br />
Politically the state is divided into three senatorial districts. Each Senatorial district has ten<br />
Local Government Areas. Senatorial district one consists of Aiyedaade, Aiyedire, Ede North and<br />
South, Ejigbo, Egbedore, Irewole, Isokan, Iwo and Ola-Oluwa Local Government Areas. Senatorial<br />
district two has Boripe, Boluwaduro, Ifedayo, Ifelodun, Ila, Irepodun, Odo-Otin, Olorunda, Orolu and<br />
Osogbo. Senatorial district three consists of Atakumosa East and West, Ife Central, East, North and<br />
South, Ilesa East and West, Obokun and Oriade Local Government Areas.<br />
Methodology<br />
The data for this study were collected for the State’s 30 Local Government areas (LGAs). Local<br />
Government area was chosen as the unit of analysis because it is the spatial unit for social and<br />
administrative organization in Nigeria. It has been adopted by the government, in recent years, as the<br />
development planning units at the grassroots. Thus, it is the lowest spatial unit for which information<br />
on most indicators of development can be collected in Nigeria.<br />
There are indicators that have been used in the measurement of development at micro and<br />
macro scales depending on the conceptualization of development and the focus of the researcher. For<br />
this research, data collected include all the available natural and man-made resources in each Local<br />
Government Area. The data were collected on 45 indicators of development in 2001 from all the 30<br />
Local Government Areas, and from government ministries and agencies (see Table 2). The raw data<br />
collected from all sources were subjected to editing and processing (normalized) to avoid introducing<br />
bias among the LGAs. The data generated was analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and<br />
logistic regression. Mapping technique was also performed, using Geographic Information System<br />
Software, ArcView version 3.2, for spatial illustrations of some of the findings. The goal of using PCA<br />
is to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of components, which concisely describe<br />
the relationships among observed variables, as well as to understand the underlying processes of the<br />
evolving pattern (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1996). PCA has the abilities to summarize data, identify<br />
salient underlying patterns of relationship within the data set, and eliminate redundant variables and<br />
inter-correlation in the data set. It is also capable of producing groups and sample ordination in one<br />
integrated analysis (Gorsuch,1983 ; Adesina, 1994).<br />
Logistic regression, commonly called Logit regression is used when the dependent variable<br />
(response variable) is dichotomous (i.e.binary or 0-1). The independent variables may be quantitative,<br />
categorical or a mixture of the two.<br />
The basic form of the logistic function is:<br />
P = 1<br />
26<br />
1+ e –z
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
where, z is the predictor variable and e is the base of natural logarithm equal to 2.71828 and P is an<br />
estimated probability. When z the predictor variable is more than one then the z is a linear function of<br />
a set of predictor variable:<br />
z = b0 +b1x1 +b2x2 + ………BKxK<br />
This expression is substituted for z in the formular for the logistic function above to become<br />
multivariate logistic function as:<br />
P = 1<br />
1 + e –( b 0 +b 1 x 1 +b 2 x 2 + ………B K x K )<br />
All the basic properties of the logistic function are preserved as the function P still range<br />
between 0 and 1. In logistic regression all predictor variables enter the equation simultaneously and<br />
extract the significant variables which best explain the probability of the odd in the dependent variable<br />
(P) . It allows evaluation of the contribution made by each predictor over and above that of the other<br />
predictors (Retherford and Choe, 1993). In this study logistic regression model is used to examine the<br />
independent variables that best explain development inequalities among the LGAs in the state.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
This section discusses the results of the data analysis. It is divided into three sections: the first presents<br />
the components of development; the second discusses the development inequalities among the LGAs;<br />
the third section gives the results of the logistic regression, which relate the development status of the<br />
LGA to the indices of development.<br />
(A) Components of develoment in osun state<br />
`The PCA extracted 13 significant components which jointly account for 89 percent of the total<br />
variance. The first four components (55.92%) that contributed highly to the total variance in<br />
terms of eigen values are discuss in this study. Eigen value is the measure of the amount of<br />
variation accounted for by a component in a set of components identified by PCA. Component<br />
1 accounts for 21.24 percent of the total variance, which is the most important component of<br />
development in the State. Eighteen variables loaded significantly out of 45 variables. The<br />
variables are measures of material prosperity, in terms of electricity consumption, new vehicle<br />
registration, petrol stations, large manufacturing employment and telephone facility, road<br />
density, population density and percentage urban population. Others are livestock rearing such<br />
as poultry, fishery, goat, sheep and pig, which are easily reared within urban areas in<br />
Southwestern Nigeria. Given the mixture of variables that loaded significantly on this<br />
component it is clearly an index of development for the State and it is named Urban economic<br />
prosperity component (Table 2).<br />
The second component accounts for 17 percent of the total variance with seventeen variables<br />
loading significantly in the range of .40 and .79 on this component. These are Higher institution<br />
enrolment (44), Nurses per 10000 population (23), Doctors per 10000 population (v22), Higher<br />
education institution direct employment (v45), Hotel facilities per 10000 population (v30), and<br />
Post articles received or sent per 1000 population (v26). Others are Petrol station per 10000<br />
population (v31), Secondary school enrolment per 1000 per population (v39), Hospital beds per<br />
1000 population (v21), Banks per 10000 population (29), tarred road (v16), telephone facility<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
(v27) and new motorcycle registration (v37). The remaining four variables loaded negatively<br />
but significantly on this component, these include primary school students / teacher ratio (v40),<br />
secondary school students /teacher ratio (v41), federal allocation (v17) and total local<br />
government expenditure (v18) as shown in Table 2. This indicates that, these four variables<br />
have no direct influence on the level of development as measured by component 2. Some<br />
modernization variables which loaded moderately on this component gives an indication of the<br />
general level of social equality which summarizes the welfare dimension associated with<br />
establishment of higher institutions in a region. For instance, apart from enrolment and direct<br />
employment benefit from such institutions, people benefit immensely from services rendered<br />
by such institutions. One of such services is access to high quality health facilities in the<br />
Teaching Hospitals commonly established for universities. However, the low score of<br />
urbanization status on this component further reveals the relative importance of establishment<br />
of higher institutions in rural areas specifically, Esa-Oke, Iree and Ila. These variables revealed<br />
that establishment of higher education institutions in various part of the State has continued to<br />
impact positively on the state development through the processes of “backwash/ polarization”<br />
and “spread/ trickledown effect” (Abiodun, 1981). Thus, component 2 is an index of higher<br />
education development in the State, which is named higher education establishment component<br />
of development.<br />
Component 3 contributes 9 percent of the total variance with eigen values of 4.22 . Ten<br />
variables loaded highly on this component which include cocoa production (v2), manufacturing<br />
establishment (v33), small scale manufacturing employment (v35), palmkernel production (v3),<br />
internally generated revenue (v19) and cattle rearing (v5). Others are post office (v24), higher<br />
education enrolment (V44), secondary school enrolment (v39) and federal allocation (v17),<br />
which loaded negatively on component 3. These variables shows that agricultural produce and<br />
small scale manufacturing employment are important aspect of development in the State, thus<br />
component 3 is named as agricultural produce/ small scale employment component of<br />
development.<br />
Component 4, which accounts for 8 percent of the total variance with eigen value of 3.74 has<br />
seven variables that loaded highly on it. These variables are health facilities (v20), primary<br />
school enrolment (v38), postal agency (v25), total LGA expenditure (v18), federal allocation<br />
(V17), post office (v24) and water provision (V12). The mixture of these variables shows that<br />
infrastructural development especially in the rural areas is also important in the development<br />
process of the State. One thing to note about this component is that the first three variables that<br />
loaded highly are variables that are well distributed in the rural LGAs in the State. Thus, this<br />
component is named infrastructural component of development. The results shows that regional<br />
development in Osun State can best be described in terms of these four components.<br />
(B) Development inequalities<br />
Based on the four components extracted from the results, variations in levels of development<br />
among the Local Government Areas are discussed. The distribution of components scores<br />
among the LGAs provided the means of identifying the spatial variation in levels of<br />
development (Table 3). The component scores are also used as input into the GIS mapping<br />
technique.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
i) Variations in Levels of Development on Component One<br />
On the first component, 14 out of 30 Local Government Areas have positive scores. Osogbo has the<br />
highests score of 3.33, followed by Olorunda, Ilesa West and East, and Irepodun Local Government<br />
Areas are other LGAs that scored above 1 ranging between 1.2 for Ilesa East and 1.5 for Irepodun. The<br />
remaining nine Local Government Areas in this group scored below 1. Sixteen Local Government<br />
Areas scored negatively on this component. These are depicted in Figure 1. Aiyedaade, Ife South and<br />
Ife North LGAs have the lowest scores on this component. One conclusion that can be drawn from<br />
this is that the forces of polarization or backwash as contained in the Growth Pole theory is in<br />
operation and perhaps stronger than trickledown or spread effect in the State. It also reflects the process<br />
of cumulative –causation where by investment in a Growth centre tends to induce other investments in<br />
the centre at the expense of the surrounding areas as human and material resources continue to drift to<br />
the developed centres. This process is strengthened by the differential sectoral investment of the State<br />
Government in favour of the major urban centres.<br />
ii) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Two<br />
Spatial inequality in development among the LGAs is also indicated in Component 2. Higher<br />
Education institutions obviously have significant influence on the scoring of each LGAs.<br />
Consequently, Local Government Areas with one type of higher institution or the other scored highly<br />
on this component. As expected, Ife Central LGA that houses one of the first generation universities in<br />
the country, takes the lead with a score of 3.83. Ilesa West followed it with a score of 1.47. Eleven<br />
others also scored positively on this component, with scores ranging between 0.1 and 0.88. The LGAs<br />
with the lower score in this group are Osogbo, Olorunda, Ede North, Boripe, Irewole, Obokun, Iwo,<br />
Oriade, Ifelodun, Irepodun and Ila. The remaining seventeen LGAs scored negatively on this<br />
component (Figure 2).<br />
iii) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Three<br />
Going by the PCA loadings, Component three was named agricultural produce and small-scale<br />
industrial employment component. Thirteen LGAs have positive scores on the component. Ife East<br />
LGA has the highest with a score of 3.32. Ilesa East and Isokan LGAs follow this with 1.39 and 1.22<br />
respectively. The remaining 10 LGAs had scores that were less than 1. Their scores ranged between<br />
0.14 in Ife North LGA and 0.89 in Irewole LGA (Figure 3).<br />
iv) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Four<br />
Fourteen LGAs had positive scores in this component. Four of the fourteen had more than scores of 1.<br />
These include Ifedayo, Olorunda, Atakumosa East and Boluwaduro LGAs. Three of these four are<br />
rural LGAs while Olorunda is the only urban LGA in the group. The remaining ten LGAs scored<br />
below 1 ranging between 0.04 in Ilesa East LGA and 0.89 in Ila LGA. Sixteen LGAs scored negatively<br />
on the component (Figure 4). The high scores recorded by Ifedayo, Atakunmosa East and Boluwaduro<br />
are related to the high number of primary health facilities and high primary school enrolments in the<br />
areas.<br />
One inference that one can draw from these results is that development inequalities prevail<br />
among the Local Government Areas in the State. This requires that policy options be tailored to<br />
address spatial inequality in such a way as to invigorate development processes in the various parts of<br />
the state.<br />
(C) Predictor variables for development<br />
In this section the logistic regression model is used to examine the predictor variables that best<br />
explain the variation in levels of development among the LGAs. The dependent variable for<br />
each observation in the study is the LGAs/Location, which takes the value of 1 if the LGA is<br />
urban, or 0 if it is rural. The independent variables are the 45 variables in the data set. The<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
logistic regression was performed using STATA version 7.0 a software package for statistical<br />
analysis, it has the ability of isolating the significant variables from a set of independent<br />
variables.<br />
Table 4 shows the results of the logistic regression. The model accepted 24 out of the 45<br />
variables as significant predictor variables of development in the State. The odds ratios, Z and<br />
P>Z values, which gave indications about the strength of each of the variables in the model, are<br />
also shown in Table 4. Out of the 24 variables brought into the model, only six are significant<br />
as predictor variables to explain the variations in levels of development among the LGAs in the<br />
State. These are higher institution enrolment (hienr), postal articles received or sent (partiv),<br />
local government expenditure (expv), federal allocation (fdalo), primary school enrolment<br />
(prerv) and population density (podenv).<br />
The most significant of the six variables identified is Higher education institution. This should<br />
be expected as higher institutions tend to maintain a strong “pulling” influence on development<br />
features such as commerce, estate development and vehicular concentrations through<br />
polarization/ backwash processes. It also tends to contribute to the development of the<br />
surrounding hinterland through the processes of spread or trickle down effect. Apart from<br />
establishment of higher education institution, the fiscal system of revenue allocation among the<br />
LGAs from the federation account and the expenditure pattern at the local government level<br />
also affect government investment on developmental projects that can be executed at the local<br />
levels. The fiscal system of State Government investment in different sectors tends to favour<br />
some LGAs at the expense of the others and this also contributes to the level of inequality<br />
among the LGAs. The results of the logistic regression therefore revealed that the development<br />
surface in Osun State is significantly influenced by six variables among the predictor variables.<br />
Conclusion and recommendation<br />
The findings in this research have confirmed the existence of inequality of development in the state in<br />
which many development indicators are concentrated in a few Local Government Areas that are urban<br />
based, while the majority (24 LGAs) are lagging behind on the components of development. This<br />
portends serious implications for development planning in the state. First, one can conclude that the<br />
economy of the entire state is portrayed as being largely underdeveloped.<br />
Two, inequality in the distribution of the essential facilities and services have resulted in<br />
impaired growth of the economy, which is manifested in the under-utilization of human and natural<br />
resources in the state. Thirdly, the urbanization process, which is a rational human solution to readjust<br />
in relation to the prevailing situation of unbalanced distribution of benefits, may further result in<br />
stifling of growth in the deprived areas, which will further impoverish the inhabitants. While the<br />
undue congestion in the favoured areas might be counter productive with negative consequences, the<br />
observable out-migration from the rural areas is a demonstration of this spontaneous adjustment.<br />
Spatial disparities in levels of development as revealed in this study can be redressed by<br />
planned action. To break the circle of poverty in Osun state and other states of Nigeria and to move<br />
into long-term sustainable development will require the government to provide enabling environment<br />
for the productive use of resources (see Mbaku, 1997, World Bank 1981). This will involve the<br />
emergence of a spatial system that allowed natural resources from rural regions to be used productively<br />
within those regions; facilitate the dissemination of innovation and the delivery of public and<br />
commercial services; aid in the efficient production and exchange of goods throughout the state and<br />
national economy, and draw larger numbers of the population into productive economic activities. This<br />
is crucial for a wide spread of sustainable development and to reduce poverty.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 1: Population and land Area by LGAs<br />
LGA Name Pop. 1991 *Projected<br />
pop.<br />
2001<br />
31<br />
Land +<br />
Area<br />
(km 2 )<br />
Percent<br />
Of state<br />
Land<br />
1 Atakumosa East 38105 50370 419.62 5.25<br />
2 Atakumosa West 60037 79362 502.01 6.28<br />
3 Aiyedaade 94777 125285 951.37 11.90<br />
4 Aiyedire 41636 55038 247.87 3.10<br />
5 Boluwaduro 42392 56037 132.75 1.66<br />
6 Boripe 82387 108907 107.07 1.34<br />
7 Ede North 69388 91723 107.55 1.35<br />
8 Ede South 72975 96465 183.72 2.30<br />
9 Egbedore 40293 53263 235.44 2.94<br />
10 Ejigbo 69366 91694 343.84 4.30<br />
11 Ife Central 96580 127669 168.92 2.11<br />
12 Ife East 95857 126713 164.46 2.06<br />
13 Ife North 127677 168776 708.91 8.86<br />
14 Ife South 88170 116551 647.32 8.09<br />
15 Ifedayo 24671 32612 201.30 2.51<br />
16 Ifelodun 76565 101211 110.92 1.39<br />
17 Ila 50585 66868 190.73 2.39<br />
18 Ilesa East 78471 103730 65.03 0.81<br />
19 Ilesa West 60974 80601 57.51 0.72<br />
20 Irepodun 80415 106300 54.47 0.68<br />
21 Irewole 77884 102954 233.35 2.92<br />
22 Isokan 56943 75272 237.02 2.96<br />
23 Iwo 105401 139329 246.26 3.08<br />
24 Obokun 61218 80924 464.72 5.81<br />
25 Odo-Otin 82314 110810 260.83 3.26<br />
26 Ola Oluwa 39454 52154 298.77 3.74<br />
27 Olorunda 83347 110176 85.07 1.06<br />
28 Oriade 80833 106853 447.99 5.60<br />
29 Orolu 73042 96554 76.24 0.95<br />
30 Osogbo 106386 140631 46.47 0.58<br />
State Total 2,158,143 2,854,832 7997.54 100<br />
Source : NPC 1997<br />
*2001 Population Projection using 2.83percent Growth rate (Federal Office of Statistics,Nigeria, Rate)<br />
Computation by Macro-statistics Osun State;+Digitalized map of Osun State (RECTAS)
Table 2: Rotated Principal Component Loading 2001<br />
Variable<br />
label<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
COMP<strong>ON</strong>ENT LOADINGS COMMUNALI<br />
TIES<br />
C1 C2 C3 C4<br />
LandV1 -.70 -.06 -.02 -.07 50<br />
CocaV2 .12 .12 .75 .09 59<br />
PkV3 -.03 -.09 .58 -.16 37<br />
ForeV4 -.43 -.07 .09 -.06 21<br />
CattV5 .48 -.12 .40 -.06 41<br />
GoatV6 .90 .19 -.09 -.27 92<br />
PigV7 .77 .27 -.13 -.10 69<br />
ShepV8 .86 .12 .11 -.32 86<br />
BirdV9 .89 .29 -.02 -.13 89<br />
PondV10 .81 .13 -.008 -.02 68<br />
FishV11 .79 .08 -.006 -.03 63<br />
WatV12 .29 .04 .07 -.43 28<br />
BoreV13 -.28 -.34 -.19 .31 35<br />
ElectV14 .68 .07 -.05 -.10 48<br />
RoadV15 .59 -.17 .18 .29 50<br />
TardV16 .36 .49 -.34 -.12 50<br />
FdaloV17 -.09 -.56 -.44 .48 74<br />
TexpV18 -.16 -.51 -.38 .54 72<br />
IgrV19 .05 .02 .48 .19 27<br />
HfacV20 -.11 .19 -.12 .81 72<br />
HbedV21 .39 .61 .08 .25 60<br />
DocV22 .31 .76 .22 .21 77<br />
NurV23 .38 .79 .14 .17 82<br />
PostV24 -.19 -.26 -.49 .47 57<br />
PosagV25 -.06 -.10 .19 .64 45<br />
PoartV26 -.05 .73 -.29 -.09 63<br />
TeleV27 .63 .62 .25 .15 88<br />
CoopV28 .09 .18 .01 .23 10<br />
BankV29 .24 .51 -.13 .36 46<br />
HotelV30 .47 .74 .14 .09 79<br />
PetrolV31 .41 .65 .34 .02 71<br />
CsemV32 .29 .26 -.39 .31 39<br />
MaesV33 -.15 .10 .62 -.04 42<br />
LmemV34 .43 .31 -.06 .13 30<br />
SmemV35 -.17 .11 .61 -.03 41<br />
NvregV36 .51 .25 .11 .24 39<br />
CyregV37 .27 .40 -.02 -.12 25<br />
PrerV38 .001 .30 .38 .65 65<br />
SecenV39 .39 .62 .42 .23 77<br />
PrstV40 -.05 -.56 -.14 .15 35<br />
SestV41 .07 -.53 -.03 -.06 29<br />
PodenV42 .91 .16 .05 -.28 94<br />
UrbV43 .60 .39 .20 -.34 68<br />
HienrV44 -.05 .52 -.49 -.14 54<br />
HistafV45 -.13 .75 -.39 -.06 72<br />
Eigen Value 9.56 7.65 4.22 3.74<br />
%Total<br />
Variance<br />
Cum.%<br />
Total<br />
Variance<br />
21.24 16.99 9.38 8.31<br />
21.24 38.23 47.61 55.92<br />
32
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 3: Distribution of Component Scores by LGA 2001<br />
LGA C1 C2 C3 C4<br />
Atakunmosa East -.51 -.69 -.32 1.32<br />
Atakunmosa West -.85 -.33 .45 -.38<br />
Ayedaade -1.31 .25 .39 -1.04<br />
Ayedire -.21 -.0003 -.86 .35<br />
Boluwaduro .03 -1.06 -.55 1.32<br />
Boripe .29 .38 -.62 -1.22<br />
Ede North .82 .30 -.25 -.35<br />
Ede South -.25 -.64 .47 -.39<br />
Egbedore -.31 -.69 -.30 .58<br />
Ejigbo .34 -.46 .41 .53<br />
Ife Central .80 3.83 -.1.80 -.26<br />
Ife East .21 -1.02 3.32 -.92<br />
Ife North -1.13 -.30 .14 -1.45<br />
Ife south -1.18 -.23 .33 -.17<br />
Ifedayo -.09 -1.35 -1.19 1.89<br />
Ifelodun .57 .15 .60 -.62<br />
Ila .01 .11 -.55 .89<br />
Ilesa East 1.18 -.35 1.39 .04<br />
Ilesa West 1.48 1.47 -.76 .46<br />
Irepodun 1.52 -1.30 -.53 -1.60<br />
Irewole -.85 .17 .89 -.77<br />
Isokan -.81 -.13 1.22 -.22<br />
Iwo -.33 .40 .47 -.96<br />
Obokun -.65 .38 -1.15 .68<br />
OdoOtin -.11 -.63 -.41 .36<br />
OlaOluwa -.77 -.67 .51 .22<br />
Olorunda 1.48 .88 -1.42 1.49<br />
Oriade -.72 .54 -.30 .54<br />
Orolu .76 -1.46 -.19 -1.18<br />
Osogbo 3.22 .48 -.35 -.46<br />
33
Table 4 Logistic Regression result<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Logit estimates Number of obs = 30<br />
LR chi2 (24) = 27.55<br />
Prob > chi2 = 0.2793<br />
Log likelihood = -2.289e-07 Pseudo R2 = 1.0000<br />
Class Odds<br />
Ratio<br />
Std.Err Z P >[z] [95% Conf. Interval]<br />
Forv4 .0963172 . . . . .<br />
Catv5 1.089897 . . . .<br />
Goatv6 3.414946 . . . . .<br />
Pigsv7 1.015813 . . . . .<br />
Sheepv8 .177941 . . . . .<br />
Birdv9 1.163514 . . . . .<br />
Watv12 .3091181 . . . . .<br />
Borev13 .0423972 . . . . .<br />
Electv14 1.05895 . . . . .<br />
Tarv16 .0286953 . . . . .<br />
Expv18 1.006996 7.540022 0.00 0.999 4.26e-07 2379680<br />
Igrv19 .8499984 . . . . .<br />
Partiv26 1.035604 .6125265 0.06 0.953 .324889 3.30105<br />
Coopv28 .9317405 . . . . .<br />
Podenv45 .9443884 4.800448 -0.01 0.991 .0000445 20040.92<br />
Urbv 1.398071 . . . . .<br />
Fdalov17 .9641473 6.381064 -0.01 0.996 2.24e-06 414660.5<br />
Prerv37 .8552078 20.81564 -0.01 0.995 1.64e-21 4.47e+20<br />
Serv39 .6188023 . . . . .<br />
Prstv41 4.867516 . . . . .<br />
Sestv43 .5271308 . . . . .<br />
Hienr 1.008306 .3037317 0.03 0.978 .5587086 1.819699<br />
Histaf .8672551 . . . . .<br />
Discap .5756546 . . . . .<br />
34
OL AOLUWA<br />
IWO<br />
Component Scores<br />
EJIGBO<br />
AYEDIRE<br />
IREWOLE<br />
ISOKAN<br />
< 0<br />
0 - 0.99<br />
1 - 1.99<br />
> 2<br />
AYEDAADE<br />
OR OL U<br />
EGBEDORE<br />
OSOGBO<br />
EDE NORTH<br />
ED E SOU TH<br />
IFE NORTH<br />
N<br />
IREPODUN<br />
IFE CEN TR AL<br />
IFELODUN<br />
BORIPE<br />
OLORUNDA OD O OTIN<br />
IFE EAST<br />
IFE SOUTH<br />
5<br />
BOLUWADU RO<br />
OB OK UN<br />
ATAKUMOSA WEST ILESA WEST<br />
ILA<br />
ILESA EAST ORIADE<br />
ATAKUMOSA EAST<br />
0<br />
IFEDAYO<br />
5 Km<br />
Figure 1 Variations in Levels of Development on Component One Figure 2 Variations in Levels of Development on<br />
component Two Urban Economic Prosperity) (Higher Education Establishment)<br />
35<br />
OLAOLUWA<br />
IWO<br />
Component Scores<br />
EJIGB O<br />
AYEDI RE<br />
IREWOLE<br />
ISOKAN<br />
< 0<br />
0 - 0.99<br />
1 - 1.99<br />
> 2<br />
AYEDAADE<br />
OROLU<br />
EGBEDORE<br />
OSOGBO<br />
ED E NORTH<br />
EDE SOUTH<br />
IFE NORTH<br />
N<br />
IREPODUN<br />
IFE CEN TR AL<br />
IFELODUN<br />
BORIPE<br />
OLORUNDA ODO OTIN<br />
IFE EAST<br />
IFE SOUTH<br />
5<br />
BOLU WADURO<br />
OBOKUN<br />
ATAKUMOSA WEST ILESA WEST<br />
ILA<br />
ILESA EAST ORIADE<br />
ATAKUMOSA EAST<br />
0<br />
IFEDAYO<br />
5 Km
OLAOLUWA<br />
IWO<br />
Component Scores<br />
EJIGB O<br />
AYEDI RE<br />
IREWOLE<br />
ISOKAN<br />
< 0<br />
0 - 0.99<br />
1 - 1.99<br />
> 2<br />
AYEDAADE<br />
OROLU<br />
EGBEDORE<br />
OSOGBO<br />
ED E NORTH<br />
EDE SOUTH<br />
IFE NORTH<br />
N<br />
IREPODUN<br />
IFE CEN TR AL<br />
IFELODUN<br />
BORIPE<br />
OLORUNDA ODO OTIN<br />
IFE EAST<br />
IFE SOUTH<br />
5<br />
BOLU WADURO<br />
OBOKUN<br />
ATAKUMOSA WEST ILESA WEST<br />
ILA<br />
ILESA EAST ORIADE<br />
ATAKUMOSA EAST<br />
0<br />
IFEDAYO<br />
5 Km<br />
36<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Component Score<br />
Figure 3 Variation in levels of development on Component Three Figure 4 Variation in levels of development on Component Four<br />
(Agricultural Produce/Small Scale Employment) (Infrastructure)<br />
< 0<br />
OLAOLUWA<br />
IWO<br />
0 - 0.99<br />
> 1<br />
EJIGBO<br />
AYEDIRE<br />
IREWOLE<br />
ISOKAN<br />
AYEDAADE<br />
OROL U<br />
EGBEDORE<br />
OSOGBO<br />
EDE NORTH<br />
EDE SOUTH<br />
IFE NORTH<br />
IREPODUN<br />
IFE CENTRAL<br />
IFELODUN<br />
BORIPE<br />
OLORUNDA ODO OTIN<br />
IFE EAST<br />
IFE SOUTH<br />
N<br />
BOLU WADURO<br />
OBOKUN<br />
ATAKUMOSA WEST ILESA WEST<br />
ILA<br />
ILESA EAST ORIADE<br />
ATAKUMOSA EAST<br />
IFEDAYO<br />
5 0 5 Km
References<br />
[1] Abiodun J.O. (1981) ”On the relevance of the growth pole/centre strategy in<br />
Regional Planning” paper presented at the Regional planning Seminar, University<br />
of Ife, Ile-Ife, 20pp.<br />
[2] Aboyade O. (1975) “The need for an operative specification of poverty in Nigeria<br />
Economy” Proceedings of the 1975 annual Conference of Nigeria Economic<br />
Society.<br />
[3] Abumere S.I. (1998a) “Distributional inequality and the problem of national<br />
integration” Inaugural lecture University of Ibadan<br />
[4] …………….. (1998b) “Jurisdictional partitioning and the poverty gap in<br />
Nigeria” working paper 15 : Development Policy Centre, Ibadan<br />
[5] Adesina F.A. (1994) “Application of Three Ordination Techniques in a part of the<br />
forest-Savanna Transition Zone in Nigeria” The Nigerian Geographical Journal<br />
N.S. Vol 2 pp 70 – 90.<br />
[6] Akpan P.A. (1992) Analysis of patterns of development in South-Eastern Nigeria,<br />
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis O.A.U. Ile-Ife.<br />
[7] ……………. (2000) “ Spatial Inequality in Nigerian Development The case of<br />
Akwa-Ibom State” African Journal of Development Studies vol.2 no. 1&2 pp.78-<br />
86.<br />
[8] Beresford and Mcfarlane (1995) “Regional Inequality and Regionalism in<br />
Vietnam and China” Journal of Contemporary Asia vol.25(1) pp.50-72.<br />
[9] Boudeville J.R. (1966) Problems of regional economic planning. Edinburgh<br />
University press, Edinburgh<br />
[10] Friedman J.R. (1959) “Regional planning: a problem in spatial integration”<br />
Region science association vol. 5 pp 167-179.<br />
[11] Gorsuch R.L (1983) Factor Analysis Hillsdale N.J. Erlbaum<br />
[12] Hermansen Y. (1972) “Development poles and development centres in national<br />
and regional development: Elements of a theoretical framework” in Ruklinski A<br />
(ed) Growth poles and growth centres in regional planning UNRISD Geneva, pp<br />
1-68.<br />
[13] Hirschmann A.O. (1958) The strategy of economic development New Haven Yale<br />
University Press U.S.A.<br />
[14] Hicks N. and Streeten P. (1980) “Indicators of development: The search for a<br />
basic needs Yardstick” Development Digest vol. Xviii no. I.<br />
[15] Hooder and Lee (1974) Economic Geography. Mathuen, London<br />
[16] Hoyle B.S. (1974) “Spatial analysis and the less developed countries” in Hoyle<br />
(ed.) Spatial aspects of development John-Wiley, London.<br />
[17] Ikporukpo C.O. (1986) “Politics and Regional Policies: the issue of state creation<br />
in Nigeria” Political Geography Quarterly Vol.5 no 2 pp127 -139<br />
[18] Mabogunje A.L. (1968) “Urbanization in Nigeria: A constraint on Economic<br />
Development” Economic development and cultural change vol. 13 p 413-4398.<br />
[19] ------------- (1980) The development process: A spatial perspective. Hutchinson<br />
Ltd., London.<br />
[20] Mbaku J.M. (1997) Institutions and reform in Africa: The public choice<br />
perspective. Praeger, Westport CT<br />
37
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
[21] Meier G.M. (1964) Leading issues in economic development. Oxford University<br />
Press, London.<br />
[22] Myrdal G. (1957) Economic theory and underdeveloped regions, Methuen Ltd.<br />
London<br />
[23] Obasanjo O. (1999) Independent Day address by the President of Federal<br />
Republic of Nigeria 1 st October 1999, Nigeria.<br />
[24] Retherford R.D. and Choe M.K. (1993) Statistical Models for Causal Analysis,<br />
Johnwiley, Newyork<br />
[25] Stohr W.B. and Taylor F. (1981) Development from above or below? John<br />
Wiley. New York.<br />
[26] Tabachnick B. and Fidell L.S. ( 1996) Using Multivariate Statistics Harper<br />
Collins College Publisher, New York.<br />
[27] Todaro M.P. (1977) Economic development in the third World, Longman, New<br />
York.<br />
[28] Ullman E.L. (1958) “Regional development and the Geography of concentration”<br />
Proceedings of Regional Science Association vol. 4 pp 179-198.<br />
[29] Uphoff Norman (2001) “Poverty and Inequality: A life chances perspective”<br />
Cornell University Publication, Website pp 1-23.<br />
[30] N.P.C. (1997) Census’ 91 National Summary. National Population Commission.<br />
[31] UNDP (1990) Human Development Report, Oxford University Press Oxford.<br />
[32] World Bank (1981) “Accelerated development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An agenda<br />
for action” The World Bank, Washington D.C..<br />
38
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
An Overview of Selected Theories of Adult Learning:<br />
Implications for Teacher Education in the 21 st Century<br />
Nigeria<br />
J. A. Aderinto<br />
Department of Continuing Education<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
E-mail: aderinto1@yahoo.com<br />
Phone: (Mobile) 08033262733<br />
Abstract<br />
The paper examined some selected theories of adult learning and their<br />
implications for teacher education in the 21 st century Nigeria. A critical<br />
examination into the extent to which theories could be used as tools for<br />
improvement of learning at different educational settings suggests that most<br />
learning theories are pedagogical educationally oriented with little<br />
consideration for andragogical aspect of education. The existing theories of<br />
adult learning were synthesized through literature review to examine the<br />
differences between the use of pedagogical and andragogical theories of<br />
learning. Four assumptions about adult learning were identified and found to<br />
be foundation stones of modern adult learning.<br />
The study therefore, concluded that if teachers of adult learners are to be<br />
relevant in the 21 st century Nigeria, they need to be equipped with teaching<br />
techniques and concepts derived from modern adult learning theories and<br />
approaches.<br />
Key Words : Andragogy; Pedagogy; Teaching-techniques; Curriculum;<br />
Experience, Instructional-methodologies.<br />
Introduction<br />
The extent to which theories could be used as tools for the improvement of learning at<br />
different educational settings has been a subject of debate. Indeed, most learning theories<br />
have been centered on pedagogical education with little consideration for andragogical<br />
aspect of education. Instructors, more than often, find it very difficult to apply the<br />
existing theories to adult learning.<br />
Dobin and Okun (1973) opined that if a comprehensive theory of learning<br />
existed, which was applicable to adults, it would be of great utility for both researchers<br />
and instructors. Teachers of adults will in no doubt be relieved of adoption of learning<br />
theories which often is pedagogical in facilitating adult learning. As adult teacher, a<br />
broad and comprehensive learning model would be necessary, and serve as an<br />
opportunity to formulate a workable rationale for instruction. It is in this view that this<br />
39
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
paper sought to examine the implications of some selected existing learning theories for<br />
teacher education in the 21 st century.<br />
Learning as a concept<br />
The significant learning and its meaning dates back to the 19 th century with Ebbinghaus’<br />
studies on memory. Since that time, we have witnessed the early works of such famous<br />
names as William James, John Dewey. Edward Thorndike, Thomas Watson, and Kurt<br />
Lewin. Other modern psychologists such as B.F. Skinner, Robert Gagne, Jerome Bruner,<br />
Albert Bandura, Jean Piaget, and Carl Roger, have something to say about learning<br />
(Aderinto, 1998).<br />
Kid (1973), endorses results from experience and which through conditioning<br />
(behaviour) is used to fix desirable habit, or to break undesirable ones.<br />
However, Cross (1981): Crow and Crow (1963); Tough (1971) and Cross (1981):<br />
Caffarella (1982); and Edgar, et al (1972), go further to conceptualize learning as<br />
acquisition and mastery by a person of what is already known on a highly self-directing<br />
which calls for the education activities to be centered on the learner to allow him (the<br />
learner), greater freedom to choose what he wants to learn, and how, and where he wants<br />
to learn it.<br />
The 19 th and 20 th centuries psychologists had as focus inbuilt learning theories for<br />
all educational settings in their works that reflects the principles of both pedagogy and<br />
andragogy. Our observation show that teachers and facilitators of learning more than<br />
often take for granted these learning theories to be that of pedagogy alone. As a result,<br />
most instructional methodologies are often based on what Paulo Freire (1972) regarded<br />
as ‘banking education’ which principles are in contrast to the interest of the adult<br />
learners.<br />
The 21 st century poses a challenge to teachers and facilitators of learning in all<br />
educational settings, especially in the adult education setting. The challenge of making<br />
these learning theories more relevant to adult learner’s needs and interest.<br />
Synthesis of existing learning theories for adult education<br />
Adult education has been the concern of human race for a very long time, but<br />
with little thought or investigation about adult learning. Evidences show that as early as<br />
the ancient time, there have been teachers of adults. Knowles (1978), emphasized that<br />
even though there were evidences of philosophy and invention of techniques for the<br />
teaching of adults, there was little evidence to show any interest in the processes of adult<br />
learning by the early propounders of learning theories. The assumptions that adults learn<br />
the same way as children, often foreclosed any attempt to explore the process of adults<br />
learning. Hence, the only theoretical framework for all education setting (children and<br />
adults alike) is pedagogy. The emergence of a growing body of ideas about the<br />
characteristics of adult learners only came to light according to Knowles (1978), after the<br />
end of World War 1. To this effect, the evolution of theory abouty adult learning has<br />
been recent.<br />
Thorndike (1928), pioneered studies in adult learning which revealed that adults<br />
have ability to learn, and thus, providing a launching pad for subsequent studies on the<br />
characteristics of adult as a learner. Further studies of Thorndike (1935), and Sorenson<br />
(1938), affirmed that adults could learn and even possess interest and abilities that were<br />
different from those of children.<br />
This theoretical assertion was further reinforced by Lindeman’s (1926)<br />
systematic theory about adult learning which clearly conceptualize adult learning as that<br />
which is situational and not subjects as it is the case of pedagogical learning.<br />
40
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Conventional education demands that the student adjust himself to an established<br />
curriculum whereas, in adult education, the curriculum is built around the student’s<br />
needs and interests.<br />
Lindeman’s theory about adult learning emphasizes experience as living text<br />
book for adult learners, and on which teachers of adults should build on. Thus, as one of<br />
the pioneering theorists, the foundation for new way of thinking about adult learning was<br />
laid. As a result, the following assumptions about adult learning emerged and constituted<br />
the foundation stones of modern adult learning theory:<br />
1. Adults’ orientation to learning is life centered<br />
2. Experience is the richest sources for adult learning<br />
3. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing<br />
4. Individual differences among people increase with age.<br />
Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests that learning<br />
will satisfy. Knowles (1970) appears to have taken cue from Linderman’s assumptions<br />
about learning in his quest for a different learning theory for adult learners. According to<br />
Knowles, “adult education has not achieved the impact on our civilization which it is<br />
capable because teachers of adult have only known how to teach adults, as if they were<br />
children”. The emergence of Knowles’ theory of adult learning (andragogy) came to be<br />
one of the theories for adult learning in recent times. Andragogy as theory for adult<br />
learning offers an insight into the needs and interests of adults learners for teachers of<br />
adults, as it x-rays the nature of adult learners as follow:<br />
1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to<br />
learn it.<br />
2. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions for their<br />
own lives.<br />
3. Adults came into an educational activity with both greater volume and a different<br />
quality of experience from youths.<br />
4. Adult become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do, in<br />
order to cope effectively with their real life situations.<br />
5. Adults are life and tasks centred in their orientation to learning.<br />
6. Adults are motivated by internal pressure and desire to achieve. (Knowles, 1980).<br />
All the foregoing assumptions have implications for teacher of adults. They serve<br />
as appropriate starting point for organizing adult learning activities which gives the<br />
necessary methodology and approach in the teaching processes of adult learning as life<br />
situation, experience, self-directing, and a call for mutual inquiry.<br />
Other learning model that have implications fro adult learning are Skinner’s<br />
(1938) “Operant model”, Hulls (1943) “Drive reduction; Bebb’s (1949) “Neuro<br />
Physiological model” which emphasizes experience as power behind adults’ memory to<br />
recall any educational experience which they have passed through. Bandura’s (1969)<br />
“Social Leanring”. Brunner’s (1961) “Cognitivism”; and Rogers’ (1969) “Non-directive<br />
teaching”, each of these theories posit adult learners as active and experienced<br />
individuals who learn significantly only those things which they perceive as being<br />
involved in the enhancement and structure of self. Adults according to Elinor (1982) are<br />
people whose lives are overflowing with commitments, obligations, and burden of one<br />
sort or another. They learn out of their own free will.<br />
41
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Our observation of these learning theories has been that inspite of some insights given<br />
into learning and teaching in general, the pedagogical method has been about the only<br />
approach frequently used to facilitate learning at all levels. This constitutes a challenge<br />
for teacher education, and a call for a change in techniques and methods of teaching,<br />
especially for the adult learners. There will in no doubt be a need to embrace new<br />
methodologies and ideas of humanistic psychologists that will produce a shift from the<br />
conventional lecture approach to the facilitation of learning based on the assumptions of<br />
adult learning theories. It is therefore necessary for the 21 st century teachers of adults to<br />
be provided with new skills and a re-orientation in the teaching techniques, especially in<br />
adult learning processes.<br />
Theories of learning will be meaningless unless they are applied to the facilitation<br />
of learning. Teachers are assigned these functions as postulated by Knowles (1978).<br />
They are generally responsible for the application of learning theories to the learners and<br />
in accordance with what those theories regarded as essential in all educational settings.<br />
In adult education, the connection between teacher and learners is crucial, as it<br />
affects every stage of learning processes. The role of the adult teacher is diverse, and in<br />
most cases, the teacher becomes all things in all circumstances for the benefit of adult<br />
learners.<br />
Elinor (1982), further gives insight to the qualifications of the teacher of adult<br />
learners as a person who has knowledge of the subject and ability to communicate it; has<br />
teaching techniques; and ability to learn from the students and relate teaching to their<br />
experience. He must have intellectual integrity, and a broad cultural perspective free<br />
from prejudice. He must also be interested in students as individuals, believe in their<br />
desire to learn, warm, sympathetic, and have a sense of humour.<br />
These required qualities of teachers of adults confirm the distinctiveness of adult<br />
learners from children and youths. As mature people, they must be recognized and<br />
treated as such, bearing in mind that adult’s teachers are agent of change and bridges that<br />
connect both learning theories and the application of those theories to make them<br />
meaningful. No meaningful change can be made if the teacher of adult learners does not<br />
take into consideration those theories that best suit the learning process of adults.<br />
Teachers of adults have the task of managing the theories of learning.<br />
Implications for teacher education in nigeria<br />
Teachers all over the world are known to be the custodian of knowledge who through<br />
various techniques, impart that knowledge in learners. As transmitting agents, they<br />
provide the learner what a given theory regards as essential. Jarvis (1995) portrays<br />
teachers as anyone who aids another person to learn. Consequently, the teacher of adults<br />
should equip himself with necessary teaching techniques and concepts derived from<br />
adult learning theories..Teachers’ eduation in Nigeria has been devoid of andragogical<br />
concepts of education. Their orientations have been grounded in pedagogical approaches<br />
to learning activities, hence, their inability to excell in the teaching of adult learners. The<br />
curriculum and methodologies are basically oriented towards children education.<br />
The teacher of adults in the 21 st century Nigeria, must understand his/her role and<br />
conditions of learning as relates to adult education. A situation whereby adult learners<br />
are taught as if they were children and youths should be reviewed. What happens beyond<br />
children and youth education should be adequately addressed in the teacher education<br />
curriculum for the new millennium. The relationship between learning and teaching<br />
should be put into a proper perspective in teacher education to provide for the expected<br />
role of the teachers in the application of learning theories. Jervis (1995) proffers:<br />
42
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
“both the teachers’ role performance and the teaching methods they employ<br />
should never be undermined, but always seek to enhance the dignity and the humanity<br />
for the learners, to do less than this is a misuse of the teachers position, immoral and<br />
falls below the ideas of education.”<br />
Teacher education in the 21 st century Nigeria should make provision for<br />
professional training in methods and techniques of adult teaching, based on the principles<br />
of adult learning theories. The existing pedagogical method of “I lecture and you listen”<br />
(didactic) should be de-emphasized and rather, Teachers should embrace the expository<br />
teaching methods that are relevant to adult learning.<br />
Evidence shows that despite the increasing interest in the methods of teaching<br />
adults, and the existing wealth of curriculum and how-to-do-it teaching guides for<br />
teachers of adult education, most adult education teachers still lack the professional<br />
training in adult learning (Schuttenberg, E.M. and Tracey, S.J. 1987). The 21 st century<br />
Nigeria teachers’ education curriculum must expose teachers to variety of literatures on<br />
the approaches to the teaching of adults. Theories of conditions of learning and<br />
approaches to teaching should be emphasized in the 21 st century teacher education in<br />
Nigeria.<br />
Knowles (1978 and (1980) offers the teachers of adults the necessary knowledge<br />
and teaching methods about conditions of adult learning. The following table of learning<br />
conditions of adults and approaches to teaching as adapted from Knowles (1978) and<br />
1980) could be a significant step in planning teacher education curriculum for the 21 st<br />
century Nigeria, especially for the facilitators of adult education programmes.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Adults learning conditions and approaches to teaching<br />
Conditions of adult learning Approaches to teaching<br />
Learning is a basic human need Teacher exposes students to self-fulfilment, helps<br />
student clarify his own aspirations for improved<br />
behaviour, diagnoses the gap between his aspiration<br />
and present level of performance, helps students<br />
identify the life problems experience as a result of<br />
Disharmony between an individual’s experience<br />
and his perception of the world is a source of<br />
motivation in learning.<br />
Adult learners like to participate in the learning<br />
process.<br />
44<br />
the gap.<br />
Socratic (facilitative) methods is recommended as<br />
against didactic.<br />
Mutual structure of learning process, relevant<br />
structure of learning process, and relevant to<br />
problem that created felt need to learn.<br />
Adult are experienced as learners. Using of those experiences as a learning resources<br />
to build individual meaning system in learning<br />
Adult learners are self-confident, self-esteem, with<br />
self-perception.<br />
situation.<br />
Reinforcement of all correct knowledge and<br />
understanding to maintain high level of selfconfidence,<br />
and self-esteem. Providing<br />
opportunities for adult learners to reflect upon<br />
incorrect knowledge for self-correction, and<br />
encouragement of self-assessment.<br />
Adult learn best when the self is not under threat. Creation of an ethos devoid of threat, co-operation<br />
and not competition should be encouraged.<br />
Adult learners need to feel that they are treated as Teachers should not regard themselves as “the<br />
adults.<br />
fountain of all knowledge” but attempt to create and<br />
facilitate a teaching and learning engagement<br />
between all participants.<br />
Adult learners have developed their own learning Recognition of different learning styles that exist<br />
styles.<br />
and encouragement of learners to develop effective<br />
and efficient learning flexibility and adoption of<br />
relevant teaching styles in teaching and learning<br />
transaction.<br />
Adults learners had different educational Encouragement of learning at adult learners’ own<br />
biographies and may learn at different speeds. pace.<br />
Adults are intelligent people. Teachers should not be influenced by previous<br />
academic record especially that from initial<br />
education.<br />
Adults bring different physiological conditions to Ensuring that the physical environment in which the<br />
the learning situation.<br />
Source: Peter Jarvis, 1995<br />
teaching and learning occurs is conducive to adult<br />
learning.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This paper has established that volumes of theories about learning have been in<br />
existence, and the awareness of them is more revealing through the wealth of literature<br />
that is available. The question that may agitate one’s mind is why are Ngerian teachers<br />
who have the job of applying those theories to teaching, still falling short of proper<br />
application of the theories to adult learning? The distinction between learning by adults<br />
and learning by children is grossly undermined probably due to teaching orientation of<br />
Nigerian teachers which may not be unconnected with pedagogical principles that<br />
emphasize children’s learning.<br />
The 21 st century teacher education in Nigeria, should address the differences<br />
between the means by which adults and others learn to make up for the imbalances in<br />
approach to the teaching of those theories about learning. The current awareness for
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
change in every sector of human development including education in general and in the<br />
new millennium, is a challenge for teacher education in Nigeria. It calls for a<br />
reorientation of teachers in theories about learning and teaching methodologies for the<br />
development of all learners, and specifically, the adult learners. Teacher education<br />
curriculum in the 21 st century Nigeria, should be reviewed to reflect methods and<br />
application of adult learning theories in teaching adults.<br />
References<br />
[1] Aderinto, J.A. 1998. “ Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners in A<br />
Selected Voluntary Education Agency in Nigeria” Benin Journal of Educational<br />
Studies 11. (1 & 2). 11-18<br />
[2] Bebb, D.O. 1949. The Organization of Behaviour. New York: Wiley, Inc.<br />
[3] Bandura, A. 1969. Principle of Behaviour Modification New York; Holt<br />
Rinehart and Winston.<br />
[4] Brunner, J.S. 1961 “The Act of Discovery”. Harvard Educational Review. No.<br />
31.<br />
[5] 21-32<br />
[6] Caffarella, Rosemary S. 1982. “Assisting Students to Become Better Learners<br />
The Use of A Learning Plan Format”. National Adult Education Conference, San<br />
Antonio, Texas.<br />
[7] Cross, K.P. 1981. Adults As Learners. San Francisco: Jossey Bass<br />
[8] Crow, I.D., and Crow A. (Eds.) 1963. Reading in Human learning. New York,<br />
Mckay.<br />
[9] Dubin, Samuel S. and Morries Okun. 1973. “Implication of Learning Theories for<br />
Adult Institution” Adult Education. . XXIV (1). 3-17<br />
[10] Elinor, Lenz 1982. The Art of Teaching Adults, New York, Holt, Rine hart and<br />
Winston.<br />
[11] Edgar, Faure, Felipe Herrera, Abdul-Razzak Kaddoura, Henri Lopes, Arthur V.<br />
Petrovsky, Majid Rahnema, and Frederick Champion. 1972 Learning To Be:<br />
The World of Education Today Tomorrow. Paris, UNESCO.<br />
[12] Freire, P. 1972. Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin. .<br />
[13] Hull, C.L. 1943. Principles of Behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts<br />
Incorporated.<br />
[14] Jarvis, Peter 1995. Adult and Continuing Education: Theory and Practice. 2 nd<br />
Edition., NewYork: Biddles Ltd.<br />
[15] Kid, J.R. 1973. How Adult Learn. New York: Cambridge.<br />
[16] Lindeman, Eduard C. 1926. The Meaning of Adult Education. New York: New<br />
Republic.<br />
[17] Malcom, Knowels. 1970. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy<br />
Versus Pedagogy. New York: Association Press.<br />
[18] Malcom, Knowles. 1978. The Adults Learner: A Neglected Species. 2 nd Edition,<br />
Houston Texas: Gulf Publishing Company.<br />
[19] Malcom, Knowles. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From<br />
Pedagogy to Andragogy. Revised and Updated. Chicago: Follett Publishing<br />
Company.<br />
[20] Rogers, C.R. 1969. Freedom to Learn. Columbus: Charles E, Merrill Books.<br />
[21] Schuttenberg, E.M. & Tracy, S.J. 1987. “The Role of the Adult Educator in<br />
Fostering Selfdirected Learning” Life-long Learning: An Omnibus of Practice<br />
and Research. 10(5) 4-6, 9.<br />
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[22] Skinner, B.F. 1938. The Behaviour of Organism: An Experimental Analysis.<br />
New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.<br />
[23] Sorenson, Herbert. 1938. Adult Abilities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota<br />
Press.<br />
[24] Thorndike, Edward L. 1928. Adult Learning. New York: Macmillan.<br />
[25] Thorndike, Edward L. 1935. Adult Interests. New York: Macmillan.<br />
[26] Tough, Allen. 1971. The Adult’s Learning Project Toronto: Ontario Institute For<br />
Studies in Education.<br />
46
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Local Government and Fiscal Stress in Contemporary<br />
Nigeria: An Examination<br />
Ayo A. Adesopo<br />
Department of Public Administration,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife.<br />
Abstract<br />
Local government system is known worldwide to be an agent of<br />
development. It has failed in this wise due to a number of inadequacies.<br />
This study investigated into the causes of such failures, with particular<br />
reference to fiscal stress resulting mainly from restricted revenue-raising and<br />
revenue-sharing powers as well as others classified under socio-political and<br />
structural problems. The socio-political and structural problems were said to<br />
be traceable to the nature of intergovernmental fiscal relationship existing<br />
among the three tiers of government making up the Nigerian Federation. The<br />
study also identified two major effects of fiscal stress and these are: first,<br />
limited capacity of the local governments to meet the increasing scope, scale<br />
and standard of constitutionally assigned roles; and second the autonomy that<br />
is implicit in the idea of a third tier of government is undermined. It<br />
therefore made a number of recommendations that would enable the level of<br />
government achieve and sustain its functional but relative autonomy.<br />
Local government development profile in nigeria<br />
Local government has always been of importance in the political terrain of Nigeria. This<br />
has led to its reformation or restructuring several times in the history of Nigeria. Before<br />
the 1950s, the colonial government was using indirect rule to administer the grassroots.<br />
It was through the Native Authorities (NAs) then operating under the District Officer<br />
(DO) with the Cooperation of Traditional Rulers. Funds were being raised mainly<br />
through taxation collected by the NAs which retained a part for the maintenance of their<br />
services. Budgets were prepared then under the guidance of the DO and approved by<br />
government. Such an arrangement received stiff opposition especially from Southern<br />
Nigeria in early 1950s. This led to the replacement of native administration with the<br />
Local Council Ordinance. The western region followed with the Local Council Law of<br />
1952 while the Northern region passed a corresponding law in 1954. Local Council<br />
Service Boards (LCSB) were created in Southern parts in 1955 to regulate the powers of<br />
the local authorities on appointment of employees. In the North, appointments were on<br />
the approval of the appropriate regional minister of government. In 1960, the laws were<br />
amended in line with regional experiences and dictates of the time. Ministry of Local<br />
Council was later created to strengthen inspection of finance and personnel. When the<br />
military took over power in 1966, local administration system was abolished via Decree<br />
34, further eroding the autonomy and power of local government councils (Guardian,<br />
August 7, 2003:9). Of importance to us here was the reduced roles for states and local<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
governments, especially the taking over of some of the responsibilities of states and local<br />
governments by the federal government. Examples here include police, prison, judiciary,<br />
education, forestry, etc taken over; use of indirect methods and other processes which<br />
were less than democratic; reduced functional roles of traditional rulers, and such others.<br />
Concretely, the development of local government system was constrained by military<br />
authoritarian, undemocratic and centralising tendencies (CASS, 2003:21).<br />
The creation of 12 states in 1967 witnessed another phase of local government<br />
reforms. Each region instituted its local government system and this leading to diverse<br />
rather than uniform local government administrative system among the states/regions<br />
that made up Nigeria then. Local administration then was in the context of the dictates<br />
of their local circumstance(s). While the eastern and mid-western state governments<br />
took over the running of local political institutions, the west adopted a North American<br />
model of local administrative system and in most of the Northern States in existence was<br />
the system of popular representation with weakened traditional leadership. In addition,<br />
local governments were being treated essentially as agents of regional and central<br />
government. That is, the arrangement did not encourage local autonomy.<br />
There is no gainsaying the fact that the importance of local government in the<br />
Nigerian political terrain has been renewed since the 1976 reform of local government<br />
system. The reform has been very embracing. Apart from the fact that the reform<br />
recognized the tier of government as a distinct level of government with defined<br />
boundaries, it clearly stated functions and provisions for ensuring adequate human and<br />
financial resources and at the same time imposed a nation-wide uniform within practical<br />
limits. That is, local government units were collectively regarded as a separate arm of<br />
government with “constitutional status, power and financial standing” irrespective of the<br />
fact that the state governments were to ensure their existence and provide for their<br />
structure, composition, finance and functions (Bello-Imam and Uga, 2004:453) and<br />
subsequently enshrined in the 1979, 1989 and 1999 constitutions of the federal republic<br />
of Nigeria.<br />
To date, there have been series of major and far-reaching structural and<br />
organizational changes since that 1976, the existence of the main features of the 1976<br />
reform till today is not in doubt. Among these changes are the abolition of the state<br />
ministries of local government in 1988 to enhance the autonomy of local government;<br />
the introduction of direct disbursement of statutory allocations to local governments; the<br />
increase of allocation formula from 10% to 15% in 1990 and later mid-1992 increased to<br />
20%; transfer of Primary Health Care (PHC) programme to local governments in 1990;<br />
transfer of primary school administration in 1991; extension of presidential system to<br />
local government (to ensure transparency and accountability) as recommended by Civil<br />
Service Reorganisation of 1988; consistent increase in the number of local governments<br />
from 299 in 1976 to 589 in 1991 and 774 in 1996 and till date; and a host of others (see<br />
Olowu, et al; 1991:20; Ekpo, 1994; Bello-Imam and Uga, ibid:461-462).<br />
The declining furtunes of local governments in nigeria<br />
Olowu, et. al. (1991:17) emphatically expressed the view that local governments all over<br />
the world exist to achieve certain societal values and which must have influenced the<br />
authors of the Nigerian local government reform, especially that of 1976. The principal<br />
aim of local government as spelt out by the reform guideline are to:<br />
(i) provide appropriate services and development activities progressive to local<br />
wishes and initiatives by devolving or delegating them to local representative<br />
bodies;<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
(ii) facilitate democratic self-governance close to the local levels of our society and<br />
encourage initiative and leadership potential;<br />
(iii) mobilise human and material resources through the involvement of members of<br />
the public in local area development;<br />
(iv) provide a two-way channel of communication between local committees and<br />
government (both state and federal); and<br />
(v) spell out specific constitutional functions and responsibilities for planning of<br />
local governments (Olaniyi, 1999:273).<br />
(vi) The paradox now is that as important as the local government system is,<br />
especially in the Nigerian context, it has failed to function (appropriately) by not<br />
providing and satisfying the basic needs of the grassroots. This disturbing trend<br />
informed the President Obasanjo’s realisation of the need to review the structure<br />
of local government system in Nigeria in June 2003. What followed was the<br />
constitution of a high power eleven-man Presidential Technical Committee on<br />
local government reform under the chairmanship of Alhaji Umaru Ndayako (the<br />
Late Etsu of Nupe). The mandate of the committee was to:<br />
(vii) examine the problem of inefficiency and high cost of governance with a view to<br />
reducing costs and wastages;<br />
(viii) review the performance of local governments within the last four years and<br />
consider the desirability or otherwise of retaining the local government on the<br />
third tier of government and in that regard to consider, among other options, the<br />
adoption of a modified version of the pre-1976 local government;<br />
(ix) examine the high cost of electioneering campaign in the country; and<br />
(x) consider any matter, which in the opinion of technical committee, are germane to<br />
the goal of efficient structure of governance in Nigeria.<br />
The report of the committee was turned in within the stipulated time frame. It is<br />
unfortunate to note that the report is on the shelve gathering dust like such other earlier<br />
reports.<br />
However, the reason for non-performance or gross under performance of the local<br />
government system in Nigeria has been described by scholars to be multi-dimensional.<br />
Adedeji (1970) for example blames this on lack of mission or lack of comprehensive<br />
functional role, lack of proper structure, low quality of staff, and low funding. That was<br />
the situation then. CASS (2003:21) links their non-performance to centralisation of<br />
power. Mentioned here are issues like the military intervention in politics and the<br />
appropriation of major political offices and thereby promoting centralisation; federal take<br />
over of revenue sources that previously belonged to lower levels of government and in<br />
effect reducing the latter’s capacity and made them dependent on federal transfers;<br />
deliberate takeover of functions formerly under the uspices of the two lower<br />
governments for reasons of national unity/integration; and a host of others. To Bello-<br />
Imam and Uga (op.cit), a number of factors precipitated the declining fortunes of local<br />
governments in contemporary Nigeria. First, in their words, is the systematic<br />
atomisation of the local government system in Nigeria and which has unconsciously led<br />
to the over-establishment of the level of government and hence turned them into glorified<br />
parish councils with hardly any means and capacity to deliver the traditional services of<br />
local governments. Second, the imposition of a uniform structure on all the 774 local<br />
government units, irrespective of their ability to deliver their constitutionally assigned<br />
functions within the context also indirectly limits the effectiveness of local governments<br />
in Nigeria. The third and the most relevant to this work is the external involvement, and<br />
most times, the usurpation of the activities of the level of government by both the state<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
and federal governments, limiting their competence, efficiency and effectiveness to a<br />
great extent. Bello-Imam and Uga went further to spell out the form such external<br />
interference use to take and these are listed as follows:<br />
a) Usurpation of the lucrative sources of revenue of local government under the<br />
pretence of lack of executive capacity to generate the given revenue sources;<br />
b) Automatic and numerous extra-budgetary deductions from the statutory<br />
allocation of the local governments within a state by the supervising state<br />
government; either for reported expenditure on their respective behalf or for yet<br />
to be executed projects on their behalf;<br />
c) Imposition of some ad-hoc functions on local governments by both the state and<br />
federal governments for execution on their respective behalf without<br />
commensurate finances to execute them. Examples here include funding of<br />
NOA, NDLEA, NDE, NEPA, INEC, FEAP, NPC, police/community relations<br />
committee, educational expenses of various types, etc.<br />
d) Other reported specific deductions are:<br />
(i) deduction of 15 percent of the local government statutory allocation for the<br />
local government staff Pension Board;<br />
(ii) deduction of 5 percent for the payment of Traditional Rulers’ stipend which<br />
has tot up to 37.5billion naira over the period, apart from purchase of<br />
limousines by some state governments on behalf of their local governments;<br />
(iii) deduction of 1 percent of the statutory allocation of local governments for<br />
the regular training and retraining of career staff of local government;<br />
(iv) deduction of 1 percent from the monthly statutory allocation of local<br />
governments as additional administrative charges by the supervising state<br />
government;<br />
(v) deduction of N10,000 for support of INEC activities during the last general<br />
election;<br />
(vi) payment of overbloated security votes to elected officers, i.e. chairman and<br />
vice chairman of the local government; and<br />
(vii) regular and sometimes occasional deduction from the local government<br />
statutory allocation for support of the state Chief executive and all pertinent<br />
state officers’ social ceremonies like marriage for either of them or their<br />
children, burial ceremonies of their parents, house warming ceremonies,<br />
etc.<br />
(a) Lack of open tendering and due process in most of the activities of the local<br />
government occasioned more often than not by political interference;<br />
(b) The immense expenditure spent on overheads at the grass roots and hence<br />
only very meagre financial resources are left for development; and<br />
(c) Pervasive corruption in grassroots governance. Although corruption is not<br />
unique to local governments, but a general social malaise at all levels of<br />
government in Nigeria, it is assuming some disturbing proportions at the<br />
local government level.<br />
Nigeria’s fiscal structure: a brief overview<br />
Without mincing words, the poor state of the current local government system can be<br />
traced to many factors ranging from socio-political, constitutional and fiscal issues. For<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
the purpose of this work, our concern shall be in the realm of fiscal issue, especially its<br />
structure.<br />
To start with, it is pertinent to remind us that there are three intricately and<br />
mutually dependent levels of administrative hierarchy within the Nigerian federation: the<br />
federal, state and local government levels. The three tiers of government are<br />
constitutionally established with areas of power and responsibility assigned to each level.<br />
As spelt out in the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria, power and<br />
responsibilities are classified into Exclusive legislative list, Concurrent legislative list<br />
and Residual functions (Section 4 second schedule) between federal and state<br />
governments. Section 7 fourth schedule of the same constitution also spells out the sole<br />
functions of a local government council as well as those being performed concurrently or<br />
in “participation” (as described by Akindele, et. al, 2002:564) with their respective state<br />
governments. Basically, services which are principally local in character are assigned to<br />
local government believing that they can be more effectively and efficiently developed<br />
and administered by local governments. Such functions include construction and<br />
maintenance of local roads, local water supply and distribution, provision of housing for<br />
lower income groups, health clinics and a range of environmental and preventive health<br />
functions, establishment and maintenance of market and motor parks, gathering of vital<br />
statistics, provision of primary and adult education and libraries, and planning of<br />
community development functions (Humes, 1970:103; Adejuyigbe, 1972:403). Others<br />
today are development of agricultural and natural resources, social welfare, sewage and<br />
refuse disposal, registration of births/deaths/marriage, etc, control and regulation of<br />
advertisement, pets, small messes, and so on (1999 Constitution). Generally speaking,<br />
allocation of responsibilities is partly based on the area of coverage of the benefiting<br />
group and partly the importance of such responsibilities.<br />
A fundamental issue in intergovernmental fiscal relations in a federal set-up is the<br />
allocation of government roles and responsibilities on the one hand and granting of<br />
adequate revenue-raising (taxing) power as well as allocation of adequate resources on<br />
the other hand to be able to shoulder its alloted responsibilities effectively. This brings<br />
us to the issues in intergovernmental fiscal relations. According to Ter-Minassian<br />
(1997), there are four (4) main issues and these are: revenue-raising responsibilities,<br />
intergovernmental fiscal transfers, spending responsibilities, and administrative aspects<br />
of fiscal decentralisation. The first two shall be expatiated upon.<br />
Revenue-raising responsibilities<br />
Revenue-raising responsibilities, otherwise known as tax assignment/jurisdiction, are<br />
basically about the level of government that should control what tax. Control in this<br />
context is seen from the point of view of who legislates about, administer, collect and<br />
have right to what tax. This provides various levels of government with revenue they can<br />
control under fiscal arrangement. By this, the tax jurisdiction of each level is defined and<br />
efficiency is one of the basis. Where the distribution of functions does not rest on and in<br />
fact does not guarantee adequate and independent revenue base, then the canon of fiscal<br />
federalism is bastardized and is in jeopardy. Ideally, therefore, tax jurisdiction should<br />
guarantee the fiscal autonomy of each level of government (Philips, 1971). However,<br />
efficiency requires that the taxing powers be vested in that level of government most<br />
likely to administer the taxes at the least cost. For this reason, taxing powers on sources<br />
which cut across states and which are major sources of revenue are vested in the central<br />
government, while those sources that cut across local government boundaries within a<br />
state are vested in the state government. Other criteria that can serve as guide in this<br />
wise include: progressive and redistribute taxes should be centralised (e.g. personal<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
income tax and corporate income tax); taxes for economic stabilisation (such as import<br />
duties) should also be centralised; taxes in mobile factors of production (e.g. gain taxes)<br />
should be centralised; residence-based taxes (e.g. sales/excise and retail taxes) can be<br />
decentralised; benefit taxes/user charges are usually assigned to the level of government<br />
that provides the service (such as toll gate levies, hospital and education fees, motor<br />
licences, etc); taxes on immobile factors of production such as land and buildings are<br />
assigned to local governments (e.g. property taxes); and lastly taxes on natural resources<br />
should be assigned to the central government, for the sake of administrative efficiency<br />
and uniform practice since the major projects in this field often involve big multinational<br />
corporations. (Musgrave, 1959; Shah, 1991 and Vincent, 2002:20). This pattern of<br />
assignment is today a subject of controversy.<br />
In assigning revenue-raising responsibilities, it is important to distinguish<br />
between those revenue powers which can be exercised by one level of government and<br />
the revenue which accrue to that level of government alone (i.e. independent revenue)<br />
and those exercisable by a level of government, but whose revenues accrue to that level<br />
of government as well as others. The latter refers to those revenues that are shared among<br />
the three tiers of government and these make up the federation account. Tables 1 and 2<br />
are explicit on these.<br />
The independent revenue sources of the federal government are as listed on Table<br />
3 (a). The retained revenue of the federal government includes what accrues from the<br />
independent/internal sources plus the share of federation account, share of VAT<br />
proceeds, share of AFEM account, share of privatisation proceeds, share of reserve<br />
account, share of GSM proceeds, custom levies, share of fertilizer subsidy/proceeds,<br />
PSTF revenue, capital transfers, loan recovery from states, and first charges (e.g.<br />
JVC/NNPC priority project, National priority project, external debt service fund and<br />
special fund) (CBN, 2003). The independent/internal revenue sources of states are also<br />
as stated on Table 3 (b). The retained revenue of the state government include what<br />
accrues from the independent sources, share of federation account, share of VAT<br />
proceeds, Receipts from stabilisation fund, and Grant and others (CBN, 2003).<br />
The independent/internal revenue sources of the local government are also as presented<br />
on Table 3 (c). The retained revenue of the tier include what accrues from the internal<br />
sources, share of federation account, share of VAT proceeds, receipt from stabilisation<br />
fund and general ecology, share of 10 percent of state’s internally generated revenue and<br />
Grant and Others.<br />
Intergovernment fiscal transfers<br />
This is another important issue in intergovernmental fiscal relations. Intergovernmental<br />
transfers, or simply revenue allocation/distribution among the tiers of government, occur<br />
at two levels: vertical and horizontal. The sharing among the different tiers of<br />
government is said to be vertical. The sharing, on the other hand, among thes component<br />
units of each lower tier of government is said to be horizontal. The former is normally<br />
based on approved rate (in percentages) while the latter is based on approved principles,<br />
also expressed in percentages. Several issues have been raised about such transfers<br />
especially with respect to the acceptable formula for their distribution, adequacy of<br />
revenue for the tiers of government and over-dependence of the two lower tiers of<br />
government on such revenue.<br />
The principles which guide inter-governmental transfers, according to Aigbokhan<br />
(1999:339), include fiscal imbalance (or fiscal gap); stabilisation objectives;<br />
redistributive role of the public sector which would sometimes require the central<br />
government to redress regional disparity; preservation of internal common market, which<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
may require the federal government to ensure a common minimum level of public<br />
services, and inter-jurisdictional spillovers which may otherwise lead to under-or over<br />
provision of public services (see also Awa, 1976:77). This necessitated the establishment<br />
of a Distributable Pool Account (DPA) (in 1958) and later (in 1979) called Federation<br />
Account in the history of Nigeria. Its establishment was to have a pool into which some<br />
portion of federally collected revenue should be paid for subsequent share to the units to<br />
enable them finance their programmes. Among others, the revenue that are paid into the<br />
federation account include crude oil/Gas exports, petroleum profit tax, mining rents and<br />
royalties, domestic crude oil sales, Companies Income tax, Custom and Excise duties,<br />
Privatisation/GSM proceeds, and so on (CBN, 2003:123). Section 162 of the 1999<br />
Constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria is emphatic on its sharing. It stated clearly<br />
that any amount standing to the credit of the federation account shall be distributed<br />
among the federal and state governments and the local government councils in each state<br />
on such terms and in such manner as may be prescribed by the National Assembly.<br />
While the two lower levels of government in Nigeria receive statutory allocation<br />
from the federal government, the local governments receive from the two higher tiers of<br />
government. Since June 1992, the vertical sharing has been as follows:<br />
Federal Government 48.5 percent<br />
State Government 24.0 percent<br />
Local Government 20.0 percent<br />
Special Fund 7.5 percent<br />
- Federal Capital Territory 1.0 percent<br />
- Derivation 1.0 percent<br />
- Development of Oil Mineral<br />
Producing areas 3.0 percent<br />
- General Ecology 2.0 percent<br />
- Statutory Stabilisation 0.5 percent<br />
(Bello-Imam and Agba, 2004:71-72).<br />
In addition to its 20 percent share of the federation account, local governments are<br />
statutorily entitled to 10 percent of States’ internally generated revenue. The only major<br />
amendment to the formula since that 1992 was the partial implementation of the 13<br />
percent derivation principle (The Guardian of September 12, 2000:53). The horizontal<br />
sharing (among the states as well as among local governments) is based on such<br />
principles as population (30%), equality of states (40%), internal revenue generation<br />
effort (10%), social development factor (10%) and land mass and terrain (10%) (Bello-<br />
Imam and Agba, ibid). Pending the approval of an acceptable formula, the following<br />
indices have been in operation since 1999:<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
(A) social development factor (10%)<br />
Local Government State Government<br />
(i) Primary enrolment 24% of 10% 24% of 10%<br />
(ii) Hospital beds 30% of 10% 30% of 10%<br />
(iii) Water Supply Spread 15% of 10% 15% of 10%<br />
(iv) Rainfall proportion 15% of 10% 15% of 10%<br />
(v) Direct sec/commercial enrolment - - 8% of 10%<br />
(vi) Inverse sec/commercial enrolment - - 8% of 10%<br />
(B) Land Mass/Terrain (10%)<br />
(i) Land Mass 50% of 10% 50% of 10%<br />
(ii) Terrain 50% of 10% 50% of 10%<br />
(C) Internal Revenue Effort (10%)<br />
(i) Revenue Effort 25% of 10% 25% of 10%<br />
(ii) Revenue Equality 75% of 10% 75% of 10%<br />
(A) Equality (40%) Equally Equally<br />
(B) Population (30%) - Based on population census last conducted.<br />
(Source: Home Finance Dept.; Federal Ministry of Finance, Abuja).<br />
Discussing further the issues in inter-governmental transfers, elements like grants-in-aid<br />
(special allocations), VAT and Education Tax are important transfers outside the<br />
mainstream of the federation account. Grants-in-aid are given by the federal government<br />
for two major reasons: political (e.g. to aid the taking off of a state or local government)<br />
and to reduce the effect of unforeseen occurrences (like flood/rainstorm, draught, pest<br />
problem, crisis, etc.) that can distort the budget of the unit concerned to the extent that<br />
other essential services could suffer. With regards to VAT, introduced in 1994, the<br />
sharing is at 15%, 50% and 35% among the federal, state and local governments<br />
respectively (Seyi Ojo, 1999:178) (as quoted by Adesopo, et. al., 2004:186). The<br />
horizontal sharing of VAT proceeds among each lower level of government is on the<br />
basis of equality (50%), population (30%) and derivation (20%). Lastly, education tax is<br />
a peculiar (centrally collected) revenue. It is peculiar first because it is specially<br />
managed by a Board of Trustee and second, it is not directly shared among the tiers of<br />
government. Despite this, it indirectly benefits the three tiers of government as it is spent<br />
to develop education at all levels. As an amendment to the disbursement ratio, effective<br />
from 1998, the disbursement has been among Higher education (50%), secondary<br />
education (20%) and primary education (30%) irrespective of the tier of government that<br />
owns the institution. This was initially (in 1993) in ratio 50:10:40 respectively.<br />
Highlighting sources of fiscal stress at local government level<br />
With respect to the above listed issues, we shall be concerning ourselves with the sources<br />
of fiscal stress at the local government level. By the way, fiscal stress is a fiscal situation<br />
that can be equated to budgetary stringency. It is the next stage to financial insolvency<br />
and/or fiscal crisis when expenditure is related to revenue. When revenue and<br />
expenditure run neck to neck, there exists a state of fiscal stress and when this situation is<br />
not checked what results is a higher level of fiscal dislocation better known as fiscal<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
crisis. Fiscal stress at the local level can be traced to three (3) broad sources, namely:<br />
revenue-raising (taxing) responsibilities, revenue-sharing rights and those classified as<br />
others.<br />
Local government and revenue-raising (taxing) responsibilities<br />
Revenue-raising responsibilities, otherwise referred to as tax assignment / jurisdiction,<br />
are basically about the level of government that should control what tax. Control in this<br />
context is seen from the point of view of who legislates about, administer, collect and<br />
have right to what tax. This provides various levels of government with revenue they<br />
can control under fiscal arrangement. In practice however, limited autonomy is given to<br />
the lower tiers of government as the major revenue heads fall under the legislative and<br />
administrative jurisdiction of the federal government while less bouyant sources are<br />
devoted to the fiscal jurisdiction of state and local governments (Olowononi, 1999:194).<br />
Detailed table on tax assignment is as presented on tables 1. It is clearly seen that the<br />
major revenue heads fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government while the less<br />
important ones fall under the other two lower levels of government. It must also be<br />
noted that it is not all taxes collectible to any given tier of government that it can spend<br />
and table 2 is clear on this. The specific taxes assigned to local governments are as<br />
presented also on Table 3(c). Despite the extensive range of items/subheads,<br />
insignificant portion of the total current revenue of local governments comes from<br />
internal sources. Tables 4 and 5 show the current revenue structure as well as<br />
external/internal sources ratio of local governments respectively. Table 5 shows that out<br />
of the total revenue that accrued to the seven hundred and seventy four (774) local<br />
governments between 1996 and 2003, an average of 6.7 percent was sourced internally<br />
and the remaining 93.3 percent was from external sources (the federal and state<br />
governments). Of the 93.3 percent, the state contributed 1.4 percent while the bulk sum<br />
of 91.9 percent was contributed by the federal government. Due to relative<br />
insignificance of revenue from internal sources, it must be mentioned in passing that a<br />
clear case of a highly centralised (intergovernmental) fiscal system is established.<br />
Local government and revenue-sharing rights<br />
As it has been mentioned elsewhere above, spending responsibilities are assigned to the<br />
three levels of government as spelt out in the constitution. Allocation or assignment of<br />
revenue-raising responsibilities as well as spending responsibilities in a federation<br />
usually gives rise to financial imbalances as the two are often mismatched. This is so<br />
because it is virtually impossible in a federation to nicely adjust responsibilities to<br />
financial resources (Anyanwu, 1997:170). The consensus among the scholars of<br />
intergovernmental fiscal relations and even among the political class is that such<br />
imbalances must be ameliorated through a variety of transfer (and borrowing)<br />
mechanisms in order to allow various levels of government perform their constitutionally<br />
assigned responsibilities.<br />
The realisation of the need to ameliorate fiscal imbalances through a variety of<br />
transfer mechanisms has not yielded much especially at the local government level. The<br />
imbalances are very evident today as can be seen from Federation Account Operation<br />
(Table 6) and such other transfers from Value Added Tax (VAT) proceeds, Grants and<br />
Others, and stabilization fund as shown in Table 4 and Table 7 with respect to the local<br />
governments of the selected states of Southwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The fact<br />
remains that the federal government exercises too much control over the distribution of<br />
the federation account. For instance, it determines the sharing ratio and in addition<br />
deducts other classified expenses from the pool, in the name of “first charges”, before<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
sharing the rest among the tiers of government and special funds at the rates already state<br />
above.<br />
Others sources of fiscal stress<br />
These can be classified into socio-political and structural sources. By socio-political<br />
sources, references are being made to issues like pervasive corruption and imposition of<br />
some (extra-budgetary) ad-hoc functions on local governments by both state and federal<br />
governments. On the other hand, the state government’s freedom to interfere and make<br />
automatic and numerous extra-budgetary deductions from the statutory allocation of the<br />
local governments as occasioned by the nature of intergovernmental fiscal relations is of<br />
immense. Examples of such imposed ad-hoc functions as well as extra-budgetary<br />
deductions are as already listed elsewhere in this work. Of importance to this part of the<br />
work is the aforementioned structural arrangement with respect to fiscal transfers.<br />
Specifically, this bothers on the supervising state’s right to establish and maintain a State<br />
Joint Local Government Account into which are paid all allocations to the local<br />
government councils of the state from the federation account and from the internally<br />
generated revenue (10%) of the supervising state (section 162 (8) of the 1999<br />
Constitution). Apart from the fact that this arrangement allows the state to impose<br />
deductions on the local governments at will, it is often used as political instrument to<br />
settle scores with local government chairmen either with different political party<br />
affiliation or when not at peace with the state on one ground or the other.<br />
Implications of fiscal stress<br />
From the foregoing, the existing fiscal stress at the local government level in Nigeria is<br />
traceable to three main sources: inadequate tax-raising power, inadequate revenuesharing<br />
power as well as socio-political and structural problems with respect to<br />
intergovernmental fiscal relationship existing among the three tiers of government.<br />
There are two major effects of these inadequacies. First, the capacity of the local<br />
governments to play their roles as agents of development is limited, especially finding it<br />
difficult to meet the increasing scope, scale and standard of services needed in the<br />
community today (Iniodu, 1999:293). More concretely, it negatively affects the<br />
economic viability of the third tier of government and in effect not able to perform their<br />
constitutionally assigned responsibilities. Second, the inability of local governments to<br />
raise substantial portions of their recurrent revenue requirements from internal sources<br />
undermines the autonomy that is implicit in the idea of a third tier of government<br />
(Adamolekun, 1984). This is evident in the current revenue structure of local<br />
governments as the federal government is relied upon for more than 90 percent of their<br />
revenue. At macro level, it negates the relevance of local government creation to citizens<br />
since such a fiscal relationship will not allow for self-determination. Above all, with the<br />
relationship said to be lacking ‘ethos of justice’ (Adesina, 1998), the struggle for the<br />
control of federal power and influence among the regional blocs has increased. In<br />
addition, it has over time led to the emergence of domineering and autocratic federal<br />
government. Apart from the fact that it influences changes to the revenue allocation<br />
system, it determines what is actually paid into the federation account, deducts (at<br />
source) outstanding loans of any unit or such other payments as it deems fit, and more<br />
often than not delays disbursement to other two levels of government for political or any<br />
other reason(s). It even withholds funds meant for other levels at will as it was<br />
experienced when it (federal) withheld 13 percent derivation fund in the early periods of<br />
the fourth republic and more recently the allocation for local governments in the states<br />
where additional ones were created. The federal government uses this as a weapon<br />
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having realised the fact that no other tier can exist without the monthly statutory<br />
allocation.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The fact remains that, so far local governments are known worldwide to be critical to the<br />
national development and in recognising this fact the Nigerian constitution guarantees its<br />
existence, it has become an inevitable and indispensable tier of government within the<br />
Nigeria’s federal structure. If this level of government must achieve and sustain its<br />
functional but relative autonomy (Bello-Imam and Uga, op.cit: 465), a number of steps<br />
must be taken.<br />
First, the federal government must evolve both the vertical and horizontal<br />
revenue sharing formula that takes into account the relative constitutional functions of<br />
local governments as one of the vexed questions is that there has to be correspondence<br />
between constitutionally alloted functions and fiscal allocation (CASS, 2003:74). The<br />
federal government must recognise the importance of local government as the grassroots<br />
development unit that must do everything possible within their jurisdiction to promote<br />
the welfare of the citizens.<br />
Second, since the internally generated revenue of local governments comes from<br />
minor sources, their revenue must continue to be supplemented from federal allocations<br />
enhance discharge of functions. This does not stop local governments from working<br />
towards a situation whereby they will be alert to their internally generated revenue<br />
responsibility to reduce the extent of their dependence on federal government (Iniodu,<br />
1999:311). This can be done by mobilising available local resources to broaden the<br />
revenue base of the local government. In the alternative, the federal government can<br />
liberalise tax issues either by reassigning tax powers or by granting resource control<br />
rights.<br />
Third, the maintenance of State Joint Local Government Account (SJLGA) by<br />
the state must be discontinued and constitution be amended accordingly. The unhindered<br />
access of state government to the accounts of local governments under its jurisdiction has<br />
its aforementioned attendant problems. After abolishing the SJLGA, monthly statutory<br />
allocation to local governments can be done through the Central Bank nearest to them<br />
(Bello-Imam and Uga, op.cit). This arrangement will guarantee the local governments<br />
the deserved autonomy. The state government will be brought in to assume its<br />
supervisory role only to ensure fiscal prudence. Particularly, the auditing procedure may<br />
be strengthened and the office of Auditor-General for local governments be<br />
constitutionally guaranteed. An independent body can even be instituted to complement<br />
the roles of Auditor-General for local governments to monitor and evaluate the<br />
expenditure vis-à-vis revenue of local governments and report accordingly. Institutions<br />
such as Economic and Development Planning Commission, Economic Advisory<br />
Council, Economic Intelligence Committee, etc that are already in place must be<br />
empowered, encouraged and protected and more importantly made relevant in this<br />
respect (Iniodu, ibid). In addition, the government may need to re-orientate the thinking<br />
of the citizens towards disciplined and responsible behaviour and conduct, which will in<br />
a way reduce corruption at the local government level.<br />
Fourth, the State House of Assembly must monitor and enforce the distribution of 10%<br />
of the supervising state’s internally generated revenue to local governments in the state.<br />
Records have shown that many states in the federation have not been complying with<br />
this constitutional provision.<br />
It is also hereby suggested that the National Task Force on local government<br />
revenue mobilization be created. This is necessary if only to be self-reliant, as one of the<br />
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requirements for local government creation is the capacity to generate internal revenue in<br />
addition to population density, geographical contiguity and community affinity. This<br />
Task Force will assist in gearing up the local governments and developing many of the<br />
assigned tax sources (like tenement rate) already neglected due to their ultimate reliance<br />
on monthly statutory allocation.<br />
Local governments are agents of development and this should be the focus of their<br />
activities. Both the federal and state governments must then stop allocating ad-hoc<br />
functions and responsibilities to local governments, especially without adequate financial<br />
backing. To further enhance the capacities of local governments to function as agents of<br />
development, the Community Development Associations (CDAs) and other popular<br />
grassroots organisations have to be integrated into their structures and processes (CASS,<br />
2003).<br />
Lastly, there is need to revisit the VAT proceeds sharing ratio by raising the<br />
relative share local governments as this will further reduce fiscal stress being undergone.<br />
This is necessary because what gets to the individual local government from this source<br />
is very minute despite its sharing at ratio 15:50:35 among the federal, state and local<br />
governments respectively.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adamolekun, L. (1984) “The idea of local government as a third tier of<br />
government revisited: Achievements, Problems and Prospects” in Quarterly<br />
Journal of Administration Vol. xviii Nos 3 & 4 pp. 113-138.<br />
[2] Adedeji, Adebayo (1970) Local Government Finance in Nigeria: Problems and<br />
Prospects. Adedeji and Rowland (eds) Ile-Ife: University of Ife press pp. 1-19.<br />
[3] Adejuyigbe, Omolade (1972) “Re-organisation of local government councils in<br />
Western Nigeria” in Quarterly Journal of Administration Vol. 6 No 4 (July)<br />
pp. 401-416.<br />
[4] Adesina, O. C. (1998) “Revenue Allocation commissions and the contradictions<br />
in Nigeria’s federalism” in Kunle Amuwo, et. al (eds) Federalism and Political<br />
Restructuring in Nigeria. pp. 232-246.<br />
[5] Adesopo, A. A. and Asaju, A. S. (2004) “Natural resource Distribution, Agitation<br />
for resource Control right and the practice of Federalism in Nigeria” in Journal of<br />
Human Ecology. India, Delhi: KRE Publishers pp.<br />
[6] Adesopo, A. A.; Agboola, A. A. and Akinlo, O. O. (2004) “Centralisation of<br />
intergovernmental fiscal power and the lower levels of government in a<br />
federation: The Nigerian Experience” in Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 8 No. 3<br />
(May) India, Delhi: KRE Publishers pp. 179-195.<br />
[7] Aigbokhan, Ben E. (1999) “Fiscal federalism and economic growth in Nigeria” in<br />
Fiscal Federalism and Nigeria’s Economic Development. Proceedings of the<br />
1999 NES Annual Conference pp. 333-352.<br />
[8] Akindele, S. T.; Olaopa, O. R. and Obiyan, A. Sat (2002) “Fiscal Federalism and<br />
local government finance in Nigeria: An examination of revenue rights and fiscal<br />
jurisdiction” in International Review of Administrative Sciences. SAGE<br />
Publications. Vol. 68 No 4 pp. 557-577.<br />
[9] Anyanwu, J. C. (1997) Nigerian Public Finance First edition, Onitsha: Joanne<br />
Educational Publishers Limited.<br />
[10] Awa, E. O. (1976) Issues in Federalism. Nigeria; Benin: Ethiope Publishing<br />
House.<br />
[11] Bello-Imam, I. B. and Uga, O. Edu (2004) “Nigerian Local Government as a<br />
third tier of government: Myth or reality” in Bello-Imam and Obadan (eds)<br />
58
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Democratic Governance and Development Management in Nigeria’s Fourth<br />
Republic 1999-2003. Ibadan: CLGARDS pp. 453-468.<br />
[12] Central Bank of Nigeria (1996) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[13] __________________ (1997) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[14] __________________ (1998) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[15] __________________ (1999) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[16] __________________ (2000) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[17] __________________ (2001) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[18] __________________ (2002) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[19] __________________ (2003) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the<br />
year ended 31 st December.<br />
[20] Centre for Advanced Social Sciences (2003) “Governance and Politics at the<br />
local level” in The Guardian. Tuesday, September 23, p. 21 and Thursday,<br />
September 25.<br />
[21] Ekpo, A. (1994) “Fiscal federalism: Nigeria’s post independence experience,<br />
1960-1990”, World Development Vol. 22 No. 8.<br />
[22] Humes, Samuel (1970) “Local Government” in Quarterly Journal of<br />
Administration Vol. 5 No. 1 (October) pp. 91-110.<br />
[23] Iniodu, P. U. (1999) “Fiscal dependence of local governments in Nigeria’s fiscal<br />
system: The case of Akwa-Ibom State” in Fiscal federalism and Nigeria’s<br />
Economic Development. Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual Conference pp.<br />
289-311.<br />
[24] Musgrave, R.A. (1959) The Theory of Public Finance. New York: McGraw-Hill.<br />
[25] Nigeria, Federal Republic of (1999) The Constitution of the Federal Republic of<br />
Nigeria, Lagos: Federal Government Press.<br />
[26] Ojo, Seyi (1999) Elements of Tax Management and Practice in Nigeria Lagos:<br />
Bola Prints.<br />
[27] Olaniyi, O. (1999) “Fiscal federalism and the performance of local governments<br />
in Nigeria’s economic development: An impact Analysis” in Fiscal federalism<br />
and Nigeria’s economic development. Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual<br />
Conference pp. 271-287.<br />
[28] Olowononi, G. D. (1999) “ Federalism and vertical intergovernmental financial<br />
imbalance in Nigeria” in Fiscal federalism and Nigeria’s economic development.<br />
Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual Conference pp. 189-213.<br />
[29] Olowu, Dele; Ayo, S. B. and Akande, Bola (eds) (1991) Local Institutions and<br />
National Development in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Research Group in Local Institutions<br />
in Collaboration with OAU Press.<br />
[30] Philips, A.O.(1971) “Nigeria’s Federal Financial Experience” in The Journal of<br />
Modern African Studies. Vol.9 No 3.<br />
[31] Shah, Anwar (1991) The New Fiscal Federalism in Brazil Discussion Papers No<br />
124. The World Bank.<br />
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[32] Ter-Minassian, T. (1997) “Intergovernmental fiscal relations in a Macroeconomic<br />
prospective: An Overview” in T. Ter-Minassian (ed.) Fiscal federalism in theory<br />
and practice Washington D. C.: International Monetary Fund (IMF).<br />
[33] The Guardian, Thursday, August 7, 2003 pp. 8 & 9.<br />
[34] The Guardian September 12, 2000.<br />
[35] Vincent, O. Ola (2002) “Fiscal Federalism: Nigerian Experience” in Nigerian<br />
Tribune No. 12777 (Tuesday, January 29) p. 20.<br />
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Appendices<br />
Table 1: Tax Jurisdiction in Nigeria<br />
Federal State Local<br />
1. Import<br />
1. Football, pools and other 1. Rates<br />
2. Excise duties<br />
betting taxes<br />
3. Export duties<br />
2. Entertainment taxes and 2. Tenement rate<br />
4. Mining rents and<br />
estate duties<br />
5. royalties 3. Gift tax<br />
3. Marketing and trading<br />
6. Petroleum profits tax 4. Land tax other than on<br />
licences and fees<br />
7. Companies income tax<br />
agricultural land 4. Motor park duties<br />
8. Capital gains tax (legal 5. Land registration fees<br />
5. Advertisement fees<br />
basis)<br />
6. Capital gains tax<br />
6. Entertainment tax<br />
9. Personal income tax 7. (administration)<br />
7. Radio/television licences<br />
(legal basis)<br />
Personal income tax<br />
Value added tax (VAT) 8. (administration)<br />
Stamp duties<br />
Source: Nigerian Constitutions, Report of the Presidential commission on Revenue Allocation,<br />
1980 and VAT Decree of1993 (and subsequent amendment in 1996). (Quoted by Anyanwu,<br />
1997:166).<br />
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Table 2: Nigeria's Major Tax Jurisdictions and Right to Revenue<br />
Types of Tax<br />
Jurisdiction Right to Revenue<br />
Law Administration<br />
and Collection<br />
1. Import duties Federal Federal Federation account<br />
2. Excise duties Federal Federal Federation account<br />
3. Export duties* Federal Federal Federation account<br />
4. Mining rents and royalties Federal Federal Federation account<br />
5. Petroleum profit tax Federal Federal Federation account<br />
6. Companies income tax Federal Federal Federation account<br />
7. Capital gains tax Federal Federal/States States<br />
8. Personal income tax (other than<br />
those listed in 9)<br />
Federal States States<br />
9. Personal income tax: armed forces,<br />
external affairs officers, residents<br />
of the Federal Capital Territory and<br />
Nigerian Police Force<br />
Federal Federal Federal<br />
10. Licences fees on television and Federal<br />
wireless radio<br />
Local Local<br />
11. Stamp duties Federal Federal/States States<br />
12. Capital transfer tax (CTT) Federal States States<br />
13. Value added tax Federal Federal/States Federal/States/Local<br />
14. Pools betting and other betting State<br />
taxes<br />
States States<br />
15. Motor vehicle and drivers licences State States States<br />
16. Entertainment tax State States States<br />
17. Land registration and survey fees State States States/Local<br />
18. Property taxes and rating State Local Local<br />
19. Market and trading licence and State<br />
fees<br />
Local Local<br />
Note: The peculiar status of the Federal Capital Territory has not been taken into<br />
considerationin this table.<br />
Source: Adapted from Anyanwu (1997) p.167.<br />
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Table 3(a): Independent/Internal Revenue of the Federal Government<br />
1. PAYE tax of the armed forces, external affairs officers, residents of FCT and the Nigerian<br />
police force.<br />
2. Licensing fees (e.g. issuance of license for arms and ammunitions, gold dealers, etc).<br />
3. Rent on government properties.<br />
4. Earnings and sales (e.g. sale of stores, auction sales, stamps, dividend from investments<br />
etc).<br />
5. Withholding tax on corporate bodies.<br />
6. Capital gains tax (FCT residents and corporate bodies).<br />
7. Stamp duties involving a corporate entity.<br />
8. Etc.<br />
Source: Joint Tax Board (1997).<br />
Table 3(b): Independent/Internal Revenue of the State Government<br />
1. PAYE tax of residents of the state.<br />
2. The withholding tax (individual only).<br />
3. Capital gain tax (of individuals within the state)<br />
4. Stamp duties (instruments executed by individuals)<br />
5. Road taxes<br />
6. Pool betting and lotteries, gaming and casino taxes<br />
7. Business premises registration and renewal levy<br />
8. Development levy (individuals only and not more than N100 per annum on each<br />
taxable individual)<br />
9. Street naming registration fee (in state capitals)<br />
10. Right of occupancy fees (in state capitals)<br />
11. Market fees (where state finances are involved)<br />
12. Etc<br />
Source: Joint Tax Board (1997).<br />
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Table 3(c): Taxes and Levies to be Collected by Local Governments<br />
1. Shops and kioks rate.<br />
2. Tenement rates.<br />
3. On and off liquor license fees.<br />
4. Slaughter slab fees.<br />
5. Marriage, birth and death registration fees.<br />
6. Naming of street registration fee, excluding any street in the state capital.<br />
7. Right of occupancy fees on lands in rural areas, excluding those collectable by the<br />
federal and state governments.<br />
8. Market taxes and levies, excluding any market where state finance is involved.<br />
9. Motor park levies.<br />
10. Domestic animal license fees.<br />
11. Bicycle, truck, canoe, wheelbarrow and cart fees, other than a mechanically propelled<br />
truck.<br />
12. Cattle tax payable by cattle farmers only.<br />
13. Merriment and road closure levy.<br />
14. Radio and television license fees (other than radio and television transmitter).<br />
15. Vehicle radio licence fees (to be imposed by the local government of the state in which<br />
the car is registered).<br />
16. Wrong parking charges.<br />
17. Public convenience, sewage and refuse disposal fees.<br />
18. Customary burial ground permit fees.<br />
19. Religious places establishment permit fees.<br />
20. Signboard and advertisement permit fees<br />
Source: Taxes and Levies (Approved List for Collection) Decree 1998, No. 21.<br />
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TABLE 4: CURRENT REVENUE STRUCTURE <strong>OF</strong> LOCAL GOVERNMENTS<br />
Year Total Federation Account State VAT % Internal Grants Stabilization Fund<br />
Revenue<br />
%<br />
Allocation %<br />
Revenue % Others %<br />
%<br />
1996 23,942.1 16,569.7 69.2 691.1 2.9 4,581.7 19.1 2,027.1 8.5 72.5 0.3 - -<br />
1997 33,040.5 22,300.5 67.5 578.9 1.8 7,515.0 22.7 2,506.9 7.6 139.2 0.4 - -<br />
1998 44,952.7 30,199.3 67.2 1,097.8 2.4 9,187.3 20.4 4,448.6 9.9 19.7 0.0 - -<br />
1999 60,800.6 43,870.3 72.2 419.8 0.7 9,559.8 15.7 4,683.8 7.7 1,210.6 2.0 1,056.3 1.7<br />
2000 151,877.3 118,589.4 78.1 1,923.1 1.3 13,908.7 9.2 7,152.9 4.7 4,904.7 3.2 5,398.5 3.5<br />
2001 171,523.1 128,500.5 74.9 1,598.6 0.9 20,102.7 11.7 6,020.4 3.5 2,320.7 1.4 12,980.2 7.6<br />
2002 172,151.2 128,896.7 74.7 1,672.3 0.9 18,727.2 10.9 10,420.9 6.1 2,537.1 1.5 9,897.0 5.7<br />
2003* 370,170.9 291,406.9 78.7 2,119.8 0.6 39,648.4 10.7 20,175.5 5.5 12,210.0 3.3 4,610.3 1.2<br />
Source: CBN Annual Survey of Local Government Councils and Federation Accounts<br />
(As cited by CBN Annual Reports and Statements of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December – various years).<br />
Foot Note<br />
(1) * means provisional.<br />
(2) Percentages are as calculated by the researcher.<br />
(3) Information for 1999 covers 651 local governments.<br />
(4) Information for 2000 covers 608 local governments.<br />
(5) Information for 2001 covers 572 local governments.<br />
(6) Information for 2002 covers 589 local governments.<br />
(7) Information for 2003 covers 659 local governments.<br />
(8) The federal sources include federation account, VAT proceeds, Grants and Others and Stabilization Fund.<br />
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TABLE 5: LOCAL GOVERNMENT REVENUE SOURCE:<br />
EXTERNAL/INTERNAL SOURCES RATIO (%)<br />
Year Total Revenue Federal Sources<br />
(%)<br />
66<br />
State Sources<br />
(%)<br />
Internal Sources<br />
(%)<br />
1996 23,942.1 88.6 2.9 8.5<br />
1997 33,040.5 90.6 1.8 7.6<br />
1998 44,952.7 87.7 2.4 9.9<br />
1999 60,800.6 91.6 0.7 7.7<br />
2000 151,877.3 94.0 1.3 4.7<br />
2001 171,523.1 95.6 0.9 3.5<br />
2002 172,151.2 93.0 0.9 6.1<br />
2003* 370,170.9 93.9 0.6 5.5<br />
Source: Extracted and calculated from Table 4<br />
Foot Note<br />
(1) * means provisional.<br />
(2) The federal source include the share of federation account, VAT, stabilization<br />
fund receipt and Grants and others unclassified.
European Journal of Social Sciences<br />
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© <strong>EuroJournals</strong> Publishing, Inc. 2006<br />
http://www.eurojournals.com/EJSS.htm<br />
TABLE 6: FEDERATI<strong>ON</strong> ACCOUNT OPERATI<strong>ON</strong> (1996-2003) (N Million)<br />
YEAR TOTAL FEDERAL STATE % LOCAL % SPECIAL FUND %<br />
REVENUE %<br />
1996 167,166.1 81,730.0 48.9 41,716.7 24.9 33,918.0 20.3 9,810.4 5.9<br />
1997 206,622.0 101,000.0 48.9 51,160.7 24.8 41,690.8 20.2 12,770.5 6.1<br />
1998 244,289.0 124,573.0 51.0 57,500.0 23.5 47,910.0 19.6 14,306.0 5.9<br />
1999 446,474.7 218,874.5 49.0 108,214.8 24.2 90,179.2 20.2 29,206.2 6.5<br />
2000 1,051,643.9 502,294.4 47.8 248,561.7 23.6 207,146.6 19.7 93,641.2 8.9<br />
2001 1,298,301.3 530,657.6 40.9 391,326.9 30.1 245,436.6 18.9 130,880.2 10.1<br />
2002 1,692,770.8 859,014.9 50.7 398,767.6 23.6 333,900.6 19.7 101,087.7 6.0<br />
2003* 1,821,010.0 917,104.4 50.4 419,845.2 23.1 346,865.9 19.0 137,194.5 7.5<br />
Source: Federal Ministry of Finance<br />
(cited in CBN Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December – various years)<br />
Foot Note<br />
(1) * means provisional.<br />
(2) Special funds cover FCT, Ecology, Statutory stabilization, mineral derivation (13%), mineral<br />
producing areas, Natural resources and Residual Account.<br />
(3) Special funds are under the control of the federal government.<br />
(4) The percentages are as calculated by the researcher.<br />
(5) Before the 2001 Supreme Court Judgement, Mineral derivation was an item under “special<br />
funds”, it is now an item of distribution directly from the Federation Account.<br />
(6) Federation Account items include what accrue from Crude oil/Gas exports, PPT and Royalties,<br />
etc; Domestic Crude oil sales; other oil Revenues, Companies Income tax; Customs/Excise<br />
duties; Privatization/GSM proceeds; VAT, Tax on petroleum products, Penalty for gas flare, etc.<br />
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© <strong>EuroJournals</strong> Publishing, Inc. 2006<br />
http://www.eurojournals.com/EJSS.htm<br />
TABLE 7: CURRENT REVENUE STRUCTURE <strong>OF</strong> LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN THE SELECTED SOUTHWESTERN STATES<br />
(N Million)<br />
OYO OSUN EKITI<br />
Total<br />
Rev.<br />
Fed. A/C Stabili-<br />
Zation<br />
Fund<br />
State<br />
Alloc-<br />
ation<br />
VAT Internal<br />
Rev.<br />
Grants<br />
&<br />
Others<br />
Total<br />
Rev.<br />
Fed. A/C State<br />
Allocation<br />
68<br />
Stabili-<br />
Zation<br />
Fund<br />
VAT Internal<br />
Rev.<br />
Grants<br />
&<br />
Others<br />
Total<br />
Rev.<br />
Fed.<br />
A/C<br />
State<br />
Alloc-<br />
Ation<br />
Stabilization<br />
Fund<br />
VAT Internal<br />
Rev.<br />
1996 595.5 505.5 - - 32.3 57.7 - 561.3 418.8 0.3 - 121.6 19.9 0.7 312.0 261.9 0.7 - 34.3 15.1 -<br />
1997 1,129.7 704.3 - - 362.5 62.9 - 889.0 620.4 - - 239.3 28.0 1.3 567.5 399.1 0.7 - 138.6 22.6 6.5<br />
1998* 1,115.8 829.0 - - 231.8 55.0 - 1,268.5 939.1 0.6 - 293.8 35.0 - 775.8 557.1 - - 181.6 37.1 -<br />
1999* 1,665.6 1,028.4 - - 554.1 69.6 13.5 855.4 549.2 - - 227.7 58.8 19.7 580.8 364.6 1.2 - 134.1 29.9 51.0<br />
2000* 1,898.8 1,332.9 177.7 - 299.6 88.6 - 3,367.4 2,857.8 - 37.9 327.4 39.4 104.9 1,742.9 1,427.2 - 131.7 147.0 26.3 10.8<br />
2001* 4,848.3 4,373.3 62.9 - 840.8 207.8 204.3 1,763.1 1,282.2 - 216.8 344.9 122.6 141.5 1,395.8 1,102.1 - 225.1 194.0 22.3 46.3<br />
2002* 5,205.2 3,568.7 916.3 - 461.8 159.5 98.8 4,390.0 3,267.0 106.8 261.0 562.5 95.9 96.8 3,527.5 2,530.7 - 313.6 637.5 43.3 2.4<br />
2003* 12,309.6 10,672.6 49.6 - 1,355.0 166.2 66.2 12,122.2 10,735.7 22.9 14.5 1,238.1 62.9 48.0 7,047.1 5,110.6 - 17.9 610.9 1,283.5 24.1<br />
Source: CBN Annual Survey of Local Government Councils and Federation Accounts<br />
(cited in CBN Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December-various years)<br />
Foot Note<br />
(1) * means provisional.<br />
Grants<br />
&<br />
Other<br />
s
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ISSN 1450-2267 Vol 2, No 1 (2006)<br />
© <strong>EuroJournals</strong> Publishing, Inc. 2006<br />
http://www.eurojournals.com/EJSS.htm<br />
Some Reflections on the Reception of Party Autonomy and the<br />
Freedom to Contract in South African Law<br />
Prof Riana Van Der Bank<br />
Acting Dean: Human Sciences, LL D<br />
Private BagX021<br />
Vanderbijlpark, 1900<br />
South Africa<br />
riana@vut.ac.za<br />
Abstract<br />
Party autonomy is the right of parties to a contract to freely agree upon not only the terms<br />
and conditions of their contract but to also determine the law that will apply to it. This is<br />
known as the choice of law which is also known as the ‘proper law’ or the ‘applicable law’<br />
of the contract.<br />
This choice of law in the opinion of the author is a manifestation of the right to the freedom<br />
of trade in terms of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa.<br />
While the freedom to determine the choice of law that will govern their contract is<br />
entrenched, like the other rights the parties’ right to autonomy may also be limited in terms<br />
of law of general application.<br />
Jurisprudence on party autonomy in South Africa law appears not to be well developed.<br />
This paper therefore seeks to explore the concept of party autonomy with reference to the<br />
establishment of principles recognized both in foreign domestic systems of law and in<br />
international instruments. These principles include the choice of ‘choice of law’, its<br />
application, substitution and scission.<br />
Introduction<br />
Party autonomy is premised on the notion that the parties to a contract are entitled not only to create<br />
rights and obligations between themselves but also that they are free to choose the law applicable to<br />
their contract. In other words, the parties to a contract are free to determine the law governing their<br />
contract. This choice of law by the parties to govern their contract is referred to as the ‘proper law’ or<br />
the ‘applicable law’ i.e. the lex causae or the lex voluntatis of the contract. The former is generally<br />
used by academic writers on conflict rules in English and Commonwealth contract law (Edwards,<br />
1989: 329) and the latter by the drafters of international instruments.<br />
According to the classical conception of private international law (a tradition which spans some<br />
five centuries in Western legal development from Bartolus to Von Savigny) choice-of-law rules<br />
contain a necessary connecting factor. Connecting factors which feature prominently in the category of<br />
contractual obligations include: the domicile of the parties, the place of incorporation, the intention of<br />
the parties, the flag of a ship, the place of making or performance of a contract and the situs or situation<br />
of property. Where the parties have not made a choice of law applicable to their contract, then the law<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
with which the contract has the closest connection is the otherwise applicable law. The otherwise<br />
applicable law is generally determined by the courts and arbitration tribunals. In other words, choiceof-law<br />
rule lack material content and they serve merely as justification for the courts of the South<br />
African forum when they have to apply either South African substantive law or the principles of a<br />
foreign legal system, as the case may be.<br />
The concept of party autonomy has been favoured by academic writers even to the point<br />
reverence (Forsythe, 1990: 295) and developed by judicial decisions for the reason that it promotes<br />
certainty and predictability in contractual relations (Plender 1999: 87). There are other reasons too for<br />
the recognition of the notion of party autonomy. These may include the protection of justified<br />
expectations of the parties; the choice of a ‘neutral law’, though foreign to the parties, is nevertheless<br />
well developed in the particular field of business and is of wide application (Forsythe, 1990: 298).<br />
Accordingly, party autonomy is an important principle embodied in the contract conflicts rules of<br />
private international law of all modern legal systems (Plender, 2002:87).<br />
Historical background<br />
In the early decisions of the English courts affecting contracts the tendency was to apply the lex loci<br />
contractus to each and every case regardless of the contractual issue involved.<br />
The concept of party autonomy appears not to be widely developed in South African<br />
jurisprudence and consequently much reliance has been placed on other legal systems, particularly<br />
English law in its application (Edwards, 2000: 298).<br />
Numerous reported decisions in the South African rechtskringen attest to the search, from<br />
roughly 1840 onwards, by the courts for the appropriate law to govern contractual matters involving a<br />
foreign element. In Livingston Syers & Co v Dickson, Burnie & Co (1841 2 Menz 239) one finds the<br />
Cape Supreme Court, when dealing with a foreign bill of exchange, noting that the lex loci contractus<br />
“is not absolute and universally peremptory rule, but applies only in those cases intended that their<br />
contract should be ascertain and regulated by the law; and ceases to apply in any case in which the<br />
circumstances are such as to afford stronger grounds for presuming that the parties intended their<br />
contract to be ascertained and regulated by some other law, as for example the lex loci solutionis.<br />
It was in the leading case of Standard Bank of S A Ltd v Efroiken and Newman (1924 AD 171)<br />
that the thinking behind the English concept of the proper law may fairly be regarded as having been<br />
received into South African private international law and is regarded as the seminal decision in South<br />
African jurisprudence relating to party autonomy. In this case the court held that in the absence of an<br />
express choice of law for their contract, the presumed intention of the parties should play a role in<br />
ascertaining the proper law of their contract. But that also must not be taken too literally, for, where<br />
parties did not give the matter a thought, courts of law of necessity to fall back upon what ought,<br />
reading the contract by the light of the subject-matter and of the surrounding circumstances, to be<br />
presumed to have been the intention of the parties.<br />
This decision was subsequently elaborated on in Guggenheim v Rosenbaum (1961 4SA 21 (W)<br />
31A) where the Court held that the proper law of the parties’ contract is the law of the country which<br />
the parties have agreed or intended or are presumed to have intended shall govern it. (Edwards, 1990:<br />
298). From this decision, it may be suggested that the proper law is determined by an express choice of<br />
law by the parties or by an implied or tacit choice of law by the parties or in the absence of that, the<br />
choice of law may be imputed to the parties.<br />
Party autonomy, which is predicated on the philosophical premise of individual autonomy,<br />
would continue to play an important role in international commercial contracts. For that reason it<br />
would be necessary to examine those principles, which have evolved from judicial decisions and<br />
academic writings regarding its application.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
The way ahead: the continuing search for a flexible choice-of-law rule<br />
Having decided that no single proper law (no matter how broadly based)can solve every potential point<br />
of dispute between the parties, a few comments seem necessary on the utility of the proper law doctrine<br />
especially in those cases where the parties have failed to select the law govern their contract. It has<br />
been said , and not without reason, that one of the major defects of the proper law doctrine, given the<br />
absence of a choice of law, is that the lack of specificity in the now accepted “closest connection” test<br />
may require a House of Lords decision to determine what law governs the disputed contract.<br />
Principles of party autonomy<br />
(a) Choice of the Proper Law<br />
As stated above, the choice of law may be express or tacit i.e. implied. An express agreement may be<br />
oral or written, usually in the form of a choice-of-law clause in a contract. In the case of an implied or<br />
tacit choice of law, this may be inferred from the terms of the contract (Wolfe, 2002: 427) and the<br />
circumstances surrounding the conclusion of the contract (Edwards 1989: 362). In certain commercial<br />
contracts several indicia may establish an inferred or implied choice of law such as for example a<br />
jurisdiction or arbitration clause from which a strong inference may be drawn that the domestic law of<br />
the chosen forum or arbitrator should apply as the proper law of the contract. Other examples of indicia<br />
are the form of the document used, the use of business jargon or concepts peculiar to the business<br />
activity, a choice-of-law clause in previous dealings even a reference to the rules of a particular legal<br />
system (Collier 1998:187). It may even be inferred from the choice of law applicable to a particular<br />
aspect of the contract that the same legal system applied to the whole contract. (Wolfe, 2002: 427).<br />
Whether the choice of law is an express one or an implied one, the intention of the parties as to their<br />
choice is determinative (Wolfe, 2002: 418).<br />
(b) Application of the Proper Law<br />
Once the proper law of the contract has been determined either by an express choice or an inferred one,<br />
and then the contract is governed by all the provisions of the legal system to which the proper law<br />
belongs (Wolfe, 2002: 416). The proper law of the contract governs most of the contractual issues such<br />
as the nature, effect and interpretation of the contract, the ascertainment and extent as well as the<br />
discharge of the parties’ obligations, essential validity, and mode of performance and the nonenforceability<br />
of the contract by reason of illegality (Edwards, 1990: 360). However, contractual issues<br />
such as legality, formal validity and contractual capacity are governed by the otherwise applicable law<br />
as determined by a court of law or arbitral tribunal (Edwards, 1990:360).<br />
Where there are changes in the law after the parties had agreed on their choice of law, the<br />
contract is subject to such changes in the application of the common law. But, in the case of statutory<br />
rules that the parties have agreed shall apply to their contract, the interpretation and application of the<br />
rules will be as they were at the time of the agreement (Wolfe, 2002: 423).<br />
(c) Substitution of a previously chosen law<br />
Another principle of party autonomy is that the parties may substitute a new legal system for the one<br />
previously chosen provided that the new choice is bona fide and legal. The validity of the new choice<br />
of law is determined by the application of the previously chosen law (Plendar, 2002: 98).<br />
(d) Depecage or Scission of the Contract<br />
Depecage or picking and choosing of a contract is a principle of party autonomy whereby the parties to<br />
a contract may divide a contract into several separate issues and agree that they may be governed by<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
different systems of law and not by just a single proper law (Wolfe, 2002: 404). In this sense depecage<br />
is indeed a logical manifestation of the principle of party autonomy. Like the choice of the proper law<br />
by the parties, such severability of the contract must be expressed or demonstrated with reasonable<br />
certainty. Thus for example, in a contract of sale the parties may agree that the law of the place of<br />
performance will govern the performance of their obligations. Similarly, the law of the place where<br />
payment is to be made will govern the currency in which payment will be made. The qualified<br />
application of this principle is recognized in the Rome Convention of 1980. Within the South African<br />
context the law relating to depecage, however, does not appear to be unequivocal (Edwards, 1990:<br />
361).<br />
(e) Limitations on Party Autonomy<br />
The question that arises is whether limitations can be imposed on the extent of the parties’ freedom in<br />
choosing a law to govern their contract.<br />
Once the parties have chosen a law to govern their contract, they are bound by all the<br />
provisions of that legal system. All legal systems consist of provisions that are either compulsory i.e.<br />
imperative or prohibitory (the ius cogens) or optional (the ius dispositivum) i.e. provisions of the<br />
otherwise applicable legal system which the parties may avoid by a choice of law. Where optional rules<br />
of a legal system are concerned the parties are free to deal with the operation of them in their contract.<br />
Thus for example, the parties to a contract of sale may exclude the warranty against latent defects or<br />
even make its application more stringent. And this is generally the case in the law of contracts<br />
(Forsythe, 1989:299).<br />
However, with regard to whether the parties by their choice of law could avoid a ius cogens i.e.<br />
a mandatory provision of an otherwise applicable law, Wolfe is of the opinion that they cannot (Wolfe,<br />
2002 416). The English case of Vita Food Products v Unus Shipping Co where the Court per Lord<br />
Wright held that the parties to a contract are free to select as the applicable law a system with which<br />
their contract has no factual connection provided that the intention expressed by the parties is bona fide<br />
and legal and provided also that there is no reason for avoiding the choice on the ground of public<br />
policy ([1939] ac (P.C.) 277 at 289 – 290 as cited in Wolfe n.1. Plendar, 89 n 15, Edwards 368 n 13).<br />
Thus with regard to the last qualification, where a choice of law governing a contract is contrary to the<br />
public policy (order public) of the forum it will not be enforced in that forum i.e. the lex fori. However,<br />
not every compulsory rule of law of the forum constitutes a rule of public policy (Wolfe, 2002:419).<br />
Thus for example, where the lack of consideration in a contract under English law is a bar to its<br />
validity this is not so under South African law where intention of the parties is paramount. The South<br />
African law will be enforced in an English forum, as it does not offend against an English rule of<br />
public policy.<br />
According to Wolfe the requirements of bona fide and legality are not without ambiguity. The<br />
mere intention of eliminating certain compulsory rules that would normally be applicable is neither<br />
necessary nor sufficient to constitute male fides. ‘[S]ome morally impeachable or some anomalous and<br />
unreasonable choice of law’ would probably be required by the English courts to render the parties’<br />
intention as male fide (Wolfe, 2002:419). Therefore the English courts would uphold a choice of law,<br />
which avoids a mandatory rule for some ‘sound idea of business convenience and common sense’. The<br />
term ’legality’ however, has not been qualified but Wolfe speculates that it could be a reference to the<br />
legality of a contract or its performance according to the domestic law of the place of contracting or the<br />
place of performance (Wolfe, 2002: 419).<br />
In the Canadian case of United Nations v Atlantic Seaways Corporation ([1979] 2FC 514 -555,<br />
99 DLR (3<br />
72<br />
rd ) 609 621 cited in Edwards 363 n13) the requirements of “bona fide and legal” were<br />
interpreted to fashion an evasion doctrine in that the proper law must not have been chosen to evade a<br />
mandatory law with which the contract has its closest and most real connection (Edwards, 1990: 363).<br />
The doctrine of evasion was applied in an Australian case where a choice of law by the parties, which<br />
sought to evade a statutory provision of Queensland, was held to be invalid (Edwards, 1990 363).
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
American jurisprudence also recognizes the notion of party autonomy as well as limitations on<br />
party autonomy. However, where a choice-of-law conflicts with the law of the forum state i.e. the lex<br />
fori it is not struck down merely for that reason. It is where the conflict ‘rises to the level of public<br />
policy’ that the American courts would consider striking it down and that too where the public policy<br />
is ‘strong’ or ‘fundamental’ (Scoles and Hay, 1992: 663-664). Thus also in the case of adhesion<br />
contracts (Scoles and Hay 1992; 666) where an economically stronger party drafts a contract<br />
unilaterally, a choice-of-law clause would not be struck down simply because of inequality of<br />
bargaining power or a lack of negotiations. The choice-of-law clause will be struck down only if its<br />
operation would be to the detriment of the weaker party (Scoles and Hay, 1992: 666) as it would<br />
offend against a strong public policy.<br />
As regards South African jurisprudence, it appears that the courts have never been called upon<br />
to determine the limits of party autonomy (Edwards, 1990: 361). With reference to South African caselaw,<br />
in Commissioner of Inland Revenue v Estate Greenacre (1936 NPD 225 ) and Premier Wire and<br />
Steel Co Ltd v Marsk Line (1969 (3) SA 499 (C) although it is not clear whether parties by their choice<br />
of law could avoid a ius cogens, Forsythe is of the opinion that it is possible. While academic writers<br />
are of the view that a wide concept of party autonomy should be favoured in South African law, its<br />
application should not be absolute. Thus a choice of law that evades a mandatory rule in favour of the<br />
weaker party in contractual relations such as those that protect consumers, should not be upheld by a<br />
court for being fraus legis. An example of such a mandatory provision applicable to electronic<br />
contracts is section 47 of South Africa’s Electronic Communications and Transactions Act of 2002<br />
which provides for the protection of consumers irrespective of the legal system applicable to the<br />
agreement in question. Section 48 provides that any agreement that excludes any rights of a consumer<br />
in terms of Chapter 7 of the Act shall be null and void. The Act may be described as a directly<br />
applicable statute that limits party autonomy. Directly applicable statutes may be either express or<br />
implied. An example of a directly applicable statute by implication is the Basic Conditions of<br />
Employment Act of 1983 in terms of which an employer may not avoid its provisions in favour of an<br />
employee by a choice of law which is not the lex causae (Rome Convention Articles 5 and 6). But the<br />
question that arises is whether and to what extent would a South African court apply a directly<br />
applicable statute or a principle of public policy of a foreign legal system. It appears that it would not<br />
do so where the performance of the contract is a crime in the place where the act is to be performed<br />
(Forsythe 1990: 302). In contrast, however, where the choice of law avoids a mandatory rule which<br />
otherwise would frustrate the commercial goals or business interests of the parties, such a choice ought<br />
to be recognized and applied (Edwards,1990: 363) Thus it may be stated that a choice-of-law clause in<br />
a contract would be struck down if it offends against some public policy embodied in a statute of a<br />
state whose law would have been the otherwise applicable law, or where it would result in substantial<br />
injustice to a party in an inferior bargaining position. It should be noted also that a choice-of-law clause<br />
may not be struck down by a statute in its entirety but only in respect of matters hit by it (Collier, 1998:<br />
208).<br />
International conventions may also impose limits on party autonomy, examples of which are<br />
the International Monetary Fund Agreement (Bretton Woods Agreement) of 1944, the UNIDROIT<br />
Principles of International Commercial Contracts and the Rome Convention of 1980. States that are<br />
members of the International Monetary are bound by Article VIII 2(b) of the Bretton Woods<br />
Agreement not to enforce exchange contracts that conflict with the exchange control regulations of<br />
other member states imposed in deference to the Bretton Woods Agreement. The UNIDROIT<br />
Principles in Article 1.4 provides for the application of mandatory rules, whether of national,<br />
international or supranational origin, which are applicable in terms of the relevant rules of private<br />
international law. Also in terms of Article 1.5 it provides for mandatory Principles embodied in it from<br />
which the parties themselves may not derogate. The European Economic Community’s Convention on<br />
the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations (The Rome Convention of 1980) has been widely<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
acknowledged and consequently accepted as the instrument embodying harmonized rules of the law<br />
applicable to contracts. It represents a codification of the private international law rules relating to<br />
contract that ‘are similar, if not identical, throughout the common law world outside the United States.’<br />
A clear manifestation of this is the provision relating to the principles of party autonomy and the<br />
freedom of choice of law applicable to the contract in Article 3 under Title II Uniform Rules.<br />
Party Autonomy and the South African Bill of Rights<br />
Party autonomy, which has been notionalized on the universally recognized philosophical premise of<br />
individual autonomy, is an entrenched principle of private international law i.e. the conflicts law of a<br />
nation state. The question is whether it enjoys the same protection and respect as the fundamental<br />
rights and freedoms enshrined in the South African Bill of Rights (Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the<br />
Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996).<br />
At first blush, party autonomy is not a freedom or right that is specifically protected by the<br />
Constitution nor does the Constitution ‘posit an independent right to autonomy’ as stated in Jordan &<br />
Others v The State CCT 31/01 at [53] What the Constitution specifically recognizes and protects is the<br />
right to freedom of trade. Section 22 of the Constitution provides that ‘[e]very citizen has the right to<br />
choose their (sic) trade, occupation or profession freely. The practice of a trade, occupation or<br />
profession may be regulated by law’ – law is understood to mean legislation, the common law and<br />
customary law. The choice of a trade suggests the pursuit of some commercial economic activity as<br />
distinguished from an occupation or profession. Implicit in such a construction is that freedom to trade<br />
would entail a freedom to contract of which party autonomy is a universally recognized principle. The<br />
inference is that the application of the principle of party autonomy is subject to constitutional scrutiny<br />
and for it to be recognized and protected it must pass constitutional muster.<br />
It may be argued that the freedom to trade is applicable to ‘citizens’ who are considered to be<br />
natural persons and not necessarily applicable to a ‘party’ which may include artificial persons as well.<br />
Whether section 22 would be applicable to artificial persons is a question of interpretation of the Bill of<br />
Rights. Section 8 (4) specifically provides that a juristic person is entitled to the rights in the Bill of<br />
Rights to the extent required by the nature of the rights and the nature of that juristic person. But if<br />
‘citizen’ is strictly interpreted as meaning a natural person, then it may be left to the courts to ‘lift the<br />
corporate veil’ and look to the members that control the affairs of the company (De Waal et al, 2000:<br />
353).<br />
If this cannot be so then recourse may be had to the doctrine of objective unconstitutionality.<br />
Thus where a law unconstitutionally violates a section 22 right of a citizen, it is objectively invalid. A<br />
corporate applicant having an interest in terms of section 38 of the Bill of Rights can challenge the<br />
constitutional validity of such a law without having to show that its own constitutional right has been<br />
infringed by that law (De Waal et al, 2000: 353)<br />
Alternatively, even if it is argued that the Bill of Rights does not protect those rights and<br />
freedoms not specifically enshrined in it and that the freedom to trade does not extend to include the<br />
freedom to contract, it is submitted that the notion of party autonomy and its application may still be<br />
subject to constitutional scrutiny with reference to other relevant provisions of the Constitution, viz<br />
sections 2 and 39 (3). The supremacy of the Constitution is specifically enunciated by the Founding<br />
Provisions of Chapter 1. Section 2 of the Constitution provides that the Constitution is the supreme law<br />
of the Republic; law or conduct inconsistent with it is invalid, and the obligations imposed by it must<br />
be fulfilled. As regards the interpretation of the Bill of Rights, section 39 (3) provides that the Bill of<br />
Rights does not deny the existence of any other rights or freedoms that are recognized or conferred by<br />
common law, customary law or legislation, to the extent that they are consistent with the Bill.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Conclusion<br />
From the above it may be concluded that while party autonomy and the freedom to contract should be<br />
wide, it is nevertheless not absolute and may be limited by the common law, statutes and international<br />
conventions. But, however, since the very quintessence of the freedom of choice of law is an<br />
expression of individual autonomy, therefore any attempt to limit party autonomy should be exercised<br />
with considerable restraint whether by a court of law or by a law of general application.<br />
References:<br />
Books:<br />
1. Collier JG Conflict of Laws 2 nd edition Cambridge University Press.<br />
2. Chaskalson M et al Constitutional Law of South Africa [Revision Services 5, 1999] Juta &<br />
Company.<br />
3. De Waal J et al The Bill of Rights Handbook 3 rd edition Juta & Co. Ltd 2000.<br />
4. See Edwards ‘Conflict of Laws’ n 1 at 360 in LAWSA First Reissue Vol 2.<br />
5. Forsythe C Private International Law 4 th edition Juta 1990<br />
6. Forsythe C Choice of law and delictual obligations from Private International Law 2 nd edition<br />
Juta 1990<br />
7. Joubert WA (ed) The Law of South Africa First Reissue Volume 2 Butterworths Durban 1993.<br />
8. North PM (ed) Contract Conflicts North – Holland Publishing Company 1982.<br />
9. Plender R The European Contracts Convention Sweet & Maxwell London.<br />
10. Scoles EF, Hay P Conflict of Laws Hornbook Series St. Paul Minn West Publishing Company<br />
1992.<br />
11. Weintraub RJ Commentary On The Conflict Of Laws 3 rd edition Mineola New York The<br />
Foundation Press Inc 1986.<br />
12. Wolff M Private International Law 2 nd edition Clarendon Press Oxford.<br />
Cases:<br />
1. Commissioner of Inland Revenue v Estate Greenacre 1936 NPD.<br />
2. Guggenheim v Rosenbaum (2) 1961 4 SA 21 (W).<br />
3. Henry v Branfield 1996 (1) SA 244 (D).<br />
4. Jordan & Others v The State CCT 31/01<br />
5. Premier Wire and Steel Co Ltd v Marsk Line 1969 (3) SA 488 (C).<br />
6. Regazzoni v Sethia [1958] AC 301 (HL).<br />
7. Standard Bank of S A Ltd v Efroiken and Newman 1924 AD.<br />
8. The Torni [1932].<br />
9. United Nations v Atlantic Seaways Corporation [1979] 2 FC.<br />
10. Vita Food Products v Unus Shipping Co [1939] A.C. (P.C.).<br />
Legislation :<br />
1. Basic Conditions of Employment Act Act 3 of 1983.<br />
2. Electronic Communications and Transactions Act Act 25 of 2002.<br />
Conventions and instruments:<br />
1. Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations (The Rome Convention of 1980)<br />
2. UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Concerns of Nigerian Preservice Teachers and Their<br />
Implications for Teacher Education<br />
Michael U.C. Ejieh<br />
Department of Educational Administration and Planning<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
Sunday A. Makinde<br />
Institute of Education<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this study was to identify the concerns of preservice teachers in Obafemi<br />
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data for the study were collected with a<br />
questionnaire administered to 153 student teachers of the university who were about to<br />
proceed on teaching practice exercise. Data analysis revealed that the preservice teachers<br />
showed much concern for school location, classroom discipline, pupil-teacher<br />
relationships, pupils poor communication skills. In all, they expressed more of self or<br />
survival concerns than task concerns with little concern for pupils learning. The<br />
implications of the findings for teacher education were highlighted.<br />
Introduction<br />
Teaching practice or the practicum is an essential component of teacher education programmes.<br />
This field experience offers prospective teachers opportunities to put into practice what they have been<br />
taught about teaching and also to face some dilemmas of teaching such as handling classroom<br />
problems and catering to the needs of both slow and fast learners in the same class. It also gives<br />
teacher educators opportunities to address these dilemmas (Harrington, 1995). Prospective teachers’<br />
experiences during teaching practice exercises go a long way towards enhancing or restructuring their<br />
understanding of the reality of teaching. Based on such experiences, some of them make up their<br />
minds on whether or not to remain in the teaching profession after graduation and for how long they<br />
will teach. Some may even drop out of the teacher education programme entirely. Since this activity is<br />
crucial in the formation of some prospective teachers’ attitudes towards teaching and their continued or<br />
subsequent professional development, their concerns during teaching practice exercises deserve the<br />
attention of teacher educators and educational administrators.<br />
In this paper, we present the report of a study in which we investigated the concerns of the<br />
students following the teacher education programme of one of the first generation universities in southwestern<br />
Nigeria.<br />
Teacher education in nigeria<br />
The federal and state governments of Nigeria are actively engaged in the production of teachers<br />
for quality education at the different levels of the educational system. With the launching of the<br />
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Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme by the federal government in 1999, training and<br />
retraining of teachers for primary and secondary education have received added impetus. While the<br />
colleges of education in the country produce teachers mainly for the primary schools, over 32 out of<br />
about 60 public and private universities in the country offer teacher education programmes of three or<br />
four-year duration, depending on the entry qualifications of the teacher education candidates. Teacher<br />
candidates who gain admission into the universities through the University Matriculations Examination<br />
follow the four-year programme and do some general studies in the first year before embarking on the<br />
professional teacher development aspect of the programme in the second year. The three-year<br />
programme is for those with more advanced educational qualifications who gain admission through<br />
direct entry and start with professional development programme from their first year of studies.<br />
An important component of the teacher education programme is the teaching practice or the<br />
practicum. Students in both programmes go for teaching practice twice in the course of their studies.<br />
With minor variations among the universities, the first practicum takes place after the first year of<br />
professional development studies and the second one takes place a year later. Both of them consist of a<br />
six-week teaching block and require full-time commitment of student teachers in secondary schools<br />
where they are supervised and their teaching performance is assessed by their university lecturers.<br />
The problem<br />
Nigerian universities send student teachers in their thousands every year to schools all over<br />
Nigeria to acquire field experience in teaching but the concerns of these preservice teachers and even<br />
the serving teachers have received little, if any attention by Nigerian educational administrators and<br />
university teacher educators. Nor have educational researchers shown any interest in the problem.<br />
Consequently, empirical data on the concerns of both preservice teachers and serving teachers are<br />
lacking in the country. This study was, therefore, designed to identify the clusters of, and specific<br />
concerns of preservice teachers in regard to their teaching practice. The subjects of this study were<br />
undergraduate students of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. The university, which was<br />
founded in 1962, is one of the first generation universities in Nigeria. Since its inception it has been<br />
running a teacher education programme for the production of teachers for secondary schools. Like<br />
other universities in the country, students following this programme embark on a mandatory six-week<br />
teaching practice exercise twice in Parts Two and Three of the programme. Specifically, the study<br />
sought answers to the following questions:<br />
1. What are the specific concerns of Obafemi Awolowo University student teachers about<br />
teaching practice?<br />
2. What type(s) of concerns are most important to them?<br />
3. Do the concerns of preservice teachers with previous teaching practice experiences differ from<br />
those with such experiences?<br />
It is expected that the results of this study will be useful to Nigerian educators for the planning and<br />
review of teacher education programmes. This kind of study will also be useful to the preservice<br />
teachers and school administrators including supervisors, school principals and Ministry of Education<br />
personnel, in order to help them to understand the concerns of beginning teachers. Addressing these<br />
concerns appropriately will (hopefully) decrease the rate of attrition of teacher candidates as they go<br />
through their programmes (O’Connor & Taylor, 1992). Such a study is particularly necessary in the<br />
Nigerian context where teaching is an unattractive profession and does not attract academically good<br />
candidates for training compared to other professions. This is mainly because teaching continue, to be<br />
accorded low social status in Nigeria inspite of the efforts of both state and federal governments to<br />
improve the working conditions of civil servants, including teachers, in the country.<br />
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Theoretical framework<br />
The concept of concerns was used by Fuller (1969) to develop a model of preservice teachers’ stages of<br />
development. The original model was later modified by Fuller and Bown (1975) to depict three stages<br />
made up of three clusters of concerns which those learning to teach implicitly undergo in the course of<br />
their professional development. These stages of teacher concerns are: survival concerns, teaching<br />
situation concerns and pupil concerns. Survival concerns are those that deal with one’s adequacy as a<br />
teacher and focus on such things as ability to control a class, acceptability by pupils, meeting<br />
supervisors and regular teachers expectations, etc. Teaching situation concerns include the tasks to be<br />
performed, the materials to be used, time and other situational factors. Pupil concerns focus on the<br />
needs of pupils, their social and emotional well being, individualizing instruction, their cognitive<br />
development and equity among others (Fuller & Bown, 1975:37). According to them, changes in these<br />
concerns by preservice teachers imply changes in their professional development. Some researchers<br />
have refined and confirmed this model in regard to serving teachers and refer to the above-named<br />
categories of concerns as survival or self concerns, task concerns and impact concerns respectively<br />
(Hall & Loucks, 1978; Katz, 1972). Others have based their work on it (See Chan & Leung, 2002;<br />
Kagan, 1992).<br />
It should be noted that the appropriateness of this model for explaining student teachers’ stages<br />
of development as teachers has, however, been called into question in recent times. In a longitudinal<br />
study of novice teachers’ concerns, for instance, Turley and Wood (2002) found that beginning<br />
teachers were less concerned with “self” and more concerned with students than had been reported in<br />
earlier studies. The probable reasons for this, they suggested, were recent changes in teacher<br />
preparation programmes and intergenerational change among beginning teachers.<br />
Methodology<br />
The survey approach was adopted in this study in order to provide a description of things as they are at<br />
a point in time (Denscombe, 1998).<br />
The subjects of this study were 153, students in this programme selected by stratified random<br />
sampling. Eighty three of them were in Part Two (or year two) while 70 were in Part Three (or year<br />
three) of the programme. They were posted to secondary schools in and around Ile-Ife town in October<br />
2002 for the six-week teaching practice exercise.<br />
The instrument used for data collection was an open-ended questionnaire which was<br />
administered to them shortly before they left for the practicum in their different schools. A<br />
questionnaire was considered appropriate for this study as fairly straightforward and relatively brief<br />
information from respondents who were able to read and understand the questions (Denscombe, 1998).<br />
The questionnaire required them to list aspects of teaching practice, matters and problems or<br />
difficulties related to it, which were of concern to them, or which made them feel uneasy about the then<br />
forthcoming teaching practice exercise. The students were also asked to choose and rank any of the<br />
three items listed by them and rank them in their order of importance to them, with the most worrisome<br />
ranked first.<br />
Data analysis<br />
An initial step in qualitative analysis is to read through the documents that are to be analysed (Dey,<br />
1993). The concern statements by the subjects were read a number of times and interpreted<br />
independently by three people – the two investigators and a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education.<br />
For purposes of classifying the concerned statements two or all must agree on the specific issue or<br />
problem being addressed in each statement of concern by the subjects and the category of concerns –<br />
self, task, or impact on pupils – into which it fits. All expressions of ‘no concern’ or expressions of<br />
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those concerns, which did not fit into any of the above-mentioned categories were classified as<br />
‘unrelated’ and were not used in data analysis. The criterion for reporting a specific concern was that it<br />
must be stated by at least five of the subjects. Simple frequency counts and percentages were used to<br />
analyse the data.<br />
It must be admitted that, with a relatively small sample size, this study has all the limitations of a<br />
small-scale study.<br />
Results<br />
The student teachers concerns<br />
Out of the 153 subjects in the study, 23 stated either that they had no concerns or stated concerns that<br />
were not relevant to teaching practice. The specific concerns stated by the rest of the subjects (130),<br />
the number of preservice teachers expressing each concern, and the major categories under which they<br />
fall are presented in Table 1.<br />
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Table 1: Types of Concerns Reported by the Subjects<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Types of Concern Frequency %<br />
1. Survival Concerns<br />
Classroom discipline 31 23.85<br />
Pupil-teacher relationships 25 19.23<br />
Lecturers’ assessments 23 17.69<br />
School location 22 16.92<br />
Lecturers’ comments 15 11.54<br />
Transportation 13 10.00<br />
Accommodation 13 10.00<br />
Comments by school staff 10 7.69<br />
Overcrowded classrooms 9 6.92<br />
Relationship with school staff 8 6.15<br />
Lack of finance for the exercise 6 4.62<br />
School environment 5 3.85<br />
Total 180<br />
2. Task Concerns<br />
Making and using teaching aids 32 24.62<br />
Pupils’ poor communication skills 22 16.92<br />
Contents of school syllabus 21 16.15<br />
Getting relevant text books 18 13.85<br />
Motivating pupils to learn 17 13.08<br />
Class level to teach 15 11.54<br />
Topics to teach 15 11.54<br />
Writing lesson plans 15 11.54<br />
Availability of Laboratories /workshops/ studios 10 7.69<br />
Work load to be given 5 3.85<br />
Total 170<br />
3. Impact Concerns<br />
Pupils’ achievement in the class 6 4.62<br />
Pupils’ physical and moral development 5 3.85<br />
Influence of teacher on pupils 5 3.85<br />
Total 16<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 1 indicates that out of a total of 336 concern statements, 180, 170, and 16 are in the<br />
categories of survival, task and impact concerns respectively. The specific concerns that were most<br />
frequently mentioned by the respondents include making and using teaching aids, maintaining<br />
classroom discipline, pupil-teacher relationships, lecturers’ assessments of their performances, school<br />
location, pupils’ poor communication skills and getting copies of school syllabus.<br />
Most important concerns<br />
The questionnaire required the respondents to list any three of the concerns stated by them in<br />
their order of importance to them. The results are as presented in Table 2, which shows that the top<br />
five most important concerns of the respondents are school location, maintaining classroom discipline,<br />
pupil-teacher relationships, lecturers’ comments, and transportation. These concerns were mentioned<br />
by, at least ten of the respondents.<br />
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Table 2: Preservice Teachers’ Concerns by Types, Ranks, Number of Specific Concerns and Percentages<br />
S/N TYPES <strong>OF</strong> C<strong>ON</strong>CERNS RANKS<br />
1 2 3<br />
1. Survival Concerns No % No % No %<br />
School location 21 16.15 1 0.77 - -<br />
Classroom discipline 20 15.38 5 3.85 6 4.62<br />
Pupil-teacher relationships 16 12.31 5 3.85 4 3.08<br />
Lecturers’ comments 11 8.46 4 3.08 - -<br />
Transportation 10 7.69 3 2.31 - -<br />
Overcrowded classrooms 5 3.85 2 1.54 2 1.54<br />
Accommodation 5 3.85 6 4.62 2 1.54<br />
Lack of finance for the exercise 5 3.85 1 0.77 - -<br />
Lecturers’ assessments 3 2.31 11 8.46 9 6.92<br />
Relationship with school staff 3 2.31 5 3.85 - -<br />
Comments by school staff 3 2.31 - - 7 5.38<br />
School environment 2 1.54 3 2.31 - -<br />
Sub-totals 104 80.01 46 35.41 30 23.08<br />
2. Task Concerns<br />
Pupils’ poor communication skills 7 5.38 8 6.15 7 5.38<br />
Making and using teaching aids 4 3.08 22 16.92 6 4.62<br />
Writing of lesson plans 4 3.08 6 4.61 5 3.85<br />
Motivating pupils to learn 4 3.08 5 3.85 8 6.15<br />
Class level to teach 4 3.08 3 2.31 8 6.15<br />
Availability of Laboratories/ 2 1.54 5 3.85 3 2.31<br />
workshops/studios<br />
Contents of school syllabus - - 12 9.23 9 6.92<br />
Getting relevant text books - - 8 6.15 10 7.69<br />
Topics to teach - - 7 5.38 8 6.15<br />
Work load to be given - - 2 1.54 3 2.31<br />
Sub-Totals 25 19.24 78 59.99 67 51.53<br />
3. Impact Concerns<br />
Pupils’ achievement in the class 1 0.77 - - 5 3.85<br />
Pupils’ physical and moral<br />
development<br />
- - 3 2.31 2 1.54<br />
Influence of teacher on pupils - - 2 1.54 3 2.31<br />
Sub-totals 1 0.77 5 3.85 10 7.70<br />
Table 2 shows that the student teachers were predominantly at the stage of self or survival<br />
concerns with only a few of them (about 20%) regarding task and impact as important concerns in<br />
teaching. The table also shows that only one respondent (less than 1%) regarded impact as an<br />
important concern. In regard to survival concerns, their anxiety centred mainly around school location,<br />
classroom discipline and pupil-teacher relationships. Impact concerns were yet to assume any measure<br />
of importance to them.<br />
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Teaching practice experience and types of concerns<br />
Out of the 130 subjects in the study, 97 had previous teaching practice experience while 33<br />
indicated that they had no teaching practice experience. Those with teaching practice experience<br />
indicated that they had such experiences in either the colleges of education they attended before they<br />
entered the university or after completing their Part Two courses in the university, or both.<br />
There were no differences in the types of specific concerns expressed by both groups of student<br />
teachers. There were also no notable differences between them in regard to the importance of these<br />
concerns to them. There was only a minor difference between them in this respect with regard to their<br />
concerns for transportation and accommodation. Seven out of the ten subjects who ranked<br />
transportation as their most important concerns were those without previous teaching experience.<br />
Also, all the 11 subjects who ranked accommodation as either their first and/or their second most<br />
important concerns were those without previous teaching experience.<br />
Discussion<br />
Student teachers’ concerns<br />
Table 1 shows that the Nigerian preservice teachers in this study expressed clusters of concerns similar<br />
to those in Fuller and Bown’s (1975) model. A greater number of survival concerns than task<br />
concerns were expressed by the subjects while a negligible number expressed impact concerns. In<br />
terms of the relative proportions of their specific concerns in the self, task and impact categories of<br />
concerns, the findings of this study are in support of Fuller and Bown’s (1975) model of preservice<br />
teachers’ stages of professional development. This study adds substance to the results of previous<br />
researches, which show that for students entering the student teaching experience, self-concerns were<br />
high and task and impact concerns were less evident. According to Hall and Hord (1987), concerns at<br />
this point have to do with feelings of potential inadequacy, self-doubts about the knowledge required,<br />
or uncertainty about the situation they are about to face.<br />
The Nigerian preservice teachers in this study expressed almost similar concerns with those in<br />
studies elsewhere (Chan & Leung 2002; Veenan 1984 & 1987 cited in Meister & Melnick, 2002).<br />
Notable differences are in regard to preponderance of self or survival concerns expressed by the<br />
Nigerian respondents in this study.<br />
The respondents in this study also differed from those in similar studies elsewhere by not expressing<br />
concerns about assessing pupils’ work, record keeping and management of time. It may be wrong to<br />
assume that they were competent in these areas of work. They might not have given any thought to<br />
them as they were preoccupied with self concerns.<br />
These differences could result from the differences in emphasis given to different aspects of the<br />
teacher education programme by Nigerian educators and their counterparts elsewhere. Although the<br />
Nigerian sample is small, the differences could be a reflection of the possible differences in the<br />
characteristics of Nigerian student teachers and their counterparts elsewhere. It is possible that, for<br />
reasons to be given below, the Nigerian preservice teachers in the study were less dedicated to their<br />
training programme than their counterparts and, consequently, were slower than them in developing<br />
professional skills.<br />
The Most Important Concerns<br />
Table 2 shows that survival concerns were ranked as the most important by about 80% of the subjects<br />
of the study while less than 20% of them ranked task concerns as the most important. Among the<br />
category of survival concerns, ‘school location’ was of the greatest importance to them. This is<br />
probably a manifestation of the impact of the environment or context on the teaching/leaning process<br />
as this study was done shortly after a feud between Ile-Ife and an adjoining community (Modakeke) in<br />
which many lives were lost and property, including schools, were destroyed. With no assurance that<br />
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the feud was over, the student teachers in this study might have been so much concerned with the<br />
possibility of being placed in schools located along or near the boundary of the two communities,<br />
which they perceived as unsafe or volatile, that they had a greater intensity of concern for survival than<br />
for either the task of teaching or its impact on pupils. It is not surprising, therefore, that under these<br />
circumstances, the student teachers’ concerns for placement would be heightened. Added to this is the<br />
natural concern some of them, like most people, would have for working in any unfamiliar setting.<br />
Even veteran teachers are reported to revert to lower stages of development when placed in unfamiliar<br />
teaching environments (Katz, 1972).<br />
Their concern for overcrowded classroom might not have been unconnected with their<br />
perceived effect of the destruction of some classroom blocks in some schools during the communal<br />
disturbances. This may also explain their concern for school environment. It should be noted that<br />
many of the classrooms in the area, Ile-Ife were already overcrowded due to lack of adequate<br />
infrastructural facilities even before the outbreak of the communal clashes. Most of the schools in that<br />
area currently have sizes of 60 and above.<br />
Apart from school location, classroom discipline is the second greatest concern of the<br />
respondents. Table 1 also shows that this tops the list of concerns expressed by them. Their concern<br />
for overcrowded classrooms (mentioned by a few of them) is invariably linked to classroom discipline.<br />
Concerns for classroom discipline or for dealing with pupils’ disruptive behaviour, pupil-teacher<br />
relationships and assessment by lecturers expressed by the subjects in the present study have been<br />
shown to be important survival or self concerns of preservice and beginning teacher in similar studies<br />
elsewhere (Meister & Melnick, 2002; Chan & Leung, 2002).<br />
In regard to the subjects of this study, these concerns could be a reflection of one of the<br />
weaknesses of the teacher education programme of the university: classroom management is not<br />
offered as a full course in the programme. Only some aspects of it are taught in a course titled School<br />
Management. Exposing preservice teachers to a full classroom management course may not totally<br />
eliminate classroom management related concerns among them but will surely go a long way in<br />
minimizing the problem. As Turley and Wood’s (2002) study has shown, it is possible to meaningfully<br />
address these areas of concerns through appropriate teacher preparation programmes.<br />
The major task concern of the respondents was about teaching methods. They expressed unease with<br />
how to teach pupils with poor communication skills. This problem has come into view in especially<br />
the junior secondary school classes in the state mainly because of democratization of secondary<br />
education and the virtually non-selective admission policy of the State’s Ministry of Education that<br />
owns the public schools involved in the study. In these schools, English language is the official<br />
language of instruction but many products of the state’s primary schools do not develop sufficient<br />
proficiency in the language for work at the secondary level of education. Some student teachers who<br />
understand and speak Yoruba, which is the local language, often have to resort to the use of mother<br />
tongue for teaching some aspects of their lessons in order to enhance the students’ understanding – a<br />
practice often frowned upon by their lecturers who expect them to teach the whole lesson (apart from<br />
Yoruba language as a subject of study) in English. This problem of teaching pupils in a language<br />
which they do not clearly understand partly explains why some of them expressed concern with<br />
motivating pupils to learn.<br />
Use of teaching aids in class was another important task concerns of the student teachers. This<br />
is understandable as their various methods course teachers in the university emphasise the preparation<br />
and use of relevant instructional materials for lesson delivery by student teachers. Moreover, this<br />
aspect of their teaching practice is weighted relatively highly in the assessment of their performance in<br />
class. Table 1 shows that this was the specific concern expressed by the highest number of students – a<br />
reflection of the wish of many of them to get good scores in the teaching practice exercise.<br />
Other task concerns of the students teachers, included the content of the syllabus, availability of<br />
relevant text books, the topics to teach, motivating pupils to learn, and class level to teach. These<br />
concerns suggest student teachers’ unease with their mastery of the subject matter, lack of knowledge<br />
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of how to teach and, for some, unease with teaching practice as a whole. To understand this, it has to<br />
be noted that many of the students in the teacher education of the programme of the University, and<br />
indeed other federal universities in the country, are virtually forced to be in the programme after failing<br />
to secure admission into the programmes of their first choice. Owing to the low social status of the<br />
teaching profession in Nigeria, only very few candidates seek admission into university faculties of<br />
education. In this university, at least two out of every five students in the teacher education<br />
programme would initially have sought for admission in other faculties especially the Faculties of<br />
Social Science, Science, Arts and Environmental Management to read such courses as accountancy,<br />
economics, geology, computer science, and so forth, which lead to jobs that attract higher incomes and<br />
social status than does teaching and when they are unsuccessful, would apply to the Faculty of<br />
Education as a last resort.<br />
On being offered admission, such students enter the teacher education programme in order to<br />
secure a foothold in the university in the first instance and later on transfer to other faculties, or even<br />
retake the University Matriculation Examination, in their efforts to read the course of interest to them.<br />
Thus, a good number of students in the teacher education programme in the University have no<br />
genuine interest in the programme ab initio. Entering the programme with little or no interest in the<br />
teaching profession, little or no attempts will be made by the student teachers either to immerse<br />
themselves in the practicum or aspire to develop any professional skills. Consequently, their concern<br />
for their pupils’ learning will be limited. The need for reviewing the process of selecting candidates<br />
for teacher education is, therefore, indicated.<br />
This lack of interest in the programme is reflected in the responses of 23 of the subjects of this<br />
study who claimed that they had no concerns about teaching practice or who stated some concerns that<br />
were not related to teaching practice. Typical of such unrelated concern statements were: ‘the problem<br />
of transferring to another faculty’; ‘missing part of the holiday period’, and ‘how to improve on my<br />
grade point average’. The concern with the grade point average invariably has more to do with the<br />
students’ acceptability in the faculties or departments to which they would like to transfer than with<br />
their performance in the teacher education programme. Naturally, one has concerns for activities or<br />
situations which are important to oneself.<br />
Teaching experience and types of concern<br />
It was found in this study, there was no difference in the types of concerns expressed by those students<br />
who had previous teaching practice experience and those who did not. This is in spite of the fact that<br />
over half of the students, especially those who entered the programme after graduating from Colleges<br />
of Education, had gone on teaching practice exercise three or more times previously with each exercise<br />
lasting not less than six weeks.<br />
This could also be accounted for in terms of the finding of Katz’s (1972) study, when even veternan<br />
teachers are placed in new teaching situations, they revert to earlier stages of development. This,<br />
according to him, is because in unfamiliar environments survival concerns become more prominent<br />
than higher order concerns. It could be that those with previous teaching practice experience were as<br />
equally concerned with their placement in new teaching situations as those without teaching pratictice<br />
experience. Another possible explanation could be that the teacher education programmes in some<br />
Nigerian Colleges of Education and that of the university involved in this study do not lay adequate<br />
emphasis on pupils’ learning. It could also be that teacher educators do not offer student teachers<br />
adequate opportunities to develop the right attitudes and skills to address this task.<br />
The minor differences between those with previous practice experience and those without it in<br />
regard to the ranking of their concerns for transportation and accommodation came as no surprise<br />
because it is expected that some of the student teachers who had not had the practicum experience in<br />
the university and has not addressed issues of transportation and accommodation associated with it,<br />
would be more anxious about them that those that had had the experience.<br />
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Conclusion and implications<br />
The results of this study indicate that the preservice teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University were<br />
preoccupied with mainly survival or self concerns as they set about for teaching practice. Among their<br />
greatest worries in this regard were school location, classroom discipline and pupil-teacher<br />
relationships. Of all these, the nature of the environment in which the teaching practice exercise was to<br />
take place seemed to have contributed to the predominance of this category of concerns among the<br />
subjects. Under such circumstances they had limited concerns for the learning needs of the pupils and<br />
their social and emotional well being. This suggests the need for the organizers of the practicum to<br />
take some measures aimed at making student teachers move from concerns about ‘survival’ to concern<br />
about pupils’ learning in conflict situations. Student teachers need to be assured of their personal safety<br />
in their placement schools. This may be achieved in a number of ways. One of these is by posting<br />
them to schools that are distant from conflict zones and informing them ahead of the commencement of<br />
the practicum that such an action has been taken. If the organizers of the exercise or the university<br />
authority are convinced that it is safe to work in such schools but the student teachers still have some<br />
doubt, the accredited leaders of the communities engaged in the conflict may be invited during the<br />
orientation of student teachers for teaching practice, to assure them of the safety of the environments of<br />
their placement schools.<br />
The results of this study also show that the greatest task concerns centred upon teaching methods.<br />
Being preoccupied with self and task concerns they gave limited consideration to pupils’ learning or<br />
even assessing pupils’ work, record keeping and management of time. It is thus apparent that the<br />
teacher education programme of the university did not equip the subjects of this study with adequate<br />
personal and pedagogical skills to instill self confidence in them as they prepared for the teaching<br />
practice.<br />
These data thus support the conclusions drawn from similar studies to the effect that those<br />
learning how to teach often lack the requisite knowledge of classroom procedures to understand the<br />
complex interrelationships among management, behaviour and academic tasks (Kagan, 1992). Also, in<br />
regard to developmental stages in learning how to teach, as implicit in Fuller and Bown’s (1975:37)<br />
model, our data seem to suggest that progression from low to higher order concerns depends, among<br />
other things, on the interest and dedication of the student teachers in their programme of studies. This<br />
calls for a selection procedure based first and foremost on students’ interest in the teacher education<br />
programme of the university.<br />
Although the average Nigerian is yet to be convinced that teaching is an attractive profession<br />
(Fadipe, 1992:205) admission into teacher education programmes in Nigerian universities should, as<br />
far as is practicable, be confined to those interested in teaching. It is this group of student teachers that<br />
can be expected to develop some feelings, be preoccupied with and give thought to the various aspects<br />
of their programmes including teaching practice. There are more chances of finding these types of<br />
student teachers among those who graduated from Colleges of Education and subsequently seek<br />
admission into university teacher education programmes than among those who have to follow that<br />
programme because they could not obtain admission into other programmes in which they are<br />
genuinely interested.<br />
The results of this study suggest some implications for teacher education. The process of<br />
selecting candidates for the teacher education of the university studied needs to be reviewed. There is<br />
the need for teacher educators to ensure that teacher trainees are not only interested in teacher<br />
education programmes but are also adequately exposed to courses in classroom management and<br />
especially techniques of managing disruptive behaviour as early as possible in their programmes. This<br />
also calls for a review of the university’s teacher education programme to include such course<br />
management and behaviour skills learnt in the courses should be practised in micro-teaching sessions<br />
before trainees embark on their first teaching practice. During such sessions, teacher educators need to<br />
lay as much emphasis on learners and how they learn as they do in regard to making and using<br />
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teaching aids. Teacher trainees also stand to benefit from enriched courses in the teaching of slow<br />
learners. Observation of teachers at work by trainees before the exercise could also be of some help.<br />
This is an aspect that is lacking in most teacher education programmes in Nigeria. Placement decisions<br />
should be taken quite ahead of the commencement of teaching practice exercise and student teachers<br />
informed accordingly. Schools for the exercise should be those considered as being in safe and secure<br />
environments by student teachers. This will not only reduce the intensity of their concerns for survival<br />
but will also be conducive for learning skills for performing higher order tasks. Just as suggested by<br />
Burke and Hillison (1991) in regard to the concerns of agricultural education teachers, those who work<br />
with preservice teachers should be apprised of their concerns, monitor these concerns both formally<br />
and informally and take any justified action when necessary in order to maintain their interests and also<br />
minimize the rate at which they drop out from the programme.<br />
References<br />
[1] Burke, S.R. & Hillison, J. (1991). Practising agricultural teachers’ concerns and their<br />
implications for improving the profession. Journal of Agricultural Education, Summer 1991,<br />
10-18.<br />
[2] Chan, Kwok-wai & Leung Man-tak (2002). Hong Kong preservice teachers’ focus of concerns<br />
and confidence to teach. 98 Abstracts. Hong Kong: Institute of Education.<br />
[3] Denscombe, M. (1998). The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Science Projects.<br />
Buckingham: Open University Press.<br />
[4] Deyi, I. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis: A User-Friendly Guide for Social Scientists.<br />
London: Routledge.<br />
[5] Fadipe, J.O. (1992). ‘The achievements and shortcomings of teacher education programme in<br />
Nigeria: An administrator’s view’, in Ndu, A. (Ed.) Educational Policy and Implementation in<br />
Nigeria. Awka: The Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning.<br />
[6] Fuller, F.F. (1969). Concerns of teachers: a developmental conceptualization. American<br />
Educational Research Journal, 6, 207-226.<br />
[7] Fuller, F.F. & Bown, O.H. (1975). Becoming a teacher. In Ryan, K. (Ed.) Teacher Education:<br />
74th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of<br />
Chicago Press, 25-52.<br />
[8] Hall, G.E. & Hord, S.M. (1987). Change in Schools: Facilitating the Process. New York:<br />
State of New York University Press.<br />
[9] Hall, G. & Loucks, S.F. (1978). Teacher concerns as basis for facilitating and personalizing<br />
staff development. Teachers’ College Record, 80(1), 36-53.<br />
[10] Harrington, H.L. (1995). Fostering reasoned decisions: Case-based pedagogy and the<br />
professional development of teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education. 11 (3), 203-214.<br />
[11] Kagan, D.M. (1992). Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review<br />
of Educational Research, 62(2), 129-169.<br />
[12] Katz, L.C. (1972). Developmental stages of preschool teachers. Elementary School Journal,<br />
73(1), 50-54.<br />
[13] Meister, D.G. & Melnick, S.A. (2002). From pre-service to in-service teaching: A national<br />
survey of beginning teachers’ concerns.<br />
[14] O’Connor, J. & Taylor, H.P. (1992). Understanding preservice and novice teachers’ concerns<br />
to improve teacher recruitment and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 19, 19-28.<br />
[15] Turley, S. & Wood, A.L. (2002). A Longitudinal Study of New Teacher Concerns: Induction<br />
in a District Consortium. Available at<br />
http:/tigersystem.net/aera2002/viewproposaltext.asp?propID=6619.<br />
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High School Learners’ Attitudes, Level of Knowledge and Level<br />
of Discrimination towards Individuals Living with HIV/AIDS<br />
C. Strydom<br />
Lecturer, School for Psycho-Social Behavioural Sciences: Division Social Work, Potchefstroom<br />
Campus of the North-West University, South Africa.<br />
P. Podile<br />
Social Worker, Department of Social Development,<br />
North-West Province, South Africa.<br />
Abstract<br />
HIV/AIDS has increasingly become a problem in the world, but especially in South<br />
Africa. People living with HIV/AIDS find themselves in a serious predicament and face<br />
double jeopardy. They face death and while they are fighting for their lives, they are<br />
abused, ridiculed and maligned. They are being discriminated against, rejected and not<br />
treated with love, respect and dignity.<br />
It is believed that a battle against the AIDS epidemic cannot be won unless the<br />
level of awareness and commitment is raised to a point where the authorities and public<br />
at large realise that everyone must work together. The power to defeat the spread of<br />
HIV/AIDS lies in partnership with the youth, adults, business people and government. A<br />
supportive and enabling environment also needs to be created for those people living with<br />
HIV/AIDS.<br />
The aim of the study was to explore learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and<br />
determine their attitudes regarding people living with HIV/AIDS. From the research<br />
findings, it was found that learners are knowledgeable about the general facts on the<br />
HIV/AIDS pandemic, but that their knowledge concerning certain aspects is limited to<br />
some extent, therefore it is deemed necessary to equip and empower them with more and<br />
relevant information. With regard to learners’ attitudes, it was found that learners have<br />
fair and positive attitudes towards people living with AIDS.<br />
It is recommended that these positive attitudes and fair knowledge of learners<br />
must be sustained. The most effective way to attain this is through education, and schools<br />
are the appropriate places to teach young people about HIV prevention.<br />
Introduction<br />
This article focuses on the knowledge of and attitudes of the high school learners concerning people<br />
living with HIV/AIDS. It especially examines the learners’ level of discrimination towards people<br />
living with the virus. The problem statement, the objectives of the study and the methodology will be<br />
dealt with. The findings of the study will be discussed according to the sections of the questionnaire.<br />
Finally, the article looks into intervention strategies in addressing the phenomenon.<br />
Problem statement<br />
HIV/AIDS is one of the greatest public health hazards or threats that is facing the whole world.<br />
According to Stine (1993:11), AIDS is the most dramatic, pervasive and tragic pandemic in recent<br />
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history. South Africa is among those countries that are faced with the serious dilemma of the<br />
increasing rate of HIV/AIDS. In 2003 it was estimated that there were 4.69 million South Africans<br />
living with HIV/AIDS, more than in any other country in the world (Rehle & Shisana, 2003). Six<br />
hundred people die in South Africa every day due to HIV/AIDS (Anon 2003:5). AIDS has become the<br />
leading cause of death in South Africa, and it is estimated that 40% of all adult deaths were now due to<br />
AIDS (Dorrington et al., 2001).<br />
According to Anon (2003:4) and Stine (1993:4), HIV/AIDS today threatens the welfare and<br />
well-being of people throughout the world. It is expected that parents will die before their children, but<br />
because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, it does not happen that way for thousands of parents. They are<br />
seeing their children die in the prime of life. Anon (2003: 1) further emphasizes that most of those<br />
living with HIV/AIDS are people in their economically active stages of life (15 to 49 years). Thus the<br />
HIV/AIDS epidemic is having a major impact on the youth.<br />
According to the North-West Health Training Manual (2003: 21), issued by the Department of<br />
Health, concerning the result of the HIV and Syphilis Sero-prevalence survey of woman attending<br />
public antenatal clinics in the North-West Province, HIV/AIDS continues to be one of the biggest<br />
public health problems facing this Province. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is increasing at alarming<br />
rates. The HIV/AIDS prevalence continues to be high in urban areas compared to that in the rural<br />
areas. This survey was conducted in a rural area in the North-West.<br />
The focus of this research centres on the attitudes of the high school learners towards people<br />
living with HIV/AIDS. People living with HIV/AIDS find themselves in a serious predicament and<br />
face double jeopardy. They face death and while they are fighting for their lives, they face a number of<br />
problems. According to Stine (1993:346), people living with HIV/AIDS are still abused, ridiculed and<br />
maligned. They are not treated with love, respect and dignity as human beings once it becomes known<br />
that they are infected with the disease. Most members of the community will not dare touch or talk to a<br />
person with HIV/AIDS (Salehi, 2000:1). Anon (2000a:4) further elaborates by quoting a comment<br />
made by a 27 year old Indian man who stated that “Nobody will come near me, eat with me in the<br />
canteen, nobody will want to work with me, I am an outcast here”.<br />
According to Anon (2000b:1), HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination remains to be an<br />
enormous barrier to fighting the HIV/AIDS epidemic effectively. Stigmatization leads to a feeling of<br />
withdrawal, guilt, shame, anger, depression and isolation (Stine, 1993:346). Fear of discrimination<br />
often prevents people from seeking treatment for AIDS or admitting their HIV status publicly<br />
(Brimlow, Cook & Seaton, 2003). Anon (2000a:2) supports this remark by indicating that, in<br />
December 1998, Gugu Dlamini was stoned to death by neighbours in her township near Durban in<br />
South Africa after speaking out openly on World AIDS Day about her HIV status.<br />
Anon (2000a: 2) points out that people with HIV or those suspected of having it may be turned<br />
away from health care services, employment, refused entry into foreign countries and in some cases<br />
even possibly be evicted from their homes by their families and rejected by friends and colleagues.<br />
Anon (2003:2) emphasizes that rejection by the families cause a stressful situation because family is<br />
regarded to be the primary and an important unit in a person’s life.<br />
The stigma attached to HIV/AIDS can extend to the next generation, placing an emotional<br />
burden on those left behind. Nzioka (2000) also states that families bereaved through AIDS have<br />
difficulty obtaining support (public sympathy and financial assistance) when planning funerals, and<br />
attendance at funerals is low. Anon (2000a:2) indicates that stigma and discrimination are often<br />
motivated by the need to blame and punish, and in extreme circumstances it can extend to acts of<br />
violence and murder.<br />
Stine (1993:350) emphasizes that the main difference between HIV/AIDS and other diseases is<br />
social discrimination. He emphasizes that society does not discriminate and reject those with cancer,<br />
diabetes, heart disease or any other health problems. Individuals in South Africa who lose a loved one<br />
to AIDS are not likely to receive the same amount of support and sympathy that they would receive if<br />
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their loved one had died of more socially acceptable causes. Survivors may be forced to keep the<br />
nature of the death secret and to hide their own grief (Demmer, 2004:300). Anon (2001:12) emphasizes<br />
that some healthy parents discourage their children to play with children who are believed to have<br />
AIDS. Even those orphans lucky enough to receive schooling found that other children did not want to<br />
play with them, fearing that they will become infected.<br />
HIV/AIDS patients are considered to be less desirable and more responsible for their ill health.<br />
Also fuelling such responses are ignorance and lack of knowledge concerning HIV transmission.<br />
Society thinks that AIDS is exclusively caused by wrong sexual practices. People have become very<br />
judgmental and moralistic towards people living with AIDS (Anon, 2000b:3).<br />
According to the North-West Health Training Manual (2003:23), the aim of education is to<br />
change risk behaviour, especially sexual behaviour, in order to successfully combat the disease of<br />
AIDS. Only through intensive educational programmes can the fatal disease be successfully prevented<br />
(Stine, 1993:196).<br />
Anon (2000b:4) is of the opinion that no policy or law can combat HIV/AIDS-related<br />
discrimination on its own. The fear and prejudice that lies at the core of the HIV/AIDS discrimination<br />
needs to be tackled at community and national levels. A more enabling environment needs to be<br />
created to increase the visibility of people with HIV/AIDS as a normal part of any society. In future,<br />
the task is to confront the fear-based messages and biased social attitudes in order to reduce the<br />
discrimination and stigmatization of people who are living with HIV/AIDS. As society becomes more<br />
accepting of people living with HIV/AIDS, they will be more open and responsive to increased<br />
education and lifestyle changes.<br />
With regard to the study the researchers attempted to find an answer to the following question:<br />
What are learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and their attitudes regarding people living with<br />
HIV/AIDS?<br />
Aims of the research<br />
The aim of this research was to gain insight into the learner’s level of knowledge and level of<br />
discrimination towards individuals with HIV/AIDS by means of a literature and empirical study.<br />
Theoritical assumption<br />
High school learners have fair knowledge of HIV/AIDS, but tend to have negative attitudes towards<br />
people living with HIV/AIDS.<br />
Research methodology<br />
According to Neuman (1997:38), methodology refers to the techniques that a particular discipline uses<br />
to manipulate data and to acquire knowledge. The method of research consists of a literature study and<br />
an empirical survey.<br />
Literature review<br />
The data, which was utilized for a systematic library search, was a Repertoire of South African<br />
Journals, Social Work Abstracts and Social Sciences Indexes. There are a considerable number of<br />
books, journals and publications on HIV/AIDS, both nationally and internationally. In the literature<br />
review, a study was made of the knowledge of high school learners on HIV/AIDS. Previous studies<br />
(Kelly et al., 2002:20; Strydom, 2002:191; Strydom, 2003:59-72) indicated that young people are well<br />
informed concerning the most basic facts about HIV/AIDS. The attitudes of learners towards people<br />
living with HIV/AIDS were also investigated in order to determine the ways in which they treat these<br />
people. The literature (Diagle et al.,1999:273; Kelly et al.,2002:24: Marjorie, 1991:20) showed that<br />
people living with HIV/AIDS are already suffering, and do not want the additional burden of being<br />
rejected and discriminated against.<br />
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Empirical study<br />
1.) Research design<br />
According to Grinnell (1993:219), a research design is a plan which includes every aspect of a<br />
proposed research study from the conceptualization of the problem right through to the dissemination<br />
of findings. The research design that the researcher used is the exploratory design. De Vos et al.,<br />
(1998:240) are of the opinion that the purpose of the exploratory design is to gain insight into a<br />
situation, phenomenon, community or person.<br />
The aim was to explore the learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and their attitudes towards<br />
people living with HIV/AIDS. Although much has been written on HIV/AIDS, limited research has<br />
been done on learners’ attitudes regarding people living with HIV/AIDS.<br />
2.) Sampling<br />
For purposes of this study, a sample was drawn. According to De Vos et al. (1998:240), a sample is a<br />
small portion of the total set of the objects, events or persons that together comprise the subject of this<br />
study. In the study, the systematic type of sample was used. In this type of sample, only the first case is<br />
selected randomly and all the subsequent cases are selected according to a particular interval (De Vos<br />
et al., 1998:205).<br />
South Africa comprises of nine provinces. The focus of the study was on the North-West<br />
Province, as the sample was drawn from the two high schools Kebalepile and Letsatsing in the<br />
Mafikeng area. According to Grinnell and Williams (1990:127), a sample size of 10% of the<br />
population is sufficient to provide reasonable control over sampling error. For this study, the<br />
population size (two schools) was 1000 learners. Thus 140 learners, a sample of 14% were involved in<br />
the study. The sample was drawn from the Grade ten (10) learners, aged 15-17 years, boys and girls,<br />
because it was expected that their knowledge and attitudes would be representative of the high school<br />
learners. At each school 70 of these learners were selected. The first name on the alphabetically class<br />
list of all the grade ten learners was selected and then every second name.<br />
3.) Measuring instrument<br />
In the study, a questionnaire was used as the instrument for collecting data. The questionnaire was selfdeveloped<br />
after having studied the similar questionnaires in Strydom (2002:59-72) and Strydom<br />
(2003:320). According to the New South African Dictionary of Social Work (1995:51), a questionnaire<br />
is a set of questions on a form that is completed by the respondents in respect of a research project.<br />
There are different types of questionnaires such as the personal, the telephonic, the hand-delivered, the<br />
group-administered and the mail questionnaire. In this research, the group-administered questionnaire<br />
was used, which means that the questionnaires were administered to the learners in group form.<br />
Strydom (1999:123) feels that administrating the questionnaires in a group has the following<br />
advantages, namely the researcher is at hand to explain any questions that might be unclear, the<br />
response rate is higher and it provides a personal touch, which is lacking in the mailed survey. A<br />
disadvantage can be various biases, particularly in classroom settings.<br />
4.) Procedure<br />
The researcher followed the following prescribed procedure during the study:<br />
• Consulted with principals of the two selected high schools and obtained their permission.<br />
• Obtained permission from the parents by designing a consent form that they signed to allow<br />
their children to participate in the study.<br />
• The life skills educators at the two high schools assisted during the distribution and collection<br />
process of the consent forms.<br />
• Tested the questionnaire with four (4) other children who were not included in the sample. The<br />
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intention was to maximize the level of reliability and validity of instruments. During the pilot<br />
period it was found that the instrument was reliable, therefore no modifications were made.<br />
• The questionnaires were distributed and completed in the life skills classes in the presence of<br />
one of the researchers.<br />
• The questionnaires were completed in English, but one of the researchers was at hand to<br />
translate, as the learners’ mother language was Tswana.<br />
5.) Ethical aspects<br />
According to Grasso and Epstein (1992:118), ethics are those principles that are intended to define the<br />
rights and responsibilities of the researcher and practitioners in social work in their relationship with<br />
one other and with other parties including employers, research subjects, clients and students.<br />
In the study, the following ethical aspects were considered:<br />
• Harm to respondents: According to De Vos et al. (1998:64), subjects can be harmed in a<br />
physical or emotional manner. In the study the researcher thoroughly informed the respondents<br />
beforehand as to the purpose and nature of the investigation.<br />
• Informed consent: In the study, the issue of informed consent by the learners as well as their<br />
parents was regarded to be of importance. A consent form in which the aims of the study was<br />
explained, was developed and distributed to the parents of the participants.<br />
• Voluntary participation: In the study, respondents were not forced to participate. The<br />
participants were regarded to be volunteers.<br />
• Confidentiality: In the study, the issue of confidentiality was considered with the intension of<br />
protecting the privacy of the respondents. All the information that deserved to be treated with<br />
confidentiality was indeed treated accordingly. The questionnaire also stated that the<br />
questionnaire would be completed anonymously.<br />
6. Data analysis<br />
The Statistical Consultation Services of the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University<br />
analysed the data.<br />
Results<br />
The empirical data was organized according to the sections of the questionnaire and the data will be<br />
discussed as follows:<br />
1. Identifying particulars<br />
1.1 Gender of respondents<br />
Of the total respondents, 53 (37,86%) were male and 87 (62,14 %) female. The ratio of male to female<br />
is more or less the same for the two schools, which means that the responses were representative of the<br />
universe, regarding the gender.<br />
1.2 Age of respondents<br />
The study indicates that, of the total number of participants, 45 (32,37%) were aged 15, 55 (39,57%)<br />
were 16 years and 39 (28,06%) were 17 years of age. This is the national average age of grade ten<br />
learners. NB: Number of missing value is 1 (did not answer the question)<br />
1.3 Number of respondents<br />
Of the total sample, 70 (50,00%) of the learners were from Kepalepile High School and 70 (50,00 %)<br />
were from Letsatsing High School.<br />
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1.4 Home language<br />
The study indicates that, of the total population, 119 (86,23%) of the participants were Tswanaspeaking,<br />
9 (6,52%) were Sotho-speaking, 9 (6,52%) were Xhosa-speaking and 1 (0.72%) was<br />
English-speaking. Four of the official languages were represented in the sample with most of the<br />
participants coming from the Tswana–speaking community. In the North-West Province, the Tswanaspeaking<br />
group was the largest language group. NB: Number of missing value is 2 (did not answer the<br />
question)<br />
1.5 Ethnic group<br />
Of the total, 136 (97,14%) participants were black and 4 (2,86%) were from other ethnic groups. This<br />
could be expected as the two schools are situated in black communities.<br />
2. Participants’ knowledge regarding hiv/ aids<br />
Participants had to answer 15 questions by choosing between True, False or Uncertain. In this section<br />
Uncertain will be regarded as an incorrect response. The data is presented by means of the following<br />
table:<br />
Table 1<br />
Statement Correct<br />
Answers<br />
93<br />
Wrong<br />
Answers<br />
A vaccine is available 29,69% 70,31%<br />
AIDS makes the body very weak 98,56% 1,44%<br />
Anyone can get HIV 61,76% 38,24%<br />
AIDS has no cure 95,68% 4,32%<br />
Person may pass on HI-virus even though he/she has no<br />
symptoms of HIV/AIDS<br />
40,74% 59,26%<br />
A condom is 100% effective against infection 61,59% 38,41%<br />
Can contract HIV by kissing and hugging 96,43% 3,57%<br />
Only poor people contract HIV 100,00% 0%<br />
Can be at risk by eating meals prepared by an HIVinfected<br />
person<br />
82,48% 17,52%<br />
Can contract AIDS from a public toilet 82,73% 17,26%<br />
People living with HIV/AIDS are entitled to all the basic<br />
rights<br />
57,97% 42,03%<br />
Okay to keep health status of HIV-infected person<br />
confidential<br />
63,43% 36,57%<br />
Can contract HIV infection by sharing drug needles 86,43% 13,57%<br />
HIV-infected people are promiscuous 56,62% 43,38%<br />
HIV-infected people deserve to be isolated from others 72,86% 27,14%<br />
If percentages of correct answers are considered, it appears as if the participants’ knowledge regarding<br />
HIV/AIDS is relatively good. This could be misleading because it still leaves a wide margin of<br />
ignorance. Participants scored high on knowledge about the ways in which HIV/AIDS was<br />
transmitted, because this type of information is made readily available by the media, schools, clinics
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
and other organisations. Previous studies (Kelly et al., 2002:20; Stremlau & Nkosi, 2001:19; Strydom,<br />
2002:191; Strydom, 2003:59-72) also indicated that young people are informed concerning the most<br />
basic facts about HIV/AIDS. Participants scored low on issues that were not general knowledge, for<br />
example the following statements:<br />
• A vaccine is available.<br />
• A person may pass on the HI-virus even though he/she has no symptoms of HIV/AIDS.<br />
3. Participants’ attitudes towards hiv/aids<br />
In this section, respondents had to answer 10 questions to determine the learners’ attitudes towards<br />
HIV/AIDS victims. The 10 questions will be stated and followed by the responses of participants.<br />
Table 2<br />
STATEMENT AGREE DISAGREE UNCERTAIN<br />
HIV/AIDS victims should be marked<br />
so that they can be easily recognized<br />
19 (13,67%) 111 (79,86%) 9 (6,47%)<br />
and identified.<br />
From the table above, 19 of the learners agree that people with HIV/AIDS should be marked, 111<br />
disagree with the statement and 9 are uncertain. NB: Number of missing value is 1. The large<br />
percentage illustrates that learners have positive attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims, as they do not<br />
want the victims to be discriminated against. Strydom (2003:63) found in his study that 58,7% learners<br />
were against compiling a list of HIV/AIDS victims.<br />
STATEMENT Stigmatization<br />
and<br />
discrimination<br />
HIV/AIDS victims<br />
deserve to be stigmatized<br />
and discriminated against,<br />
to be isolated and rejected<br />
or to be treated with love<br />
and respect.<br />
Table 3<br />
Isolation<br />
and<br />
rejection<br />
94<br />
Love and<br />
respect<br />
Uncertain<br />
7 (5, 00%) 7 (5,00%) 122(87,14%) 4 (2,86%)<br />
The table above illustrates that the majority of the learners feel that HIV/AIDS people are to be treated<br />
with love and respect. In other words, learners do not want the HIV/AIDS victims to be ill-treated.
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 4<br />
STATEMENT AGREE DISAGREE UNCERTAIN<br />
People with HIV/AIDS are not to be<br />
allowed to attend school or work<br />
because of the danger of infecting<br />
others.<br />
7 (5,00%) 128 (91,43%) 5 (3,57%)<br />
It is obvious from the above table that the overwhelming majority believes that HIV/AIDS victims are<br />
entitled to attend school or work. This indicates that they do not discriminate against people with<br />
HIV/AIDS. Strydom (2003:63) also found in his research that 64,1% indicated that HIV-infected<br />
persons should be allowed to attend school.<br />
STATEMENT FEAR BEING<br />
INFECTED<br />
What will you do if you have to<br />
share the same bedroom with an<br />
HIV-infected person?<br />
Table 5<br />
95<br />
ACCEPT THAT<br />
PERS<strong>ON</strong><br />
UNCERTAIN<br />
24 (17,39%) 103 (74,64%) 11 (7,97%)<br />
NB: Number of missing value is 2. From the table above, it is clear that the majority of the learners<br />
said that they would accept that person. In other words, most learners have a positive attitude towards<br />
HIV/AIDS victims as they are prepared to share a bedroom with the infected person.<br />
• Reaction if a person is HIV/AIDS positive<br />
The respondents were asked what they would do if they knew that a person was HIV/AIDS positive.<br />
Fourty seven (33,57%) of the learners said that they would treat the information as confidential, 89<br />
(63,57%) said that they would ask his/her permission first before informing others, while 4 (2,86%)<br />
said that they would not associate with him or her. These figures show that the majority of the learners<br />
would respect such a person’s feelings.<br />
• Reaction of family members on hearing one of the members are positive<br />
The majority of the participants 131 (93,58%) said that other family members should accept and<br />
support that person, 1 (0,71%) said that other family members should reject that person, 1 (0,71%) said<br />
that other family members should isolate that person, and 7 (5,00%) were uncertain. The majority of<br />
learners felt that HIV/AIDS victims should be treated well by their families, which indicates the<br />
learners’ sympathy towards people living with HIV/AIDS. Marjorie (1991:20) also supports this<br />
finding. She emphasizes that HIV/AIDS people deserve everyone’s care and concern.<br />
• Reaction on hearing you are HIV positive<br />
Thirteen (9,35%) of the learners said that they would commit suicide, 2 (2,16%) said that they would<br />
deny it, 5 (3,60%) said that they would isolate themselves from others, 114 (82,01%) said that they<br />
would accept it, and 4 (2,88%) were uncertain. NB: Number of missing value is 2. The 114 learners<br />
who said that they would accept it, illustrates that learners think that there is hope for HIV-infected<br />
people. In other words, it is not a death sentence when you are diagnosed HIV positive. They are aware<br />
of positive ways in which they can react when they are infected with the disease.<br />
• Willingness to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS infected person<br />
Ninety-four (67,14%) said that they were willing to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS-infected<br />
person, 22 (15,72%) said that they were not willing to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS-infected
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
person, while 24 (17,14%) were uncertain. The 94 learners illustrates that learners do not have negative<br />
attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims as they were willing to associate with or date them. Strydom<br />
(2003:65) found in his research that 64,10% of the high school learners were willing to be friends with<br />
HIV-infected people.<br />
• Willingness to receive medical treatment from HIV-positive health officer<br />
Eighty-three (59,29%) of the learners said that they were prepared to be treated by an HIV positive<br />
health officer, 25 (17,86%) of the learners said that they feared being treated by an HIV positive health<br />
officer, 17 (12,14%) of the learners said that they feared infection, while 15 (10,71%) of the learners<br />
were uncertain. The high percentage indicates that learners do have positive attitudes towards people<br />
with HIV/AIDS as they are prepared to receive treatment without fearing infection.<br />
• Measures to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS<br />
Eighty-four (60,00%) of the learners said that using condoms is a good way to prevent the spread of<br />
HIV/AIDS, 80 (57,14%) supported educational programmes 73 (52,14)% supported the idea of regular<br />
blood tests, while 3 (2,14%) of learners said that the isolation of an HIV/AIDS person is a good way to<br />
prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. In this question the percentage is more than 100% because learners<br />
could have marked more than one answer. The majority of the respondents supported the use of<br />
condoms, educational programmes and regular blood tests. Strydom (2003:39) also found in his study<br />
that using condoms was supported by a large number of respondents, while Naidoo (1994) mentions<br />
that 84,3% of the respondents in his study felt that using a condom during sex lowers the risk of<br />
contracting HIV/AIDS. The literature further supports the need for more information, knowledge and<br />
education on HIV/AIDS (Naidoo, 1994; South African Department of Health, 1997).<br />
Discussion<br />
From the research findings, it is obvious that most of the high school learners are knowledgeable about<br />
the basic facts of HIV/AIDS. This is also supported by the literature of Kelly et al. (2002:20) and<br />
Coughlan et al. (1996:255) when they indicate that young people are informed concerning most<br />
important facts about HIV. This is due to the fact that high school learners receive education on HIV<br />
at schools.<br />
However, the research findings also indicate that learners’ knowledge on aspects which are not<br />
of common knowledge is limited to some extent. Strydom (2002:191) found in her study that young<br />
people scored high on knowledge concerning the ways in which HIV/AIDS was transmitted, but low<br />
on issues that were not general knowledge.<br />
With regard to the attitudes of learners, the findings indicate that the learners are sympathetic<br />
towards people who are infected with HIV. Most of the learners indicate that they did not discriminate<br />
against people infected with HIV. Rankin and Strydom (2003:45) also found in their study that young<br />
people were sympathetic towards people living with AIDS, and would not like them to be<br />
discriminated against. In his study amongst learners at secondary schools in North-West, Strydom<br />
(2003:63-64) found that 73,6% of the learners felt sorry for people with AIDS. Uys et al. (2005:20)<br />
also found in their research that acceptance of people living with AIDS was increasing in some<br />
communities.<br />
This is contrary to the findings of other studies that have found a great deal of stigmatization.<br />
Kelly et al. (2002:24) indicate that children’s attitude towards people living with AIDS are more<br />
negative than that of older counterparts. They further emphasize that people living with HIV/AIDS<br />
tend to report high levels of negative attitudes that do not coincide with self-reported attitudes of young<br />
people. One way of accounting for this is that even isolated incidents can impact strongly on people<br />
living with HIV/AIDS and seemingly small incidents such as someone hesitating to drink from the<br />
same cup, or someone using rubber gloves unnecessarily, can be hurtful and rejecting.<br />
According to Marjorie (1991:20), people with HIV/AIDS have suffered discrimination and<br />
negative ill treatment as children with AIDS have been expelled from school, and friends and<br />
neighbours have shunned their families. Marjorie(1991:21) elaborates that people living with<br />
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HIV/AIDS have suffered discrimination in employment and housing and have been refused insurance<br />
benefits. Diagle et al., (1999:273) are of the opinion that patients with a disease such as cancer most<br />
likely would receive both instrumental and affective support from family members. They further<br />
elaborate by indicating that the situation is reversed with HIV/AIDS: “you will be outcast, hardly get<br />
visits, no chicken soup, no hugging, touching. They will kind of expect the patient with AIDS to<br />
apologies to the family for bringing such a shame to the family for leading such a life”. According to<br />
Diagle et al. (1999: 273), a diagnosis of HIV/AIDS is considered to be very bad because the person<br />
will be cast out by his/her very own family.<br />
The theoretical assumption of the researchers was that high school learners tend to have<br />
negative attitudes towards people living with HIV/AIDS, but based on the research findings, this was<br />
not proven. This might be because of the fact that learners are encouraged to take good care of the<br />
AIDS sufferers at schools. The learners are aware that the HIV/AIDS victims deserve the care and<br />
concern of everyone. They are aware of the fundamental basic rights that are stipulated by the South<br />
African Constitution, which emphasize that every person is entitled to be treated with respect, love and<br />
dignity. Therefore this indicates that the learners are abiding by and complying with the rules of the<br />
Constitution. Whiteside and Sunter (2000:122) support this by indicating that in 1997 the Interministerial<br />
Committee was formed and a major public awareness campaign took place. The main event<br />
that year was the address to the nation by President Mbeki on 9 October. In it, he confronted the South<br />
Africans with the reality of the epidemic and called for sectors to pledge themselves to the Partnership<br />
Against AIDS. Various sectors (business and labour, youth and women, churches and faith<br />
communities, sports and entertainment) immediately stepped forward to articulate their commitment.<br />
Since then, events such as World AIDS Day and Condom Week have become focal points for a wide<br />
range of awareness activities. Famous political leaders, such as Nelson Mandela and Mango Sotho<br />
Buthelezi have admitted in the open that they have lost children through AIDS. Also based on the<br />
number of activities and awareness campaigns, which are being carried out with the aim of<br />
empowering and educating people about the pandemic, this might contribute to the fair treatment of<br />
and acceptable behaviour towards people living with HIV/AIDS. If a proper strategy is to be followed,<br />
HIV will have to be brought ‘out of the closet’, be discussed openly and people living with HIV/AIDS<br />
will have to talk more freely on the consequences of the illness and how to prevent it (Poindexter &<br />
Linsk, 1999:46-61). Uys et al. (2005:20) also feel that specific interventions have to be designed, based<br />
on a thorough understanding of the nature of HIV/AIDS stigma.<br />
Whiteside and Sunter (2000:124) further indicated that, in 1995, efforts were made to identify<br />
key priorities which were embraced by the Government and many NGOs and which included the<br />
following: life skills programmes targeted at the youth, the use of mass communication to popularize<br />
key prevention concepts, appropriate treatment and management of clients seeking treatment for STDs,<br />
increase access to barrier methods such as condoms and the promotion of appropriate care and support.<br />
According to Molewa, latest statistics in the North-West show a downward trend of HIVinfections<br />
among young people, especially in the under-24 age group. Based on these figures, she feels<br />
that the province’s awareness and prevention campaigns amongst young people are bearing fruit. She<br />
said that programmes which take the fight against HIV to schools decisively and fundamentally shift<br />
the balance of power “in our favour as we battle to defeat this scourge” (Molewa, 2004:5). The<br />
research also indicates that efforts to promote and increase awareness among members of the<br />
community, especially among the youths, are being effective.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The researchers arrived at the following conclusions:<br />
• Learners seemed particularly interested in participating in the study as it enabled them to vent<br />
their views, perspectives and concerns with regard to the epidemic.<br />
• From the responses to a few questions, such as whether people living with AIDS should be<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
marked so that they can be easily recognized and identified, and whether people with<br />
HIV/AIDS should be allowed to attend school or work, it was clear that most of the learners<br />
sympathized with the victims.<br />
• The analyses of the research findings indicated that learners have positive attitudes towards<br />
people living with HIV/AIDS and would not like them to be ill-treated and discriminated<br />
against.<br />
• Learners seemed knowledgeable regarding the general information pertaining to the HIV/AIDS<br />
phenomenon. However, there are some areas in which their level of knowledge was perceived<br />
to be limited.<br />
Recommendations<br />
On the basis of the literature and empirical study undertaken, the researchers would like to make the<br />
following recommendations:<br />
• It is recommended that these supportive, caring and positive attitudes that prevail amongst<br />
learners need to be motivated and encouraged.<br />
• It is recommended that, since the schools are the primary socializing influence for the children;<br />
they are to continue with the efforts of empowering and equipping school learners with the<br />
necessary information the learners deserve to know.<br />
• To sustain this relevant knowledge and the positive attitudes that learners posses regarding the<br />
HIV/AIDS epidemic, it is recommended that more relevant and factual information regarding<br />
the epidemic be made more accessible to learners.<br />
• It is recommended that more HIV/AIDS programmes be developed in respect of the young<br />
generation or people to increase awareness, communicate the correct knowledge and encourage<br />
subsequent behavioural change.<br />
References<br />
[1] Anon. 2000a. Ageing and life coursed<br />
[2] (http://www.who.int/hpr/ageing/hivimpact.htm):31/03/2004.<br />
[3] Anon. 2000b. Hiv and aids stigma and discrimination: attitudes towards hiv and aids:<br />
31/03/2004.<br />
[4] Anon. 2001. Aids orphans in grim battle to survive. The star:22, june 12.<br />
[5] Anon. 2003. Shoes to highlight aids. City press:20, april 5.<br />
[6] Brimlow, d.l., cook. J.s. & seaton, r. (eds). 2003. Stigma and hiv/aids. A review of the<br />
literature. Rockville department of health and human services.<br />
[7] Coughlan, f.j., coughlan, n.s. & jameson, c.p. 1996. Where knowledge and attitude separate:<br />
adolescent hiv/aids knowledge survey as information for social work training. Social<br />
work/maatskaplike werk, 32(3):255-261.<br />
[8] De vos, a.s., strydom, h., fouche, c.b., poggenpoel, m. & schurink. W. 1998. Research at grass<br />
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[9] Demmer,c. 2004. Aids and bereavement in south africa. Social work/maatskaplike werk,<br />
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[10] Diagle, b., lasch, k., mc cluskey, c. & wancho, b. 1999. Hiv home care hand book. Canada :<br />
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[11] Dorrington,r., bourne, d., bradshaw, d., laubscher, r. & timaeus, i. 2001. The impact of<br />
hiv/aids in adult mortality in south africa, technical report. Burden of disease research unit.<br />
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[12] Grasso, a.j. & epstein, i. 1992. Research utilization in the social services. New york : the<br />
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[14] Grinnell, r.m. & williams, m. 1990. Research in social work: a primer. Itasca : peacock<br />
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[15] Kelly, k., parker, w. & oyosi s. 2002. Pathways to action. Hiv/aids prevention, children and<br />
young people in south africa.<br />
[16] Marjorie, l. 1991. The encyclopedia of health: sexual transmitted diseases. Usa : chelsa house<br />
publishers.<br />
[17] Molewa, e. 2004. Molewa takes fight against aids to schools. North-west gazette:5, september<br />
14.<br />
[18] Naidoo,s. 1994. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome: knowledge, attitudes and sexual<br />
activity among black adolescents. Port elizabeth: university of port elizabeth. (ma thesis)<br />
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allyn & bacon.<br />
[20] New south african dictionary.of social work 1995. Cape town : ctp book printers.<br />
[21] North-west health training manuel. 2003. Department of health, north-west.<br />
[22] Nzioka, c. 2000. The social meanings of death from hiv/aids : an african interpretative view.<br />
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african american caregivers. Social work, 44(1):46-61.<br />
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students at the potchefstroom university for christian higher education regarding hiv/aids and<br />
the implementation of prevention programmes on campus. Die maatskaplikewerk-navorserpraktisyn/the<br />
social worker-researcher-practitioner, 15(1):33-47b.<br />
[25] Rehle, t.m. & shisana, o. 2003. Epidemiological and demographic hiv/aids projections: south<br />
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[26] Salehi, a. 2000. Iran red cresent leads on people attitudes towards hiv/aids (http: www.ifrc.org.<br />
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[28] Stine, g.j. 1993. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. New york : prentice hall.<br />
[29] Stremlau, j. & nkosi, n. 2001. Students are well-informed about hiv/aids, but their behaviour<br />
causes grave concern. Sunday times, 19, january 28.<br />
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with emphasis on peer group involvement. Potchefstroom : potchefstroom university for che.<br />
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rousseau.<br />
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The Child Naming Game amongst the Xhosas<br />
Nombulelo I. Monoana<br />
University of Transkei<br />
Faculty of Education<br />
monoana@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper reports on the findings of a study that looked at the various reasons Xhosa<br />
Speakers have to give certain names to their children at birth. The findings of the study<br />
indicate that child naming, generally speaking, is considered a very important activity. The<br />
naming of persons is often intimately linked to the culture of people. Another important<br />
finding is that Xhosa first names are usually semantically transparent. However, particular<br />
naming conventions are also apparent. The reasons include wishes and prayers that the<br />
parents have for their children in the future and also the feelings parents had prior to child<br />
birth as well as during the birth of the child.<br />
Deluzian, H.E (1996) reminds us that at one time anthropologists thought that some groups of people<br />
were so “primitive” and unorganised that they did not use names. However, we now know that the<br />
anthrops were mistaken and that the idea came about because research fieldworkers were not able to<br />
get inside the minds of the people well enough to understand the customs and taboos that required that<br />
the names be kept secret from strangers. The truth is that names are a part of every culture and that they<br />
are of enormous importance both to the people who receive names as well as the society that gives the<br />
name/s. This is true for Xhosas as well.<br />
Among the Xhosas naming, generally speaking, is considered an important activity. The<br />
naming of persons is often intimately linked to the culture of the Xhosas. Among the Xhosas, names<br />
are not only given to the children but also to bride when the sons get married. Perhaps, this is due to<br />
the fact that the brides are regarded as new children to the family when they come. This article,<br />
however, is about child naming amongst the Xhosas.<br />
There is a great deal of differences in from one culture to another in how names are given.<br />
Amongst most people names are determined according to very definite and specific rules. Generally, in<br />
cultures with a keen sense of ancestry children get their names from the totems and family trees of their<br />
parents. In some cultures, names are taken from events that happen during the pregnancy of the mother,<br />
or shortly before or after the birth of a child and in others names are derived through magic and<br />
incantation.<br />
In the process of giving names it becomes important for the givers to bear in mind that without<br />
a name, as far as the society is concerned, one would be nobody. Hathurani, M.A.M (2001) reminds us<br />
that it is the infant’s vested right to be honoured with a good name. This then indicates that when<br />
choosing a name for the child, that should be done with the intention that the child will be blessed with<br />
the barakah of that name. When a name is attached to a person certain specific forms of intelligence<br />
are stimulated. It is conscious forces that are combined to create a complete person one can identify.<br />
Without a name, one has no connection to one’s true identity. In a similar vein, Neethling, S.J. (1994)<br />
contends that it is a common practice for parents to embody in the name the expectations they might<br />
have for that child in the future. As the child grows up, the name serves as an inspiration to him.<br />
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It is important to give and keep a good name since names affect/ may affect the personality of<br />
the individual. The most important aspect of personality affected by names is self-concept. Selfconcept<br />
develops as children develop, and is learnt from the verbal and non-verbal messages sent by<br />
significant people in the children’s lives. Parents are the most important message senders, but as<br />
children mature and become more and more independent, the messages of teachers, classmates and<br />
other people all contribute to their developing concepts of self. A person’s name has an impact on the<br />
process of building a self-concept because the name helps one to determine the messages that other<br />
people send the child. Research has established that certain names are generally considered desirable<br />
in our culture and have positive feelings associated with them. This, though, is also true for other<br />
names that are looked upon as being undesirable and carry negative associations. Smith, E.C (1967)<br />
contends that there appears to be a tendency for individuals who dislike their first names to have less<br />
affirmative attitude towards themselves than those who like their first names.<br />
Brender as cited in Smith, E.C (1967) offers several hypotheses about the significance of the<br />
names parents chose for their children. According to Brender, family tradition is an important factor in<br />
the names that the children receive. One of the most common uses of traditional names is to name a<br />
son after a father and then use JUNIOR as part of the son'’ name. However, there are some practical<br />
problems in differentiating between the father and son, especially if both father and son are prominent.<br />
Another naming pattern which reflects the personalities of the parents is the use of names that<br />
are highly fashionable and popular. those that are commonly referred to as fad names.Examples in this<br />
category include the use of names such as Brenda (Brenda Fassie) and many others.<br />
Studies of early American child naming indicate that parents invested a great deal of thought<br />
into naming their children, and that their choices reflected attitudes about themselves and that the<br />
underlying values of their society. Smith, E.C (1967) has observed that 90% of first born daughters and<br />
79% of first born sons an the 17 th Century received either the names of either their parents or grand<br />
parents, thus parent centred naming, virtually assuming that their names will be kept in the generations<br />
to come. Although the focus on first born children probably accentuates the importance of parent and<br />
grandparent centred naming, Smith remarks that there has been a shift from parent centred naming to<br />
familial names. Parents who relied on familial names saw their children more as members of lineage or<br />
family and that later conceptualisation of children was associated with the society.<br />
On the other hand, child naming can be seen as one of the most frustrating tasks in becoming a<br />
parent. This, perhaps, holds for those parents who adopt children internationally. Ball-Gisch (1998)<br />
asserts that adopted children, unlike biological children, come to the foster parents with their own<br />
culture, heritage and a name that the foster parents must come to terms with, in one way or another.<br />
Apparently, not much research has been done on names in the context of African languages,<br />
generally, and Xhosa names particularly. However, Neethling, S.J. contends that African names are<br />
gorgeous, charming, melodic even to the ears of the English speaking. In Africa the birth of a child is<br />
an event of great importance. Great significance is attached to the naming of the child. The hopes of<br />
the ancestors, the status of the family, current occurrences, celestial events, expectations, wishes,<br />
prayers, feelings etc determine the names that are given to children at birth. It is also common that a<br />
child is given a name before birth.<br />
Of the five participants that were used in the study, four were females, four were married and<br />
all of them were born in the fifties. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. One can<br />
assume that the data collected can be expanded in all respects should more data be available and also<br />
that there could be new categories of reasons behind giving a particular name to a child.<br />
Ndimande, N (19980 cites Olaniyan, R who observes that Africans are not easily detached from<br />
their history and culture. And as such preserve their history and culture in many different ways. Xhosa<br />
names are one of those sources that carry the historical imperatives of the Xhosas, their religion and the<br />
relationships among them. Furthering her argument, Ndimande, N (1998) cites Wa’Thiongo 919940<br />
who acknowledges that language embraces the culture of the people, it is a mirror of the society that<br />
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shows how people live. This is true for Xhosas as well.<br />
The data collected revealed that Xhosas have various reasons for which they give names to their<br />
children. One observation made was that Xhosas find and give names to retain the name of the<br />
prominent figures in the clan either the father, paternal grandfather or forefather. Such naming<br />
practises are common amongst the royal families or clans. For example Zwangendaba* of the Hlubis,<br />
Madzikane* of the Bacas and Sakhile where the father’s name is Sakhiwo and because the daughtersin-law<br />
(oomakoti) are not allowed to call the names of their brothers-in-law the child had to be named<br />
as such so as to retain the father’s name. The subjects indicated that it is only the grandfathers who can<br />
give such names and also that such names can only be given to male children, as they are the ones who<br />
will remain in the family for the rest of their lives. Thus Xhosa names also reflect cultural attitudes<br />
within the social context on the paternal.<br />
Another observation that was made was that Xhosa first names reflect the quality of “ubuntu”<br />
that is practised in the family. Ubuntu is characterized by respect, discipline, patience, giving<br />
compassion, caring, cultural awareness etc. Names in this category include [Tembeka (Thembekile),<br />
Zoliswa (Zola, Zolani),Lulama] (for both sexes) and Thobela]*. With the names in this category it is<br />
important to note that a single name can be given to both sexes. The only difference will be in the<br />
pronunciation. In some instances the change would be in the last syllable.<br />
Another set of names indicated that where children are born before marriage, their names would<br />
be an embodiment of a wish that the grandmother had for the child. In all such cases the grandmother<br />
named such children. The reason given for the fact that only grandmothers gave names to such<br />
children was that amongst the Xhosas it used to be a taboo for girls to have sex before marriage, let<br />
alone having children. However, when it has happened the grandparents have nothing else to do but<br />
accept the child and then instead name him accordingly.. Names in this category included [Xolisa,<br />
Luncedo, Sixolise, Samkelo, and Yamkela]*. Thus these children were either seen as tokens of peace<br />
or hope.<br />
Xhosas belong to a patriarchal family system. This was revealed by who named the children in<br />
the fourth category of names that came out of the data. These are those who are born of married<br />
couples. This set indicated that names were given either to express satisfaction or gratitude, or to<br />
announce the arrival of a son/daughter to add on to the existing number in the family. What is<br />
interesting to note here is that, unlike the illegal children, here the paternal extended family members<br />
would give a name to the child. As a result one will notice that it is common for such Xhosa children to<br />
have more than one first names. Examples in this category include: Koliwe* (where the father in law<br />
was satisfied with the daughter-in-law that was brought home by the son), Azile, Afikile, Akhona,<br />
Andisiwe]* (where either the father, grandfather or aunt was glad that there was an addition of either a<br />
boy or a girl in the family, Thabile (because there was this child, a boy again and Pumeza* where the<br />
wish of the parents was fulfilled (that of having a child).<br />
It also came out from the data that another reason for giving certain names to “second born”<br />
children were the events that occurred before the birth of that child. For example Vuyolwethu,<br />
Sinovuyo and Nobubele]* are all second (third) born in their families but because the real second born<br />
passed away at a very early age. The arrival of the child would therefore be seen as God’s response to<br />
ease the pain experienced by the parents due to the loss of the other child.<br />
Brender as cited by Smith, E.C.(1967) indicates that another naming pattern that refers to<br />
personalities of the parents is the use of names of popular society figures at the time of birth of the<br />
child . Such names include Brenda, Anita and Dan. The first two are related to the singers Brenda<br />
Fassie and Anita Baker whilst the owner of the last one was born at the time when “Iyakwa nguDan”<br />
was shown on SABC 1 at that time.<br />
Although the focus of this paper was not to look at who names the child, it is, perhaps,<br />
important to mention that amongst the Xhosas child naming is not everybody’s privilege. Where<br />
children are born of married couples, only the paternal grand parents or father would be the first one to<br />
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give the child a name. Other members of the paternal extended family would follow and give the child<br />
a name.<br />
Thus the reasons given for Xhosas to give their children certain names included an embodiment<br />
of the cultural values, wishes, prayers, feelings, requests, happenings before or after and even during<br />
the birth of the child and also to retain the names of prominent figures in the family. What became<br />
clear was that Xhosas do not just give names for the sake of giving names but do so for a number of<br />
special and specific reasons as mentioned above. It is the researcher’s hope that the above information<br />
may kindle some interest in this area of research.<br />
Appendix I<br />
CATEGORY A : NAMES GIVEN TO RETAIN THE PARTENAL<br />
PROMINENT FIGURES IN THE CLAN/FAMILY<br />
ZWANGENDABA Was the chief of the Hlubis<br />
MADZIKANE This was the Baca Chief who ran from Tshaka<br />
SAKHILE The father is Sakhiwo but because the daughters-in-law would not call<br />
their brother-in-law’s name the child was called Sakhile<br />
CATEGORY B: NAMES GIVEN TO PROMOTE THE C<strong>ON</strong>CEPT <strong>OF</strong><br />
UBUNTU.<br />
Thembekile<br />
Thembeka<br />
Be trustworthy<br />
Thobeka Be humble<br />
Thobekile Be humble<br />
Thobela Respect elders/ elderly people<br />
Thozama Not to be arrogant<br />
Zola Be cool and humble<br />
Lulama Be meek<br />
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CATEGORY C : NAMES GIVEN TO CHILDREN BORN BEFORE<br />
MARRIAGE – AS AN EMBODIMENT <strong>OF</strong> A WISH<br />
Xolisa Console Us<br />
Sixolise Console Us<br />
Yamkela Accept what the Lord has given you<br />
Samkela Accepted gift<br />
Luncedo Be helpful to this family<br />
CATEGORY D : NAMES GIVEN TO CHILDREN BORN TO MARRIED<br />
COUPLES AS AN INDICATI<strong>ON</strong> <strong>OF</strong> A WISH, SATISFACTI<strong>ON</strong>,<br />
HAPPINESS, etc.<br />
KOLIWE (satisfied) Grandfather satisfied with the daughter-in-law<br />
brought home by the son.<br />
AZILE (Boys have come) announcing arrival of boys in the family.<br />
Andisiwe Increased number of boys in the family<br />
Thabile Glad that there was this child, a boy again.<br />
Akhona Boys or girls are present<br />
CATEGORY E : NAMES GIVEN TO 2 nd (third) BORN CHILDREN IN<br />
RELATI<strong>ON</strong> TO EVENTS PRIOR OR DURING THEIR<br />
BIRTH.<br />
Vuyolwethu : Our Joy, mother had a miscarriage and that this girl<br />
came to fill the gap left by the other one called for the use of Vuyolwethu.<br />
Nobubele : The Lord is kind, The mother had given birth to a<br />
girl who passed away at the age of 2 months but then<br />
because the Lord is ever kind another girl was born to the family.<br />
Sinovuyo : We are happy that you are alive – The mother had<br />
To undergo a caeserian section operation but then the<br />
daughter was alive and well and the family was and is<br />
still happy about that.<br />
CATEGORY F : NAMES <strong>OF</strong> FIGURES PROMINENT AT THE TIME <strong>OF</strong><br />
BIRTH <strong>OF</strong> THE CHILD<br />
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Making Peace through the Integrated Science Curruculum: A<br />
Case Study of the Nigerian Junior Secondary School<br />
Francisca Aladejana and Anthony Aladejana<br />
Faculty of Education<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.<br />
Abstract<br />
If peace is working and living together without violence, then there is the need to address<br />
science, the knowledge that produces most of the instruments of violence. This study<br />
examined the extent to which the integrated science curriculum of the junior secondary<br />
school (JSS) can be training the mind of the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the<br />
causes and impact of violence and conflicts. The curriculum content was analyzed using<br />
nine questions for factors, which can in any way engender peace. Some identified factors<br />
evident from the analysis are: nation wide cooperation among all the students; raising the<br />
scientific level of all partners; providing answers to some issues that are potential causes of<br />
conflict and violence; removal of disparity between the privileged and unprivileged; and<br />
creating awareness of the damage that arms can do. The implications of these findings are<br />
discussed in relation to the review of the philosophy, objectives and content of the JSS<br />
curriculum.<br />
Introduction<br />
Peace has been variously described. According to Lasonen (2004), the term peace implies the absence<br />
of conflict and quarrel, the enjoyment of security, well being and harmony. Thus, peace is not just the<br />
absence of war or armed conflict. It is not a passive but an active concept that involves the promotion<br />
of many activities that can create an environment in which peace is sustained and conflict that may<br />
disturb peace is prevented. Such an environment is possible when not only the country is at peace, but<br />
there is peace in the individual, in the family and in the local community (Chakrabarti and Bhargava,<br />
2004).<br />
Peace can indeed be achieved in a peaceful way. This way can encompass various activities<br />
like: dialogue, ensuring that all categories of people are heard, recognising the diversity of people and<br />
embracing unity in diversity; just distribution of resources and power, imbibing tolerance and equality<br />
and generally by creating a culture of peace in our values, attitudes, traditions, and behaviour.<br />
There are various factors that can lead to conflict and disturb peace. Aladejana and Aladejana<br />
(2003) identified 19 factors amongst which are: differences in culture, unemployment, poverty,<br />
intolerance, unequal opportunities, lack of education of the youths and communication gap/lack of<br />
dialogue. Chakrabarti and Bhargava (2004) identified various factors that have led to conflict that has<br />
distrusted peace in the past to include: monopoly over knowledge which has led to the exploitation of<br />
the uneducated by the educated; technological disparities, dictatorship, existence of disparities in the<br />
provision of basic requirements; selfishness and lack of cooperation, lack of scientific temper;<br />
environmental considerations and genetic factors.<br />
It is thus seen that justice and fairness are prior to peace, for without these there can be no lasting<br />
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peace. According to Mason (2001), the ethics and values that are being promoted must accord respect<br />
to all. Also our institutions and practices should be arranged to maximize the life chances of all.<br />
Education can achieve this purpose. Education is the most effective means that a society possesses for<br />
confronting the challenges of the future. It is the culture, which each generation purposely gives to<br />
those who are to be its successors in order to qualify them at least for keeping up and if possible<br />
improving on what has been attained.<br />
According to Page (2004), philosophical foundations of peace education can be explored in the ethics<br />
of virtue, consequentialism, aesthetics, conservative politics and care. Each of these composes a<br />
significant element of peace education although ultimately its solid basis can only be established<br />
through an integrative approach. Education and training are underpinned by certain stated aims and<br />
objectives which reflect the good and desirable things that educating and training people are intended<br />
to achieve. This is because education is meant to provide for the common good and promoting a<br />
culture of peace is one major way of realizing this common good.<br />
Any education that promotes a culture of peace must be based on some fundamental principles<br />
amongst which are: efforts to meet the environmental needs of the present and future generations;<br />
respect for and promotion of equal right of and opportunities for all; respect for and promotion of the<br />
rights of every one to freedom of expression, opinion and information (Lasonen, 2004). According to<br />
Article 9 of the Declaration of the United Nations (2000), education plays significant roles in<br />
promoting and ensuring peace. Specifically, it recommends ensuring that children benefit from<br />
education on values, attitudes and modes of behaviour that will enable them to resolve any dispute<br />
peacefully. It also encourages the revision of educational curricula.<br />
There is therefore the need to incorporate peace education into the school curriculum.<br />
Although, it can be introduced as a new subject, it can also be embedded in all aspects of the<br />
established curriculum. This approach of promoting peace is not designed to resolve on going conflicts<br />
but rather to prepare for possible future causes of conflicts. It is important to note that any individual or<br />
nation that desires peace must make conscious efforts to prepare for peace.<br />
The curriculum is the main instrument for education in schools. Curriculum has been defined<br />
by Ehindero (1994) as the totality of planned, organized and intended learning experiences, which the<br />
school provides for the all-round development of the pupils and the society. Any good curriculum<br />
should have clearly stated objectives, which to a large extent determine its content and implementation.<br />
According to Tuomi (2004), a balanced school curriculum covering the arts, the sciences and<br />
technology, non-violence in thought, in speech and in action are very important means and tools to<br />
achieve peace. Such a curriculum must be suitable to the local culture.<br />
Thus a way to make peace can be by using science to address the personal, environmental and global<br />
benefits that can train the mind in the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the causes and impact<br />
of violence and conflicts. According to the Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific<br />
Knowledge adopted by the World Conference of Science (1999), science should promote intellectual<br />
and moral solidarity of mankind, which is the basis of a culture of peace. Science relies on critical and<br />
free thinking and this is essential in a democratic world.<br />
One wonders what the proper role of scientific knowledge is. Science has been known for<br />
breakthroughs. There have been discoveries in electricity, medicine, transportation etc. The methods<br />
and content of science can also be used to engender peace. Thus, the integrated science curriculum of<br />
the Nigerian JSS can be used to cultivate a culture of peace. Integrated science is an approach to the<br />
teaching of science in which concepts and principles are presented so as to express the fundamental<br />
unity of scientific thought and avoid premature of undue stress on the distinctions between the various<br />
scientific fields (Bajah, 1989).<br />
An integrated science curriculum that will build a culture of peace should include the teaching<br />
of the ethics of science and engineering which is the need for scientists to be aware of and take<br />
responsibilities for the consequences of their scientific exploits (Aladejana, 2003). Integrated Science<br />
is offered as a compulsory subject for all JSS students in Nigeria. Focusing on this level of students in<br />
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creating a culture of peace is based on the premise that consistently it is the children, the youth and<br />
indeed women that are at the receiving end when there is war or conflict (Aladejana, 2004). There is<br />
therefore the need for such activities that can build in peace into the individuals.<br />
The Nigerian JSS curriculum has amongst its philosophy and objectives:<br />
(i) Preparation for useful living within the society;<br />
(ii) To raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of<br />
others, respect the dignity of labour and appreciate those values specified under our broad<br />
national aims and live as good citizens;<br />
(iii) That the quality of instruction should inculcate in the learner faith in man’s ability to make<br />
rational decisions<br />
(iv) To add a cultural dimension to science education. (Federal Ministry of Education, 1981).<br />
If any curriculum is designed and implemented to attain these lofty ideals, there is no doubt that<br />
students passing through the programme will cultivate a culture of peace.<br />
This paper will therefore examine the Nigeria JSS Integrated Science curriculum to determine<br />
the extent to which it can be used to train the mind in the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the<br />
causes and impact of violence and conflicts.<br />
Theoretical perspectives<br />
This approach to the use of the integrated science to cultivate a culture of peace in learners can<br />
be grounded on the theory of integrative education which argues that artificially compartmentalized<br />
knowledge into subject disciplines fails to prepare students for a swiftly changing world. Rather, that<br />
integrative education cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various aspects of the<br />
curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broad areas of study (Shoemaker, 1989; and<br />
Walker, 1995). It reflects the interdependent real world and provides a holistic context for learning that<br />
leads to a greater ability to make and remember connections, and to solve problems (Kovalik and<br />
Olsen, 1994). According to Braunger Hart-Landsberg (1993), integrative curriculum attempts to make<br />
learning more natural and links subjects together. Therefore, based on the adoption of this approach to<br />
learning, the curriculum of a subject that can be reformed to include peace education is integrated<br />
science.<br />
Methodology<br />
The analysis of the Nigerian JSS integrated Science curriculum content for factors which can in any<br />
way engender peace, was carried out using nine self-designed questions. The questions were designed<br />
based on reviewed literature (Chakrabarti and Bhargava, 2004) and previous works of the researchers<br />
(Aladejana, 2000; 2003; 2004a; 2004b). The questions were validated by assessment by a science<br />
educator, a curriculum expert and a researcher in peace studies. The philosophy and objectives of the<br />
curriculum were assessed to determine if they address the issues relating to a culture of peace.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
The results were analyzed based on the research questions raised for the study.<br />
Question 1: Does the curriculum provide answers to some of the issues that are potential causes of<br />
conflict and violence?<br />
The curriculum was found to address some of these issues. Such topics include:<br />
Causes, symptoms and prevention of diseases many diseases<br />
Many diseases like small pox and leprosy are by traditional belief attributed to deities, while some are<br />
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believed to be inflicted on one by supernatural powers. This has constantly led to great family and local<br />
community conflicts. The curriculum has dealt extensively with these diseases, their causes and<br />
prevention. A student who passes through the JSS integrated science will be able to take proper care<br />
when any of these diseases arise. This will be especially so if the teacher can apply the instruction to<br />
the misconception.<br />
Sex determination<br />
In the Nigerian society, a family is not successful unless there is a male child who is believed<br />
will be the one to carry on the family name and who will hold the home in future. When a woman now<br />
has all-female children, the fault is put solely on her and this is a great source of conflict in the home.<br />
The curriculum describes adequately that having all-female children is not the problem of the woman<br />
but purely a chance event and basically depending on which of the man’s sperm fertilizes the egg.<br />
Inheritance of characters (dominant and recessive traits).<br />
The fact that some characters can be manifested in an offspring even when it is not visible to the<br />
parents is a topic in the curriculum. Conflicts often arise when some men doubt the paternity of their<br />
children based on their physical appearance e.g. when parents who are non-albino give birth to an<br />
albino child. It will be possible for students to explain such inheritance patterns without conflict.<br />
Question 2. Does the implementation of the curriculum encourage nation wide<br />
cooperation among all the students?<br />
The same curriculum is used throughout all the private and public JSS in the 36 states of the country.<br />
The same examination conducted by the National Examination Council (NECO) is taken by all these<br />
schools at the end of the 3 year course. Marking of the scripts is done by exchange of scripts amongst<br />
teachers in the different states. Along with this examination, each of the states conducts JSS<br />
examinations for its own students. This makes it imperative for students in different schools and even<br />
different ethnic groups to cooperate in the areas of quiz competitions, science week activities, field<br />
trips, science exhibitions, and studying together. According to Saloman (2003), studies have shown<br />
that there is consistent positive correlation between the number and perceived depth of inter-group<br />
friendships developed during such activities. Thus inter-group activities have led to a greater<br />
acceptance of members of other groups and this is important in developing a culture of peace.<br />
Question 3: can the use of the curriculum help to remove disparity between the<br />
privileged and unprivileged?<br />
Since the curriculum is used by all JSS schools in Nigeria, all the privileged high brow private<br />
school students as well as unprivileged public school students share the same information and use even<br />
the same textbooks. The result is that the children of low socio-economic status are not at a<br />
disadvantage in terms of what is being learnt. Children of the privileged and unprivileged can attain the<br />
same feats and go into the same future careers. This removal of disparity is essential for all children to<br />
feel at home with each other as they will have common grounds for discussion and interaction and<br />
consequently, less room for friction.<br />
The result is that no one group will have monopoly over knowledge. Once there is monopoly of<br />
knowledge, there is the exploitation of the unprivileged by the privileged and the ultimate result of all<br />
of these is revolt and conflict. Presently in Nigeria, those that form the ethnic militias and fighters in<br />
the various conflicts are consistently the unprivileged that have little or no access to good education.<br />
According to Chakrabart and Bhargava (2004), science and scientists are against the monopoly of<br />
knowledge hence all observations and findings are published in reputable scientific journals for<br />
everyone around the world to access.<br />
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It is pertinent to add however that what differ amongst these schools are the facilities available<br />
to teach the content. Most public schools have inadequate funding, large class size, no laboratory, no<br />
equipment and chemicals. As a result it becomes very difficult for the teachers to carry out the various<br />
activities in the curriculum. This should be addressed by any government in the interest of future<br />
peace.<br />
Question 4: is the use of dialogue/discussion method recommended?<br />
The curriculum recommends the use of discussions as one of the methods of teaching topics<br />
like process of weaning, food crops, gravity, machines and controlling the environment. With the<br />
students able to discuss and listen to the views of others and arriving at a consensus, they can learn the<br />
use of dialogue in resolving issues. The way the teacher uses the method is very important. If it is used<br />
in such a way that all students in the class are involved and heard, both the brilliant and the dull, the<br />
boys and the girls, the quiet and noisy, and students are allowed to see the wisdom in other peoples’<br />
ideas, then it becomes easy for the teacher to let pupils realize that objectives can be achieved through<br />
a dynamic participative process.<br />
Question 5: are there topics related to environmental considerations in the<br />
curriculum?<br />
The curriculum is based on the thematic approach. Six themes are adopted, one of which is<br />
‘controlling the environment’. In the three books of the JSS, topics to be learnt under this theme<br />
include environmental sanitation (refuse and sewage), disease vectors, preventive medicine,<br />
maintaining balance in the environment, wild life conservation, pollution and the deterioration of the<br />
environment due to human activities.<br />
According to Aladejana (2000), 8.85% of the curriculum content consisting of 16 topics is<br />
devoted to issues of the environment. With this curriculum, students can learn enough to understand<br />
their environment. Many conflicts have arisen because of environmental issues, for example,<br />
overgrazing other people’s farmland by cattle-rearers has caused serious communal clashes in the past ;<br />
a good knowledge of these topics will therefore help the students in their path to building a culture of<br />
peace.<br />
Question 6: will learning the curriculum content raise the scientific level of all<br />
learners?<br />
Previous work of Aladejana (2000) has shown that 87.08% of the curriculum content provides the<br />
learner with the required scientific knowledge. These topics span through the disciplines of physics,<br />
chemistry, biology, and the social sciences. There is adequate scope and depth. Students will have the<br />
required basic knowledge from learning these topics to be scientifically literate. They will infact be<br />
able to use simple appliances in the home as these are well stipulated in the content. Such knowledge<br />
will prevent an individual from conflicts even within himself/herself and be able to live better quality<br />
life. This is important as the peace that one enjoys within determines largely how much peace one<br />
enjoys with others.<br />
Question 7: are there topics highlighting the roles of the scientist, ethics of science<br />
and engineering?<br />
According to Aladejana (2000), 3.2% of the curriculum content deals with the scientist’s role in<br />
development. These topics include science-related occupations, man in space, and immunization. This<br />
coverage is however inadequate as students need to have a good idea of the benefits they can derive<br />
from the subject. This can kindle their interest and encourage many to become scientists. The more<br />
students that want to offer science, the better chance for the nation to become technologically<br />
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developed. Technological development will assist in solving a lot of other problems that can lead to<br />
conflicts. It will also place the nation in a better standing with other technologically advanced countries<br />
without any fear of oppression.<br />
While it is true that science and technology have been used by the unscrupulous and the greedy<br />
for the development of arms and other weapons of war, it is science and technology that have created<br />
the awareness of the damage that new arms can do (Charkrabarti and Bhargava, 2004). The JSS<br />
curriculum does not contain any topic on the ethics of science and engineering. It must be recognized<br />
that scientists have social responsibilities for the information they have and the results of their<br />
researches. The government and the general public must be aware of precautions to be taken. When<br />
students have this awareness at this level, many future possible conflicts may be averted.<br />
Question 8: can the instructional methods recommended in the curriculum train<br />
the mind of the students for intelligent inquiry?<br />
Many of the topics in the curriculum can train the mind for intelligent enquiry. Such topics<br />
have activities which require the students to count, observe, perform, examine and compare. Activities<br />
of this nature can train the mind. According to Aladejana (2000), 90% of the recommended activities in<br />
the curriculum have the potential to develop the scientific mind. When an individual has the scientific<br />
mind, rumours, false accusations, superstitions and many other ills which often cause conflicts will no<br />
longer be a source of conflict and peace will reign.<br />
Question 9: is the curriculum suitable for the local culture?<br />
Most of the examples used in the curriculum are of local origin which the students are quite<br />
familiar with. The examples used for the topics are better learnt when they are chosen from the local<br />
environment .The JSS curriculum has many of such examples : use of yam for the test for starch,<br />
examples of food in a balanced diet, plants and animals used in the food chain and pollutants. This<br />
makes the curriculum to be real to the students and they can identify with the content. They do not see<br />
it as foreign or that their background is inferior to that of others. When feelings of inferiority and nonbelongingness<br />
exist, then conflicts can thrive easily.<br />
There are two factors deducible from the analysis of the various questions of study as to how<br />
the JSS integrated science curriculum can be used as a tool for making peace. First is that the<br />
curriculum development and review process is important to the use of the curriculum. Second is that<br />
the successful use depends to a very large extent on the ingenuity of the teacher in the implementation<br />
process.<br />
The curriculum development and review process will ensure that the philosophy, objectives and<br />
content are adequate to meet the desired needs. The philosophy and objectives in the current<br />
curriculum can meet the purpose of building a culture of peace in the students. Qualities of useful<br />
living; respecting the views and feelings of others, having cultural dimension of science education, and<br />
making rational decisions advocated for in the curriculum can build in an individual a culture of peace.<br />
The content has been seen to include a whole range of topics that can serve this purpose. Such topics<br />
include inheritance patterns, diseases, and appliance in the home. It is desirable that the curriculum<br />
content be subjected to review process as the need arises such that topics can be added or removed, for<br />
this JSS curriculum, topics like the roles of the scientist, ethics of science and engineering can then be<br />
included.<br />
The instructional methods recommended in the curriculum are adequate in training the mind in<br />
the culture of peace. These methods include dialogue/discussion method, demonstration,<br />
experimentation /scientific method. However, how effectively the philosophy and objectives of the<br />
curriculum are achieved and the proper implementation depends largely on the quality of the teacher. It<br />
must be reiterated that no educational system can rise beyond the level of its teachers. To realize the<br />
goal of making the JSS integrated science curriculum an instrument of building a culture of peace, a lot<br />
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of responsibility is placed on the teacher. Merely teaching a topic without going on to its practical<br />
applications to the student’ life and community will not achieve this objective.<br />
Teachers need to ensure that there is just distribution of resources and equipment especially in<br />
developing nations like Nigeria where such teaching resources are inadequate. The classroom will be in<br />
a state of confusion and conflict if some students feel that they will not be provided with their<br />
classroom needs because of any reason-finance, intelligence and so on. To let the pupils know that<br />
there is fairness in distribution and that this should be portrayed in every aspect of their lives will be<br />
building in the students a culture of peace.<br />
The teacher should ensure that no one or a few students become too powerful or domineering in<br />
the class demonstrations, experimentation and discussion so as to put other students at a disadvantage.<br />
If any student starts behaving in this way, he /she should be put right, such that students will not<br />
imbibe this attitude that can cause conflict in the class. The implications of this attitude should be<br />
openly discussed in class. Allied to this is tolerance by the teacher and the students. A lot of<br />
responsibility is therefore placed on the teacher to ensure that the set philosophy and objectives of the<br />
curriculum are achieved. Also that at the end of the course, students would have imbibed a culture of<br />
peace.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The Nigerian JSS Integrated science curriculum is used in all the junior secondary schools in the<br />
country. It has well stated philosophy and objectives including those that can lead learners to building a<br />
culture of peace. The content of the curriculum is suitable for local culture and provides answers to<br />
some issues that are potential causes of conflict. It includes topics related to the control of the<br />
environment, topics that can raise the scientific level of the students, and topics highlighting the role of<br />
the scientist. The stipulated mode of use can encourage nation wide cooperation amongst students and<br />
also help to remove disparity between the privileged and unprivileged. The instructional methods<br />
recommended like discussion and inquiry method can train the minds of the students in the use of<br />
dialogue and intelligent enquiry. This curriculum can be described as an integrated curriculum which<br />
will not only lead to learning science effectively but can also help learners to cultivate a culture of<br />
peace. The teacher is recognized as an important factor in all of these issues. Although there are areas<br />
that require review, with these various identified factors of the curriculum, it can through integrative<br />
education be effectively used to engender peace and imbibe in the students a culture of peace.<br />
Recommendations<br />
1). The teacher should relate some of his classroom instructional activities to the culture of peace.<br />
For example, while using teaching strategies like discussion or demonstration, he /she should go on to<br />
point out that even in conflicts, solutions can be obtained through these ways. Teachers must specify to<br />
the students the values they want to promote in the classroom. In teaching some of the topics especially<br />
those that address issues of conflict in the society, it is important for the teacher to refer specifically to<br />
these issues and correct any possible misconceptions. Students should be guided to identify the<br />
practical applications of these topics to their life and society.<br />
2). The philosophy and objectives of the curriculum should be clearly stated to specify the peace<br />
values it should promote. It should be clearly stated in the lesson objectives in the curriculum the need<br />
to explain the practical applications of some of the instructional methods (e.g. discussion,<br />
demonstration, cooperative learning and field work) to ways of achieving a culture of peace. Let the<br />
students realize that just as they cannot move forward using these methods to achieve results without<br />
peace, so also peace in our individual, family, local national and international settings are unachievable<br />
without embracing dialogue and cooperative attitude.<br />
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3). There must be a check in the schools that the appropriate peace values are promoted. The<br />
principals and ministry inspectors should not only check for academic progress and school facilities but<br />
must be aware of the culture of peace values and check for them in schools.<br />
4). Learning activities should encourage inter-group activities like field trips, exhibitions, quiz<br />
competitions and activities that can foster friendship among the students. Government must adequately<br />
fund education such that science education can be made available to all. This will reduce the gap<br />
between the privileged and unprivileged and in a way reduce discord and rebellion.<br />
References<br />
[1] Aladejana, A.I. and Aladejana, F.O (2003). An Analytical Review of Conflicts in Nigeria. A<br />
[2] Proposal for a Culture of Peace. Unesco Conference on Intercultural Education, 15-18<br />
[3] June 2003, Jyvaskyla, Finland.<br />
[4] Aladejana, F.O (2000). Analysis and Review of the Junior Secondary School Curriculum for<br />
Functional Science Education in the 21 st Century. African Journal of Research in Education,<br />
Vol. 1 No 2 p.123-126.<br />
[5] Aladejana, F.O (2003). The Social Responsibility of the Scientist. Ife Journal of Theory and<br />
Research, Vol. 8 no. 3 p73-81<br />
[6] Aladejana, F.O (2004a). Programmes for Fostering a Culture of Peace. In Lasonen, J (ed).<br />
Cultures of Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla ,<br />
University Printing Press, p.101<br />
[7] Aladejana, F.O (2004b). Teacher Education: Roles, Curriculum and Competence. In Ehindero,<br />
O.J and Aladejana, F.O (eds). Introduction to the Teaching Profession. A Publication of the<br />
Institute of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. p78-92<br />
[8] Bajah, S.T. (1989). Integrated Science as a School subject: A Nigerian Case study.<br />
EDUCAFRICA, No15, p.154-168.<br />
[9] Braunger, J. and Hart-Landsberg, S. (1993). Crossing Boundaries: Explorations in Integrative<br />
Curriculum. Database Search Detail, ED 370239<br />
[10] Chakrabarti, C. and Bhargava, P. (2004). Science and Technology as Determinants of Peace.<br />
Here-Now 4U Online Magazine<br />
[11] Ehindero, O.J (1994). The School and Curriculum Evolution in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria,<br />
Texflow Limited, p2.<br />
[12] Federal Ministry of Education (1981). Core Curriculum for Integrated Science: Junior<br />
Secondary Schools, Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education Press.<br />
[13] Kovalik, S. and Olsen, K. (1994). ITI: The Model Integrated Thematic Instruction. Third<br />
Edition. Kent, Washington: Books for Educators, Covington Squire, ED374894.<br />
[14] Lasonen, J. (2004). Educating People in a Culture of Peace. In Lasonen, J (ed). Cultures of<br />
Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla , University Printing<br />
Press, p.11-13.<br />
[15] Page, J.S. (2004) Peace Education: Exploring Some Philosophical Foundations. International<br />
Review of Education, Vol. 50 No 1, p.3-15.<br />
[16] Salomon, G. (2003). Does Peace Education make a Difference. Research on Peace Education,<br />
[17] Haifa Israel. Http://construct.haifa.ac.il/English/peaceeducation.pdf<br />
[18] Shoemaker, Betty Jean Eklund (1989). Integrative Education. A Curriculum for the Twenty-<br />
First<br />
a. Century. OSSC Bulletin Series. Eugene, Oregon: Oregon School Study Council.<br />
[19] Tuomu, M.T (2004). Grandmothers’ Wisdom: Report of the Pre-Conference Seminar of the<br />
a. UNESCO/UNITWIN Conference on Intercultural Education in Lasonen J (ed). Cultures of<br />
Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla, University<br />
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[20] Printing Press, p14-17.<br />
[21] United Nations (2000). A Declaration on a Culture of Peace.<br />
[22] http://www.unesco.org/cpp/uk/projects/declarations/2000.htm<br />
[23] Walker, D. (1995). Integrative Education. ERIC Digest 101 January.<br />
[24] File://A:\ERICDigest101January1995integrativeEducation.htm<br />
[25] World Conference on Science (1999). Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific<br />
Knowledge. http;//www.unesco.org/science/wcs/eng/declaration<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
A Study of the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation and<br />
Parents’ Attitude among the Yorubas of Western Nigeria<br />
B. I. Popoola<br />
Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile Ife, Nigeria.<br />
E-mail bayodep@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract<br />
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), a term used to describe the removal of all or a section of<br />
the external parts of the female genitalia is recognized worldwide as an unnecessarily<br />
destructive practice affecting the human reproductive system. Within the last one decade,<br />
the Nigerian government has recognized the practice of female genital mutilation as a<br />
major public health problem and has mounted extensive media campaigns to stop it. This<br />
paper is primary conceived to examine the extent to which government campaign efforts<br />
have yielded fruits. Specifically, it examines the current prevalence of the practice and its<br />
perception among urban working parents.<br />
The study participants consisted of 1583 female parents selected by accidental sampling<br />
technique from government offices in three urban cities of Osun State, Nigeria. One<br />
instrument titled “Practice of Female Circumcision” was administered to parents to collect<br />
data on the prevalence of FGM and to determine the attitude of subjects towards the<br />
practice.<br />
Results from frequency counts, percentages, and chi-square statistical analysis of data<br />
revealed that majority of sampled mothers engaged in FGM within the last five years with<br />
adherence to tradition and the need to protect female children from sexual promiscuity as<br />
major reasons for the practice. The paper brings to focus the need for a well-coordinated<br />
professional counselling intervention to eradicate the practice of female genital mutilation.<br />
Introduction<br />
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), which is sometimes mildly referred to as female circumcision, is<br />
the removal of a certain amount of tissue from the female external genitalia through traditional genital<br />
surgery. The term, as defined by the World Health Organization, describes any of four different types<br />
of cutting procedures performed on a woman’s external genitalia. The first type, known as sunna<br />
circumcision, is the removal of the tip of the clitoris. Type II, known as clitoridectomy or excision,<br />
involves the removal of the entire clitoris and the adjacent labia. Type III, which is known as<br />
infibulation, involves the most extreme type of mutilation in which the entire clitoris and the adjacent<br />
labia are removed and the involved areas stitched with suture leaving a small opening for the passage<br />
of urine and menstrual blood. Type IV comprises any form of genital alteration in which chemical or<br />
corrosive substances are applied to the vagina with the purpose of narrowing its opening. Female<br />
Genital Mutilation (FGM), in whatever form, is recognized worldwide as an unnecessarily destructive<br />
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practice with several negative effects on the woman’s reproductive system. In the opinion of the<br />
World Medical Association, FGM is detrimental to the physical and mental health of girls and women<br />
and it is a form of oppression of women (WMA, 1993). The World Health Organization has<br />
consistently opposed the medicalization of the practice on the ground that it lacks any medical benefit<br />
(Dorkenoo, 1996).<br />
Female genital mutilation is practiced in many parts of the world but mainly in 28 African<br />
countries and some parts of Asia and the Middle East (WHO, 1995). Toubia (1995) reported that 130<br />
million of the world’s female population had undergone genital mutilation and two million are at risk<br />
every year. The operation is forced on approximately 6000 girls per day, about one every 15 seconds.<br />
It is estimated that about 75 percent of the global cases of FGM come from Africa.<br />
In Nigeria, very few statistical studies are available which provide accurate estimates of the<br />
frequency with which FGM is performed. One of the widely-cited estimates is the 1997 World Health<br />
Organization study which reported that an estimated 30.625 million women and girls, or about 60 per<br />
cent of the total female population of Nigeria, have undergone genital mutilation while many more are<br />
still being subjected to it every year (WHO, 1997). Also, a 1996 United Nations Development<br />
Systems study reported a similar number of 32.7 million Nigerian women affected by FGM (US<br />
Department of State, 2001). It is not unlikely that the incidence of FGM in Nigeria would be much<br />
higher than had been reported in these studies since practitioners and victims do not voluntarily report<br />
such cases to the government. Also, cases of FGM may have been grossly under-reported as the<br />
practice occurs mostly in villages where government health officials do not have easy access to<br />
monitor its spread.<br />
FGM is practiced in Nigeria in different degrees across ethnic groups, though research data on<br />
the prevalence of the practice among ethnic groups have not been consistent. For instance, while the<br />
National Baseline survey reported that more than 90 percent of Yoruba women had undergone genital<br />
mutilation; Modupe & Lola (1985) and Ogunlola, Orji & Owolabi (2003) reported 71.3 and 60 percent<br />
prevalent rates respectively. However, findings on types of FGM practiced in the country indicated<br />
that Types I and II are the most predominant forms (Mandara, 2004; Mukoro, 2004).<br />
The procedure followed in carrying out FGM in Nigeria and the age at which it is done vary<br />
according to ethnic groups. In some ethnic groups, FGM is performed on girls from a few days after<br />
birth to eight years while in others, it is performed as a rite of womanhood for adolescent girls<br />
preparing for marriage. In some few groups, FGM is performed on pregnant women shortly before<br />
they give birth, based on the traditional belief that the baby will die during delivery if its head touches<br />
the mother’s intact clitoris. In few extreme cases, the procedure is performed on a deceased woman<br />
before burial if it is discovered that the woman did not have the operation before her death (US<br />
Department of State, 2001).<br />
Generally, FGM is performed at home by medically untrained persons under unhygienic<br />
conditions and without the use of anesthesia. The common picture is that of a struggling and<br />
screaming girl held down forcefully by adults while the traditional surgeon with crude and nonsterilized<br />
instruments in a poorly-lit room attempts to cut away any part of the external genitalia that he<br />
or she is able to get hold of (Hosken, 1989). Quite often, under the conditions in which the operation is<br />
performed, what the traditional surgeon intends to be a minor cutting may end up being a most severe<br />
form of mutilation.<br />
Various reasons have been adduced to justify the practice of FGM. The most common is the<br />
need to maintain local custom and tradition. In many communities, it is believed that FGM is a custom<br />
decreed by the ancestors and that its elimination or discontinuation is tantamount to the demise of the<br />
cultural heritage of the people, and an invitation to incurring the wrath of the ancestors.<br />
Many of the traditional beliefs of the people regarding the practice of FGM are incompatible<br />
with biological facts. For instance, it is believed that FGM ensures cleanliness, enhances femininity,<br />
and promotes sexual faithfulness of married women. There is also a strong traditional belief that the<br />
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clitoris is dangerous and that an unborn baby will die if its head touches it during child delivery. As a<br />
result of these beliefs, women who have not undergone the procedure are considered unsuitable for<br />
marriage and a poor risk as mothers. Despite the efforts of numerous human-rights organizations and<br />
the government to discourage FGM, the practice continues in Nigeria, with its prevalence exceeding 90<br />
percent in some communities (Briggs, 2002).<br />
The consequences of FGM on the health of its victims are well documented. Islam and Uddin<br />
(2001) identified the immediate consequences of FGM as hemorrhage, infection, difficulty in passing<br />
urine, urine retention, fever, stress, shock and damage to the genital organs. According to Brady<br />
(1999), long-term consequences of FGM include urinary incontinence, cysts, urogenital tract<br />
infections, severe dyspareunia and pelvic inflammatory disease.<br />
The effects of FGM on women’s reproductive system have been discussed in a number of<br />
studies (Badri, 1984; Egwuatu & Agugua, 1981; Toubia, 1994; Obuekwe & Egbagbe, 2001)<br />
Generally, FGM is linked with infertility and obstetrical problems such as delayed or obstructed<br />
second stage labor, trauma, and hemorrhage during child delivery. Other long-term medical<br />
complications might include extensive damage to the external reproductive system and uterus,<br />
increased risk of vesico-vaginal fistulae and complications in pregnancy and childbirth. An early study<br />
by Mustafa (1966) had estimated that 20 to 25 percent of cases of female sterility in Sudan could be<br />
linked to FGM. More recently, available research evidence (Aziz, 1980; Mahran, 1981 and<br />
McCaffrey, 1995; Obuekwe & Egbagbe, 2001) tend to lend credence to speculations that the high<br />
prevalence of female sterility in many areas of sub-Sahara Africa where FGM is practiced may have<br />
been one of the long-term consequences of exposing women to FGM.<br />
The effects of FGM on the female sexual response are more difficult to investigate<br />
scientifically than the obstetrical effects. However, it is reasonable to assume that the mutilation of the<br />
clitoris would adversely affect women’s sexual pleasure and sensitivity considering that the clitoris is<br />
probably the most erotically sensitive organ in women.<br />
The contributions of FGM to HIV transmission have not been empirically established though it<br />
has been postulated that FGM may play a significant role in facilitating the transmission of HIV<br />
infection through numerous mechanisms (Brady, 1999). One of the presumed explanations of the<br />
relationship between FGM and HIV transmission is that the presence of scar tissues and the abnormal<br />
anatomy of a mutilated vagina would predispose a woman to numerous small tears during intercourse<br />
thereby increasing the possibility of AIDS transmission (Hrdy, 1987).<br />
The major concern in the issue of FGM is not so much its effects on the number of women that<br />
have had the procedure already performed on them. What is more worrisome is why the practice<br />
seems to be thriving in spite of the international outcry against its continuation. It is logical to think<br />
that the attitudes of mothers to FGM would be a major factor in the continuation or discontinuation of<br />
the practice. Based on this premise, this study was designed to investigate the practice of FGM among<br />
the Yorubas and ascertain the factors which make women favorably disposed to its continuation. It<br />
was hoped that the outcome of the study would assist in providing information which would assist in<br />
the formulation of policies aimed at eradicating the practice of FGM.<br />
Method<br />
The study is a descriptive survey on the practice of FGM and the attitude of female parents to it<br />
among the Yorubas of South Western Nigeria. Respondents, who were mainly teachers and civil<br />
servants, were mothers selected by accidental but purposive sampling technique from three urban<br />
towns (Ile-Ife, Ilesa and Osogbo) in Osun State, Nigeria. The mothers, ranged between 25 to 45 years<br />
old, were approached in their places of work and asked to respond to a questionnaire on the practice of<br />
“female circumcision”. During collation and scoring of the questionnaire, responses of women who<br />
had not given birth to at least a female child within the last five years were discarded. Following this<br />
procedure, a sample of 1583 respondents was obtained for the study.<br />
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A self-developed questionnaire was administered to elicit information on demographic<br />
characteristics of respondents, practice of FGM, reasons for the practice and attitudes toward its<br />
continuation. To measure respondents’ attitudes to FGM, they were presented ten statements on the<br />
practice of FGM to which they were to indicate their level of agreement on a five-point scale. Scores<br />
in all ten items were summed up and used as the measure of respondents’ attitude to the practice of<br />
FGM. The higher the score a respondent got, the stronger her support for the discontinuation of FGM.<br />
The questionnaire yielded a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.84 when tested for reliability before<br />
use. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to analyze the data collected.<br />
Results<br />
A total of 1583 respondents participated in the study, each of whom was married and had at<br />
least one female child within the last five years. Most respondents were between 25 and 35 years old<br />
and had more than secondary school education. They belonged to the two dominant religions in<br />
Nigeria: Christianity and Islam. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of respondents<br />
according to age, level of education, marital status and religion.<br />
Table 1 : Demographic Characteristics of Respondents<br />
RESP<strong>ON</strong>DENTS’ AGE CATEGORIES<br />
VARIABLES Below 25 25 to 35 36 to 45 Above Total<br />
Years Years Years 45 Years<br />
Secondary<br />
Level Of<br />
<strong>ON</strong>D/NCE<br />
Education First Degree<br />
Above 1 st 59 149 79 78 365<br />
92 263 163 133 651<br />
63 226 118 92 499<br />
Degree 9 25 14 20 68<br />
Marital status Single Mother 1 9 10 1 21<br />
Married<br />
193 584 310 299 1386<br />
Separated<br />
23 45 35 15 118<br />
Divorced<br />
6 25 19 8 58<br />
Religion Christianity<br />
207 608 358 303 1476<br />
Islam<br />
16 55 16 20 107<br />
The results of the study on the prevalence of FGM as presented in Table 2 showed that 1384<br />
mothers representing 87.4% of the total sample had FGM performed on them as against 199 (12.6%)<br />
who reported that they were not genitally mutilated. The results also indicated that 79.4% of the<br />
respondents’ daughters were genitally mutilated.<br />
The data in Table 2 also revealed the relationship between respondents’ and their daughters’<br />
FGM status. Out of 1384 mothers who had FGM performed on them, 1206 (87.1%) had their<br />
daughters genitally mutilated within the last five years while only 178 (12.9%) did not. On the other<br />
hand, of 199 mothers who did not experience FGM, 148 (74.4%) did not carry it out on their daughters<br />
while 51 (25.6%) had the procedure performed on their daughters. These analyses yielded a chi-square<br />
value of 402.55, which is significant at 0.05 level given one degree of freedom. This suggests that<br />
respondents who themselves were genitally mutilated had a statistically significantly possibility of their<br />
daughters being genitally mutilated.<br />
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Table 2 : FGM Status of Respondents and their Daughters<br />
RESP<strong>ON</strong>DENTS’<br />
FGM STATUS<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
DAUGHTERS’ FGM STATUS<br />
NOT TOTAL<br />
MUTILATED MUTILATED<br />
N % N % N %<br />
MUTILATED 1206 87.1 178 12.9 1384 87.4<br />
NOT MUTILATED 51 25.6 148 74.4 199 12.6<br />
TOTAL 1257 79.4 326 20.6 1583 100<br />
118<br />
χ 2<br />
402.55<br />
df<br />
1<br />
P<br />
< 0.05<br />
The study also investigated the prevalence of FGM according to degree of mutilation. As<br />
shown in Table 3, majority of mothers who were genitally mutilated (90.8%) reported that Type 1<br />
(sunna circumcision) was performed on them, 7.2% reported Type II (excision) and 2,1% did not know<br />
which type they had been subjected to. The results also indicated that 96.9% of respondents’ daughters<br />
had Type I, while 3.1% had Type II performed on them. None of the respondents reported carrying out<br />
Types III and IV on their daughters.<br />
Table 3 : Type of FGM Performed on Mothers and their Daughters<br />
TYPE <strong>OF</strong> MUTILATI<strong>ON</strong><br />
Type Type Type Don’t Know TOTAL<br />
FGM<br />
1<br />
II III<br />
N % N % N % N % N %<br />
MOTHERS 1256 90.8 99 7.2% - - 29 2.1% 1384 100<br />
DAUGHTERS 1218 96.9 39 3.1% - - - - 1257 100<br />
Reasons given by respondents to justify the practice of FGM were also investigated. Ten<br />
reasons were identified and presented to respondents, who were required to state whether or not they<br />
accepted the reasons as tenable to justify the practice of FGM. The results of the analysis are presented<br />
in Table 4:<br />
Table 4 : Reasons Adduced for the Practice of FGM<br />
TENABLE UNTENABLE<br />
REAS<strong>ON</strong>S N % N % TOTAL<br />
Compliance with the local custom 1369 86.5 214 13.5 1583<br />
Reduction of women’s sexual appetite 1295 81.8 288 18.2 1583<br />
Compliance with husband’s wish 1280 80.9 303 19.1 1583<br />
Prevention of sex outside marriage 1226 77.4 357 22.6 1583<br />
Prevention of sexual promiscuity by unmarried girls 1176 74.3 407 25.7 1583<br />
To save the lives of unborn babies during delivery 1020 64.4 563 35.6 1583<br />
Initiation rite to womanhood 466 29.4 1117 70.6 1583<br />
Preservation of female virginity 436 27.5 1147 72.5 1583<br />
Protection of family honor 414 26.2 1169 73.8 1583<br />
Compliance with family religion 388 24.5 1195 75.5 1583<br />
As shown in Table 4, an overwhelming majority of respondents (86.5) reported that compliance<br />
with local custom was a major reason for the practice of FGM. Also, 81.8% and 80.9% of the<br />
respondents gave control of women’s sexual appetite and compliance with husband’s wish respectively
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
as tenable reasons for the continuation of the practice. Conversely, an overwhelming majority of<br />
respondents agreed that preservation of female virginity (72.5%), protection of family honor (73.8%),<br />
and compliance with family religion (75.5%) were not strong reasons for the practice of FGM.<br />
Furthermore, the study examined the attitudes of respondents to the practice of FGM with a<br />
view to determining the factors which might tend to influence their attitudes. The data in Table 5<br />
present chi-square analysis of the influence of religion, age, level of education, FGM status, husbands’<br />
position and awareness of negative consequences of FGM on the attitudes of respondents to the<br />
practice.<br />
Table 5 : Respondents’ Attitudes to FGM<br />
RESP<strong>ON</strong>DENTS’<br />
CHARACTERISTICS<br />
RELIGI<strong>ON</strong> Xtianity<br />
Islam<br />
Below 25 years<br />
AGE<br />
25 – 35 years<br />
36 – 45 years<br />
Above 45 years<br />
LEVEL <strong>OF</strong><br />
EDUCATI<strong>ON</strong><br />
Sec. School<br />
<strong>ON</strong>D/NCE<br />
1 st Degree<br />
Above 1 st<br />
FGM STATUS Mutilated<br />
Not Mutilated<br />
HUSB<strong>AND</strong>’S Supported FGM<br />
POSITI<strong>ON</strong> Opposed FGM<br />
Indifferent<br />
FGM C<strong>ON</strong>SE- Aware<br />
QUENCES Not Aware<br />
ATTITUDE TO FGM<br />
DIS-<br />
APPROVAL APPROVAL<br />
N % N %<br />
1008<br />
81<br />
158<br />
461<br />
252<br />
218<br />
307<br />
460<br />
287<br />
35<br />
953<br />
136<br />
990<br />
39<br />
60<br />
305<br />
784<br />
68.7<br />
70.4<br />
47.7<br />
60.6<br />
95.5<br />
96.0<br />
89.5<br />
69.1<br />
57.9<br />
44.9<br />
68.9<br />
68.3<br />
71.6<br />
46.4<br />
51.7<br />
28<br />
72.0<br />
460<br />
34<br />
173<br />
300<br />
12<br />
9<br />
36<br />
206<br />
209<br />
43<br />
431<br />
63<br />
119<br />
393<br />
45<br />
56<br />
139<br />
355<br />
31.3<br />
29.6<br />
52.3<br />
39.4<br />
4.5<br />
4.0<br />
10.5<br />
30.9<br />
42.1<br />
55.1<br />
31.1<br />
31.7<br />
28.4<br />
53.6<br />
48.3<br />
28.1<br />
71.9<br />
TOTAL<br />
1468<br />
115<br />
331<br />
761<br />
264<br />
227<br />
343<br />
666<br />
496<br />
78<br />
1384<br />
199<br />
1383<br />
84<br />
116<br />
444<br />
1139<br />
χ 2<br />
df<br />
P<br />
.156 1 >0.05<br />
258.18<br />
116.95<br />
.87<br />
40.329<br />
.957<br />
3<br />
3<br />
1<br />
2<br />
1<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
exercise some caution in interpreting this result more so that no clinical examination of respondents<br />
was carried out to confirm their self-reported FGM status and type. Nevertheless, the data reported in<br />
this study can be relied upon to a reasonable degree when viewed in the context of numerous other<br />
studies which had investigated the prevalence of FGM in Nigeria and other African countries. For<br />
instance, Epstein, Graham & Rimsza (2001) reported that FGM was performed on 89% of females in<br />
Northern Sudan and on about 98% of Somali females. In the same vein, Allam, Irala-Estevez &<br />
Novajas (1999) reported that 95% of Egyptian females were mutilated to some degree. Several prior<br />
studies in Nigeria had reported high prevalence of FGM ranging from 70 to 95% (Briggs, 2002 and<br />
Modupe & Lola, 1985).<br />
However, the high prevalence of FGM as reported in this study raises doubts concerning the<br />
efficacy of various local and national public enlightenment campaigns mounted by the Nigerian<br />
government in recent time to stop the practice of FGM. The present data on the prevalence of FGM,<br />
which is as high as was reported in studies conducted several years before the present study, suggests<br />
that campaign efforts to stop the practice had either not been well targeted or that the efforts had not<br />
been strong enough to produce any significant reduction in the practice.<br />
It is noteworthy that majority of respondents who experienced FGM reported carrying out the<br />
procedure on at least one daughter within the last five years. This seems difficult to explain<br />
considering that the respondents also admitted that FGM had negative effects on its victims. It is<br />
certainly a matter of serious concern that the victims, in spite of the negative effects of the practice on<br />
them, did not just believe that FGM was good but actually performed the procedure on their daughters.<br />
This phenomenon tends to confirm the observation in the joint report of the World Health Organization<br />
and the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (1992) that victims of the practice are<br />
often its strongest proponents.<br />
The justification for FGM, as found out in this study, was largely grounded in the desire to<br />
protect the local custom of the people. Other highly favored reasons include the need to control a<br />
woman’s sexual appetite, compliance with husband’s desire to have the female child circumcised,<br />
prevention of sexual promiscuity by unmarried girls and the need to save the life of an unborn baby,<br />
which necessitates the cutting of the mother’s clitoris so that the baby’s head does not touch it during<br />
delivery. Most of these reasons are not only self-contradictory but highly incompatible with biological<br />
facts. Interestingly, majority of respondents disagreed that the practice was a necessary religious<br />
obligation, though a greater percentage of Muslim respondents were more favorably disposed toward<br />
the continuation of the practice than their Christian counterparts.<br />
Another major finding of this study is the influence of some selected variables on respondents’<br />
attitude to FGM. When respondents’ attitudes to FGM were examined based on selected background<br />
variables, it was found that age, level of education and husband’s support for the practice significantly<br />
influenced their attitudes. With regard to age and education, older respondents and those with lower<br />
levels of education showed more support for the practice than younger and more educated respondents.<br />
This is consistent with findings from several studies in Nigeria and elsewhere (Adinma, 1997;<br />
Ehigiegba, et al, 1998; Adongo, et al, 1998; Mbacke et al, 1998; EFCS, 1996).<br />
It is instructive that the results of this study showed that women’s attitude to FGM were<br />
significantly influenced by their husbands’ support for the practice. Respondents who reported that<br />
their husbands supported the practice or were indifferent to it demonstrated a stronger support for the<br />
continuation of the practice than those whose husbands opposed it. This suggests that Nigerian men<br />
have a significant role to play in the eradication of FGM. If men withdraw their support for the<br />
practice, it is likely that their wives would change their attitude.<br />
It is, however, puzzling that the awareness of negative consequences of FGM by respondents<br />
did not significantly influence their attitudes. Ordinarily, one expects that the awareness of health<br />
hazards and other negative consequences associated with a practice should be enough to make those<br />
who engage in it change their attitude to the practice and consequently withdraw their support.<br />
However, despite their awareness of and personal exposure to the negative effects of FGM,<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
respondents still demonstrated support for the practice obviously because of the widespread wrong<br />
belief that the social benefits of FGM far outweigh any health hazards associated with it. It is<br />
imperative to assist victims of FGM to correct the erroneous conviction that FGM procedures<br />
performed on them had been necessary for their personal benefits, a conviction which had served as the<br />
social motivation needed for the perpetuation of the practice at all costs.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This study has confirmed the high prevalence of female genital mutilation in Nigeria. It<br />
identified adherence to local custom, protection of female children from sexual promiscuity, control of<br />
women’s sexual appetite and compliance with husbands’ wish as major reasons for the continuation of<br />
the practice. Other findings from the study indicated that age, level of education and husband’s<br />
support for FGM significantly influenced women’s attitudes to the practice. The multi-factorial nature<br />
of these findings points to the fact that programs for the eradication of FGM would require a multifaceted<br />
and multi-disciplinary approach if they are to achieve any significant reduction in the practice.<br />
The results of this study suggest the need for Nigerian government to treat the practice of FGM<br />
as a serious public health issue. Consistent and committed public enlightenment and awareness<br />
campaigns are needed to convince individuals about the harmful effects of the practice and mobilize<br />
the entire community against it. Since the practice is deeply rooted in the people’s local custom,<br />
campaign efforts aimed at changing the deeply-felt beliefs of the people should be incorporated into the<br />
nation’s primary and secondary school health education curriculum and taught to children during their<br />
formative years.<br />
It is important that the campaign to eradicate FGM should be directed at both men and women.<br />
It is naïve to treat the issue of FGM as a purely feminist affair. This study has demonstrated that the<br />
practice is supported and encouraged by men, who are decision makers in each family. What this<br />
implies is that FGM will be minimized if, for instance, men change the belief that uncircumcised<br />
women are likely to be promiscuous as wives and therefore unmarriageable.<br />
In view of the widespread cultural support for FGM, it appears that outlawing the practice and<br />
imposing legal sanctions on practitioners by the government may not be enforceable and, in fact, may<br />
be counter-productive. A purely legal approach might force practitioners to go underground for fear<br />
of legal sanctions and their victims might stop seeking medical care to prevent family members who<br />
carried out the procedure on them from being prosecuted. Instead of legal sanctions by the<br />
government, Toubia (1995) advocated clear policy declaration and a strong message of disapproval<br />
followed by consistent public information campaigns.<br />
For effective results, FGM eradication campaigns should be backed with well-coordinated<br />
professional counselling intervention programs. Professional health counsellors and psychologists are<br />
needed to present in a persuasive and non-judgmental way, and using the people’s experience, the<br />
biological facts which make FGM unnecessary. Counselling intervention aimed at dispelling the<br />
superstitions surrounding the practice should be targeted at all facets of the community but with extra<br />
focus on traditional midwives and birth attendants, practitioners of traditional medicine, community<br />
and religious leaders with a view to enlisting their support for the general efforts to abolish the<br />
practice.<br />
Finally, it is pertinent to realize that because of its present high prevalence, effective FGM<br />
eradication program in Nigeria, as in many African nations, will require massive human and financial<br />
resources, consistence and commitment. Until African nations, perhaps assisted by the Western world,<br />
are able to provide the required resources for its eradication, it appears the practice of FGM will<br />
continue for now unabated.<br />
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References<br />
[1] Adinma, J. (1997). Current status of female circumcision among Nigerian Igbos. WAJM, 16,<br />
227 – 231.<br />
[2] Adongo, P., Akeongo, P., Binka, F. & Mbacke, C. (1998). Female genital mutilation: sociocultural<br />
factors that influence the practice in Kassena-Nankana District, Ghana. African<br />
Journal of Reproductive Health, 2, 25 – 36.<br />
[3] Allam, M.A., Irala-Estevez, J. & Novajas, R. (1999). Students knowledge of and attitudes about<br />
female genital mutilation in Egypt. North England Journal of Medicine, 341, 1552 – 1553.<br />
[4] Aziz, F.A. (1980). Gynecologic and obstetric complications of female circumcision.<br />
International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 17 (6), 560 – 563.<br />
[5] Badri, A.E. (1984). Female circumcision in the Sudan. Paper presented at the conference on<br />
Reproductive Health Management in sub-Saharan Africa, Freetown, Sierra Leone, November 5<br />
– 9, 1984.<br />
[6] Brady, M. (1999). Female Genital Mutilation: Complications and Risk of HIV Transmission.<br />
Aids Patient Care And Stds, 13 (12), 709-716.<br />
[7] Briggs, L.A. (2002). Male and female viewpoints on female circumcision in Ekpeye, Rivers<br />
State, Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 6 (3), 44 – 52.<br />
[8] Dorkenoo, E. (1996). Combating female genital mutilation: An agenda for the next decade.<br />
World Health Statistics Quarterly, 42(2), 142 – 147.<br />
[9] Ehigiegba, A., Selo-Ojeme, D., Omorogbe, F. (1998). Female circumcision and determinants<br />
in Southern Nigeria. East African Medical Journal, 75, 374 – 376.<br />
[10] Egwuatu, V.E. & Agugua, N.E.N. (1981). Complications of female circumcision in Nigerian<br />
Igbos. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 88 (11), 1090 – 1093.<br />
[11] Egyptian Fertility Care Society (EFCS). (1996). Clinic-based investigation of the typology and<br />
self-reporting of FGM in Egypt. Cairo: EFCS.<br />
[12] Epstein, D., Graham, P., Rimsza, M. (2001). Medical complications of female genital<br />
mutilation. Journal of American College Health, 49, 275 – 280.<br />
[13] Hosken, F.P. 1989). Female genital mutilation: Strategies for eradication. Paper presented at the<br />
first International Symposium on Circumcision, Anaheim, California, March 1 -2.<br />
[14] Hrdy, D.B. (1987). Cultural practices contributing to the transmission of human<br />
immunodeficiency virus in Africa. Review of Infectious Diseases, 9(6), 1109 – 1119.<br />
[15] Islam, M.M. & Uddin, M.M. (2001). Female circumcision in Sudan: Future prospects and<br />
strategies for eradication. International Family Planning Perspectives, 27 (2), 71 – 76.<br />
[16] Mahran, M. (1981). Medical dangers of female circumcision. IPPF Medical Bulletin, 15 (2), 1<br />
– 3.<br />
[17] Mandara, M.U. (2004). Female genital mutilation in Nigeria. International Journal of<br />
Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 84 (3), 291 – 298.<br />
[18] Mbacke, C., Adongo, P., Akeongo, P., & Binka, F. (1998). Prevalence and correlates of female<br />
genital mutilation in the Kassena-Nankana District of Northern Ghana. African Journal of<br />
Reproductive Health, 2, 13 – 24.<br />
[19] McCaffrey, M. (1995). Female genital mutilation: consequences for reproductive and sexual<br />
health. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 10 (2), 189 – 200.<br />
[20] Modupe, O.C. & Lola, V.A. (1985). Female circumcision in Nigeria: a fact or farce? Journal<br />
of Tropical Pediatrics, 31, 180 – 184.<br />
[21] Mukoro, U.J. (2004). A survey on the psychosexual implications of female genital mutilation<br />
on Urhobo women of the Niger Delta communities of Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 16<br />
(2), 147 – 150.<br />
[22] Mustafa, A.Z. (1966). Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan. Journal of<br />
Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth, 73, 302 – 306.<br />
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[23] Obuekwe, I. F. & Egbagbe, E. E. (2001). Dysmenorrhea: a long -term consequence of female<br />
genital mutilation. Proceedings of the XXVth International Congress of the Medical Women<br />
International Association (MWIA) Sydney, Australia, 19th - 23rd April.<br />
[24] Ogunlola, I.O., Orji, E.O. & Owolabi, O.T. (2003). Female genital mutilation and the unborn<br />
child in southwest Nigeria. Journal of Obstetrical Gynaecology, 23 (2), 143 – 145.<br />
[25] Snow, R.C., Slanger, T.E., Okonofua, F.E. Oronsaye, F. & Wacker, J. (2002). Female genital<br />
cutting in southern urban and peri-urban Nigeria: self-reported validity, social determinants<br />
and secular decline. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 7 (1), 91 – 100.<br />
[26] Toubia, N. (1994). Female genital mutilation and the responsibility of reproductive health<br />
professionals. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 46 (2), 127 – 135.<br />
[27] Toubia, N. (1995). Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: Rainbo.<br />
[28] United States Department of State (2001). Nigeria: Report on Female Genital Mutilation<br />
(FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC). Available at:<br />
www.state.gov/g/wl/rls/rep/crfgm/101.06.htm<br />
[29] World Health Organization (1995). Female Genital Mutilation. Report of a WHO Technical<br />
Working Group. Geneva: WHO.<br />
[30] World Health Organization and International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (1992).<br />
Female Circumcision: female genital mutilation. European Journal of Obstetrics &<br />
Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 45 (2), 153 – 154.<br />
[31] World Medical Association (1993). Statement on condemnation of female genital mutilation.<br />
Adopted by the 45th World Medical Assembly Budapest, Hungary. Available at<br />
www.wma.net/e/policy/c10.htm.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Governance, Taxation and Fiscal Policy In Nigeria<br />
Olu Okotoni<br />
Department of Public Administration<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
mokotoni@oauife.edu.nig<br />
olu_okotoni@yahoo.co.uk<br />
Abstract<br />
The paper examines governance, taxation and fiscal policy in Nigeria. It identifies that<br />
fiscal policy remains one of the greatest threats to political stability in Nigeria because the<br />
colonial architects of Nigeria laid the foundation on fiscal convenience, rather than on<br />
mutual trust, cultural and historical affinity. The article also establishes that governance<br />
and taxation exist side by side since taxes are needed to pay government's bills, but citizens<br />
see taxes as means of depriving them part of their income and therefore constitute potential<br />
source(s) of conflicts. It is further noted that the incursion of the military into Nigeria's<br />
politics since 1966 has aggravated the governance crises rather than addressed them and<br />
that while successive military administrations have succeeded in breaking up the federal<br />
structure into more sub-national units, they have failed in all other areas of governance –<br />
transparency and accountability, economic development, fiscal policy and democratisation.<br />
The paper also notes that Nigeria has not only failed to evolve a successful fiscal policy,<br />
but its fiscal federalism from 1914 to date portends a bleak scenario since most efforts have<br />
been geared toward sharing rather than mobilizing of resources, leading to a monolithic<br />
economy. The paper recommends that proper accountability, transparency and honesty are<br />
necessary for sustaining democratic governance in Nigeria and that all existing and<br />
potential sources of revenue be maximally explored. The article concludes that an effective<br />
management of the symbiotic relationship between governance and taxation is capable of<br />
producing good fiscal policy for the country.<br />
Preamble<br />
Governance carries a variety of definitions. The purpose sometimes determines the nature, scope and<br />
perspective of its definition. The World Bank (1992:1) for example views governance from power<br />
perspective, defining it as "the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's<br />
economic and social resources for development.” Mohammed Fofana (1997) who takes an economic<br />
approach sees governance as "the process by which a society makes decision about the production and<br />
distribution of scarce resources." To William Zartman (1997:1) governance is conflict management.<br />
Landell-Mills and Serageldin (1991:304) 1 define governance as "how people are ruled, how the affairs<br />
1Cited from Nazrul Islam and Om Prakash Mathur (1995) "Urban Governance in Asia" in Urban Governance (Regional paper presented at the Second Urban<br />
Forum: November 27-29, 1995 at the UN Office, Nairobi, pg 1.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
of a state are administered and regulated". Goran Hyden (1992) equates governance with regime,<br />
which he defines as "the conscious management of regime structures with a view to enhancing the<br />
legitimacy of the public realms" (1992:7). Rosenau (1992:5) who views governance from a political<br />
angle argues that governance is not synonymous with government, stating that "governance is a system<br />
of rule that works only if it is accepted by the majority (or at least, by the most powerful of those it<br />
affects, whereas governments can function even in the face of widespread opposition to their policies."<br />
Nazrul Islam and Om Prakash Mathur (1995:3) also view governance from political perspective state<br />
that "governance broadly refers to the system of government concentrating on effective and<br />
accountable institution, democratic principles and electoral processes, representative and responsible<br />
structures of government in order to ensure an open and legitimate relationship between the civil<br />
society and the state." Trevor Gordon-Somers’ (1997:133) attempt appears like a summary: the<br />
legitimate exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a<br />
country's affairs, at all levels. It comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through<br />
which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights and obligations and<br />
mediate their differences. Management of development, in terms of policy formulation, resource<br />
allocation and balancing of economic interests, is crucial". … Sound governance is therefore<br />
participatory, transparent, accountable, effective, equitable and promotes the rule of law.<br />
From the various definitions, governance is viewed within the narrow context of state; whereas<br />
the term governance covers a wider range such as civil society, non-governmental organizations,<br />
community affairs etc.<br />
Governance and taxation exist side by side. Taxation which is an integral part of governance<br />
constitutes a potential source of conflict. Taxes are needed to pay government's bills, but citizens see<br />
taxes as means of depriving them part of their income and resources. The Peasants Revolt in the<br />
fourteenth century was caused by the introduction of a poll tax; “and throughout history, unfair or<br />
seemingly unfair systems of taxation have been at the heart of many such conflicts.” (Nightingale,<br />
2001). One of the fundamental causes of the American War for Independence was the rebellion of<br />
British colonists against taxes that were perceived as inequitable. 2 (Pechman,1985). In Nigeria,<br />
property tax is seen as unjust and in fact, culturally unacceptable as it seems to penalize people for<br />
owning property. Thus, this tax which has the greatest potential for local government revenue<br />
generation cannot be fully tapped. In many instances, tax payers cannot justify the continuous payment<br />
of some certain rates and taxes, as there are no corresponding services from government.<br />
Arbitrary increase in taxation triggers resistance from tax payers. This was the case of the 1968<br />
civil disturbances in the Western State of Nigeria (now Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Ekiti states),<br />
occasioned by what was considered as an outrageous increase of tax rates in the state. As a result, a<br />
group of farmers known as Agbekoya (meaning Farmers against Oppression) revolted against the<br />
arbitrary increase in taxes and levies. This resulted in a bloody clash that lasted for several months<br />
before the revolt was quelled. The following extracts from the Drum Magazine (June 1969) provides<br />
an insight into the story:<br />
The fracas began in Ibadan towards the beginning of December 1968 when a mammoth crowd of tax agitators marched towards Mapo<br />
hall singing a war song: Oke mefa l'ao san. Oke mefa l'ao san. Bi o ba gba kumo, a o gbo'ri bibe. Oke mefa l'ao san. This means in<br />
English: "We are paying only thirty shillings. If this cannot be achieved by the application of cudgel, it will be by the cutting off of<br />
certain heads. We are paying only thirty shillings.<br />
2For<br />
example, a "protest Congress gathered in 1765 in reaction to the 1763 Stamp Tax for raising revenue among the colonies. The Congress asserted such<br />
fundamental principles as the entitlements of colonists to the 'inherent rights and liberties' of British subjects. Henry J. Merry (1986) The Constitutional System:<br />
The Group Character of the Elected Institutions New York, Praeger Publishers, page 20.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
At the time of this praetorian threat of carnage and murder, income tax (poll tax) in the state had risen from #1.17.6d to #3 including a<br />
state development fund of 7s.6d. In addition, the agitators were expected to pay 10 shillings national reconstruction fund, an average of<br />
30 shillings water rate, all adding to #9 (Nine pounds) in certain parts of the state.<br />
The military governor, Brigadier Adebayo, was forced to succumb to some of their demands. He<br />
immediately announced a cut of five shillings from every item under taxation and also warned civil<br />
servants in the state "not to make the people pay for services which are not yet available."<br />
There is the problem of perception. Many citizens believe that governance is about sharing<br />
rather than mobilizing resources. They expect government to provide all social services and facilities<br />
free of charge. The era of oil boom in Nigeria strengthened this idea that government have enough<br />
resources to provide free services and cater for government's expenditure. Thus, taxes and rates are<br />
seen as unnecessary burdens from government. Poor sharing of national resources and bad fiscal policy<br />
also constitute potential sources of conflict. This is the case of the oil producing areas in Nigeria<br />
(especially the Ogonis) that are aggrieved over the sharing and distribution of mineral resources<br />
extracted from their land. Inter-governmental transfers of fiscal resources among the various levels of<br />
government and jurisdictional tax powers constitute another problem in governance. In summary,<br />
governance, taxation, fiscal policy and conflict are interrelated. A poor management of one constitutes<br />
a potential source of crisis. The dynamics of their interrelationship is the pre-occupation of this paper.<br />
Research problem<br />
Fiscal policy remains one of the greatest threats to political stability in Nigeria. Fiscal policy and<br />
taxation are central issues in Nigeria’s governance arena since 1914. In the first instance, one of the<br />
principal reasons why the Northern and the Southern Protectorates were amalgamated was to make up<br />
from the fiscal surplus of the south for the rather perpetual fiscal deficit of the north. Peter Ekeh<br />
(1997:40) explained, "Frugal British administration were not pleased that although Southern Nigeria<br />
could pay for its own administration, Northern Nigeria's administrative costs were subsidized from<br />
London. It was for the sake of achieving economic balance that the amalgamation of the two separate<br />
colonies of Southern and Northern Nigeria was effected in 1914". The colonial architects of Nigeria<br />
laid the foundation on fiscal convenience, rather than on mutual trust, cultural and historical affinity.<br />
To Ogundowole (1994:ix),<br />
The amalgamation of the peoples of Nigeria into a federation devoid of nationality formations is in itself<br />
denationalization par excellence, i.e. taking away the very souls of the peoples of the nationalities that constitute<br />
Nigeria, while the federation represents nothing more than the amalgamation of the lifeless ghosts of the nationalities.<br />
Okoth-Ogendo (1996:53) corroborates this point, "the state in Africa at independence was not a<br />
constitutional state", but a constituted state; "one erected on pillars that were not fashioned out of past<br />
experiences or future aspirations"; and argues that "as constituted, the machinery of the state was not<br />
part of the shared experience of the African people." Since Nigeria’s foundation was laid on fiscal<br />
considerations, any thing that touches on fiscal issues becomes very crucial to its existence. This<br />
explains why Nigeria’s fiscal policy has received more attention and public debate than any federal<br />
problems since Independence. Other federal matters (such as the creation of states and local<br />
governments, federal character, population, census, boundaries, intergovernmental relations,<br />
constitutional jurisdictions, inter-group relations, ethnicity, elections etc) revolve around this. The<br />
federal system which was adopted in 1954 gave birth to acrimony, inter-ethnic and inter-group<br />
conflicts. A civil war was fought from 1967 to 1970 around the subject of what should constitute an<br />
acceptable social, political and economic order.<br />
The incursion of the military into Nigerian politics since 1966 did not help matter. Successive<br />
military administrations have aggravated the failures of the Nigerian state rather than address them.<br />
The military has ruled the country for more than three decades out of forty-two years of independence<br />
in 1960. Under military regimes, federal government arrogated to itself "extraordinary powers which<br />
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do not constitutionally belong to it". (Ekeh, 1997:7). These include "the seizure of funds and<br />
appropriation of assets that should belong to local governments, states, and corporate institutions<br />
established by the constitution and legislative provisions." (ibid:7). It is against this background the<br />
paper discusses the problems associated with governance, taxation and fiscal policies in Nigeria.<br />
Objectives of the study<br />
The overall objective of this study is to examine and document some of the most successful strategies<br />
for tackling the problems associated with taxation and fiscal policies in Nigeria.<br />
Specifically, the study sets out to:<br />
i. examine the role of taxation and fiscal policy in Nigerian governance;<br />
ii. determine the extent the fiscal crisis has affected the Nigeria's federation;<br />
iii. examine and document the strategies employed in tackling one and two above;<br />
iv. proffer solutions on how to mitigate the problems of fiscal crisis and taxation on<br />
governance in Nigeria, and highlight policy challenges for the next millennium<br />
Theoretical and intellectual discourse<br />
The subject of taxation has received considerable intellectual and theoretical attention in literature.<br />
Taxation is one of the most volatile subjects in governance both in developing and developed<br />
countries. It is, therefore, no surprise that some of the most familiar quotations in history have been<br />
comments by famous men about taxes (Pechman, 1985:1). Benjamin Franklin once remarked, "in this<br />
world, nothing is certain but death and taxes." (ibid:1). Chief Justice John Marshall in the United States<br />
of America was quoted as saying: "the power to tax involves the power to destroy." The above<br />
quotations show clearly the volatility of taxation.<br />
Tax and taxation are used synonymously in this paper. Tax refers to a "compulsory levy by a<br />
public authority for which nothing is received directly in return." (James and Nobes, 1992:266). To<br />
Kath Nightingale (2001) “a tax is compulsory contribution, imposed by government, and while tax<br />
payers may receive nothing identifiable in return for their contribution, they nevertheless have the<br />
benefit of living in a relatively educated, healthy and safe society.” Nightingale explains that taxation<br />
is “part of the price to be paid for an organized society.” She identified six reasons for taxation:<br />
provision of public goods, redistribution of income and wealth, promotion of social and economic<br />
welfare, economic stability, harmonization and regulation.<br />
Fiscal policy refers to "government's use of taxation and public expenditure to influence the<br />
aggregate level of economic activity." (James and Nobes, 1992:266). According to Jhingan (1996:348)<br />
fiscal policy means "the use of taxation, public borrowing, and public expenditure by government for<br />
purposes of 'stabilization' or 'development'." Fiscal policy also involves government's measures to<br />
control and monitor public finance with a view of achieving some economic goals. The role of fiscal<br />
policy varies significantly within various economies. For instance, the role of fiscal policy in advanced<br />
economies is to stabilise the rate of growth, whereas in "the context of an underdeveloped economy,<br />
the role of fiscal policy is to accelerate the rate of capital formation." (ibid:348). Jhingan adds, "fiscal<br />
policy plays a dynamic role in underdeveloped countries" - as its extensive use is indispensable for<br />
economic development. The objectives of fiscal policy are to (i) increase the rate of investment; (ii)<br />
encourage socially optimal investment; (iii) increase employment opportunities; (iv) promote economic<br />
stability in the face of international instability; (v) counteract inflation; and (vi) increase and<br />
redistribute national income. (Jhingan, 1996) The objectives of fiscal policy are quite laudable and are<br />
capable of yielding tremendous results if judiciously pursued by any government, but feasible in a<br />
stable political arena. The absence of political stability in Nigeria since independence in 1960 has<br />
contributed to its inability to embark on fiscal policies that could lead to economic development.<br />
Joseph Schumpeter (1996) addresses the crisis of the tax state. He argues that "the fiscal history<br />
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of a people is above all an essential part of its general history" and that taxes do not only help to create<br />
the state, but also help to form it. Schumpeter's argument appears relevant to Nigeria's political history<br />
where fiscal finance forms a dominant part. Nobert EIias (1996:345-6) focuses on the state’s monopoly<br />
of violence and explains the inter-relationship between the use of physical violence and taxation. He<br />
comments,<br />
The society of what we call the modern age is characterized, above all in the West, by a certain level of monopolization. Free use of<br />
military weapons is denied the individual and reserved to a central authority of whatever kind, and likewise the taxation of the property<br />
or income of individuals is concentrated in the hands of a central social authority. The financial means thus flowing into this central<br />
authority maintain its monopoly of military force, while this in turn maintains the monopoly of taxation.<br />
Many African States, including Nigeria, have abused this monopoly of violence and taxation. In<br />
Nigeria, the military has used its weapons not only to harass, but to extort money from innocent and<br />
defenceless citizens. In December 1968, "a combined team of police and army opened fire on (tax)<br />
agitators" in Western State. At the end of the demonstrations, "it was estimated that more than fifty<br />
people had been killed in different parts of the state with several more wounded." (Drum, 1969). This<br />
type of state violence has replayed itself times without number in the country.<br />
State monopoly can be viewed from another angle. The federal government enjoys some certain<br />
monopoly of taxing powers as contained in the constitution. 3 It also enjoys monopoly over the armed<br />
forces (the army, the air force and navy), the police and other para-military bodies.Human (1995:20)<br />
provides explanation for the State’s monopoly of violence:<br />
States justify the violence they use to this end by saying that they cannot do the good that they do for their societies if they are not given<br />
the right of ultimate recourse to violence against those who impede, resist or impair their efforts. To forestall a situation where, in every<br />
case, individuals or groups of people resist their actions, states have to employ violent means; states establish their control over society<br />
by demanding a monopoly over the means of violence. ... Hence the force used by the state is sometimes referred to as 'legitimate'.<br />
Violence used by any one else in society is seen as 'illegitimate.'<br />
Human’s argument appears reasonable and logical provided it is not turned to oppression of citizens.<br />
Some scholars have dealt with specific aspects of public finance in Nigeria. Adedeji (1969) reviews<br />
Nigeria’s fiscal policy from 1946 to 1969; Mbanefoh and Anyanwu (1990) deal with the constitutional<br />
role of revenue mobilization and allocation among the various tiers of government; and Adesola (1989)<br />
examines the machinery for collection and disbursement of public funds in Nigeria with a prescription<br />
for the aborted Third Republic. A great deal of work has also been devoted to tax administration in<br />
Nigeria. They include (Adesola, 1986; Okele, 1986; Omopariola and Nassar, 1986; Oyelere and<br />
Oyewole, 1986; Oribabor, 1986). Others have limited their scope to local government finance. In this<br />
category, are Adedeji and Rowland (1971) and Bello-Imam (1989). The intellectual and theoretical<br />
discourse has shown that the subject of taxation and fiscal policy has received substantial attention;<br />
although not from governance perspective, which is the focus of this paper.<br />
Nigerian governance: historical and geographical profile<br />
Nigerian governance environment can best be understood within its political, historical and<br />
geographical profile. The amalgamation of the Southern and Northern Protectorates and the Lagos<br />
Colony gave birth to Nigeria from a motley of nationalities and ethnic groups on January 1, 1914 . In<br />
1954, the country adopted a federal system and attained Independence on October 1960 with<br />
Westminster Parliamentary system of government. The federal system has transmuted from a twotiered<br />
federal structure, comprising three unequal regions to a three-tiered federal system of 36 states,<br />
one federal capital territory (FCT) and 774 local governments. Nigeria is 924,000 square kilometres<br />
with two distinct climatic zones - the tropical south and the hot, dry north. Three main cultural groups<br />
3See item 39 of the Exclusive Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.<br />
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dominate, situated in the southwest (Yorubaland), the southeast (Igboland) and the north<br />
(Hausaland/Borno). In all, there are over 300 different ethnic groups with as many languages and over<br />
1,000 dialects. Nigeria’s population was 88.9 million in 1991 and estimated as 129.9 million in 2001<br />
by the World Bank.<br />
Fiscal policy and taxation in nigeria<br />
This section is an overview of federal revenue in Nigeria. Up till late 1960s, custom and excise duties<br />
dominated the federal revenue. Table one shows that customs and excise duties topped with 68.1% in<br />
1959/60 and 1969/70; followed by direct tax (9.4%); mining (8.1%); and interests and payments 6.1%.<br />
The remaining revenues were not significant as seen in the table. From mid 1970s, oil rents became<br />
dominant in Nigeria's economy. It increased from 26.3% in 1970 to 77.4% in 1975 and 81% in 1980.<br />
Oil revenue started to decline from early 1980s. In 1981 oil revenue reduced sharply to 64.4%. (CBN,<br />
1997). Despite this, as a monolithic economy, oil revenue remains dominant. In 2001 proceeds from<br />
oil accounted for 76.5% of the total federal revenue.<br />
The period preceding 1950 was characterized by a strong central government in fiscal matters.<br />
As late as 1951, the federal government took almost 100% of the total revenue that accrued to the<br />
nation's accounts with almost no share for the regional governments. This trend changed in 1954 when<br />
the recommendations of Hicks-Philipson Commission of 1951 which gave regional governments<br />
considerable fiscal powers were implemented. The 1951 Constitution embraced the recommendations<br />
and for the first time, gave the regional governments some measure of autonomy on revenues and tax<br />
jurisdictions. Regions were to have shares from all revenues accruing to the centre from direct and<br />
indirect taxes. Consequently, in 1954, regional governments had a share of 28.6% of the total federal<br />
revenue, while the federal government retained 71.4%. In 1959, the revenue share of regional<br />
governments slightly dropped to 21.8%, while that of the federal government witnessed an upward<br />
review (78.2%). This was occasioned by the fiscal revision commission of 1958 headed by Jeremy<br />
Raisman. The Commission emphasised the principle of population rather than that of derivation, which<br />
was earlier emphasized by the Chick's Commission. The regional share of federal revenues witnessed a<br />
slight rise in 1965 and 1975 to 23.6% and 26.4% respectively, while that of the federal government fell<br />
to 76.4% and 73.6% in 1965 and 1975 respectively.<br />
Between 1961 and 1969, certain political developments occurred which necessitated<br />
adjustments in the existing federal fiscal arrangements. These included the loss of Southern Cameroon<br />
in 1961, the creation of the Midwest Region in 1963, and the Military Decree No. 15 of 27th May,<br />
1967 which balkanised the four regions into 12 states. The Binn's recommendations which formed the<br />
basis for the working of federal finance until 1967 emphasised the principle of fiscal needs. To redress<br />
the problems that emanated from this, Dina Commission was set up in July 1968. 4 The committee<br />
submitted its report in February 1969 and pointed out the problem of great imbalance in economic<br />
development among the various states of the federation, and accordingly made strong<br />
recommendations that fiscal needs should form the basis of revenue sharing among the various states<br />
of the federation. Revenue sharing in the country has not been without trauma, confusion, strife and<br />
conflicts. Several ad hoc commissions and committees were set up by government to address the<br />
problems. There were the following ad hoc Fiscal Review Commissions between 1946 and 1969:<br />
• Philipson Commission (1946)<br />
• Hicks Philipson (1951)<br />
• Chicks Commission (1953)<br />
• Raisman Commission (1959)<br />
4 Dina Commission is significant because members of the previous commissions (1954, 1958 and 1964) were foreigners drawn from the United Kingdom or Australia; the 1968<br />
commission consisted of Nigerians (See Awa 1976:70).<br />
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• Binns Commission (1964)<br />
• Dina Committee (1968)<br />
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The major achievements of these early fiscal policies were summarised by Danjuma 5 (1992) as<br />
follows:<br />
• the establishment of regional/state government autonomy over certain revenue sources (e.g.<br />
personal income tax);<br />
• the establishment of federal government exclusive control of some revenue sources (e.g. armed<br />
forces income tax);<br />
• the creation of a Distributable Pool Account into which other revenues (including import and<br />
export taxes, mining rents and royalties, etc) were paid and which was subsequently distributed<br />
between the federal, and region/state governments;<br />
• the development of revenue allocation principles, such as derivation, population, even<br />
development, etc on the basis of which funds in the Distributable Pool Account were shared<br />
among regions/states.<br />
Between 1977 and 1984 a more comprehensive federal fiscal arrangements were put in place. Some of<br />
the fiscal arrangements during this period include:<br />
• Aboyade Committee (1977)<br />
• Okigbo Commission (1980)<br />
• Allocation of Revenue Act (1981)<br />
• Allocation of Revenue Amendment Decree (1984)<br />
As part of the transition programme to the Second Republic, General Olusegun Obasanjo<br />
Military administration appointed the Aboyade Technical Committee on Revenue Allocation in 1977<br />
to review the inter-governmental tax jurisdiction and revenue allocation arrangement in order to<br />
facilitate better efficiency in the working of fiscal federalism. The Committee recommended that all<br />
federally-collected revenue (except the personal income tax of the Armed Forces, External Affairs<br />
Officers and Federal Capital Territory) be consolidated into one account, which would be shared by the<br />
federal, states and local governments, using the following percentages:<br />
Federal Government - 57<br />
State Government - 30<br />
Local Government - 10<br />
Special Grants - 03<br />
Total - 100<br />
In addition to the 10% share for local governments, each state was to contribute 10% of its total<br />
revenue to the share of its constituent local governments. This was subsequently reviewed to 10% of<br />
state's internally generated revenue. Most states of the federation never honoured this arrangement. The<br />
special grants account was earmarked to deal with problems requiring special provision, such as oil<br />
pollution, general national ecological degradation, national emergencies and disasters. Aboyade's<br />
report was later jettisoned as it was regarded to be too technical for practical implementation.<br />
(Danjuma, 1992). Okigbo Committee was set up by President Shehu Shagari on November 21, 1979,<br />
barely a month of assuming office on October 1, 1979. The Committee which put into consideration<br />
5 Lt. General Theophilus Y. Danjuma (Rtd) was the Chairman, National Revenue Mobilisation, Allocation and Fiscal Commission.<br />
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the twin objectives of equity and efficiency recommended that the federal account be shared, using the<br />
following percentages:<br />
Federal Government - 53<br />
State Government - 30<br />
Local Government - 10<br />
Special Fund to be distributed<br />
as follows:<br />
Initial development of FCT - 2.5<br />
Mineral producing areas - 2.0<br />
Ecological and other disaster - 1.5<br />
Total - 100<br />
The Government White Paper on Okigbo's Committee Report amended the recommendations and<br />
came out with the following percentages: Federal Government (55%); State Government (30%); Local<br />
Government (8%); Development of Federal Capital Territory (2.5%); Mineral Producing States<br />
(Derivation) (2%); Development of Mineral producing areas (1.5%); General Ecological Problems<br />
(1%). The Revenue Act was enacted in 1981 and it upheld most of the recommendations of<br />
Government White Paper, except in few areas. The State had an upward review from 30% to 30.5%;<br />
and also Local Government from 8% to 10%; while the development of Federal Capital Territory was<br />
totally scraped. An Amendment was made in 1984 which mainly affected the State with an upward<br />
review from 30.5% to 32.5%.<br />
The federal fiscal arrangement in the country did not witness any major change until in 1988<br />
when "The National Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission" was established by<br />
Decree No. 49 of 1989 by General Ibrahim Babangida, as part of the transition programme to civilian<br />
rule. The commission which was headed by Lt. General T.Y. Danjuma (Rtd) drew most of its members<br />
from the academics. At the inauguration on September 6, 1988, the commission had nine members. 6<br />
Later, the composition of membership was changed to have a chairman and one member from each<br />
state of the federation as a representative. Unlike in the past when ad hoc committees/commissions<br />
were set up to review fiscal arrangements, the Commission which was more of a permanent institution<br />
was charged with the following responsibilities:<br />
• systematic design and effective mobilisation of all sources of public sector revenues;<br />
• periodic review of the revenue allocation principles and formulae such that would minimise<br />
short-term political pressure;<br />
• prescription and application of revenue allocation formulae after due approval by the federal<br />
government for the purpose of sharing the Federation Account between the federal, state and<br />
local governments;<br />
monitoring the accruals and disbursement of revenue from the Federal Account, the States Joint<br />
Account, the Local Government Joint Account, the various Special Purposes Accounts and such other<br />
Accounts that may from time to time be established or designated by the Commission with the<br />
approval of the federal government;<br />
6The members included: Lt. General T.Y. Danjuma ((Rtd) - Chairman, Dr. A.S. Abam - Secretary, Professor M.O. Kayode, Professor Chike Obi, Professor G.I.<br />
Osayinwese, Professor U. Damachi, Mrs. O. Olakunrin, Alhaji A. Abdullahi, Alhaji Umaru Mutallab.<br />
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• ensure full compliance with established revenue sharing arrangements as well as full public<br />
accountability for all funds so allocated to various governments and/or agencies involved in the<br />
disposition of the Federation Account;<br />
• liaise with the National Planning Commission and similar statutory bodies in the orderly fiscal<br />
development of each other tier of government;<br />
• collaborate with all layers of government as well as their ministries, departments, agencies, and<br />
extra-ministerial units in the prompt, regular, and faithful production of public financial<br />
statistics;<br />
• determination of the remuneration which it may deem appropriate for political office holders<br />
such as members of the executive and legislative branches of government outside the<br />
Consolidated Account;<br />
• commissioning, undertaking or sponsoring studies, analyses and deliberations on subjects<br />
which may bear directly or impinge significantly on the policy and operation domains of<br />
federal fiscal system and inter-governmental financial relations;<br />
• making whatsoever general or specific recommendations as the Commission may consider<br />
necessary for more effective mobilisation, collection, allocation and distribution of federal,<br />
state and local government revenues, as well as providing guidelines for their efficient<br />
implementation; and<br />
• submitting regular and timely annual reports to the federal government on its general activities<br />
over and beyond its specific recommendations or ad hoc submissions on particular subjects,<br />
with such annual reports also incorporating the Commission's audited accounts.<br />
The Commission came up with its first major recommendations on a new allocation formula<br />
which was approved by the Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) and became operational with effect<br />
from January 1990. See Table One. Appraising the commission, it has not performed creditably in<br />
mobilising resources which was its primary assignment. Its major pre-occupation was revenue sharing<br />
which led its reneging on its other functions.<br />
The last major fiscal review was in 1992, when the Federal Government increased the share of<br />
the Local Government from Federation Account from 15% to 20%, and reduced that the States from<br />
30% to 25%. The arrangement was occasioned by the transferring of the management and funding of<br />
primary education to local government with effect from January 1991. In June 1992, a new revenue<br />
allocation formula was announced that further reduced the states' share from 25% to 24% but doubled<br />
the general ecology fund and the development of mineral producing areas fund from 1% to 2% and<br />
1.5% to 3% respectively. Table Four shows actual federal fiscal transfers to state and local<br />
governments in Nigeria between 1976 and 2001. The fiscal transfers to state governments during the<br />
period under review have not been consistent. It ranges from 7.8% (the lowest) in 1996 and 30.5% (the<br />
highest) in 1982. On the other hand, federal actual transfers to local governments have increased<br />
progressively from 1.7% 1976 to 16% in 1990 and 20% in 1998. The regime of General Babangida<br />
administration committed huge financial resources to local government in the country. From 1991,<br />
actual federal transfers to local governments began to witness a downward trend - from 16% in 1990 to<br />
3.5% in 1997.<br />
The experience of fiscal policies in Nigeria portends not only a dangerous trend, but seems<br />
threatening and disappointing, since the emphasis has always been on revenue sharing, rather than<br />
resource mobilization. The most threatening aspect of Nigerian fiscal federalism is its dependence<br />
syndrome on oil rents. State and local governments across the country depend largely on federal<br />
financial transfers. Their internal revenues have continued to dwindle unabated. Statistics shows that<br />
federal transfers to local governments constitute over 90% of their total revenues. Taxation has<br />
virtually been neglected in the country. Value-Added Tax (VAT) remains the only active tax apart<br />
from Pay as you earn (PAYE) deducted from workers. VAT was introduced in 1994. Its contribution to<br />
federal revenue was 3.6% in 1994, with progressive increase to 4.6% in 1995; 5.9% in 1996 and 7.9%<br />
in 1999, but decreased to 3.0% in Year 2000 and slightly moved to 4.1% in Year 2001. A viable tax<br />
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like the property rate is neglected for lack of political will to put appropriate legislations in place for<br />
local governments. Existing tax laws in the country are rather obsolete and cannot face the challenges<br />
of the 21 st century except they are reviewed.<br />
Vi. Conclusions and conjectures<br />
Nigerian fiscal federalism from 1914 to date portends a bleak scenario. Most efforts have been geared<br />
toward sharing rather than mobilizing of resources. The rents from oil have been wrongly appropriated,<br />
looted and squandered by successive governments coupled with lack of transparency and<br />
accountability from leaders in the three tiers of government. Public enterprises and corporations are<br />
badly managed. Services such as electricity, telecommunication, postal, water, health and education are<br />
epileptic and erratic despite large subventions from government. The economy remains a monolithic<br />
one, resulting from lack of investment of the oil monies in other sectors (such as agriculture, iron and<br />
steel industry, technology etc), which are capable of yielding revenues for the country. Consequently,<br />
all tiers of government have consistently depended on oil rents since the 1970s.<br />
The incursion of the military into Nigeria's politics since 1966 has aggravated the governance<br />
crises rather than addressed them. While successive military administrations have succeeded in<br />
breaking up the federal structure into more sub-national units, they have failed in all other areas of<br />
governance – transparency and accountability, economic development, fiscal policy and<br />
democratisation. The 1979, 1989, 1995 7 and 1999 Constitutions designed by the Military clearly<br />
reflected its bias for centralization. The constitutional status of state and local governments is made<br />
subordinate to the federal government in many respects. Their taxing powers are not only limited but<br />
are encroached upon by the federal government at will. The federal exclusive legislative list of the<br />
1999 Constitution contains 68 items, whereas the concurrent legislative list (federal and state<br />
legislative powers) has only 30 items. Local government is conspicuously absent from the list. Local<br />
government taxing powers are determined by the State House of Assembly. During military regimes,<br />
local governments are placed under the Office of the Chief of General Staff (CGS) at the federal level<br />
and supervised by the Governor's Office or Deputy Governor's Office at the state level. A review of the<br />
Constitution is required to reflect a true federal system as practised in advanced countries such as the<br />
United States and Canada.<br />
The general misconception of governance by citizens to mean sharing and looting of national<br />
resources complicates the matter. Revenues from oil are seen as national cake meant to be shared. A<br />
new orientation of governance is required for both rulers and the ruled. Similarly, a re-definition of<br />
Nigeria federal system is a sine-qua-non as one way of addressing the governance crises and fiscal<br />
problems. Some have advocated a weak centre and strong units as a means of curbing the excesses of<br />
the federal government. Taxing powers for States and local governments with appropriate legislative<br />
backings are equally necessary to facilitate their autonomy within the federation. For effective federal<br />
system, the various units comprising the federation must be allowed to control some of their affairs in<br />
their own way with their own resources. (Awa, 1976:64). The National Revenue Mobilization,<br />
Allocation and Fiscal Commission needs to be resuscitated and centres Its activities on revenue<br />
mobilization rather than distribution of fiscal resources. Composition of memberships of the<br />
Commission should reflect all stake-holders including communities where resources are extracted.<br />
Proper accountability, transparency and honesty are necessary for sustaining democratic governance in<br />
Nigeria. It is reiterated that all existing and potential sources of revenue must be maximally explored<br />
and managed. In conclusion, an effective management of the symbiotic relationship between<br />
governance and taxation is capable of producing good fiscal policy.<br />
7The 1995 Constitution designed by late General Sani Abacha military administration has been jettisoned. That of 1989 was not allowed to operate before the Third Republic was<br />
aborted in 1993.<br />
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Appendices<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table One: Average Contribution to Federal Revenue 1959/60-1969/70<br />
Source %<br />
1. Customs and Excise 68.1<br />
2. Direct Taxes 9.4<br />
3. Licences and internal revenue 0.8<br />
4. Mining 8.1<br />
5. Earnings and sales 0.9<br />
6. Rent of Government Property 0.3<br />
7. Interests and Payments 6.1%<br />
8. Reimbursements 0.9<br />
9. Miscellaneous 3.4<br />
Source: F.S. Idachaba "Statistical Evidence on Tax Revenue Instability in Nigeria in Quarterly Journal<br />
of Administration Volume IX, Number Three, April 1975.<br />
Table Two Federal Revenue: 1970-2001<br />
Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 2001<br />
Oil Revenue 26.3 77.4 81.0 72.6 73.3 70.5 62.4 76.5<br />
Non-oil Revenue 73.7 22.6 19.0 27.4 26.7 29.5 37.6 33.5<br />
Company Income Tax 7.2 4.7 3.8 6.7 3.0 4.8 7.2 3.1<br />
Customs & Excise 58.3 13.8 11.9 13.7 8.8 8.1 12.4 7.6<br />
Value Added Tax - - - - 8.1 7.9 4.1<br />
Privatisation Proceeds - - - - - - - 3.5<br />
FG Indep Rev* 8.1 4.0 3.2 6.2 1.8 4.4 2.5 1.2<br />
Education Tax - - - - - - - 0.7<br />
Others** - - - - 13.1 7.6 7.5 1.1<br />
Sources:<br />
1. Central Bank of Nigeria (1997) Statistical Bulletin Volume 8, Number 1, June 1997<br />
2. Central Bank of Nigeria (1998, 2001) Annual Reports and Statements of Accounts<br />
* Federal Government Independent revenue comprises revenue from interest payments, rents on<br />
government properties, personal income tax of Armed Forces, Police, External Affairs and federal<br />
Capital residents, GSM.<br />
** Others: This item includes drawn-down from Fertiliser Reserves, Customs Levies,<br />
Subvention/Grants, and Sterilised Oil Windfall Proceeds and Grants.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table Three: Vertical Allocation: Commission’s Recommendations and Government’s Approval<br />
Beneficiaries Commission's<br />
Recommendations<br />
135<br />
(in %)<br />
Government’s<br />
Approval {in %)<br />
Federal Government 47 50<br />
State Government 30 30<br />
Local Government 15 15<br />
Special Funds: 8 5<br />
a. FCT (FA) 1 1<br />
• Stabilization (FA) 0.5 0.5<br />
• Savings (FA) 2 0<br />
• Derivation (MR) 2 1<br />
• Development of oil producing areas (MR) 1.5 1.5<br />
• Development of Non-oil producing areas (NOMR) 0.5 0<br />
• General Ecology (FA) 0.5 1<br />
Notes: FA = Federal Account<br />
MR = Mineral Revenue<br />
NOMR = Non-Oil Mineral Revenue<br />
Source: T.Y. Danjuma "Revenue Sharing and the Political Economy of Federalism" (Paper delivered at<br />
the National Conference on Federalism and Nation Building: The Challenges of the Twenty First<br />
Century, organized by the National Council on Intergovernmental Relations, 14th -18th December,<br />
1992 at Sheraton Hotel Towers, Abuja), pages 20-21.
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table Four: Federal Transfers to State and Local Governments in Nigeria from Federation Account,<br />
1976 – 1998<br />
Fiscal<br />
Year<br />
State Govts<br />
(Naira<br />
Million)<br />
% of Federal<br />
Revenue<br />
136<br />
Local Govts<br />
(Naira Million)<br />
% of Federal<br />
Revenue<br />
1976 n.a. n.a. 100.0 1.7<br />
1977 n.a. n.a. 250.0 4.2<br />
1978 1,37.1 24.0 150.0 2.2<br />
1979 2,642.4 24.2 261.2 2.4<br />
1980 3,776 23.8 352.6 2.2<br />
1981 3,825.6 25.9 1,085.0 7.3<br />
1982 3,095.3 30.5 1,018.7 8.0<br />
1983 E 2,538.8 23.4 996.8 9.1<br />
1984 2,799 25.1 1,061.5 9.5<br />
1985 3,260.8 22.3 1,327.5 8.5<br />
1986 2,843.8 23.1 1,166.9 9.5<br />
1987 6,197.1 24.6 2,117.8 8.4<br />
1988 8,181.3 29.9 2,727.1 10.1<br />
1989 11,502.1 22.8 3,399.3 10.0<br />
1990 13,509.7 20.2 7,780.0 16.0<br />
1991 19,742 19.5 10,199.0 13.0<br />
1992 24,497.3 12.8 15,720.0 11.3<br />
1993 29,363.5 15.2 18,316.4 9.5<br />
1994 29,017.5 14.3 17,321.3 8.5<br />
1995 38,385.2 8.3 17,983.4 3.9<br />
1996 40,619.1 7.8 21,590.6 4.1<br />
1997 50,902.5 8.7 20,443.3 3.5<br />
1998 61,759.5 24.0 51,466.2 20.0<br />
1999 108,214.8 18.6 90,179.2 15.5<br />
2000 248,561.7 19.6 207,146.6 16.4<br />
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Accounts (1977-2000).<br />
Select bibliography<br />
[1] Adedeji, Adebayo (1969) Nigerian Federal Finance: Its Development, Problems and Prospects<br />
London, Hutchinson Educational<br />
[2] Adedeji, Adebayo and L. Rowland (1972) Local Government Finance in Nigeria Ile-Ife,<br />
University of Ife Press<br />
[3] Adesola, S.M. (1986) "Evolving a Rational tax structure for Nigeria" The Quarterly Journal of<br />
Administration Volume XX, Nos. One and Two, pp 7-28.<br />
[4] Aladejare, E.A. (1986) "The Role of Accounting in Tax Administration"<br />
[5] The Quarterly Journal of Administration Volume XX, Nos. One and Two, pp 43-66<br />
[6] Aluko, S.A. (1970) "Nigerian Federal Finance - A General Review" The Quarterly Journal of<br />
Administration Volume IV, No. Two, pp 77-82.<br />
[7] Anderson, & J.L. Hilley, Financing State and Local Governments Fourth Edition, Washington,<br />
D.C., The Brooking Institutions, 1986.<br />
[8] Ashford, Douglase (1982) British Dogmatism and French Pragmatism: Central-Local Policy<br />
Making in the Welfare State, London, George Allen and Unwin.<br />
[9] Awa, E.O. (1964) Federal Government in Nigeria, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of<br />
California Press.<br />
[10] Awa, E.O. (1976) Issues in Federalism Benin City, Ethiope Publishing House<br />
[11] Bello-Imam, I.B. ed (1990) Local Government Finance in Nigeria Ibadan, NISER
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
[12] Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Accounts (1977-2001).<br />
[13] Concord, J. ed (1975) The Failure of the State: On the Distribution of Political and Economic<br />
Power in Europe, Totowa, N.J. Rowman and Little Field.<br />
[14] Danjuma, T.Y. "Revenue Sharing and the Political Economy of Federalism" (Paper delivered at<br />
the National Conference on Federalism and Nation Building: The Challenges of the Twenty<br />
First Century, organized by the National Council on Intergovernmental Relations, 14th -18th<br />
December, 1992 at Sheraton Hotel Towers, Abuja).<br />
[15] Due, J.F. and A.F. Friedlaender (1973) Government Finance: Economics of the Public Sector<br />
Homewood, Richard D. Irwin Inc.<br />
[16] Ekeh, Peter P. ed (1997) Nigerian Federalism New York The Association of Nigerian Scholars<br />
for Dialogue.<br />
[17] Elias, Nobert (1996) The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and<br />
Civilization Oxford, Blackwell.<br />
[18] Erero, E.J. and M.O. Okotoni (1998) "Decentralization Programs in Africa: The Nigerian<br />
Component", Report presented to the World Bank October, 1998.<br />
[19] Federal Republic of Nigeria (1976) Guidelines for Local Government Reform Government<br />
Printer, Kaduna.<br />
[20] Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979) The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria<br />
[21] Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria<br />
[22] Federal Republic of Nigeria (1987) Report of the Political Bureau Federal Government Printer,<br />
Lagos.<br />
[23] Fofana, M. (1997) Is there any organic Relationship Between Good Governance and<br />
Development" in African Institute for Democracy, April 1997, pp 142-160.<br />
[24] Human, Piet (1995) Managing Towards Self-Reliance: Effectiveness of Organizations in Africa<br />
Cape Town, Phoenix Publishing.<br />
[25] Hyden, Goran (1992) "Governance and the Study of Politics" in Goran Hyden and Michael<br />
Bratton eds Governance and Politics in Africa Boulder and London Lynne Reinner Publishers,<br />
pp 1-26.<br />
[26] Idachaba, F.S. (1975) "Statiscal Evidence on Tax Revenue Instability in Nigeria in Quarterly<br />
Journal of Administration Volume IX, Number Three, April 1975.<br />
[27] Islam, Nazrul and Om Prakash Mathur (1995) "Urban Governance in Asia" in Urban<br />
Governance (Regional paper presented at the Second Urban Forum: November 27-29, 1995 at<br />
the UN Office, Nairobi.<br />
[28] James, S. and Christopher Nobes (1992) The Economics of Taxation Hemel Hempstead,<br />
Prentice Hall.<br />
[29] Jhingan, M.L. (1996) The Economics of Development and Planning Delhi Konark Publishers<br />
PVT Ltd.<br />
[30] Mbanefoh, G.F, and J.C. Anyanwu "Revenue Allocation" (1990) The Quarterly Journal of<br />
Administration Volume XXIV, No. Three, 166-178.<br />
[31] Nightingale, K. (2001) Taxation: Theory and Practice London, Prentice Hall.<br />
[32] Nwabueze, B.O. (1964) Constitutional Law of the Nigerian Republic, London, Butterworths.<br />
[33] Ogundowole, Kolawole (1994) Colonial Amalgam: Federalism and the National Question: A<br />
Philosophical Examination Lagos, Pumark Nigeria Ltd.<br />
[34] Okele, J.B. "Aspects of the Nigerian Tax Laws that require Improvement or are unsettled with<br />
regard to their Interpretation and application" (1986) The Quarterly Journal of Administration<br />
Volume XX, Nos. One and Two, pp 29-41.<br />
[35] Okoth-Ogendo, H.W.O. (1996) "Constitutionalism without Constitutions" in C.M. Zoetbout et<br />
al eds (1996) Constitutionalism in Africa: A Quest for Autochthonous Principles Rotterdam,<br />
International Association of Constitutional Law, pp 49-61.<br />
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[36] Okotoni, Matthew (1993) "Problem of Internally Generated Revenue for Local Governments"<br />
(Paper presented at the National Workshop on Revenue Allocation and Generation for Local<br />
Government; at the Nigeria Institute of International Affairs, Lagos, January 27-28, 1993).<br />
[37] Okotoni, Olu (1996) "Local Government and National Development in Nigeria The Nigerian<br />
Journal of Local Government Studies Vol. 6 pp 44-59<br />
[38] Olaloku, F. Akin (1979) "Nigerian Federal Finances: Issues and Choices" in A.B. Akinyemi et<br />
al (eds) Readings in Federalism Lagos NIIA pp 109-125<br />
[39] Olowu, Dele; C.A. Ajayi, Dotun Popoola, M.O. Okotoni, S.R. Akinola (1994) Property<br />
Taxation and Nigerian Local Government, sponsored by IDRC, Canada.<br />
[40] Olowu, Dele & Olu Okotoni (1996) "The Informal Sector in Nigeria: Some Analytical and<br />
Developmental Issues" in E.U. Olisadebe and Olu Ajakaiye Conceptual and Methodological<br />
Framework for Informal Sector Research in Nigeria Lagos, Ibadan, Central Bank of Nigeria<br />
and Nigeria Institute of Social and Economic Research, pp 27-39.<br />
[41] Oribabor, P.E. "Improving Staff Training in Tax Administration: A Diagnostic Approach to<br />
Assessment of Training Needs" The Quarterly Journal of Administration Volume XX, Nos.<br />
One and Two, pp 95-104.<br />
[42] Oyelere, B.A. and P.O. Oyewole (1986) "Computer Application to Tax Administration" The<br />
Quarterly Journal of Administration Volume XX, Nos. One and Two, pp 81-94.<br />
[43] Pechman, J.A (1985) The Promise of Tax Reform Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall Inc.<br />
[44] Rosenau, J.N. (1992) "Governance, Order, and Change in World Politics" in J.N Rosenau and<br />
Ernest-Otto Czempiel eds Governance with Government: Order and Changes in World Politics<br />
New York, Port Chester Cambridge University Press, pp 1-29.<br />
[45] Schumpeter, J.A. (1996) "The Crisis of the Tax State in Richard Swedberg ed Economic<br />
Sociology Cheltenham, pp 5-38.<br />
[46] Stolper, W.F. (1970) "Some Considerations concerning the Allocation of Fiscal Resources" The<br />
Quarterly Journal of Administration Vol. IV, No. 2, pp 83-91.<br />
[47] Trevor, G. "Statement on Good Governance" in African Institute for Democracy, April 1997,<br />
pp 131-136.<br />
[48] Weber, Max (1978) Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology Berkeley,<br />
University of California Press.<br />
[49] Wunsch, J.S. and Dele Olowu (1995) ed The Failure of the Centralized State San Francisco,<br />
Institute of Contemporary Studies.<br />
[50] Zartman, I. William ed (1997) Governance as Conflict Management Washington, D.C.<br />
Brookings Institution Press.<br />
138
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Impact of Government-Based Strategy<br />
on Employment Generation and Poverty<br />
Alleviation in Nigeria<br />
Benjamin Ayodele Folorunso and Janet O. Olusi<br />
Department of Economics<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University<br />
Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria<br />
Abstract<br />
The paper analyzed the effects of poverty alleviation and employment programme of<br />
NEEDS on the key targeted groups in Osun State of Nigeria. The study employed<br />
structured questionnaire in eliciting information from members of the target groups through<br />
interview method. Adopting qualitative techniques of analysis, factors that constituted<br />
obstacles to the advancement of Osun state in the areas of employment generation and<br />
poverty reduction were identified. The study found that obstacle to poverty reduction and<br />
employment generation was the lack of adequate empowerment on the part of the members<br />
of target groups; members had little education and lack financial opportunities.<br />
Programmes' effects had been minimal since the level of poverty is still very high despite<br />
the acclaimed efforts of NEEDS to encourage entrepreneurship in the state. This was,<br />
however, due to poor policy implementation; empowerment materials are distributed using<br />
political factors rather than economic factors. Youths, rural women and the disabled are<br />
mostly affected because their empowerment levels were lower relative to men's. The paper<br />
therefore suggests proper implementation of NEEDS policy by empowering every<br />
members of the target groups irrespective of their political affiliation.<br />
Key Words: Poverty Alleviation, Employment, Empowerment, Public Policy.<br />
Introduction:<br />
Given its excruciating effects on human development, poverty alleviation remains the focus of<br />
national, state and local development programmes. Poverty is a vicious circle that keeps the poor in a<br />
state of destitution and disillusionment. In its absolute term, poverty is defined as the inability of the<br />
individual or household to command sufficient resources to satisfy basic needs. These basic needs<br />
include food, clothing, shelter, education, health care, access to safe drinking water, and other non-food<br />
necessities of life (Fields, 1980 and 1997). These requirements are expressed in local monetary units<br />
as the poverty line. An individual or household is then classified as poor if its income or consumption<br />
is below the poverty line and non-poor if it is above. Often, the poor are known to have inadequate<br />
level of consumption (Aluko, 1975), illiterates with short life span (World Bank, 1996), unemployed<br />
and/or underemployed and cannot satisfy their basic health needs (Sancho, 1996).<br />
Reports of various studies have shown that a large proportion of Nigerians is poor (World<br />
Bank, 1999; UNDP, 2000). Indications are that the proportion of the poor people in the total<br />
population of Nigeria has increased significantly in recent years (CBN, 1999). In 1986 for instance,<br />
43.0 per cent of Nigerians lived below the poverty line. The proportion increased to 53.0 per cent in<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
1996 and rose steeply, thereafter, reaching an estimated 66.0 per cent in 1999 and almost 70.0 per cent<br />
of population in 2003. Life expectancy at birth remained at an average of 52 years while adult literacy<br />
stood at 57.0 per cent. The census figures for 1991 clearly indicate that women account for 49.7 per<br />
cent of the Nigerian population. Studies have also shown that women are more affected by the<br />
growing poverty than men hence, the Nigerian government has introduced a number of poverty<br />
alleviation programmes to improve the life of its women (Obadan, 1995; Mongelle, 1995; Atoloye,<br />
1997; Englama and Bamidele, 1997; Bogunjoko, 1999; Fakiyesi, 2001). Notable among these are the<br />
Better Life for Rural Women Programme, Family Support Programme (FSP) and Women Trafficking<br />
and Child Labour Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF).<br />
In an attempt to address the poverty issue, successive governments in Nigeria, in collaboration<br />
with various international organizations notably, the World Bank, United Nations Development<br />
Programmes (UNDP), United Nations Children Educational Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations<br />
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) initiated specific multi-dimensional and multi-faceted<br />
programmes to meet the needs of the poor. These programmes focused on employment creation,<br />
improved welfare and increased productivity. They include the programmes undertaken by the<br />
National Directorate of Employment (NDE), a parastatal of the Federal Ministry of Employment,<br />
Labour and Productivity, which is responsible for the execution of National Employment Programmes<br />
(NEP), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Peoples and Community Banks<br />
as well as Better Life programmes.<br />
The National Directorate of Employment was established by the National Directorate of<br />
Employment Act of 1989. The Directorate's main objective, like any other strategies, is the<br />
designation and implementation of programmes to combat mass unemployment. This is expected to be<br />
carried out by obtaining and maintaining a data bank on employment and vacancies in the country with<br />
a view to acting as a clearing house to link job seekers with vacancies in collaboration with other<br />
government agencies. In terms of their impacts on the targeted groups, all these initiatives achieved<br />
limited success owing largely to lack of commitment, continuity and coordination notwithstanding the<br />
huge financial resources committed to them. It was against this backdrop that the Obasanjo<br />
Administration, which came into power in May 1999, set up a panel to review, rationalize and<br />
harmonize the functions of all sundry poverty alleviation agencies, in order to enhance their<br />
effectiveness.<br />
The Poverty Alleviation Program (PAP) was, consequently introduced to bring immediate<br />
succour to Nigerians living below the poverty line. The PAP was geared towards socio-economic<br />
empowerment of the people which was to be achieved through programmes targeting provision of<br />
employment opportunities. The schemes under PAP include Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES),<br />
Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS), Social Welfare Service Scheme (SOWESS) and<br />
Natural Resource and Conservative Scheme (NRDCS). The Federal government instituted a fund, to<br />
finance such projects as rural electrification, water supply, primary health care, agriculture, food<br />
security, education and direct employment of youths. Some of the projects embarked upon have given<br />
employment to about 225,000 people representing 0.2 per cent of the population (Taiwo, 2001).<br />
Despite the fact that substantial budgetary allocations were made, the impact of PAP was still only<br />
little felt. This probably explains why federal government replaced the PAP with the NEEDS in 2003.<br />
NEEDS, an acronym for National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy, is a<br />
medium term strategy (2003-2007) which derives from the country's long-term goals of poverty<br />
reduction, wealth creation, employment generation and value orientation. NEEDS is a nationally<br />
coordinated framework of action in close collaboration with the state chapter called State Economic<br />
Empowerment and Development Strategy (SEEDS) and local government chapter referred to as Local<br />
Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (LEEDS) and other stakeholders to consolidate<br />
on the achievement of the early years of the present government and build a solid foundation for the<br />
attainment of Nigeria's long-term vision of becoming the largest and strongest African economy and a<br />
key player in the world. NEEDS is to ensure that the entire poverty eradication institutional landscape<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
is covered. NEEDS as policy statement is very clear and simple; it is aimed at developing human<br />
resources for higher productivity and self-sufficiency and eradication of poverty from the lives of every<br />
Nigerian citizen (NPC, 2004).<br />
The overall objective of establishing all the above-named structures and indeed NEEDS is to<br />
ensure that all poverty alleviation and employment programmes are implemented, coordinated and<br />
sustained such that the set targets are met. Also, there is a dire need for a structured framework for<br />
monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the employment and poverty alleviation programmes<br />
put in place. Thus, the question that readily comes to one's mind is whether NEEDS has met its<br />
targets. Indeed, the question of whether the goals of NEEDS programme have achieved has to be<br />
examined now and if not, what should be done. Yet in other words, how effective are<br />
NEEDS/SEEDS/LEEDS in solving unemployment and poverty problems in Osun state of Nigeria?<br />
What gap is left to be filled by NEEDS? In order to provide appropriate answers to the questions<br />
raised, the paper examines the impact of poverty alleviation and employment generation of<br />
NEEDS/SEEDS/LEEDS policy on target groups since its inception in 2003.<br />
The large population of Nigeria, growing urbanization, unemployment and poverty suggest the<br />
need for speed in evolving and implementing knowledge-based actions to avert the full blown of the<br />
epidemics. Thus, an important part of effort to combat unemployment and poverty epidemic requires<br />
quantitative investigation of the impact of NEEDS/SEEDS on the target groups. The prevalence of<br />
poverty and unemployment in Nigeria is becoming frighteningly high and thus a topical issue<br />
contemporarily. In essence, the paper is considered pertinent in light of the currently launched NEEDS<br />
in the country. The paper, therefore, assesses the impact of employment generation and poverty<br />
alleviation programmes of NEEDS strategy on poor people in Osun State of Nigeria.<br />
In order to put the discussion into proper context, the paper is organized into five sections.<br />
Following the introduction, section 2 focusses on background information of the study area (i.e., Osun<br />
State of Nigeria). Section 3 discusses the methodology adopted. While section 4 analyzes the results<br />
of survey, section 5 concludes the paper with appropriate recommendation.<br />
Background information on osun state:<br />
Geographical and demographical profile:<br />
Osun State was created on August 27 th , 1991 from the old Oyo state. The State lies approximately<br />
within latitudes 6 o 55 and 8 o 10 North and longitudes 3 o 55 and 5 o 05 East, and covers a total<br />
landmass of about 7,997.55 square kilometers. The area is underlain by rocks of the Basement<br />
Complex. Two specific rock groups are prominent. These are the migmatite complex which outcrop in<br />
Ilesa and Ife area and the metasediments found in Iwo and Ikire areas. The land surface of Osun State<br />
is generally undulating descending from an altitude of over 450 metres above sea level in the Osun and<br />
Ijesa areas, to 150 metres above sea level and below in the southern parts. These characteristics give<br />
rise to two main physiographic regions: a stretch of the Yoruba highlands to the north and the<br />
undulating lowland to the south. Prominent high ranges are found at Ilesa, Igbajo-Okemesi, Elu and<br />
Oba. Many rivers drain the state. The most prominent of these is Osun from which the state derives its<br />
name. Other major rivers are Oni, Shasha and Oba.<br />
The soils derive from the local geology and belong to the group of ferruginous tropical red<br />
soils. They are generally deep and of two types namely deep clayey soils formed on low smooth<br />
hillcrests and upper slopes, and the sandier hill wash soils on the lower slopes. The clayey soils are<br />
well drained and best support cocoa and coffee cultivation. The other group of soils are more suitable<br />
for cultivating local food crops such as yams, cassava and maize. Soil degradation and erosion are<br />
generally not serious but considerable hill wash occurs along hill slopes. Originally, virtually all parts<br />
of the state are under a rich low land tropical rain forest vegetation. Tracts of this original vegetation<br />
can still be found in forest reserves to the south. However, to a large extent, the vegetation has given in<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
to a wide range of derivatives including secondary forests, cocoa-kolanut mosaics, palm tree groves,<br />
food crop farms and savanna especially in the north. Mature forest, however still exists in the Owu<br />
forest reserve at the southern part of the state.<br />
Osun state has its headquarters at Osogbo which is the most commercial centre. It is known to<br />
be a semi-urban state, having high number of rural towns relative to few urban centres; Osogbo, Ile-Ife<br />
and Ilesa towns. Osun state is dominated by the Yoruba ethnic group which is unified by a common<br />
language. Within this main linguistic group, there are several subgroups with distinctive dialects. They<br />
include the Osuns, Ifes, Ijesas and Igbominas.<br />
Apart from the Yoruba, large numbers of other ethnic groups are found in the state. The census<br />
figures for 1991 clearly indicate that Osun state has a population of 2.158 million. Males represented<br />
48.3 per cent while women accounted for 51.7 per cent of this figure (NPC, 1991). For grassroots<br />
administration, the state is divided into thirty (30) Local Government Areas. According to the 1991<br />
National Population Census the breakdown according to the 30 Local Government Areas are shown in<br />
Table 1. Using a growth rate of 2.83 per cent the projected population of Osun State for 2004 standa at<br />
3,101,974m.<br />
2.2 Socio-economic profile:<br />
The major occupations of people in rural communities of the state are farming, trading and<br />
crafts while public services and private industries such as banking and insurance services are available<br />
in the urban communities. Osogbo, the state headquarters, Ile-Ife and Ilesa are among the largest cities<br />
in Osun State. These cities, with few other rural areas enjoy good road network, adequate supply of<br />
pipe borne water, good telecommunication network, adequate power supply. Indeed, all features found<br />
in a typical first order settlement such as police and army barracks, radio and television stations,<br />
railway station, a dam to mention but few, are present in Osogbo.<br />
Osun state has a mixed dual economic system in which the ownership of the means of<br />
production is shared between public and private sectors, with the latter becoming increasingly involved<br />
in modern business sector in recent years. The other major feature of the economy is the concomitant<br />
existence of the subsistence industries of agriculture and handicrafts in which the majority of the<br />
population earn their living. Per capita income in 2001 was about=,N 230 while the majority of the<br />
people live on meager income from subsistence agriculture. The vast majority of farmers are engaged<br />
in subsistence farming. Dominant features such as migration and seasonal production, lack of modern<br />
agricultural implements and low capital inhibit productivity in the agricultural sector.<br />
The relatively large size of the labour force in Osun reflects the dominating role and the huge<br />
size of the agricultural sector. Agriculture, perhaps, remains the major source of employment for most<br />
people in the labour force. Yet, in Osun state today, except for a few government plantations,<br />
agriculture remains a subsistence activity. The apparent absence of a high technology sector and the<br />
reliance on the elementary sub-sector constitute a major concern for the government. Stimulated by<br />
the demand for labour in government forces and establishments, there has been a growth of interest in<br />
wage employment among Osun people. Thus, since its creation in 1991, the labour force has grown<br />
gradually, although moderately. Almost 40.0 per cent of the population were in labour force in 1991<br />
while active labour force<br />
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Table 1: Population and Land Area by LGAs<br />
S/No LGA Name Pop. 1991 Projected<br />
Population 2004 *<br />
Land Area<br />
(km 2 ) +<br />
Percent of state<br />
Land<br />
1 Atakumosa East 38105 54770 419.62 5.25<br />
2 Atakumosa West 60037 86293 502.01 6.28<br />
3 Aiyedaade 94777 136226 951.37 11.90<br />
4 Aiyedire 41636 59845 247.87 3.10<br />
5 Boluwaduro 42392 60932 132.75 1.66<br />
6 Boripe 82387 118202 107.07 1.34<br />
7 Ede North 69388 99734 107.55 1.35<br />
8 Ede South 72975 104890 183.72 2.30<br />
9 Egbedore 40293 60789 235.44 2.94<br />
10 Ejigbo 69366 99702 343.84 4.30<br />
11 Ife Central 96580 138818 168.92 2.11<br />
12 Ife East 95857 137779 164.46 2.06<br />
13 Ife North 127677 183515 708.91 8.86<br />
14 Ife South 88170 126730 647.32 8.09<br />
15 Ifedayo 24671 35460 201.30 2.51<br />
16 Ifelodun 76565 110050 110.92 1.39<br />
17 Ila 50585 72708 190.73 2.39<br />
18 Ilesa East 78471 112789 65.03 0.81<br />
19 Ilesa West 60974 87640 57.51 0.72<br />
20 Irepodun 80415 115583 54.47 0.68<br />
21 Irewole 77884 111945 233.35 2.92<br />
22 Isokan 56943 81846 237.02 2.96<br />
23 Iwo 105401 151497 246.26 3.08<br />
24 Obokun 61218 87991 464.72 5.81<br />
25 Odo-Otin 82314 118313 260.83 3.26<br />
26 Ola Oluwa 39454 56709 298.77 3.74<br />
27 Olorunda 83347 119798 85.07 1.06<br />
28 Oriade 80833 116184 447.99 5.60<br />
29 Orolu 73042 104986 76.24 0.95<br />
30 Osogbo 106386 152912 46.47 0.58<br />
State Total 2,158,143 3,101,974 7997.54 100<br />
Source: NPC 1991<br />
+ Digitalized map of Osun State.<br />
* 2001 Population Projection using 2.83 per cent annual population growth rate was about 65.0 per cent<br />
in 1999. FOS (2001) survey data has indicated that there were close to 1.0 million (representing 25.0<br />
per cent) wage-earners in Osun state. This represents an increase of 15.0 per cent since 1991. Based<br />
on the labour force sample survey, 1.65 millions (representing 55.0 per cent) are engaged in<br />
agriculture. Generally, wage employment in agriculture is an infinitesimal percentage of total wage<br />
employment; it was 0.6 per cent in urban areas and 1.2 per cent in rural areas in 1991. In contrast, nonagricultural<br />
wage employment in urban centres was 21.0 per cent and 1.5 per cent for rural areas during<br />
the same period. Survey data of FOS (2001) placed 49.0 per cent of Osun people as living below the<br />
poverty line in 1986. The ratio increased to 58.0 per cent in 1996 and rose steeply, thereafter, reaching<br />
an estimated 1.8million people representing 69.0 per cent of population in 2000. Life expectancy at<br />
birth remained at an average of 51 years while adult literacy stood at 55.0 per cent of the population.<br />
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3 Methodology:<br />
3.1 Sources of data:<br />
The study employed both primary and secondary data. Secondary data used for analysis were<br />
obtained from various government units and departments including Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN),<br />
Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), National Population Commission (NPC) publications and the<br />
Federal Ministry of Employment, Labour and Productivity in Osogbo. The primary data are obtained<br />
through in-depth interview of members of target groups; men and women's groups, youth<br />
organizations, small scale industrialists, artisans and trade unions.<br />
3.2 Sample selection and techniques of data analysis:<br />
From the 30 local government areas (LGAs) in Osun state (see Table 1), four local government<br />
areas were purposively selected for the generation of primary data. Two of these, Olorunda and Ilesa-<br />
West, are urban while the other two, Ede North and Egbedore, are rural. These 4 LGAs are located not<br />
too far from the seat of power. Whatever is obtained here is considered to be a good reflection of the<br />
impact of government especially with respect to employment and poverty alleviation. In each of these<br />
four LGAs, twenty members of the target groups of NEEDS were randomly selected and interviewed.<br />
Qualitative instrument of data collection was used. The instrument involves the use of structured<br />
questionnaire in the administration of in-depth interview. The questionnaire addresses various aspects<br />
of the issues raised by the research questions.<br />
Two hundred and sixty (260) in-depth interviews were conducted for eight (8) different target<br />
groups of NEEDS. The selection of a target group, however, depends solely on the existence of the<br />
group in the selected local government areas. This is the case with Women and Children Development<br />
Initiative Foundation (WOCDIF), Youth and Handicapped groups which were only found in urban<br />
centres. Table 2 shows the distribution of target groups for in-depth interview. The target groups used<br />
in data collection and their distributions are as follows: Women's group or WOCDIF (20); Farmers'<br />
group (40); Traders' group (40); Artisans' group (40); Small Scale Industrialists group (40); Youth<br />
group or Life Vanguards (20); Handicapped group (20); and National Union of Road and Transport<br />
Workers, NURTW (20).<br />
Table 2: Distribution of Target Groups for In-depth Interview<br />
Group Rural Urban Total<br />
Artisans/Craftmen 20 20 40<br />
Traders 20 20 40<br />
Women (WOCDIF) - 20 20<br />
Farmers 20 20 40<br />
Handicapped - 20 20<br />
Youth (Live Vanguards) - 20 20<br />
Transporters (NURTW) 20 20 40<br />
Small Scale Industrialists 20 20 40<br />
Total 100 160 260<br />
Simple qualitative techniques which allows a tracking of the main trends in the views of the<br />
respondent were carried out. For instance, on the issue of employment trend, we categorized<br />
perceptions of employment in the state and counted the number of respondents whose responses give<br />
some allusion to the main issue. The analysis of data is carried out by the use of qualitative methods.<br />
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4 Analysis of survey data:<br />
The economic base of the state is presently very weak. The sector that is generating revenue<br />
and providing employment is the agricultural and forestry sector. Close to 80.0 per cent of the<br />
respondents were of the view that agricultural sector is still largely neglected despite the recent effort<br />
of the state government in the area of farm mechanization. Agriculture is largely weather dependent;<br />
when rains fail, crop do badly. Also, farmers do not often have access to farm inputs such as<br />
insecticides and fertilizers. Government has attempted to help many members of target groups of<br />
NEEDS programme. For instance, the Osun state government recently purchased 300 tractors for<br />
farmers use in the state. The effect of this action is yet to be felt.<br />
Evidence shows that social amenities are widely distributed in the state. These include market,<br />
electricity, pipe borne water, telephone and road networks. The study, however, shows that social<br />
amenities in Osun state are inadequate. For instance, most of the roads in the inner cities, even<br />
Osogbo, are in a state of disrepair. Pipe borne water supply is erratic as that of electricity although<br />
location like Ede North LGA enjoys relatively good supply. The inadequate functioning of these<br />
amenities were found to have discouraged private sector as regards investment projects in the state.<br />
Osun state needs to be first of all be empowered.<br />
The survey data indicate that the dominant economic resources of Osun state come from the<br />
agricultural and forestry sector. Substantial acreages of land are under food and cash crops. While the<br />
state is endowed with mineral resources, they are yet to be exploited to their full commercial scale.<br />
This is the same with tourism. In fact, farming, trading, craft, small scale enterprise and civil service<br />
dominate the occupation of people in Osogbo and Ilesa (urban centres) while farming and craft<br />
occupation dominate Ede and Awo (rural centres) with small percentage engaging in small scale<br />
enterprise and petty trading. As shown in Table 3, about 70.0 per cent and 7.5 per cent of the target<br />
population earn their living from subsistence farming and handicraft respectively. Only a small<br />
proportion (about 15.0 per cent) of the population are civil servants while 3.5 per cent and 2.2 per cent<br />
are petty traders and small scale industrialists respectively.<br />
It was also evident in survey data presented in Table 3 that high proportion of members of<br />
target groups are Osun state indigenes. Indeed, close to 90.0 per cent of farmer's settlers are natives<br />
while the remaining 10.0 per cent are non-natives. The population structure is similar for all other<br />
target groups examined. Members of the different groups interviewed ranged from 100 to a number as<br />
large as 5000. It was clear from the respondents that the main aim of forming these groups was to<br />
improve the general welfare of members through thrift and credit arrangements, acquisition of<br />
improved technical know-how, seeking for assistance and giving helping hands to vulnerable members.<br />
Also, some of the groups were formed in order to bail members out of poverty through economic<br />
empowerment.<br />
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Table 3: Composition and Structure of Employment Of Target Groups<br />
Occupation Composition<br />
Primary Secondary % of Native Non-native<br />
respondents (%)<br />
(%)<br />
Farming Artisans 69.5 89.2 10.2<br />
Artisans Farming 7.5 75.5 24.5<br />
Petty Trading Farming 3.5 75.0 25.0<br />
Civil Service Farming/Petty Trading 14.8 84.5 15.5<br />
Small Scale Enterprises Farming 2.2 55.8 44.2<br />
Transporters(NURTW) Farming 2.5 81.6 18.4<br />
Total<br />
Source: Survey Data (2004)<br />
100.0 76.8 23.2<br />
Except for Life Vanguards that is mainly for the youth, it was revealed that there was no age<br />
restriction to membership of groups. However, members must satisfy certain conditions such as<br />
engagement in some form of economic activities before their names can be registered. Also except for<br />
Life Vanguards, WOCDIF and Handicapped groups that were recently launched, all other target groups<br />
had been in existence for a period not less than 10 years. Indeed, the creation of Life Vanguards,<br />
WOCDIF and Handicapped groups were as a result of NEEDS in the state.<br />
Except for members of WOCDIF which are mainly women and NURTW and Bakers'<br />
association that are mainly men, members of each target group are of mixed gender and respondents<br />
feel that very large percentage of the members of these group were, indeed, poor. The survey data<br />
identified youth and women as the most target groups in NEEDS programme. This finding is<br />
supported by the operational guidelines of most poverty alleviation programmes (NEEDS inclusive)<br />
which ensure adequate consideration for youth and women as regards employment opportunities and<br />
poverty reduction. In spite of all policies and programmes aiming at improving women's lots in Osun<br />
State, records of poverty alleviation is not yet satisfactory.<br />
The survey result indicates that well over 50.0 per cent of the entire population is poor which<br />
indicates that previous national employment and poverty alleviation programmes are yet to have a<br />
positive impact on the life of poor people in Osun state. Indication of severe poverty among group<br />
members was reflected in the number of activities that respondents said members have to engage in to<br />
make ends meet. Except for youth and handicapped organizations, members were found to be engaged<br />
in more than one job. Apart from the dominant occupation which is reflected by the type and name of<br />
each group, members involved themselves in diverse occupations which are reported as secondary<br />
occupations in Table 3. Members are involved in multiple occupation simply to enhance their income<br />
generation as well as their standard of living. It is, therefore, easy to see an artisan who is also a civil<br />
servant and at the same time a farmer or a trader. In spite of combination of various jobs,<br />
unemployment and poverty still persist in Osun state. This, perhaps is due to subsistent nature of most<br />
sectors of the economy in which they were engaged.<br />
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Table 4: Poverty Situation in Osun State<br />
Monthly Income Access to Good Infrastructures (per cent)<br />
Water Power Road Education<br />
Group =,N Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No<br />
Farmers 2500 - 5000 27.5 72.5 37.5 62.5 30.0 70.0 25.0 75.0<br />
Artisans 2000 - 10000 30.0 70.0 37.5 62.5 35.0 65.0 20.0 80.0<br />
Petty Traders 1000 - 5000 40.0 60.0 32.5 67.5 30.0 70.0 30.0 70.0<br />
Civil<br />
Servants<br />
5000 - 35000 87.5 12.5 52.5 72.5 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0<br />
Small Scale<br />
Industrialists<br />
5000 - 25000 75.0 25.0 45.0 55.0 52.5 72.5 62.5 37.5<br />
Transporters 3500 - 10000 25.0 75.0 37.5 62.5 25.0 75.0 12.5 87.5<br />
(NURTW)<br />
Youths NA 50.0 50.0 60.0 40.0 60.0 40.0 90.0 10.0<br />
Handicapped - 80.0 20.0 75.0 25.0 50.0 50.0 40.0 60.0<br />
WOCDIF NA 75.0 25.0 50.0 50.0 65.0 35.0 55.0 45.0<br />
Total in % 54.4% 45.6% 47.6% 52.4% 44.2% 55.8% 42.7% 57.3%<br />
Source: Survey Data (2004)<br />
As shown in Table 4, monthly income of group members were below the subsistence level.<br />
The small scale industrialists and petty traders generally had low profit margin with losses in most<br />
periods and this scenario has compelled many of them to wind down their businesses. Income of the<br />
members who were civil servants was between=,N 5000 and=,N 35000 per month while that of other<br />
target group members were far below this range. The income was generally low and not adequate to<br />
meet the basic needs of life. Except for the handicapped, youths and educated groups, majority of<br />
members were self-employed. Their income generating ability was low hence, the prevalence of<br />
poverty among them.<br />
Women, handicapped and youth can be said to form the majority of the unemployed in the<br />
state. For instance, less than 2.0 per cent of the qualified unemployed youth were employed in the last<br />
five years while it was less than 1.0 per cent for the handicapped group. Survey data in Table 4 clearly<br />
shows that women have fewer job opportunities and since 1999, women labour has just risen by at least<br />
5.0 per cent. Women's participation in the state development has been slow because they are mostly<br />
illiterates and this is partly due to their role as housewives. Up to two-third of women's group are<br />
illiterates. There exists marginalization and discrimination against women in job preferences in recent<br />
times in Osun state. One major reason as to why majority of women are poor and could not get job<br />
placement is attributed to "limited education". This according to them prevents women from getting<br />
civil service jobs and force them to go into petty trading. The same reason goes for members of<br />
National Union of Road Transport Workers (NURTW). Most people end up in this group because of<br />
limited education and for the fact that its skill acquisition requires very little appreciation. However,<br />
some members of NURTW in the state have received assistance of new vehicles and motorcycles.<br />
Government had in recent times donated a sizeable number of buses to the union, but the effort is yet to<br />
have impact on a larger proportion of this group as we have a large number of them who are<br />
unemployed that parade themselves as conductors and touts. In some cases, touts are even more in<br />
number than the drivers.<br />
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Table 5: Poverty Alleviation and Employment Programmes of Government in Osun State<br />
Government Role Impact of NEEDS<br />
Group<br />
Significant<br />
(% of Res)<br />
Not<br />
Significant<br />
(% of Res)<br />
Improved<br />
Income<br />
(%)<br />
148<br />
Better<br />
Housing<br />
(%)<br />
Better<br />
Nutrition<br />
(%)<br />
Employment<br />
Generated up<br />
to 2004<br />
(% increase)<br />
Farmers 49.9 55.1 22.9 11.9 13.0 12.0<br />
Artisans 32.2 67.8 31.2 20.1 12.0 8.5<br />
Petty Traders 25.0 75.0 10.1 22.0 14.2 5.2<br />
Civil Servants 51.3 48.7 12.8 31.0 42.5 5.6<br />
Small Scale<br />
Industrialists<br />
35.8 64.2 9.4 18.7 25.1 1.8<br />
Youths 12.5 87.5 1.0 2.1 1.3 1.2<br />
Handicapped 5.0 95.0 0.2 0.1 1.5 0.9<br />
WOCDIF 48.6 51.4 6.8 7.8 22.7 4.7<br />
Transporters<br />
(NURTW)<br />
51.0 49.0 4.5 3.2 21.8 20.2<br />
Average 32.4 67.6 11.0 13.1 17.1 6.2<br />
Source: Survey Data (2004)<br />
Under the auspices of Live Vanguards (LIVA), 24 youth leaders (including disabled youths)<br />
have benefitted from LIVA youth development programmes. The programme seeks to empower and<br />
sensitize youths at the grassroots on civic education, good governance and principles of democracy.<br />
Youth have generally found LIVA programmes useful and worthwhile. It was also revealed that LIVA<br />
is currently involved in National Youth Exchange (NYE) programme between Osun and Enugu state.<br />
The exchange programme is expected to facilitate better understanding of cultural differences, promote<br />
integration and expose the youth in general, and Osun state's youths in particular to various vocational<br />
skills, arts and craft related to each community covered by the exchange. Youth aged 17-24 years are<br />
currently participating in the programme. It is opined that this step will ultimately increase<br />
employment opportunities and reduce poverty among the youths. Report indicates that one youthfriendly<br />
clinic was facilitated with drugs and equipment in Osogbo. In the area of health care, a<br />
weekly medicare is conducted for the youth at LIVA centre.<br />
Awareness of NEEDS and various agencies involved in its implementation is generally low.<br />
About 25.4 per cent of respondents are aware of these agencies involved while most respondents are<br />
not aware of NEEDS. However, awareness of the NEEDS by these few respondents came through<br />
media houses by paid advertisement over radio and television. Some members got the awareness<br />
through the ministry under which their business is classified. For instance, farmers got awareness of<br />
economic enhancement designed for them through the Ministry of Agriculture.<br />
It was observed in Table 5 that the existing poverty alleviation programmes in the state had not<br />
yielded significant success; their implementations were not encouraging. The expected positive<br />
impacts of these programmes are not well felt by the general populace. Except for certain seasons (like<br />
rainy period for farmers and celebration periods for artisan and traders) when members are fully<br />
employed, the employment situation in the state is described as poor. Table 5 clearly indicates that<br />
about 68.0 per cent of the respondents claimed that their local governments (LGs) have not played<br />
significant role in employment generation and poverty alleviation, except for about 15.0 per cent that<br />
claimed that some agro-allied business have been established while LGs have also helped in training<br />
and recruitment of members, health care scheme, creation of market places and mending of local roads.<br />
About 4.5 per cent identified provision of employment, giving of loan and advances and training of<br />
artisans as the major roles played by agencies responsible for such programmes. Less than 12.0 per<br />
cent claimed that more business and better income for members have been achieved while some
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
members had migrated to the urban centres. About 13.0 per cent claimed that the housing situation<br />
was adequate. 17.0 per cent were of the view that NEEDS had improved their nutritional habit. Some<br />
respondents, however, claimed that there was no direct relationship between their organizations and<br />
agencies responsible for NEEDS programme implementation.<br />
Survey data obtained also indicate that UNDP is a collaborator in employment generation and<br />
poverty alleviation programmes in the state. UNDP commenced its activities in Osun state between<br />
1995-1998. The major activities performed during the period was capacity building for relevant<br />
personnel in the state civil service that will execute programmes of activities. Workshops were also<br />
organized for these personnel. In the recent past, UNDP empowered rural populace including women<br />
by providing them with agro-allied equipment (such as palm oil processing machines) and credit<br />
facilities. Two vocational centres were also established; one at Ikirun and the other at Ilesa. Different<br />
trades are learnt in these centres by young school leavers or dropouts. The agency is, today, supporting<br />
the Osun state government in its policy to create 300,000 jobs for its citizenry. Other areas for which a<br />
blue print is being prepared are job creation at sustainable level and provision of basic infrastructural<br />
facilities towards poverty eradication and economic empowerment of people in the rural communities.<br />
National Employment Programme, through NDE has provided job for just 6.2 per cent of<br />
members which indicates that its impact is low. Survey reveals that people are facing a lot of problems<br />
when seeking for employment in the state. One major problem is the lack of general information as<br />
regards available job opportunities: people do not know where to go. There is high level iof unfairness<br />
as employment opportunities have been politicized. Another problem is inadequate planning on the<br />
part of government and individuals and probably the non availability of job opportunities. Generally,<br />
there is lack of creativity and people's orientation is poor. Many applicants are educationally<br />
incompetent coupled with lack of credits and financial assistance. Migration of people to urban centres<br />
as well as population explosion were also found to be the major causes of unemployment in the state.<br />
Self-employed people lack adequate capital and manpower, good equipment and access to markets.<br />
There is heavy reliance on government jobs which are not available given the poor state of the<br />
economy.<br />
5 Conclusion and recommendation:<br />
The study showed that a large proportion of people (about 70.0 per cent) of Osun state in<br />
Nigeria are poor. The poor in Osun state have limited access to savings and credit facilities, good<br />
roads, pipe borne water, innovative technology and output markets. Poor people in the state are<br />
predominantly in the agricultural sector and in petty trading, utilizing traditional inputs. Qualitatively,<br />
poverty in Osun state of Nigeria has many manifestations and various dimensions. These include<br />
joblessness, over-indebtedness, economic dependence, lack of freedom, lack of basic needs of life for<br />
household, lack of access to economic resources and inability to save and obtain credit. Poor people in<br />
Osun state live in dirty localities that put significant pressure on the physical environment, thereby<br />
contributing to environmental degradation.<br />
In spite of all previous programmes aiming at improving the lot of the poor, Osun state's<br />
records of employment generation and poverty alleviation have been rather low. The paper concludes<br />
that the current employment generation and poverty alleviation programme (NEEDS) in the state had<br />
not yielded significant success as its implementation is not encouraging. The expected positive impact<br />
of NEEDS programme is not yet felt by the general populace. It is, however, observed that women's<br />
status as full housewives is gradually changing in Osun state. In fact, women, like their men<br />
counterparts and youths are now being considered in the mainstream economic policies and NEEDS<br />
programmes which past programmes had failed to recognize.<br />
Inadequate access to employment opportunities has been identified as one of the major sources<br />
of poverty in the state. In fact, the employment situation among the target group members in urban<br />
centres can be described as poor while it is only fair in the rural areas. Major reason adduced is lack<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
of access by the poor (members of the target groups) and small scale industrialists to physical assets<br />
such as land and capital as well as credits (funds) to initiate investment projects that will engage<br />
people. Also, the urban centres have witnessed a great influx of people from rural, who are in search<br />
of greener pasture. For this particular reason, pressure has been mounted on the limited economic<br />
resources and social amenities in urban centres in Osun state.<br />
Low level of industialization, a usual avenue for employment, over-concentration on<br />
government sector for employment were also identified as reasons for poor employment situation in<br />
the state. The study also identified, among other things, the belief that "the rich gets richer while the<br />
poor gets poorer" as another factor militating against poverty in the state. The so-called Nigerian<br />
factor which tacitly supports corruption, theft of public funds/materials, insincerity in policy execution,<br />
population growth, social and economic imbalance as observed by Mongelle (1995) were also found to<br />
have negative effects on employment creation and reduction in poverty in the state. In addition, the<br />
paper identified discrimination of all sorts, poor state of the economy and under-utilization of<br />
resources, lack of access to markets where the poor can sell and buy goods and services, and<br />
inadequate access to the means of supporting rural development accounted for the persistence of high<br />
unemployment and poverty rates in Osun state.<br />
There exists a big gap between the objectives of NEEDS programme and its achievement in<br />
terms of employment generation and alleviation of poverty. It is observed that NEEDS is a new<br />
programme but in order to rekindle the employment generation and ameliorate poverty through<br />
NEEDS certain steps have to be taken. One way of reducing unemployment and poverty in Osun state<br />
is developing human resources at the disposal of the state. There is no doubt that Osun state is<br />
endowed with abundant human resources but when the human resources are not adequately utilized,<br />
efforts channelled towards reduction of unemployment and poverty would not yield dividends. Thus,<br />
there should be adequate manpower planning. Indeed, the key to eliminating unemployment and<br />
poverty in Osun state is to empower all categories of poor people in the state. It is, therefore,<br />
suggested that empowerment of the people is a way out of the predicament. This empowerment should<br />
be in form of possession of adequate educational skill and finance. The sincerity of all the three tiers<br />
of governments in implementing such programmes is a necessary impetus for the success of these<br />
programmes. In addition, distribution of amenities should be based mainly on the "need" formula.<br />
Also, there is a dire need for further improvement in farming activities and strong<br />
diversification of the state economy. In this regard, the Osun state government should show more<br />
interest in promoting heavy industries. Above all, agriculture which is the mainstream of the economy<br />
should be supported by providing a variety of incentives to farmers. Embarkment on various<br />
agricultural programmes for unemployed youths and graduates and adequate provision of skill<br />
acquisition materials for the youths should be encouraged. Also, State Government effort at<br />
purchasing farm tools such as tractors and cutlasses to assists the farmers in the state should be<br />
intensified. Improvement in the patronage of local products and assistance to local manufacturers<br />
financially are also important. The continuity of these exercises and transparency on the part of the<br />
government will bring about a significant reduction in poverty in the state in the long run.<br />
Areas for future research:<br />
While the report provided here is an eye opener to employment generation and poverty<br />
alleviation situation vis-a-vis the activities of the agencies charged with it in Osun state, further studies<br />
that would include broad-based household survey are needed. This will help provide, among other<br />
things reliable basis for development planning targetted towards employment generation and poverty<br />
alleviation in Nigeria. By the time of preparing this report, the SEEDS and LEEDS aspects of NEEDS<br />
were just been launched. More time is still needed in order to be able to ascertain the actual impact of<br />
NEEDS programme in Osun state. The paper only examined some of the already existing poverty<br />
alleviation programmes in the state which NEEDS takes over from in recent time.<br />
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References<br />
[1] Aboribo, R.I., J.A. Opara and A. Nosike (2000), "Women and Development in Nigeria: A<br />
Contemporary Perspective", African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2,<br />
November, pp.73-79.<br />
[2] Adebayo, O.O. and J.O. Amao (2000), "Rural Women and Household Poverty Alleviation in<br />
Ogo-Oluwa, Oyo State", African Journal of Business and Economic Research, Vol.1, No.2,<br />
November, pp.200-203.<br />
[3] Aigbokhan, B.E. (1997), "Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: Some Macroeconomic Issues", NES<br />
Conference Proceedings, Pat Mag Press Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria.<br />
[4] Ajakaiye, O. (1998), "Conceptualization of Poverty in Nigeria", Paper Presented at the 7th<br />
Annual Zonal Research Units Conference of the Central Bank of Nigeria, Markurdi.<br />
[5] Anyanwu, J.C. (1997), "Poverty in Nigeria: Concepts and Measurement and Determinants",<br />
NES Conference Proceedings, Pat Mag Press Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria.<br />
[6] Atoloye, A.S.F. (1997), "Strategy for Growth-Led Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria", CBN<br />
Economic and Financial Review, Vol.35, No.3, September, pp.298-314.<br />
[7] Bogunjoko, J.O. (1999), "Poverty and Women Development Strategy: Lessons from Policy<br />
Targeting and Public Transfers in Nigeria", CBN Economic and Financial Review, Vol.41,<br />
No.1, March, pp.105-124.<br />
[8] Englama, A. and A. Bamidele (1997), "Measurement Issues in Poverty", CBN Economic and<br />
Financial Review, Vol.35, No.3, September, pp.315-331.<br />
[9] Essien, D.U. (2000), "Poverty Alleviation Programme: A Positive Step Towards Development<br />
of Human Resources", African Journal of Business and Economic Research, Vol.1, No.2,<br />
November, pp.13-20.<br />
[10] Fakiyesi, O.M. (2001), "Encouraging Growth to Reduce poverty in Nigeria", CBN Economic<br />
and Financial Review, Vol.39, No.2, June, pp.61-91.<br />
[11] Federal Office of Statistics (1999), Poverty Profile for Nigeria: 1980-1996, Lagos.<br />
[12] Fields, G.S. (1980), "Poverty, Inequality and Development", Cambridge University Press,<br />
Cambridge.<br />
[13] ─── (1997), "Poverty, Inequality and Economic Well-being: African Economic Growth in<br />
Comparative Perspective", Paper Presented to the African Economic Research Consortium,<br />
August, Nairobi, Kenya.<br />
[14] Folorunso, I. (2000), "Women Empowerment and the Development of Nigeria in the 21 st<br />
Century", African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2, November, pp.126-130.<br />
[15] Gwatkin, D. R. (2000), "Health Inequalities and the Health of the Poor, What Do We Know?<br />
What Can We Do?", Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Vol.78, No.1, pp.3-18.<br />
[16] Ijaiya, G.T. (2000), "Feminization of Poverty in Nigeria: A Case Study of Households in Ilorin<br />
Metropolis", African Journal of Business and Economic Research, Vol.1, No.2, November,<br />
pp.141-148.<br />
[17] National Population Commission (1991), Population Census Report, Lagos, Nigeria.<br />
[18] National Planning Commission (2004), National Economic Empowerment and Development<br />
Strategy, Abuja, Nigeria.<br />
[19] NEEDS (2004), NIGERIA: National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy,<br />
March<br />
[20] Obashoro, O. (2002) "Programme Evaluation in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects",<br />
December.<br />
[21] Odili, J.N., D.G. Omotor and E.J. Pessu (2000), "Gender Equality and Development<br />
Framework for Women Integration In Economic Development: A Theoretical Perspective",<br />
African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2, November, pp.22-26.<br />
[22] Odimegwu, C.O., M.O. Kuteyi, A.O. Oyedokun and O. Adeyeye (2000), "Women's Perception<br />
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of Pregnancy Risks and Health-Seeking Behaviour in Osun State, Nigeria", African Journal of<br />
Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2, November, pp.80-90.<br />
[23] Oganwu, P.I. and D.G. Omotor (2000), "Nigerian Rural Women in Sustainable Development:<br />
A Socio-Economic Perspective", African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2,<br />
November, pp.64-67.<br />
[24] Ogunjuyigbe, P.O. (2000), "Pregnancy Risks and Child Delivery in Nigeria: Strategy for<br />
Prevention", African Journal of Social and Policy Studies, Vol.1, No.2, November, pp.106-112.<br />
[25] Oyugi, O., G. Mwabu and W. Masai (2000), "The Determinants of Poverty in Kenya", African<br />
Journal of Economic Policy, Vol.7, No.1, pp.47-64.<br />
[26] Sancho, A. (1996), "Policies and Programs for Social and Human Development", United<br />
Nations World Submit for Social Development Handbook, International Centre for Economic<br />
Growth, San Francisco.<br />
[27] Taiwo, I. O. (2001) "Review and Appraisal of the Year 2000 Federal Government Budget<br />
Performance", Paper Presented at the CBN/NCEMA/NES Seminar on Year 2001 Federal<br />
Government Budget held at the Musson Centre, Onikan, Lagos.<br />
[28] Wichterich, C. (1995), "Employment for Women?", Development and Cooperation, No.4.<br />
[29] UNDP (1997), "Poverty Reduction", Technical Support Document.<br />
[30] UNDP (2000), "Overcoming Human Poverty", Poverty Report.<br />
[31] World Bank (1996), Nigeria:Poverty in the Midst of Plenty, The Challenge of Growth with<br />
Inclusion, Washington D.C.<br />
[32] World Bank (1999), World Development Indicators.<br />
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Making Education Services Work for Rural Population<br />
M. A. Adelabu<br />
Department of educational administration and planning<br />
Obafemi awolowo university,<br />
Ile-ife,<br />
Osun state<br />
Nigeria<br />
dupeadelabu@yahoo.com<br />
Introduction<br />
Since modern formal education was introduced in developing countries, there have been complaints<br />
that education was too academic, not preparing children for life. The relevance of education was<br />
challenged, particularly so, for rural areas ( Bergman 2002) This is not limited to primary education<br />
only but also touched on secondary education. In view of this the Education For All Program for Sub-<br />
Saharan Africa identifies the need to consider accelerated and non-formal alternative approach for<br />
teaching underserved children particularly in remote and deprived environments. The bricks and mortar<br />
systems of education appear not to have given desired results in terms of individual achievements and<br />
skill development. Schooling in rural areas often has little to offer and has produced unemployable and<br />
unemployed citizens without any marketable skills. Observations have also shown that the curricula<br />
and textbooks in primary and secondary schools are often urban-based irrelevant to the needs of rural<br />
people and seldom focused on crucial skills for life.<br />
One of the six Education For All (EFA) goals agreed upon at Dakar in year 2000 stipulates that<br />
learning needs of all young people and adults are to be met through equitable access to appropriate<br />
learning and lifeskill programs. This is important in Nigeria in particular because of some identified<br />
gaps in the education of the underserved rural population education. The rural population in Nigeria is<br />
about 70% of the total population. The rural youth and children represent a substantial majority of this<br />
population, yet their educational needs had been largely ignored. The rural schools operate the same<br />
syllabus and the same curriculum with the urban schools without addressing the common problems of<br />
the rural dwellers. The danger here is that a large number of learners in rural communities are<br />
subjected to curricula that are irrelevant and hence incapable of nurturing their individual potentials as<br />
well as their human rights. Today, growing up in the rural areas in Nigeria means growing up without a<br />
decent education. This implies that school attendance is generally low, absenteeism is high particularly<br />
during planting and harvesting seasons and drop out is generally high. Rural people are caught in the<br />
vicious cycle of having no access to quality education, to gainful employment and to other services that<br />
might lift them out of poverty.<br />
Seventy eight percent of the rural population and 34% of the urban population in Nigeria live below<br />
poverty line (Clearer and Donovan1995) see table 1. Education is a major determinant of poverty. Any<br />
education given therefore must not only be qualitative, but must also address the needs of the people.<br />
To this extent, the National Policy on Education (2005 revised.) section 1 (d) stipulates that there is<br />
need for functional education for the promotion of a progressive and united Nigeria. To this end,<br />
school programs need to be relevant, practical and comprehensive while interest and ability should<br />
determine individuals direction in education. Nigeria’s philosophy of education therefore is based on<br />
the integration of the individual into the community (section1, 5b). In consequence, the quality of<br />
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instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards acquisition of competencies necessary for selfreliance<br />
(section 18c). Section 1: 9b stipulates that efforts should be made to relate education to overall<br />
community needs. (NPE 2005 revised).<br />
This study intends to search for a sustainable education by exploratory for alternative and<br />
complementary education to address the unique challenges of the rural communities. This can be<br />
achieved through a more relevant and sustainable link between out-of-school experiences on the one<br />
hand and organized formal learning experiences on the other. The study is predicated on the fact that<br />
learning usually occurs in the context of varying individual and social experiences and that the school<br />
is only one institution among many others where learning occurs or completely occurs. Learning can<br />
also take place in the community, because relevant human and material resources abound in every<br />
community. Because of this, the rural based education structure that will draw on existing resources in<br />
the society can be developed.<br />
Objectives of the study<br />
(i) The study sets out<br />
(ii) To investigate the possibility of enlarging the scope of secondary education by complementing<br />
and reinforcing it with vocational and lifeskills.<br />
(iii) To assess the interests of parents and pupils interest in skill development and training within<br />
their immediate environment<br />
(iv) To identify areas of school-community partnership in students skill development and training.<br />
(v) To investigate perceived constraints to gainful employment of rural people.<br />
(vi) To develop recommendations for the sustainable development of education that will alleviate<br />
the poverty of rural people and make them escape out of poverty.<br />
Methodology<br />
This study was carried out in Egbedore Local Government Area of Osun State. The Local<br />
Government was chosen because of its rural nature This local government is made up of 56 rural<br />
communities with five secondary schools one technical college and 31 primary schools. The five<br />
communities where there are secondary schools were purposively targeted for the study. The target<br />
groups were policy makers (1), household heads (114), teachers (42) and students (210). Both<br />
qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Four sets of questionnaires were designed for each<br />
target group. The questionnaires were to determine the poverty level of the community, the community<br />
needs in relation to youth and adult employment and the aspirations and desires of the students in<br />
relation to skills development.<br />
Historical background<br />
Pre-independence Nigerian education system<br />
In the traditional African society, the warrior, the hunter, the noble man or anyone who<br />
combined the latter feature with a specific skill was adjudged to be a well educated and a well<br />
integrated citizen of his community Fafunwa (1995). The African education is an integrated<br />
experience, which combined manual activities with intellectual training. In short, the education was not<br />
compartmentalized as the formal western education.<br />
The pre-colonial and colonial education emphasized formal education particularly, reading,<br />
writing, arithmetic, with the introduction of a few core subjects including agriculture skill training and<br />
co-curricular activities such as gardening. As far back as 1922, the Phelps Stokes commission, which<br />
studied education in West Africa, produced a report which elaborated on the adaptation of education to<br />
the needs of individuals and the community. Hitherto, the educated Africans themselves had on several<br />
occasions criticized the colonial education system, which was too literally and too classical to be<br />
useful, and which resulted in overproduction of those who could write and talk and an undersupply of<br />
those who could till and repair. The commission further stated that since Africans live both in rural and<br />
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urban areas, they required education suited to their life needs (that is agriculture for those in rural areas<br />
and industrial and technical skills for those in urban areas). Specifically, the commission stipulates that<br />
rural education should be organized to blend intimately with the lives of the groups from which the<br />
pupils come. The emergence of British colonial policy led to the 1925 memorandum of education<br />
which made a suggestion that education should be adapted to the local conditions in such away as to<br />
enable it to conserve all sound elements in local tradition and social organization while at the same<br />
time functioning as an instrument of progress and evolution. It also indicates that technical and<br />
vocational training should be carried out and that the educational system should seek to establish the<br />
dignity of manual vocations and promote their equality with clerical services.<br />
One of the major defects in the Nigerian Educational system is the lip service accorded to technical and<br />
vocational education. Indeed, technical education had a slow start in Nigeria, and developed less<br />
quickly than other forms of education. Till date, students would rather go to secondary schools and<br />
universities than technical colleges. The present 6-3-3-4 System of Education however tried to address<br />
this gap.<br />
The present Nigerian educational structure<br />
The National Policy on Education first published in 1977 stipulates a 6-3-3-4 system of<br />
education that is 6 years primary, 3 years junior secondary, 3 years senior secondary and 4 years<br />
university. The junior secondary school is both pre-vocational and academic. The specific objectives of<br />
the junior secondary school are to develop in the students manipulative skills, respect for dignity of<br />
labour and above all healthy attitude towards things technical. At the same time students are to be<br />
exposed to the usual basic academic courses. Students who complete junior secondary schools are<br />
streamlined into the following based on the results of tests to determine their ability.<br />
1. The senior secondary school<br />
2. The technical college<br />
3. Out of school vocational training centers.<br />
4. An apprenticeship scheme.<br />
However there have been automatic transitions from JSS3 to SS1. Adelabu (1989) Transition to<br />
technical colleges has not been recorded. The senior secondary school has diversified curriculum, but<br />
with less emphasis on vocational subjects.<br />
Technical and vocational education<br />
The technical and vocational education would have been a viable alternative to alleviate<br />
poverty particularly with the high unemployment rate in the country. The 6-3-3-4 education system<br />
makes technical colleges the only alternative (i.e. alternative to secondary education) route to further<br />
formal education whereby graduates of secondary schools at least can sustain themselves without<br />
government employment. Unfortunately, the vocational and technical schools are one option that is<br />
unpopular with both parents and their children.<br />
Literature review<br />
More than one billion people in the developing world continue to live in absolute poverty and<br />
struggling to survive on less than $370 a year or $1 a day (Akinlo 2001).<br />
Although poverty is not peculiar to the developing countries, but its incidence in developing countries<br />
has continued to rise. Nigeria has the highest poverty rate in Africa and rated below Kenya, Ghana and<br />
Zambia (The World Bank 1996). Poverty is a rural phenomenon as shown in table 1 below. About<br />
70% of Nigerians live in the rural areas In 1992, 34.7 millions Nigerians were in poverty, out of which<br />
11.9 millions and 22.8 millions were located in urban and rural areas respectively. Both incidence and<br />
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depth of poverty were higher in rural areas than in urban ( Ogwumike 2001) while Adelabu (2001)<br />
found poverty to be widespread among people with low education, unstable employment,<br />
unemployment, low status job and absence of material possession all these factors are prevalent in and<br />
typical of rural areas.<br />
The marginalization of the rural areas through urban biased development policies is also largely<br />
responsible for high incidence of poverty in the rural areas.<br />
Table1: Percent of Population below the Poverty Line in African Countries, Early 1990s.<br />
Country Rural % Urban %<br />
Cameroun 71 25<br />
Cote d’ Ivoire 77 23<br />
Gambia 66 33<br />
Ghana 94 19<br />
Guinea-Bissau 58 24<br />
Kenya 41 20<br />
Lesotho 54 55<br />
Madagascar 37 44<br />
Malawi 63 10<br />
Mali n.a. 50<br />
Nigeria 78 34<br />
Tanzania 59 61<br />
Uganda 57 38<br />
Zaire 76 32<br />
Zambia 85 46<br />
Source: Clearer and Donovan 1995.<br />
At least 50 percent of the poor in Africa were from far east African countries and Nigeria.<br />
.Both secondary and tertiary graduates and school-drop-outs rush to the urban centers because of<br />
unrealistic expectations of gainful employment in the cities and because of the hopeless rural<br />
alternatives. Invariably, most of them are unable to be gainfully employed or unemployable (Adelabu<br />
1981). According to Omideyi (2000) the decisions of the rural dwellers to migrate are usually informed<br />
primarily by economic considerations particularly when they are unable to satisfy their aspirations<br />
within the existing opportunity structure in their locality. She further said that rural–urban migration<br />
still persists even in the face of worsening urban unemployment and prospects of better living in the<br />
rural agricultural areas . The number of the rural poor is said to be roughly twice that of the urban poor,<br />
while the depth of poverty is more than double in rural areas (The World Bank 1996). These rural<br />
dwellers who are predominantly farmers, who though hardworking are producers whose output and<br />
earnings are principally from agricultural activities, are inversely proportional to the efforts they put to<br />
their work. This is because they lack the adequate infrastructures such as good roads, transportation<br />
and credit facilities needed to promote their products and trade. The consequence of this is low or poor<br />
socio-economic status of the rural households (Adelabu 2001).<br />
One of the broad aims of secondary education as stipulated in the National Policy on<br />
Education is “preparation” for useful living, but there is no evidence that the curriculum and training in<br />
the secondary schools have fulfilled this objective. The secondary schools have failed in producing<br />
students who can be useful to themselves and to their immediate community. This is because according<br />
to Baike (2002), the educational system seems to be turning out graduates faster than the economy can<br />
give them job, hence a large scale unemployment of the graduates. Observation had shown that the<br />
education given to both the urban and rural students is to make them dependent on being employed as<br />
workers or job seekers. The consequences of this is a rural-urban exodus which shifted the burden of<br />
poverty to the urban areas yet according to Adelabu (2001) the cycle of poverty seems unbroken<br />
among the rural population where poverty is passed from generation to generation. Where job is<br />
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available, the education of the rural dwellers is inadequate this is because given the deplorable<br />
conditions under which rural pupils learn, it will be too much to expect them to attain a level of<br />
performance comparable to that of children of urban schools ( Junaid and Umar 1991).<br />
To compound the problems of rural students, only few of them have employable skills to make<br />
their education useful in their community. Studies have also shown that parents because of their limited<br />
resources, level of poverty and inability to fund the cost of their children’s education often withdraw<br />
their children to contribute to the household economy (Adelabu 1992). The withdrawals are common<br />
during planting and harvesting seasons particularly in the rural agrarian communities. The present<br />
scenario therefore vindicates Nikolaus Vander Pas (2003) when he says there is need to search for a<br />
more relevant and sustainable link between out-of-school experience on the one hand, and organized<br />
learning experiences on the other becomes urgent in this extent and in keeping with the declarations of<br />
the second International Congress on Technical and vocational education (TVE) held in Seoul April<br />
1999. Nigeria had to meet her commitment to take lots of challenges one of which is enhancing the<br />
social prestige of TVE programmes, through creating an enabling psycho-pedagogical environments in<br />
the schools as well as enables socio-economic environment in the wider society (Obanya 2002). It is<br />
strongly believed that active involvements of families and the wider community in the teaching and<br />
learning process of children is fundamental to the development of an effective inclusive learning<br />
community (Christenson and Sheridan 2001: a, Simon and Epstein 2001: b). This community can<br />
provide resources both physical and personal to support a child’s learning.<br />
Towards this, this paper advocates building and implementing training in lifeskills into the<br />
secondary school curriculum in such a way that the community will be a learning laboratory for the<br />
students.<br />
This has become necessary for two reasons:<br />
(1) Parents are reluctant to send their children to purely technical colleges which they regard as<br />
inferior<br />
(2) Dearth of teachers who are trained in the vocational skills<br />
The inclination of young people towards white collar jobs could be changed by practically<br />
oriented curriculum towards production-oriented skills such as farming trades and crafts. These are<br />
more needed in development than office jobs.<br />
According to Bergman (2002) it is only legitimate to demand that what people learn during five to<br />
seven years have a direct bearing on their lives, that is, that they have an opportunity to acquire life<br />
skills.<br />
Ruralisation of education was meant to become directly relevant to conditions of life and work<br />
in rural areas. This meant adapting curriculum content to the realities of rural areas, adapting the school<br />
year to local and regional agricultural cycles and their labour requirements and including practical<br />
activities such as school gardening, school farmwork and animal husbandry. This has been an approach<br />
provided by UNESCO in the sixties and seventies ( Bucholz 1985-1986).<br />
Data analysis and findings<br />
Descriptive analysis ( percentages and frequency tables) were used were used to present the<br />
qualitative and quantitative data. In-depth interviews made were also summarized.<br />
The local government<br />
The local government under study is Egbedore local government. The local government is made<br />
up of 56 communities with an estimated population of about 40,293. There are only five public<br />
secondary schools and 31 public primary schools. The main occupation is farming with a little<br />
proportion of the population in petty trading. Their major public services in the area are: the local<br />
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Government council (LGA) and the local government education authority (LGEA). Less than 3 % of<br />
the community members are wage earners, they are mainly teachers and civil servants.<br />
Household economy.<br />
All the 114 households heads were male this might be as a result of the traditional under-<br />
reporting of female headship. The age of house hold heads ranged between 30-70 yrs with the majority<br />
in the 50-60 years bracket.<br />
All the house hold heads were married with about 50% in polygamous marriages.<br />
Majority of the house hold heads have between 5-7 children with 56% of them as farmers while 21%<br />
are traders19% artisans and 4% in other menial jobs. The household heads derived their income from<br />
their various occupations occasionally subsided with child labour such as hawking of goods and farm<br />
products in cities and other neighboring towns.<br />
The Average monthly income of household heads is #16, 578 about $102. The average monthly<br />
expenditure is #9,994.8 about $80.<br />
This expenditure is mainly on food items leaving a paltry balance of #4.586 that is $22. It is from this<br />
balance that they buy clothes for the family, provide for the children’s school needs and purchase some<br />
other basic materials. This indicates that the general standard of living is low.<br />
Majority of the household heads in Nigeria are poor. In the rural areas, a significant number of<br />
the household heads under study are poor. Poverty was higher among households headed by those<br />
within the age groups 46-55 and 56-65. It was also observed that:<br />
• The older the household head, the higher the likelihood he or she will be lacking education and<br />
the household to live in poverty.<br />
• Poverty incidence by employment status shows that households headed by wage earners have<br />
less incidence of poverty but only about 1% of the household heads under study are wage<br />
earners.<br />
The socio-economic characteristic of policy makers that is the chairman of the local government who<br />
was the only policy maker in the sample is on the high side. He is a political head and his salary is on<br />
the high side. All local government chairmen, whether urban or rural earn the same salary.<br />
Only 42 secondary school teachers were in the sample. They were few because the sizes of the schools<br />
themselves were also small. All the teachers in the sample had the requisite qualifications for their<br />
jobs. Their teaching experiences ranged between 3 – 10 years and above. However, only three of the<br />
teachers had some vocational and technical experience hence the teachers were not competent to train<br />
students in their desired vocational skills. There were 210 students in the sample. Their age ranged<br />
from 11-20 years with the mean age of 17-19 years bracket. They were made up of 114 males<br />
(55.77%) and 93 females (44.23%) The family size of the students ranged from 4 to 11. This large size<br />
also affects the parents economy. The students said they eat 3 meals daily but further probing revealed<br />
that the meals were mainly carbohydrates and poor in quality. Findings also showed that the students<br />
always helped their parents in the farm and in other jobs to help as coping strategy. This also<br />
confirmed the low socio-economic level of their parents. The consequence of this is absenteeism and<br />
truancy thus resulting in low quality education, mass failure or outright drop out.<br />
Absenteesim<br />
The school teachers revealed that absenteeism and truancy were common phenomena in the schools.<br />
The trend in school absenteeism and the reasons for this as indicated by teachers are presented in tables<br />
2a and 2b below.<br />
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Table 2a: Students Absenteeism<br />
Period/Time of absence from school Per cent of time absent (%)<br />
Anytime 41<br />
Planting and harvesting season 34<br />
Market days 25<br />
Table 2b: Reasons for Absenteeism<br />
Reasons for absenteeism Per cent of absenteeism (%)<br />
Sickness 13.16<br />
Truancy 28.95<br />
School fees and other school materials 31.58<br />
Farm Activities 26.31<br />
The information contained in these tables in addition to the poor socio-economic background of<br />
students in rural areas led to parents withdrawing their children for labour in the farm and for other<br />
socio-economic activities.<br />
Rural-urban migration<br />
The interview with household heads, students and the policy maker revealed that a preponderant<br />
majority of graduates of secondary schools (males and females) who could not gain admission into<br />
tertiary institutions had left the villages to surrounding towns in search of trade and employment<br />
opportunities. Data on whether the household heads will like their wards to stay back in the village and<br />
whether students themselves will like to stay back in their villages or migrate to town and cities<br />
revealed preference for cities as shown in table 3 below.<br />
Table3: Rural or Urban Preferences<br />
Respondents Stay in village Go to cities for employment<br />
Household heads 40 (35.08%) 74 (64.92%)<br />
Students 60 (28.57%) 150 (71.43%)<br />
Policy maker 1 (100%) -<br />
The policy maker said that his preference is based on the fact that it is more desirable for the youths to<br />
stay back and develop their communities while the household heads indicated that going to the city to<br />
work is a way for their children to escape out of poverty. One of the household heads said ‘I want my<br />
children to work in the city and bring money home to offset my investments in their education and<br />
assist me financially”.<br />
The students themselves said that life is better in all ramifications in the urban than in the rural<br />
communities.<br />
Rural school curriculum<br />
Both the policy maker and the teachers identified some flaws in the existing curriculum of the rural<br />
schools. They all agreed that the schools in the rural areas should have the same curriculum with the<br />
schools in the urban so that the rural students will not be deficient. However they would welcome<br />
introduction of skills training like gardening, needle work/tailoring and other crafts alongside the<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
normal formal school curriculum so as to take advantage of the local peculiarities in the communities.<br />
This is to enable the students sustain themselves after graduation and be self employed.<br />
Attitude to vocational and technical education<br />
Majority of the students and household heads indicated their dislikes for vocational and technical<br />
education. They regarded it as a dead-end meant only for those who could not secure admission into<br />
secondary schools. They also rejected a ruralized special education system which they said would not<br />
offer opportunities for further studies and for life outside the rural areas. However they all agreed that<br />
they would like skill training as a co-curricular school activity. Table 4 below shows students<br />
preference as regards skill training.<br />
Table 4: Preference of Skill Training.<br />
Skills Respondents(male) Respondent(female) Total %<br />
Hairdressing 7 24 31 14.76<br />
Farming 28 - 28 13.33<br />
Tailoring/sowing 18 38 56 26.67<br />
Catering<br />
services<br />
16 68 84 40.00<br />
Capentary 6 - 6 2.86<br />
Automechanic<br />
5 - 5 2.38<br />
Suprisingly only 13.33% of the students preferred skills in farming moreso that the predominant<br />
occupation in the rural areas is farming. Reasons for this might be because the students have had<br />
enough experience in the farm or the thought that farming should be left for those who did not go to<br />
school or for older people. However all the vocations chosen if praticalized will sustain the students<br />
and could make them self employed both in the urban and rural communities after their secondary<br />
school education. The future carrier aspirations of the students is shown below.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 5: Future Career Aspirations of Students<br />
Careers Number %<br />
Accountant 58 27.62<br />
Economist 4 1.90<br />
Pastor 4 1.90<br />
Doctor 30 14.28<br />
Nursing 28 13.33<br />
Lawyer 18 8.57<br />
Engineering 16 7.62<br />
Teaching 20 9.52<br />
Barbing 10 4.77<br />
Lecturer 2 0.95<br />
Tailor 6 2.86<br />
Hairdressing 2 0.95<br />
Civil service 4 1.90<br />
Armed forces 2 0.95<br />
Trading 2 0.95<br />
Diplomat 2 0.95<br />
Others 2 0.95<br />
From the table above, one observes that the students’ carrier aspirations are not dramatically different<br />
from urban students aspirations. They have inclination for white collar jobs instead of production<br />
oriented jobs such as farming and others which are the jobs needed for self employment, income<br />
opportunities, community and national development. Because of the preferences of the students, it<br />
becomes difficult to advocate a completely different curriculum from students in the country. This will<br />
be denying them access to their future careers , hence, it is better to have a complementary alternative<br />
education for the rural dwellers.<br />
Community as learning centers<br />
All the people interviewed particularly household heads and teachers support the community and its<br />
resources as learning centers. The finding revealed that the pre-service training of teachers is deficient<br />
or totally lacking in vocational and skill training. A lot of physical and human resources abound in the<br />
communities. The household heads, especially farmers and artisans expressed their readiness to serve<br />
as resource persons to students and teachers alike and are equally ready to release their farmlands and<br />
workshops as learning laboratories. This view is also supported by the policy maker, but according to<br />
him, this would also require a change in the school calendar because of this, it becomes a policy issue<br />
which he cannot do independently but though parliamentary procedures.<br />
Discussion and conclussion<br />
Undoubtedly, the education enterprise in Nigeria has experienced some troubles that today<br />
Nigeria is enmeshed in a hotchpotch system of education that leads to the acquisition of certificates and<br />
qualifications which are sources of frustration to the recipients because of their irrelevance to their<br />
environments Baike (2002). He further said that in order to alleviate the problems of crises in<br />
education, there should be a deliberate policy to promote the appreciation of dignity of labour. The<br />
situation in the secondary schools is critical because of the lack of employment after graduation,<br />
moreso since only few of them will transit from secondary schools to university. For instance, Jamb<br />
sources revealed that in year 2002, about one million candidates sat for University Matriculation<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
examination (UME) but only 125,000 of the applicants were admitted.<br />
The findings in this study revealed that poverty is a major problem of the rural dwellers. This is<br />
because their education has not addressed their needs thus leading to youths seeking employments<br />
outside the community. The curriculum structure that de-empasizes skill training has not addressed the<br />
socio-economic realities of the students. Therefore, there is need to review the existing school<br />
curriculum in such a way that it will address students’ need for out-of-school vocational and skill<br />
training in line with the view of Atchoanena (2005). To actualize this skill training, there exist in the<br />
rural communities untapped rich and diversified learning resources with the potential to address the<br />
deficiencies identified in the curriculum of the formal school system. Obviously, the curriculum and<br />
the experiences which the students in the rural communities have were at variance with their immediate<br />
and future needs.<br />
To make education relevant to the needs of rural dwellers, such education must be attractive and<br />
perceived as relevant and useful. This, in itself will stimulate demand by stakeholders within the<br />
community.<br />
Suggestions and reccomendations<br />
(1) For a complementary and skill training education to be acceptable by rural dwellers, a general<br />
curriculum based on the needs assessment of the communities, that will enhance relevance to<br />
out-of-school and beyond school life in all schools both urban and rural is advocated. This will<br />
enable students have a choice as to what is suitable to them and their environment.<br />
(2) Where vocational out-of-school skills are learned this should be examined and certificated and<br />
it must be of equal value to the education in urban areas e.g. computer education<br />
(3) The daily or weekly timetable of the secondary schools should be designed to accommodate<br />
out-of-school vocational and skill training activities.<br />
(4) The process of curriculum planning and development should be decentralized to adapt its<br />
structure to local peculiarities<br />
(5) Finally, for this to be acceptable and accepted by all concerned, government should legislate on<br />
out-of-school skill training and incorporate such into the Nigerian school curriculum.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adelabu, M.A. (1981) Education and The Urban Poor in Nigeria in Makinwa, P.K.and Ozo,<br />
O..A. (eds.) The Urban Poor in Nigeria. Ibadan Evans Brothers (Nigeria Publishers) Ltd.<br />
[2] Adelabu, M.A. (1989) Secondary Education in Transition: A Period of Dilemma and Role<br />
Conflicts for the School Principal, African Journal of Educational Management Vol. 3 No. 1<br />
January 1989. Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan Nigeria.<br />
[3] Adelabu, M.A. (1992) Problems of Universalizing Access and Promoting Equity in Primary<br />
Education for the Rural Dwellers of Ondo State in Adaralegbe A. (eds.) Education For All:<br />
The Challenge of Teacher Education. International Year Book on Teacher Education Lagos<br />
Federal Ministry of Education (with the permission of ICET USA).<br />
[4] Adelabu, M.A.(2001) Crises In the Education Sector and the Unbroken Cycle of Poverty in<br />
Afonja Simi et al. (eds.) Research and Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for<br />
Gender and Social Policy Studies Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife.<br />
[5] Akinlo, A.E. (2001) Global Trend and Challenges in Afonja Simi et al. (eds.) Research and<br />
Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for Gender and Social Policy Studies Obafemi<br />
Awolowo University Ile-Ife.<br />
[6] Atchoanena, David (2005) Youth Transition to work - A continuous Challenge. IIEP<br />
Newsletter, Vol. xxiii, No. 2, April - June 2005 UNESCO; Paris.<br />
[7] Baike, A. (2002) Recurrent Issues in Nigeria Education. Tamaza Publishing Co. Ltd. Zaria.<br />
[8] Bergman, Hubert (2002) Being a Paper Presented at the “Aid Agencies Workshop Education<br />
For Rural People: Targeting the Poor” (Rome, December 2002).<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
[9] Buchholz, J. (1985-1986) Formal and Non-formal Education in Regional Rural Development<br />
Projects – State of the Art Report and Guidelines, Published by GTZ.<br />
[10] Ceaver, K.M. and Donovan (1995) Agriculture, Poverty and Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan<br />
Africa. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.<br />
[11] Christenson, S.L. and Sheridan, S.M. (2001) Schools and Families: Creating Essential<br />
Connection for Learning. London: The Guilford Press.<br />
[12] Fafunwa, A.B. (1995) History of Education in Nigeria, George Allen and Unwin, 1974.<br />
[13] Junaid, M.I. and Umar, A. (1991) Promoting Equity Through Universal Education: An<br />
Appraisal in Adaralegbe A. (ed.) Education For All: The Challenge of Teacher Education.<br />
International Year Book on Teacher Education Lagos Federal Ministry of Education (with the<br />
permission of ICET USA).<br />
[14] National Policy on Education (1998) Third Edition. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Lagos<br />
NERDC Press.<br />
[15] Nikolaus, Van der Pas (2003) In Rethinking Lifelong Learning Policies in Europe Lifelong<br />
Learning Discourses – Europe In Model-Anonuevo (ed.) Paris Unesco Institute for Education.<br />
[16] Obanya, P.A.I. (2002) Revitalizing Education in Africa. Ibadan Stirling Horden Publishers<br />
(Nig.) Ltd.<br />
[17] Ogwumike, F.O. (2001) Current State of Knowledge on Poverty in Nigeria in Afonja Simi et al.<br />
(eds.) Research and Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for Gender and Social<br />
Policy Studies Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife.<br />
[18] Omideyi, Adekunbi (2003) Rural Exodus, Urban Growth and Development in Addressing Data<br />
Needs for Sustainable Development in the 21 st Century. National Population Commission,<br />
Abuja, March 2003.<br />
[19] Simon, B.S. and Epstein, J.L. (2001) School, Family and Community Partnerships. In Hiatt-<br />
Michael, D. B. (Ed.) Promising Practices for Family Involvement – Schools, Family and<br />
School Community Partnerships. Greenwich CT: Information Age Publishing 1-24.<br />
[20] The World Bank (1996) IFOS/Federal Republic of Nigeria: Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria.<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for Learning Dimension, Facilitators and Organization Performance<br />
Learning Dimensions:<br />
1. Developing knowledge internally.<br />
2. Acquiring knowledge developed externally<br />
3. Accumulating knowledge of products /services<br />
4. Accumulating knowledge of processes<br />
5. Knowledge individually possessed<br />
6. Knowledge publicly available<br />
7. Formal procedures of sharing learning<br />
8. Informal practices of sharing learning<br />
9. Incremental changes<br />
10. Radical changes<br />
11. Emphasize on learning engineering/ production technology<br />
12. Emphasize on learning sale/ service activities<br />
13. Focus on development of individual/ skills<br />
14. Focus on development of group skills<br />
Learning Facilitators:<br />
1. Scanning imperative<br />
2. Performance gap<br />
3. Concern for measurement<br />
4. Experimental mind-set<br />
5. Climate of openness<br />
6. Continuous education<br />
7. Operational variety<br />
8. Multiple advocates<br />
9. Involved leadership<br />
10. System perspective<br />
Organization performance<br />
1. Effective production<br />
2. Effective marketing<br />
3. Effective human resources<br />
4. Effective Completion<br />
Variables M SD<br />
164<br />
2.46<br />
2.42<br />
2.61<br />
2.62<br />
2.42<br />
2.27<br />
2.22<br />
2.50<br />
2.64<br />
2.35<br />
2.33<br />
2.64<br />
2.35<br />
2.35<br />
2.75<br />
2.45<br />
2.62<br />
2.35<br />
2.41<br />
2.36<br />
2.42<br />
2.26<br />
2.37<br />
2.49<br />
2.87<br />
2.71<br />
2.39<br />
2.72<br />
.44<br />
.34<br />
.51<br />
.47<br />
.37<br />
.34<br />
.50<br />
.50<br />
.45<br />
.49<br />
.57<br />
.55<br />
.43<br />
.47<br />
.51<br />
.46<br />
.42<br />
.40<br />
.44<br />
.54<br />
.50<br />
.45<br />
.47<br />
.46<br />
.31<br />
.43<br />
.60<br />
.50
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 2 Summary of Comparing Learner Versus Nonlearner Organizations in term of Learning Facilitators and<br />
Organization Performance<br />
Learning Facilitators:<br />
Variables Learners Nonlearners T Sig.<br />
M SD M SD value T<br />
1. Scanning Imperative 2.92 .43 2.59 .54 2.2 .03<br />
2. Performance Gap 2.51 .44 2.39 .48 .8 .41<br />
3. Concern for measurement 2.73 .44 2.51 .39 1.7 .09<br />
4. Experimental mind-set 2.46 .35 2.24 .42 1.8 .08<br />
5. Climate of openness 2.57 .48 2.26 .35 2.4 .02<br />
6. Continuous education 2.63 .42 2.10 .52 3.8 .001<br />
7. Operational variety 2.67 .40 2.18 .48 3.7 .001<br />
8. Multiple advocates 2.47 .38 2.06 .42 3.4 .001<br />
9. Involved leadership 2.56 .40 2.19 .47 2.8 .007<br />
10. Systems perspective 2.67 .42 2.32 .45 2.7 .01<br />
Organization Performance:<br />
1. Effective production 2.94 .32 2.81 .30 1.4 .18<br />
2. Effective Marketing 2.89 .40 2.54 .39 2.9 .006<br />
3. Effective human resources 2.75 .55 2.04 .42 4.7 .0001<br />
4. Effective competition 2.88 .58 2.62 .41 1.4 .16<br />
Table 3 Patterns of Organization Learning: Summary of Cluster Analysis of Learning Dimension<br />
Learning Dimensions Means of<br />
Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
1. Developing knowledge internally 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.5 2.4<br />
2. Acquiring knowledge developed externally 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4<br />
3. Accumulating knowledge of product/ services 2.6 2.8 3.2 2.6 2.7<br />
4. Accumulating knowledge of processes 2.3 2.6 2.2 2.6 2.7<br />
5. Knowledge individually possessed 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4<br />
6. Knowledge publicly available 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3<br />
7. Formal procedures of sharing learning 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.3<br />
8. Informal procedures of sharing learning 1.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4<br />
9. Incremental changes 2.3 2.3 2.8 2.7 2.6<br />
10. Radical Changes 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.6<br />
11. Emphasize on learning engineering / product 2.1<br />
technology<br />
2.4 1.7 2.3 2.5<br />
12. Emphasize on learning sales / service activates 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.6<br />
13. Focus on development of individual skills 1.7 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.3<br />
14. Focus on development of group skills 2.1 2.3 2.0 2.4 2.4<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 4 Summary of MANOVA Analysis of Patterns of Organization Learning on Learning Facilitators<br />
Approx. F Hypoth. DF sig. of F<br />
Hotellings .93 20 55<br />
Univariate F Tests with (4,37) D.F.<br />
Learning Facilitators F Sig. of F<br />
1. Scanning Imperative .41 .80<br />
2. Performance Gap .65 .63<br />
3. Concern for measurement .20 .94<br />
4. Experimental mind-set .94 .45<br />
5. Climate of openness .87 .49<br />
6. Continuous education .29 .88<br />
7. Operational variety .42 .80<br />
8. Multiple advocates .75 .56<br />
9. Involved leadership .82 .52<br />
10. Systems perspective .82 .52<br />
Table 5 Summary of MANOVA Analysis of Patterns of Organization Learning on Organization<br />
Performance<br />
Approx. F Hypoth. DF sig. of F<br />
Hotel lings .48 16 .97<br />
Univariate F Tests with (4,37) D.F.<br />
Learning Facilitators F Sig. of F<br />
1. Effective Production .04 .99<br />
2. Effective Marketing .37 .83<br />
3. Effective human resources .17 .95<br />
4. Effective competition .96 .44<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
A Review of the Enrolment and Performance of Male and<br />
Female Students in Education / Economics Programme of<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
Bamidele A. Faleye<br />
Department of Educational<br />
Foundations and Counselling,<br />
Faculty of Education,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
E-mail: delewolu@yahoo.com.au<br />
Odusola O. Dibu-ojerinde<br />
Department of Special Education<br />
and Curriculum Studies,<br />
Faculty of Education,<br />
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria<br />
E-mail: <br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this study is to review the pattern of enrolment into and performance<br />
pattern of male and female students on the Education/Economics Programme of Obafemi<br />
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data were collected from the record (in the<br />
Department) of students into the programme from 1999/2000 session to 2002/2003 session.<br />
The record of performance of male and female students on the programme were obtained<br />
from the students’ record as kept in the computer programme designed for results<br />
processing (known as the ISIS). It was discovered that there are more males than female<br />
students on the programme and male students performed better than their female<br />
counterparts. Recommendations on how female enrolment and performance could be<br />
enhanced were raised.<br />
Key words: Academic performance, Enrolment, Male and Female.<br />
Introduction<br />
A number of authors in the recent past (e.g. Davies, 1999; Okebukola, 1999, 2002 and Makhubu, 2003)<br />
have discussed the male - female issue in higher education. The focus of discussion ranges from<br />
student enrolment by university and discipline to situation in higher education as regards male and<br />
female representation. Most of these authors agreed that the female gender has not been adequately<br />
represented in a number of areas (courses) either as students or as members of staff. It has also been<br />
reported in the past that the female learner does not perform as brilliantly as the male child does in the<br />
subjects or courses that are quantitative in orientation. It is common knowledge that more males than<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
female students earn first class and upper second class honours degrees in our Universities especially<br />
in the Engineering courses. In the other way round, it was believed by a number of authors (e.g.<br />
Kamisky et al., 1997) that the female students perform better in the arts or language – related courses.<br />
In the case of Economics as a course in the University, a reasonable degree of<br />
mathematical/quantitative ability is required for good performance. This is evident in the Universities<br />
Matriculation Examinations (UME) brochure (published by Nigeria’s Joint Admissions and<br />
Matriculations Board - JAMB) where Mathematics is made a compulsory UME subject. In the same<br />
manner, the curriculum content of the course (as contained in the approved programme for<br />
undergraduate Economics by the National Universities Commission [NUC] in Nigeria) shows that<br />
quantitative courses feature in the course listings for every semester. Without any doubt, any candidate<br />
with poor background in Mathematics could be considered as lacking the needed cognitive strength for<br />
successful performance in the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree programme in Economics.<br />
Performance has been described by a number of Psychologists and Tests & Measurement experts (e.g.<br />
Kaminsky et al., 1997; Adewolu, 1998; Popham, 2002). The concept in this context refers to the extent<br />
of demonstrated ability in school work/subjects as observable in the results of semester/sessional<br />
examinations of the students. In the Faculty of Education, the duration for Education/Economics<br />
programme is four years for those admitted through the UME (secondary school leavers) and three<br />
years for students admitted by Direct-Entry (i.e. holders of the Nigeria Certificate in Education - NCE<br />
or General Certificate of Education - GCE [Advanced Level] ). There is no difference in the admission<br />
requirements for the course between males and females. Over the years, no attempt has been made to<br />
examine the performance of students in this teacher-education programme on the basis of sex/gender.<br />
Again, it is not certain whether the quantitative nature of Economics has led to differences in the<br />
performance of the male and female students on the programme.<br />
The objective of this study therefore is to:<br />
(a) Review the trend of male and female enrolment into the B.Sc. Education/Economics<br />
Programme at Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-Ife in the last four sessions and;<br />
(b) Carry out an analysis of male and female performance on the programme in the last two<br />
semesters.<br />
Research method<br />
The study is ex-post facto in design as the behaviours to be observed had been exhibited prior to this<br />
time. All the registered Economics students for the 2002/2003 session in the Department of<br />
Educational Foundations and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife<br />
makes the population for the study. The record of enrolment to the programme was obtained from the<br />
administrative office of the Department while the performance record was obtained from the ISIS<br />
record; a computer programme being used for the computation and safe-keeping of students results in<br />
OAU. Judgement of performance is based on the Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of the<br />
students. This ranges from 0 to 5 where 0 – 0.99 Fail (could mean probation or withdrawal); 1.00 –<br />
1.49 is Pass; 1.50 – 2.39 is 3rd Class; 2.40 – 3.49 is Second Class Lower Division; 3.50 – 4.49 is<br />
Second Class Upper Division and 4.50 – 5.00 is First Class.<br />
Results<br />
The Table 1 shows the total student enrolment figure into the B.Sc Education/Economics Programme<br />
in the last four sessions.<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 1: 2002/2003 enrolment in B.Sc. education/economics by sex<br />
Part i Part ii Part iii Part iv Total<br />
Session Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
2002/2003 92 82 49 53 92 63 81 62 314(54.70%) 260(45.30%)<br />
2001/2002 63 56 87 42 48 46 96 20 294(64.19%) 164(35.81%)<br />
1999/2000* 77 54 92 64 37 15 67 52 273(59.61%) 185(40.39%)<br />
232 192 228 159 177 124 244 134 881 609<br />
Total (%) 54.7<br />
1<br />
45.28 58.91 41.09 58.80 4.20 64.55 35.45 59.13 40.87<br />
*There was no 2000/2001 Session, it was cancelled.<br />
The result in Table 1 revealed that male students are in majority across the Parts (I – IV) for the<br />
three sessions being examined. For the current session male students on Education/Economics<br />
Programme (314) represent 54.70% of total students. The figure for male for the same period is 164,<br />
which represents 45.30% of total enrolment. In the same vein, male students outnumber their female<br />
counterparts for 2001/2002 and 1999/2000 sessions. In fact, the figures male and female students are<br />
294 (64.19%) and 164 (35.81%) respectively for 2001/2002; and 273 (59.61%) and 185 (40.39%)<br />
respectively for 1999/2000 sessions.<br />
Looking at the total figures of male/female enrolment for the three sessions, one could see that<br />
the male students outnumber female across the four levels.<br />
Looking at Tables 2 and 3, it is evident that the number of male students almost doubles that of<br />
their female counterparts for each of the first three classes of performance (i.e. First Class, Second<br />
Class Upper and Second Class Lower Divisions). The situation however changed for those on Third<br />
Class, Pass and Fail Classes as the proportion of female students outnumbers males at these three<br />
levels. These results showed that male students have demonstrated greater academic ability in the<br />
Education/Economics programme at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.<br />
Table 2: Academic performance of students by level and CGPA (2002/2003 session)<br />
Part I Part Ii Part Iii Part Iv Total<br />
Session Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
First Class 4.50 – 5.00 4 1 3 - - 2 - - 7 3<br />
Second Class Upper<br />
Division<br />
3.50 – 4.49<br />
Second Class Lower<br />
Division<br />
2.50 – 3.49<br />
Third Class 1.50 - 2.49<br />
Pass: 1.00 - 1.49<br />
0.99 (Probation)<br />
0. 0.99 (Withdrawal)<br />
11<br />
47<br />
13<br />
14<br />
3<br />
-<br />
5<br />
23<br />
17<br />
33<br />
1<br />
2<br />
6<br />
14<br />
16<br />
6<br />
3<br />
1<br />
5<br />
13<br />
12<br />
17<br />
4<br />
2<br />
Total 92 82 49 53 92 63 81 62 314 260<br />
169<br />
21<br />
40<br />
18<br />
11<br />
2<br />
-<br />
13<br />
16<br />
19<br />
9<br />
3<br />
1<br />
09<br />
36<br />
15<br />
14<br />
6<br />
1<br />
06<br />
11<br />
33<br />
06<br />
04<br />
2<br />
47<br />
137<br />
62<br />
45<br />
14<br />
2<br />
29<br />
63<br />
81<br />
65<br />
12<br />
7
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Table 3: Percentage of male and female students by class of degree (2002/2003 session)<br />
Class of degree Male Female Total<br />
1 7 (70%) 3 (30%) 10 (1.74%)<br />
2 1<br />
47 (61.84%) 29 (38.16%) 76 (13.24%)<br />
2 2 137 (68.50%) 63 (31.50%) 200 (34.84^)<br />
3 62 (43.36%) 81 (50.90%) 143 (24.91%)<br />
*Pass 45 (40.91%) 65 (59.09%) 110 (19.16%)<br />
Fail* 16 (45.71%) 19 (54.29%) 35 (16.10%)<br />
Total 574<br />
*The figure for probation and withdrawal have been combined and classified as fail.<br />
The result in Tables 2 and 3 have reflected a performance trend in which male students have upper<br />
hand in performance. The number of males also outnumbers their female colleagues on the<br />
programme. Let us consider graduation from the programme in the recent past for 1999/2000;<br />
2001/2002 and 2002/2003 sessions as presented in Table 4.<br />
Table 4: Graduation figures by class of degree and sex for three sessions<br />
2002/2003 2001/2002 1999/2000<br />
Class of degrees Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
First Class<br />
-<br />
- - - *N.A N.A<br />
Second Class (Upper)<br />
-<br />
- 4 - N.A N.A<br />
Second Class (Lower)<br />
5 2 8 7 N.A N.A<br />
Third Class<br />
5 2 8 4 N.A N.A<br />
Pass<br />
-<br />
- - 1 N.A N.A<br />
Total 10 4 20 12 N.A N.A<br />
*N. A. = Not available or within reach in the short time for the submission of this work.<br />
Discussion<br />
Just as it was mentioned in the early part of this work that male students are more in number and in the<br />
quantitative related courses; it has also been revealed here that the trend remained the same for the<br />
Education/Economic programme at OAU. For the three year period considered for enrolment, the ratio<br />
of male to female students is almost 6:4 and this is not different form what has been reported by Davies<br />
(1999) and Okebukola (1999, 2002) that Science/Mathematics related courses or disciplines are ‘arid<br />
zones’ so to say, for females. Male students are greater in number in these disciplines than their female<br />
colleagues.<br />
In the aspect of performance, the result showed that males have dominated in the performance<br />
chart of the programme over the years. Interactions (by the authors) with the most senior members of<br />
staff (teaching) in the department revealed that there has not been a time in the history of the<br />
programme when any female student graduated with a First Class degree in (Education/Economics).<br />
This could not mean that the feat is unattainable by female students but it is only that boys tend to<br />
obtain higher grade than female in most quantitative related courses of which Economics is one. The<br />
result agrees to the submissions of Okebukola (2002) that the total female enrolment in Nigerian<br />
University as at the beginning of the 2001/2002 session is 34%. When compared with the result for the<br />
same period in this study, female enrolment in B.Sc. Education/Economics programme is 35.81%. The<br />
closeness of the figure could be a product of some of the factors raised by Okebukola (as those<br />
responsible for the gender gap in education) such as those that are curriculum related; instructional<br />
related and those relating to the administrative system in our institutions. Davies (1999) listed some<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
factors - such as the use of language to transmit negative messages; being partial to male learners,<br />
confirming high expectations by verbal and non verbal means e.t.c. – that tend to put male learners at<br />
advantage over their female counterparts. All these could be responsible for the concentration of the<br />
female students at the lower level of the performance scale (Class of the Degree).<br />
Conclusion<br />
It is hereby concluded that male students outnumber their female counterparts in enrolment into the<br />
B.Sc. Education/Economics Programme and the male students perform better than the female students<br />
across the levels (Parts I – IV) and especially for the sessions considered in this study.<br />
Recommendation<br />
It is recommended that the cut-off points for admission into the programme (whether through UME or<br />
Direct Entry) be made lower for girls as suggested by Mlamal (1998) so that more female students<br />
could be enrolled into the programme.<br />
It is also recommended that further investigations be carried out on reasons why the male<br />
students on the programme perform better than their female counterparts.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adewolu, B. A. (1998). Predictive Validity of Osun State Junior Secondary Certificate<br />
Examination for Academic Performance of Students in the Senior Secondary School.<br />
Unpublished Master of Education Thesis, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University,<br />
Ile-Ife.<br />
[2] Crowl, T. K.; Kaminsky, S & Podell, D. M. (1997). Educational Psychology, Windows on<br />
Teaching. Dubuque, I. A.: Brown & Benchmark.<br />
[3] Davies, A. (1999). Empowering women for success in Higher Education. Contribution to<br />
UNESCO Draft Guide to Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. In Promoting Women’s<br />
Participation in Higher Education.http://www.nucvihep.net/mod8WK3-Tuesday.htm<br />
Viewed on 4th April, 2004.<br />
[4] Mlama, P. M. (1998). Increasing Access and Equality in Higher Education: Gender Issues. In<br />
J. Shabani (Ed.), Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and prospects. Dakar:<br />
UNESCO BREDA.<br />
[5] Okebukola, P. (1999). Gender Equity in Science Classrooms. Conference Paper Presented at<br />
the 1999 UNESCO’s Conference in Pretoria South Africa.<br />
[6] Okebukola, P. (1999). The State of Universities in Nigeria. Ibadan: Heinemann.<br />
[7] Popham, W. J. (2002). Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston: Allyn &<br />
Bacon.<br />
171
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
Pre-College Economic Education:<br />
Aim, Usefulness and Content<br />
Despina Makridou-Boussiou<br />
Associate Professor in Economics and Didactics<br />
Department of Applied Informatics<br />
University of Macedonia<br />
156 Egnatia Street<br />
546 45 Thessaloniki<br />
Greece<br />
E-mail: bousiou@uom.gr<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper refers to pre-college economic education. More specifically, the subjects<br />
discussed include: the goals, objectives, usefulness and basic concepts of pre-college<br />
economic education. Most economists who deal with pre-college economic education point<br />
out the following goals: (1) students’ exposure to and understanding of economic concepts,<br />
so that they may acquire economic education, (2) the use of the economic way of thinking<br />
for decision-making with respect to the resolution of personal and social problems, and (3)<br />
the contribution of economic education to the political education of citizens. With respect<br />
to basic economic concepts that should be taught at pre-college level, in spite of the fact<br />
that nowadays principles of economics courses cover more subjects in terms of content and<br />
have become more complex at the analytical level, the paper will focus on the Master<br />
Curriculum Guide in Economics: A Framework For Teaching the Basic Concepts<br />
(Saunders, and others, 1984). In each case, what will be taught remains an important issue.<br />
Keys Words: Pre-college Education, Economics, Economic Literacy, Basic concepts<br />
Introduction<br />
The emergence of economic phenomena in people’s daily lives is very frequent. It would be very<br />
difficult to find certain social, personal or natural phenomena that do not alter the total economic<br />
situation of a society or the personal economic situation of an individual. "Indeed, we encounter<br />
economics as workers, consumers, savers, and citizens, and we make countless personal and societal<br />
decisions of great practical importance every day in response to various kinds of economic issues and<br />
problems" (Banaszak, 1987:1). Therefore, in the epicentre of economic science we find an individual<br />
person or many people as a social whole, as well as their decisions and activities that arise from their<br />
effort to face the consequences of economic events or to benefit as much as possible from them.<br />
Economic theory tries to recognize, describe, explain, interpret and forecast the changes that arise from<br />
the emergence of various types of economic events.<br />
Even though a vast body of knowledge and theories has been created in economic science, the<br />
impression should not be given that this knowledge is also the final tool for the interpretation of<br />
economic phenomena. Economic science, just as all other sciences, is a continuously evolving body of<br />
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knowledge that is subject to additions or revisions, depending of course on the changes that occur to<br />
society itself, which also creates the economic phenomena. Notions that were once acceptable are<br />
rejected today, for example sixteen-hour workday without insurance. Of course, other ideas that are<br />
accepted today were considered problematic in the past. Boskin (1990:19) notes that in the middle of<br />
the 1980s an unemployment rate of 6-7%, accompanied by mediocre growth and a low inflation rate of<br />
4% was acceptable for the United States of America. He himself wonders what ever became of the "4-<br />
4-1" rule which they had got used to in the old days; in other words, 4% growth, 4% unemployment<br />
and 1% inflation. More recently, respective adjustments to economic goals are being made based on<br />
events and tendencies such as globalization, technological progress, immigration or the European<br />
unification. Instructively, these changes in theoretical approaches and objectives must provide a basis<br />
for a productive and non-dogmatic approach to economic theories and the awareness of countless<br />
variables that determine the economic life of societies. Banaszak (1987:1) distinctively notes that<br />
"educators generally tend to agree that the discipline of economics is dynamic; the economy and our<br />
knowledge of it continue to evolve. Thus, educators must continually assess the economics curriculum<br />
in terms of the current status of the academic discipline in order to provide students with the latest and<br />
soundest view of economic life in the United States and the world".<br />
Aims, objectives and usefulness<br />
Most economists who deal with economic education point out the following goals:<br />
• Students’ exposure to and understanding of economic concepts, so that they may acquire<br />
economic education.<br />
• The use of the economic way of thinking for decision-making with respect to the resolution of<br />
personal and social problems.<br />
• The contribution of economic education to the political education of citizens.<br />
With regard to the first goal, McConnell (1990:35) observes that "at the most general level, we would<br />
perhaps all agree that we seek to achieve (1) a usable level of economic literacy for those students who<br />
do not go beyond the principles course, and (2) a viable foundation of economic understanding for<br />
those who will pursue upper-division courses. At the most mundane level, we seek to generate<br />
continuing interest in economic issues and problems".<br />
With regard to the second goal, Banaszak (1987:5) concludes that "since economics is the study of<br />
decision making about the use of productive resources, the central benefit of education for economic<br />
literacy should be development of the ability to conduct objective, reasoned analysis of economic<br />
issues and decisions are private and public; they pertain to daily personal concerns and to matters of<br />
broad economic policy". Sumansky (1986:61) considers that with the passing of time, this second goal<br />
has become as important as economic concepts.<br />
With regard to the third goal, Banaszak (1987:5) maintains that "informed decision making<br />
requires acquisition and use of knowledge of economic concepts and generalizations. This knowledge<br />
allows citizens to understand the economic dimension of issues. It permits them to determine and<br />
evaluate both the short-term and long-term consequences of potential economic decisions.<br />
Economically literate citizens will be more intelligent readers and listeners. This will enable them to<br />
participate intelligently in the political process and to be less easily misled by a demagogue. Finally,<br />
the economically literate citizens will be life-long learners, capable of incorporating new economic<br />
knowledge into their already existing knowledge".<br />
On the same wavelength Seiter (1988) adds that the knowledge of economics and its ability to<br />
be applied to important problems is an essential element for a responsible coexistence in a democratic<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
society. He maintains that citizens should understand and use economic notions with a view to act<br />
appropriately whether they are producers, consumers, investors or voters in government elections.<br />
Furthermore, a general progress in the ability of citizens to respond to these roles will have major<br />
advantages not only for the citizens but also for the state. Conversely, he supports the idea that the<br />
personal and social costs resulting from a weak reciprocation to these roles is so high and damaging,<br />
that it cannot be ignored.<br />
Miller (1991), who is among the most zealous representatives of this point of view, considers<br />
economic education to be an integral part of the political education of citizens. Sumansky (1986:61)<br />
does not adopt this view; he believes that the argument that economic education contributes to political<br />
education is maintained simply because it is alluring, since, as he claims, the notion that economic<br />
knowledge translates into better citizen behaviour remains inexplicable.<br />
Beyond the three goals identified above, McConnell (1930:36) expresses an additional point of<br />
view with regard to the cognitive benefit that can result from the teaching of economics, supporting<br />
that "…one can plausibly argue that a highly significant outcome of the principles course is enhanced<br />
students ability to grasp and manipulate abstractions. Piaget’s theory of human intellectual<br />
development distinguishes between the lower "concrete level" of mental achievement, which involves<br />
specific facts on experiences and that of the higher "formal level" of achievement, which entails<br />
analytical reasoning about hypotheses, the mental manipulation of abstractions and the understanding<br />
of contrary-to-fact situations. The distinction made is particularly relevant for the principles course,<br />
because the most baffling concepts of economics tend to be those that are the most abstract. Instructors<br />
often respond to student’s complaints about the abstractness of economics by pointing out that<br />
economics is formalized common sense. But this is only partly true. The concept of comparative<br />
advantage and the multiple-lending capacity of the banking system are contrary to common sense and<br />
intuitively incorrect in the minds of students”.<br />
What are the basic concepts?<br />
An obvious observation that should be made is that, with the passing of time, the course on the<br />
principles of economic theory covers more subjects in terms of content and has become more complex<br />
at the analytical level. There are a greater number of topics covered and the concepts and definitions<br />
are more difficult. The unprecedented, post-war explosion of economic knowledge added plenty of<br />
new concepts, theories and empirical analyses that ask to be included in the introductory courses.<br />
McConnel (1990) describes a disagreement that has been taking place for many years in the<br />
field of economic education with regard to the number of economic concepts that should be taught in<br />
an introductory course. Either few concepts will have to be taught in-depth (short list) or a greater<br />
number of concepts will have to be taught with less time dedicated to each (long list). There has been<br />
continuous criticism that the course “Principles of Economics” is very ambitious (with regard to the<br />
subject-matter), it covers a lot of topics and is encyclopaedic. The advocates of the “short list” believe<br />
that the “long list” condemns the course to failure. They support that the material covered in the “long<br />
list” is too big in volume for students. The result of students’ superficial exposure to a wide range of<br />
concepts, definitions, theories, problems and established ideas, is that they complete the course without<br />
a substantive understanding of economic logic. Thus the students will be unprepared to analyze<br />
economical problems that they will face as citizens or in their career five or ten years following their<br />
graduation.<br />
The opposing opinion claims that the “short list” does not guarantee students’ increased<br />
understanding. “Another potential problem of the short list is that it consists of those concepts that<br />
pertain only to the course and nothing further. If one of the aims of the course is to develop and<br />
maintain an interest for the subject, one can wonder whether an uninterrupted diet based on economic<br />
theory can promote the objective. Perhaps it is rash for students to be led from a desert land of<br />
economic theory, to the oasis of subjects and applications of the real world and to forbid them to have a<br />
drink” (McConnel, 1990:32).<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
According to Sumansky (1986), the search for a core of basic economic concepts that would<br />
have to be taught in secondary education as well as the discussion on other ideas relative to economic<br />
education began in the USA in 1946, with the legislative act on employment (Employment Act, US<br />
Congress). This legislative enactment permitted Congress “to coordinate and exploit all available<br />
resources with a view to creating and maintaining the greatest work force, production and purchasing<br />
power”. One of the results of this enactment was the establishment of an economic council (President's<br />
Council of Economic Advisors), of which Edwin Nourse was named the head. Nourse stressed the<br />
need for the economic education of citizens and to this day, his ideas continue to influence the progress<br />
of economic education in the USA.<br />
As Sumansky (1986:50) mentions, the following proposals are stated in Nourse’s papers with<br />
regard to economics and economic education:<br />
• Economics is a life skill.<br />
• Economics has value not only for knowledge for its own sake, but also because of what it can<br />
contribute to the lives of people.<br />
• Economics, indeed, must be taught to those who do not go on to college.<br />
• Teachers must be helped to teach economics to students.<br />
• Economics must be simplified and made meaningful to life.<br />
• Economic reasoning is important.<br />
• Economic knowledge can contribute to an enlightened citizenry.<br />
Under the influence of these proposals, the National Task Force on Economic Education was formed in<br />
1960, consisting of distinguished economists in those days, which unanimously supported the<br />
introduction of economics in pre-college level because it is for students’ and society’s own good and<br />
its provision should not be left to the mechanisms of the market (Sumansky, 1986:52). The report of<br />
the committee, along with two directives that were published within the framework of the program<br />
DEEP (Developmental Economic Education Program), drafted 135 economic concepts.<br />
These documents consist of the original edition of A Framework for Teaching Economics:<br />
Basic Concepts that was published in 1977 (Hansen et al, 1977) and revised in 1984 (Saunders et al,<br />
1984) and in 1995 (Saunders and Gilliard, 1995). The framework is limited to 24 concepts that are<br />
considered essential for the development of well-thought-out economic ideas. Also within the<br />
framework, the idea of rational decision-making is fully developed and a model of six steps is<br />
proposed: determination of the problem, identification of objectives, search for alternative solutions,<br />
identification of essential concepts, analysis of the consequences of each alternative solution,<br />
evaluation to identify the best solution. What is not explained in the framework is the method with<br />
which these concepts will be taught.<br />
The list of concepts, as presented in the Framework of 1977 (Hansen et al, 1977:9) is the following:<br />
• The basic economic problem<br />
1. Economic wants<br />
2. Productive resources<br />
3. Scarcity and choices<br />
4. Opportunity costs and trade-offs<br />
5. Marginalism and equilibrium<br />
• Economic systems<br />
6. Nature and types of economic systems<br />
175
7. Economic incentives<br />
8. Specialization, comparative advantage and the division of labour<br />
9. Voluntary exchange<br />
10. Interdependence<br />
11. Governmental intervention and regulations<br />
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
• Microeconomics: resource allocation and income distribution<br />
12. Market, supply and demand<br />
13. The price mechanism<br />
14. Competition and Market structure<br />
15. "Market Failures": information costs, resource immobility, externalities, etc.<br />
16. Income distribution and government redistribution<br />
• Macroeconomics: economic stability and growth<br />
17. Aggregate supply and productive capacity<br />
18. Aggregate demand: unemployment and inflation<br />
19. Price level changes<br />
20. Money and monetary policy<br />
21. Fiscal policy: taxes, expenditures and transfers<br />
22. Economic growth<br />
23. Savings, investment and productivity<br />
• The world economy<br />
24. International economics<br />
The 1977 framework did not go without criticism. More specifically, on the one hand, Sumansky<br />
(1986) reports that economists such as Boyer allege that it reflects the sovereign ideology of the<br />
business society, the government and the majority of university economists; on the other hand, Helburn<br />
(1985:21) reports that “it does not emphasize model building as a process of abstraction which students<br />
can and should learn how to use; rather, it reinforces the notion, rampant in economics, that models are<br />
mathematical and are created by experts”.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Economic education has made a lot of progress in the last forty years. During this period the bases for<br />
further growth of economic education were put in place. Today the rapid growth of technology offers<br />
new opportunities. The amount of information that could be used by teachers increases with<br />
geometrical progression.<br />
On the one hand, any teacher of economics would be considered particularly lucky with regards<br />
to the amount of educational material that he has in his disposal. As long as people keep abreast of the<br />
daily news, they will notice that at least one to two reported events deal with the economy. Newspapers<br />
dedicate a considerable part of their content to economic events on a daily basis. Very often heir main<br />
news is of an economic nature and the existence of a daily-specialized journal with such breadth of<br />
circulation is most likely unprecedented for an educational subject. In essence, many electronic<br />
strategic games that are set in various historical environments are games of an economic nature, since<br />
the concepts used are economic concepts and the progress of the game is based on the player’s<br />
decision-making. The Internet offers vast amount of economic information.<br />
On the other hand, proper exploitation of all this information is a very difficult challenge.<br />
Solow (1983) stresses that “...to teach Economics is a very big responsibility...” The updating on the<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
progress of economic education, the improvement in the teaching of economics at each educational<br />
level and the contribution in the further development of economic education should be the direction for<br />
those who teach economic courses.<br />
References<br />
[1] Banaszak, A. Ronald (1987). The nature of economic literacy, online at<br />
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/0b/8a.p<br />
df<br />
[2] Boskin, J. Michael (1990). Some thoughts on teaching principles of macroeconomics. In:<br />
Phillip Saunders and William B. Walstad (ed.). The principles of economics course: A<br />
handbook for instructors. McGraw-Hill.<br />
[3] Buckles, Stephen (1991). Guidelines for economic content in school programs. In: William B.<br />
Walstad and John C. Soper (eds.). Effective Economic Education in the schools. The Joint<br />
Council on Economic Education.<br />
[4] Hansen, W. L., Bach, G. L., Calderwood, J. and Saunders, P. (1977). Master Curriculum Guide<br />
in Economics for the Nation’s Schools, Part I – A Framework for Teaching Economics: Basic<br />
Concepts. New York: Joint Council on Economic Education.<br />
[5] Helburn, W., Susanne (1986). The selective use of discipline structures in economics curricula.<br />
In: Steve Hodkinson and David J. Whitehead (eds.). Economics Education Research and<br />
Development Issues. Longman<br />
[6] McConell, R. Chambell (1990). Some reflections on the principles course. In: Phillip Saunders<br />
and William B. Walstad (eds.). The principles of economics course: A handbook for<br />
instructors. McGraw-Hill.<br />
[7] Miller, Steven, (1991). Making the Case for Economics in the School Curriculum. In: Walstad,<br />
William and Soper, John (eds.). Effective Economic Education in the Schools. Joint Council on<br />
Economic Education and National Education Association.<br />
[8] Saunders, P. and J. Gilliard (1995). A framework for teaching basic economic concepts, with<br />
scope and sequence guidelines, K–12. New York: National Council on Economic Education.<br />
[9] Saunders, P., Bach, G. L., Calderwood, J. and Hansen, W. L. (1984). Master Curriculum Guide<br />
in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts. New York: Joint Council on<br />
Economic Education.<br />
[10] Seiter, David (1988) Economics in the Curriculum, online at<br />
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/0d/6a.pdf<br />
[11] Solow, R. (1983). “Teaching Economics in the 1980’s” Journal of Economic Education,<br />
Spring:65-67.<br />
[12] Sumansky, M. John (1986). The evolution of economic education thought as revealed through a<br />
history of the Master Curriculum Guide. In: Steve Hodkinson and David J. Whitehead (eds.).<br />
Economics: Framework for teaching the basic concepts. Longman.<br />
177
European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
An Assessment of the Contact between Agricultural Extension<br />
Agents and Farmers in Delta State of Nigeria<br />
Ofuoku, A. U. and Uzokwe, U.<br />
Department of agricultural economics and extension,<br />
Delta state university,<br />
Asaba campus, nigeria.<br />
Abstract<br />
Agricultural Development Programme was established with the aim of promoting food,<br />
Production ensure self-sufficiency. To achieve this aim, the programme embarked on<br />
extension service to farmers and the major strategy employed is the Training and Visit (T<br />
& V) system. This implies fortnightly visits to farmers, especially the contract farmers. One<br />
hundred and ninety-five respondents which include 35 Agricultural Extension<br />
Administrators; 40 Extension Agents; 60 Contact Farmers; and 60 Non-Contact Farmers<br />
were randomly selected, but Contact Farmers were systematically selected for this study.<br />
The results showed that the overall evaluation by the respondents on the extension services<br />
was good. The Contact Farmers had more contact with the Extension Agents than the Non-<br />
Contact Farmers. Transportation problem was the major constraint of Agricultural<br />
Extension Agents. It was recommended that Delta State ADP should extend their services<br />
equally to formers; the quality and number of extension staff be increased; and service<br />
amenities be provided for Extension Officers especially transport facilities.<br />
Key Words: Assessment, Contact, Agricultural Extension Agents, Farmers, Delta State,<br />
Nigeria.<br />
Introduction<br />
Agricultural Extension process is mainly carried out in Delta State, Nigeria by the State’s Agricultural<br />
Development Project (ADP). The Agricultural Development Project (ADP) was conceived as a framework<br />
involving investment in agriculture to improve the level of iving of the resource – poor farmers<br />
(Chukwu, 1997). The ADP system is based on the assumption that agricultural productivity can be<br />
enhanced with a combination of appropriate technology, effective extension, access to physical inputs,<br />
adequate market and other infrastructural facilities (Alabi, 1987). ADPs motivate rural farmers towards<br />
better and improved plant and animal production practices through a systematic extension system.<br />
The specific objectives of the ADP were to promote the production of food, to achieve selfsufficiency<br />
in food in the state and provide basic communication network that would facilitate<br />
increased food production. The farmers are reached by the ADP through a revitalized agricultural<br />
extension system that integrates extension Worker’s training and farm visits, and a two-way<br />
communication between farmers and researchers. According to Asiabaka (1987), ADPs also employ an<br />
intensive training strategy based on the Training and Visit (T & V) strategy to reach the rural clientele.<br />
This helps to motivate small-scale farmers to produce more food cheaply.<br />
The regular contact of extension workers with farmers under the Training and Visit system<br />
makes effective linkages between research and extension (Benor and Baxter, 1984).<br />
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International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Particular relevance and importance in T & V extension approach are the use of contact farmers, On-<br />
Station Research (OSR), and On-Farm Training (<strong>OF</strong>T) on farmers’ farm, schedule of visit and training<br />
sessions for block extension supervisors and extension agents by subject matter specialists.<br />
Isife and Madukwe (1995) suggested that evaluation of the Fortnightly Training Programme of the<br />
ADP is necessary to determine the extent to which the objective of the training programme is achieved,<br />
and identify problem areas that need to be strengthened.<br />
The ADP extension Agents in Delta State, in line with the above information have the<br />
obligation of regular contact with the farmers. This is one of the reasons they should reside within their<br />
circle. With this, prompt attention to farmers by extension will be achieved.<br />
Objectives of the study<br />
The objectives of the study were (i) determine the regularity of the contact between the extension<br />
agents and farmers in Delta State, Nigeria. (ii) ascertain the problems facing extension agents in ADP<br />
of Delta State.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
The study area is one of the thirty six state in Nigeria. It comprises of twenty-five (25) Local<br />
Government Areas.<br />
The study was conducted with sample population of thirty-five (35) agricultural extension<br />
administrators/supervisors from Delta State ADP and Ministry of Agriculture who operate in the area<br />
of study. Systematic sample of sixty (60) contact farmers and random sample of sixty (60) non-contact<br />
farmers were selected from the three agricultural zones of Delta State. Forty (40) extension agents in<br />
the three agricultural zones of the state were randomly selected.<br />
Two sets of questionnaire were used to generate data for this study. The first set was for the<br />
agricultural extension staff, while the second set was for the farmers (contact and non-contact). To<br />
avoid subjectivity, if ADP staff were allowed to interview farmers, agricultural science teachers with<br />
teaching experience of five years and above, teaching in secondary schools located in the study area<br />
were selected and hired to interview the farmers. The extension agents and administrators completed<br />
their own questionnaire.<br />
Five points Likert’s Scale was used for the possible responses that the respondents were asked<br />
to make regarding each of the items: excellent scored 5, good scored 4, fair scored 3, poor scored 2 and<br />
non-existent services scored 1. percentage, mean and Chi-Square X 2 were also employed in the<br />
analysis of the data.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
The results of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents are shown in Table 1.<br />
Age:<br />
Sixty-three percentage (63%) of the respondents were aged between 30 – 49 years. This indicates that<br />
most of them are in the middle age bracket. Those in the age interval of 50 – 59 years made up 24%.<br />
This group could be regarded as fairly old. Most of the Extension Administrators fall within this age<br />
bracket. Those who were in 20 – 29 years made 11%. These are the young ones.<br />
Gender:<br />
Of all the respondents, 87% were males, while 13% were females. This does not mean that females<br />
were not highly involved in agricultural activities in Delta State. Females in this part of Nigeria have<br />
their own farms and also work in the ADP.<br />
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Level of Education:<br />
Those that did not have formal education make up 5% of the respondents. In brief, mot of them (95%)<br />
had no form of formal education or the other. This also implies that most of the farmers were formally<br />
educated. The literacy level of the farmers must have influenced their awareness of extension agents<br />
and their services. This closely relates with the study of Madukwe (1995) where he stated that<br />
educational level of farmers is one of the isolated variables related to the adoption of improved farm<br />
practices.<br />
Hypotheses:<br />
To achieve the set objectives, the following null hypotheses were formulated:<br />
1. There are no significant differences in the assessment of ADP extension services in Delta State<br />
as scored by the respondents in the overall evaluation of the four components of the agricultural<br />
extension services.<br />
(i) Agricultural extension education programmes;<br />
(ii) Agricultural extension human relations;<br />
(iii) Agricultural extension information; and<br />
(iv) Agricultural extension methods.<br />
2. There are no significant differences in the ratings of the contact between farmers and extension<br />
agents in Delta State as viewed by<br />
(i) Extension Administrators;<br />
(ii) Extension Agents;<br />
(iii) Contact Farmers; and<br />
(iv) Non-contact farmers.<br />
3. The effective discharge of duty by extension officers and the effectiveness of their services as<br />
perceived by the respondents were not affected by<br />
(i) Fringe benefits;<br />
(ii) In-Service training;<br />
(iii) Fortnightly meetings; and<br />
(iv) Transportation.<br />
Marital Status:<br />
Most of the respondents (86%) in the study area were married. Only 6.22% were single and were most<br />
likely going to be the few young farmers and extension agents (11%) who were part of the sample<br />
population. The young ones have gone out of the rural areas in search of education and “white collar”<br />
job opportunities.<br />
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Table I: Demographic Characteristics of respondents<br />
Variables Categories Frequency Percentage<br />
Age<br />
(years) 20 – 29 21 11<br />
30 – 39 54 28<br />
40 – 49 62 34<br />
50 – 59 46 24<br />
Above 59 12 6.2<br />
Total 195 100.0<br />
Gender<br />
Male 170 87<br />
Female 25 13<br />
Total 195 100.0<br />
Education Level<br />
No Formal Education 10 5<br />
Adult Education 23 12<br />
Primary School<br />
Education<br />
36 18<br />
Secondary School<br />
Education<br />
48 25<br />
Post Secondary<br />
School Educ.<br />
78 40<br />
Total 195 100.0<br />
Marital Status<br />
Married 168 86<br />
Single 12 6.2<br />
Separated 15 8<br />
Total 195 100.0<br />
Hypothesis 1<br />
There are no significant differences in the assessment of ADP extension services in Delta State as<br />
scored by the respondents in the overall evaluation of the four components of the extension education<br />
services.<br />
(i) Agricultural extension education programmes;<br />
(ii) Agricultural extension human relations;<br />
(iii) Agricultural extension information;<br />
(iv) Agricultural extension methods.<br />
Findings<br />
The overall evaluation showed that there were no significant differences among the four areas of<br />
extension evaluated. As indicated in table 12 below, there were no significant differences as the<br />
respondents scored Extension Education Programmes 3.29; Extension Human Relations 3.69;<br />
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Extension Information 3.24; and Extension Methods 3.70. This is generally scored good. This implies<br />
that the agricultural extension services aimed at bringing about change in behaviour of the farmers<br />
were effective.<br />
Table 2: Overall Evaluation of the Four Areas (Components) of Extension Services by the Four<br />
Groups of Respondents<br />
Areas (Components of Extension Services<br />
Respondents N Education Human Information Extension<br />
Agricultural<br />
Extension<br />
Programmes Relations<br />
Methods<br />
Administrator<br />
Agricultural<br />
Extension<br />
3.5<br />
3.97 3.67 3.94 3.68<br />
Agents<br />
Contact<br />
40 3.71 4.10 4.15 4.17<br />
Farmers<br />
Non-Contact<br />
60 3.26 3.04 3.49 3.72<br />
Farmers<br />
60 2.03 2.35 3.21 3.25<br />
Total Mean 195 3.24 3.29 3.69 3.70<br />
Hypothesis 2<br />
There are no significant differences in the rating of the contact between farmers and extension agents<br />
in Delta State as viewed by<br />
i) Extension Administrators;<br />
ii) Extension Agents;<br />
iii) Contact Farmers; and<br />
iv) Non-Contact Farmers.<br />
Findings<br />
The analysis (Table 3) below showed significant differences between the different groups of<br />
respondents with respect to contact between farmers and extension agents. A comparative analysis<br />
indicates that the contact farmers had more contact with the extension agents than the non-contact<br />
farmers.<br />
The findings reveals that most of the contact farmers, 34 out of 60 of them or 58% as against 18<br />
out of 60 or 30% of the non-contact farmers accepted that the extension agents met them fortnightly.<br />
Table 3: Contact between Agricultural Extension Agents and Farmers.<br />
Frequency of Contact<br />
Respondents N Very<br />
Often<br />
Sometime Rarely Weekly Monthly Fortnightly Total<br />
Extension<br />
Administrators<br />
Extension<br />
35 - 3 0 0 0 32 32<br />
Agents<br />
Contact<br />
40 - - - 8 4 28 40<br />
Farmers<br />
Non-Contact<br />
60 7 4 11 4 - 34 60<br />
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Farmers 60 - 13 5 9 15 18 60<br />
Column Total 195 7 20 16 21 19 112 195<br />
Significant at P
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Table 3b: Innovation introduced by Extension Agents During their Contact With Farmers.<br />
Categories of Constraints<br />
Respondents N Disease Improved Agro- Fertilizers Modern % of Total<br />
Contro<br />
l<br />
Varieties Chemical<br />
Implements<br />
Extension<br />
Administrator<br />
Contact Farmers<br />
Extension<br />
Agents<br />
Non-Contact<br />
Farmers<br />
35<br />
60<br />
40<br />
60<br />
(195)<br />
11.42<br />
-<br />
5.00<br />
1.66<br />
3.58<br />
(7)<br />
65.70<br />
70.00<br />
65.00<br />
66.6<br />
67.17<br />
(131)<br />
% % % %<br />
2.85<br />
5.00<br />
10.00<br />
3.33<br />
5.12<br />
(10)<br />
184<br />
20.00<br />
25.00<br />
20.00<br />
26.60<br />
23.58<br />
(46)<br />
-<br />
-<br />
-<br />
1.66<br />
0.51<br />
(1)<br />
17.94<br />
30.76<br />
21.60<br />
30.76<br />
100<br />
Actual number of respondents in brackets<br />
Table 3b above shows that most of the respondents, 67.17% agreed that the improved varieties<br />
of crops were introduced to them for adoption. This was followed by the use of fertilizer 23.58%/<br />
disease control measures 3.58%; and use of modern implements, 0.51%<br />
Sixty-five percent (65%) of the extension agents strongly accepted that their major points of<br />
emphasis during contact with farmers was the adoption of improved varieties of crops. This was<br />
confirmed by 68% of the farmers.<br />
Hypothesis 3<br />
The effective discharge of duty by extension officers and the effectiveness of their services as<br />
perceived by the respondents were not affected by<br />
(i) Fringe benefits;<br />
(ii) In-Service training;<br />
(iii) Fortnightly training and<br />
(iv) Transportation<br />
Findings<br />
In table 4, the majority of the respondents (68%) are of the opinion that inadequate transportation is a<br />
problem to the effective performance of extension officers and their services.<br />
This is a confirmation of Adams (1984) statement that costs of transportation are high.<br />
Adequate transportation is very important for extension agents to carry out their work effectively.<br />
Table 4 below shows the constraints of the effective performance of extension officers and their<br />
services.
International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006)<br />
Table 4: The Constraints to the Effective Performance of Extension Agents and Their Service.<br />
Categories of Constraints<br />
Respondents N Fringe In-Service Fortnightly Transportation<br />
Benefit Training Training<br />
Extension<br />
Administrator<br />
% % % %<br />
Extension<br />
35 29.92 14.23 -<br />
18.04<br />
Agents<br />
Contact<br />
40 25.92 17.85 14.28 20.30<br />
Farmers<br />
Non-Contact<br />
60 22.22 32.14 28.571 32.33<br />
Farmers<br />
60 25.92 35.71 57.14 29.32<br />
13.84 14.85 3.58 68.20<br />
(195)a (27) (28) (7) (133)<br />
Figures in brackets are the actual numbers of the respondents.<br />
The findings in Table 4 show that 68.28% of the respondents agreed that inadequate transportation is a<br />
constraint facing the effective performance of extension agents and their services as against 32% who<br />
did not agree. Those of them that did not agree are of the opinion that fringe benefits, in-service<br />
training and fortnightly meeting are minor constraints.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The purpose of this study was to assess the regularity of contact between agricultural extension agents<br />
and farmers and the constraints facing agricultural extension agents in Delta State, Nigeria.<br />
The perceptions of the farmers and extension officers within the state with reard to educational<br />
prorammes, human relations, information and extension methods of the extension services were also<br />
investigated.<br />
The study also look into the frequency of contact between the farmers and extension agents in<br />
Delta State ADP, whether or not training and Visit (T & V) system has made any impact on<br />
agricultural development in Development in Delta State.<br />
Most of the respondents are of middle age and are also male in majority. Majority of them had<br />
one form of formal education or the other. Most of them are married.<br />
The overall evaluation did not show any significant difference among the extension<br />
administrators; extension agents, contact and non-contact farmers in their ratings of agricultural<br />
extension educational programmes, extension officers’ human relations, agricultural information; and<br />
extension methods. This indicated that agricultural extension services were effective.<br />
The contact farmers were mainly visited by the extension officers than the non-contact farmers.<br />
This is an indication that the extension services do not reach all farmers. This called for equal<br />
extension services through equal contact with all farmers which will eventually enhance agricultural<br />
development in the state.<br />
Transportation problem was a significant constraint to the effective performance of the<br />
extension officers and their services. Others were inadequate in-service training and inadequate fringe<br />
benefits. These bottle-necks implied that majority of the farmers were not reached.<br />
The Training and Visit (T & V) system has made some impact on agricultural development,<br />
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European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006)<br />
especially in he area of increasing agricultural production, though, not enough. For the impact to be<br />
adequate, there is need for “equal opportunity” contact between extension agents, and contact and noncontact<br />
farmers.<br />
Recommendations<br />
1. Delta State ADP and ministry of Agriculture should extend their services equally to all farmers,<br />
both contact and non-contact. This will enable them to benefit equally from extension services.<br />
2. The equality and number of ADP extension officers should be increased to enable them have<br />
more contact with all the farmers. They should be sent on in-service training regularly to enhance<br />
their performance.<br />
3. The Delta State ADP should encourage their staff by providing service facilities/amenities<br />
especially transportation and fringe benefits. The problem of transportation could be addressed<br />
through vehicle loans, vehicle maintenance allowance, and rural/vehicle usage allowance.<br />
References<br />
[1] Adams, M.E. (1984): agricultural Extension in Developing Countries Essex: Longman. 108pp<br />
[2] Alabi, J.O. (1987): “Evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes<br />
[3] In Nigeria: A study of the REDA and ADP systems,” Paper Presented at<br />
[4] Seminar On Management Problems in Agriculture and Rural Development in Nigeria Obafemi<br />
Awolowo University, Ile-ife. Pp 25 – 31.<br />
[5] Asiabaka, C.C. (1987): “International Organisation’s Role in Agricultural and Rural<br />
Development in Nigeria: The Need for Human Resources Development.”<br />
[6] Nigeria Journal of Rural and Community Vol. 1 Pp 94 – 101.<br />
[7] Benor, D. and M. Baxter (1984): Training and Visit (T & V) Extension.<br />
[8] Washington D. C.: The World Bank Publication.<br />
[9] Chukwu, A. O. (1997): An Assessment of ADP on Agricultural Development of Imo State of<br />
Nigeria, Unpublished M.Sc. thesis in the River State University of Science and Technology,<br />
Port-Harcourt.<br />
[10] Isife, B. I. And M. C. Madukwe (1995): “An Evaluation of Fortnightly Training Programme in<br />
Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme”. Nigeria Journal of Agriculture Teacher<br />
Education Vol. IV No. 2. Pp 12 – 20.<br />
[11] Madukwe, M. C. (1995): “Obstacles to the Adoption of the Yam Minisett Technology by Small<br />
Scale Farmers of South Eastern Nigeria”.<br />
[12] AGROSEARCH Vol. 1, No. 1, Pp 1 – 5.<br />
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